iimiB 
 
 IlilMt 
 
 
 n i ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 I 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tliis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003316779 
 
LIBRARY 
 
 Department of Floriculture 
 and Ornamental Horticulture 
 
 New York State College 
 0/ Agriculture 
 
 at CORNELL UNIVERSITY 
 ITHACA, N.Y. 
 
 / ? y<p- 
 
 Cornell University Library 
 SB 369.H92 1911 
 
 Citrus fruits and their culture. 
 
 3-4«a4-ooa-ai^ 779 
 
CITRUS FRUITS 
 
 THEIR CULTURE 
 
 H. HAROLD HUME, 
 
 Professor of Horticulture and Botany in 
 The University of Florida. 
 
 Horticulturist and Botanist of 
 The Florida Ai>ricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 
 ORANGE JUDD COMPANY. 
 
 1911 
 
OOI'YRIGHTED l'J04 
 
 BY 
 
 H. HAROLD HUMK. 
 
 Printed in "U. S. A. 
 
 E'OUBTH EDITION 
 1911 
 
respectfully dedicated 
 
 to mt friend 
 
 George Lindley Taber 
 
 whose inspiration has made this volume possible 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The closing decades of the nineteenth centuiy liiuo 
 seen great changes in tlie principles of citrus fruil culture 
 in America. Twenty years ago the amount of fruit pro- 
 duced was comparatively small, now the industry has at- 
 tained a place among the large horticultural industries of 
 this country. Then, at most, a few hundred boxes of fruit 
 were produced annually; now the crop is counted not by 
 hundreds but by millions of boxes. The pomelo was scarce- 
 ly known and the lemon Avas a fruit imported almost en- 
 tirely from the Old World. Then, the means of transporta 
 tion closed many a desirable tract of land through which 
 the laihoad now runs and from which large quantities of 
 fruit are now shipped. Then, the methods of combating 
 insects and fungous diseases were less perfectly under- 
 stood than now. In those days, the fertilizers applied to 
 the soil were mostly made at home, now the nitrogen, phos- 
 phorus and potash, deemed so essential for the production 
 of first-class fruit, in many districts, can be obtained as 
 commercial commodities in any market. Numerous de- 
 vices are now successfully employed in protecting trees 
 and fruit against the effects of frost and freeze, thc^n, noth- 
 ing of the kind was attempted or in fact deemed neces- 
 sary. Then, cover crops were not considered in the light in 
 which they now are. Then, the citrus industry in the New 
 World was more or less firmly linked to that of the Old. 
 Now, we have an American industry on the large, broad 
 lines of American progress. 
 
VI 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 During these past twenly years no work dealing 
 with the fruits of the genus citrus has been produced. 
 The literature has not kept pace with the growth, the de 
 velopment, and the new phases of the industry. To fill a 
 long-felt want, this volume after many urgent apjjcals 
 from those interested in and engaged in the industry has 
 been ]iri:duc(Ml in the hojie that it may, in some measure at 
 least, sui)ply the lack of reliable, up-to-date information. 
 
 In its preparation the author has had the hearty co- 
 operation, assistance and sympathy of many friends. The 
 chapter on Fertilizers and Fertilizing has been reviewed by 
 Prof. H. K. Miller, of the University of Florida, that on 
 Cover Crops, by Prof. John Craig, of Cornell University, 
 while the chapter on Insects Injurious to Citrus Trees, has 
 been revised and largely re-written from his former publi- 
 cations, by Prof. H. A. Gossard, of the University of Flor- 
 ida. The chapter on Pot Culture of Citrus Fruits, has 
 been revised by Mr. E. N. Reasoner, of Oneco, Fla. Dr. 
 X. L. Britton, Dr. D. T. MacDougal and Miss Anna Mur 
 ray Vail, of the New York Botanical Garden, have made it 
 possible to examine the older works on citrus fruits, and 
 have rendered much valuable assistance. I'rof. A. W. 
 Blair, of the University of Florida has contributed an 
 analysis of one of the cover crojis, heretofore unpublished. 
 All the drawings and some of the photographs used in the 
 illustrations were made by Miss Lucia McCnlloch for- 
 merly assistant in the Department of Botany and Horti- 
 culture in the University of Florida. Prof. Dorsey now 
 of the ^Mechanics" Institute, Rochester, New York, contrib 
 uted a number of ]:liotooraplis, while those illustrating 
 California scenes were secured throiigh the kindness of 
 Prof. ('. W. AVoodworth, of the Universitv of California, 
 
PREFACE. VII 
 
 Mr. John Isaacs, of the California l^tate Board of Horti- 
 culture and Mr. W. J. Allen, of Bonita, Cal. 
 
 All photographs reproduced in this book, except where 
 otherwise acknowledged, are from negatives belonging to 
 the Florida Agricultural Experiment Station, for permis- 
 sion to use which, thanks are due to Dr. T. II. Taliaferro, 
 director of the Florida Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 Mr. W. S. Hart, of Hawks Park, Fla. ; Mr. E. S. Hub- 
 bard, of Federal Point, Fla. ; Mr. G. L. Taber, of Glen St. 
 Mary, Fla., and many others, whose names are not here 
 mentioned, have assisted very materially in many ways. 
 
 The substance of a number of the bulletins of the 
 Florida Agricultural Experiment Station has been used 
 without denoting the source from which it is derived. 
 
 Every effort has been made to eliminate mistakes, but 
 some, doubtless, remain embodied in the work. The au- 
 thor will certainly appreciate it as a favor if any reader 
 noting these will kindly point them out that they may be 
 corrected in future editions. 
 
 H. Harold Hume. 
 Universitij of Florida, Lake City. Fla. 
 December 1st, 1903. 
 
vni PREFACE. 
 
 PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. 
 
 The first edition of "<Jitrus Fraiits and Their <-'ul- 
 ture," published a little over three years ago, being ex- 
 hausted, a second edition is called for. ,^ number of 
 errors occurring in the first edition have been corrected 
 and b_v the addition of some new material the volume has 
 for the most part been brought thoroughly up to date. In 
 presenting the second edition the Avriter begs to acknowl- 
 edge his indebtedness for many courtesies, jiarticularly 
 from Mr. W. S. Hart, Hawks I'ark, Fla., and the Eev. 
 (_'. J. K. Jones, Los Angeles, Cal., and hojies that the 
 edition may meet with the same cordial reception as the 
 first. 
 
 H. H. H. 
 
 Ghn I'^aiiit Mary. Fla. 
 
 Aufjust Cfh, 1907. 
 
 PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. 
 
 There are more peojile interested in the cultivation 
 of citrus fruits now than at any previous time, and the 
 demand for information is more insistent than ever before. 
 It is in the belief that this volume will still prove help- 
 ful to those engaged in or about to engage in the indus- 
 try, thai the third edition is now given to the public. 
 
 H. H. H. 
 Gh'ii ,'^aiiit Miirii. Fla. 
 
 Xorciiihcr 20, 1909. 
 
CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 BOTANY, HISTORY, VARIETIES. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 p.V(;e 
 
 Commercial Status of Citrus Culture 1-6 
 
 Distribution of citrus fruits — Fruit as first used in re- 
 gions where grown — American markets supplied with. 
 Mediterranean fruit — Development of the industry — 
 Recent developments — Lemons in California — Pomelos in 
 Florida — Output of citrus fruits from Florida and Cali- 
 fornia — Advance in cultural methods — Personal factor in 
 success — Markets not all supplied — The outlook. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Citrus Relationships 7-10 
 
 Family Butacew — Mostly native of tropical regions — Citrus 
 not indigenous in America — Leaves of plants allied to 
 Citrus — Evolution of citrus leaf — Lemon farthest removed 
 from ancestral type. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Botany of Citrus Fruits 11-20 
 
 The problem of classification — The latest system — Wild 
 forms mostly extinct — Different forms regarded as spe- 
 cies — Native home of citrus — Confusion in naming the 
 lemons and limes — Oil-cells not distinctive — Juice-sacks 
 useful in classification — Family Rutacen: — Genus Citrus — 
 Description of species cultivated in America. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 The Trifoliate Orange 21-24 
 
 Useless commercially except for stocks — Hybrids between 
 trifoliate and sweet oranges — F^rst mention of trifoliate 
 orange in literature — Its nomenclature — Introduction 
 into America. 
 
X CITRUS FRUITS AXD THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 PACE 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 The Bigarade Oranges 25-26 
 
 The group name — Confused with the sweet oranges — 
 Entitled to specific rank— Brought to America by Span- 
 iards — Important as a stock. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 The Sweet Oranges 27-34 
 
 Names used by other writers — Introduction into Europe 
 — Introduction into America — Introduction into Califor- 
 nia — The most important citrus fruit — Number of varie- 
 ties — Grouping the sweet oranges — Spanish oranges char- 
 acterized — Mediterranean oranges described — Blood or- 
 anges characterized — Navel oranges characterized — Navel 
 oranges in Florida and California — The navel orange in 
 literature. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 The Mandarin Oranges 35-42 
 
 Mandarin oranges distinct from sweet oranges — The 
 group name and its significance — Its origin — History of 
 the group — Introduction into America — More important 
 in Florida than in California — Essentially a fancy fruit 
 — Horticultural status of the group. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 The Pomelos 43-50 
 
 The name — Origin of the name — The commercial name 
 — Origin of the cognomen, grapefruit — Synonymy — Shad- 
 dock a. distinct fruit horticulturally — Pomelo the best 
 name — Horticultural status — Spanish introduction — Fruit 
 wasted for years — The judgment of earlier writers — 
 First marketed between 1880 and 1885 — Downward trend 
 of prices — The Florida pomelo — Superior as a breakfast 
 fruit. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 The Shaddocks 51-52 
 
 Introduction and origin of name — Not important commer- 
 cially — Distinct from the pomelo — Characteristics of the 
 fruit — May be used as a stock. 
 
CONTENTS. XI 
 
 PAGE 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 The Kumquats 53-58 
 
 The common name— Kumqiiat literature — Introduction 
 into Europe hy Mr. Fortune — Introduction into America 
 — Measurements of large kumquat shrubs — A hardy group 
 of fruits — Mr. Fortune's observations — How eaten — A 
 Fancy fruit only. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 The Citrons 59-60 
 
 Only citrus mentioned in ancient literature — Introduc- 
 tion into America — Relative importance of the citron — 
 Importations of citron peel — Future of citron culture. 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 The Lemons 61-63 
 
 Introduction Into Europe — Mentioned by early writers 
 — Introduction into America — Recent introductionSi — The 
 lemon in Florida — Development of California lemon in- 
 dustry — Lemon cvilture in the Islands — Uses of the lemon 
 — Lemon susceptible to mal-di-goma. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 The Limes 64-66 
 
 Acid limes only grown in America — Confused with the 
 lemons — Introduced into America by the Spaniards — 
 Tree very tender — Adapted to poor soils — Variations in 
 Mexican lime — Room for improvement — Uses. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 Trifoliate Orange Group — Varieties 67-68 
 
 Description of Trifoliate orange and its hybrids. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 Bigarade Orange Group — Varieties 69-71 
 
 Bigarade oranges described. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 The Sweet Oranges — Varieties 72-98 
 
 Varieties of Sweet oranges described. 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 Mandarin Oranges — Varieties 99-113 
 
 The varieties of Mandarin oranges described. 
 
xu CITRUS FLTiTS AXD THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 Pomelo Group — Varieties 114-126 
 
 Varieties of Pomelos described. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 Shaddock Group — Varieties 127-128 
 
 The Shaddocks described. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 Kumquat Group — Varieties 129-131 
 
 The Kumquats described. 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 Citron Group — Varieties 132-133 
 
 The Citrons described. 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 Lemon Group — Varieties 134-140 
 
 The different varieties of Lemons described. 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 Lime Group — Varieties 141-144 
 
 The varieties of Limes described. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 Originating New Varieties 145-154 
 
 Bud-Variation — Hybrids — Crosses — The parts of the 
 flower — Cross-pollination — Mode of operation — Emascula- 
 tion — Pollination. 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 Judging Citrus Fruits 155-164 
 
 Official scale and rules of the Florida State Horticultural 
 Society for judging citrus fruits — California scales and 
 rules — California orange scale — California lemon scale 
 — Proposed pomelo scale. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 CULTURAL. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 Propagation of Citrus Trees 167-196 
 
 Advantages of budded over seedling trees — Citrus seeds 
 used in propagation and their care — The nursery and its 
 
CONTENTS. xill 
 
 care — Propagation by cuttings — Selecting, cutting and 
 keeping budwood and cions — Materials and tools used in 
 performing the work — Grafting-wax — Budding-knives — 
 Shears — ^Grafting-iron — Shield-budding — Shield-budding 
 with a right-angled incision — Shield-budding with a 
 curved incision — Cleft-grafting — Whip-grafting — Crown- 
 grafting — Sprig-grafting — Inarching. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 Stocks for Citrus Trees 197-218 
 
 Soil adaptations — Mutual Influence of stock and cion — 
 Sour orange stock — Rough lemon stock — Trifoliate or- 
 ange stock — Mr. Taber's experimental grove — Sweet or- 
 ange stock — Pomelo stock — Lime stock. 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 Citrus Soils 219-224 
 
 The ideal soil — Florida Soils — High pine land — Flat 
 woods land — High hammock land — Low hammock land 
 Louisiana soils — California soils — Mesas — Foot-hills. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 Locating the Citrus Grove 225-232 
 
 Carrying quality of the fruit — Transportation — Frosts — 
 Air drainage — Timber belts — Wind-breaks — Irrigation — 
 Insects. 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 Preparations for Planting 233-246 
 
 Clearing the land — Cultivation previous to planting — 
 Grove plans — Triangular system — Square system — Hex- 
 agonal system — Quincunx system — Number of trees per 
 acre — Hedge plantings — Double plantings — Leveling and 
 smoothing — Distances apart — Laying out before plant- 
 ing — Laying out with the plow — Laying out in rectangles 
 with a wire — Laying out in triangles — Laying out in hex- 
 agons — Laying out in quincunx. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 Setting the Grove 247-262 
 
 Selecting varieties — Adaptation of varieties — Relative 
 members of varieties — Purchasing trees — Buy early — 
 Substitution — The unaccredited tree peddler — ^Visit the 
 
XIV CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 PAI.E 
 
 nursery — The best tree — Prices — Best time to plant — 
 Planting — Root trimming — Planting board — Watering — 
 Protecting the trunks — Pruning the tops — The Reed 
 method of transplanting — Labels and maps. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 Cultivation of Citrus Groves 263-284 
 
 Benefits of tillage — Clean culture or no culture — Effects 
 of cultivation — An experiment — Humus and its value — 
 Depth of cultivation in Florida — Depth of cultivation in 
 California and Arizona — Frequency of cultivation — Culti- 
 vation in relation to irrigation — "Hard-pan" or "plow 
 sole" — Cultivation in relation to dormancy and frosts — 
 The die-back problem — Implements. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 Cover Crops 285-296 
 
 Advantages of cover crops — Classes of cover crops — Valu- 
 able cover crops — Velvet bean — Nitrogen collected — Baron 
 von Luttichau's experience — Insects and cover crops — 
 Beggarweed — Analysis of beggarweed — Treatment of beg- 
 garweed — Sand-spurs and crab-grass — Cover crops in Cal- 
 ifornia. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 Fertilizers and Fertilizing 297-318 
 
 Analyses of citrus fruits — Amounts of fertilizer removed 
 by the crop — Functions of phosphoric acid — Functions 
 of potash — Functions of nitrogen — Functions of lime — 
 Sources of plant food — Sources of phosphoric acid — 
 Sources of potash — Sources of nitrogen — Formulas — 
 Differences in requirements of young and old trees — 
 Formulas for young and bearing trees — Amounts of fer- 
 tilizer — Applying fertilizers. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 The Irrigation of Citrus Groves 319-336 
 
 The water factor — Amount of water necessary — Precipi- 
 tation in Florida — Florida artesian "area — Pumping 
 water — Applying water — Irrigation in California and 
 Arizona — Amount of water used in California — Furrow 
 irrigation — Check system in California. 
 
COyTENT^i. XV 
 
 l'A(JE 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVI. 
 
 Frost Protection 337-374 
 
 "Warnings — Thermometers — Thermostats — Injurious 
 temperatures — Effects of cold on the leaves — Effects of 
 cold on the twigs — Effects of cold on the trunk — Effects 
 of cold on the fruit — Conditions when most resistant — 
 The insect factor — The food factor — Dormancy as a 
 factor — Fertilizers and cultivation in relation to 
 dormancy — Effects of the stock on the hardiness of the 
 top — Hardy varieties — Banking to save the trunks — 
 Protecting the whole tree with earth — Fires — Kindling 
 — The McKinney grove — Coal and oil — California exper- 
 iments — Walls and fires — Wind-breaks and water pro- 
 tection — Irrigating — MacFarland's tent — Painter's tent — 
 Sheds — Florida experiences — Results in California. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVII. 
 
 Pruning Citrus Trees 375-392 
 
 Pruning not always necessary — ^High vs. low-headed 
 trees — Pruning for insect treatment — Pruning in relation 
 to die-back — Pruning frozen trees — Wiring sprouts from 
 frozen trees — Pruning tools — General remarks — Time for 
 pruning — Baronio system of lemon pruning — Open-center 
 system of lemon pruning — Other systems. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
 
 Pot Culture of Citrus Trees 393-398 
 
 Stocks of potted trees — Soil — Size of pots — Specimens 
 for flowers — Varieties recommended — Fertilizing — ^Water- 
 ing — Rest — Insects. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIX. 
 
 Handling the Citrus Crop 401-462 
 
 Early experiences — Time of picking — Clippers — Field 
 boxes — Mr. Hart's field box — Picking bags or baskets — 
 Rattan baskets — Ladders — Field wagons — Pickers and 
 picking — Curing — Washing — Effects and need of cur- 
 ing — Curing lemons — California experience — Lemon 
 packing-houses — Methods of packing lemons — Refrigera- 
 tion not practicable — Grades of fruit — Grading — Time to 
 ^rade — Sizers and sizing — Packing — Mr. Bean's experi- 
 
XVI CITRUS FRUITS AXD THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 ence — Citrus fruit packages — Florida and California 
 standard packages— Maliing packages — Paper — Packing 
 conveniences — Packing — Paclving diagrams — Headers or 
 presses — Packing don'ts — Stenciling — Packing-houses 
 — Shipping — The private trade — Commission merchants 
 — Irresponsible firms — Dividing shipments — Spasmodic 
 shipments — Choose a trade-mark — Associations. 
 
 PART III. 
 
 DISEASES AND INSECTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XL. 
 
 Fungous and Physiological Diseases 465-492 
 
 Fungous diseases : Foot-rot — Scab — Leaf-spot — Ripe-rot 
 — Sooty-mold — Fly-speck fungus — Melanose — Lichens — 
 Physiological diseases: Die-back — Blight. 
 
 CHAPTER XLI. 
 
 Insects Injurious to Citrus Trees 493-522 
 
 Insects classified — Biting insects: Grasshoppers — The 
 orange-dog — Armored scales: The purple scale — Long 
 scale — Red scale of Florida — Red scale of California — 
 Chaff scale — Orange snow scale — Unarmored scales: 
 Turtle-back scale — Black scale — Wax or white scale — Bar- 
 nacle scale — Cottony-cushion scale — Mealy-bug — Sucking 
 insects other than scales: White-fly — Orange rust-mite 
 and lemon silver-mite — Six-spotted mite — Purple mite or 
 Red spider. 
 
 CHAPTER XLll. 
 
 Formulas for Spraying Mixtures 523-532 
 
 Bordeaux mixture — Ammoniacal solution of copper car- 
 bonate — Lime, crude carbolic acid and salt — Crude car- 
 bolic acid solution — Sulphurous acid solution — Resin 
 wash — Kerosene emulsion — Good's caustic potash whale- 
 oil soap — Kahle's distillate solution — Soda-sulphur solu- 
 tion — Sulphur-lime solution — Potash whale-oil soap and 
 soda-sulphur solution — Criddle mixture. 
 
CONTENTS. XVII 
 
 PACE 
 
 CHAPTER XLIII. 
 
 Spraying and Fumigating 533-542, 
 
 Spraying: Engines — Number of sprayings — Spraying 
 for rust-mite — Fumigating: Tents and treatment — 
 Chemicals and amounts — Dosage. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIV. 
 
 Fungous and Insect Friends 543-552 
 
 Conditions favoring insect control by natural agents — 
 Fungous friends: Red fungus — Grey fungus — Black fun- 
 gus — Brown fungus — Red Aschersonia — Methods of dis- 
 seminating fungi — Insect friends: Australia ladybug 
 — Two-spotted ladybug. 
 
 PART IV. 
 LITERATURE. 
 
 CHAPTER XLV. 
 
 American Citrus Literature 555-560 
 
 Index to American pubications on citrus fruits. 
 
 PART V. 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVI. 
 
 Variety List 563-564 
 
 Sweet orange list — Mandarin orange list — Pomelo list 
 — Kumquat list — Citron list — Lemon list — Lime list. 
 
XVIII CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 FIGUKES. 
 
 FIGURE PAGE 
 
 1. Leaves of Plants Allied to Citrus 8 
 
 2. Citrus Leaves 9 
 
 3. Flowers of Sweet Lemon 12 
 
 4. Oil Cells in the Rind of Citrus Fruits 14 
 
 5. Juice Sacks of Citrus Fruits 15 
 
 6. Trifoliate Orange Tree 21 
 
 7. Trifoliate Orange Flowers 23 
 
 8. Flowers of Majorca Orange 27 
 
 9. Pomelo Blossoms 45 
 
 10. Kumquat Flowers 53 
 
 11. Flowers of Villaf ranca Lemon 61 
 
 12. Flower buds of Mexican Lime 65 
 
 13. Filer Bigarade Orange 69 
 
 14. Sour Orange Fruit 70 
 
 15. A Seedling Orange Tree in Florida 76 
 
 16. Jaffa Oranges 84 
 
 17. Everbearing Orange Tree 85 
 
 18. Ruby Oranges 91 
 
 19. Bahia Navel Orange 93 
 
 20. King Mandarin Orange Tree 99 
 
 21. A Grove of Dancy Mandarins 113 
 
 22. The Triumph Pomelo in Fruit 118 
 
 23. Marsh Pomelo 120 
 
 24. Pernambuco Pomelo 123 
 
 25. Duncan Pomelos 124 
 
 26. Walters Pomelo in Fruit 126 
 
 27. Cross-section of Pink Shaddock 127 
 
 28. Nagami and Marumi Kumquats 129 
 
 29. Everbearing Lemon 135 
 
 30. Lisbon Lemon 136 
 
 31. Rough Lemon Fruit 138 
 
 32. View in a Lemon Grove 140 
 
 33. Mexican Lime 141 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS. XIX 
 
 FIGURE PAGE 
 
 34. Cross-section of Tahiti Lime 144 
 
 35. Vertical Section Through Citrus Flower 148 
 
 36. Sack Ready for Covering Pollinated Flowers 150 
 
 37. Citrus Flowers — Open — Bud — Emasculated 151 
 
 38. Paper Sack Covering Cross-pollinated Satsuma Flowers. .152 
 
 39. Triumph Pomelo Fruit in Mosquito-net Sack 153 
 
 40. Seeds of Pomelo.Trifoliate Orange, Sweet Orange, 
 
 Bough Lemon and Sour Orange 169 
 
 41. Seedling Pomelos Raised in a Flat 171 
 
 42. Germination of Pomelo Seed 172 
 
 43. Genoa Lemon Cutting 175 
 
 44. Different Kinds of Budwood 176 
 
 45. Mr. Taber's Budwood Bins 178 
 
 46. Budding Knives 182 
 
 47. Grafting-iron 182 
 
 48. Methods of Budding Old Trees 190 
 
 49. Cleft -grafting 192 
 
 50. Whip-grafting 194 
 
 51. Crown-grafting 194 
 
 52. Side-grafting 195 
 
 53. Inarching 195 
 
 54. Three Sprouts Inarched 196 
 
 55. Triangular System of Planting 236 
 
 56. Square System of Planting 236 
 
 57. Hexagonal System of Planting 238 
 
 58. Quincunx System of Planting 238 
 
 59. Double Planting — Citrus Fruits and Pineapples 240 
 
 60. Float for Smoothing Ground 242 
 
 61. Branching of Citrus Roots in the Soil after Trimming. .254 
 
 62. Pruning and Root-trimming of Citrus Trees 255 
 
 63. The Right Way to Plant a Tree 256 
 
 64. Planting Board 257 
 
 65. Pruning and Root-trimming of Citrus Tree 258 
 
 66. Zinc Label 262 
 
 67. Velvet Bean Pods and Nitrogen Nodules 288 
 
 68. Seed Stem and Flowering Stem of Beggarweed 292 
 
 fi9. Nodules on Beggarweed Roots 294 
 
 70. Map of Florida Showing Lake Regions and Artesian- 
 Well Area 318 
 
XX CITRUS FRUITS AXD THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 FIG UKE PAGE 
 
 71. Elevations and Depressions in Florida, Between 
 
 Tampa and Titusville 323 
 
 72. Diagram Showing How Artesian Wells are Formed. .. .324 
 
 73. Spraying Stands Used in Florida 327 
 
 74. Artesian Well at Sanford, Florida 331 
 
 7.5. Bolton Alarm Thermometer 339 
 
 711. Effects of a Slight Frost on Growing Orange Tree 341 
 
 77. Oranges Dropped by the Effects of Cold 343 
 
 75. Citrus Trees Banked to Protect the Trunks from Frost. .349 
 
 79. Wood in Place Ready for Firing — North Florida 353 
 
 8(1, Orange Trees on the Kinney Place at Pierson, Fla 354 
 
 81. Firing a California Grove, Using Crude Petroleum. 
 
 in Froude's Oil Pots 359 
 
 82. The Correct Way to Hold the Shears in Pruning 375 
 
 83. Pruning Tools 381 
 
 84. Pot-grown Marumi Kumquat 395 
 
 85. Field-box for Handling Fruit 407 
 
 86. Wickerwork Picking Basket 408 
 
 87. Ladders for Picking Fruit 409 
 
 88. Cross-section of a Well Cured Pomelo 414 
 
 89. A Package of Italian Lemons 418 
 
 90. The Huntley Sizer 423 
 
 91. Kumquats Packed In Quart Baskets 433 
 
 92. Making Crates 438 
 
 93. Table and Frame for Jlaking Citrus Boxes 440 
 
 94. Packing Table 442 
 
 95. Header or Press used by P. J. Bayley, Largo, Fla 448 
 
 96. Press used by Blr. W. S. Hart 449 
 
 97. Packing-house of P. J. Bayley 453 
 
 98. Foot-rot on Crown Roots and Trunk of Sweet Orange.. 467 
 
 99. Scab on Young Fruit and Leaves of Satsuma 471 
 
 100. Spores and Spore-bearing Parts of Scab Fungus 472 
 
 101. Spores and Spore-bearing Parts of Leaf-spot Fungus. . . .474 
 
 102. Leaf-spot Fungus on Pomelo Leaves 475 
 
 103. Spores of Ripe-rot Fungus 476 
 
 104. Sooty-mold 478 
 
 105. Lichens on Trunk of an Orange Tree 484 
 
 106. Lichen on Leaf of Kumquat 485 
 
 107. Tree Scraper 486 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS. XXI 
 
 FIGUEE PAGE 
 
 108. Orange Tree Showing Effect of Die-back 486 
 
 109. Die-back on Orange Twigs 489 
 
 110. Grasshopper Feeding on Orange Leaves 494 
 
 111. Purple Scale on Orange 500 
 
 112. Long Scale on Orange Branch 501 
 
 113. Florida Red Scale 502 
 
 114. The Orange Snow Scale 504 
 
 115. The Hemispherical Scale 506 
 
 116. Adult Females of the Cottony-cushion Scale 510 
 
 117. Mealy-bug 513 
 
 118. White Fly 515 
 
 119. Red Fungus of Scale Insects 546 
 
 120. Spores and Spore-cases of Gray Fungus 547 
 
 121. Spores of Red Aschersonia 548 
 
 122. Fungous Eneipies of White Fly 549 
 
 123. Ladybug Pupje on Orange Twig 551 
 
 124. Parasitized Plant Lice 552 
 
 PLATES. 
 PLATE PAGE 
 
 1. Picking Scene in a Well-managed Orange Grove 2 
 
 2. Flowers of Satsuma, a Mandarin Orange 36 
 
 3. C. Trifoliata, Fruit, Leaves and Thorns 64 
 
 4. Pineapple Oranges as They Hang From the Trees 72 
 
 5. Dancy Mandarin Orange 102 
 
 6. King Mandarin Orange 105 
 
 7. Oneco Mandarin Orange 109 
 
 8. Satsuma Mandarin Orange Ill 
 
 9. A Cluster of Hall Pomelos 114 
 
 10. Citron— A Florida Seedling 132 
 
 11. Eureka and Genoa Lemons 134 
 
 12. Pollinating Outfit 147 
 
 13. Budding Citrus Trees 186 
 
 14. Budding Citrus Trees — continued 187 
 
 15. Seedling Citrus Trees, Stocks 206 
 
 16. Wind-breaks 230 
 
 17. Poor and Good Spring Cultivation on High Ground 272 
 
 18. Beggarweed as a Cover Crop in a North Florida 
 
 Citrus Grove 284 
 
XXII CITJnjS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 PLATE PAGE 
 
 19. A Well-tilled Grove of Seedling Oranges 306 
 
 20. (a) Wind-mill, Pump and Tank in. a Citrus Grove 325 
 
 (6) A Temporary Steam Plumping Plant on a Lake- 
 shore in Florida 325 
 
 21. (o) Irrigating by Means of Furrows 330 
 
 (6) Basin Irrigation of Citrus Trees 330 
 
 (c) Zigzag Irrigation of Citrus Trees 330 
 
 22. Protection by Tents 362 
 
 23. Shed Erected by G. L. Taber, Glen St. Mary, Fla 365 
 
 24. Baronio System of Lemon Pruning 384 
 
 25. Pot-grown Orange Tree in Flower and Fruit 392 
 
 26. Picking Parson Brown Oranges in the Grove of Mr. 
 
 A. Trost, Palermo, Cal 400 
 
 27. Cross-sections of Cured and Uncured Lemons 416 
 
 28. (a) The Ayer Sizer in Operation 426 
 
 (B) A Pneumatic Sizer Made by Maull and Jones 426 
 
 29. (a) A Well-packed Box of Sweet Oranges 443 
 
 (&) Shelf Paper Used in Packing Oranges 443 
 
 30. A Well-packed Half-strap of 136 Dancy Mandarin 
 
 Oranges 445 
 
 31. Packing-house of W. S. Hart 455 
 
 32. Interior View of Manatee Lemon Company's Pack- 
 
 ing-house 460 
 
 33. Orange Dog {Papilin Crespliontes. Cramer) 498 
 
 34. Spraying Orange Trees in a California Grove with 
 
 a Steam Sprayer 532 
 
 35. Fumigating Citrus Trees in California, Showing 
 
 Bell Tent in Position and Pole Used in Mov- 
 ing it 542 
 
PART I. 
 
 BOTANY— HISTORY— VARIETIES. 
 
to 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 COMMERCIAL STATUS OF CITRUS CULTURE. 
 
 From their home in the Malay Archipelago, where all 
 our cultivated forms of citrus probably had their origin, 
 1 hey have spread throughout the world and are now grown 
 in groves or orchards wherever soil and climatic condi- 
 tions have been found suitable. Introduced into the Ameri- 
 can continent at an early date, they found in Brazil and 
 other parts of South America, in the West -Indies, in Flor- 
 ida and in California, a congenial home where they have 
 maintained their foothold to the present day. 
 
 For many years, however, they were grown only in a 
 small way. The means of transportation were so inade- 
 quate and the methods of handling the product so crude, 
 that but little of the fruit found its way outside of the 
 immediate regions in which it was produced. 
 
 The oranges and lemons used in America in those days 
 were mostly imported from abroad. They came largely 
 from the Mediterranean and even up to within very recent 
 years nearly all our lemons were procured from Italy. 
 Large importations are still made, but they have by no 
 means kept pace with the increase in population. Citrus 
 friiit culture has been gradually extending in America 
 until at the present time the greater portion of these fruits 
 consumed in this country is home grown. 
 
 The development of the lemon industry in California 
 has been quite phenomenal and the place secured in the 
 markets by the Florida pomelo, a comparatively new fruit 
 commercially, is equally noteworthy. The successful pro- 
 
4 CITRUS FRVIT8 AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 duction, from a commercial standpoint, of these two fruits 
 is among the most important of recent American horticul- 
 tural achievements. 
 
 The following statistics may be interesting, as show- 
 ing the past and present status of the citrus industry : 
 
 OT'TPUT OP FLORIDA CITRUS J RUITS. 
 YEAK BOXES 
 
 1884-85 600,000 
 
 1885-86 900,000 
 
 1886-87 1,260,000 
 
 1887-88 1,450,000 
 
 1888-89 1,950,000 
 
 1889-90 2,150,000 
 
 1890-91 2,450,000 
 
 1891-92 3,261,843 
 
 1892-93 3,400,000 
 
 1893-94 5,055,367 
 
 1894-95 6,000,000 
 
 1895-96 75,000 
 
 1896-97 150,000 
 
 1897-98 216,000 
 
 1898-99 225,000 
 
 1899-1900 400,000 
 
 1900-01 750,000 
 
 1901-02 1,000,984 
 
 OUTPl'T OP CAT.IFORXIA CITRUS FRUITS. 
 
 Oranges 
 
 Lemons 
 
 Total 
 
 Year 
 
 Cars 
 
 Boxes 
 
 Cars 
 
 1891-2 ' 
 
 1892-3.. 
 
 1893-4.. i 
 
 1894-5..: 
 
 1895-6 
 
 1896-7..; 
 
 1897-8.. 13,987 5,063,294 
 1898-9..' 9,44,s 3,420,176 
 1899-0.. I 16,362 1 5,923,044 
 1900-1., 21,200i 7,674,400 
 
 1,166 
 903 
 
 1,447 
 
 Boxes 
 
 363,792 
 281,736 
 451,464 
 
 Cai-< 
 
 4,016 
 4,400 
 5,871 
 5,022 
 7,575 
 7,350 
 15,153 
 10,351 
 17,809 
 
 Boxes 
 
 1,349,376 
 1,478,400 
 1,972,656 
 1,687,392 
 2,545,200 
 2,469,000 
 5,427,086 
 3,701,912 
 6,374,508 
 
 2,900 904,800 24,100 8,579,200 
 
COMMERCIAL STATUS OF CITRUS CULTURE. 5 
 
 From these it will be seen that the amount of fruit 
 shipped out of Florida and California alone amounted to 
 10,234,000 boxes for the season of 1900-1901. The greater 
 quantity of the output caiue from California, as in that 
 year the Florida crop was very greatly I'educed. Since 
 that time the output has increased considerably. 
 
 As the industry has added years to its life, it has 
 reached a higher stage of development along all lines. 
 Tlie methods of combating insects and fungous diseases, 
 of tillage, of fertilizing, of irrigating, of frost protection, 
 of handling and marketing the crops, are far in advance of 
 what they were even ten or fifteen years ago. Much still 
 remains to be learned and never, so long as the fruit is 
 produced, will the last chapter be read, the book closed. 
 But the fact remains that the grower of citrus fruits has 
 now more useful knowledge at his disposal than ever be- 
 fore, and the chances for his success are better. New prob- 
 lems have arisen, but these have been solved in such a way 
 as to lead the student of the situation to believe that any 
 emergency which may arise will be met and dealt with 
 successfully. 
 
 In growing citrus fruits as in any other industry in 
 which a man may engage, the individual himself is the 
 most potent factor in the success of the enterprise; the 
 personal factor, the most important element in making the 
 difference between profit and loss. The successful grower 
 must bring to his work a thorough knowledge of every 
 phase of the industry, backed by a fixed determination to 
 succeed in spite of all difficulties. 
 
 Even with the enormous output of citrus fruits there 
 appears to be but little or no depreciation in the value of 
 the product. Constantly the cry of "over-supply" is 
 
6 . CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 dinned into our ears, but that time has not yet arrived 
 and appears still to be in the far distant future. 
 
 Not all our American markets have vet been supplied 
 and into many of them tbp pomelo, for instance, has not 
 yet penetrated. The great northwestern portion of the 
 continent, across the Canadian line, is being populated 
 rapidly and there will be new markets for many days to 
 come, both in the United States and Canada. 
 
 The people of the American continent are a fruit con- 
 suming people, and have the means at their disposal for 
 satisfying their tastes. 
 
 On the whole, the growing of citrus fruits offers as 
 good inducements for honest effort as any branch of hor- 
 ticultural work in which a man may engage. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 CITRUS RELATIONSHIPS. 
 
 The family Rutacese, to which the citrus fruits belong, 
 is represented in the United States by the prickly ash 
 (Xanthoxylum), hop-tree (Ptelea), torch-wood (Amyris). 
 and a few other plants. Though comparatively few mem- 
 bers of the family are found in the temperate and sub- 
 tropical regions of North America, this does not mean 
 that there are not many others in different parts of the 
 world. 
 
 The representatives of the family are mostly tropical 
 in their distribution, being found in tropical Africa, south- 
 eastern Asia and Australia, numbering in all upwards of 
 nine hundred species. Hooker in his Flora of India, 1875. 
 gives twenty-three genera, with at least seventy-eight 
 species native of that country. 
 
 Some writers have referred to some of the citrus fruits 
 as being native in Florida, and the fact that lemons, limes 
 and oranges have become thoroughly naturalized and now 
 grow side by side with native trees in the hammocks or 
 forests, lends color to the belief that they are indigenous. 
 But, on the other hand, we know that they are of Spanish 
 introducttion, and no citrus trees were growing in the 
 peninsula before the advent of Europeans. This is a mat- 
 ter of history. No species of citrus is native of America, 
 and neither are any members of closely related genera 
 indigenous on the American continent. 
 
 In classifying the genera of the family Rutacese, some 
 authors have placed the citrus between Atlantia and Fe- 
 ronia, but the more recent classifications place citrus as 
 
CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 f-;-- 
 
 Fiff. 1. Li-:ivrs Of plants allied 
 to Citrus. A. Mui-raya exotica. 
 B, Ttiplirasia aurantiola. (.'. Fr 
 ronia elephantiim D, AEgle mar- 
 nielos. Two-flfths natni-al size. 
 
 the highest type of plant iu the 
 whole family. While there may be 
 good grounds for the former ar- 
 rangement, the latter appears to be 
 better. 
 
 The leaves of some of the related 
 genera are shown in Figure 1. A. 
 is that of Mnrrcnja c.rotlcit Linn., 
 a native Indian plant, the leaves of 
 which are compound with a var- 
 iable number of leaflets. B. shows 
 the leaf of Triphusia aiirdiitiola 
 Lour., a plant commonly grown in 
 the gardens of India and other 
 parts of the East and planted to 
 some extent as an ornamental 
 shrub in South Florida. The 
 leaves are trifoliate, accompanied 
 at each node by two sharp, 
 straight, slender spines. 0. is an 
 illustration of the leaves of Fero- 
 iiid I I(-j>hmituiu Correa. they are 
 quite peculiar. The petioles and 
 midribs are winged and in gene- 
 ral the three-parted ones bear a 
 striking resemblance to those of 
 Citrus trifoliata, while those with 
 a gi-eater number of leaflets re- 
 semble a number of (' tiifoliata 
 leaves joined together. The leaves 
 are deciduous and the tree is a 
 native of India, where it is also 
 cultivated to some extent. In D. 
 
CITRUS RELATIONSHIPS. 
 
 we have a representation of the leaves 
 of ^Egle Maniiclos Corrvu., another 
 native Indian tree. The leaves are 
 deciduous, trifoliate and accompanied 
 by spines. 
 
 It is generally believed that all 
 citrus are descended from an original 
 foi-m having a three-parted leaf. Bon- 
 avia, however, takes the opposite 
 view, and thinks that they originated 
 from a simple leaved form, because in 
 young plants the first leaves produced 
 are simple and not articulated. In the 
 trifoliate orange the first leaves are 
 mere bracts and not leaves. The au- 
 thor inclines to the former view, that 
 our citrus fruits originated from a pri- 
 mal, three-leaved form, and certain it 
 is, that Citrus trifoliata L., as culti- 
 vated in America to-day, is closer to 
 the wild type than any other species 
 or variety known to citrus cultur- 
 ists. Occasionally, on this plant, 
 unifoliate leaves have been noted. One 
 of these is indistinctly shown in the 
 upper right hand side of Figure 7. On 
 the other hand, trifoliate leaves are 
 sometimes found on other citrus, and 
 the flanges or wings on the side of the 
 petiole of the sour orange, pomelo and 
 other citrus fruits are, in all probabil- V 
 
 ity, the remnant of the lateral leaflets, V.'imiJ"Z,TTsot 
 now greatly reduced in size and ses- ^we'eforange. T'l^mon: 
 
 Two-flfths natural size. 
 
10 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 sile. Figure 2. shows some of the different forms of citrus 
 leaves. A. represents the leaf of Citrus trifoliata. B. is 
 from a sketch of a sour orange leaf in which the wings 
 were enormously developed and leaflet-like, in fact, they 
 could well be regarded as leaflets. 0. is the leaf of the pom- 
 elo, with large wings on the petiole. On the shaddock they 
 are frequently much larger than on the leaves of the pom- 
 elo. D. represents the sweet orange leaf, with smaller 
 wings, and E. the lemon, the petiole of which is always 
 wingless, so far as I have ever observed. The citrus with 
 wingless petioles are regarded as being farthest removed 
 from the ancestral type 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 BOTANY OP CITRUS FRUITS. 
 
 Xo more difficult problem confronts the systematic 
 pomologist than the classification of our citrus fruits. 
 This difflculty lies, not alone in the peculiarities of the 
 plants themselves, and they are surely perplexing enough, 
 but it has been greatly increased by the innumerable 
 attempts which have been made since the days of Ferrari, 
 and before, to group the various species and varieties 
 of citrus in some sort of orderly arrangement. In truth 
 it may be said that many of these attempts, instead of 
 elucidating the problems connected with the subject, have 
 simply made, or tended to make, them more complicated. 
 
 At the bottom of the whole trouble appears to lie the 
 disposition, on the part of many writers on citrus subjects, 
 to take the plants not as they find them growing at the 
 present day, but as they imagine or suppose they must 
 have been several hundreds or thousands of years ago. 
 
 No one acquainted with these fruits doubts for a 
 moment but that in ages gone by, or perhaps even in more 
 recent years, though not within historical times, two or 
 more of our present distinct forms were represented by 
 a single one. But what advantage is there, for instance, 
 in throwing the sour orange, sweet orange, pomelo, kum- 
 quat and a few other distinctly different trees into one 
 conglomerate species, stretching an imaginative descrip- 
 tion over the whole bunch and then placing each of the 
 afore-mentioned plants under this species as sub-species 
 and varieties, as was done by Dr. A. Engler, in Engler 
 
12 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 and Prantl's Pflanzenfamilien? Nothing is to be gained 
 by sucli a disposition of tlie different forms. 
 
 In regard to tlie cdtrus fruits it must be borne in 
 mind that in most cases the original wild forms have 
 disappeared, or at least ha\e never been discovered, but 
 aside from the bearing which this may have on the question, 
 there would be just as much sense, for instance, in plac- 
 
 
 
 i^HH^^I^Hhl '■■ ■■ Jm^^^^^^m 
 
 
 IBB^^S^^m ^^^tr r 
 
 
 Fig. 3. Flowers of Sweet Lemon. 
 Reduced one-fourth. 
 
 ing all the different recognized species of apples or plums 
 in one or two species and then splitting them up into 
 sub-species and varieties. Xo one would think of doing 
 so. 
 
 Hence, following the course that is commonly fol 
 lowed in regard to other fruits, the writer pi'efers to 
 designate each of the different forms of citrus as a species 
 They are suflicienlly distinct to be readily separated. 
 
 Most members of the genus citrus ha\'e had their- 
 
BOTANY OF CITRUS FRUITS. 13 
 
 origin in southeastern Asia, though two are native of Aus- 
 tralia. From their native regions they have been carried 
 into all countries where the climate is suited to their 
 growth and into many others where artificial heat is 
 necessary lor their welfare. 
 
 Considerable difficulty has been encountered in 
 straightening out the botanical nomenclature of the species 
 and something still remains to be desired. For instance, 
 in 1813 (Ann. Mus. Par.) Risso described a species of 
 citrus, C. Limetta, which included the sweet limes, Adam's 
 apple, and a few others, but was not apparently intended 
 to include our acid limes. Under 0. Limonum, he in- 
 cluded the sweet lemons and acid lemons and limes. In 
 1832, Roxburgh (Flor. Tnd.) proposed the species C. 
 Acida to comprehend, as he said, "the sour lemons or 
 limes found in India," but under it he describes (page 
 392, vol. 3.) one variety of sweet lime. His species may 
 be considered identical with Risso's C. Limonum. Hooker 
 in his Flora of British India, 1875, described the acid 
 limes, under the name C. Medica, Var. Acida. In the fol- 
 lowing classification, however, C. Limetta is applied to the 
 acid limes, which may be somewhat stretching the original 
 intent and purpose of Risso, while C. Limonum includes 
 only the acid lemons. 
 
 Risso referred to the oil cells in the rind of citrus 
 fruits as being either concave or convex. Just what he 
 meant by this is not clear. It may be he referred to their 
 actual shape, or on the other hand it may be he had in 
 mind the form of the ends of the cells, where they touch 
 the outer plane of the rind. 
 
 But in either case the concavity or convexity of the 
 oil cells as a basis of separation of the different species 
 and varieties appears to be worthless. Both kinds have fre- 
 
14 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 tQ^lQiloihsQn 
 
 QufX 
 
 qnently been noted in the same 
 species. Fig. 4 D. shows the usual 
 shape of the oil cells in the rind 
 of the mandarin oranges. The il- 
 lustration represents those of the 
 China mandarin. Yet in the rind 
 of Beauty, a variety of mandarin 
 closely r('lat(Hl to (_'hina and truly 
 a member of the group, the oil cells 
 are distinctly oval or double con- 
 vex. They are scattered through 
 the white fungous portion of the 
 vind and may be readily dissected 
 out. 
 
 It is believed that the juice 
 sacks of the pulp, their size, shape 
 and appearance in the cut surface 
 „., „ „ . ,, „. , of the fruit, can be used to some 
 
 Fig. 4. Oil Cells in the Rind 
 
 o( citrus Fruits. A, Triio- gxfeut as a diaguostic feature in 
 
 hale or.iiige. B, Sweet or- ^ 
 
 nnge. 0, Sour orange. D. classificatiou, a point which scems 
 
 Mandarin orange. E, I'o- ' ^ 
 
 mein. F Kumquat. G. j-q \y^y, ^,ggQ quite gcnerallv over- 
 Lemon. The distance be- j c 
 
 twecn the line on which the ]ooked. The iuice sacks of a num- 
 
 cells rest, and the next line '' 
 
 above represent the thick- jjpj, ^f fj^g spccies are showu iu 
 
 ness of the rmd. Enlarged ^ 
 
 11^ times. Pjo-. 5. 
 
 O^OflaOonQjlkL] 
 
 Family. Rutacese, Juss. Gen., 296, 1789. Trees or shrubs, 
 rarely herbs, with aromatic alternate or opposite, usually com- 
 pound leaves, dotted with translucent glands containing an 
 essential oil. Flowers generally in axillary or terminal cymes, 
 though sometimes occurring singly. Sepals four to five or 
 lacking. Petals four to five, hypogynous or perigynous. Sta- 
 mens as many or twice as many as the petals (in Citrus and 
 yEgle more), separate or united, inserted on the receptacle; 
 anthers two-celled, opening along the inner face, generally ver- 
 
BOTANY OF CITRUS FRUITS. 
 
 15 
 
 
 satile. Pistils two or liv ^, or one and com- 
 pound with two to five or more carpels, in- 
 serted on the more or less elongated recep- 
 tacle. Fruit a capsule, berry, drupe or 
 samara. Seeds oblong or kidney-shaped; 
 embryo straight or curved; endosperm 
 fleshy, sometimes lacking; cotyledons 
 fleshy or foliaceous. Plants mostly native 
 of tropical countries. 
 
 Genus. Citrus Linn., Gen. Plant., Ed. 
 5, 341, 1754. Shrubs or trees, usually with 
 spiny branches. Leaves persistent, unifoli- 
 ate (trifc late and deciduous in C. trifoliata 
 L.), thick and leathery, dotted with trans- 
 lucent oil glands; petioles generally more 
 or less winged. Flowers axillary, solitary, 
 clustered or in small cymes, whits or pur- 
 plish pink, scented; calyx small, cup-like; 
 sepals three to five; petals four to six, or 
 occasionally eight, linear oblong (in C. tri- 
 foliata almost obovate), thick, imbricated; 
 stamens fifteen to sixty, united or sepa- 
 rate, inserted round a cupular or annular 
 
 disk; ovary 5—8 celled, style soon decid- ';l,'^^g°;"'l%„,^/ JZlf 
 uous; ovules several in each cell 
 berry, globose, sub-globose or oblong 
 pointed; rind sweet or bitter, well pro- 
 vided with oil cells; juice contained in small fusiform sacks or 
 cells; seeds light colored, testa coriaceous or membranous, em- 
 bryos frequently two or more in each seed; cotyledons fleshy, 
 hypogeal in germination. Most members of the genus are sup- 
 posed to have had their origin in Cochin China and the Malay 
 Archipelago. Several have become domesticated in Florida and 
 the West Indies. 
 
 /. 
 
 Fig. 5. Juice Sacks of 
 I'ili-us Fruits. A, Trifo- 
 B, Sweet 
 oi-ange. C, Sour orange. 
 Fruit a l*. Mandariu orange. B, " 
 I'nmelo. F, Kumquat. 
 (J, Leiuoii. Two-fifths 
 natural size. 
 
 SPECIES OP CITRUS CUL,TIVATED IN AMERICA. 
 
 Citrus trifoliata L., Sp. PI. Ed. II, 1101, 1763. A small low 
 branching tree, of strict, upright habit, twelve to fifteen feet in 
 height; young branches angled, older ones rounded, thorny. 
 
IC CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 stiff; thorns alternate, 1 to 1 1-2 inches long, flattened at the 
 base, stout, stiff, sharp; leaves deciduous, trifoliate, leaflets more 
 or less elliptical, crenate or dentate, thin; flower buds enclosed 
 in scales; flowers produced singly or in pairs, axillary, generally 
 appearing before the leaves, but occasionally with (fig. 7) or 
 after them ; sepals five, light greenish yellow, small, oval, pointed, 
 about 1-4 inch long; corolla large, white, 1 1-2 to 1 3-4 inches 
 across when expanded; petals obovate, thin, striated, polypetal- 
 ous; stamens twenty-one to twenty-three, filaments separate, 
 anthers adnate, oval, two celled; pistil oblong, club-shaped, 
 hairy, style short; ovary six-loculed; fruit light orange, rough, 
 covered with short hair; oil of the rind aromatic, sticky; pulp 
 rather sparse, acid; juice sacks slender, pointed; seeds numer- 
 ous, distinct from other citrus, oval, rounded at the ends, plump, 
 embryo one; time of flowering variable, extending in the citrus 
 districts from the first of March to the middle of April; fruit 
 ripening in September and October; tree very hardy, native of 
 China and Japan. 
 
 Citrus vulgaris Risso, Ann. Mus., Paris, XX: 190, 1813. 
 Seville orange, Bigarade orange. Sour orange. A small tree, 
 twenty to thirty feet in height, with a dense, compact head; 
 young shoots light green, thorny; thorns alternate, small, sharp 
 pointed; on older wood larger, strong, stiff; leaves unifoliate, 
 evergreen, alternate, ovate, pointed, strongly and peculiarly 
 scented; petiole 1-2 to 3-4 inch long, broadly winged; flowers in 
 small axillary cymes, white, strongly sweet scented, somewhat 
 larger than those of Citrus aurantiiim; calyx cupped, segments 
 four to five, blunt; petals linear oblong, conspicuously dotted 
 with oil cells; stamens twenty to twenty-four, filaments united 
 in groups; pistil club-shaped, smooth, ovary six to fourteen loc- 
 uled; fruit orange colored or frequently reddish when well 
 matured, inclined to be rough; rind strongly aromatic, bitter; 
 pulp acid, juice sacks spindle-shaped, rather small; seeds flat- 
 tened and wedged toward the micropylar end, marked with ridged 
 lines. Native of southeastern Asia, probably in Cochin China. 
 Hardier than the sweet orange. Introduced into Florida at an 
 early date and now naturalized in many of the forests. 
 
 Citrus Aurantium L., Sp. PI. 2:782, 1753. Sweet orange. A 
 tree twenty-flve to forty feet in height with a compact, conical 
 
BOTANY OF CITRUS FRUITS. 17 
 
 head; bark greyish brown; thorns generally present, 1-2 to 2 
 inches long, sharp, stout; leaves oval or ovate oblong, 3 to 4 inches 
 long, smooth, shining, somewhat lighter below than above, mar- 
 gins entire, or very slightly serrate; petiole % to 1 inch long, 
 slightly winged (occasionally with quite a broad wing); flowers 
 axillary in clusters of one to six, white, sweet-scented, smaller 
 than those of C. vulgaris; calyx cupped; sepals four to five, awl- 
 shaped, thick, greenish, persistent; petals usually five, oblong, 
 1 to 1-4 inches long, thick, fleshy, recurved; stamens twenty to 
 twenty-flve, hypogynous, fllaments flattened, united in groups, 
 shorter than the petals; pistil distinctly divided into stigma, 
 style and ovary; stigma knob-like, style long and slender, ovary 
 rounded, ten to fourteen loculed; fruit globose or oblate, light 
 orange to reddish, rind smooth; pulp juicy, sub-acid; juice sacks 
 spindle-shaped, sometimes larger than those of C. vulgaris; seeds 
 few or many, oblong ovoid, plano-convex, generally broad, wedged 
 or pointed at the micropylar end, marked with oblique ridges 
 surrounding one or two plain areas. Native of China or Cochin 
 China. 
 
 Citrus nobilis Lour., Flor. Coch,, 2:466, 1790. The man- 
 darin orange. A small tree, twelve to twenty feet in height, 
 with a dense head of upright or willowy drooping branches; 
 bark dark brownish or streaked with gray; branchlets light 
 green or dark in color, small, slender, round or angled, thorn- 
 less or provided with small sharp spines; leaves small, lanceo- 
 late to oval, slightly crenate; petioles short, wingless or with 
 yery small wings; flowers terminating the branchlets or axillary, 
 sometimes clustered, 3-4 to 1 inch across, sweet-scented; calyx 
 small, shallow, cupped, the petals small; petals white, fleshy, 
 recurved; stamens eighteen to twenty-three in number, shorter 
 than the petals; pistil small, resembling that of C. Aurantium; 
 ovary nine to flfteen loculed; fruit distinctly oblate, orange to 
 reddish in color, pulp sweet or sub-acid; juice sacks broad and 
 blunt; seeds top-shaped, beaked, cotyledons pistache green; em- 
 bryos one or more; sections separating readily from each other 
 and from the rind; rind thin, oil cells somewhat balloon-shaped 
 or oval. Native of Cochin China. Generally admitted to be 
 .somewhat hardier than the sweet orange. 
 
 Citrus decumana L., Syst. Nat. Ed. 12, 2:508, 1767. Pomelo 
 
18 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 and Shaddock. A tres twenty to forty feet in height, with a 
 rounded or conical head and a trunk upwards of eighteen inches 
 in diameter; bark smooth, grayish brown; young leaves and 
 shoots sparsely pubescent, light green; leaves ovate, blunt 
 pointed or rounded, emarginate, smooth, dark glossy green 
 leathery, margin crenate; petioles articulated, broadly winged; 
 flowers produced singly or in cymose clusters of two to twenty, 
 sweet-scented; calyx cupped, large; sepals four to five, pointed; 
 corolla white, 11-2 to 13-4 inches across; petals four to five, 
 slightly reflexed, fleshy, oblong; stamens twenty to twenty-five, 
 anthers large, abundantly supplied with pollen, proterandrous; 
 pistil stout, stigma when ripe covfred with a sticky, milky fluid; 
 ovary eleven to fourteen loculed; fruit large, oblate, globose or 
 pyriform, light lemon or orange colored; flesh grayish or pink; 
 juice sacks large, spindle-shaped; flavor a mingling of acid, bit- 
 terness and sweetness or sub-acid; seeds large, light colored, 
 wedge-shaped or irregular, ridged with prominent ridges sur 
 rounding broad, flat areas. Native of Polynesian and ilalayan 
 Archipelagoes. 
 
 Citrus Japonica Thunb., Fl. Jap., 292, 17S4. Kumquat. A 
 shrub from eight to twelve feet high, much branched, the head 
 rather close and compact; branches when young, light green, 
 somewhat angled, becoming rounder with age, thornless or with 
 small, sharp thorns, 1-2 inch long; leaves 3-8 x 1 1-4 inches to 
 15-8x3 3-8 inches, lanceolate; apex obtuse; base acvite or obtuse, 
 margin very slightly crenate down about half way from the 
 apex, upper surface dark green, glossy, lower lighter; flowers 
 pure white, axillary, single or in pairs, occasionally in clusters 
 of as many as four borne on new or on one-year-old wood; pe- 
 duncle bracted with one or two minute bracts; calyx small, green- 
 ish; corolla G-8 inch across when expanded; petals four to five, 
 oblong, lanceolate, fleshy: stamens unequal, short, united in a 
 ring or in two or three group: , titteen to twenty-two in number; 
 pistil small, the ovary five to six loculed; fruit round or oblong, 
 1 to 1 1-4 inches in diameter; oil cells of the rind large and con- 
 spicuous, the inner lining of the rind sweet; pulp acid, juice 
 sacks small; seeds few, small, blunt pointed: cotyledons green or 
 greenish. Presumably a native of Cochin China. 
 
 Citrus Medica L., Sp. PI., 2:782, 1753. Citron. A shrub or 
 
BOTANY OF CITRUS FRUITS. 19 
 
 small tree, about ten feet high with a short, indistinct trunk and 
 short, thick irregular, straggling, thorny branches; bark light 
 gray; thorns short, sharp, rather stout; young shoots smooth, 
 violet colored or purplish, stiff; leaves large, four to six inches 
 long, oval oblong, serrate or somewhat crenate, dark green above, 
 lighter beneath; flowers small, axillary in compact clusters of 
 three to ten, often unisexual; calyx small, cupped; corolla white 
 within, tinged with purple on the outside; petals oblong, the 
 tips incurved; stamens short, irregular in length, forty to forty- 
 five in number; pistil small, ovary nine to twelve loculed, or 
 occasionally more; fruit lemon yellow, large, 6 to 9 inches long, 
 oblong, rough or warty; sometimes ridged, apex blunt pointed, 
 rind thick, white except for the outer colored rim; pulp sparse, 
 juice scant, acid and somewhat bitter, or sweetish; juice sacks 
 small, slender, seeds oval, plump, light colored, smooth. Proba- 
 bly native of India, or it may have been Introduced there from 
 farther east, China or Cochin China. Extremely sensitive to 
 cold. 
 
 Citrus Limonum Risso, Ann. Mus. Paris, XX: 201, 1813. 
 Lemon. A small tree, ten to twenty feet in height, with rather 
 open head of short, round or angular branches, thorny; bark 
 grayish; young shoots purplish, smooth; leaves evergreen, alter- 
 nate, two to three inches in length, ovate-oval, sharp pointed, 
 light green, margin serrate; petioles entirely wingless; flowers 
 solitary occasionally in pairs, axillary, on distinct peduncles; 
 calyx persistent, segments four to five; corolla large, 1 1-2 to 2 
 Inches across, white inside, purplish outside, petals oblong spread- 
 ing, strongly reflexed; stamens twenty to twenty-six, separate, 
 or more or less united in small groups; ovary considerably ele- 
 vated on a prominent disk, seven to ten loculed; fruit ripening at 
 all seasons, ovoid or oblong and pointed at both base and apex, 
 about 3 inches long, smooth or rough, light yellow in color, rind 
 thin; flesh light colored, pulp acid, juice sacks long and pointed; 
 seeds oval, pointed at the micropylar end, quite smooth. Native 
 of the same regions as the citron. 
 
 Citrus Llmetta Risso, Ann. Mus. Paris, XX: 195, 1813. Lime 
 a shrub or small tree of straggling habit, with small, stiff, inter- 
 locking or drooping thorny branches, the thorns small, sharp, 
 numerous; bark grayish brown; young branchlets light green. 
 
20 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 becoming darker with age; leaves elliptic-oval, glossy green in 
 color, margin slightly indented; petioles margined; flowers small, 
 produced in axillary clusters of three to ten; calyx small, four 
 to five pointed; corolla white on both inner and outer surfaces, 
 petals four to five, oblong, fleshy; stamens small, twenty to 
 twenty-five, united in a number of groups; ovary about ten loc- 
 uled; fruit rounded oblong or oblong, frequently mammilate, 
 light yellow, rind thin, pulp greenish, acid; juice sacks small, 
 slender, pointed; seeds small, oval, pointed. Native of India and 
 southeastern Asia. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE TRIFOLIATE OEANGE. 
 
 As a commer- 
 cial variety, the 
 trifoliate orange 
 is worthless. It 
 is, however, val- 
 uable as a hedge 
 plant, and as a 
 stock on which 
 to work other 
 varieties of 
 citrus. Large 
 quantities o f 
 seed are annual- 
 ly produced in 
 Florida and 
 Louisiana, but 
 so great is the 
 demand, that a 
 great deal is 
 imported from 
 Japan as well. 
 
 Hybrids have 
 been produced 
 between the tri- 
 foliate and 
 sweet oranges 
 
 Fig. 6. Trifoliate Orange Tree. jjy J)p_ JJ J_ 
 
 Webber and others, in the hope of securing a palatable 
 varietv more resistant to the effects of frost than the sweet 
 
22 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 orauge. What the outcome will eventually be it is diffi- 
 cult to say, but it may be that from this fruit may spring 
 a race of hardy citrus with which the citrus industry will 
 be extended northward far beyond its present limits. 
 
 ^A'llat seems to be the first mention of the trifoliate 
 orange in citrus literature is that made by Kaempfer in his 
 Aiiiii'nitatum Exoticarum in 1712. An illustration (page 
 802), accompanying his brief description, leaves no room 
 to doubt the identity of his *S'(', vulgo Karatats hanna 
 with the trifoliate orange. In 1763 Linnaeus described 
 the trifoliate orange in the second edition of his Species 
 Plantarum and the name applied by him, Citrus trifoliata. 
 is now the ac<epted one. Thunberg, in his Flora Japonica, 
 1784, gave tlie name Citrus trifolhi. A. P. DeCandolle, in 
 liis I'rodromus Systematis Naturalis, 1824, placed the tri- 
 foliate orange in the genus JEgle, naming it .^^t!f/lc scparia. 
 There is doubtless some reason for this disposition of the 
 plant, for in many respects it is not a true citrus. Again 
 in 1829, Desfontaines renamed it Citrus triptera. Engler, 
 in his classification of citrus — Erigler and Prantl, Pflanz- 
 enfaniilieii, 189C, has placed Citrtis trifoliata in the sec- 
 tion Pscudof/lc of the genus citrus, which, all things con- 
 sidered, is a satisfactory disposition of the species. 
 
 The trifoliate orange is said to have been first in1ro- 
 duced into America in 18(59 by the late Wm. Saunders, 
 of the United States Department of Agriculture. 
 
 For many years, it lias been the hope of citrus fruit 
 growers that varieties might be secured which would 
 resist many degrees of frost. The production of hybrid 
 varieties with this object in view was undertaken, in 
 Florida, in 1S92 9;! liy Dr. H. J. Webber, and Mr. Walter 
 T. Swingle of the United States Department of Agricul- 
 ture. ;Most of the early results were lost, but the work 
 
THE TRIFOLIATE ORANGE. 
 
 was again taken up in 1896-97 and vigorously pushed. 
 Their work resulted in the production of upwards of two 
 thousand hybrids and a number of these have proved to 
 possess the desired hardiness. 
 
 Many of the varieties have been fruited for the De- 
 partment of Agriculture by the Glen Saint Mary Nurseries 
 in northern Florida and by different Exjierinient Stations 
 in the Southern States. It has been clearly demonstrated 
 that the hardy varieties will stand, uninjured, teiii]tera- 
 tures which would prove fatal 
 to ordinary oranges. The work 
 has now progressed so far that 
 something definite can be said 
 concerning the quality of the 
 fruit and some estimation can 
 be placed on the work from the 
 standpoint of futui'e and fur- 
 ther developments. 
 
 Everything pointed to Citrus 
 trifoliata as the parent which 
 would impart the desired hardi- 
 ness. With this as the female 
 parent (in most cases) the work 
 was undertaken. Crossing was 
 not as easily performed as 
 might be expected. Only about 
 two per cent, of the fruit set 
 and many of these produced a 
 considerable amount of defect- 
 ive seed. A large number of the 
 plants produced cannot be dis- 
 tinguished from the trifoliate 
 orange, others are exactly like ^'" '^■ 
 
 X IT 1 -1 Trifoliate Orane'e Flowers 
 
 sweet orange seedlings, while ,„„,_ „^„^ .. ^^ , . , 
 
 '^ '^ (Four-sevenths natural size.) 
 
24 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 still others combine the characters of both parents. 
 Many proved to be evergreen like the orange but with 
 trifoliate leaves like those of Citrus trifoUata. The pro- 
 portion of those showing intermediate characters was 
 probably less than twenty-five per cent. For instance, 
 out of forty plants, raised from seed of a i^ingle fruit, 
 twenty-nine closely resembled the trifoliate orange, the 
 remaining eleven being intermediate in character. 
 
 The hybrids have proved to be vigorous growers and 
 far surpass, in size, seedling Citrus trifoUata trees of 
 the same age. Those vai-ieties which have fruited liave 
 proved to be prolific. The flowers are quite different from 
 those of either of the parents, but for the most part sweet 
 scented like those of the orange. 
 
 The fruit varies considerably in size, that produced 
 by some varieties is but little larger than Citrus trifo- 
 Uata fruit. Others bear fruit equal in size to that of 
 the common orange and one variety at least bears fruit 
 so closely resembling that of the sweet orange that in 
 appearance it launot be readily distinguished from it. 
 
 In quality, the fruits are not so good as the sweet 
 oranges. They are intermediate in character and retain 
 some of the flavor of the Citrus trifoUata fruit. For the 
 most part they are quite sour. They can be used for 
 making a very flne quality of ade and may also be used 
 for many culinary purposes. In fact, some of them may 
 be substituted for lemons as commonly iised. As orna- 
 mental trees they are decidedly valuable. In foliage, 
 flower and finiit, they are quite ornamental and make 
 very handsome lawn specimens. 
 
 Up to the present time five noteworthy varieties of 
 citranges, as they are called. Rusk, Morton, Colman, 
 SavaL',e and Rustic, have liecii named and descrihcl by 
 Dr. ^Vebber. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 THE BIGARADE ORANGES. 
 
 In America the oranges of this group are commonly 
 referred to as sour oranges, but for some reasons it has 
 been deemed best not to adopt this name, although the 
 sour orange is the most important varietj- in the gTOup. 
 They have also been called Seville oranges, but this cog- 
 nomen has also been given to some of the sweet oranges. 
 It, too, has been discarded as a group name in favor of 
 the French "Bigarade." 
 
 The sweet and bigarade oranges have been placed 
 under one species, C. Aurantium L., by many writers. One 
 of the principal reasons advanced for so doing is the 
 statement made by Macfayden and others that sweet orange 
 seed frequently produced trees bearing bigarade oranges. 
 
 In view of evidence to the contrary, there appears to 
 be no reason for believing that Macfayden's observations 
 were accurate. In Porto Rico orange trees have been used 
 to a considerable extent for affording shade in the coffee 
 plantations. The plantings are invariably mixed, here 
 a sweet orange, there a bigarade. The planting was done 
 indiscriminately, no notice being taken as to the kind of 
 tree from which the seed was procured. Moreover the work 
 was done by ignorant laborers and any conclusions which 
 might be drawn from it are worthless. In Jamaica, where 
 Macfayden made his observations, practically the same con- 
 ditions prevail, and the laboring class is the same. The 
 natives were probably the first to aver that sweet 
 orange seed produced trees bearing bigarade fruit and 
 this myth, like many another, found its way into and ob- 
 
2G CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 tained an abiding place in botanical and horticultural 
 literature. 
 
 If the bigarade orange has remained specifically dis- 
 tinct, even though the distinctions between it and the 
 sweet orange be slight, through a period of about eight cen- 
 turies, reproducing itself true to seed without the inter- 
 ference of man throughout that period, it certainly is 
 entitled to specific rank. The history of the group shows 
 that it has done so. 
 
 The Spaniards brought the first bigarade oranges to 
 America. Fruit was obtained by the Indians and they 
 carried it about on their journeys. The seeds were 
 dropped where the fruit was eaten and finding in Florida 
 and other regions a soil and climate adapted to their 
 growth, grew up where they had been deposited. As a 
 result, wild groves were formed on the shores of lakes and 
 rivers. Natural groves, where four or five hundred trees 
 grew on an acre, were not uncommon at one time in many 
 parts of Florida, and even to this day, the sour orange 
 grows wild in many of the hammocks. By top-working 
 these natural groves, many of the early sweet orange 
 groves were established. 
 
 In America the bigarade oranges are unimportant 
 from a commercial standpoint. The greatest use to which 
 the sour orange, the most important variety of the group, 
 is put is for stocks upon which to work other citrus fruits. 
 For the production of stocks, sour orange seed is in con- 
 siderable demand at a fair price. Orange marmalade of 
 tlie finest quality may be manufactured from the fruit, 
 while a refreshing drink, "orangeade," may be made from 
 the juice. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE SWEET ORANGES. 
 
 This group of citrus 
 fruits has been knoAvn 
 by a number of names, 
 names generally derived 
 from the localities from 
 which they were se- 
 cured. They have been 
 referred to as Portugal 
 oranges, Malta 
 oranges, etc., but the 
 name used above is 
 now generally accepted. 
 It can scarcely be con- 
 s i d e r e d descriptive, 
 however. The taste of a 
 good fruit of this group 
 is not sweet. Sweetness 
 should preponderate, 
 but it should be modi- 
 fied by and blended 
 with acid. Neverthe- 
 less, usage has estab- 
 lished the name and 
 everywhere it is and 
 has been used for hun- 
 dreds of years. These 
 fruits were known to 
 Ferrari as Aurantium vulgm'e medulla dulci, while Volck- 
 amer in 1713 called them Auvantimn frucfu dulci. 
 
 Fig. 8. Flowers of Majorca Orange 
 (Reduced about one-thrrd.) 
 
28 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 The researches of Galiesio go to prove that the sweet 
 oranges were not known in Europe until early in the fif- 
 teenth century. They were, however, rapidly disseminated 
 after their introduction and in a comparatively short time 
 cultivated in all parts of southern Europe, suited to their 
 growth. Later their culture was still further extended, 
 the fruit being grown m houses, of which both Ferrari and 
 Volckamer give illustrations, so that l)y the end of the 
 seventeenth century they were grown under cover in many 
 parts of Europe, where their culture could not be success- 
 fully accomplished in the open air. 
 
 The date of their introduction into America is, as 
 it is with nearly all the early introductions of citrus, 
 merely a matter of conjecture. The Spaniards were un- 
 doubtedly responsible for its being brought into many 
 parts of the New ATorld. On the authority of Acosta 
 and Piso, who wrote concerning their travels in the West 
 Indies and Brazil respectively, we must conclude that 
 oranges of some sort were well established in those parts 
 of America, ^^'hich they visited, prior to the years 1600 and 
 1648. In Florida the early settlers found sweet orange 
 trees growing in the hammocks in some places. That 
 whole strain of oranges now largely grown on the Indian 
 River had their origin in one of these wild groves. But tlie 
 fact remains that the sweet orange was not so widely dis- 
 tributed throughout Florida at the l)igarade orange, at 
 least, it was not found so abundantly in the mtive woods. 
 This may lie accounted for by the fact that the sweet 
 orang(\ being less hardy, was not as capable of making a 
 jilacc for itself among the native trees as the bigarade. 
 It i;; not improliable the sweet orange was introduced at 
 a somewhat later date than the sour bigarade, which 
 might also, in a measure, account for its not being so 
 
THE SWEET ORANGES. oj) 
 
 common. But groves were established and in a thorough 
 state of cultivation early in the nineteenth century, and 
 even before that time considerable attention was given 
 to citrus culture. 
 
 The introduction of the orange into California is thus 
 told by Mr. B. M. Lelong: 
 
 "In 1767 the Jesuits were expelled from the missions 
 in Lower California, their possessions were turned over 
 to the Franciscans, and Junipero Serra was selected as 
 President of the Missions. A dispute arose between the 
 Franciscans and Dominicans over the division of the 
 property. The latter claimed an interest in the mission 
 work. In consequence of this a division was made, and 
 in 1769 the Franciscans started northward, entering and 
 occupying what is now the State of California. * * * 
 
 "Jose del Galvez, 'visitor-general' and secular head, 
 with Father Serra, made arrangements for the establish- 
 ment of settlements. Twenty-one missions were estab- 
 lished, all but three of which had gardens and orchards. 
 The mission orchards ^\'ere very small, and some consisted 
 of but few trees, but those trees played an important part 
 in the horticultural advancement of the State, for they 
 showed the possibilities in fruit culture, and furnished 
 seeds, stocks and scions for many orchards. * * * 
 The chief fruits brought by the Fathers were oranges, figs, 
 grapes and olives. * * *" 
 
 Of all the citrus fruits cultivated in America at the 
 present time, the sweet orange is the most important. Its 
 cultivation represents more capital than all the others 
 together, and it is likely to maintain its present position 
 so long as fruits of this genus are grown. 
 
 It is used as a dessert fruit only and for the most 
 part all sweet oranges are consumed without cooking. In 
 
3o CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 fact, cooking spoils the sweet orange; it parts with its 
 flavor and becomes insipid. But as a raw fruit It is un- 
 surpassed. 
 
 The number of varieties of sweet oranges which have 
 been brought before the public is considerably over one 
 hundred. Unfortunately, descriptions of them such as 
 may be found for apples, pears and other fruits, are com- 
 paratively few. Again, the origin of many of them is lost 
 in obscurity, from which it is almost impossible to bring 
 them. As a result, many varieties have received a number 
 of names. Unfortunately it has not been possible to se- 
 cure specimens of all the varieties, but a goodly number 
 have been obtained and are described in the section on 
 varieties. 
 
 Great difficulty has been encountered in grouping the 
 sweet oranges. But it has finally been decided to group 
 them as Spanish oranges, Mediterranean oranges, Blood 
 oranges and Navel oranges. This classification is in some 
 respects unsatisfactory and further study of the group 
 may produce something better. For the present, however, 
 this is the best that can be given. 
 
 SPANISH ORANGES. 
 
 Tree large and of strong, vigorous growth, well fol- 
 iaged, the leaves oval, pointed, frequently strongly winged ; 
 fruit of rather coarse grain, but of good quality, large; 
 ripening for the most part in mid-season ; seeds large, 
 wedged and flanged. 
 
 Most of the Spanish oranges have originated as seed- 
 lings in America, the majoritj' of the varieties having 
 come from the seedling groves of Florida. Generally they 
 produce fruit in abundance and the greater portion of 
 the fruit at present shipped from Florida, Cuba and Porto 
 
THE SWEET ORANGES. 31 
 
 Rico is of this class. lu California they have not proved 
 desirable in most cases. The name has been given becavise 
 the oranges of this group have come from the Spanish 
 introductions of two or three centuries ago. 
 
 MEDITERRANEAN ORANGES. 
 
 Tree standard or half dwarf, generally distinct in 
 habit of growth, many of them not distinguishable from 
 blood oranges; foliage abundant, leaves small, closely set, 
 or larger and resembling those of the Spanish oranges; 
 fruit heavy, rich, vinous, of excellent quality, iine grained, 
 round oblate or somewhat oval, ripening in mid-season 
 or later ; seeds oval, plump, pointed. 
 
 The fruit of this group is of the same general nature 
 as the blood oranges, lacking the blood color. The size 
 is larger and many of them are more prolific, though in 
 these I'espects many are similar to the bloods. 
 
 Most varieties of this group have been introduced 
 from the Mediterranean region. Some have come from 
 the Azores and some from Palestine. Some have origi- 
 nated in Florida and other parts of America. 
 
 They are here called the Mediterranean oranges be- 
 cause they have <t)me either directly or indirectly from 
 the citrus districts of southern Europe. Some have been 
 imported direct, some have come by way of the Azores. 
 It is probable that it would be more satisfactory to sub- 
 divide this group, as there are some divergences from the 
 main type, of which Jaffa ■ and Majorca may be said to 
 be representative. 
 
 BLOOD ORANGES. 
 
 Tree dwarfish, compact, distinct in habit of growth ; 
 foliage abundant, the leaves small, oval, rounded, gener- 
 allv almost without wings; fruit when fullv matured hav- 
 
32 V1TRV8 FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 ing rubj'-i'ed pulp or pulp streaked with red, of superior 
 quality, edible earlier in the season, but not showing blood 
 markings until late, generally small or medium-sized ; 
 rind assuming a reddish blush at maturity. The fruit of 
 trees worked on trifoliate orange stock show blood mark- 
 ings earlier in the season than when other stocks are used. 
 
 This sub-group contains the best oranges known, the 
 quality of the fruit being equalled by few other varieties 
 and certainly surpassed by none. Seeds are generally 
 quite few in number, small and plump. The small size of 
 the fruit of some varieties is objectionable. The general 
 characteristics of the group, except for the differences in 
 the fruit are almost the same as those of the Mediterran- 
 ean oranges. Most of the varieties now grown in America 
 came originally from the Mediterranean citrus districts, 
 the late General Sanford and Mr. Charles Armory being 
 responsible for their introduction. 
 
 Gallesio, in his "Traite du Citrus," Paris, 1811, men- 
 tions the blood orange as one of the varieties cultivated 
 extensively in his day in Malta and Provence and by 
 amateurs and seedsmen in Liguria. 
 
 NAVEL, ORANGES. 
 
 Tree rather dwarf, with well rounded top and glossy 
 green foliage, generally almost thornless ; flowers entirelj 
 lacking in pollen or only poorly supplied, pistils prolif 
 erous, giving rise to an umbilical mark of greater or less 
 extent on the apex of the fruit; fruit of superior quality, 
 but perhaps not quite equal to the best of the Mediter- 
 ranean and blood types. A few varieties not included 
 with those of the navel type are sometimes navel marked. 
 Among these may be mentioned Ruby, Boone, St. Michael 
 Blood and the Cleopatra mandarin. 
 
THE SWEET ORANGES. 3"} 
 
 In Florida the navel oranges have not been a success, 
 owing to the small ciojs usually produced. The late E. 
 H. Hart/ however, called attention to one variety, a cross 
 between Sustain and Botelha which is quite prolific in 
 the above niuntioued district. This tendency toward shy 
 bearing can in part be overcome in Florida by a judicious 
 selection of stocks. The Bahia navel orange is the 
 variety par excellence of the California districts and there 
 .seems at present to be no good reason why any other va- 
 riety of its season should be planted. All things consid- 
 ered, this variety is the most noteworthy of the whole 
 group of navel oranges. 
 
 !More recently a variety of navel orange known as 
 Surprise has been brought for•^vaI'd by Mr. E. S. Hub- 
 bard, of Federal Point, Fla. This variety fruits well on 
 sour orange stock and bids fair to take the place in Flor- 
 ida, which the Bahia now occupies in California. 
 
 Regarding the first mention of the navel orange in 
 citrus literature, B. M. Lelong, in his work, "Culture of 
 the Citrus in California," 1902, pages 52 to 53, makes 
 the following remarks: "The first illustration of the 
 Navel orange appears in a volume, 'Table xvi. — Historian 
 Naturalis de Arboribus et Fructibus, Libri Decem. -To- 
 hannis Johnstoni, Medicinaj Doctoris. Francofurti, o — m., 
 MDCLXII.' ('The Natural History of Trees and Fruits. 
 Ten Books. By John Johnson, Doctor of IMedicine. Frank- 
 fort on Main, 1CG2'), referred to as Aurantium foetiferum 
 X- -x- * Although no description of the navel orange ap- 
 pears in the text, this is the earliest reference known." 
 
 In 1646 Baptiste Ferrari, a monk of the Society of 
 Jesus, published at Rome his famous work, "Hesperides 
 sive de Malorum aureorum cultura et usu, Libri Quat- 
 uor." On page 10:;! he describes and on page 105 illus- 
 
34 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 trates a variety of orange, "Aurantium foemima sive foet- 
 iferum." Of it Ferrari says; "This Aurantium imitates 
 to some extent the fertility of the tree which bears it ir 
 that it struggles, though unsuccessfully, to produce the 
 fruit upon itself. * * * On the end of the fruit is 
 another, sometimes with a thin rind investing it, but more 
 frequently naked, so far at least as the pulp {of the larger 
 part) is concerned; this (second fruit) is composed of an 
 inner medulla of about four spikes : the young brood, a? 
 it were, of fruits half seen pushing out through the gap- 
 ing umbilicus, which is sometimes more and sometimes 
 less closely compressed." This is a navel orange both by 
 description and illustration. 
 
 There is such a striking resemblance between the il- 
 lustration given by Ferrari and that reproduced by Mr, 
 Lelong from Johnson's work that the writer is compelled 
 to believe tliat Johnson copied his ilhistration directly 
 from Ferrari's Hesperides. 
 
 Many writers since the days of Ferrari have referred 
 to the navel orange, notable among whom may be men- 
 tioncil A'olckamer, who in his Ilesperiduni Norimbergen- 
 sium, 1713, referred to two varieties of navel oranges, 
 "Aranzo de fior doppio," and Aranzo di flore Scorza 
 dopitio," which he d(^scribed on pages 201-202 and illus- 
 trated on pages 2021i and 2()2c. 
 
 A closer study of citrus literature may bring to light 
 still earlier references to this interesting type of fruits. 
 
 * Am. Gard. Vol. 23. No. 417. Dec. 20, 1902. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE MANDARIN ORANGES. 
 
 ilany writers on citrus fruits have placed the man- 
 darin oranges under the species, Citrus Aurcmiium Linn. 
 Others have considered it a variety of that species while 
 some, believing it possesses distinctive, specific character- 
 istics, have followed Lourerio and have referred it to his 
 species Citrus nohilis. In this latter view the writer con- 
 curs, and after carefully studying the characteristics of 
 both the mandarin and sweet orange groups, believes it 
 best to place the former under a species separate fi-nm the 
 latter. 
 
 The group as represented in America is distinct in 
 habit of growth and in fruit from C. Aurantium. The 
 leaves of the mandarin oranges are generally quite small 
 and pointed, while the skin is easily separated from the 
 pulp of the fruit and the sections of the pulp from one 
 another. One noteworthy point, and one which needs to 
 be explained away by those who desire to throw the two 
 groups together, is that the cotyledons of the seeds of the 
 mandarin oranges are pistache green or greenish in color, 
 while those of the sweet oranges are white. Of course it 
 must be granted that one species may shade off into the 
 other, but where such is the case any variety in question 
 should be relegated to the group of which it possesses the 
 greatest number of marked characteristics. 
 
 The reasons for adopting the gi-ouii-name Mandarin 
 are. that it has been longer in use and is probably more 
 widely known than any other. Many have referred to the 
 Tangierines as a group, or sub-group, distinct and separate 
 
38 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 from the Mandarins. There may be reasons of greater or 
 less weight for this division, but in this publication the 
 name Tangierine has been discarded in favor of the older 
 name. No distinction can be made between the Mandarin 
 and the Tangierine oranges so-called, more than can be 
 made between any two distinct varieties of fruits in rec- 
 ognized pomological groiips. Moreover, the fact must not 
 be overlooked that in some of the world's citrus growing 
 districts the two names are used interchangeably. 
 
 Two explanations have been given for the name Man- 
 darin ;is applied to this group of oranges. It was given 
 either because the fruit was regarded as the best of the 
 citrus family, just as the Chinese Mandarin or grandee 
 stood in social rank above his fellowmen, or because this 
 orange was the fruit of the rich and therefore only within 
 the reach of the nobility. The fact that the fruit is exten- 
 sively cultivated in China and Japan and that it is there 
 held in such high esteem leads to the belief that the first 
 explanation is the more correct one. 
 
 One other name, "kid-glove oranges," has been applied 
 to the group. In explanation of the origin of this name 
 the remarks of the late E. H. Hart before the twenty-second 
 meeting of the American Pomological Society at Ocala, 
 Fla.. in 1889. are self-explanatory. "The term 'kid-glove' 
 orange, as applied to Citrus nobilis, originally a joke of 
 our facetious countryman. Colonel l»ancy, of Orange ]Mills, 
 was gravely accepted as a synonym by our first nomencla- 
 ture committee, and like many another whimsical what- 
 d<!-you-call-him, it stinck. wlici-c^ oiii' more dignified would 
 have glanced off." 
 
 The investigations of De Candolle and others show 
 that we are safe in concluding that the mandarin oranges 
 
THE MANDARIN ORANGES. 39 
 
 had their origin in Cochin China. Fvoni tliat ccntor they 
 have been carried into many portions of the world. 
 
 Several gaps occur in the history of these oranges, and 
 yet it has been possible to trace it with a fair degree of 
 accuracy. The first mention of an orange which is believed 
 to belong to this group is in Steerbeck's Citricultura, 
 where it is mentioned as the "Muscat apple."* It is well 
 within the limits of probability that some member or mem- 
 bers of the group were known to Rumphius and indeed 
 Lourerio, in his original description of Citrus nohilis in 
 1790, refers to this possibility. Referring to the 
 same dates and cuts, Bonavia comes to the con- 
 clusion that the Aurantium sinense of Rumphius 
 must be grouped with the suntara oranges of India. Hav- 
 ing carefully read the description written by Rumphius, 
 both in the original and as translated by Bonavia, and 
 after comparing it with specimens of the Rangpur lime, 
 grown by Reasoner Bros., by Bonavia said to be a suntara 
 orange, I must say that any attempt to decide this ques- 
 tion places one on exceedingly debatable ground. 
 
 In 1805 two varieties of mandarin oranges were intro- 
 duced into England from Canton by Sir Abraham Hume 
 and fruit produced from these trees was illustrated in 1817 
 (1) and 1824 (2). According to du Breuil (3), the man- 
 darin orange was introduced into Europe (continental) 
 about 1828. In the vicinity of Parma it was cultivated on 
 a large scale as early as 1842 and its culture in the county 
 of Xiza and the region surrounding (Jenoa dates l)ack to 
 lS4!t or 1850. The conclusions reached by du Breuil are 
 further substantiated by the fact that (Talle^^io appears not 
 
 *Steerbeck, F. Van. Criticultura. 27. 16S2. 
 
 (1.) Bot. Beg., 3:211. 1817. 
 
 (2.) Bot. Eeposit., 9:608. 1824. 
 
 (3.) Hist. Cult. Orang-., Bisso & Poiteau. 49. 1872. 
 
40 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 to have known this tree, and Risso and Poiteau make no 
 mention of its culture in Europe in the first edition of 
 their work. Du Breuil states tlsat in couiinerce a di.^tinc- 
 tion was made between the mandarins of Parma and tliose 
 of t^pain, Algeria, Niza and the coast of Italy. 
 
 Bonavia says that the mandarin orange was probably 
 introduced into India from Egypt with a collection of 
 orange trees in 1847 (4) and that a second introductions 
 was made by himself in 1863 (5). It is not improbable 
 that the mandarin oranges found their way into I'^gypt 
 from some one of the countries of southern Europe. 
 
 The China mandarin, according to the best informa- 
 tion which can be secured, was brought to Louisiana by 
 the Italian Consul at New Orleans some time between 1840 
 and 38.50. The first tribes were planted on the grounds of 
 the consulate at Algiers, across the ii\er from New 
 Orleans. It has been impossible to obtain the name of the 
 consul or the exact date. Shortly after, or about 18.j0, 
 some one of the mandarin oranges was known to northern 
 nurserymen, for Buist (6) in 18-54. refers to one of them 
 as a recent introduction, valuable for pot culture. 
 
 The inlrciduction nl' the <_'hiua mandarin frcmi Louisi- 
 ana into Florida is credited to .Major Atway by the com- 
 mittee of the Florida Fruit (irowers' Association, and at 
 the time their report was made the original tree was grow- 
 ing in the grove of Dr. ^loragne at Palatka. The acci- 
 dental substitution of one word for another, a tyiiographi- 
 cal error, in Stubbs and Morgan's bulletin, "The Orange 
 and Other Citrus Fruits," has twisted the phraseology as 
 quoted l)y Moore. Reasoner and others to i-ead, "Tree of 
 original variety introduced liy !Major Atway, of Boyou 
 
 (4-G.) The Cultivaterl Dranse of India and ("eviun. JC and 231. ISSS 
 (6.) Bul.st, R. Amerii'an Plower-Garden 1 )lri'rtory. 224. 1S24. 
 
THE MANDARIN ORANGES. 4 J 
 
 8ara, La." Since their bulletin was written in Louisiana, 
 tliif* reading eouvi'vs an erroneous idea. 
 
 It has not been possible to fix the date of introduction 
 of the mandarin oranges into Florida, but if the report 
 of the Fruit Growers' Association is correct, it was. of 
 course, subsequent to the Louisiana introduction and pre- 
 sumably some time after it. The origin and introduction 
 of each of the mandarin oranges is given in the section on 
 varieties. 
 
 At the present time it may be said that the sweet 
 oranges, lemons, pomelos and mandarin oranges are the 
 four important groups cultivated in America. 
 
 Of these four important groups, the sweet oranges 
 occupy the first place and are destined to do so throughout 
 the whole future of citrus culture. The sweet orange is 
 a staple fruit, just as the apple is a staple fruit. It is 
 alwajs in demand, and it is the dessert fruit of xlmerica, 
 par excellence. 
 
 Considerably more attention has been given to the 
 culture of mandarin oranges in Florida than in California. 
 It must be borne in mind, however, that the mandarin 
 orange is essentially a fancy fruit and as such, commands a 
 fancy price in its season, but it would be useless to attempt 
 to place it on the same plane with the sweet orange as a 
 staple fruit. The fruit, generally speaking, is smaller than 
 the sweet orange. The bearing capacity of the tree seldom 
 reaches and rarely exceeds twelve straps, and all the mem- 
 bers of the group require careful cultivation and fertili- 
 zation to secure the best quality. Of course, this may be 
 said of sweet oranges or any other citrus fruit, but it is 
 peculiarly true of oranges of the mandarin group. * 
 
 Mandarin orange culture is on a staple basis in Amer- 
 ica at the present time, and the number of trees may be 
 
42 CITRUS FRUITS AXD THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 conservatively increased. Plantings should not be made 
 out of all proportion to the plantings of other citrus trees, 
 and the object of every grower should be, not so much to 
 increase the output, as to produce a fruit of high quality, 
 else there is no room for the fruit on the market. A good 
 mandarin orange is an excellent fruit, a poor one is worih- 
 less. It should be in all resjiects a fancy fruit. 
 
 There is another matter which must not be overlooked 
 in considering the horticultural status of this group. At 
 present it contains th" hardiest known, large fruited, edi- 
 ble \ari('1y of citrus, the Satsuma. This variety extends 
 the culture of citrus fruits on a safe basis far into the more 
 exi)Osed sections of the country. In northern Florida and 
 California it withstands frost well and a considerable 
 amount of this fruit (four or five hundred straps) was 
 shipped from the extreme northern portion of Florida 
 during the season of 1902, the price realized being from 
 $4.00 to ^'i.OO per straji. The tree is hardy, the fruit ma- 
 tures early and is very desirable for shipment during the 
 months of October and November. 
 
 Along the coast of Alabama, Mississii)pi, Louisiana 
 and Texas and in snutlieastern Texas, the Satsuma on 
 Citnis trifoUnta sto(k has been planted to a considerable 
 extent. In Texas jiarticularly, a large share of attention 
 is being given to its culture and the industry gives prom- 
 ise of assuming large proi)ortio]is. If the trees are banked 
 each winter while young (young trees are more likely to 
 be injured by cold) and allowed to branch low, they will, 
 when they have increased in age and size sufficiently, 
 stand a great deal of cold. For a number of years, this 
 orange was known in the markets under the names Man- 
 darin and Tangierine. Kecently, however, it has been 
 quoted in market reports under its own name — Satsuma. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 THE ro.MELOS. 
 
 The name iJomcJo {[il. jioiiichis) . as apjilied to the 
 fruit under consideration, is the one now recognized by 
 all horticultural writers and has been adopted by the 
 United States Department of Agriculture, the American 
 Pomological Society, the Florida State Horticultural So- 
 ciety and the California State Board of Horticulture. Tbe 
 word has been variously spelled pummelo, punialo, pumelo, 
 pumelow, etc., but the name and spelling as adopted in 
 this volume are in accordance with the present usage of 
 American horticulturists. 
 
 In 1713, in his Hesperidium Norimbergensium, pages 
 181 and 189, Volckamer uses the names poinpelnioes and 
 pompelmus and on page 189 a, gives a very good illustra- 
 tion of the pomelo as we know it. This is one of the ear- 
 liest references to the fruit under this name, although Fer- 
 rari apparently referred to the same fruit, or a closely 
 related one, as Aurantium Maximum (Hesperides, 437; 
 pis. 43S and 441, 164(5). From the Dutch pompelmoes has 
 come our modern name pomelo. The explanation offered 
 by Bonavia (1) of the derivation of the Dutch name is that 
 they probably first found the fruit at the village of Pom- 
 pelmousses in the Mauritius and gave the name of the 
 village to it. Harris (2) offers the explanation that pom 
 elo is derived from pomiDn viclo, the melon-apple. Which 
 of these is correct would be difficult to say. 
 
 1. Gardener's Chronicle, 27:450-451. 1900. 
 
 2, Bailey's Cyclopedia Am. Hort., 3:1397. 1901. 
 
44 CITRUS FRUITS AXJJ THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 (Jommercially this fniit is known as grapefruit, and 
 in market ([notations reference is nearly always made to 
 it under this name. This appellation was given because 
 Ihe fruit is so frequently borne in grape-like clusters of 
 from three or four to a dozen and a half. A glance at 
 plate No. IX, which represents a cluster of twelve, of 
 which eleven are visible, proves that the name is not alto- 
 gether inapplicable. Not only is the fruit known in the 
 market as grapefruit, but it is the name generally applied 
 throughout the citrus districts of the United States, and 
 many people know it by none other. Whether the term — • 
 grapefruit — will ever be superseded in common use by the 
 correct horticultural name — pomelo — is extremely doubt- 
 ful. 
 
 When and where this cognomen was first used it would 
 be difficult to say, but John Lunan, in his Horiun Jniiidi- 
 ceiisis, Yo\. 2, page 171, 1811. speaking of the shaddock, 
 says, "There is a variety known by the name of (/rapcfruit 
 on account of its resemblance in flavor to the grape.'' The 
 Chevalier de Tussai-, in his Flora Aiitillnniin (Vol. III. 
 jia.ne 71, 1S24. calls attention to the fruit in these words: 
 "J'ai eu occasion d'observer a la Jamaique, dans le 
 jardin botanique d'East, une espece de chadcc dont les 
 fruits, qui n'excedent pas en grosseur une belle orange sont 
 disposes en grai)])es; les Anglaise de la Jamaique donnent 
 a ce fruit le noni de forbidden fruit, fruit defendu, ou 
 smaller shaddoc, ])clit cbadec." 
 
 From this we must conclude that the name r/rapefruit 
 originated in the ^Vest Indies, for I have not found the 
 name in any other of the older works, except where the 
 authors mentioned above are referred (o or quoted. 
 
 The pomelo is sometimes referred to as the shaddock, 
 variously spelled "shaddock," "chaddoek" and "chadec." 
 
THE POMELOS. 
 
 45 
 
 Bonavia, in his wovk on the oranges and lemons of India 
 and Ceylon makes the name shaddock sj'nonj'mous with 
 pomelo. In the section of Thomas' Fruit Culture on Sub- 
 tropical Fruits, ^y^itten by the late E. H. Hart, of Federal 
 Toint, Florida (1S!»7), the name shaddock is used, while 
 uomelo, spelled pummelo in his article, is made synony- 
 mous. 
 
 However, we have no better name for this fruit than 
 
 Fig-, 9. Pomelo Blossoms, About natural size. 
 
 pomelo. It is of older origin than either of the others (if 
 with some writers we allow the synonymy of shaddock), 
 the Dutch word Pompelmoes, from which it is derived, 
 having been in use at least two centuries ago. The name 
 pomelo has been adopted by the best authorities and it is 
 by all means advisable that they be followed and that we 
 have some constant name by which to designate the fruit. 
 The fruit now designated bv the name shaddock, consid- 
 
40 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 ered horticulturally, is entirely distinct from the pomelo, 
 but, botanically considered, the two cannot be separated; 
 they belong to one sjiecies. The term shaddock is more 
 properly applied to the large and coarse grained varieties. 
 There are some other points of distinction between the two 
 which may be incidentally mentioned here, although the 
 distinctions are fully covered m the section on shaddocks. 
 The fruit <if the sliaddork is much larger, often weighing 
 fifteen pounds or more, the tree is smaller, the leaves on 
 full grown trees are somewhat larger. 
 
 From the foregoing discussion of the common names 
 it will be seen that jjomelo is the name given the prefer- 
 ence, grapefi-uit is synonymous, while shaddock is relegated 
 to a fruit botanically the same as the pomelo but horti- 
 culturally distinct. 
 
 HORTICULTURAL, STATUS OF THE POMELO. 
 
 Xo fruit of importance now grown in the United 
 States has such a meagre American literature as the pom- 
 elo. Nor is this strange when we remember the fact that 
 it is only A\ithin the last fifteen years or so that the pom- 
 elo has been regarded as a commercial fruit. After having 
 been neglected for years, while the whole attention of 
 growers of citrus fruits was directed to the orange and 
 all their energies put forth in bringing that fruit to perfec- 
 tion, it has only in very recent years taken its present posi- 
 ti<!n, to A\'hich the critical tasl,^ of fruit consumers has 
 raised it. 
 
 The pomelo was brought to Florida together with 
 other members of the genus citrus by the Spaniards, who. 
 under the leadership of Tonce de Leon, first landed upon 
 the east coast of Florida in the year inKl Prom that time 
 until 1821 they disputed the possession of the State with 
 
THE POMELOS. 47 
 
 their enemies in the Old World and the aborigines of the 
 country, except during a period of twenty years — 1763- 
 1783 — during which time Great Britain controlled the 
 territory. 
 
 During the Spanish regime different citrus fruits 
 were introduced and cultivated in Florida. These, through 
 the agency of the Indian, were carried into all parts of 
 the State. To this day the common lime, generally known 
 as the Florida lime, the rough lemon and the sour orange 
 are to be found in southern Florida growing luxuriantly 
 under such conditions as would lead one, ignorant of their 
 origin and native home, to believe them to be indigenous 
 to the soil on which they stand. 
 
 Following the time of introduction, in many groves 
 and gardens throughout Florida, pomelo trees were to 
 be found, annually laden with hundreds of fruits. By the 
 inhabitants the fruit Avas considered refreshing and tonic, 
 but that it might have a commercial value did not enter the 
 minds of the owners, or if it did, transportation in its then 
 crude state rendered any attempt to place this then 
 unknown and unappreciated fruit on the market, with an 
 expectation of profit, a precarious and uncertain under- 
 taking. Consequently the ground beneath the trees during 
 a certain portion of the year was covered with the yellow 
 fruit left to rot in the sun. 
 
 Just at this point it is interesting to note that this 
 group of fruits was either unknown to or disliked by hor- 
 ticultural writers, or confounded with the shaddock even 
 within very recent years. George Don, in his Gardener's 
 Dictionary, page 596, 1831, says, "The shaddock is cer- 
 tainly the least useful of the species and is cultivated 
 chiefly for show." Alexander Watson (1) in 1859 wrote 
 
 1. The American Home Garden, page 363. 1859. 
 
4y CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 the following: "Shaddock is a still larger fruit (tliau the 
 citron)*, in form more resembling the orange, curious, but 
 worthless." W. N. White (2). in 1868, says: "Pulp dry, 
 sweetish or subacid, but not very desirable, except for its 
 showy appearance." Rev. T. W. Moore, in his Hand Book 
 of Orange Culture, 1881, does not mention it. Thomas, in 
 his Fruit Culturist, makes no reference to it up as late as 
 the edition of 1885. Wm. A. Spalding (^1 , in 1885, makes 
 the following remai-k : "Meanwhile the I'umaln and its 
 congeijers, when allowed growing sjiace. continue to load 
 themselves down with fruit as large as footballs. They 
 are matters of wonder and that is all." Chas. Downing 
 (4) (ISS.-,), under the head of Shadilcick, has the follow- 
 ing note: "Tlu; pulp is sweetish or subacid and the juice 
 is rather refreshing. It is, however, more showy than 
 useful, and certainly makes a magnificent appearance in 
 a collection of tropical fruits." 
 
 XorUiern visitors to Florida learned to know and like 
 the ];nmeh) and a certain deman;! waii cnated by their 
 desire for the fruit upon their return. Somewhere about 
 1880 or 188.") the first pomelos were shipped from the State, 
 sold in New York and riiiladclphia. and netted the ship- 
 pers about fifty cents per barrel. This was the beginning 
 and better prices were soon realized. The freeze of 1801 
 fl.'i greatly reduced the Florida crop and the small amount 
 cif fruit sold thai year Innught an enormous price, in some 
 cases as much as |ir> or .?2() per box. 
 
 With a return of normal climatic conditions in Flor- 
 ida and a consequent increase in the quantity of fruit the 
 jrice has dro]»i,c(l, t!:e cro]) now generally bringing fro;'.i 
 $4 to .fr per box for good fruit and less for in.'erior ])ack- 
 
 2. Oardenini^' for the South, pag"e .>84. ISfiS. 
 
 3. The Ctrange in California, page SIi. 1SS5. 
 
 4. Downing'.s Fruits ami Fruit Trees of America, page TiTIi. 1SS5, 
 *( ) Inserted by tlie author. 
 
THE POMELOS. 49 
 
 ages. Very extensive plantiujis have been made in Florida, 
 California and elsewliere within the past six or seven years 
 and it is highly probable that prices in the future will not 
 equal those in the past. Up to this time the supply has 
 generally been inadequate to the demand, but with the 
 increase in the amount of fruit a state of equilibrium 
 between the supply and the demand will soon be reached. 
 It is safe to predict that with a favorable climate the 
 future price realized for pomelos will be much lower than 
 the present one. The tree is a heavy bearer; it is no 
 harder to propagate and care for than an orange tree; it 
 comes into bearing as early; heavy plantings have been 
 made, then why will it not eventually be placed on the 
 same basis with the orange? 
 
 On the other hand it may be pointed out that there 
 are many markets in which the pomelo is not Itnown, and 
 as it becomes better known and more widely disseminated, 
 the demand will increase. This is likely to maintain the 
 present prices for some time to come, but though it is 
 believed that a balance will eventually be reached, and 
 that after a time the ruling price will be lower than at pres- 
 ent, to the careful, painstalcing grower this need cause no 
 uneasiness. There will always be a good demand for a 
 first-class fruit, well colored, well grown, carefully 
 selected, well packed and jjlaced upon the market in invit- 
 ing shape. 
 
 At present it seems probable that Florida will retain 
 control of the pomelo market for some time to come, proba- 
 bly indefinitely, if the growers in that district are careful 
 in maintaining the present excellence of the product. The 
 California product has not up to this time met with the 
 same favor in the markets, though it is jtossible that \-arie~ 
 
50 CITRUS FRUITS A?:D THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 ties may j-et be brought forward better suited to the con- 
 ditions in that State. 
 
 As a breakfast fruit the pomelo stands without an 
 equal. It is an excellent appetizer and stomachic and prob- 
 ably contains tonir ]ir<iijertie.s as well. It is frequently 
 stated that it contains an alkaloid peculiar to itself, but 
 its presence has not yet been demonstrated by the chemist. 
 The partitions of the fruit contain a bitter principle of 
 some kind. Some have thought it would be better to have 
 this eliminated and that those varieties in which the bitter- 
 ness is almost lacking are the better ones. But with this 
 entirely absent, the fruit would not be a pomelo. The 
 ideal fruit should have the bitter taste rather pronounced; 
 the flavor should be characteristic of the pomelo — a pleas- 
 ant, indescribable blending of bitter, sweet and acid. 
 Lacking this, it falls short of the standard of excellence 
 and must be classed as inferior. 
 
 In <.'uba, pomelos of excellent quality are jjroduced. 
 They closely resemble the Florida fruit in flavor and 
 general character. The favorite varieties at the present 
 time, are Duncan, Marsii Seedless and Walters, and these 
 appear to give excellent satisfaction. Plantings of con- 
 siderable extent have been made, most of the trees having 
 been supjilied from Florida nurseries. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 THE SHADDOCKS. 
 
 The Shaddock was introduced into Barbados at an 
 early date and from there carried to the adjoining islands 
 and the adjacent mainland. Hans Sloane, in his work, A 
 Voyage to the Islands of Madeira, Barbados, etc. (Vol. 
 1, page 41, 1707) , tells of the origin of the name and also 
 of the introduction of the shaddock into the Barbados in 
 these words : "The Seed of this was first brought to Bar- 
 bados by one Captain Shaddock, Commander of an East 
 India Ship, who touched at that Island in his Passage to 
 England and left its Seed there." The date, unfortunately, 
 is not given. A good illustration of the fruit and leaf is 
 given by Sloane. 
 
 As a group, the shaddocks are not of any commercial 
 importance and but few trees are to be found either in 
 California or Florida. They are regarded somewhat as 
 curiosities. As an ornamental, the tree is of considerable 
 A^alue, but the pomelo has the advantage of combining 
 utility with beauty. The fruit is used quite extensively 
 for decorative purposes by the Chinese, who an- 
 nually import thousands of them into California to 
 bedeck their homes and joss-houses for their New Year 
 festivities. To them it is known as gon lack and yu shu. 
 
 As already pointed out the pomelo and shaddock have 
 been regarded by some -writers as one and the same fruit, 
 and though both have been placed with the sweet oranges, 
 they are, horticulturally, distinct fruits and belong to an 
 entirely separate species from the oranges. Botanically 
 
52 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 considered, the pomelo and shaddock belong to the same 
 species, C <lcviim<in<i L., but from the cnltnral standpoint 
 they are quite different. 
 
 The fruit of the shaddock is either pyriform or oblate 
 in shape and is larger than any other citrus fruit, some- 
 times reaching a weight of fifteen or twenty pounds. It 
 is very coarse, with a thick rind and thick, leathery septa 
 between the sections of the fruit. The juice sacks are not 
 tightly bound together, as in the pomelo, but are loosely 
 united. The juice is acid, bitter and comparatively scant. 
 Everything considered, it is vi vy much inferior to the 
 pomelo. In the two varieties grdwn in Florida it has been 
 observed in every s]iecinien examined that the septa 
 between the sections of the fruit is not continuous around 
 the inner end, but the uncovered ends of the juice sacks 
 project into the open core, ^y]lether this peculiarity is 
 constant or not, it is impossible to say, but I have never 
 observed it in any other citrus fruit. 
 
 AVhile the shaddock is a somewhat smaller tree than 
 the pomelo, and possibly not such a rapid grower, it is 
 likely that it might prove nsi^ful as a sfock for other citrus 
 fruits in the islands. 
 
Fig-. 10. Kumnuat Flowers 
 nearly natural size. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 THE KUMQUATS. 
 
 C^uite a number of comiiioii 
 names have been given for this 
 fruit. Thunberg gives the com- 
 mon name, Icinkaii. Lourerio 
 gives the common names Kin 
 Knit, Kill and Kuit Xu for the 
 round frliit and Chu tsii and 
 Vhantii for the oblong form. 
 Kaempfer gives the common 
 names Kin Kan and Fime Tats 
 haiina, while Roxburgh uses 
 ilie common name, kuniquat. 
 Siebold and Zuccarina, in their 
 Flora of Japan, page 35, 1S2G, 
 give the common names l;in lean 
 or /.•('/( Idt to the round variety, 
 while to the elliptical, or oblong 
 one, the name too kin kan is 
 given. It might be added that 
 Riebold and Zuccarina give a 
 better illustration of this fruit 
 than has been published iu any 
 other work. The commonly ac- 
 cepted name for this fruit 
 throughout the United States 
 is kumqnat, and this appears 
 1o be the common name in India. 
 Kuniquat, sometimes spelled 
 "comquot,'' "Kum Quaf and 
 ''Oumquot.'" is a Chinese word, 
 meaning "gold orange'' and the 
 Japanese equivalent is "kin 
 kan." 
 
54 GITRD8 FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 The knmqtifit was probablj' first mentioned in horticul- 
 tural literature by Kaempfer, who gave the following de- 
 scription of it in his Ania-nit. Exoticaruui, page 801, 1712: 
 "Mains Limonia fructu puiiiilo aureo, inedvlla dulci." 
 Besides, he used the common name. Kin Kan in referring 
 to this fruit. That it was also known to Rumphius there 
 is little room to doubt. In 1741 he described and illus- 
 trated it in his Flora Amboyn., 1 vol., page 110, tab. 31. 
 In 17S4 Thunberg described it under the name. Citrus 
 Japonica. and since that time it has been repeatedly 
 described bv different botanical and horticultural writers, 
 
 t 
 
 To some of these the fruit was known, to others it was 
 not, and they aii])areutly based their remarks upon the 
 descri])tions published by previous writers. It may be 
 interesting to give here a list of scientific names which at 
 different times ha\e been applied to the kuniquat. 
 
 Malus Limonia fructu pumilo aureo Kaemp. Amoenit. exotic, 
 
 SOI. 1712. 
 Linionellus Madurensis Rump, Fl. Amboyn. 2:110, t. 31. 1741. 
 Citrus japonica Tliunb. Fl. Jap., 2'.i2. 1VS4. 
 Citrus japonica JIurr. I^inn. 2:C37. 1784. 
 Citrus Madurensis Ijour. Fl. Cocliin Ciiina. 467. 1790. 
 Citrus Margarita I^our. 1. c. above. 
 Citrus japonica Wild. .'^pec. Plant. Linn. 3: 1426. 1S03. 
 .\crumen japonicum Gall. Traite du Citrus. 182. 1811. 
 Citrus in.rmis Ro.kIj. Fl. Ind. 393. 1832. 
 
 The introduction of the kumquat into Europe appears 
 to have been quite recent. Gallesio seems not to have 
 known it. Risso and Poiteau make no mention of it in 
 their exhaustive work, "Histoire et Culture des Grangers."' 
 Since none of these wri1ei-s refer to the kumquats. we are 
 safe in roiuluding that they were not grown in Europe 
 at the time they wrote. So far as the author has been 
 able to find out, the kumquat A\'as introduced into Europe 
 bv Mr. Fortune, a collector for the London Horticultural 
 
THE KUMQVATS. 55 
 
 Society, who brought it with him fi-om China to London, 
 ilay 6, 1846. It was one plant of a lot collected in the 
 districts of Foo-chow-foo, Chusan and Ningpo, China. 
 
 The Naganii (oblong) variety appears to have been 
 the only one introduced by him, for in his remarks, pub- 
 lished in the Journal of the London Horticultural Society, 
 page 239, 1848, he says, "The fruit ripens late in the 
 autumn, being then about the size of a large oval goose- 
 berry." Very soon afterward specimens of the kumquat 
 must have been forwarded to America. A. J. Downing, 
 in his Horticulturist, of February. 1850, pages 375-377, 
 gives a description of the variety Nagami, with illustra- 
 tions, and quotes largely from the remarks of ilr. Fortune. 
 He further makes the following statement : "We have a 
 small tree growing on our own grounds, which was kindly 
 sent us by Mr. Ranch, exotic florist, near Greenwood Cem- 
 etery, Brooklyn. We believe Mr. Buist, of Philadelphia, 
 and probably other men, now have it for sale, so that 
 amateurs can make trial of it in various parts of the 
 country." Some time later, probably very shortly after 
 this date, it was brought to Florida. Since then several 
 importations have been made by various nurserymen. The 
 original trees imported by G. L. Taber, of Glen St. Mary, 
 in 1885, were still standing in his grove in the autumn of 
 1901. Reasoner Bros., of Oneco, imported the variety 
 Nagami in 1885 and the Marumi in 1890 from Japan. 
 
 The knmquat can scarcely be considered a tree, it 
 partakes more of the nature of a shrub or bush. 
 
 The largest and most symmetrical kumquat bushes 
 with which the author is acquainted are those growing in 
 the grove, until recently owned by Mr. John Thompson, 
 at Clearwater, Fla. The following are the actual meas- 
 urements made December 10, ] 901 : 
 
50 CITRUS FRUITS AKD THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Xagami, height 10 feet, 9 inches; distance across the 
 head, 10 feet, 8 inches; stock, rough lemon. 
 
 Xagami, height 9 feet, 3 inches; distance across the 
 head, 11 feet, 8 inches; stock, rough lemon. 
 
 ■ Nagami, height 8 feet, 2 inches; distance across the 
 head, 8 feet; stock, sweet orange. 
 
 ;\Iarumi, height 8 feet, 8 inches; distance across the 
 head, 8 feet ; stock, pomelo. 
 
 These were budded in 1891 on two-year-old stocks 
 and Avere set out in their present position and started 
 growth in the spring of ISO.j. The tops are round and 
 symmetrical, as the measurements would indicate, and the 
 branches sweep the ground. 
 
 A large Xagami kumquat may also be seen on the 
 gioands of Reasoner Bros., at Oneco, Fla. The specimen 
 is 10 feet high and 10 feet, 6 inches across the top, while 
 the trunk is 4 inches in diameter just above the union with 
 the stock. The stock is a rough lemon shoot. The tree 
 is badly shaded and the top, in consequence, is not sym- 
 metrical, but it bears well. At the time it was observed 
 and measured (December, 1901) it was carrying a crop 
 of from three thousand to three thousand five hundred 
 fruits, of which it takes from forty to fifty to make a quart. 
 
 Seedling kumquals would not attain the size of those 
 l)n(l(]ed u]:ini strong, vigorous stocks. 
 
 As pointed out in the chapter on Mandarin Oranges, 
 Ihey are an exceedingly hard.v group of fruits, but the 
 hardiest members of that group are fully equalled by the 
 kuinquats. While all of them are quite hardy, the variety 
 ]\raru]ni appears to be considerably hardier than Nngami. 
 
 j\Ir. Fortune saw large numbers of these plants in 
 Southern China, where they were grown in pots, and said 
 that it was a common plant in tlie nursery gardens of 
 
THE KUMQVATS. 57 
 
 Fa-Tee. He believed, however, that it was of more north- 
 ern origin, for he had met with numerous groves of it on 
 the island of Chusan and elsewhere in that portion of 
 China. There it grew in far greater perfection than in 
 the vicinity of Canton. Thus it would appear that the 
 cultivation of the kumquat in China extends at least from 
 latitude 20 to 30 degrees, a range of 10 degrees. It might 
 be noted here that the main portion of Japan lies between 
 30 and 48 degrees, but the kumquat is cultivated proba- 
 bly only in the southern portions' of that country. It 
 must, however, be borne in mind that neither the climate of 
 Japan nor of those portions of China to which reference 
 has just been made, is by any means so variable as the 
 climate of some of the citrus districts in our own country. 
 In Northern Florida the kumquat has proved quite hardy 
 and it appears to be considerably hardier than most other 
 members of the citrus family. The natural hardiness of 
 the kumquat is increased by using Citrus trifoliata as a 
 stock and the low dwarfish habit of the tree gives every 
 opportunity for successful and economical protection. 
 
 The fruit may be eaten raw, and when served in small 
 glasses holding three or four fruits, they make a very 
 pretty addition to the table. If cut with leaves attached 
 they may be used as table decorations. In eating the fruit 
 the skin is not removed, and the spicy, aromatic rind and 
 acid pulp make a very delightful and palatable coniliina- 
 tioii. An excellent preserve can also be made from the 
 fruit; and the Chinese export considerable quantities put 
 up in small stone jars. 
 
 The kumquat cannot be regarded as anything else 
 than a fancy fruit, and in most cases a demand must be 
 created. Any market in the country could very easily be 
 glutted by large shipments, but in a small way, the fruit 
 
58 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 is profitable. It is a comparatively new fruit and few 
 people know what it is. As its merits become better known, 
 the demand for it will nndiinl)t('dly increa.se. At present 
 it brings from twenty-five to s('\enty-flvo cents a (piart 
 when cMrefnllv marketed. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 THE CITRONS. 
 
 The culture of few fruits antedates that of the citron. 
 Of all the citrus fruits it was the only one known to class- 
 ical writers. In Media and Persia and later in Palestine, 
 it was culti\'ated at a very early date and in these countries 
 the Greeks and Romans probably first met with it. The 
 Greek writer, Theophrastus, shortly after the time of 
 Alexander the Great, gave a minute and unmistakable 
 description of the citron tree, or, as it was then called, 
 the Median or Persian apple. Virgil was one of the first 
 Roman writers to mention it and used the same name as 
 Theophrastus. By Pliny's time, the fruit had been suf- 
 ficiently long in cultivation to receive a number of names, 
 and he is the first to make use of the name Citrus, the 
 botanical name afterwards adopted by Linnaeus for all the 
 related fruits as well as the citron. It appears, however, 
 that the fruit was known by the Romans and imported into 
 Rome long before it was cultivated there. But when its 
 culture was finally established in Greece, Italy and the 
 adjacent islands in the Mediterranean, it became one of 
 the important fruits in those regions into which it was 
 introduced and there it is grown to this day. 
 
 When it was first introduced into America is merely 
 a matter of conjecture. But it must have been brought 
 to the West Indies and to South America (Brazil) shortly 
 after the discovery of the continent. The early Spanish 
 writers on the history of the New World bear testimony 
 to this fact. 
 
 But the citron did not receive the attention bestowed 
 upon the orange. This may be attributed to the fact that 
 
(iO CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 the most impoHaut product obtained from the citron i,s 
 the candied ])eel, a commodity restricted in its uses and of 
 little imporiance to pioneers. On the other hand, the lus- 
 cious or:uii;c was at all times a much appreciated addition 
 to their limited bill of fare, while the acid of the lemon 
 and lime is particularly refreshing in warm climates. 
 Hence vre can see that there is a good reason why these 
 fruits would be cultivated to the neglect of the less impor- 
 iant citron. 
 
 V\) to the present time, the candied citron peel used 
 in America (12,0(10) r;iscs of siiiiie ^^iO imhiik!-, acc<ir.]iiig 
 (o Lelong) is mostly imported in brine from Leghorn, 
 Italy. By shijiping it in tlie brine, duty is avoided. The 
 salt is steeped out and the peel candied in New York and 
 Chicagd. Some candied ]ieel is imported. 
 
 Jlore or less interest has always been taken in the 
 rilron and ils culture. The varieties cultivated in Euroiie 
 have been im])orted and grown. Small plantings have 
 been made both in Florida and California. At prcsi^nt, 
 interest in the citron has died out almost entirely in Flor- 
 ida, but in Oalifornia it still receives attention. Experi- 
 mental lots of candied citron peel of excellent quality, 
 fully e(|ual to the imported product have been produced. 
 ^A'hether its culture will ever be increased sufficiently to 
 produce enough peel to supply the American demand is 
 somewhat pirobleinatical. There is a probability, however, 
 that such -will be the case, but the industry will need the 
 fostering ciiie of a protective tariff on the peel imported 
 in bi-ine. The citron succeeds well in the lemon districts 
 of California and there alone large quantities of fruit 
 could be grown. Tn I he v.-uaner parts of Florida and in 
 the Islands the citi-on could also be gro\\n, if its cailture 
 were placed on a remunerative besis. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 THE LEMOXS. 
 
 Fig. n. 
 
 Flowers of Villafranca Lemon, 
 natural size. 
 
 The lemous wei-c 
 probably inti^odnced 
 into Europe about 
 the same time as 
 the sweet orange. 
 Numbers of them 
 are described by 
 Ferrari. "S'olckamer, 
 • 'iimmelyn, Sickler 
 and other writers. 
 As a commercial in- 
 dustry, lemon cul- 
 ture assumed very 
 considerable pro- 
 portions in Sicily, 
 Corsica, Genoa, and 
 other parts of south- 
 ern Europe many 
 \(ars ago, ]Most of 
 the world's markets 
 have been supplied 
 with these lemons, 
 even up to within 
 very recent years. 
 There has been no 
 falling oif in their 
 culture and the 
 European markets 
 lire still sujiplied 
 from the same dis- 
 tricts. There has 
 been a c o n- 
 siderable decrease 
 in the amount of 
 
f;2 CITRUS FRUITS AXD THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 fruit exported from the ^lediterranean to America because 
 of the incrpase in tlie number of lemons grown at home. 
 
 Lemons were introduced into America at an early date 
 by the Spaniards. The everbearing and rough lemons 
 are in all probability Spanish introductions. The latter 
 variety still grows in a wild state in southern Florida 
 and in different parts of the AVest Indies. The fruit of 
 these varieties is of no commercial importance and as a 
 matter of fact nearly all the varieties now cultivated in 
 America — Genoa, Lisbon, Villafranca, for instance — were 
 introduced quite recently from Europe. 
 
 Previous to 1894 the lemon industry in Florida was 
 of considerable importance, but the severe freeze of that 
 winter greatly reduced the output. Previous to that dis- 
 aster, at least 140,000 boxes of lemons were shipped out 
 of Florida in one season, but the industry has not been 
 built up again, and in the season of 1901-02 but 1,447 were 
 produced. It is doubtful whether the industry will ever 
 again assume the important place Avhich it once held. The 
 IciiHin tree is quite tendei', being more suliject to frost 
 than the sweet orange, and in recent years the attention 
 of Florida planters has been directed to the pomelo rather 
 than the lemon. It may be, however, that lemon growing 
 may become of some importance in the extreme southern 
 portion of the State. 
 
 Kut the success which has attended the culture of the 
 lemon in California is quite remarkable. In the southern 
 and cenlral parts of the Slate, on the mesas and foothills, 
 the lemon i^rows and fruits Avell. The industry there has 
 been placed on a paying basis wherever suitable soil and 
 climatic coudition are found, and where sufficient water 
 has been secured. The fruit is of superior quality and has 
 been well received in the .Vmerican markets. As a result 
 
THE LEMONS. 63 
 
 of this there has been a decrease in lemon importations 
 from sonthern Europe. The California crop in 1902 Avas 
 about 600,000 boxes and everythinj;' points to a material 
 increase in the output. The product has secured a perma- 
 nent place in our markets. 
 
 It is not improbable that we shall see considerable 
 attention given to the lemon industry in the Islands. The 
 next decade may see the lemons of Porto Rico and Cuba in 
 quantity in the large markets of this country. 
 
 The lemon is used in more different ways than any 
 other citrus fruit. From the rind lemon oil is extracted. 
 It is also used in making candied lemon peel, most of 
 which Is maniifactured in Italy. From the pulp, citrate of 
 lime, citric acid and lemon juice are obtained. The fruit 
 is also extensively used in making lemonade and for flavor- 
 ing food and drinks of difi'erent kinds. In fact, by far 
 the greatest number of lemons are used for the last men- 
 tioned i:»urposes. 
 
 As pointed out in the chapter on Stocks for Citrus 
 Trees, the rough lemon is very valuable as a stock for cer- 
 tain kinds of soil and is now extensively used in Florida 
 and the Islands. It is the only variety of the group free 
 from the attacks of mal-di-goma. 
 
Plate III. 
 
 ''. trifoliata, Fruit, T^e^n'ey and 'rhorns. 
 (Natiiial Size.) 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 THE LIMES. 
 
 The acid limes, the only ones grown on a commercial 
 scale in America, havequite generally been confused with the 
 lemons, from which they are distinct. In habit of growth, 
 in the winged petioles, in 
 the clustered blossoms, in 
 the flavor of the fruit, 
 thej' are siii generis. 
 
 Owing to their having 
 been grouped with the 
 lemons, it is difficult to 
 trace their history. They 
 are mentioned by a num- 
 ber of the early writers 
 on citrus fruits — Fer- 
 rari, Rumphius, Volcka 
 mer and others. Sloane 
 ■ enumerates a number of 
 varieties in his Cata- 
 logue of the Plants of Ja- 
 maica. 
 
 The lime was intro- 
 duced into the West Ind- 
 ies and other parts of the 
 New World by the Span- 
 iards at an early date. It 
 has become naturalized, 
 and may be found in 
 many parts of tropical 
 and sub-tropical America, growing side by side with the 
 native trees. 
 
 Fig. 12, Flower Buds of Mexican Lime, 
 about natural size. 
 
6(5 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Since the tree is very tender (even more so than the 
 lemon), it is not found in regions exposed to frost and its 
 culture is, and must be, coniined to districts exempt from 
 heavy frosts. 
 
 No other species of citrus succeeds so well on poor 
 sandy soils, or on the rocky soils of the Florida Keys, as 
 the lime. It grows and fruits quite well when poorly cul- 
 tivated and cared for, or even neglected entirely. 
 
 The Mexican lime, the most common variety in Flor- 
 ida and the Islands, is propagated entirely from seed, as 
 a result of which it has varied greatly and at present the 
 name Mexican is little better than a group name, embrac 
 ing a conglomeration of distinct forms. The fruit is very 
 variable in size and shape, that borne by some trees being 
 scarcely larger than a pigeon's egg, while others produce 
 fruit as large as an ordinary medium-sized lemon. The 
 name stands for no definite fruit. 
 
 If more attention were paid to the propagation of 
 this group of limes, good fruit of uniform size and quality 
 could readily be secured by selection, but under the present 
 careless system, much of it is very inferior. Most of the 
 groves which have been set are of the Tahiti variety, though 
 in California one or two other varieties are planted to 
 some extent. The so-called Rangpur lime is a prolific 
 variety, the fruit of which is very acid and well flavored. 
 It should not properly be classed with the limes, but I have 
 placed it in the group provisionally. 
 
 The lime is used in much the same way as the lemon, 
 in the making of "liDicadc" and for seasoning food. Citric 
 acid and lime juice are obtained from the lime. At present 
 most of the product comes from the West Indies, but there 
 is no reason why they could not be manufactured in South- 
 ern California and Florida as well. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 TRIFOLIATE ORANGE GROUP— VARIETIES. 
 
 Trifoliate. Form round or sometimes slightly pyri- 
 form ; size small, 13-4x2 inches, 2 1-8x2 inches ; color 
 lemon yellow or light orange; apex creased, depressed, or 
 with a slight creased elevation set in a ringed depression, 
 geenrally terminated by a small dark speck ; base elevated, 
 creased and ridged ; calyx represented by a ring minus the 
 points of the segments; rind about 1-8 inch thick, rough, 
 pitted, covered with minute hairs, rather easily detached ; 
 oil cells depressed, oval or nearly globose, filled with a sort 
 of resinous, strongly aromatic oil ; sections quite regular, 
 not clearly defined, six in number, flesh greenish ; juice 
 sacks very slender, pointed; juice clear, acid; flavor quite 
 good when not mingled with the oil of the rind ; pith small, 
 compact; seeds numerous, twenty-five to thirty, oval, 
 plump, rounded at one end, blunt pointed at the other, the 
 rovinded end marked with a round brown spot; season 
 September-October. 
 
 Grown as a stock on which to work other varieties 
 of citrus fruits, particularly for planting in frosty reg- 
 ions. Introduced in 1869 by the late Wm. Saunders, U. 
 S. Department of Agriculture. 
 
 HYBRIDS. 
 
 Colman. (Hi/hrid 772). Form round and slightly 
 flattened, sometimes lopsided; large, 2% x B% inches; 
 calyx, small; color, light yellowish orange; rind, smooth, 
 thin, Yg inch thick, sometimes slightly furrowed, covered 
 with very short hairs; flesh, light lemon colored; juice 
 sacks, clender; flavor, acid, bitter, peculiar; almost seed- 
 less; season, September-Kovember. 
 
 Tree a strong, upright grower with stiff, upright 
 branches and (lense foliage. 
 
(;,S CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Morton. (Hyhrid 771.) Form, rounded or slightly 
 flattened ; size, large 3 x ;)i/4 inches ; cal.yx, small ; color, 
 light orange; rind, slightly furrowed, smooth or some- 
 wliat roughened with depressed oil cells; sections, 9 or 
 10; flesh, light orange yellow, tender; flavor, acid, slightly 
 bitter; practically seedless; season, October-November. 
 
 Tree resembling Citrus tripAiittu but with larger, tri- 
 foliate leaves. Yevy hardy and one of the most desirable 
 hybrids. 
 
 Rusk. (HyJ))i(l 716.) Form, neatly round; size, 
 small, I%x2i4 inches; color, deep orange; calyx, thin, 
 greenish, large; rind, smooth, bright, thin, % inch thick; 
 oil cells small, globular; sections, 10; flesh, yellow, tender, 
 juicy; flavor, strongly acid and somewhat bitter; seeds, 
 few in number; season, September-November. 
 
 Foliage, dense, trifoliate, dark green and glossy. A 
 strong grower and prolific. 
 
 Rustic. (Hybrid 783.) Form, round or very slight- 
 ly flattened; size, medium, 2V2x2ys inches; calyx, small; 
 color, light yellow; rind of medium thickness, bitter; oil 
 cells, elevated, balloon-shajied ; sections, (i to 12; flesh, 
 greenish yellow, tender; flavor, acid bitter; seeds, few to 
 many, or sometimes seedless; season, September-No- 
 vember. 
 
 Tree, a sjireading, vigorous grower, with dark green 
 trifoliate leaves. Yfry hardy. 
 
 Savage. (Hylnid 779.) Form, oblate, frequently 
 furro\\-ed ; size, medium, '2l[,x?> inches; calyx, small; 
 color, light orange; rind, thin, Vs to :!-16 inch, covered 
 with very fine hairs; oil cells, s]ihei-ical; sections, 8 to 10 ; 
 flesh, light yellow, tendei-, juicy; flavor, acid, rather bitter; 
 seeds tliree or four 1o each fruit; season, Sejit.-Nov. 
 
 This \ariety is ]iroliflc, vigorous and hardy, with both 
 trifoliate and uiiifoliate leaves. 
 
CHAPTER XV. C\^e^^® 
 BIGARADE ORANGE GROUP— VARIETIES. 
 
 
 .-amasea^m 
 
 ■ 
 
 /^^k 
 
 w' " w 
 
 F" 
 
 J 
 
 
 ■P 
 
 8 
 
 W^^Km 
 
 
 ^M 
 
 H 
 
 
 ^^^^^^ 
 
 
 *'^^***'WB|ii 
 
 
 
 ^uri 
 
 Fig. 13. Filer Bigarade Orange. 
 (Tliree-fourtlis natural size.) 
 
 Bitter Sweet. Form, oblong, flattened at the ends ; 
 size medium or large, 2% x 2% inches, 3 x 3% inches ; 
 color deep orange; apex flattened, depressed; base flat- 
 tened, rough, depressed; calyx small, set in a depression; 
 rind smooth or somewhat uneven, 14 inch thick, adhering 
 rather loosely ; oil-cells of medium size ; flesh dark orange ; 
 sections 8 to 10; juice sacks of medium size, spindle 
 shaped; juice abundant, colored; pulp melting; flavor of 
 juice sweet or sweetish, inner rind and partitions very 
 bitter, somewhat musky, peculiar; pith 1/2 to % inch 
 across ; seeds five to eight, wedged, season, January -March. 
 
 The history of this variety in Florida dates back to 
 the first Spanish explorations and settlements. In tree 
 and external appearance of the fruit, the Bitter- Sweet is 
 indistinguishable from the sour orange, and the only 
 striking difference is in the flavor of the fruit, the juice 
 
70 
 
 CITRUS FRVJT8 AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 being sweet and pleasantly flavored, Avith bitter rind 
 and partitions. On careful comparison the seeds show 
 some slight differences. 
 
 Filer. Form round or roundish oblong; produced 
 singly or in clusters of from two to seven ; size small, 
 11-8x1 3-ie inches, 19-16x1 1-2 inches; color yellow to 
 reddish orange; apex rounded or flattened, sometimes with 
 
 Fig, 14. Sour Orange Fruit. 
 
 the remains of the pistil still attached; base rounded; 
 calyx small, elevated, stem slender; rind rather rough and 
 pitted, 1-lG to 1-8 inch thick; oil cells small, flattened, 
 frequently double convexed; sections six to eight, fre- 
 quently very irregular, occasionally even being arranged 
 in two rr>A\s at right angles to each other across the fruit ; 
 flesh fine grained, dark orange in color; juice sacks 
 small, spindle-shaped ; juice plentiful, colorless ; pulp melt- 
 ing; flavor acid, rather musky; pith small, 1-S inch or 
 
BIGARADE ORANGE GROUP— VARIETIES. 71 
 
 • acking; seeds small, 3-8 inch in length, wedge-shaped; 
 three to four in number, many abortive; season Decem- 
 oer-February. 
 
 The original tree, and the only one known to the 
 author, stands in the grove of ^Mr. S. Filer, Miami, Flor- 
 ida, and is now probably twelve or fifteen years old. 
 Xothing is known of its origin, but I have placed it with 
 tills group, because the flavor of the fruit, the habit of 
 tree growth and the flanged leaves resemble the Bigarade 
 oranges. 
 
 Sour. Form rounded oblate; size large, 2 3-4x3 1-4 
 inches; color yellow or orange yellow, sometimes reddish 
 orange when fully matured; apex flattened; base some- 
 what roughened, slightly depressed; the calyx set in the 
 depression ; rind smooth, or slightly rough, 3-16 inch thick ; 
 oil cells small, slightly compressed; flesh dark yellow, 
 sections ten to twelve; juice sacks spindle-shaped and oi 
 medium size; juice plentiful, slightly colored; pulp melt 
 ing; flavor sour, when thoroughly ripened rather agree- 
 able, peculiar and distinct; pith 3-4 inch across; seeds 
 numerous, many abortive, wedge-shaped, slightly ridged; 
 season January-March. 
 
 This variety is of Spanish introduction, and is prob- 
 ably one of the first fruits which the Spaniards brought 
 to Florida shores. In many parts of the State it became 
 domesticated, forming dense thickets in the hammocks on 
 the shores of rivers and lakes. The fruit is useful for 
 making marmalades and orangeade, and the tree is exten- 
 sivelv used as a stock for citrus trees. 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 THE SWEET ORANGES— A' ARIETIES. 
 
 I. SPANISH ORANGES. 
 
 Acme (Beach's Acme). Form oblate; size medium to 
 large, 2 5-8x3 inches; color orange; apex rounded, very 
 slightly depressed, scarred; base slightly creased; calyx 
 small ; rind smooth, thin and leathery ; oil cells large, flush 
 with the surface; sections eleven, rather irregular in size; 
 flesh of medium grain, orange yellow in color ; juice sacks 
 rather large; juice plentiful, colored; pulp melting, free 
 from rag ; acidity and sweetness well blended ; flavor rich 
 and vinous; quality very good; pith small; seeds present, 
 oval, pointed, about fourteen in number, of medium size; 
 season December- January. Introduced by the late A. J. 
 Beach. 
 
 Arcadia. Form oblate or rounded oblate ; medium to 
 large, 3x3 3-16 inches, 2 3-4 x 3 1-4 inches ; color, orange ; 
 apex rounded; base slightly creased, rounded; calyx small; 
 rind smooth or slightly pitted, thin ; oil cells flush with 
 the surface, or sometimes sunken: sections about thirteen 
 in number, clearly marked; flesh coarse grained, orange 
 yellow in color; juice sacks long, spindle-shaped; juice 
 abundant, colored; pulp melting; acidity and sweetness 
 not well blended, the acid being deficient; flavor rather 
 insipid; quality fair; pith large; seeds present, oval, 
 jvointed or oblong, twenty-four in number, 1-2 x 3-8 inch; 
 season December-January. 
 
 Arcadia is supposed to have originated as a seedling 
 at Arcadia, Florida, and was introduced into cultiva- 
 tion by the Rev. William Watkin Hicks. 
 
74 CITRUS FHVlTti AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Boone (Jjnum'.s Etii-Jtj). Form rounded; size med- 
 ium, '1 7-S X '■> 1-16 iuclies, 2 9-16 x 3 inches ; color deep yel- 
 low; apex rounded, scarred, slightly depressed; base flat- 
 tened; calyx rather large, segments pointed; rind smooth, 
 1-8 to 3-l(i inch thick ; oil cells flush with the surface ; sec- 
 tions eleven; flesh yellowish orange, medium coarse; juice 
 sacks spindle-shaped, elongated or rather short; juice 
 abundant, colored; pulp melting; acidity and sweetness 
 fairly good, but the acid not strongly developea, flavor 
 very good; pith medium size, 1-2 inch across; seeds pres- 
 ent, short, pointed, of medium size, twenty-five in num- 
 ber; (Season October to middle of November Should be 
 shipped as soon as colored, as it is likely to drop 
 
 This variety is said to have been originated by "Old 
 Man Giddings,"' three or four miles south of Webster. 
 The seed from which the trees came were given him b,y a 
 man who passed that way about thirty years ago. The 
 variety, according to Jlr. W. S. Hart, was propagated and 
 sold by David Collins, of Webster, for many years under 
 the name of "The Giddings." Under the name "Boone," it 
 was brought to notice by ^Ir. C. A. Boone, of Orlando, in 
 the fall of 1889. 
 
 Dummitt. Form roxmded or slightly oblate; size 
 large, .'f IS x 31-16 inches; color light orange; apex 
 rounded ; base slightly creased ; calyx of medium size, seg- 
 ments pointed; rind slightly pitted, thin; oil cells flush 
 with the siirface or somewhat sunken ; sections eleven in 
 number, rather regular in size ; flesh yellow, coarse-grained ; 
 juice sacks of medium size, spindlc-slinped ; pulp melting; 
 acidity and sweetness fairly well blended; flavor fairly 
 good; quality medium; pith small, 1-1 to 1-2 inch; seeds 
 about fourteen in number, large, oblong, creased or ridged ; 
 season December-Februarv. 
 
THE SWEET ORANGES— VARIETIES. 75 
 
 In a letter from Mr. ^V. S. Hart, of Hawk's Park, Fla., 
 dated July 12, 1903, he says: "This variety was* budded 
 from a wild sweet tree into the Captain Dummitt grove 
 between Mosquito Lagoon and Indian River. These wild 
 sweet trees were found in Turnbull Hammock back of 
 Hawk's Park, by John D. Sheldon in 1832. He trans- 
 planted 600 of them to the Sheldon place, now known as 
 the Packwood place, on the Hillsborough River, now 
 known as Indian River North. Most of the Indian Rivc^r 
 fruit came from these trees." 
 
 Early Oblong (St. Michael's Egg). Form oblong 
 rounded; size medium to large; 3x3 inches; color yellow 
 to orange; apex rounded, sloping abruptly, slightly de- 
 pressed; base flattened, slightly shouldered, smooth or 
 somewhat creased ; calyx small, elevated ; rind smooth, 
 1-8 to 8-16 inch thick ; oil cells flush with the surface or 
 slightly elevated; sections eleven to thirteen; flesh yellow 
 to orange yellow, of medium grain; juice sacks spindle- 
 shaped, broad at the base; juice plentiful, colored; pulp 
 melting; acidity and sweetness quite well combined; flavor 
 sweet, good; pith compact, 1-2 inch across; seeds present, 
 twenty-two in number, oval, pointed or rounded, plump, 
 rather large; season September-October. 
 
 A variety originally from the May's Grove, Orange 
 Mills, Florida, and apparently identical with the St. Mi- 
 chael's Egg from Rivers' English Nurseries. 
 
 Enterprise (Enterprise Seedless). Form roundish, 
 oblong; size large, 2 15-16 x 31-4 inches; color orange; 
 apex slightly depressed; base creased, shouldered; calyx 
 depressed; rind pitted, 1-8 inch or more in thickness; oil 
 cells large ; sections twelve, rather irregular in size flesh 
 coarse, orange in color ; juice sacks large, spindle-shaped ; 
 juice abundant, colored ; acidity and sweetness well com- 
 
TO 
 
 VITRVti FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 bined; flavor rich, quality very good; pith rather opeu. 
 1-2 inch across; seeds present, six in number, larfic oval, 
 pointed; season Octo)»('i--Xoveniber. 
 
 Said to ha^e come from the old Dunmiitt ,urove origi- 
 nally. Its seedlessness was discovered by one of the 
 Starkes, of < lien wood, Fla. The variety was named after 
 the town of Enterprise, Fla. 
 
 Foster. F o r m 
 rounded, oblate ; size 
 medium to large, 
 - 5-8 X 2 7-8 inches, 
 2 ~>-S X 3 inches ; 
 color orange ; apex 
 rounded and slight- 
 ly depressed ; base 
 rounded, smooth; 
 calyx rather large, 
 o-S inch across 
 1-8 inch thick; oil 
 cells slightly ele- 
 vated or flush with 
 
 the surface ; sections 
 
 twelve, well defined; 
 flesh rather coarse, 
 orange in color; juice sacks large; juice abundant, col 
 
 ored; pulp melting; acid well defined; flavor rich, quality 
 
 excellent; pith 1-2 inch across, solid; seeds present, oval. 
 
 pointed, large, thirteen in number; season October 
 
 Xovember. 
 
 According to Reasoner the original tree of this varii^ty 
 
 was gro\\ii from seed obtained from Havana about 1847, 
 
 and in 1887 it was still standing in tlie grove of ("ol. C. 
 
 Photo hif Ensmirifier. 
 
 Fig. 1.'). A Sei'OliDg Swer't Orange Tn'i- in Florifla. 
 Itcan-ierla crop of 12,000 fruits when pliotograptied. 
 
THE SWEET ORANGES— VARIETIES. 77 
 
 H. Foster, Manatee, Pla. It was introduced by Reasoner 
 Bros. Oneco, Fla., about 1883. 
 
 Hick (Hick's tSicvct HcriUc). Form rounded oblate; 
 size medium, 2 7-8 x 3 iuclies; color orange, bright; a])ex 
 rounded, scarred; base smooth; calyx small; rind smooth 
 or Avith the large conspicuous oil cells projecting a little 
 above the surface, 1-8 inch or slightly more in thicliness; 
 sections regular, ten in number ; flesh fairly coarse grained, 
 yellowish orange in color ; juice sacks medium to large, 
 spindle-shaped; juice abundant, colored; acidity and sweet- 
 ness not very well combined, scarcely enough acid; flavor 
 agreeable but lacking in character; pith compact, 3-8 inch 
 across; seeds present, oblong, ridged, large, 5-8 x 1-4 inch, 
 ten in number ; season early. 
 
 Hick is supposed to be a seedling variety, originated 
 at Arcadia, Florida. 
 
 Homosassa. Form round or slightly oblate; size med- 
 ium to large, 2 3-4 x 2 1-16 inches, 3x3 7-16 inches; color 
 yellow or orange yellow ; apex rounded, slightly depressed 
 and scarred; base round or somewhat flat, sometimes 
 slightly creased; calyx small, slightly pointed; rind 1-8 
 inch thick, tough smooth; oil cells slightly sunken or 
 flush with the surface; sections large, eleven in number, 
 fairly regular; flesh coarse grained, yellow; juice sacks 
 large, spindle-shaped; pulp melting; remarkably free from 
 rag; acidity and sweetness well blended; flavor sprightly, 
 rich and vinous ; quality excellent ; pitch 9-16 inch across, 
 solid ; seeds present, twenty to twenty-four in number, 
 plump, beaked or pointed, large, 3-4 x 3-8 inch; season 
 December-February. 
 
 This variety is one of the best of the Florida seedlings. 
 According to Reasoner it originated in the grove of Hon. 
 .Mr. Yulee at Homosassa, Fla. 
 
78 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Indian River. Form rounded; size medium to large, 
 3x3 1-10 inclies ; color orange, bright ; apex rounded, 
 smooth ; base rounded ; rind 1-8 inch thick, smooth ; oil cells 
 flush with the surface or slightly indented; sections well 
 defined, fairly regular, ten in number; flesh fine grained, 
 orange yellow in color; juice sacks small; juice abundant, 
 colored; pulp melting; acidity and sweetness well blended; 
 flavor rich, excellent and sprightl^y; jdth solid, 1-2 inch 
 across ; seeds present, seventeen to twenty in number, long 
 oval, pointed ; season December-February. 
 
 A native seedling variety, originated on the Indian 
 River, Fla., hence its name. Its origin is probably the 
 same as that given by Jlr. W. S. Hart for the Dummitt 
 orange. 
 
 Madam Vinous. Form roundish-oblate; size small, 
 medium or large, 2 11-16 x 2 7-8 inches, 2 3-1 x 3 3-16 
 inches; color orange; apex rounded or slightly depressed; 
 base rounded, flat, sometimes creased; calyx small, seg- 
 ments pointed; rind fairly smooth, 3-16 inch thick; oil 
 cells flush with the sui^face or slightly sunken, small; sec 
 tions eleven in number; flesh coarse grained, color orange; 
 juice sacks large, broad and elongated; juice plentiful 
 colored; pulp melting; acidity normal, sweetness well 
 combined with the acid; flavor rich and good; pith 1-2 
 inch across, solid; seeds present, roundish, flattened, 
 plump- and pointed, 1-2 x 3-8 inch; season December-Jan 
 uary. 
 
 An Indian River seedling (iriginated by Major Ma- 
 gruder, of Rockledge, and introduced about 1882 
 
 Magnum Bonum. Form oltlate; size large, 2 3-4 x 
 3 1-4 inches; color orange yellow; h]>fx indented, scarred; 
 base rounded, quite imoo"^h; calyx rather large, the seg- 
 ments blunt ]iointed, rind quite ])itted, leathery. 1-S inch 
 
THE SWEET ORANGES—VARIETIES. 79 
 
 thick; oil cells small, flush with the surface or slightly 
 sunken; sections clearly defined, thirteen in number; flesh 
 medium grained, orange; juice sacks spindle-shaped, of 
 medium size; juice abundant, colored; pulp melting; 
 acidity and sweetness well blended; flavor sweet, rich; 
 quality excellent; pith 1-2 to 3-4 inch across; seeds pres- 
 ent, thirteen in number, large, jdump, wedge-shaped; sea- 
 son December to middle of February. 
 
 According to Moore, the Magnum Bornim orange prob- 
 ably originated at Homosassa. Fla. 
 
 May (Dr. May's Best). Form rounded; size medium' 
 to large, 3x3 1-16 inches ; color rather light yellow to 
 orange; apex rounded; base rounded, somewhat flat- 
 tened; calyx small, pointed; rind smooth, 1-8 inch 
 thick, tough and leathery; oil cells flush with the 
 surface; sections eleven in number, well defined, 
 regular in size; flesh rather coarse grained, color 
 orange; juice sacks large, spindle-shaped; juice abun- 
 dant, colored ; pulp melting ; acidity and sweetness fairly 
 well blended, but not strong in character ; flavor very good ; 
 pith small; seeds present, six or more in number, some 
 abortive, plump, oval, pointed, about 5-8 x 3-8 inch; sea- 
 sou December-January. 
 
 Originated in the grove of Dr. May at Orange Mills, 
 Florida. 
 
 Nonpareil. Form rounded oblate ; sizemedium to large, 
 2 5-8 X 3, 3 1-lG X 31-2 inches; color yellow to orange; 
 apex rounded, somewhat flat, slightly depressed just at 
 the tip; base rounded, somewhat depressed, creased; calyx 
 of medium size, segments pointed; rind rather pitted, 1-8 
 to 3-16 inch thick; oil cells small, sunken or flush; sections 
 ten, regular, well defined; flesli of medium grain, deep 
 yellow in color ; juice sacks of medium size, spindle-shaped ; 
 
so CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 pulp melting; acidity and sweetness well blended; flavor 
 i-ich, vinous; quality excellent; pith small, 3-8 inch across; 
 seeds present, eleven to fifteen in number, oval, pointed, 
 large, plump, about 5-8 x 3-8 inch; season December-Jan- 
 uary. 
 
 Nonpareil originated as a Florida seedling on the St. 
 Joliiis River, Fla., and was introduced by the late A. J. 
 Bidwell. 
 
 Old Vini (Bcucli'a \'o. ';, Buena Vista). Form oblate 
 or oblate rounded; size medium to large, 2 7-8 x 215-16 
 inches, 2 7-8 x 2 1-t inches; color yellow to orange; apex 
 rounded, slightly depressed ; base smooth ; calyx of medium 
 size, with a rather stout stem; rind smooth, 1-8 inch thick, 
 tough and leathery ; oil cells flush with the surface, or 
 very slightly depressed; sections clearly defined, fairly 
 regular, eleven in number; flesh coarse, orange yellow in 
 color; juice sacks large; juice abundant, colored; pulp 
 melting; acidity and sweetness well blended; flavor very 
 good and of good character; pith solid, 1-2 inch across; 
 seeds present, sixteen in number, oval, pointed at both 
 ends, plump, 1-2 x 3-S inch ; season December-February. 
 
 A seedling variety, originated by the late Col. F. F, 
 Dancy, of Orange JMills, Fla. 
 
 Osceola. Form rather oblate or rounded; she large, 
 3 X .'5 1-16 inches; color orange, bright; stems stout; apex 
 with a small scar, set in a slight depression; base slightly 
 shouldered and roughened ; calyx of medium size ; segments 
 short, pointed; rind fairly smooth, 3-16 inch thick; oil 
 cells rather sunken; sections twelve, variable in size, 
 clearly defined; flesh coarse grained, orange in color; 
 juice sacks large, elongated; juice plentiful; pulp rather 
 melting; acidity and sweetness well blended and of good 
 character; quality very good; pith small, .'!-S incli across; 
 
THE SWEET ORANGES— VARIETIES. gl 
 
 seeds present, six to ten in number, oval, pointed, plump 
 large; season December and January. 
 
 The orignal tree was a seedling raised by L. H. Van- 
 Pelt, Jlandarin, Florida. 
 
 Parson Brown. Form rounded, somewhat oblong; 
 medium to large, 2 13-lC) x 3 inches, 3 3-16 x 3 5-16 inches; 
 color yellow orange to yellow; apex rounded; base 
 rounded ; calyx small ; rind smooth, bright, 1-8 to 3-16 inch 
 thick; oil cells flush with the surface; sections ten, regu- 
 lar, well defined ; flesh rather coarse grained, yellow ; juice 
 sacks spindle-shaped, medium to large; juice abundant, 
 colored; pulp melting; acidity and sweetness not well 
 blended unless picked quite early; pith small; seeds small, 
 ten to nineteen in number, oval, flattened, pointed, some- 
 times rectangular, large, 9-lG x 3-8 inch ; season about 
 October-November. 
 
 The Parson Brown orange, according to Mr. F. D. 
 Waite, was introduced by Capt. J. L. Carney, of Lake 
 Weir, Fla., about 1878 and originated at M^ebster, Fla., in 
 the seedling grove of Parson Brown. 
 
 Stark (Stark's Favorite). Form round or roundish- 
 oblate; size small to medium, 2 1-2x2 7-8 inches, 2 9-16 x 
 2 7-8 inches; color light orange; apex rounded; base 
 rounded; calyx small, segments pointed ; rind smooth, silky, 
 thin oil cells medium size, flush with the surface; sec- 
 tions rather irregular in size, ten in number; flesh rather 
 fine grained, yellow; juice sacks of medium size; juice 
 plentiful, colored; pulp melting; acidity and sweetness 
 well blended, the sweetness predominating slightly; flavor 
 rich and good ; quality very good ; pith compact, 3-8 to 1-2 
 inch across; seeds present, oval, pointed, plump, eighteen 
 in number, medium to large, about 5-8 x 3-8 inch; season 
 December-Februai'v. 
 
^2 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 This variety originated as a native Florida seedling. 
 
 Whitaker. Form slightly oblate; size medium, 2 3-8 
 X 2 7-8 inches; color yellowish orange; apex rounded, 
 smooth; base slightly roughened; calyx of medium size; 
 rind thin, smooth, tough, closely attached; oil cells of med- 
 ium size, somewhat elevated; sections well defined, small, 
 about twelve in number; pulp melting; acidity and sweet- 
 ness not very well combined; flavor slightly flat, owing to 
 the specimen being a little over ripe; seeds present, few 
 in number, large, oval, pointed; season December- 
 February. 
 
 Introduced by Reasoner Bros., Oneco, Fla.. about 
 1884. 
 
 II. MEDITERRANEAN ORANGES. 
 
 Bessie. Form round or slightly oblate; size small to 
 medium, 2 5-8x2 3 -t inches ; color orange ; apex rounded, 
 slightly scarred; base smooth or somewhat roughened; 
 calyx small; rind smooth, thin, tough, 1-4 inch thick, 
 closely attached; oil cells rather depressed; sections small, 
 well defined, ten in number; juice abundant, acidity and 
 sweetness well blended; flavor rich, vinous; quality ex- 
 cellent; seeds present, about fourteen in number; season 
 March- April. 
 
 Originated by the late Dudley W. Adams, of Tan- 
 gerine, Fla., and named after bis sister-in-law, ]Miss Bessie 
 Hnslis. 
 
 Centennial. Form round; size small to medium. 2 1-2 
 X 2 15-lG inches ; color orange ; apex scarred, set in a 
 slight depression ; base streaked or slightly ridged, 
 rounded; calyx small; rind smooth, thin, 1-8 inch or less; 
 oil cells pitted or flush with the surface; sections well 
 defined, fairlv regular, eleven in number; flesh fine grained. 
 
THE SWEET ORANGES—VARIETIES. g3 
 
 orange yellow; juice sacks small, spindle-shaped; juice 
 abundant, colorless; pulp melting, free from rag; acidity 
 and sweetness well blended ; flavor rich and vinous ; quality 
 excellent ; pith small ; seeds present, about ten in number, 
 long and pointed or oval, plump, 5-8 x 3-8 inch; season 
 November-December. 
 
 This variety was brought to notice by the late E. H. 
 Hart about 1876. Though the fruit ripens early, it can be 
 held until quite late, and on the whole it is a very desira- 
 ble variety. Introduced by Mr. E. S. Hubbard, of Federal 
 Point, Florida. 
 
 Circassian. Form rounded or depressed ; size medium 
 to large, 2 3-4x3 inches, 3x3 3-16 inches ; color light yel- 
 low ; apex rounded ; base rounded, smooth ; calyx small, 
 the lobes short and blunt; rind thin, 1-8 inch thick, quite 
 smooth; oil cells slightly elevated, numerous and of good 
 size; sections clearly marked, quite regular, ten to fifteen 
 in number; flesh fine grained, yellow; juice sacks long, 
 spindle-shaped, slender ; juice plentiful, colored ; pulp melt- 
 ing; acidity and sweetness normal and well blended; flavor 
 very good; pith solid, 3-4 inch across; seeds present, ob- 
 long or oval, pointed, ten to twenty-one in number, 5-8 x 
 3-8 inch ; season December to February. 
 
 Circassian is a foreign introduction through the Riv- 
 ers Nurseries. 
 
 Du Roi. Form oblong ; size medium to large, 2 7-S x 
 3 inches, 3 3-16 x 31-16 inches; color yellow, deep orange 
 or reddish when fully matured; apex rounded; base 
 creased, flat ; calyx of good size, segments pointed ; rind 
 creased or almost ribbed, rough, 1-8 to 3-16 inch thick; oil 
 cells flush with the surface or sometimes rather sunken; 
 sections eleven, small, well defined; flesh fine grained, yel- 
 lowish orange in color; juice sacks long, spindle-shaped; 
 
;^4 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 juice abuudaut, colored; piilji inclliiisi; acidilv and sweet- 
 ness well blended; tlavor rich, vinous; qualily excellent; 
 pith small ; seeds present, about fourteen in number, size 
 large, 5-8 x ~>-lG inch, oval pointed or oblong wedged ; sea 
 son February and March. 
 
 Probabh- introduced through Rivers" Nui'series. 
 
 FlK. 115. Jaffa ()raii;;uh. 
 
 Exquisite. F()rm round or oblate; - 7-S x '2 7-S inches, 
 2 .'!-4 X y 1-lG inches; color orange yellow; apex rounded; 
 base rounded, smooth; calyx very small; rind smooth, 
 tough, leathei-y, 1-8 inch thick; oil cells flush with the sur- 
 face or slightly elevalod; sections well defined, rather ir- 
 regular in size, thirteen in number; flesh ralher coarse 
 grained, orange color; juice abundant; pnlj) not nieUing, 
 containing a little too much rag; acidity and sweetness 
 well blended; flavor very good; pith solid, small, 1-1 to 
 1-3 inch across; seeds present, oval, pointed, ridged, T) s x 
 3-8 inch, about twenty-eight in number; season December 
 January-February. 
 
 Reasoner, in Bui. No. 1, Div. Tcmiology, II. S. D. A., 
 says that this variety was imported by (Jeneral Sanford. 
 
THE SWEET ORANGES— VAKIETIE8. 
 
 85 
 
 Everbearing. Form oblong, tapering to the stem ; size 
 small to medium, about 2 3-4 x 2 1-2 inches; color orange 
 yellow; apex rounded; base rather rough; calyx depressed; 
 rind pitted, :M6 inch thick; oil cells small; sections ten, 
 small; flesh coarse grained, yellow; juice sacks rather 
 broad and short ; juice plentiful ; pulp melting ; acidity and 
 sweetness fairly well blended, frequently with the acid 
 predominating; flavor quite good ; quality good; pith small, 
 1-4 inch across; seeds present, ten in number, plump, oval, 
 pointed, 3-8 x 1-4 inch; season from October to June. 
 
 Origin not known, but probably imported into Amer- 
 ica. 
 
 Fig. 17. E^'er-bearing Orange Tree. 
 
 Jaffa. Form rounded oblate or occasionally very 
 slightly rounded oblong; size medium to large, 2 3-4 x 
 3 1-16 inches, 3x3 inches; color orange yellow to orange 
 
86 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 red; apex rounded, smooth; base rounded; calyx small, 
 pointed; rind smooth, leathery, 1-8 inch thick; oil cells of 
 medium size, flattened; sections eleven, well defined, fairly 
 regular; flesh j'ellow in color, fine grained; juice sacks 
 narrow, elongated; juice abundant, colored; pulp melt- 
 ing; acidity and sweetness normal and well blended; 
 flaAor rich; (jnality excellent; pith small; seeds present, 
 al)out nine in number, plano-convex, short, rounded, 
 plump, 1-2 X 1-4 inch; season December-February. 
 
 Imported by the late General Sanford from Palestine 
 about 1883. 
 
 Joppa (Joppa Late). Form oblong, shouldered, larg- 
 est below the median line, tapering towards the calyx; 
 size medium, 2 7-8 x 2 1.3-lG inches ; color orange ; apex 
 rounded, smooth ; base slightly roughened and creased ; 
 calyx 3 inches across ; rind somewhat rough ; oil cells 
 slightly indented in some cases, but usually flush with the 
 surface ; thickness, .316 inch ; sections ten in number, well 
 defined; flesh fine grained, orange in color; juice sacks 
 small, pointed; juice plentiful, colored; pulp melting; 
 acidity and sweetness normal; flavor good, quality fair; 
 pith small, 1-4 to 3-8 inch in diameter; seeds few, small. 
 plump, roundish; season JanuaryMarch. 
 
 Originated at San Gabriel, Gal., by Mr. A. B. Chap 
 man, from seed secured from Jopx^a, Palestine. 
 
 Majorca. Form rounded or slightly oblate; size small 
 to medium, 2 5-8x2 7-8 inches, 2 7-8 x 3 1-16 inches; color 
 orange; apex rounded; base rounded, smooth; calyx small; 
 rind smooth, thin, tough, 1-8 inch thick; oil cells small, 
 flush \y\\\\ the surface; sections small, regular, thirteen 
 in number; flesh fine grained, orange colored, composed 
 of slender, spindle-shaped juice sacks; juice abundant, 
 colored; pulp melting; acidity and sweetness well blended; 
 
THE SWEET ORANGES— VARIETIES. §7 
 
 flavor sprightly, rich and vinous; pith small, 3-8 inch 
 across, compact; seeds present, few, about five or six, 
 small, plump, oval; season February-March. 
 
 Imported by the late General Sanford. The variety 
 takes its name from the island of the same name in the 
 Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 Maltese Oval. Form oblong or rounded oblong ; size 
 medium to large, 2 5-8x2 7-8 inches; 3 5-16 x 3 5-16 inches; 
 color yellow or orange yellow; apex rounded; base flat, 
 shouldered, smooth; calyx small, segments pointed; rind 
 smooth, 1-8 to 1-4 inch thick; oil cells large and conspic- 
 uous; sections well defined, eleven to thirteen in number; 
 flesh yellow, coarse grained; juice sacks large, spindle- 
 shaped; juice plentiful, colored; pulp melting; acidity 
 and sweetness well blended; flavor sweet, vinous, and of 
 excellent quality ; pith small, about 7-16 inch across, rather 
 open; seeds present, flattened, oval, pointed, large, 9-16 x 
 3-8 inch, six to thirteen in number ; season March- April. 
 
 Introduced into America from the Mediterranean by 
 General Sanford. 
 
 Marquis. Form slightly oblate; size medium, 2 5-8 
 x 2 3-8 inches ; color orange, rather light ; apex rounded ; 
 base rounded, smooth; calyx small; rind thin, smooth, 
 closely attached; oil cells small, numerous; sections well 
 defined, variable in size, about eleven in number; juice 
 abundant, colored; flesh coarse grained, orange in color; 
 acidity and sweetness well blended; flavor sweet and rich, 
 quality very good; seeds present, about four in number, 
 medium size; season December-February. 
 
 Imported from the Island of Malta by Colonel Church, 
 of Orlando, 
 
 Paper Rind. (Paper Rind St. Michael). Form oblong ; 
 size medium to large. 2 3-4x2 3-4 inches, 3x2 15-1 6 inches ; 
 
yy CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR GULTUHE. 
 
 color orange; apex rounded; base rounded, shouldered; 
 calyx small; rind slightly pitted, 1-8 to 3-16 inch thick; 
 oil cells depressed; sections ten, partitions thin; flesh 
 coarse grained, orange colored; juice sacks small; juice 
 plentiful, colored; pulp melting; acidity and sweetness 
 well blended; flavor rich, vinous, quality excellent; pith 
 small, 1-1 to 1-2 inch across; seeds present, oblong or oval, 
 pointed, six in number, large or medium ; season February- 
 March. 
 
 Imported from the Island of St. Michael into (Califor- 
 nia and thence into all the American citrus districts. 
 
 Pineapple. Form somewhat variable, varying from 
 nearly round to slightly oblate, occasional specimens being 
 quite compressed ; size medium to large, 2 1-2 x 2 3-4 
 inches, 2 15-10 x 31-4 inches; color deep orange, full ripe 
 well colored specimens show a reddish tinge; apex 
 I'ounded or very slightly depressed and scarred; base 
 rounded, very smooth; calyx small, segments rounded, 
 blunt; rind smooth, bright, glossy and satiny, 1-8 inch 
 thick; oil cells small, quite conspicuous, flush with the 
 surface or slightly elevated; sections eleven, slightly ir- 
 regular; flesh of medium grain, orange yellow; juice sacks 
 pointed, spindle-shaped, small ; juice abundant, yellowish 
 in color; pulp melting; acidity and sweetness well 
 blended; flavor excellent, rich, vinous, sprightly; pith 
 solid, 1-4 to 1-2 inch ; seeds present, thirteen to twenty- 
 three in number flattened, plump, pointed, large, 11-16 
 X .~i-16 inch; srason Jnnuary and February, although it 
 may sometimes be held later. 
 
 Introduced by Bishop and IToyt, of Citra, Fla. By 
 some it is said to liave originated in a small clump of 
 seedlings near Citra, while others say it came from Lake 
 Harris. 
 
THE SWEET ORANGES— VARIETIES. gg 
 
 Prata (Silver) Form rounded; size medium to large, 
 3x31-8 inclies ; color light orange ; apex rounded ; base 
 rounded, smootli; rind smooth, tough and leathery, adher- 
 ing closely to the pulp; oil cells small; sections well de- 
 fined, about eleven in number; tlesh rather coarse grained, 
 orange in color; juice sacks medium size, spindle-shaped; 
 juice abundant, colored ; pulp melting ; acidity and sweet- 
 ness well combined; flavor ricli and good; quality very 
 fair; pith 1-2 inch across; seeds about thirty in number, 
 plump, oval, large; season December- February, 
 
 Imported into Florida through the Eivers Nurseries. 
 
 Star Calyx. Form round or rounded oblate; size med- 
 ium to large, 2 9-16 x 3 inches, 3 x 3 1-8 inches; color 
 orange or orange yellow ; apex flattened ; base rounded, 
 smooth; calyx large, conspicuous, usually flve-pointed, 1-2 
 Inch across; rind smooth, 1-8 to 3-16 inch thick; oil cells 
 flush with the surface or slightly elevated; sections fairly 
 regular, thirteen in number; flesh rather coarse grained, 
 orange colored; acidity and sweetness well balanced; 
 flavor and quality excellent; ])ith 1-2 inch across; seeds 
 present, oval, plump, large, about eighteen in number; 
 season December- January-February. 
 
 Said to have been imported from the nurseries of 
 Thomas Rivers, England. 
 
 Hart (Hart's Late, Hart's Tardiff). Form round or 
 sometimes slightly oval ; size medium to large, 3 1-8 x 3 1-8 
 inches; color deep golden orange; apex rounded, slightly 
 flattened, scarred, base smooth, rounded; calyx small, 
 sharp pointed ; rind thin, smooth, tough ; sections clearly 
 marked, nine or more in number; flesh orange in color, 
 of medium grain ; juice sacks spindle-shaped, of medium 
 size; juice abundant, colored; acidity and sweetness well 
 combined; pulp melting; flavor rich, sprightly and vinous; 
 
90 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 quality excellent; seeds present, few, about six in number, 
 large, oval, plump; season late INIarch to June. 
 
 Introduced by the late E. H. Hart, of Federal Point, 
 Fla. It came originally from the Kivers' Nurseries and 
 was imported into America by Mr. S. B. Parsons, of 
 Flushing, Long Island, about 1870. Said by some writers 
 to be the same as Valencia Late. 
 
 White. Form round or slightly oblate; medium to 
 large, 2 5-S x ."> inches, 2 1;MG x 3 1-16 inches ; color light 
 yellow; apex rounded, scarred; base rounded, smooth; 
 calyx small; rind smooth, thin, 1-8 inch or slightly less; 
 oil cells flush with the surface ; sections thirteen, small, 
 fairly regular ; flesh flne grained, yellow in color ; juice 
 sacks small, spindle-shaped; juice abundant, colored; 
 pulp melting; acidity and sweetness combined in good pro- 
 portions ; flavor rich, vinous and of excellent quality ; 
 pith small, close; seeds present, twenty to twenty-seven 
 in number, oval and pointed, or wedge-shaped and oblong, 
 5-8 X .3-8 inch, plump; season December-Februarv* 
 
 Introduced from the Rivers' Xurseries. 
 
 III. BLOOD ORANGES. 
 
 Maltese. Form round, or oblong rounded; size 
 medium to large ;>x.'> inches ; color deep orange ; apex 
 sli.uhtly indented; base creased, calyx set in a slight 
 depression; stem of medium size; rind smooth, medium 
 thick ; oil cells elevated or indented, balloon shaped, 
 large; flesh dark orauiie, streaked with red, sometimes 
 varyini; t<» blood red, flne grained; sections well deflned, 
 eleven in number; juice sacks spindle-shaped, small or 
 medium; juice yellowish or yellowish red; flavor sweet 
 well blended with acid; quality very good; pith small, 
 seeds four tn eight, small roundish. 
 
THE SWEST ORANGES— VARIETIES. 
 
 91 
 
 An orange of very good quality with small, bright 
 characteristic foliage. The blood marking in the fruit 
 shows only on old trees and then not until late in the 
 season, sometimes not at all. Its greatest failing lies in 
 its not being sufficiently prolific. Introduced from South- 
 ern Europe. 
 
 Ruby Form round or slightly oblong ; small to large, 
 2 3-4x3 1-4 inches, 21-2x2 3-4 inches ; color deep yellow 
 
 Fig:. 18. Ruby Oranges. 
 
 or orange, reddish when fully matured; apex rounded, 
 scarred, sometimes navel marked ; base rounded, smooth : 
 calyx small, lobes short and blunt; rind smooth, shiny, 
 1-8 inch thick; oil cells small, almost globular; sections 
 small, regular, twelve in number; flesh fine grained, yel- 
 low early in the season, streaked with red in mid-season, 
 and blood-red when fully ripe; juice sacks small; juice 
 plentiful, colored; pulp melting; acidity and sweetness 
 well blended; flavor rich, vinous; quality excellent; pith 
 small, compact, 5-16 inch across; seeds present, plump. 
 
f)2 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 oval, pointed, of medium size, 7-16 inch in length, eleven 
 in number; season Pebruavv and ilarch. 
 
 An imported variety, probably brought from some one 
 of the Mediterranean districts. It is a variety with no su- 
 perior and few equals. Imported by General Sanford. 
 
 Sanford Blood (Sunfurd's Htvcct Blood). Form 
 rounded oblate ; size medium, 2 3-4x3 1-16 inches ; color at 
 first lemon yellow, gradually deepening to reddish; apex 
 rounded, slightly scarred; base rounded, smooth; calyx of 
 medium size; rind smooth, bright, glossy, thin and leath- 
 ery; oil cells small, numerous, flush with the surface; 
 sections eleven in number, regular in size, orange in color 
 at first becoming streaked with blood markings and finally 
 blood colored about April ; juice sacks slender, spindle- 
 shaped; juice abundant, colored; pulp melting entirely; 
 acidity and sweetness well blended; flavor rich, vinous; 
 pith 1-2 inch across, solid; seeds present, about fourteen 
 in number, plump, oval, pointed, smooth, large; season 
 January to March. 
 Imported by Cieneral Sanford. 
 
 Saul Blood (John t^aul's Sicect Blood). Form oblate; 
 size small to medium, 2 3-4 x 2 7-S inches; color dark 
 orange ; apex rounded, very slightly scarred ; base smooth ; 
 calyx small; rind thin, about 1-8 inch thick, smooth and 
 tough, rather easily dclached; sedions not clearly marked, 
 about ten in number; flesh fine grained, yellow at first, 
 becoming blo<id marked when fully niatured; juice sacks 
 small, elongated; acidity and sweetness well blended: 
 flavor rich, vinous and sprightly; quality excellent; pith 
 small, solid ; seeds about sixteen in number, of medium 
 size, oval and pointed; season Decenflaer-February. 
 
 Introduced bv John Saul, of Washington, D. C. 
 
THE SWEET ORAXGEt— VARIETIES. 93 
 
 St. Michael (Blood). Form oblong-rounded; size 
 medium, 2 15-lG x 2 IS-Ki incbes; color vellow, with deep 
 orange red blotches appearing on the rind as it nears ma- 
 turity, orange red throughout when fully ripened; apex 
 rounded, slightly scarred; base smooth, rounded; rind 
 thin, 1-8 inch thick; oil cells quite conspicuous, flush with 
 the surface or somewhat elevated; sections distinctly 
 marked, regular in size; flesh flue arained. wine red in 
 color ; juice sacks rather large, spindle-shaped ; juice plenti- 
 ful, yellow in color, the coloring matter of the flesh appar- 
 ently being located in the tissue of the juice sacks; pulp 
 melting; acidity and sweetness Avell blended; flavor excel- 
 lent; pith solid, 1-4 inch across; seeds present, rounded, 
 short, plump, oval, medium sized; season January and 
 February. 
 
 A fine variety of medium size, imported from the 
 Mediterranean by General Sanford. 
 
 IV. NAVEL, ORANGES. 
 
 Fig. 19. Bahia Navel Oranges. 
 
94 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Australian. Fruit seedy, varying in size from large 
 to small, and splits at the navel, which is usually large 
 and prominent. Tree strong grower, but a very shy bearer. 
 (Lelong.) 
 
 Introduced from Australia by Lewis Wolfskill, of Los 
 Angeles, Cal., in 1874. Once largely planted in Califor- 
 nia, but now replaced by Bahia. 
 
 Bahia (WasMngton Navel, Riverside Navel). Form 
 rounded ; somewhat tapering towards the apex ; size large, 
 3 1-4 X 3 1-4 inches, 3 5-8 x 3 1-2 inches ; color orange or 
 orange yellow; apex terminating in an umbilicus, taper- 
 ing slightly outwards, flattened on the tip; base rounded 
 or somewhat flattened and frequently creased; calyx 
 small ; rind smooth, tough, leathery, 1-8 to 1-4 inch thick ; 
 oil cells large, almost globose; sections well defined, nine 
 to eleven in number; flesh rather coarse, deep orange yel- 
 low in color; juice sacks rather large, spindle-shaped; 
 juice plentiful, but in poor specimens inclined to run slack 
 in the stem end; pulp melting; acidity and sweetness well 
 blended; flavor rich, vinous; quality excellent; seeds ab- 
 sent; season December-February, or later. 
 
 This is the great commercial orange of California, but 
 in Florida it has not been a success owing to the fact that 
 it is not sufficiently prolific. When planted in the latter 
 State it should be worked either on rough lemon or tri- 
 foliate stock. 
 
 According to some writers the Bahia Navel was 
 planted in Florida previous to 1S3.5, but disappeared in the 
 freeze of that .year. But whether this can be substantiated 
 or not, the Bahia of to-day was received by the late Wm. 
 Saunders, of the U. S. Agricultural Department, in 1870. 
 Trees of this importation were distributed and two were 
 
THE SWEET ORANGES— VARIETIES. 95 
 
 received by Mrs. Tibbetts, of Riverside, Cal., in 1874. Mr. 
 Alexander Craw also received trees about the same time. 
 Fruit from Mrs. Tibbett's trees was exhibited at the Riv- 
 erside citrus fair in 1879 and attracted a great deal of 
 attention. The variety was propagated rapidly and 
 planted so extensively that it has become the most impor- 
 tant California orange. 
 
 The variety was also sent to Florida, and though some 
 fruit is produced, it has received but little attention, as 
 it has not proved to be a prolific variety. 
 
 Double (Imperial). Form rounded; size small, 2 1-2 
 X 21-2 inches; color golden yellow, bright; apex rounded, 
 umbilicus hidden; base rounded, smooth; calyx small, 
 pointed; rind smooth, closely attached; sections some- 
 what irregular, eleven in number, well defined ; juice fairly 
 abundant; pulp not entirely melting; sweetness predomi- 
 nating; flavor very good; seeds present, six in number, 
 oval, of medium size; season December-February. 
 
 Introduced by Major Rountree, of New Orleans, La. 
 It was originally imported from Brazil. It is inclined to 
 hold its fruit a little better than most navel oranges in 
 Florida, but for California planters it is inferior to Bahia. 
 
 Egyptian. Form, oblong, rounded, shouldered; size, 
 large, 3% x 3% inches ; heavy ; color deep orange ; apex 
 navel marked, navel frequently included; base flat, 
 creased and rough; calyx small, blunt; stem ratlier slen- 
 der ; rind rough, pebbled, 3-16 inch thick, adhering tightly ; 
 oil cells elevated or depressed, balloon shaped, medium in 
 size; flesh not meaty, fiber scant, color orange, coarse 
 grained; juice yellowish, abundant, sometimes slightly 
 lacking at stem ; quality excellent ; pith small, solid, seeds 
 none ; season December and January. 
 
96 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Described from specimens from the grove of C. W. 
 Bntler, St. Petersburgh. Fruits well on rough lemon stock. 
 
 Melitensis. Form rounded oval ; size large, 3 11-16 x 
 .3 1-2 inches ; apex navel marked, umbilicus not constricted 
 outward as in the Bahia, the apex being rounded instead; 
 base flattened or rounded; calyx small, segments sharp 
 pointed; rind 1-8 inch thick, smooth; oil cells large, con 
 spicuous and flush with the surface; sections eight or more, 
 well defined; quite regular; flesh rather coarse; color deep 
 yellow; juice sacks rather large, spindle-shaped: juice 
 plentiful, colored; pulp melting, free from rag; acidity 
 and sweetness not well blended, not qiiite acid enough, 
 rather flat in taste; quality fair; pith small, 1-4 inch or 
 more; simmIss none; season ^v'ovemlier-December. 
 
 This vari(4y was iiitniduced from Paris, France, by 
 rise United States Department of Agriculture. It is not 
 prolific. 
 
 Parson. Form rounded oblate; medium size, 2 3-1 x 
 3 1-S inches, 3 x .3 7-16 inches; color light yellow, bright; 
 apex rounded or somewhat flattened; navel marked; base 
 rounded, sometimes creased; calyx small, blunt pointed; 
 rind smooth, thin, 1-S to 3-1(1 inch; oil cells flush with the 
 surface; sections well defined, ten in number; flesh rather 
 coarse, orange yellow in color; juice sacks broad at the 
 base, spindle-shaped ; juice abundant, fruit being well 
 filled out; ]iulp melting; acidity and sweetness well 
 blended; flavor rich, vinous, excellent; ]iith close, 1-2 inch 
 across ; seeds jire.senl. tweh'e in number, oval, flattened, 
 ])ointed, large, ."')-S x .3-S inch; season December-January. 
 
 According to Reas(mer this variety was introduced 
 into Florida in 1S69 by S. B. Parsons, of Flushing, Long 
 
THE SWEET ORANGES— VARIETIES. 97 
 
 Island, who imported it from the Rivers Nurseries, Eng- 
 land. The variety is not prolific in Florida. 
 
 Surprise. Form rounded or very slightly oblate; 
 size medium, packing 150-176 to the box, 2 15-16 x 2 15-16 
 inches, 2 3-8x3 inches; heavy, sinking in water leaving 
 a. space the size of a silver dollar not immersed; color 
 deep orange; base rounded or very slightly flattened; ca- 
 lyx 3-8 inch across ; stem small ; apex navel-marked, navel 
 small, 1-8 to 3-8 inch across, rounded, occasionally flat- 
 tened, or protruding, as in Bahia ; 3-4 inch inside, the rind 
 of the fruit incurved; rind smooth, tough, satiny, thin, 
 1-8 inch thick, adhering closely; oil cells prominent and 
 slightly elevated above the surface; sections clearly de- 
 fined, the dividing septa thin, thirteen in number, varia- 
 ble in size; juice sacks spindle-shaped, small; flesh flue 
 grained, yellow in color; juice abundant, acidity and 
 sweetness well blended; flavor rich, vinous; qiiality ex- 
 cellent; seeds none; season, November-February. 
 
 Surprise is an excellent orange, fully equal in qual- 
 ity to the best. It is juicy and heavy. Mr. E. S. Hub- 
 bard says that the variety fruits better than Hart's late, 
 even when budded on sour stock. He has fruited 
 it for three years. It must, therefore, be looked upon 
 as a decided acquisition of Florida planters. The variety 
 is distinct from the other navel oranges, though occas- 
 ional specimens resemble Bahia. No seeds have been found 
 in any of the fruits. It is unreservedly recommended for 
 trial. The bud from which this navel orange originated 
 was discovered among a lot of King mandarin orange trees 
 propagated by Mr. E. S. Hubbard, Federal Point, Fla., 
 from budwood obtained originally from California. 
 
98 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Sustain. Form rounded ; size small to medium, 2 3-4 
 X 2 5-8 inches; color yellow; apex navel marked, the navel 
 small and not protruding; base flattened, rounded, calyx 
 small, blunt pointed; rind thin, 1-8 inch thick, smooth; 
 oil cells small, sections eleven, well defined; flesh fine 
 grained, orange in color; juice sacks small; juice abund- 
 ant; pulp melting; acidity normal, sweetness balancing 
 the acid; pith 1-2 inch across; seeds present, oval, flat- 
 tened, pointed, of medium size, three to four in number, 
 with some abortive; season December-January. 
 
CHAPTER XVII. 
 MANDARIN ORANGES— VARIETIES. 
 
 Beauty (Beauty) 
 of Glen Retreat.) 
 Form oblate, de- 
 cidedly flattened, 
 sections showing- 
 through the rind; 
 size medium, 2 1-8 
 X 2 15-16 inches, 
 2 3-16 X 2 13-16 
 inches; stem small 
 and slender; apex 
 flat or with a very 
 slight depression; 
 base slightly de- 
 pressed and ridged 
 about the calyx ; 
 color deep reddish 
 orange, not so 
 
 highly colored as Dancy, glossy; rind smooth, very "hin, 
 1-16 of an inch or slightly more in thickness; oil cells flush 
 with the surface, large, conspicuous, elliptical, oval o^ 
 much flattened, frequently set in the pithy lining of the 
 rind from which they may be detached easily ; sections tei 
 or more, clearly defined, regular ; rag almost entirely jack- 
 ing; flesh orange colored; juice sacks broad, blunt; pulp 
 melting; juice plentiful, orange colored; flavor distinct, 
 rich, vinous; acidity and sweetness well blended; seeds 
 
 ■^i ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^t^^-- 
 
 
 
 ^^sSpif^S^ 
 
 
 
 9^^^ 
 
 
 tjii^iaa. ■fflidni 
 
 ^^^^j 
 
 ■ ijV ^:^ 
 
 
 Wmk^^^'-f^^ 
 
 l^^'-l 
 
 in ^-^■•'v::.v. 
 
 '3?^ 
 
 ":-* 
 
 x> ■ 
 
 • 4l 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^''.■, 
 
 ,m^ 
 
 %s^^ 
 
 ..- ~ 
 
 ' , , .;■'/ , 
 
 ■ .It* 
 
 H^zr^^^ 
 
 .^{^^^^^■j 
 
 -,' - .^ 
 
 t^-><^ ' rw^ 
 
 
 1'^ -1 ^ 
 
 ■^■Z-- ■ v? ■ 
 
 
 ^Hu^-'^-^n 
 
 T./>"- 
 
 
 ^w-" . -m 
 
 isib^ 
 
 H;'^- "i^tttit- :^S^^fM-. 
 
 . a 
 
 Rr.- ^Vma 
 
 ''C^* A^^^SS^S^^r 
 
 -«ifc:.^ 
 
 |^_ ;, :^-Ji 
 
 tTl'^'-^j'" -■: ^^SHBr 
 
 P?i^. . ■"■, 
 
 tKtl6t.i!tjS^3ilm\ 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 King Mandarin Orange Tree 
 in Fruit. 
 
100 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 present, small, tew, top-shaped ; core small, open, 1-li inch 
 or less in diameter; season December to Jannaiy. 
 
 Tree tliornless, branches and branchlets slender and 
 willowy; leaves small, resembling those of Dancy; petioles 
 cliaracleristically small and slender, 34 of an inch long. 
 
 The fruit of this variety is very heavy, and thongh it 
 floats in water it sinks almost below the surface. The 
 color, while not possesing quite so much of the reddish 
 tinge as Dancy, it is decidedly darker than China. In flavor 
 it resembles Dancy, though it is distinct. Beauty is a var- 
 iety well worthy of propagation and trial. 
 
 The only orange grovs-er in Florida known to have this 
 variety is Cyrus W. Butler, of St. Petersburg. Mr. Butler 
 received his buds of the variety from the Agricultural De- 
 partment and Colonel Brackett informed the author that 
 it was introduced from Australia by the U. S. Department 
 of Agriculture in 1893. In a letter to the writer dated 
 at Sydney, N. S. Wales, Aust., Ajiril IS, 1902, W. J. Allen, 
 Government fruit expert for that colony, says : This man- 
 darin was raised by !Mr. W. H. Parker within a few miles 
 of Brisbane (Queensland), Aust., and is, I believe, a seed- 
 ling from either the Enix>eror or Scarlet mandarin. The 
 original tree was raised some time in ISSS or 1889. The 
 fruit is of good size, solid, with a beautiful, thin, tough 
 rind and carries well. It is usually a good cropper and 
 proves a profitable variety to grow." 
 
 China (China Cehstial. Cliimi Mandurin. Eiil-Glovc. 
 Tangierbic, WiUov:' Jjcaird). Form oblate, compressed; 
 size medium, 1 7-8x2 1-2 inches, 2 15-16 x 3 inches, usually 
 about 2 X 2 9-16 inches; color dark orange, shiny; apex 
 slightly scarred, depressed, depression very shallow and 
 rather broad : base nearly smooth, somewhat necked or 
 creased, the number of creases frequently corresponding 
 
MANDARIN ORANGES— VARIETIES. 101 
 
 with the number of sections; stem small; calyx small, set 
 in a slight depression; rind smooth, generally marked with 
 depressions, corresponding to the number of sections, 1-8 
 inch or less in thickness, very loosely attached; oil cells 
 conspicuous, slightly depressed or flush with the surface; 
 sections ten to thirteen, rather irregular in size, well de- 
 fined; flesh coarse grained in appearance, orange in color; 
 juice sacks short, broad and blunt; pulp melting; juice 
 plentiful, colored; acidity and sweetness well combined; 
 flavor vinous, peculiar and distinct (musky?) ; seeds fif- 
 teen to twenty-five, brownish white, top-shaped, roundish, 
 beaked, plump ; core open, spongy, 3-4 inch in diameter ; 
 season November to December. 
 
 Tree very willowy in growth, almost thornless ; leaves 
 small, narrow, deep green ; fruit usually borne singly at 
 the tips of slender branches. 
 
 China is not so extensively cultivated in Florida as the 
 variety Dancj^ In Louisiana it predominated before the 
 freeze, and Kew Orleans is one of the best markets. The 
 fruit is frequently in good shape for the Thanksgiving 
 trade. 
 
 Introduced into Louisiana from Italy between 1840 
 and 1850. From thence it is said to have been brought 
 to Florida by Major Atway, date unknown. The original 
 tree was growing on the Atway place when purchased by 
 the late Dr. Moragne, Palatka, Fla. 
 
 Cleopatra (Spice Tangierine) . From oblate flattened 
 and irregular in circumference outline; size small, 1 3-16 
 X 1 3-4 inches, 11-4x2 1-8 inches; color dark orange red, 
 not so bright as Dancy ; stem slender, base flat, slightly de- 
 pressed or sometimes slightly elevated, roughened about 
 the calyx; apex depressed, generally navel marked; rind 
 rough or inclined to roughness, 1-8 inch or less in thick- 
 
I'latti v. 
 
 (From Bui, CS, Pla. Exp. Station.) 
 
 Dancy Mandarin Orange. 
 
MANDARIN ORANGES— VARIETIES. |()3 
 
 ness, loosely attached, in very ripe specimens separating 
 entirely from the pulp ball ; oil cells small, numerous ; sec- 
 tions fifteen, small; flesh orange colored, coarse grained, 
 juice sacks typically broad and blunt ; juice abundant, col- 
 ored; flavor vinous, acidity and sweetness normal; qual- 
 ity good ; seeds about twenty, small, top-shaped; pith small, 
 open; season January and February. 
 
 Tree thornless, forming a dense top, upright but in- 
 clined to be willowy ; leaves small ; fruits produced singly 
 or in bunches. As an ornamental this variety is very 
 beautiful, but as a commercial varietj' it is not worthy of 
 cultivation. The fruit is small and the trees not sufiflc- 
 iently prolific to make up for the deficiency in size by an 
 abundance of fruit. 
 
 In Bulletin 1, U. S. D. A., Div. Pomology, Reasoner 
 says that the Spice tangierine was introduced into Florida 
 by Colonel Codrington from Jamaica. Under the name 
 Cleopatra it had been known for a long time in Florida. 
 
 Dancy (Tangierine, Dancy's Tangierine, Bijou, Mo- 
 ragne's Tangierine). Form oblate, sections showing 
 through the rind ; size medium, 13-4x2 5-8 inches, 2 1-8 x 
 31-16 inches; color deep orange red, almost tomato red, 
 shiny; stem slender; base sometimes smooth, frequently 
 nippled or more or less corrugated; calyx small, segments 
 blunt pointed ; apex terminating in a broad, shallow depres- 
 sion, sometimes scarred ; rind smooth, 1-16 to 1-8 inch thick, 
 leathery, easily removed, attached by a few strings to the 
 flesh ; oil cells small, usually flush with the surface, though 
 sometimes slightly depressed; sections eleven to fourteen 
 in number, fairly regular in Size, easily detached from 
 one another ; flesh dark orange cxored , coarse grained ; 
 juice sacks short, broad and blunt; juice abundant, col- 
 ored; rag almost entirely abseni:; pulp melting; 
 
104 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 acidity and sweetness well blended; flavor rich and 
 sprightly; quality excellent; pith open, 3-4 inch 
 across; seeds seven to twenty, rather small, short 
 and blunt or top-shaped and beaked; season December 
 and January. 
 
 Tree compactly headed, rather upright though tending 
 to spread as the head is opened from year to year by the 
 weight of the fruit, densely foliaged, fruit exposed on the 
 outer portion of the tree. Dancy lias been more generally 
 planted than any other variety of the group. Its high color 
 combined with excellent quality makes it a particularly 
 fine variety. It is commonly known throughout Florida 
 and in the markets as tangieiinc. The variety Dancy is 
 said to have originated as a seedling at Buena Vista. St. 
 Johns County, Fla. The parent tree was raised by Col. 
 Geo. L. Dancy and was introduced into cultivation in 
 1871 or early in 1872. It has proved to be a very prolific 
 variety. 
 
 riiny Eeasoner says that Dancj' is a seedling of China. 
 I am inclined to doubt this, for if such were the case it is 
 not likely that it would prove so strongly prepotent as 
 it is. Every seedling of Dancy observed bears a strong 
 resemblance to the parent. ^lorenvei-, in a letter dated 
 at Palatka, Fla., Jan. 1, 1903, Miss S. W. Moragne states 
 that a tangierine tree was growing on her father's place 
 when it Avas purchased about 1843, and further states that 
 China was not the first of the group grown in Florida. 
 Twigs of trees ])r(ii)agated from the original strongly re 
 semble Dancy. The author believes that Dancy originated 
 from this variety. 
 
 King (King of t^iaiii). (Huh Die. Pomology. U. S. 
 D. A. 1:7.3. 1SS7). Form oblate; size large, 2 3-8 x 3 inches, 
 3 1-16 X 3 3-4 inches, 3 3-8 x 4 1-4 inches ; color deep orange ; 
 
Plate VI. 
 
 (From Bui. 66, Fla. Exp. Station.) 
 
 King Mandarin Orange. 
 
106 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 base somewhat roughened and creased; apex flattened, 
 scarred and very slightly depressed; calyx small, five 
 pointed; rind rough, pitted, 1-8 to 1-4 inch thick, separat- 
 ing easily from the flesh ; oil cells large, flush with the sur- 
 face or slightly depressed, mostly balloon-shaped ; sections 
 thirteen, fairly regular, easily detached from one another; 
 flesh rather coarse grained, orange in color; juice sacks 
 spindle-shaped, not so broad and blunt as in other members 
 of the group ; juice abundant, colored ; pulp melting ; acid- 
 ity and sweetness well blended, flavor agreeable, sprightly; 
 quality very good; seeds eighteen to twenty in number, 
 large, resembling those of the sweet oranges, cotyledons 
 white; season late, March- April. 
 
 Tree stiff and upright in growth, generally thorny, 
 though some specimens have fewer thorns than others, 
 foliage dark green, resembling that of the sweet oranges. 
 
 The King mandarin has been quite extensively planted 
 in Florida, but at the present time does not appear to be 
 held in quite as high estimation as it formerly was. The 
 wood appears to be brittle and frequently the trees bear 
 so heavily that they are almost stripped of their branches 
 by the weight of the fruit. This might be obviated by 
 thinning. The fruit is much exposed to the sun and is 
 frequently badly sunburned and rendered unsalable. On 
 the other hand it must be stated in its favor that the var- 
 iety is prolific, of good quality, and since it matures late 
 in the season, good prices are always secured. The var- 
 iety was introduced into California from Cochin China 
 in the year 1S82 by Dr. E. Magee, Riverside, Cal. Intro- 
 duced into Florida, in the same year from California by 
 Mr. John Carville Storin, of Winter Park, Fla. 
 
 Kinneloa. Form roundish oblate, size medium, 1 1-1 
 X 2 inches, 2 7-8 x 2 7-8 inches; color deep reddish orange; 
 
MANDARIN ORANOES— VARIETIES. 107 
 
 base somewhat nippled; apex with a small dot in a med- 
 ium small basin; surface undulating, rough; oil cells 
 numerous, depressed; rind loosely attached, 1-8 inch in 
 thickness, pungent, aromatic; flesh translucent, tender; 
 juice cells small to Jiiedium, irregular; tissue thin; juice 
 abundant, translucent, flavor and acidity medium; seeds 
 present, plump, straw colored, of medium size, ten in num- 
 ber. Fruit heavy and of good quality. Description from 
 specimens from J. E. Cutler, Riverside, Cal., by Division 
 of Pomology, U. S. D. A., and procured through the kind- 
 ness of Col. G. B. Erackett, Pomologist. 
 
 Kino Kuni. Form oblate, much flattened, size small 
 to medium, 1 3-8 x 2 inches, 15-8x2 5-8 inches ; color deep 
 orange or orange red; stem slender; base usually creased 
 or roughened with four or five ridges ; calyx small, slightly 
 depressed; apex ending in a broad, shallow depression 
 nearly 3-16 inch deep; rind rather rough, separating read- 
 ily from the pulp, 1-8 inch or slightly less in thickness ; oil 
 cells conspicuous, depressed; sections usualy thirteen in 
 number, irregular in size; flesh coarse grained, reddish 
 orange in color; juice sacks short, broad, blunt; juice 
 abundant, colored; pulp melting; acidity and sweetness 
 well blended; flavor sprightly; quality quite good; pith 
 open ; seeds thirteen to fourteen, top-shaped, beaked ; cotyle- 
 dons green; season November-December. 
 
 Tree compactly headed, resembling Cleopatra; leaves 
 small ; fruit of quite good quality, but not of much com- 
 mercial importance. 
 
 It is not known when the variety Kino Kuni was first 
 introduced into Florida, but at present the tree in the grove 
 formerly owned by Mr. John Thomson at Clearwater Har- 
 bor, is the only one known to the writer. It is a Japanese 
 
108 CITRUS FRUiTS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 variety and Mr. Thomson received his tree from Mr. J. L. 
 Normand, of Marksville, La., in August, 1894. 
 
 Mikado. Form oblate; size medium to large, 1 3-8 
 X 2 5-8 inches, 2 1-S x -j inches; color orange acHow ; stem 
 stout, base slightly depressed about the calyx, rough or 
 corrugated ; calyx small, sunken ; apex terminated by a 
 broad, ^shallow d(']iression; rind slightly rough, 1-8 inch in 
 thickness; oil cells, occasionally 1-16 inch in diame- 
 ter, conspicuous, slightly elevated or sometimes depressed; 
 sections thirteen to fourteen, well defined, rather irregular, 
 separating easily; flesh orange colored, coarse grained; 
 juice sacks elongated, or broad and blunt ; juice abundant, 
 orange colored; pulp melting; acidity and sweetness well 
 blended; flavor rich, sprightly; quality very good; pith 
 open, ;'>-4 inch across; seeds nine, top-shaped, distinctly 
 beaked, large, 3-4 x 1-4 x ij-lG inch; cotyledons green; sea- 
 son October-November. 
 
 Tree inclined to be upright, in general resembling Sat- 
 suma, but not so reclinate; leaves with petioles generally 
 distinctly flanged. As already noted, this variety closely 
 resembles Satsuma, of which it is a seedling. It dififers 
 from Satsuma in its more upright habit, in having dis- 
 tinctly flanged leaves, in the larger and more distinct oil 
 cells of the rind, in the shape and number of the seeds, and 
 the larger, broader depression about the apex. It cannot, 
 however, be considered as being in anywise superior to Sat- 
 suma. Originated by Rev. Lyman Phelps, of Sanford, Fla. 
 
 Oneco. Reasoncr's Catalogue, 1900. Form oblate, 
 flattened at the apex and tapering from about the middle 
 to the base ; size medium to large, 2 5-10 x 2 7-8 inches, 
 2 1-2 X 3 1-4 inches; color deep orange yellow; base slightly 
 ridged or smooth ; calyx very small ; apex ending in a 
 broad, shallow depression; rind 1-8 inch thick, generally 
 
Plate VU. 
 
 (From Bui. 66, Fla. Exp. Station.) 
 
 Onec'O Mandarin Orange. 
 
110 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 inclined to be rough though frequently smooth, easily de- 
 tached; oil cells large and conspicuous; sections twelve 
 in number, fairly regular, clearly defined; flesh coarse 
 grained, orange yellow in color, juice sacks broad, short; 
 juice abundant, colored; rag absent; pulp melting; acidity 
 and sweetness well blended; flavor distinct, rich, vinous; 
 quality excellent; pith open; seeds small, twelve to four- 
 teen, top-shaped, beaked ; cotyledons green ; season Jan- 
 uary-March. 
 
 Ti'ee rather upright, foliage small with a pronounced 
 fragrance when bruised ; thorny, but with many thornless 
 branches. The fruit is excellent in flavor and is not sur- 
 passed in quality by any other variety of the mandarin 
 group known to the writer. The flavor may be said to 
 resemble a combination of Dancy, King and Satsuma. 
 
 This variety was raised from seed received from north- 
 western India and planted by the late P. W. Reasoner in 
 1888. The original seedling tree is still standing on the 
 grounds of the Royal Palm Nurseries, at Oneco, Fla. 
 
 Satsuma. (Oonshiu.) Manville's Prac. Orange Cult. 
 112. 1883. Form oblate; sections frequently showing 
 through the rind ; size variable, 1 7-8 x 2 5-8 inches and 2 5-8 
 X 3 7-16 inches representing the variation in size ; color 
 orange yellow; base usually slightly creased; calyx small; 
 apex scarred with a round brownish spot situated in a 
 broad, shallow depression; rind IS inch thick, inclined to 
 be rough; oil cells large, conspicuous, frequently depressed 
 though sometimes flush with the surface; flesh coarse 
 grained, deep orange in color ; juice sacks short, broad ; 
 juice abundant, yellowish orange in color; pulp melting; 
 acidity and sweetness well balanced; flavor sprightly, 
 agrceal)le; quality excellent; pith open with the sections 
 frequently separated at the inner edges ; generally seedless 
 
Plate Tin. 
 
 (From Bui. 66, Fla. Exp. Station.) 
 
 Satsuma Mandarin Orange. 
 
112 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 though occasionally from one to four seeds are found, top- 
 shaped, broad, plump, not distinctly beaked as in others 
 of the group; season October-November. 
 
 Tree thornless and of spreading dwarf habit, branches 
 reclinate, branchlets angled; leaves broad, tapering 
 abruptly toward the apex, petioles scarcely margined. The 
 leaves generally point upward and thus either follow the 
 direction of the branches or are at right angles to them. 
 The smaller fruits ripen first while the larger ones are 
 later in maturing. The Satsuma is at its best just when it 
 reaches maturity. In the extreme southern end of 
 Florida it does not color well, but remains green or greenish 
 for a considerable time after the juice has acquired its best 
 flavor. The varietj' is very hardy in north Florida an<l is 
 strongly recommended for planting in that portion of the 
 State. The fruit is well received in the markets, the trees 
 bear regularlj' a fair crop of fruit. Fruit and leaves some- 
 times attacked and distorted by the attacks of scab, caused 
 by Cladosporiuin elegans Penzig. 
 
 Satsuma is a Japanese variety introduced into Florida 
 by Dr. Geo. R. Hall in ISTC, and again by Mrs. Van Valk- 
 enburg in 1878. 
 
 HYBRID VARIETIES. 
 
 Tangerona. Form roundish-oblate; size small, 2 3-16 
 X 2 1-2 inches, sinking 5-6 when placed in water; color 
 orange yellow; base rounded, very slightly irregular; 
 calyx small, lobes pointed; stem small; apex scarred, 
 slightly depressed; rind pebbled because of the elevated 
 oil cells, 1-8 inch thick, tightly attached; oil cells convex 
 at the outer sides, elevated above the rind so as to give 
 it a pebbled appearance and feeling; sections distinctly 
 marked, firmly attached to each other, eleven in number, 
 
MANDARIN ORANGES— VARIETIES. 
 
 113 
 
 small, rather Irregular in size; juice sacks broad and 
 blunt like those of the mandarin oranges, of medium size; 
 flesh coarse grained, melting, orange yellow in color ; juice 
 abundant, acidity and sweetness well blended ; flavor rich 
 and vinous, quality very good ; pitch proportionately large, 
 1-2 to 5-8 inch across; seeds present, wedged, broad and 
 flat or oval, large, 5-8 x 5-16 inch; cotyledons white or 
 sometimes a greenish one is found; season, September- 
 October. 
 
 The Tangerona orange originated in Brazil and was 
 introduced into Florida a number of years ago. It is 
 not cultivated to any extent. The quality is very good, 
 but the small size is against it, and it is very susceptible to 
 injury from frost. It appears to be a hybrid betfl-een 
 one of the mandarin oranges and one of the sweet 
 oranges. 
 
 Photo hy Ensminper. 
 
 Fig. 21. A Grove of Dancy Mandarins in Florida. 
 
Plate IX. 
 
 A Cluster of Hall Pomelos. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII. 
 POMELO GROUP— VARIETIES. 
 
 VARIETIES WITH PINK FLESH. 
 
 Tresca. Form roundish, necked or with a distinct 
 tendency to pyriform shape ; size large, 4x4 15-16 inches, 
 4 1-4x4 9-16 inches ; color dark lemon yellow ; apex broad, 
 flat, scarcely depressed, scarred ; base ridged and slightly 
 roughened ; rind smooth, 1-4 to 5-8 inch in thickness ; oil 
 cells rather small ; sections distinctly marked, irregular in 
 size, tifteen in number; flesh coarse, color pink or pinkish, 
 the coloring matter apparentlj"^ located in the walls and in 
 the juice sacks, the inner rind and section divisions ; juice 
 sacks large, spindle-shaped ; juice plentiful, colorless ; pulp 
 melting; acidity, sweetness and bitterness normal, well 
 blended; flavor excellent; pith solid, 3-4 inch across; seeds 
 pinkish, small, wedge-shaped or roundish, seventy-two in 
 number ; season February and March. 
 
 The pyriform shape of the fruit is somewhat objec- 
 tionable, as the neck portion is filled with the inner rind. 
 The quality compares well with any of the other varieties 
 and the color of the flesh makes it interesting. 
 
 As to its origin, Mr. E. N. Reasoner says: "We found 
 the Tresca pomelo in the grove of Capt. Fred Tresca about 
 the year 1887; the Captain had brought seeds from the 
 Bahamas some years previously and that season was their 
 first crop. The color and fiavor was so novel that we got 
 buds and propagated from it." 
 
 VARIETIES WITH LIGHT COLORED FLESH. 
 
 Aurantium (Orange). Form oblate; size 3 1-2x3 7-8 
 inches, frequently smaller; stem small; color light yellow; 
 
liO CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 rind smooth, but with the oil cells slightly depressed; sec- 
 tions eleven, regular; flesh grayish green; bitter principle 
 not marked or present only in u very slight degree; acidity 
 medium ; sweetness good ; seeds thirty-five, of medium size ; 
 season late. 
 
 Aurantium is quite generally regarded as a hybrid. 
 Mr. James Mott, who introduced the variety, has written 
 the author as follows regarding its (irigin: '•In the winter 
 of ISSs. I found with Mr. J. (J. Clouser, Longwood, Fla., 
 what seemed to me was a very sujierior pomelo, two quite 
 large trees, from buds he then told me he supposed were 
 orange Avhen he took the buds from a small tree which he 
 found in an old abandoned seedling nursery. The nursery 
 was planted by a .Mr. Henkle at an eai-ly date from sweet 
 iii-auge seed pi-ijcured from the noted l^nmmitt grove at 
 or near the head of Indian River." 
 
 This variety, as already noted, is held to be a hybrid 
 between the sweet orange and the pomelo, and the character 
 of the fruit — so different from that of the pomelo — gives 
 color to this view. The quality is good, but falls short 
 of the standard of excellence for pomelos. 
 
 DeSoto. Form oblate; size ;'. 7-8 x 4 7-S inches; stem 
 stout ; base creased ; rind medium thick, compact ; color 
 light yellow; oil cells very slightly elevated; sections fif- 
 teen, large, irregular; flesh light grayish; juice sacks 
 large, well filled, irregular; bitterness decidedly marked; 
 acidity medium ; flavor and quality both good, though 
 slightly lacking in character; seeds forty-three, wedge- 
 shaped, large and plump; season late. A good seedling 
 variety. 
 
 In reference to the origin of this variety, Mr. John 
 Thomson, of Clearwater, Fla., says: "The variety is one 
 that I came across on the banks of the Peace Elver, near 
 
POMELO GROUP— VARIETIES. ]\J 
 
 Zolfo, Fla. My attention was first called to it in 18!)2-3. 
 * * * The fruit attracted my attention and I decided that 
 it had distinctive merit of its own, hence I brought bud- 
 wood from the tree with me to Clearwater in the spring of 
 1895." 
 
 Duncan. Form oblate; size 3 3-S x 4 IS inches, 4 4-2 x 
 51/4 inches or larger; color light yellow; stem large; calyx 
 segments broad, blunt; apex slightly scarred; rind me- 
 dium thick, firm; oil cells large, sunken; sections four- 
 teen; tlcsh light grayish green; juice sacks closely packed, 
 large; bitterness well marked; acidity and sweetness 
 good ; core % inch across, somewhat open ; seeds five or 
 more, large, plump, blunt, not winged; season late. 
 
 A fruit of excellent quality originated by A. L. Dun- 
 can, Dunedin, Fla., and cannot be too highly recom- 
 mended for general planting. 
 
 Excelsior. (Excelsior Late). I'orni oblate; size 4 x 
 4 3-4 inches; color lemon yellow; rind very slightly pitted; 
 oil cells large, slightly sunken; sections thirteen, large, 
 irregular ; Uesh light grayish ; hitter principle well marked ; 
 acidity normal; quality good; seeds thirty-one, wedge- 
 shaped, large, plump ; season late. 
 
 "This particular fruit, one of a number of old seed- 
 lings, was brought to the notice of the manager of the Lake- 
 land Nursery Co. in 1886 or '87. He propagated about 
 one hundred trees. In the year 1890 my personal attention 
 was called to the desirability, quality and especially the 
 bearing capacity, and after repeated demands for the 
 variety, I propagated it for the flrsl time in my nurseries 
 located at Fort Meade in 1891." — (\ M. Marsh in a letter 
 to the author, dated June 5, 1903. 
 
 Hall. (Silver Cluster.) (Hall's) Elemin's Silver 
 Cluster.) Form oblate; size 4 1-8x4 5-8 inches, or larger, 
 stem large; color light yellow, but slightly darker than 
 
lis 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 that of most pomelos; base smooth, or sometimes slightly 
 creased; rind 3-16 inch thick; oil cells slightly indented; 
 sections fourteen, large, variable in size; bitter principle 
 strongly developed; acidity and sweetness well marked; 
 juice almost transparent ; seeds thirty-two, small, roundish, 
 plump, quite a number aborted; season February-March. 
 There has been considerable discussion over the origin 
 of this variety, but it seems to be a fact well established 
 that it was originated by John W. Hall, of Caloosa, Fla. 
 The original tree was grown from seed sown by him when 
 he first came to the State about 1885. The synonymy as 
 given above may be open to some objections, but in naming 
 it the credit has been given to Dr. Hall, to whom it is 
 believed to be due. 
 
 Josselyn. — 
 Form roundish- 
 obovate; 
 3 1-8 X 
 inches ; 
 medium ; 
 yellow 
 
 Phoio btl EiiKiiiiiiijrr. 
 
 Fig. 22. The Triumph Pomelo in Fruit in the 
 Grove of Dr. Innman, V\''inter H.aven, Fla. 
 
 Size 
 31-2 
 stem 
 color 
 darkest 
 of all the varie- 
 ties which have 
 come under ob- 
 servation ; • rind 
 smooth ; oil cells 
 slightly sunken ; 
 sections twelve, 
 rather irregu- 
 lar, dividing tis- 
 sue thick ; flesh 
 grayish green ; 
 pulp melting; 
 
POMELO GROUP— VARIETIES. 119 
 
 bitterness strongly marked; aciditj- and sweetness well 
 developed; core 1-2 inch in diameter, solid; seeds forty- 
 eight, whitish, small and plump; season December-Janu- 
 ary. 
 
 This variety was introduced by Messrs. J. W. and F. 
 D. Waite, of the Magnolia Nurseries, Belleview, Marion 
 County, Fla., in 1888. The original tree stood in the old 
 Josselyn grove at East Lake, on Lake Weir. 
 
 Leonardy. Form slightly oblate or rounded ; size med- 
 ium, 3 3-4x1 1-2 inches, 3 7-8x4 5-16 inches ; color lemon 
 vellow; apex smooth, not depressed, scar small; base 
 smooth, slightly depressed; calyx small, 3-8 inch across, 
 lobes not conspicuous; rind smooth, shiny, 1-4 inch thick; 
 oil cells flush with the surface, large and conspicuous; 
 sections well defined, large and regular, ten in number; 
 flesh coarse, light grayish in color; juice sacks large; juice 
 plentiful, colorless; pulp melting; acidity and sweetness 
 well balanced; quality excellent; pith open, 3-4 inch 
 across; seeds present, large, broad, flat, twenty-eight in 
 number; season January. 
 
 Manville. (Manville's Improved.) Form oblate ; size 
 medium to large, 3 5-8 x 4 1-8 inches ; stem small ; color 
 lemon yellow; rind 1-4 inch thick, smooth, the oil cells 
 being flush with the surface or only slightly sunken; sec- 
 tions thirteen, large, fairly regular; flesh light grayish 
 green ; juice sacks large, irregular ; bitterness well marked ; 
 acidity and sweetness good ; core 5-8 inch in diameter, 
 compact; seeds sixty to seventy, large; season late. 
 
 In relation to the origin of this variety, Reasoner 
 Brothers made the following statement: "Manville's Im- 
 proved was sent us by the late A. H. Manville, from East 
 Florida, years ago." 
 
121) 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Thus fa^" this variety has not been catalogued, but the 
 fruit appears to be very desirable 
 
 Fig. 23. Marsh Pomelo. 
 
 Marsh. (Marsh's t^ccdless.) Form oblate roundish; 
 size :; IS x -i 7-8 inches, 31-2x4 1-2 inches. 3 5-8 x -4 7-8 
 inches; stem small; color light yellow; rind 1-8 inch thick, 
 smooth; oil cells small, scarcely or not at all indented; 
 sections thirteen, regular, partitions thin; juice sacks 
 small; flesh grayish green; bitter priuciple not strongly 
 marked; acidity and sweetness medium; pith 5-8 inch in 
 diameter, open ; seeds two to six, or none, large, plump ; 
 season February-^March. 
 
 This variety was introduced by C. M. Marsh, Lake- 
 land, Fla., about ISOn or 1896. The original tree was 
 a seedling, growing in Lakeland, and was at the time of 
 the freeze, fully sixty years old. This pomelo has not the 
 <listinct, pronounced flavor of the typical fruit, but the 
 
POMELO GROUP— VARIETIES. 121 
 
 quality is good, and tlie fact that it is so nearly seedless 
 is a very desirable feature. 
 
 May. (May's). Form oblate-rounded; size small to 
 medium. 31-4x3 1-2 inches, 3 5-lG x 3 3-4 inches; heavy in 
 weight; color light yellow; base rounded, scarcely de- 
 pressed; calyx small; stem small; apex rounded, with a 
 very slight depression marked with a small dark spot; 
 rind smooth, glossy, tightly attached, 1-4 inch thick; oil 
 cells conspicuous, medium sized, just level with the sur- 
 face; sections clearly defined, twelve in number, regular 
 and of medium size; juice sacks large, broad, blunt; fiesh 
 coarse grained, light grayish in color ; juice abundant ; 
 acidity and sweetness normal, bitterness marked; flavor 
 and quality excellent; pith 5-8 inch across; seeds present, 
 thick, plump, of medium size, 9-16 x 3-8 inch, light yellow- 
 ish in color, forty-four in number and some abortive; 
 season, November-February. 
 
 The May pomelo is an excellent variety, formerly well 
 known in Florida, but for some time after 1895 it dis- 
 appeared almost entirely. Previous to that time it won 
 prizes wherever exhibited. The original tree, according to 
 Mr. E. S. Hubbard, was probably set in the May's grove 
 at Orange Mills on the St. Johns Eiver with his orange 
 trees in 1824 by Zephariah Kingsley Slaver. 
 
 McKinley. Form oblate, or slightly oblate conical; 
 size 3 7-8 x 4 3-4 inches; color pale yellow; rind smooth, 
 Ihin; oil cells large, conspicuous, scarcely indented; sec- 
 tions fourteen, large, slightly irregular; bitterness marked; 
 acidity normal ; sweetness good ; quality of the best ; core 
 3-4 -inch in diameter pithy; seeds sixty-two, wedge- 
 shaped, large ; season late. 
 
122 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 This is a i)omelo of considerable merit and worthy of 
 propagation. The variety originated as a seedling in the 
 grove of A. A. Gardner, Fort flyers, Fla. 
 
 Nocatee. Form roundish or somewhat oblate; size 
 small, 2 3-8x2 3-4 inches, 21-2x3 inches, 2 5-8x3 1-4 
 inches; stem small; calyx small; apex slightly marked; 
 color lemon yellow, occasionally somewhat deeper; rind 
 1-8 to 3-lC inch, easily detached; oil cells minute, slightly 
 indenited; sections twelve, variable in size, separating 
 easily; flesh yellowish gray; tissue thin, translucent; juice 
 almost transparent; acidity medium; bitter principle lack- 
 ing; juice sacks small, short, plump, in shape resembling 
 those of the tangierine ; flavor a commingling of pomelo 
 and tangierine; pith small, 3-8 inch in diameter; seeds 
 three to twenty-three, small, slightly winged at the tip; 
 cotyledons white or green, or partly green and partly 
 white ; season late ; a good keeper. 
 
 This variety appears to be a well marked hybrid be- 
 tween the tangierine and the pomelo, and I have placed 
 it with the pomelos because the fruit, in general appear- 
 ance, more closely resembles that fruit. 
 
 It originated at Nocatee, Fla., and Mr. T. J. Watkins, 
 the owner of the tree, in 1902 wrote the following notes 
 regarding it : "The original tree is about twenty years old, 
 and somewhat larger than an average sour orange tree of 
 the same age. It is a hybrid of accidental origin, showing 
 marks of grapefruit, tangierine and bitter-sweet orange. 
 It is a distinct type, having fruit, bloom, wood, habit of 
 growth and leaf diff'erent from all others, and is as easily 
 recognizable as the tangierine or grapefruit. It is a strong, 
 vigorous grower, with limbs long and somewhat slender. 
 The leaves are medium size, broad, slightly bent upward 
 from midrib and slightly curved backward, giving a shape 
 
POMELO GROUP— VARIETIES. 
 
 123 
 
 bearing some resemblance to an apple leaf, but in color 
 and texture it resembles the leaf of the common orange. 
 In habit of growth it is loose, open-headed, and the foliage 
 less dense than a grapefruit or common orange. The wood 
 is almost thornless and the tree prolific, being laden with 
 fruit every year. All characteristics of the tree and fruit 
 are retained in budded trees. * * * * Growth of 
 budded trees has been more rapid and vigorous than that 
 of grapefruit buds under similar conditions. 
 
 Fig". 24. Pernambuco Pomelo. 
 
 "The fruit is of medium size, running about one hun- 
 dred and fifty to the box, in color a clear, pure yellow ; has 
 few seeds, many of the fruits being entirely seedless; has 
 loose rind, separating from the fruit a little less easily 
 than tangierine's. * * * It is good any time after De- 
 cember, and will hang on the trees until August, but 
 reaches full maturity about April, when it develops a rare 
 combination of rich and delicate flavor." 
 
124 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AXD THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 The Ipaves of this variety are different from those of 
 the orange or grapefruit. On some leaves the wings are 
 entirely absent. In others the wing is cut in on one side 
 only, leaving the other entire, while other leines have a 
 well marked wing on both sides. 
 
 The fruit is certainly unique and interesting, and pos- 
 sesses a considerable degree of merit. 
 
 Pernambuco. Form oblate; size 3 .3-4 x 4 ;')-4 inches, 
 3 7-8 X 4 1-2 inches; stem stout; calyx medium in size; 
 color very light yellow ; rind 1-4 inch thick, compact, 
 closely attached, smooth ; oil cells large, sunken ; sections 
 twelve, uniform in size, well defined; flesh grayish green; 
 bitterness well marked; acidity and sweetness good; char- 
 acter well marked; seeds sixty to seventy-five, whitish, 
 wedge-shaped, irregular ; season late. 
 
 This variety was imported by the United States De- 
 partment of Agriculture from Pernambuco, Brazil. It is a 
 variety of very fine quality. 
 
 Royal. Form 
 slightly oblate; 
 size ■! X 3 1-2 
 inches, .'J x 3 5-8 
 inches ; stem 
 stout ; color 
 light yellnw ; 
 rind 1-8 inch 
 thick ; oil cells 
 small; sections 
 eleven or twelve, 
 small, regular; 
 
 Pig. 25. Duncan Pomelos. fl 6 S h grayish ; 
 
 green ; bitter principle almost entirely lacking; acidity me- 
 dium ; sweetness good — can be eaten from the hand as an 
 
 
 ■iff:" ■■- 
 
 llll 
 
 
 '\ ■^^■■i-^)"- 
 
 
POMELO GROUP— YARIE TIE ti. 125 
 
 orange; seeds forty, grayish in color, roundish and plump; 
 core 3-4 inch in diameter, pithy ; season medium early. 
 
 Mr. E. N. Reasoner, in a personal letter, says: "The 
 Royal pomelo \vas brought from Cuba (probably) about 
 thirty years ago, and is a lavyc, tine tree yel, in this neigh- 
 borhood. We budded from it and named it in 1891; listed 
 it in 1892." 
 
 The fruit is quite desirable, but lacks the character 
 of the pomelo. The tree is a good bearer, probably a 
 hybrid. 
 
 Standard. (Indian River.) Form oblate; size large, 
 4 1-4x5 inches; stem small; base slightly creased; color 
 very light yellow; rind 3-8 inch thick; oil cells large, 
 slightly depressed; sections thirteen, large, rather irregu- 
 lar; flesh grayish green; bitterness marked; acidity and 
 sweetness normal ; pulp melting ; juice plentiful ; juice 
 sacks large; quality excellent; seeds forty-nine to fifty- 
 nine, large, long, creased; core 7-8 inch, open; season Jan- 
 uary-March. 
 
 The origin of this variety is unknown. 0. T. McCarty, 
 Eldred, Fla., from whom specimens were first received, 
 wrote as follows regarding it: "This pomelo is known 
 here as the Standard, or Indian River; I don't know its 
 origin. It came here from Rockledge sixteen years ago." 
 (Or about 1886.) One of the very best varieties. 
 
 Triumph. Form oblate or slightly oblate-oblong, 
 slightly flattened at base and apex ; size 3 5-8 x 4 inches ; 
 stem small; color light yellow; rind very smooth, 1-8 inch 
 thick; oil cells slightly depressed; sections eleven; bitter 
 principle not so strongly marked as in some; acidity and 
 sweetness normal ; juicy ; piilp melting ; seeds thirty-seven, 
 medium, plump, roundish ; core 5-8 inch in diameter, open 
 or pithy ; season medium early. 
 
126 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 The original tree of this variety grew in the yard of 
 the Orange Grove Hotel at Tampa, but was killed during 
 the severe winter of 1894-95. Propagation of the Triumph 
 pomelo was commenced in 1884. 
 
 Walters. (Walter. J Form oblate; size 3 3-4 x 4 7-8 
 inches; stem small; color pale yellow; rind smooth, 1-4 
 inch thick; oil cells almost flush with the surface; sections 
 thirteen, large; bitter principle strongly marked; acidity 
 and sweetness good; quality very good; seeds fifty-eight, 
 large, plump, wedge-shaped or irregular; core 3-4 inch in 
 diameter, solid ; season medium. 
 
 The AValters pomelo was introduced in 1887 by a Mr. 
 Walters, assisted by Waite Bros. The original tree grew 
 near the village of Belleview, Marion County, Fla. 
 
 In habit of growth this tree very closely resembles 
 the Hall, and by some they are thought to be the same, 
 but the origin of the two is entirely different as may be 
 noted from the descriptions. The seeds show a distinct 
 varietal difference. 
 
 ["-'^m.-i 
 
 Photo hy Eii.siiihujr 
 
 Fig-. 26. Walters Pomelo in Fruit. 
 
CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 SHADDOCK GROUP— VARIETIES. 
 
 Mammoth. Form oblate; size large, 4 7-8 x inches, 
 or larger; color lemon yellow; apex rounded or flattened, 
 marked with a large scar; base gradually rounded, with 
 a broad shallowed depression, not creased; calyx large, 
 irregular ; rind 3-4 inch thick, fungous ; oil cells large, con- 
 spicuous, globular; flesh coarse, white; juice sacks large, 
 pointed, with the membrane thick ; pulp not melting, but 
 inclined to be tough; acid and bitter, sweetness slightly 
 developed; flavor sweetish bitter; pith open; sections not 
 covered with membrane on the inner edge; seeds present, 
 large, wedge-shaped, twelve in number; season winter. 
 
 Pink. Form oblate- 
 pyriform, necked ; 
 size large, 6x6 5-8 
 inches; color lemon 
 yellow; apex slightly 
 depressed, scarred ; 
 base depressed, slight- 
 ly ridged; calyx sel 
 in a depression, seg- 
 ments blunt ; rind 
 thick, 1-2 to 3-4 inch, 
 fungoiis ; oil cells 
 large, conspicuous ; 
 sections twelve, irreg- 
 ular in size, distinct, 
 separated by thick, leathery partitions; flesh coarse, pink 
 or reddish in color; juice sacks large, spindle-shaped, i-2 
 
 Fig. 27. Cross-section of Pink Shaddock. 
 (About one-third natural size.) 
 
128 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 to 1 1-4 inches long, not tightly fastened together; juice 
 fairly abundant, not colored, the coloring matter of the 
 flesh confined to the tissue; pulp not melting, rather tough ; 
 flavor bitter and acid with some sweetness; pith large. 
 1 1-4 inches across, not lined with membrane ; seeds pres- 
 ent, few, three to seven, medium size, 3-8 x 1-2 inch, blunt, 
 rather oval, pointed; season winter. 
 
CHAPTER XX. 
 
 KUMQUAT GROUP— VARIETIES. 
 
 Nagami ('Oblong, olive- 
 nhaped). Tree dwarf, eight to 
 twelve feet, bushy; young 
 branches somewliat angled, light 
 green ; leaves 1 1-2 x 3, 1-2 or 3-8 
 s 1 1-4 inches, lanceolate, apex 
 obtuse; base acute or obtuse; 
 margin crenate down about 
 half way from the apex; 
 veins inconspicuous, sur- 
 face dark green, glossy; lower 
 lighter; borne on rather stout, 
 usually very slightly margined 
 petioles, 1-4 to 5-8 inch in length. 
 Fruit small; obovate or oblong; 
 1 ]-4 X 3-4 inches, 11-2x1 inch, 
 13-4x1 1-8 inches, 13-4x1 3-16 
 inches, golden yellow; stem 
 short; calyx small; rind smooth, 
 aromatic, spicy; oil glands 
 large; juice acid, sparse; sec- 
 tions usually live; seeds two to 
 five, oval, 1-2 inch long, green- 
 ish; cotyledons two, green; sea- 
 son October-January. 
 
 Marumi (Round). Tree simi- 
 lar to Nagami, except that it is 
 slightly thorny, and has the ^'s. 
 
 Nagami and Marumi 
 Kumquats. (Nutnval size.) 
 
130 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 leaves somewhat smaller and rounder at the apex. Leaves 
 oval ; apex obtuse ; base obtuse ; margin crenate half way 
 down the length ; veins slightlj' more conspicuous than in 
 Nagami, borne on short, rigid, inconspicuously winged peti- 
 oles, 1-4 to 1-2 inch in length. Fruit spherical or some- 
 what oblate, 1 to 1 1-4 inches in diameter; golden yellow, 
 short stalked; calyx small; rind smooth, thin, spicy to 
 the taste and aromatic when bruised; oil cells large; 
 pulp sparse; juice acid; sections four to seven; seeds 
 small, oval, greenish, one to three in number; cotyledons 
 two, greenish; season, same as Nagami. 
 
 When eaten raw both Nagami and Marumi have a very 
 pleasant flavor or combination of flavors. The juice is 
 acid; the rind has an agreeable spicy taste; while the soft, 
 white, graniilar inner portion of the rind is decidedly 
 sweet. There is a slight difference in flavor between the 
 two varieties, but it is better determined by taste than 
 described in words. Of the two, Nagami is generally con- 
 sidei'ed to be the more desirable, though among growers 
 there is a difference of opinion. The fruit of the Nagami 
 is more regular in size on young plants. Large sized 
 plants of both varieties bear about the same amount of 
 fruit of uniform size and both are very proliflc. 
 
 Sour. Form rounded oblate; size small, 11-8x1 1-4 
 inches; color deep orange red; a]iex flattened; base 
 rounded; stem small; calyx small, bluntly five pointed; 
 rind smooth, very thin, easily separated from the pulp; 
 oil cells of mediiim size, flush with the surface; sections 
 six or seven, clearly defined, separating readily from each 
 othei-, flesh fine grained, orange edhired; juice sacks small; 
 juice abundant, colored; pulp melting, free from rag; acid- 
 ity very strong, but pleasant; pith small, rather open; 
 
KUMQUAT OROUi'— VARIETIES. 131 
 
 seeds oval, smooth, plump, two to four in number, 3-8 x 
 1-4 inch; season iS'^ovember-December. 
 
 The scent of the freshly cut fruit is very much like 
 that of the Mandarin oranges. The leaves are thin, broadh 
 oval in outline. The variety is subject to scab and is of 
 little importance except as an ornamental. Buds were 
 received from Dr. F. W. Inman, of Winter Haven, Fla., 
 and from these the present specimens at the Florida Ex- 
 periment Station were grown. I have been in doubt in 
 placing it with the kumquats, but have been unable to 
 make a better disposition of it. 
 

CHAPTER XXL 
 CITRON GROUP— VARIETIES. 
 
 Lemon. (Sorrento). Form oblong; size variable, 
 large specimens, 7 3-4 x 5 inches or larger, and weighing 
 three to eight pounds; color bright lemon yellow; apex 
 uippled, nipple small, abrupt; base rounded; rind pleas- 
 antly aromatic, rather smooth, with slight, broad eleva- 
 tions, 1 to 1 1-4 inches thick ; inner rind white, coarse, with 
 very little bitterness; oil cells slightly elevated or flush 
 with the surface; sections twelve in number, clearly de- 
 lined, the partitions thick; pulp bitter, lacking in juice; 
 juice sacks narrow, elongated, pointed; pith small; seeds 
 present, small, oval, blunt; fruiting throughout the whole 
 year in favorable sections. 
 
 The Lemon citron is an imported variety now grown 
 in California and to a less extent in Florida. 
 
 Lyman. Form oval-oblong; size medium; color 
 orange yellow; quality good. Cat. Fla. Hort. Soc, 1902. 
 
 Orange. Fruit somewhat cone-shaped, more pointed 
 than common variety; color that of an ordinary orange; 
 rind cream colored ; pulp yellowish ; rind sweet and highly 
 aromatic; fruit possesses less bitterness than the common 
 variety; tree a small, stiff, erect grower. (Moore from 
 Fla. Fr. Gr. Association Report.) 
 
H 
 
CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 LEMON GEOUr— A'AEIETIES. 
 
 Eureka. Form oblong; size medium, 2 7-8x2 inches, 
 3 X 2 1-J: inclies ; color lemon yellow ; apex nippled, the nip- 
 ple small and abrupt; base slightly tapered, frequently 
 oblique ; calyx of medium size, four to five pointed, points 
 blunt; rind smooth, 1-1 inch thick uncured, 1-8 inch thick 
 when cured, sweet; oil cells 
 quite large, depressed; sections 
 ten, well defined and regular; 
 flesh fine grained, pale grayish 
 yellow in color; juice sacks 
 small, spindle-shaped, elong- 
 ated; juice abundant, clear; 
 pulp melting; acid pure and 
 strong; flavor excellent; pith 
 small, 1-4 inch across ; seeds 
 present, but mostly abortive, 
 elongated, somewhat wedge- 
 shaped, small. 
 
 The tree is half dwarf in 
 habit and comparatively free 
 from thorns. The fruit keeps 
 well and is one of the best var- 
 ieties grown in California. It has a tendency to 
 bear the fruit at the end of the branches, and is poorly 
 covered with foliage. It is an extremely prolific variety. 
 It was introduced by Mr. T. A. Garey, of Los Angeles, 
 Gal., and originated by (\ R. Workman at the same place, 
 the seed from which it grew ha^'ing been imported from 
 Hamburg in 1872. 
 
 Fig. 29. Ever-bearing Lemon. 
 (About one-lial( natural size.) 
 
130 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Everbearing. Form oval, pointed at both euds ; size 
 medium. 3 9-16 x 2 inches; color yellow; apex pointed, 
 point about 5-8 inch long; base elongated, somewhat ridged 
 about the calyx; calyx small; rind rough, almost warty; 
 when uncured 3-16 inch thick; oil cells depressed, large; 
 sections not clearly defined, eleven in number, regular: 
 flesh fine grained, greenish gray in color; juice sacks 
 elongated and narrow; juice plentiful, colorless; pulp 
 melting; acid fairly good; flavor fair; pith small, about 
 3-16 inch across; seeds present, of medium size, nineteen 
 in number shape oval, pointed; season, all the year round. 
 
 The Everbearing lemon is too rough and contains too 
 many seeds to make it a desirable market variety. It is 
 quite valuable for domestic use and especially so as it 
 is always in flower and fruit. It has a strong tendency 
 to produce an abundance of water sprouts and suckers, 
 hence forms a bushy growth. It has been grown in Florida 
 for many, many years, and is jirobably a Spanish intro- 
 duction. 
 
 Fig-. 30. 
 
 Li.sbon Lemon, and cross-section of uncured specimen. 
 (Five-eiglitlis natural size.) 
 
 Genoa. Form oblong, pointed at both ends ; size med- 
 ium, 3 3-S X 2 inches, 3 Tt-ie x 2 ,")-16 inches; color lemon 
 yellow, bright; apex nippled, nipple small and rather 
 
LEMON GROUP— VARIETIES. 137 
 
 sharp pointed ; base necked ; calyx large, four to five 
 pointed, points rounded ; rind smooth, sweet, 1-4 inch thick 
 or slightly more uncured, 1-8 inch thick cured; oil cells 
 small, fairly conspicuous; sections seven to ten, regular; 
 flesh flue grained, grayish yellow in color; juice sacks 
 fairly large, spindle-shaped; juice abundant, clear; acid 
 clear and strong; flavor excellent; pith very small, 1-8 
 inch or less; seeds few, abortive, oblong, small. 
 
 The tree is thornless, dwarf in habit and the fruit 
 keeps excellently. Uncured specimens when placed in 
 water, sink about four-fifths of the diameter beneath the 
 surface, when cured, five-sixths of the distance or more. 
 The Genoa lemon was imported from Genoa by Don Jose 
 Rubio, of Los Angeles, Cal., and from thence into Florida 
 by Mr. A. I. Bidwell about 1881. 
 
 Lisbon. Form ablong; size medium, 3 1-4x2 1-8 inches, 
 color lemon yellow; apex nippled; base somewhat necked; 
 calyx quite large and prominent; rind fairly smooth, 
 sweet to the taste, 1-8 inch thick in cured specimens, 1-4 
 inch thick in uncured; oil cells small and prominent; sec- 
 tions ten to eleven, small, regular in size ; flesh fine grained, 
 grayish yellow; juice sacks elongated, narrow, spindle- 
 shaped; juice abundant; pulp melting; acid clear, pure, 
 strong; fiavor excellent; pith small, 1-4 inch or less; seeds 
 one to five, usually abortive, oval, somewhat plano-convex. 
 
 This variety is a strong, vigorous grower, prolific, 
 thorny and well covered with foliage. The fruit is very 
 uniform in size, ripens evenly and keeps well. The Lisbon 
 lemon was imported from Portugal and was first grown 
 at Riverside, Cal., by D. N. Burnham. 
 
 Ponderosa. Form necked, oblong, obovate pyriform ; 
 size large, 4 3-8 x 4 1-8 inches ; color lemon yellow ; apex 
 fiat or roundish with a very slight indication of a nipple; 
 
138 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 base necked, rather rough, elevated about the calyx, which 
 is quite depressed; rind rough, 1-2 inch thick; oil cells 
 large, balloon shaped or oblong; sections twelve, distinct, 
 separating tissues thick ; flesh grayish, identical in color 
 with that of the pomelo ; coarse grained ; juice sacks large, 
 spindle-shaped or cylindrical and blunt; Juice plentiful, 
 colorless; pulp melting; acid quite strong; flavor agree- 
 able, not exactly like a lemon; pith small; seeds present, 
 oval, blunt pointed, somewhat wedge-shaped, twenty-flve 
 in number, of medium size; season winter. 
 
 This lemon appears to resemble the pomelo and there 
 is a possibility of its containing some of the pomelo 
 strain. The tree has not been seen, but the leaves are 
 rounded at the apex and wingless. This variety has been 
 quite extensively advertised as a novelty by northern 
 
 nurserymen for 
 pot culture. 
 
 Rough (Florida 
 R(iu(jh. French.) — 
 Form variable, 
 slightly obovate or 
 round ovate ; size 
 medium to large. 
 
 2 7-16 X I 
 
 -16 in- 
 
 35x33 in.; color 
 lemon yellow , 
 sometimes shaded 
 with a reddish 
 tinge; apex rough, 
 with a slightly 
 dejiressed ring in 
 which is set a roughened elevation having three 
 or four ridges; base rough and elevated so as to surround 
 
 Fig:. 31. Rough Lemon Fruit. 
 ( One-half natural size.) 
 
LEMON GROUP— VARIETIES. 139 
 
 the calyx; rind decidedly rough and warty, 1-4 inch thick; 
 oil cells large, balloon-shaped or globular, frequently ex- 
 tending entirely through the rind; sections well defined, 
 nine to twelve in number, separating freely from each other 
 and from the rind; tlesh coarse grained, greenish yellow 
 in color; juice sacks large, broad and blunt; juice abund- 
 ant, clear; pulp melting; acid quite strong; flavor agree- 
 able: pith open, 1-2 to 1 inch across, filled with white 
 strings of tissue; seeds small, full, plump, blunt pointed, 
 twenty-three in number; season winter. 
 
 This variety of lennm is presumably of ►Spanish intro- 
 duction and has become naturalized in the forests of 
 southern Florida. It is somewhat useful for home con- 
 sumption, but as a commercial variety it is worthless. 
 The rough lemon is quite extensively used as a stock upon 
 which to work different varieties of citnis trees. When 
 growing apart it reaches a height of upwards of twenty-five 
 feet, the bark of the tree being brownish gray and smooth 
 
 Sicily. Form oblong; size medium, 2 1-2x3 1-1 inches ; 
 color light lemon yellow, bright ; apex nippled, nipple 
 short, abrupt ; base rounded ; calyx rather large ; rind thin, 
 smooth, sweet; oil cells usually flush with the surface; 
 sections distinctly marked, quite regular, twelve in num- 
 ber; flesh grayish yellow in color, fine grained; juice sacks 
 small, spindle-shaped; juice abundant; pulp melting; acid 
 strong, clear; flavor good; pith small; seeds twelve in num- 
 ber, of medium size. 
 
 Sweet. Size very small; form much flattened; color 
 rusty, grayish yellow; instead of eye, a marked nipple set 
 in a deep cavity; stem inserted in n slight depression; 
 thickness of skin, 2-1(5 inch ; longitudinal diameter. 2 inches, 
 transverse, 2 1-8 inches ; color of flesh, dark lemon ; grain of 
 pulp coarse; juice sweet and insipid, with slight lemon 
 flavor. Curious, but unworthv of cultivation. (Moore.'' 
 
140 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Placed here provisionally; it should, doubtless, be 
 grouped differently. 
 
 Villafranca. Form oval-oblong; size medium to large, 
 3x2 5-16 inches; color lemon yellow, bright; apex pointed, 
 blunt, abrupt, about 1-2 inch long ; base rounded ; calyx of 
 medium size, segments not distinctly marked ; rind smooth, 
 1-8 inch thick when cured ; oil cells depressed or flush with 
 the surface; sections eleven, well defined and regular; 
 flesh fine grained, light grayish yellow in color ; juice sacks 
 slender, pointed; juice colorless, abundant; pulp melting; 
 acid clear, pure, strong; flavor good; pith small, 1-1 inch 
 across or less; seeds present, thirty in number, of medium 
 size, oval, pointed. 
 
 The tree has but few thorns, is a good grower and very 
 productive. The variety was imported by General Sanford 
 and is, perhaps, the most commonly planted variety in 
 Florida. 
 
 ' .1 
 
 
 Fig. 32. View in a Lemon Grove. Corona, Cal. 
 
CHAPTER XXIII. 
 LIME GEOUP— VARIETIES. 
 
 Fig. 33. Mexican Lime. 
 CJwo-tiiirds natural size. 
 
 Mexican. Form oblong or oval ; size small, 2 1-16 
 X 1 3-4 inches, 2 3-8 x 2 1-16 inches, very variable ; color 
 light lemon yellow; apex usually smooth, sometimes 
 slightly nippled and ridged, the nipple pointed or blunt, 
 short and small; base usually smooth, sometimes elevated 
 and ridged; rind smooth, very thin; oil cells very numer- 
 ous, usually flush with the surface, the larger ones some- 
 times depressed; sections distinctly marked, dividing tis- 
 sue thin, ten in number and regular in size; flesh fine 
 grained, light grayish green in color; juice sacks small, 
 spindle-shaped; juice plentiful, colorless or translucent; 
 pulp melting; acid very strong; flavor distinctly of the 
 lime; pith open, small; seeds few or none, pointed, broad 
 and flat, or slightly wedge-shaped, 3-8 to 1-2 x 3-16 inch; 
 season all the year round. 
 
142 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 The Mexican lime Avas probably introduced by the 
 Spaniards and grows wild in the forests of southern Flor- 
 ida. Size and quality of the fruit is very variable as it is 
 propagated entirely from seeds. The tree grows as a 
 shrubby bush, ten to fifteen feet high, well provided with 
 small, sharp spines. The variety might be greatly im- 
 proved by proper selection and propagation, but at present 
 the name does not stand for any single well marked var- 
 iety, but rather for a conglomeration of varieties for which 
 the description given above may be considered fairly ac- 
 curate. 
 
 Rangpur (Runi/pur, Rungpore). Form roundish, ob- 
 late, or tending toward obovate, occasionally somewhat 
 necked; size medium, 2x21-8 inches, 2 5-8x2 5-8 inches; 
 color orange red; apex sometimes flat, frequently with a 
 tendency to become distinctly nippled — aipple, if present, 
 small, sharp and short; base sometimes quite smooth, occas- 
 ionally corrugated or ridged, sometimes quite rough, espec- 
 ially when necked; calyx depressed or projecting slightly 
 around the point of attachment; rind usually fairly 
 smooth, inclining- to be rough about the base and apex, 
 thin, 1-8 inch or less in thickness, separating readily from 
 the pulp, coloring irregularl.y in the ripening process; 
 oil cells quite conspicuous, the primary ones depressed; 
 sections seven in number, fairly regular in size, separating 
 readily from each other and from the rind; flesh coarse 
 gTained, deep orange in color; juice sacks large, long, 1-2 
 to 3-4 inch, narrow and pointed; juice plentiful, slightly 
 colored (orange) ; pulp melting; acid clear, pure, strong; 
 flavor distinct, not at all like a lime, very pleasant and 
 agreeable ; pith small, open, 1-4 inch in diameter ; seeds 
 present, fourteen in number, ovate, scarcely pointed, 3-8 
 inch long by 1-4 inch wnde ; cotyledons greenish ; season, 
 
LIME GROUP— VARIETIES. 143 
 
 autumn and winter, remaining on the trees well on towards 
 spring. • _ " ^ , * 
 
 The Rangpur lime was grown from seed, by Reasoner 
 Bros., Oneco, Fla., obtained from northwestern India. 
 The variety appears to have come true from seed and seems- 
 to be identical with the variety described by Bonavia. 
 The tree has very much the habit of the lime, but in nearly 
 all respects the tree and fruit is distinct from the true lime 
 group. By Bonavia it has been classed with the Indian 
 group, "Suntara," which appears to be closely related to 
 our mandarin group. It has been placed with the limes 
 provisionally. 
 
 Tahiti. Form broadly oval ; size large, 3x2 5-8 inches ; 
 color lemon yellow; apex nippled, the nipple broad at the 
 base, abrupt and sharp pointed; base rounded, slightly 
 elevated about the calyx, creased or ridged; calyx adher- 
 ing firmly to the fruit, blunt pointed; rind smooth, thin, 
 1-16 inch when cured; oil cells small, slightly depressed; 
 sections well defined, irregular, ten in number; flesh fine 
 grained, greenish in color; juice sacks cylindrical, narrow 
 and pointed; juice plentiful, almost colorless; pulp melt- 
 ing; acid pure, strong; flavor agreeable, distinctly "lime"; 
 pith open, small; seeds none; season fall and winter. 
 
 The Tahiti lime grows as a round-topped tree, twelve 
 to fifteen feet in height. The fruit is produced singly or 
 in clusters of two or three, usually well covered by the fol- 
 iage. Branches are inclined to droop. The undesirable 
 feature of the variety in Florida is that the fruit tends to 
 decav on the trees about the time it matures. 
 
144 
 
 OITRVS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTVliE. 
 
 Fig. 3 4. Cross-section of Tahiti Lime. 
 (Natural size.) 
 
CHAPTER XXIV 
 ORIGINATING NEW VARIETIES. 
 
 The day has come when a knowledge of the art and 
 science of crossing plants should be as much a part of a 
 horticulturist's education as a knowledge of the art and 
 science of budding and grafting. So great are the improve- 
 ments, along certain lines, which may be brought about 
 in citrus fruits through cross-pollination and consequent 
 cross-fertilization, that it has been deemed advisable to 
 give specific directions for the use of those who desire to 
 experiment in this interesting and inviting field. The ope- 
 rations necessary for the performance of the work are so 
 simple that any novice may perform them. All that is 
 necessary is a knowledge of the methods, a little patience 
 and a considerable amount of care. 
 
 While something may be done in improving varieties 
 by bud-selection, still any radical improvements in the 
 fruits under discussion must be brought about by raising, 
 fruiting and selecting seedlings. The seeds used may be 
 selected from fruits of desirable trees or they may be pro- 
 duced as a result of hand-pollination. The method of 
 selecting and propagating desirable seedlings is the one 
 by which all of the varieties now cultivated commercially 
 in the State where produced, and it is, perhaps, not too 
 much to say that their origin has been in a large measure 
 due to chance. If attempts are made at improvement by 
 cross pollination, the parent plants may be chosen at will, 
 and there is always a strong probability of the offspring 
 inheriting some of the desirable characteristics of the 
 parent varieties. After persistent efforts for a number of 
 
146 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 years, it is almost certain that the desired end, held in view 
 from the first, may be attained in the ideal fruit. The 
 larger the number of crosses made the greater are the 
 assurances of success. If a desirable variety is not secured 
 in the first generations, it is best to continue the work by 
 crossing one of the parents on the cross or hybrid already 
 obtained. 
 
 When seeds form as a result of cross-pollination and 
 plants are successfully raised, the offspring is termed either 
 a cross or a hybrid. It is a cross if the seedling is formed 
 as a result of the union of the elements of two varieties of 
 the same species, while a hybrid is the plant resulting from 
 the union of representatives of two distinct species. For 
 example, if the pollen of the Duncan pomelo is placed on 
 the stigma of the Triumph pomelo and following this 
 fecundation takes place, seed forms and a plant is raised, 
 this plant is a cross. But if the pollen of the Duncan 
 pomelo is placed on the stigma of a Lemon citron and as 
 a result a seedling is raised, it will be a hybrid. In the 
 first case, the two pomelos belong to the same species, 
 C. decumana, while in the latter case we have representa- 
 tives of two species, C. decumana and C. Medica. By some 
 plant breeders these two terms, cross and hybrid, have been 
 discarded and the term hybrid used in the place of them, 
 but the usage as given above is the long established one 
 and the best to follow. 
 
 Tlic Parts of tlie Flower. A knowledge of the struc- 
 ture of the citrus flower on the part of the operator is in- 
 dispensable. On examining a flower the flrst part noticed 
 is the large, white, showy portion, usually composed of 
 five parts. This is the corolla, and each part or segment 
 is 'ermed a petal. (Fig. 35 E.) Outside the corolla at 
 its ase is a much smaller, yellowish or greenish, somewhat 
 
Plate XII. 
 
 Pollinating Outfit. 
 
 Pin-Scalpel; Brush and handle; Tweezers: Surg:eon's scissors; Phial 
 
 of pollen; Hand-lens. 
 
148 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 cupped part, the calyx. In the calyx of some flowers five 
 points may be made out (oftener only three or four) , which 
 represent the parts of the calyx, in the citrus flower fused 
 into one. These parts are each known as a sepal. The 
 calyx and corolla constitute the floral envelopes or protec- 
 tive part of the flower. 
 
 Inside the corolla, standing up in a ring, are the 
 stamens (Fig. 35 D.). Each consists of a white stem or 
 filament, surmounted by a yellow, pointed knob, the anther. 
 If the anthers are ripe, a yellow dust, the pollen, will be 
 found on them. The stamens are usually about twenty in 
 number and the filaments are more or less united, so as 
 to form a ring. The filaments of C. trifoliata are not joined 
 together. 
 
 Pig:. 35. Vertical section througli a citrus flower, enlarged about 
 two and one-half times. P, Peduncle, expanding into the calyx just 
 above. E, petals. D, Stamens. F, Filaments. A, Anther. B, Pistil. 
 S, Stigma. B, Style, O, Ovules. 
 
 Within the ring of stamens the pistil (Fig. 3.5, B.) 
 rises straight up from the bottom of the flower. Its upper 
 knob-like end, the stigma, rises above, or to, the level of 
 the stamens. Below the stigma is a rather thick, straight 
 
ORIGINATING NEW VARIETIES. 149 
 
 part, the style, joined to a round, greenish body, the ovary, 
 at its base. This ovary, when fully developed, forms the 
 fruit. If we cut through the ovary from top to bottom 
 with a sharp knife and examine the section with a hand- 
 lens, a number of small, light-colored bodies, attached 
 along the central column, may be made out. These are 
 the ovules (Fig. 35, O.), which, after being fertilized, grow 
 and form the seed. The stamens and pistil are called the 
 essential organs of the flower, because they are the parts 
 which form the seed for the reproduction of the tree. It 
 is with them that one making crosses is most concerned, 
 for through their agency seed is produced and through 
 them only can the work be done. 
 
 As already indicated the ovary grows and forms the 
 fruit while the ovules develop into the seed. But seed-form- 
 ation does not commence until the ovules are acted upon 
 by the pollen. When the anthers are ripe the pollen is 
 discharged through slits in the sides. The stigma must 
 also ripen or become receptive to the pollen. This condi- 
 tion in citrus flowers is shown by its viscid appearance and 
 by its being covered with a whitish, sticky fluid. Then if 
 the pollen be placed upon the stigma it is held there by 
 the adhesive surface and germinates, each pollen grain 
 sending out a little slender tube, which grows through the 
 style and finds its way into the ovary, where the contents 
 are emptied into the ovules. Then fertilisation or fecunda- 
 tion is accomplished and seed-development begins. 
 
 MODE OF OPERATION. 
 
 Having now become acquainted with the different 
 parts of the citrus flower and their uses, the operator is 
 ready for the actual work. 
 
 If any considerable amount of pollination, i. e., trans 
 
150 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 fcning the pollen from the anther to the stigma, is to be 
 done, the pollen to be used should be collected and prepared 
 some time before. It has generally been observed that the 
 anthers of citrus flowers open and expose their pollen very 
 shortly or within a few hours after the flowers open. In 
 some cases the anthers are ripe as soon as they are exposed, 
 by the separation of the petals enclosing them. Hence in 
 collecting pollen, one may be quite certain of securing ma- 
 ture pollen from flowers which are just on the point of 
 opening. It will not do to take pollen from open flowers, 
 for some insect may have made a visit to them and depos- 
 ited foreign pollen in some part of the 
 flower. This pollen might unwittingly be 
 gathered and used by the operator. Gather 
 the flowers in paper sacks and afterwards 
 spi'ead them out in a thin layer on a 
 smooth sheet of paper in a warm dry 
 place, where the air is still. In two or 
 three days the flowers will dry and shrivel ; 
 all the anthers will open and the pollen 
 '\^'ill be liberated. Then carefully gather 
 
 Fig. 36. Sack ii;ijy j i -j. ■ il , 
 
 for coveiiDg poiii- the whole mass and replace it m the sacks. 
 Each one should be labeled. For use in 
 the field, the dried flowers and pollen together should be 
 placed in wide-mouthed, loosely-stopped phials. These 
 should be labeled with the name of the variety of pollen 
 and the date of collection. (Plate XII.) 
 
 A sufficient number of bags should be provided with 
 which to cover the flowers to prevent insects from visit- 
 ing them. For tliis purpose we have found two-pound 
 manilla bags, such as grocers use, the most convenient. 
 These should be prepared by punching a hole through the 
 two edges while the sacks are still flat. In the hole in 
 
ORIGINATING NEW VARIETIES. 
 
 151 
 
 one of the edges tie a string about ten inches long and 
 draw one end through the hole in the other edge, as shown 
 in Fig. 36. 
 
 Every precaution must be taken to prevent the access 
 of foreign pollen to the stigma of the flower to be operated 
 upon. It is best to select the flowers near the tips of 
 branches as it is much easier to cover them with the bags. 
 Remove all open flowers and those which are immature. 
 No flower should be worked upon after it is open. Choose 
 them in the stage shown in fig. 37, B. just before they are 
 
 Fig. 37. A, Open citrus flower, showing petals, stamens and pistil. 
 B, Bud at the right stage for emasculating. C, An emascu- 
 lated flower. 
 
 ready to open. If possible, select the blossoms so as to be 
 able to place a number under the same sack. 
 
 In performing the work, gently hold the unopened 
 flower-bud in the fingers. With a pair of tweezers care- 
 fully pry the petals apart so as to expose the anthers and 
 stigma. If the flower is in the right stage, it will be found 
 that the stigma is on a level with the anthers or slightly 
 above them and that its surface is viscid or sticky, as 
 already noted. Then remove the anthers by catching the 
 filaments some distance below them and nipping them off, 
 or a pair of surgeons' scissors (Plate XII) may be used. 
 This operation of removing the anthers is termed emascii- 
 
152 
 
 CITRUH FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 lation. Be careful to remove all the anthers and do not 
 allow any of them to drop down between the filaments and 
 the pistil. When the emasculation is completed the sta- 
 mens present the appearance of those shown in fig. 37, C. 
 Generally it will be found that the stigma is quite ready 
 for the pollen at this stage. Hence it is not necessary to 
 place a bag about the emasculated flower or flowers to 
 
 await the ripen- 
 ing of the pistil 
 or pistils, as must 
 be done with the 
 flowers of many 
 other plants. 
 
 Pollination may 
 be performed im- 
 mediately after 
 em as cu 1 at i on 
 The pollen may be 
 placed on the 
 stigma by grasp- 
 ing one of the 
 dried flowers by 
 the base and 
 bringing the an- 
 thers in contact 
 with the stigma. 
 But generally 
 we have used a 
 small, soft camel's 
 hair brush (Plate 
 XII) fitted with a wooden handle four or five inches long 
 A fresh one should be provided for each different kind of 
 pollen to be used. The brush is dipped into the phial con- 
 
 38. Paper sack, covering' cross-pollinated 
 Satsuma flowers. 
 
ORIGINATING NEW VARIETIES. 
 
 l-,?> 
 
 taining the dried flowers and pollen and twirled around 
 so as to fill it with the pollen grains. This method is 
 rather wasteful of pollen and the one given above is pref- 
 erable where only a small amount of pollen can be secured, 
 but for working on a large scale we have found nothing 
 better to substitute for it. After filling the brush with 
 pollen it is gently applied to the stigma. See that 
 plenty of pollen adheres to its surface. Then carefully 
 cover the pollinated flower or flowers, if a number 
 are together, 
 with a paper 
 bag, tie it tight- 
 ly around the 
 branch and be- 
 low the sack, 
 place a label in- 
 dicating the pol- 
 len used and 
 the date (fig. 
 35). 
 
 Nothing more 
 needs to be done 
 until the fruit 
 has set. This 
 is indicated by 
 the dropping of 
 the style from 
 the ovary. If 
 
 at this time the pjg. jg Triumph pomelo fruit, the result of 
 niroit^T id rtoan cross-polIlnatlon, enclosed in a mosquito- 
 OVdiy IS ueep ^^^. ^^^^ ^^^ protection. 
 
 green in color we may feel reasonably certain that the fruit 
 will stay and that seeds have commenced to grow. At this 
 time, about ten days or two weeks after pollinating, the 
 paper bags should be removed and replaced by sacks about 
 
 
 
 ■€>? 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^^' 
 
 ^ 
 
 \'"^. 
 
 ?^ 
 
 5^ y 
 
 7 
 
 kr^ 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 iL*.. 
 
 of-^- 
 
 ^^Hgg 
 
 s,.^. 
 
 *■ Z'^.-' 
 
 ^^^^^1 
 
 "r% 
 
 -1^ III*-'- 
 
 J^ 
 
 ■^■^ 
 
 X 
 
 V 
 
 i i^ ^i^H 
 
 • 
 
 
154 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 6x8 inches, made of mosquito-netting. For pomelos or 
 otlier large citrus fruits, the sacks should be 8x10 inches, 
 or larger, if a number of fruits are included under one 
 sack. These mosquito-netting sacks admit the air freely, 
 prevent many insect attacks on the young fruit and fre- 
 quently save the fruit by holding it if it should drop after 
 it is matured and before picking. 
 
 When the fruit is ripe it should be carefully gathered 
 and the seed saved. If injury to the young plants from 
 cold can be prevented, the seeds may be sown immediately. 
 If there is danger from this source the seeds should be 
 stratified as described later on and kept until the time 
 is suitable for planting. In most citrus growing districts 
 this can be safely done by March. Give the seedlings good 
 care and by August, they will have attained a height of 
 about two and a half or three feet. 
 
 Some seeds will give more than one plant, due to the 
 presence of more than one embryo in the seed. All the 
 plants should be saved as they may represent combinations 
 of the parent forms in different proportions. Some buds 
 may even be secured in autumn and inserted in stocks 
 to start growth the following spring. In spring, buds may 
 be inserted in the tops of bearing trees. This will enable 
 one to secure fruit sooner. It may reasonably be expected 
 that fruit will be produced the third season after top-work- 
 ing. Five or six years must generally elapse from the time 
 of pollinating until fruit is secured. Then, and not until 
 then, can the results be knoAvn. 
 
 If desirable fruit is produced, well and good, if not, 
 further work must be done, and it will generally be best 
 to use one or more crosses or hybrids already obtained, as 
 one of the parents of the next generation, provided the 
 hybrid or cross obtained possesses a sufficient number 
 of desirable qualities. 
 
CHAPTER XXV. 
 JUDGING CITRUS FRUITS. 
 
 Rules and regulations for the judging of most of the 
 citrus fruits were adopted by the Florida State Horticultu- 
 ral Society in 1892 and by the Executive Committee of the 
 Los Angeles, Cal., Chamber of Commerce in 1894, and 
 these at present are the standards for the respective States. 
 In neither of these sets of scales is any provision made 
 for the pomelo, and since this fruit has come to take its 
 place along with the orange and lemon as an exceedingly 
 important citrus fruit, it seems but right that provision 
 should be made for judging it. 
 
 Such a provision is here made by the following scale 
 for pomelos, which has been prepared after having gone 
 carefully over the ground with Messrs. G. L. Taber, E. N. 
 Reasoner and E. S. Hubbard: 
 
 OFFICIAL SCALE AND EULES OF THE FLORIDA STATE 
 HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY FOR JUDGING CITRUS FRUITS. 
 
 Scale. Points. 
 
 Size, 21/2 to 31^ inches 10 
 
 Appearance, skin fancy and silky 10 
 
 Juiciness, must sink in water 10 
 
 Thickness of peel, 3-32 inch 10 
 
 Seedlessness, one point off for two seeds 10 
 
 Sweetness 15 
 
 Acid 15 
 
 Tissue 10 
 
 Bouquet 10 
 
156 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 RULES. 
 
 1. The executive committee of the Florida Horticul- 
 tural Society shall clioose a superintendent of exhibition 
 and three judges, with a substitute and a secretary. The 
 executive committee, including ex officio members and com- 
 peting exhibitors, shall not be eligible as superintendent 
 and judges. The three judges shall conduct tests, and 
 their decision shall be final. 
 
 2. The deliberation of these judges shall be secret. 
 The superintendent of exhibition, on application of the 
 chairman of judges, shall from time to time supply the 
 judges with specimens for judgment, and shall use dili- 
 gence to secure them from intrusion. 
 
 3. Each exhibitor is expected to be present with and 
 in charge of his own exhibit. His selection for entries, 
 when ready, must be formally turned over to the superin- 
 tendent of exhibits, who will then enter by name and num- 
 ber in a book of record, and furnish him a duplicate card 
 to accompany each entry. Entries will be delivered to the 
 judges in the order of their recejjtion and entry by the 
 superintendent. Responsibility for wasted fruit shall rest 
 with the exhibitor, but poor specimens can be replaced or 
 entries withdrawn by consent of the superintendent, be- 
 fore fruit is delivered to the judges. If an exhibitor is 
 unable to be present, he can make a written statement of 
 exhibits as to his fruit and entries, and the superintend- 
 ent can make selections if necessary. 
 
 4. Diplomas or cash premiums, at the disposal of the 
 Society, shall be divided into classes, 1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, in 
 ratio of merit as to premium with ratio of 3 and 2 for 
 single plate premiums. Seven specimens shall constitute 
 a plate to entitle to entry, and two of the specimens 
 
JUDGINO CITRUS FRUITS. 157 
 
 must be delivered to the judges, who will examine both 
 and score the best. These scores will be eligible both for 
 single plate and collection premiums. The judges reserve 
 the right to debar unworthy or bogus specimens. 
 
 5. The judges shall use the amended scale giving ten 
 points each to the following scores and standards of per- 
 fection: (1) size, 21-2 to 31-4 inches, diameter; (2) ap- 
 pearance — specimen must be fancy and skin silky; (3) for 
 juiciness, it must sink beloAV the surface of water, emer- 
 gence the size of a silver dollar to count 9, one-half the 
 bulk zero; (4) thickness of peel, 3-32 inch; (5) two seeds 
 to count one point oft" and two rudiments as one seed; 
 (6) absence of tissue, membranes to be very tender and 
 core porous, 1-8 to 1-4 inch in diameter, as to size of fruit ; 
 qualities of flavor, acid, 15 ; sweetness, 15, and bouquet, 10 ; 
 to be judged by the taste. Specimens of varieties excelling 
 in balance and richness of flavor to be used as standards 
 for reference. Lemons and limes to count 20 for acid and 
 20 for flavor. 
 
 6. These rules must be published with premium list, 
 and after the judges have made the awards with the super- 
 intendent of exhibit, they shall deliver the entry book and 
 scores to the executive committee and will receive their 
 discharge. 
 
 CALIFORNIA SCALES AND RULES. 
 
 The following regulations have been adopted by the 
 Executive Committee of the Los Angeles Chamber of Com- 
 merce in reference to the judging of citrus fruits : 
 
 No person will be allowed to serve as judge in any 
 class in which he is a competitor. 
 
158 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Any exhibitor who addresses a judge while the latter 
 is in discharge of his duty, will be debarred from com- 
 petition. 
 
 A majority of the judges present shall constitute a 
 quorum for decision in any class. 
 
 Preliminary Classification. Season — Early, from De- 
 cember to April; Middle, February to July; Late, June 
 to December. 
 
 Size: Large, medium, small. 
 
 (The managing committee from each competing State 
 or section is to nominate varieties to any or all of the 
 above classes, with months, and — when practicable — days, 
 for tests of its own friiit. Fruit to be judged by standards 
 of its class. So far as practicable, no committee is to judge 
 fruit of more than one size, as per above classification.) 
 
 ORANGE SCALE, 
 
 Divisions: Size, form, color, weight, peel, fiber, grain, 
 seed, taste; to be considered in order named. Counts, 
 credits, points to be units and tenths thereof, expressed 
 decimally; possible total of same to equal 100. 
 
 1. jS'/ct'. Possible credits. 10. 
 Standards — 
 
 Large 126's — 3 1-4 inches in diameter. 
 Medium, ITO's — 2 15-16 inches in diameter. 
 Small, 250"s — 2 7-16 inches in diameter. 
 Tangierines, etc. — 2 1-8 inches in diameter. 
 One unit discount for each 1-S inch deficiency or ex- 
 cess in any size. 
 
 2. Form. Possible credits, 5. 
 Standards — Round, oval, ovate, pyriforni. 
 
JUDGING CITRUH FRUITS. I59 
 
 Discount for lack of symmetry and for form blemishes. 
 Navel marks not to be discounted, except when of abnor- 
 mal size or of bad form. 
 
 3. Color. Possible credits, 19, divided as follows: 
 bloom, 2; peel, 10; flesh, 7. 
 
 Standards: Bloom to be perceptible, and to be dis- 
 counted according to degree of deficiency or of injury 
 thereto; peel to be of rich, deep orange color, in natural 
 condition, and to be discounted according to degree of 
 deviation therefrom, one or more points; rust, scale and 
 smut to be discounted five to ten points, and fruit that 
 gives visible evidence of having been cleaned of the same 
 to be subject to equal penalty ; also that has been rubbed 
 or "polished," giving a gloss at the expense of breaking 
 or pressing the oil cells, to suffer the same discount. Flesh 
 to be rich, clear and uniform, in any of the shades com- 
 mon to fine fruit. (Omit consideration of "flesh color" 
 until after concluding division 5, "peel"). 
 
 4. Weight. Possible credits, 10. 
 
 Standards: Specific gravity, 1, with buoyancy of 
 3-4 oz. allowed to "large" fruit, 1-2 oz. to "medium," and 
 1-4 oz. to "small," all without discount. 
 
 One point to be discounted for first half-ounce of 
 buoyancy in excess of allowance, and thereafter two points 
 for each additional half-ounce. 
 
 (XoTE — Buoyancy maj" be easih' determined by clasp- 
 ing weights to the fruits with light rubber bands, and 
 then placing in water.) 
 
 5. Peel. Possible credits, 10, divided as follows : 
 Finish, 3; protective quality, 7. 
 
 Standards : Of finish, smoothness and uniformity of 
 surface, and pleasant touch; of protective quality, firm 
 and elastic texture, abundant, compact and unbroken oil 
 
100 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 cells; 1-8 to 3-16 inch thickness. Discount one-half point 
 for first 1-32 inch above maximum or below minimum, and 
 two points for second 1-32 inch, provided that to long- 
 picked and fullj'-cured oranges the minimum shall be 
 lowered to 3-32 inch; and that to fresh-picked and to 
 slightly-cured "large" fruit the maximum shall be raised 
 1-J: inch. 
 
 Breaking oil cells, breaking of peel and abrasions of 
 same to be subject to one to ten discounts, according to 
 degree. 
 
 (Here consider "Color of Flesh" — see Division 3.) 
 
 6. Fiber. Possible credits, 4. 
 
 Standards: Septa delicate and translucent; maxi- 
 mum diameter of core, 3-16 inch in "large" fruit and 1-8 
 inch in other. 
 
 7. Grain. Possible credits, 4. 
 Standards: Fineness, firmness, compactness. 
 
 8. Seed. Possible credits, 4. 
 Standard: Absence of seed. 
 
 Discount one point for each seed. Each rudiment 
 to be considered as a seed if any growth has been devel- 
 oped ; otherwise allowed without discount. 
 
 9. Taste. Possible credits, 30, divided as follows : 
 Sweetness, 15 ; citrous quality, 15. 
 
 Standards: Clearness and definability of elements; 
 sweetness rich, delicate rather than heavy; citrous quality 
 pronounced. 
 
 Deficiency of absence to be cause for discounts against 
 any element, and excess to be like cause against sweetness 
 and against acid in "citrous quality" 
 
 Staleness and flavors of age or decay to be discounted 
 from aggregate of points in this division. 
 
JUDGING GITBUiS FRUITS. 161 
 
 I^EMON SCALE. 
 
 Divisions : Size, form, color, weight, peel, fiber, grain, 
 seed, taste. 
 
 Rules of counts and discounts as in scale for oranges. 
 Total of possible credits, 100. 
 
 1. Size. Possible credits, 10. 
 Standards — 
 
 Large, 250's — 2 3-8 inches in diameter. 
 Medium, 300's — 2 1-8 inches in diameter. 
 Small, 360's — 1 7-8 inches in diameter. 
 All sizes between 250's and 360's allowed. 
 Larger fruit to be discounted one point for each 1-4 
 inch in excess. Smaller to be discounted one point for 
 400's (13-4 inches), and four points for 450's (11-2 
 inches) . 
 
 2. Form. Possible credits, 15. 
 
 Standard ; Oblong, with allowance of well-formed 
 points at stem and tip. Symmetry required. 
 
 3. Color. Possible credits, 15. 
 Standard : Bright, clear lemon. 
 
 Discounts according to degree for green splashes, 
 dashes of bronze or deep shades, or for sunburn. 
 
 Eust, scale and smut, with fruit that gives evidence 
 of having been cleaned of the same, to be discounted five 
 to ten counts. 
 
 Rubbing or dusting, if heavy enough to press oil from 
 the cells, to be causes for discount. 
 
 4. Weight. Possible credits, 10. 
 
 Standard: Specific gravity, 1 (equal to that of 
 water), with buoyancy of 1-2 oz. allowed to "large" 
 lemons and 1-4 oz. to "medium" and "small," all without 
 discount. 
 
162 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 One point to be discounted for first 1-2 oz. in excess 
 of allowance, and two points for each 1-2 oz. thereafter. 
 
 5. Peel. Possible credits, 10; subdivisions of which 
 are: Finish, 3 credits; protective quality, 7 credits. 
 
 Standard: For protective quality, to be strong, elas- 
 tic and reasonably firm testiire ; abundant, compact and 
 unbroken oil cells and thickness of 3-32 to 3-16 inch. 
 
 To be discounted two counts for first 1-32 inch below 
 minimum, and five counts for second 1-32 inch; one count 
 for first 1-32 inch above maxiumm, and two for each suc- 
 ceeding 1-32 inch. 
 
 Fresh-picked lemons not allowed. 
 
 6. Fiher. I'ossible credits, 8. 
 
 Standard: Septa delicate and translucent. Core not 
 to exceed 3-16 inch in "large" and 1-8 inch in "medium" 
 and "small" fruit. 
 
 7. Grain. Possible credits, 8, divided as follows: 
 Fineness, firmness and compactness, 4 credits; color, 4 
 credits. 
 
 Standard: Grain to be water-colored, shading to 
 blue rather than to gray. 
 
 8. Seed. Possible credits. 4. 
 Standard : Absence of seed. 
 
 One-half point to be discounted for each seed. (A 
 discount of 1-4 credit for each seed is now lecoiumended 
 as sufiicient.) 
 
 Rudiments are to be considered as seed if any growth 
 has been developed; otherwise allowed without discount. 
 
 9. Taste. Possible credits. 30, divided as follows: 
 Acidity, 20 credits; absence of bitterness, 10 credits. 
 
 In interstate competitions the standard of acidity 
 shall be the highest per cent of strength of acid found in 
 any fruit, determined by chemical test. In other compe- 
 
JUDGING CITRUS FRUITS. 163 
 
 titions such tests may be applied as committees or com- 
 petitors may require. 
 
 Bitterness to be determined by slicing fruit (includ- 
 ing peel) thin, covering with hot water, and cooling 
 slowly; to stand twenty- four hours when practicable (no 
 sugar to be used). Should a trace of bitterness appear 
 to the taste, discount one point; should the bitterness be 
 fairly defined, discount two points; if pronounced, dis- 
 count five points ; and if strong, ten points. 
 
 PROPOSED POMELO SCALE. 
 
 Scale. Points. 
 
 External Characters — 
 
 Size 10 
 
 Color and form 10 
 
 Weight or juiciness 15 
 
 Rind 10 
 
 Internal Characters — 
 
 Seedlessness 10 
 
 Freedom from fiber or tissue 10 
 
 Juice Qualities — 
 Flavor 
 
 Sweetness 15 
 
 Acidity 10 
 
 Bitterness 10 
 
 1. Size Standard — 4 to 5 inches. 
 
 2. Color Standard — Bright, uniform, light yellow. 
 .3. Form Standard — Round or slightly oblate. 
 
 4. Weight or Juiciness Standard — Heavy, sinking 
 almost entirely in water. 
 
 5. Rind Standard — 3-16 inch in thickness. 
 
164 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 6. SeedlesHueKS Standard — No seeds. Deduct one 
 ])oint for eauli five seeds. 
 
 7. Fi-eedom from Fiber and Tissue Standard — Free 
 from rafi. 
 
 8. Flavor Standard — A harmonious blending of 
 sweetness, aciditv and bitterness. 
 
PART II. 
 
 CULTURAL. 
 
CHAPTER XXVI. 
 PEOPAGATION OF CITRUS TREES. 
 
 Citrus trees may be propagated by budding, by graft- 
 ing, by seeds, by cutting or by layering. The last men- 
 lioned method is little used, except for the citron, and in 
 \nierica it is scarcely ever resorted to as a means for mul- 
 I Iplying that tree. Budding is by far the most common 
 method in all citrus districts. Seedling trees are not 
 planted in such numbers as they formerly were. Fifty 
 years or so ago, and even not so far back, it was the rule 
 lo plant seedling citrus trees, now it is the exception. The 
 beginning of aijy tret; fruit industry is usually marked by 
 the planting of seedling trees. Budded or grafted trees 
 represent adaptation to new conditions, divergence, spe- 
 cialization, progress. The planting of seeds as a method of 
 propagation should not be entirely discountenanced, how- 
 ever. The seedling groves of Florida and other citrus dis- 
 tricts of America produce good fruit in abundance and 
 from them have been selected many of the prominent var- 
 ieties now so commonly planted. This is one of the reasons 
 why seedling trees should not be condemned and the plant- 
 ing of seeds for the purpose of originating new varieties 
 is certainly commendable. But better results can probably 
 be obtained by cross-fertilization of existing varieties as 
 well as species. 
 
 Seedling trees may be depended upon to give fruit of 
 good quality, but since they are not produced true to the 
 variety from which the seed was obtained, they may not 
 be prolific, the fruit may be undersized, or undesirable for 
 some other reason. Generally, however, the fruit is good, 
 
108 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 SO far as its eating quality is concerned. As mucli cannot 
 be said for the fruit from seedling trees of any other kind. 
 Seedling plums, apples or pears may be entirely unfit to 
 eat. This is rarely true of the orange or pomelo. 
 
 But the advantages of budded trees are many. They 
 bear at an earlier age. A crop of fruit of uniform size and 
 quality can be secured. Varieties ripening at different 
 seasons may be planted and a continual crop from Septem- 
 ber to June, or even later, may thus be had. The grower, 
 besides having a choice of varieties, has a choice of stocks 
 which he would not have were he to plant seedlings, and 
 better results can be obtained on different soils than would 
 otherwise be the case. Besides, mal-di-goma, that one-time 
 dreaded enemy of the sweet orange and lemon may be 
 avoided by using stocks which will resist it. 
 
 CITRUS SEED USED IN PROPAGATION, AND THEIR CARE. 
 
 There is considerable difference in the size and shape 
 of the different kinds of citrus seeds commonly used in 
 growing stocks. Every propagator should be acquainted 
 with them, that substitutions may be avoided. The seeds 
 of the pomelo, trifoliate orange, sweet orange, rough lemon 
 and sour orange are shown in Fig 40, and these illustra- 
 tions, with the accompanying descriptions may be found 
 useful. 
 
 Pomelo. Plano-convex or wedge-shaped, pointed or 
 broad and flat at the micropylar end ; 11-16 inch long x 
 1-2 inch wide x .3-16 inch thick, 5-8 inch long x 7-16 inch 
 wide X 1-4 inch thick; smooth on two sides over consider- 
 able areas, marked with anastomosing lines or ridges on 
 the other parts. 
 
PROPAGATION OF CITRUS TREES. 
 
 KiO 
 
 Trifoliate Orange. Ovoid, 
 pointed or rounded, some- 
 times plano-convex, smooth 
 or when somewhat dry the 
 outer integument contracts, 
 giving a wrinkled appear- 
 ance. One-half inch long x 
 1-4 inch wide x 1-8 inch 
 thick; usually quite uniform 
 in size and shape; embryo 
 one, cotyledons two. The 
 others contain one or more 
 embryos and two or more 
 cotyledons; 
 
 Sweet Orange. Oblong- 
 ovoid, plano-convex or round- 
 ish and plump, sometimes 
 very slightly beaked; 9-16 
 
 If till I 
 
 Pig. 40. Six seeds each of pomelo — trifoliate orange, sweet orange — 
 
 rough lemon — sour orange — arranged in the order named. 
 
 (Natural size.) 
 
 inch long x 5-16 inch wide x 1-4 inch thick, 1-2 inch long x 
 5-16 inch wide x 1-4 inch thick, or larger ; lines not promi- 
 
170 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 nent, generally oblique in direction, one or two areas 
 smooth and plain. 
 
 Rough Lemon. Ovoid or slightly tapering; small, 
 .^-S inch long x J-i inch Avide x 3-16 inch thick, 7-16 inch 
 long X 3-16 inch wide x 3-lG inch thick ; frequently marked 
 with a prominent ridge along one edge, other lines small, 
 rather inconspicuous, anastomosing. 
 
 Sour Orange. Plano-convex or double-convex, pointed 
 or flattened and wedged toward the micropylar end, long 
 and narrow or slightly rounded; 11-16 inch long x 5-16 
 inch wide x .''-Ki inch thick, 1)-1(> iiicli lon.n x 1-4 inch wide 
 X 3-16 inch thick. A^'hen plano-convex, there is a large, 
 smooth area on the flattened side, the rounded side being 
 ridged with long, more or less parallel ridges, which unite 
 at the ends. 
 
 The seeds used in propagation work should be se- 
 lecled from healthy, vigorous trees, and small, immature 
 seed should be discarded. Careful selection in this matter 
 will do much toward procuring vigorous, well developed 
 stocks. 
 
 Seeds may be separated from the fruit by cutting it 
 in hahes and squeezing them out into a sieve. This 
 will allow the juice to run through and the seeds may be 
 washed from the pulp afterwards. The work can be read- 
 ily and cheaply performed by boys. Another method is 
 to place the fruit in barrels and allow it to rot, after which 
 the seed is washed free from the pulpy mass with running 
 water, using a sieve as before. 
 
 If citrus seeds are allowed to become too dry, they 
 do not germinate well and unless they are to be planted 
 immediately, they should be stratified in damp sand or 
 earth. The former, washed free from all impurities, is pref- 
 erable, as organic substances in the soil may contain 
 
PROPAGATION OF CITRUS TREES. 
 
 J71 
 
 decii.v-i»roduciiig organisms. These souietinies iittack the 
 seed. 
 
 THE SEED-BED AND ITS MANAGEMENT. 
 
 If only a small number of seedlings is desired they 
 may be raised in boxes or flats. (Fig. 41). These should 
 be six or eight inches deep and of any convenient width 
 and length. They should be filled with good virgin soil. 
 The seeds may be sown rather thickly in rows three inches 
 apart. When six or eight inches high, they may be trans- 
 planted to the nursery row. 
 
 When a large number of seedlings is required, a seed- 
 bed must be provided. It should be composed of rich, 
 friable earth, sufiiciently moist to insure proper germina- 
 tion of the seed. If deficient in plant food, it may be en- 
 
 ~ i^^^^'^^^iS' ' ^'1%^'^ 
 
 
 
 
 k 
 
 ■WKKL JH 
 
 1 
 
 
 Pig. 41. Seedling pomelos raised in a flat. 
 
 riched by the addition of commercial fertilizer such as is 
 recommended for young trees. This should be applied to 
 the bed and worked into the soil two or three weeks before 
 planting the seed. It is unsafe to apply commercial ferti- 
 lizer and then plant the seed immediately afterward. The 
 length of time which should elapse between the two opera- 
 tions will depend upon the amount of moisture in the soil 
 and the quantity of fertilizer applied. If very dry weather 
 follows the applying of the fertilizer, a longer time must 
 be allowed to intervene than if there be plenty of rain. 
 
172 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 The seed should be sowed as soon as all danger of 
 frost is past. Generally the seed is placed in the ground 
 about the first of March, though it may sometimes be 
 safely done a week or two earlier. Much depends upon 
 the location. If a comparatively small number of seed- 
 lings are required, the rows may be placed quite close 
 together, but where seedlings are raised by the thousands, 
 hand labor is too expensive. Cultivation must then be 
 done with a horse or mule and the space between the rows 
 should be sufficiently great to admit of this, two and a 
 half to three feet being about right. The seed should be 
 planted quite thickly, at a depth of three-quarters of an 
 inch or an inch. The ground should be moist at the time 
 of planting to secure the best results. 
 
 Throughout the season the ground 
 should be cultivated thoroughly and fre- 
 quently, and weeds should not be allowed 
 to spring up. In many sections one or 
 two additional applications of commercial 
 fertilizer should be made during the sum- 
 mer. Care must be taken that the seed- 
 lings do not dry out. To prevent this it 
 may be necessary to irrigate, but frequent 
 shallow cultivation, to preserve an earth- 
 mulch will help very materially. Some 
 resort to mulching to prevent the 
 escape of moisture. Both in California 
 and Florida seed-beds are frequently made 
 under lath sheds. These keep the scorch- 
 ing rays of the sun from striking the 
 plants, prevent rapid evaporation and 
 afford protection to the young plants 
 
 showing two plant- r,o.„,-„„+ fpn«+ 
 lets from one seea. agdtuai iiu»l. 
 
 I''i^. 42. Germina 
 tion of pomelo seed 
 
PROPAGATION OF CITRUS TREES. 173 
 
 The seedlings should usually be allowed to remain in 
 the seed-bed until they have had one or two season's 
 growth They may be transplanted to the nursery rows 
 when a quarter of an inch or so in diameter at the ground. 
 The best time for transplanting is in winter though the 
 same general laws apply as in transplanting larger trees. 
 
 In digging the seedlings from the seed-bed, the spade 
 should be shoved down beside them to a depth of eight 
 or ten inches. After they are loosened and the tap-root 
 has been severed at about that depth, they may be lifted 
 out readily. Before setting them in the nursery row, the 
 tap-root should be trimmed back to insure a well-branched 
 root system. 
 
 THE NURSERY AND ITS CARE. 
 
 The ground for the nursery should be carefully se- 
 lected. A piece of ground with a rather heavy sub-soil 
 and light, mellow surface soil is best. A good prepa- 
 ration for the nursery is to plant it in beggarweed 
 or velvet beans the year previous to planting, and in reg- 
 ular nursery work, one of these legumes should always be 
 planted after a block of trees is removed. 
 
 Seedlings may be transplanted from the seed-bed to 
 the nursery in November and December. In frosty reg- 
 ions, a furrow may be plowed against each side of the 
 row to protect them from frost. 
 
 Cultivate the ground thoroughly before transplanting 
 and apply commercial fertilizer in rather liberal quanti- 
 ties. One application should be given some time before 
 the seedlings are set out, a second in June and a third in 
 August, about one ton in all per acre. The rows should be 
 
174 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 curefully laid off, perfectly straight, tliree and a lialf or 
 four feet apart. This will give plenty of room for culti- 
 vation and for the work of budding. 
 
 The seedlings should be set in the rows from twelve 
 to fifteen inches apart. If the soil is dry at the time of 
 transplanting, water should be applied. The trees should 
 be firmly placed in the soil with the earth firmly packed 
 about them. At time of transplanting the well-developed, 
 vigorous seedlings should be set out together. The smaller 
 ones should be planted by themselves. Thorough, clean 
 cultivation should be the rule. Make every effort to keep 
 the little trees growing throughout the season. Cultivation 
 must cease in time to allow the wood to harden up before 
 cold weather. One year after transplanting, most of the 
 seedlings will be ready for budding. By this time they 
 should be upwards of one-half inch in diameter at the 
 crown. 
 
 Since the scab fungus attacks sour seedlings severely, 
 and interferes materially with their growth and develop- 
 ment it is a good practice to spray them, both in the seed- 
 bed and nursery, with Bordeaux mixture. The disease 
 can be kept down by its use and as a result a much better 
 growth will be made during the season. 
 
 CUTTINGS. 
 
 Many varieties of citrus trees may be propagated from 
 cuttings. The Otaheite orange, used as an ornamental and 
 as a stock for (hvarfing large-growing citrus trees is usu- 
 ally propagated in this way. The citron roots easily, so 
 also does i1s near relative, the lemon. For these trees 
 propagation Ity cuttings seems to give good results. Cut- 
 tings of the pomelo and orange are more difficult to root 
 and, though it may be accomplished, the method for these 
 
PROPAGATION OF CITRUS TREES. 
 
 17! 
 
 trees has little to recommend it and is not practicable. 
 The citron, lemon, trifoliate orange and Otaheite orange 
 may be grown from cuttings. 
 
 Cuttings should be made from well matured wood of 
 one or two season's growth. Each cutting should have 
 at least three or four well matured buds and should be 
 about five inches long. Trim off the leaves, cut the dis- 
 tal end with a smooth, sloping cut just above a bud and 
 cut the proximal end so as to leave a similar surface just 
 below a bud. The knife should have a keen, sharp edge 
 to insure smoothness of the cut surfaces. A clean, smooth 
 cut greatly facilitates the formation 
 of a callus, which miist take place 
 before roots will develop. 
 
 Though the cuttings may be rooted 
 in almost any well drained soil, still 
 the better plan is to plant them in 
 clean washed sand, free from organic 
 substances. Organic matter nearly 
 always contains the organisms of de- 
 cay. These may attack the cuttings 
 and cause them to rot. Place the cut- 
 tings in rows six to twelve inches 
 apart and three or four inches apart 
 in the rows. Give sufiScient water to 
 keep the cutting bed moist, and pro- 
 tect it from the direct rays of the sun. 
 If bottom heat can be applied, they 
 will take root more readily. When 
 the cuttings have formed a number of 
 roots, and have sent out shoots bear- 
 ing two or three leaves, they may be transplanted to two 
 or three inch pots. The cuttings may be allowed to de- 
 
 Fig. 43. Genoa lemon 
 cutting, six months old; 
 stem four inches long. 
 
176 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 velop into trees or they may be budded or grafted, if so 
 desired, after they have attained sufficient size. 
 
 SELKCTING, CUTTING AND KEEPING BUDWOOD AND CIONS. 
 
 The most rigid care should 
 be exercised that no mistake be 
 made in the identity of the tree 
 or trees from which budwood 
 and cions are to be cut. At all 
 places in the process of propa- 
 gation where it is possible for 
 errors to occur, no precaution 
 should be neglected to guard 
 against mixing of varieties or 
 the accidental substitution of 
 one variety for another. Care- 
 ful labeling of varieties, the 
 providing of plantation maps, 
 the employment of capable, con- 
 scientious men, and attention 
 to all details of the work on the 
 part of overseers will, in large 
 establishments, go a long way 
 toward preventing the occur- 
 rence of mistakes and the con- 
 sctjuent origination of suppos- 
 w "^ Kv^ edly new varieties or the mixing 
 
 ^* ^ of old ones. Both budwood and 
 
 I'ions should be chosen from 
 well matured wood of not more 
 than one season's growth. Us- 
 ually it is best to select from wood of the last one or two 
 growths matured just previous to the time of cutting, bear- 
 
 Fig, 44. 
 
 biuiwood . 
 B, angled, 
 round. 
 
 kinds of 
 angled wood. 
 
 with thorns. 
 
PROPAGATION OF CITRUS TREE8. 177 
 
 ing in mind always that citrus trees generally make and 
 mature three or more distinct growths each season. In 
 cases where the variety is especially valuable, almost an.v 
 bud, small, immature or growing, may be used and made 
 to grow, but for general propagation work, such are not 
 desirable. For ordinary shield budding, round wood is 
 preferable, and to secure this the older wood must 
 generally be used. All very new growth is more 
 or less angular, it becomes round only as it grows 
 older. For shield-budding with a right angled or curved 
 incision, angled wood must be chosen, while for graft 
 cions, either will do, provided it is all right in other re- 
 spects. No wood should be taken from diseased or un- 
 thrifty trees; the parent tree should be healthy and vig- 
 orous. Thorny wood should be avoided whenever possible. 
 Thorns are very undesirable on citrus trees and every 
 effort should be made to eliminate them. Rigid selection, 
 throughout a number of bud generations, of buds or cions 
 from thornless shoots borne on those trees producing the 
 fewest thorns will eventually bring about the desired 
 change in most varieties. It has been a somewhat mooted 
 question as to whether it is a good practice to cut bud- 
 wood or cions from anything except bearing trees. The 
 general conclusion borne out by the experience of many 
 growers is that wood from j^oung non-bearing trees gives 
 as good results in fruiting trees as when chosen from bear- 
 ing trees. Here and there in nearly every grove unpro- 
 ductive trees are to be found, a condition probably brought 
 about by the use of naturally barren buds, but this is 
 as likely to occur where one practice is followed as where 
 the other is adopted. 
 
 There is no way to prevent this undesirable condition, 
 and the best treatment for such trees is to top work them. 
 
ITS 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 By so doing they may be made fruitful in two or three 
 years. On the other hand, it is believed that some vari 
 eties may be made more prolific by carefully selecting buds 
 or cions from the most fruitful branches of those trees 
 showing a tendency toward a more fruitful habit. Of most 
 of our citrus varieties it may be said, however, that they 
 are sufficiently prolific when worked on congenial stocks 
 and grown under the right conditions. 
 
 For work in early spring, the bud sticks or grafts 
 should bo cut from the trees the previous December, if 
 there is danger of injury from frost. The wood is thor- 
 
 Fig". 45. Mr. Taber's method of keeping- budwood. 
 
 Each bin contains a separate variety, buried 
 
 in spliagnum. 
 
 oughly hardened by this time and may be kept for use 
 in June or July as well, though material may be secured 
 from the trees at the time of June and dormant budding. 
 In sections free from frost, the wood may be cut just 
 previous to the cdiiimencement of i^rowth in sjjrini;, if re- 
 quired for immediate use, but the better plan is to cut the 
 wood in December. 
 
 It is poor policy to wait until after the trees have 
 started to grow before attempting to secure budwood 
 and cions. On citrus trees most of the desirable buds 
 
PROPAGATION OF CITRUS TREES. 179 
 
 develop into growing shoots. Many of these new shoots 
 must be sacrificed to obtain any quantity of wood and 
 that which is procured is very inferior. Instead of trying 
 to secure material out of season, cut it at the proper 
 time. 
 
 Remove the leaves and cut the wood in lengths of a 
 foot or so. If only a small quantity is required, tie in 
 small bundles, pack them in moist sphagnum or saw-dust 
 in a box, replace the cover and bury it six or eight inches 
 deep in the earth in a shady place. The bundles should 
 be carefully labeled and care should be taken not to 
 have the moss too damp. 
 
 If large quantities of wood are needed in spring, the 
 litethod of keeping it used by Mr. G. L. Taber, is one of 
 the best. Select a well drained space. Place the budwood 
 on the ground in layers with damp sphagnum between 
 the layers. Then cover the whole with sphagnum. The 
 piles must not be too large, and should be protected from 
 the sun and rain. The air is allowed to circulate freely 
 about and over the piles. The cions or budwood keep 
 perfectly until needed for use, when it will be found that 
 the cut surfaces have callused. 
 
 MATERIALS AND TOOLS FOR PERFORMING THE WORK. 
 
 The materials and tools used in budding and graft- 
 ing are neither numerous nor expensive. While a con- 
 siderable amount of work may be done with a piece of 
 twine and a knife, still if a large amount of work is to be 
 done, the following articles will facilitate the operations 
 and should be provided : grafting wax, pruning knife, 
 grafting iron, shears, a small mallet and labels. 
 
 Waxes and Cloth. The following recipes have been 
 tried and found to be equally good for our conditions: 
 
ISO CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Recipe No. 1. Resin, 6 lbs.; beeswax, 2 lbs.; linseed 
 oil, 1 pint. 
 
 Recipe No. 2. Resin, 4 lbs. ; beeswax, 2 lbs. ; tallow, 1 lb. 
 
 The directions for preparing them are briefly as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 Break the resin into small pieces, cut up the beeswax 
 and place the two together in a suitable iron pot. Pour 
 the linseed oil over them, or in case recipe No. 2 is 
 used, place the tallow on top. Set the pot over a slow 
 Are and allow the materials to melt. Afterward remove 
 fi'om the flre, pour into cold water, i^rease the hands and 
 pull until it is light colored. 
 
 If a liquid wax is desired, take one pound of resin, 
 two ounces of tallow, melt them together and mix thor- 
 oughly. Remove from the flre, cool slightly and add 
 slowly six ounces alcohol and one ounce spirits turpentine 
 Keep tightly corked in a wide-mouthed bottle. Apply 
 with a brush. 
 
 For waxed cloth, procure thin muslin cloth and sat- 
 urate it with wax made according to either of the recipes 
 given above. Prepare the cloth by tearing into strips 
 four or five inches wide and winding it around sticks about 
 a foot or so in length and one inch thick. The rolls should 
 not be more than two inches thick, else the wax will not 
 penetrate- to the center. Melt the wax over a slow fire, 
 place the rolls in it and allow it to remain there until 
 the wax has penetrated the cloth. The wax should not 
 be allowed to become too hot, else there is danger of burn- 
 ing the cloth. Have it just hot enough to keep the wax 
 in a melted condition. As soon as it is saturated, remove 
 the cloth from the wax and store away. When required 
 for use, imroll the desired length and tear it into strips 
 one-half to three-cjuarters of an inch wide. 
 
PROPAGATION OF CITRUS TREES. Igl 
 
 Instead of tearing the cloth into strips four or five 
 inches wide, it may be dipped into the wax in large sheets, 
 immediately removed and stretched out on a flat surface. 
 Or the cloth may be stretched out and the hot wax applied 
 10 its surface with a brush. T\'hen prepared by either 
 of these methods, it may be torn into strips from one-half 
 to three-quarters of an inch wide and wound around a 
 stick as before, or carried to the field in small, rectangu- 
 lar sheets, from which strips may be torn as they are 
 needed. 
 
 If twine is desired, procure balls of No. 18 knitting 
 cotton and place them in the melted wax. Keep them 
 immersed and turn them over frequently. In the course 
 of five or six minutes the wax will have penetrated through 
 and through, when they may be removed and set aside. 
 Untreated cloth or twine or raffla may be used instead 
 of the waxed material, but the advantage of the latter 
 over the former is that while possessing sufiicient strength, 
 it is more easily broken and it is not necessary to tie 
 them about the stock. They may be drawn tight, where- 
 upon the sticky, waxy surface will hold the wrapping in 
 place. 
 
 Tools. Good grafting and pruning knives may be 
 procured from almost any hardware merchant or from 
 dealers in horticultural implements and supplies. The 
 budding knife should have a thin blade, rounded at the 
 point. In the end of the handle a piece of thin bone is in- 
 serted, or the end of the handle is thinned down to serve 
 the same purpose. This spatula at the end of the handle 
 is intended for lifting the edges of the bark in budding, 
 as explained in the section on budding, but as a matter 
 of fact, it is seldom used, the blade of the knife being 
 used instead. 
 
182 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 The best pruning knives are those witli 
 a heavy staghorn handle and straight oi- 
 somewhat cui-ved blades. This knife is 
 used in propagation work to smooth tht.i 
 cut surface of the stock, for splitting the 
 stock and frequently for removing small 
 branches and thorns which may be in the 
 way of the operator. For the latter pur- 
 pose, however, the pruning shears are pref- 
 erable. 
 
 Tlie l)('sl shears are the solid steel ones. 
 They are strong and durable. The 
 blades are easily tightened and they can 
 be t.nken apart for sharpening when so j 
 desired. Nothing is more unsatisfactory 
 than to have to work with a poor pair of 
 shears, and the best should be secured. 
 
 In cleft grafting, the grafting iron and 
 mallet come into use. An iron with a 
 
 blade shaped as in Fig. 47 is best. 
 ■ 'V/ For nursery work, labels made of inch mater- 
 ial, two and one-half inches wide and two and 
 a half or three feet long should be provided. These 
 are to be used as labels for rows of varieties, 
 the name being plainly stamped on the upper por- 
 tion. For block labels, nothing is better than 
 cyjircss i)iik(s three or four inches in diameter. 
 These are sloped off at the top, leaving a broad, 
 smooth surface, three or four inches long by as 
 I: much in width. This area is then painted white 
 ^___^ and the block number placed on it. Wired, wooden 
 Fig 47. tree lubels should also be provided. 
 
 Grafting ^ 
 
 Fig. 46. Budding 
 linive.s. 
 
PROPAGATION OF CITRUS TREES. 183 
 
 BUDDING. 
 
 Time. In all citrus growing districts, nursery trees 
 are propagated almost entirely by budding. Buds may be 
 inserted in citrus stocks any time during the growing per- 
 iod. The trees are not periodic in their growth as apples 
 and plums are, for instance. When well cultivated and 
 fertilized, the stocks will make at least three growths dur- 
 ing the spring and summer. Each one of these is matured 
 and hardened before the next begins. During the hard- 
 ening or rest period, the bark does not slip so well as dur- 
 ing the time of growth. In most citrus districts the 
 winter rest period, partial or otherwise, extends from 
 about November to February, depending, of course, upon 
 the latitude and the climatic conditions throughout the 
 winter. 
 
 During this period, buds cannot be inserted to ad- 
 vantage as there is not sufficient sap moving to cause the 
 bark to slip readily. In Florida, California and Louis- 
 iana, buds may be inserted in March and April. In the 
 Islands, where the winter temperatures are not so low 
 as in the districts just referred to, and where in conse- 
 quence the winter rest period is of shorter duration, the 
 buds may be inserted nnich e;irlier. Bvidding early in the 
 season is termed spring budding. In June and July, or in 
 Florida, just before the commencement of the rainy season, 
 budding may be performed. This is summer budding. 
 Generally, a very considerable amount of budding is done 
 during September and October, dormant budding. In this 
 case the buds remain dormant until the following spring, 
 when they commence to grow. They are protected in the 
 nursery rows in the cooler districts by plowing a furrow 
 against them. The tojis of the stocks may be frozen back. 
 
184 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 but no liarm results. It simply takes the place of pruning 
 and starts the buds growing soon after the furrow is 
 removed, which should be done during the latter part of 
 jNIarch or somewhat earlier. Summer budding is not to 
 be recommended for all sections. In frostless regions, no 
 objection can be urged against the practice, but in regions 
 subject to frost, the growth, resulting from buds inserted 
 at this time, is often not sufficiently matured to withstand 
 the frosts of early fall and winter. Of course, the point 
 of union with the stock may be covered with earth as 
 mentioned above, but even then if the growth be soft and 
 succulent, it may be stunted or killed outright. 
 
 Jlrthods. As soon as the storks have attained sutti- 
 cient size, buds may be inserted in them. Occasionally 
 stocks grown from seed planted in spring may be dormant- 
 budded the following autumn, or they may be spring- 
 budded when one year old, or worked in June or the fol- 
 lowing September. These are exceptions, however, and 
 generally the stocks are budded when two or three 
 years old, but there is no age limit beyond which 
 buds cannot be inserted by some method, pro- 
 vided the stocks are of sufficient size and the 
 bark will slip readily. One other matter must be consid- 
 ered before taking up the actual discussion of methods. 
 It should be borne in mind that the point of union between 
 the stock and cion is more subject to the effects of cold 
 than any other part of the trunk of a budded tree. Be- 
 sides, if all that part which has developed from the cion, 
 perishes in cold weather, re-budding is necessary. This 
 might be prevented by budding well down toward the 
 crown roots, that the earth might afford protection or 
 that it might be more easily banked against the point of 
 union during the dangerous season. 
 
PROPAGATION OF CITRUS TREES. 185 
 
 On the other hand, it must not be lost sight of that 
 on many soils one would be running the risk of having 
 sweet, mandarin or lemon trunks attacked by mal-di-goma, 
 or foot-rot, even where worked upon sour orange, pomelo 
 or other resistant stocks, if the point of union be placed 
 too close to the ground. They are just as liable to attack 
 as though they were seedling varieties of the groups just 
 mentioned. To avoid this, the point of union should be 
 some distance above the ground. In lemon districts, where 
 irrigation either by furrow or basin methods is resorted to, 
 as in California, for instance, the point of union between 
 stock and cion should be a sufficient distance above the 
 ground to protect the lemon trunk from the moisture pro- 
 vided by irrigation. Unless this be done the trunks may 
 become diseased. From these remarks it will be seen that 
 a knowledge of the conditions must determine the point 
 at which it would be best to insert the buds. 
 
 The method of budding most commonly used, and 
 the one used entirely in nursery work, is that known as 
 shield or T budding. In California the method properly 
 known by this name is used, while in Florida and Louisi- 
 ana the reversed method, or inverted T incision is used. 
 The best practice in the Islands is to follow the Florida 
 and Louisiana method. The reason usually assigned for 
 the use of the reversed method is that it excludes water 
 from the cuts. But if waxed cloth is used, this explana- 
 tion has little force. Baltet says that it is used to avoid 
 the smothering of the bud by the superabundance of sap. 
 This holds good for our summer conditions, but is scarcely 
 applicable to spring budding. It is perhaps true that the 
 reversed method is commonly used as a matter of custom. 
 At any rate we have secured as good results by one method 
 as by the other. 
 
3 bo 
 
 to J 
 
 45 
 
to 
 
188 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Plates XIII and XIV show the different steps in the 
 process of shield budding citrus trees as done in Florida. 
 
 Select the point at which the bud is to be inserted 
 and remove all thorns or branches which may interfere 
 with the work. Then a perpendicular slit an inch and 
 a half in length is made on the side of the stock (1) and 
 at its lower end a cross cut is made with the cutting edge 
 of the blade slanting upwards (2). A cut of this kind 
 is preferable, as it makes it easier to insert the bud. 
 Then the corners formed by the intersection of the two 
 cuts are carefully lifted with the point of the knife blade 
 to permit the entrance of the bud (3) or the bone end 
 of the handle may be used instead. Then the bud-stick is 
 grasped in one hand with its proximal end away from 
 the operator. To remove the bud, start the knife in about 
 one-half inch below it and pass it smoothly along beneath 
 it and finish the cut about one-half inch above the bud 
 (4). The cut is best made from below the bud, upwards, 
 as there is less likelihood of its being injured by the up- 
 ward pressure of the knife against it. After having re- 
 moved the bud, it is held lightly between the thumb and 
 fore-finger and shoved upwards in the incision made for 
 its reception (5j. Dd not in\'crt it in inserting. Gener- 
 ally each bud bears beneath it a leaf stalk or the scar 
 left where it has been dropped or has been cut off. When 
 the bud is inserted, this scar should be nearest the ground. 
 Then the wrapping, a strip of waxed cloth, or raffia, is 
 placed about the stock over the inserted bud to hold the 
 latter snugly in place and closely in contact with the 
 cambium of the stock (7.) In all cases the wrapping 
 should be drawn over the intersecting cuts first, and then 
 worked upward in the reversed method or downdard in 
 the ordinarv one, as followed in Califoniia. 
 
PROPAGATION OF CITRUS TREES. 189 
 
 Sometimes it is very difficult to secure anything ex- 
 cept angled budwood. If a bud is cut from such wood 
 by holding the knife directly under the bud, it is cut off 
 with a shield so narrow as to be undesirable. In such cases 
 the bud should be cut from the side, removing a shield- 
 shaped piece of bark as before, but with the bud at one 
 side of it instead of in the center. Then instead of mak- 
 ing an inverted T incision for its reception, a right-angled 
 incision should be made (Fig. 48) with the lower cut 
 either to the right or left to suit the bud. The angle of 
 the bark at the intersection of the cuts is then lifted and 
 the bud inserted so as to have the bud in position in the 
 upright incision. This method should be known as shield- 
 'budding luilh a right-angled incision. After inserting, the 
 bud is wrapped as directed above. 
 
 An examination made ten days or two weeks after 
 the insertion of the buds will determine whether they 
 have united with the stocks or not. If at that time the 
 buds are still green and a grayish line of new tissue is 
 seen around the edges of the incisions, it may be safely 
 concluded that union has taken place and that the bud 
 will grow, provided it is a perfect one. If the buds have 
 united, remove the wrapping and after three or four days 
 the stock should be either lopped, pruned back or cut 
 entirely off. Those stocks in which buds have failed to 
 take should be re-budded. 
 
 Lopping is not always necessary, particularly with 
 small stocks. They may be cut entirely off. But lopping 
 is the safest plan to follow with stock of considerable 
 size and particularly with such vigorous growers as pom- 
 elo and rough lemon. 
 
 Cut in with the saw or pruning shears on the same 
 side as that on which the bud is, making the cut about two 
 
190 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 inches above the bud and passing through the stock about 
 two-thirds of the way. Then bend the top over, being 
 carefvil, if it splits, that the line of cleavage runs up- 
 ward toward the top, not downward toward the root. 
 In lopping trees recently budded in the nursery rows, the 
 
 tops in each pair of rows 
 should be turned into the 
 space between them, thus 
 leaving each alternate 
 space free for cultivation. 
 When the buds have 
 pushed out to a distance 
 of a foot or more, the 
 lopped stocks may be re- 
 moved entirely by being 
 cut smoothly off just above 
 the bud. At this stage, 
 whether lopping has been 
 resorted to or not, each 
 bud should have a stake 
 placed beside it and it 
 should be tied to the stake, 
 using cotton twine, raffia, 
 or cotton cloth torn in 
 strips. The stakes may be 
 split from heart-wood of 
 pine or other durable 
 wood and should be about 
 three-quarters of an inch 
 s(|uare and four feet long. 
 As the bud grows upward, 
 "''■''''""■ it should be tied to the 
 
 stake to keep it from falling over. 
 
 4s. Biuliliu.i.' iilrl liees with flrui. hard 
 
 A, jtiigU'd budAA'xiil, B, curved in- 
 
 C. the luiil icady for inyertion. n. 
 
 parlially inserted. E, ri^'iit-aiii 
 
PROPAGATION OF CITRUS TREES. 19 ] 
 
 Budding Old Stocks. If an attempt is made to in- 
 sert buds in old stems or trunks, it will be found a diflB- 
 cult task to perform by the shield method, with an inverted 
 T incision. The bark may separate readily from the wood 
 but even then, when the attempt is made to lift it away 
 to allow the insertion of the bud, being quite thick and 
 brittle, it generally breaks or cracks. But buds may be 
 inserted by using a curved incision. Angular budwood, 
 as shown in fig. 48 should be chosen. From this, buds are 
 removed as already directed, but the stick is held with 
 the bud well to one side so that when the bud is cut off it 
 is either at the left or the right side of the shield instead of 
 being in the center. Then the curved incision is made in 
 the stock to right or left to suit the bud. The bark is 
 then carefully lifted and the bud inserted and tied, leav- 
 ing the bud well out at the side of the curve. This method 
 should be known as shield-hudding tvith a curved incision. 
 
 The after treatment of the buds is the same as in 
 ordinary shield-budding. 
 
 GRAFTING. 
 
 As already stated, the propagation of nursery trees 
 is accomplished almost entirely by budding. Grafting 
 is objectionable in this line of work because it cannot be 
 done so rapidly and besides the whole top of the stock 
 is often wasted, whereas, in budding, if the bud fails to take, 
 a second attempt may be made shortly afterwards on the 
 same stock. 
 
 Nevertheless, in some special cases, grafting is pi-efer- 
 able to budding. Such is often the case in working over 
 old trees which have been frozen back. If they are to be 
 budded, some time must elapse liefore the buds can be 
 inserted. Sometimes it is necessary to wait until sprouts 
 
192 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 have started and reached sufScient size, but such trees 
 can be crown-grafted at once, thus frequently saving a 
 year's time. Trees girdled or injured by mal-di-goma, or 
 in other wars, may frequently be saved by inarching small 
 trees planted close to the diseased one, or in some in- 
 stances, a number of sprouts around an old stump may 
 have all their energies directed to the support of a single 
 top. 
 
 METHODS. 
 
 The methods which will be found most useful are 
 those known as cleft, whip, crown, side-grafting and 
 inarching. Grafting may be done somewhat earlier in 
 spring than budding or it may be done any time during 
 the season when the sap is moving. Generally speaking, 
 however, the work should be done some time before the 
 end of June. The best time is before growth starts. 
 
 Cleft-Grafting. It may in some 
 cases be desirable to work citrus 
 trees by this method and it will be 
 found useful in working laiiie 
 trunks, branches or old sprouts. 
 The stock is cut off at right angles 
 and the cut surface made perfectly 
 smooth. Then it is split or cleft 
 open, using either a budding knife 
 (fig. 4G) or a grafting iron (fig. 
 47) and the mallet. Frequently 
 the line of cleavage in orange wood 
 is very irregular, hence it is best 
 . - . J to drive the knife or iron in on the 
 
 inserted 
 
 ready for tieing. gjdg of the stock before Splitting it. 
 
 This will leave a smooth, straight surface for the cion. 
 After making the cleft, it may be held open with the wedge 
 
PROPAGATION OF CITRUS TREES. 193 
 
 end of the grafting iron, or, if a knife is used, by a wooden 
 wedge prepared for the purpose. The eions should have 
 three or four buds and should be four or five inches in 
 length. Prepare them by trimming the lower end to a 
 wedge (fig. 49) with the outer edge slightly wider than 
 the 'inner. The sloping cuts should be about one and 
 a half inches long. Slip the cion down into the cleft 
 until the whole of the cut surface is within the cleft 
 (fig. 49). The thicker edge should be outside, so that 
 the stock may bring the cambium edges more intimately 
 in contact by its pressure against it. If the stock be 
 large, two cions may be inserted, one in each side of the 
 cleft. After inserting the cion or cions, the stock should 
 be firmly bound with strips of waxed cloth. The cut 
 surface should be covered over with grafting wax to pre- 
 vent loss of moisture. If the top of the cion has been cut 
 off it should also be covered with a little of the wax. If 
 the cion has been inserted below the gronnd, the earth 
 should be heaped up around it, covering all except the 
 last bud. No further attention is needed until growth 
 starts, at which time the bandage should be severed, either 
 in the space between the cions where two have been in- 
 serted, or in case only one has been put in, then on the 
 side opposite it. The growing shoot should be tied as 
 directed under budding. 
 
 This method is one of the best to use in top-working 
 trees, when it is desired to change from one variety to an- 
 other. In hot, dry climates, the removal of a large portion 
 of the sheltering leaves and twigs leaves the trunk and 
 main branches exposed to the hot rays of the sun. This 
 will result in serious injury to the exposed parts. A 
 very satisfactory protection can be afforded by a thin 
 coating of whitewash, applied with a spray pump. 
 
194 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Whip-Grafting. This method may 
 stocks, three-quarters of an inch or 
 less in diameter. It is best that the 
 stock and cion be of the same size, 
 but if such is not the case, the stock 
 should always be the larger. A slop- 
 ing cut, an inch and a half long is 
 made diagonally across the stock 
 (fig. 50). A corresponding cut is 
 made on the cion (fig. 50) and a 
 tongue of wood is raised about the 
 center of each cut with the knife held 
 almost parallel to the sides of the 
 wood. The tongue is raised a little 
 on both stock and cion and the two 
 are gently but firmly shoved to- 
 gether (fig. 50). Then the point of 
 
 small 
 
 Fig. 50 Whip-grafting. 
 A, stock. B, cions. C, stock 
 and cion placed togetlier 
 ready for tieing. 
 
 Fig. 51. Crown-grafting. A, cion pre- 
 pared. B. cion Inserted in concave part. 
 0. cion inserted in convex part. 
 
 union is securely 
 bound with a strip of waxed 
 cloth. The after-treatment is 
 the same as for cleft-grafting. 
 Croini-Graftiiig. This 
 method is one of the 
 best for working trees which 
 have been frozen back or for 
 working large trunks at the 
 ground. The trunk is cut 
 squarely off at or somewhat 
 below the ground and the cut 
 surface is made smooth with 
 a knife. If the outline of the 
 trunk is irregular, as is fre- 
 quently the case, concave 
 places should be chosen for 
 
PROPAGATION OF CITRUS TREES. 
 
 195 
 
 inserting the cions. With the point of a budding knife, 
 gently spring the bark back. In cases where this cannot 
 be done, it may be necessary to slit the bark down a dis- 
 tance of an inch or so and then lift the bark. The cion 
 is prepared by making a single sloping cut one and one- 
 half inches in length at the base. The cion should be 
 tapered off thin and smooth. Then it is inserted between 
 the bark and wood of the stock with cut surface inward. 
 Sometimes a number of cions may be set around the 
 crown. Then firmly tie in place and cover the cut sur- 
 face of the stock with grafting wax. 
 
 Side-Orafting. This method is 
 also known as sprig-budding, 
 but since it is more properly 
 a method of grafting, the 
 former name is the better one. 
 For working old stock with 
 thick, hard bark, it possesses 
 the same advantages as the 
 method of shield-budding 
 with a curved incision. The 
 method is also useful when 
 small, slender twigs are the 
 only ones available for propa- 
 gating work. 
 
 An oblique curved cut is made in 
 the side of the stock in such a posi- 
 tion as will place the cion, when in- 
 serted, at an angle of about 30 de- 
 grees with the line of the trunk. The 
 „. ,„ , „. , . bark is then separated gently from 
 
 Fig. 53. InarchlBg. A, cion ^ c ., 
 
 prepared for stock. B, stock ^]jg ^yood. Tlic ciou is prepared with 
 
 prepared with sloping cut. ^ ^ 
 
 C, stock inserted ready lor rj ]qij„ slopiug CUt. It is bCSt tO CUt 
 
 Pig. 52. Side 
 grafting, showing 
 mode of inserting 
 the graft. 
 
196 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 rather deep at first then 
 bring the knife out almost 
 straight to the end of the cion 
 (Fig. 51). The cion is then 
 inserted and tied in place 
 (flg. 52). When the parts 
 have united, the stock must 
 be lopped or cut off as in 
 shield-budding. 
 
 Inarching. The advan- 
 tages of this method have 
 already been pointed out. 
 The work is accomplished 
 thus: 
 
 All branches are removed 
 from the shoot or small tree 
 and the top is cut off with a 
 sloping cut about two inches 
 in length (flg. 53). Then in 
 the side of the larger tree at 
 the right distance above the 
 ground an inverted T incis- 
 ion is made (fig. 53) , and the 
 corners formed by the inter- 
 secting cuts are turned back as in shield-budding. The 
 prepared end of the shoot or tree is inserted in the 
 cut (flg. 53), and firmly tied in place. All the incisions 
 are then carefully covered with wax. The bandage should 
 not be disturbed until union has taken place and the parts 
 have firmly knitted. 
 
 Other methods of working may be used, for citrus 
 trees are very tractable subjects, Imt those given in this 
 chai'tcr are all that are of pu-actical importance and all 
 the grower need know. 
 
 Fig. 54. Three sprouts inarched 
 intu the iiiaiu trunk of uu orange 
 tree. 
 
CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 STOCKS FOR CITRUS TREES. 
 
 The more important stocks and those most commonly 
 used in propagating citrus trees are sour orange, pomelo, 
 sweet orange, rough lemon, trifoliate orange and occas- 
 ionally the lime. The Otaheite orange is sometimes used, 
 particularly in the production of dwarf specimens, but 
 for general orchard purposes it is not to be recommended. 
 Not all the above stocks are adapted to the same condi- 
 tions of soil and climate, and it cannot be said that any 
 one of them is best for all conditions. It follows that the 
 prospective planter should be acquainted with their rel- 
 ative merits for different- localities, and should at the 
 same time be thoroughly informed in regard to the soil, 
 climatic and other conditions in the region in which he 
 intends to plant. Unless this be the case, mistakes may 
 be made which otherwise might be avoided. For instance, 
 it would be poor policy to plant citrus trees on sweet 
 stock, on low ground, where they are likely to be attacked 
 by mal-di-goma, and it would be equally foolish to plant 
 trifoliate orange stock on dry shell ridges. Besides, the 
 question of adaptation to certain soil and climatic condi- 
 tions, the mutual influence of the stock and cion must 
 not be entirely overlooked. That such an influence is 
 exerted cannot be doubted, but its extent still remains 
 to be investigated. Among the influences to which atten- 
 tion will be called later on are those afi'ecting the hardi- 
 ness, the rate of growth, the size and shape of the top, 
 the precocity and proliflcness of the tree, the time of rip- 
 ening and the quality of the fruit, the relative amount 
 of juice and rind in the fruit and the amount of acid and 
 
198 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 consequently the flavor. Not all of these effects are notic- 
 able in all varieties and only here and there are they suf- 
 ficiently marked to attract attention. But if differences 
 stand out prominently here and there, it is not unreason 
 able to suppose that they exist in some degree in many 
 other instances to which attention has not been directed. 
 
 SOUR ORANGE (C. VULGARIS). 
 
 Next to the trifoliate orange, the sour is the hardi- 
 est of all the varieties or species of citrus trees used as 
 stocks. As compared with C. trifoliata, it is not nearly 
 so hardy, but it is considerably hardier than the sweet 
 orange. Of course, a very low temperature causes all 
 differences in hardiness between sweet and sour orange 
 trees to disappear and after such periods of cold no dif- 
 ference can be detected, but the fact remains that a degree 
 of cold which frequently injures the sweet orange has 
 no effect on the sour. Sufficient cold to destroy the young 
 growth and defoliate sweet orange trees does little or no 
 injury to the sour orange. It is impossible to state the 
 relative hardiness in so many degrees, as so much depends 
 upon the condition of the trees. 
 
 The roots of the sour orange are produced abundantly 
 and penetrate well into the soil. In this respect it pos- 
 sesses an advantage over the sweet stock for some dis- 
 tricts in that it is not so readily affected by variations 
 in moisture. The rf)()ls penetrate sufficiently deep to be 
 in contact with a more or less permanent water supply. 
 
 Sour orange stock is not subject to the attacks of 
 mal-di-goma, and in Europe where this disease worked 
 iivciit havoc years ano, the gro\es have afiain been built 
 up by using sour orange stock. On soils subject to the 
 disease it is a safe stock to use. The sour orange tree is 
 
STOCKS FOR CITRUS TREES. 199 
 
 very much subject to "scab," a disease which attacks the 
 fruit, leaves and young twigs. It is frequently a serious 
 drawback in the production of stocks for budding, as 
 noted in the section on diseases. But such citrus as are 
 not susceptible to the attacks of the disease are in no 
 wise rendered susceptible by being worked on sour stock. 
 
 Sour stock sprouts readily, if the top be frozen back, 
 thus giving an opportunity for re-budding. It is best 
 adapted to soils containing a liberal supply of moisture 
 and its natural habitat, if one can judge from its behav- 
 ior in Florida as an introduced tree, is the shores of lakes 
 and the banks of rivers where the soil is liberally supplied 
 with water and humus. On dry soil, trees worked on sour 
 stock do not grow so rapidly and do not reach the same 
 size as when rough lemon stock is used. In general, it 
 may be said that it is best adapted to high and low ham- 
 mock and flat woods land in Florida, to the low lands 
 of Louisiana and to all soils where a good supply of mois- 
 ture is present or to which a liberal amount can be given. 
 Almost from the first cropping, the fruit borne by trees 
 worked on sour stock is of good quality, a statement which 
 is not generally true of trees worked on rough lemon. 
 During the first years of fruiting, trees on sour orange 
 stock are not quite so fruitful as those on some other 
 stocks, but this diflference disappears as the trees become 
 older. In very old trees worked on sour stock, it 
 will sometimes be noted that the sweet trunk is enlarged 
 above the point of union, having in some measure out- 
 grown the sour root. In conclusion, it may be said that 
 wherever the soil and climatic conditions are suited to 
 its best growth and development, it is a most satisfactory 
 .stock to use and its resistance to the attacks of the 
 dreaded mal-di-goma is a strong point in its favor. 
 
200 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 As a stock for the Satsunia, the sour orange is a 
 failure. When worked on sour stock, this variety makes 
 a stunted, unsatisfactory growth; in short, it is a total 
 failure. Wh.y this should be so it is difficult to say, but 
 for some reason or other the union is decidedly uncongen- 
 ial. In certain cases the same condition is noted when 
 the stock is used for kumquats, but in the majority of 
 instances it is quite satisfactory. 
 
 ROUGH LEMON (C. LIMONUM). 
 
 The rough lemon tree is not so hardy as the sweet 
 orange and is more liable to damage by cold than the pom- 
 elo. Of all the stocks commonly used for citrus trees it 
 is the most susceptible to damage by cold and hence can- 
 not be expected to increase the hardiness of the top, but 
 on the contrary, it is inclined to make it less hardy. In 
 southern Florida it grows wild and appears to be per- 
 fectly adapted to its surroundings, but it is not found in 
 the northern portion of the State, being much too tender 
 to stand the climate of the more exposed sections unless 
 protection is afforded. 
 
 The main roots of this stock show a wide variation. 
 In all instances the crown roots extend a good distance 
 from the trunk and a good tap root is produced. But in 
 some individuals, here and there, these large lateral roots 
 lie quite close to the surface and most of the feeding roots 
 are in the top fifteen inches of soil. On the other hand, 
 most li'ees worked on this stock have the roots well dis- 
 tributed through the soil. A root system of this kind 
 is particulaily desirable for dry soils and for those which 
 need irrigation. 
 
 Rough lemon stock is capable of inducing a more 
 rapid growth in the top woi'ked on it than any other kind 
 
STOCKS FOB CITRUS TREES. 201 
 
 of stock now used for citrus trees in America. For this 
 reason and because of tlie great foraging power of its 
 roots, it is an excellent stock for use on high, dry soils 
 or on those containing a small amount of plant food, or 
 on soils where the plant food is not readily obtained be- 
 cause of some undesirable soil condition. For planting 
 on low ground, sour orange stock is preferable, and on 
 this class of soils rough lemon should never be used for the 
 kumquat. Attention is called to this point in Bulletin 65 
 of the Florida Exp. Station in the following words : 
 
 "A number of kumquats on rough lemon stock planted 
 on rather moist ground have come under personal obser- 
 vation in which it was found that there was a more or 
 less copious flow of gum from the region just above the 
 union of the stock and cion. In all cases where this oc- 
 curred it appeared that the cion was the only part afi'ected. 
 The trees were in an unhealthy condition. The diseased 
 condition, if we may so designate it. did not appear to be 
 nial-di-goma, though in some respects it resembled it. 
 The trouble may have been due to the fact that the great 
 foraging power of the roots enabled them to collect, in 
 certain soils, more food than the less rapidly growing 
 top could readily assimilate." 
 
 "On the other hand, on soils containing less moisture 
 and presumably less fertility, a number of trees budded 
 upon rough lemon roots have been examined which were 
 vigorous and perfectly healthy. If one desires to use 
 the rough lemon stock for the kumquat on some soils 
 the best plan would be to adopt the method used quite 
 extensively by C. W. Butler, St. Petersburg, Fla. His 
 practice is to insert kumquat buds in sprouts from rough 
 lemon roots which already support and feed a sweet or 
 mandarin orange top. A perfectly healthy union is se- 
 
202 CITRUS FRUIT8 AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 cured in all cases, as most of the food gathered by the 
 roots is used by the larger and more vigorous top. 
 Strange to say, however, the kumquat frequently outstrips 
 the other top, sweet or mandarin orange as the case may 
 be, in growth in height." 
 
 Generally the first crop or two of fruit produced by 
 trees worked on this stock is thick-skinned and deficient 
 in juice, because so much food is collected by the roots. 
 After one or two seasons of fruiting have passed, this 
 undesirable feature disappears and the fruit produced 
 is equal in quantity of juice and thinness of rind to that 
 borne by trees worked on any other stock. 
 
 Rough lemon stock usually influences the shape and 
 growth of the variety worked on it. There is a pronounced 
 tendency toward the production of tall, upright branches 
 in the center of the top. This tendency will correct itself 
 after a time, or, if deemed necessary, these upright 
 branches may be cut back somewhat, to assist in the form- 
 ation of a compact, symmetrical head. 
 
 Whether rough lemon stock has any marked influ- 
 ence on the fruit, beyond that already mentioned, is rather 
 difficult to say. Still the indications are that it increases 
 the size of the fruit and the acid content as well. In the 
 winter of 1902 two samples of fruit were picked from 
 adjoining trees of the same variety in the grove of C. T. 
 McCarty, Eldred, Florida, the one worked on rough lemon 
 and the other on sour orange. The difference in acid 
 content was distinctly appreciable to the taste and as 
 the fruit was fully matured, it was thought well to have 
 the two samples analyzed. This was done by Prof. H. K. 
 Miller, of the Florida Experiment Station. The speci- 
 mens grown on sour orange stock contained .72 per cent 
 acid and 9.8 per cent sugar determined as dextrose in the 
 
STOCKS FOR CITRUS TREES. 203 
 
 juice; those on the rough lemon .91 per cent acid and 
 7.24 per cent sugar determined as dextrose, a difference 
 of .19 per cent acid and 2.56 per cent sugar. Too much 
 weight must not be laid on these results, as many analyses 
 should be made to establish any difference which may 
 exist. 
 
 This stock has a marked influence on the fruitfulness 
 of the Bahia navel orange in Florida. It is much more 
 prolific on rough lemon stock and with the exception of 
 C. trifoliata, it is the only stock which can be recom- 
 mended for the variety in that State. As a stock for pom- 
 elos and the oranges of the mandarin group, it is preferred 
 by some growers to all others. Rough lemon is resistant 
 against the attacks of mal-di-goma, or foot-rot, in this 
 respect ranking with the sour orange. 
 
 TRIFOLIATE ORANGE (C. TRIFOLIATA). 
 
 Perhaps the first mention of this species as a stock 
 for citrus trees is that made by Mr. Fortune, who in 1848 
 said, "The kumquat is propagated by grafting on a 
 prickly, wild species of citrus, which seems of a more 
 hardy nature than the kumquat itself." This remark un- 
 doubtedly referred to the trifoliate orange. The tree it- 
 self was described and illustrated by Kaempfer in his 
 Amoenitatum exoticarum in 1712. Undoubtedly it has 
 been used for ages by the Chinese and Japanese as a stock 
 for citrus trees, but it is only within recent years that trees 
 have been worked on this stock in America. Its use on 
 any extensive scale dates back only about eight or ten 
 years, but even yet its exact limitation of soil and cli- 
 mate have not been fully determined. 
 
 Of all the stocks used for citrus trees, it is the hardi 
 est and it has, in some degree, the power in the colder 
 
204 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 regions of imparting to manj- varieties worked upon it, 
 some of its own hardiness. A^'hile it should be borne in 
 mind that the point of union between the stock and cion 
 is the one point in the trunk of a citrus tree most sensi- 
 tive to cold, still this point of union may be protected 
 and thus a distinct gain in ability to withstand low tem- 
 peratures is made. Besides imparting to the cion some 
 of its ability to withstand cold, it has a tendency to 
 retard growth in spring. C. trifoliata has been known 
 to withstand a temperature below zero, a temperature 
 sufficiently low to establish the claim that it is not in- 
 jured by severe cold. This claim would be worthless, how- 
 ever, were it not distinctly jieriodic in its growth and, 
 moreo\ei-, it is not res}ionsive to sudden changes of tenijjer- 
 ature during the dormant period. 
 
 As a general rule those trees which reach their max- 
 imum development in cold or comparatively cold climates 
 cannot be transferred to distinctly trojiieal or sub-tropical 
 climates and there grown successfully. Now, since the 
 trifoliate orange succeeds admirably and appears to be 
 well adapted to regions distinctly outside the tropical 
 isotherm, it is doubtful whetiier it is advisable to use it 
 as ,1 stock in regions removed from all effects of frost. 
 Ill view of this fact, it would l)e unsafe to recommend 
 i1 as a stock fov use in the Islands, and on the whole it 
 is safest lo use it only in the colder regions. In southern 
 California it is not likely to prove satisfactory, except at 
 comparatively high altitudes. It has proved quite satis- 
 factorj^ in northern Florida and also in Louisiana and 
 Texas. 
 
 The trifoliate orange should not be used as a stock 
 on high, dry or calcareous soils. For such situations, it 
 is a failure. It grows well and vigorously on good flat 
 
STOCKS FOR CITRUS TREES. 205 
 
 woods and hammock land in Florida and it appears to 
 be well adapted to this class of soils. Plantings should 
 be made on this stock only on these classes of soils or on 
 those correspondingly well supplied with moisture and 
 capable of retaining it. In California it is said to succeed 
 well on alkali lands and Mr. C. H. Shime, of the Califor- 
 nia Experiment Station, recommends it for planting in 
 such localities. 
 
 So far as known this stock is not subject to mal-di- 
 goma, and in some of the world's citrus districts it is 
 used as a resistant stock.* It is sometimes quite severely 
 infested with San Jose scale. This does not interfere 
 with its use as a stock as the other species of citrus are 
 free from this scale. 
 
 The root system produced by the trifoliate orange 
 is very good. The roots penetrate well into the soil and 
 fibrous roots are produced abundantly. 
 
 When supplied with a vigorous top, the root becomes 
 more vigorous, and, strange to say, not a single case has 
 come under observation where the stock did not outgrow 
 any variety worked on it. The trifoliate root is larger 
 just below the point of union than the cion trunk is just 
 above. This goes to show that the stock is influenced by 
 the top and made to grow much more vigorously than 
 might be expected. The diameter of worked trifoliate 
 trunks just below the point of union greatly exceeds that 
 of seedling trifoliate trees of equal age at the same dis- 
 tance from the surface of the ground. 
 
 Many writers on citrus propagation have stated with- 
 out reservation that C. trifoliata stock dwarfs the top 
 worked upon it. Exception must be taken to the breadth 
 
 * Ed. Gardener's Chronicle, 27:270, Ap., 1900. 
 

 6< 
 
STOCKS FOR CITRUS TREES. 207 
 
 of this statement. It is not always true. Some varieties 
 of citrus appear to grow as rapidly and attain as large 
 a size when propagated on trifoliate orange stock as they 
 do on sour or sweet. It will be found, however, that the 
 fruit borne on young trees worked on trifoliate orange 
 is usually superior in quality to that borne on trees 
 budded on most other stocks, and it may be added that 
 they are decidedly more precocious and prolific. 
 
 The most extensive set of experiments which have 
 been made to determine the relative merits of C. trifoliata 
 and other stocks are those which were started and are 
 still being carried on by G. L. Taber, of Glen St. Mary, 
 Fla. The results of the experiments for the years 1901 
 and 1902 were published in the Florida Farmer and Fruit 
 Grower. The results of this work are given herewith. 
 The soil on which the experiment was instituted lies about 
 half way between flat woods and high pine land. The 
 sub-soil is clay at a depth of about eighteen inches and 
 the land is well supplied with moisture. 
 
 TRIFOLIATE, SMTBET AND SOUR. 
 FRUITFULNESS OF THE ORANGE ON THESE STOCKS. 
 
 Editor Farmer and Fruit-Grower : 
 
 Having received a great many inquiries as to the behavior 
 of orange trees budded upon Citrus trifoliate stock, I liave gona 
 over my test orchard, planted two years ago, and made careful 
 memoranda, which are herewith submitted: 
 
 I have heretofore given some account of this test orchard, 
 but would say for the benefit of those who do not remember 
 the conditions under which it was planted, that the trees were 
 set out in March, 1899, on absolutely wild land that had never 
 been touched with a plow. Holes were dug in the wiregrass 
 sod, and a moderate application of lime was mixed with the 
 earth where the trees were to be planted. This was done three 
 
208 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 or four weeks ahead of time of planting. At the time of plant- 
 ing we used about three-quarters of a pound of commercial fer- 
 tilizer to each tree, thoroughly mixed with the earth. 
 
 A TEST ORCHARD. 
 
 The test orchard planted in this way consisted of four trees. 
 each of many of the most prominent varieties of oranges and pom- 
 elos. Half of the trees planted were upon Citrus trifoliata stock, 
 and the other half upon sour and sweet stocks — mostly sour. 
 In planting, the trees upon sour and Citrus trifoliate were in- 
 terspersed, one being on sour, the next on trifoliata, the next 
 on sour, and the next on trifoliata, so that neither the trees 
 on sour nor those on trifoliata have any benefit of any varia- 
 tion in quality of land, should any exist, throughout the orchard. 
 The trees were planted thirty feet apart each way, in order to 
 give each tree the benefit of all the ground that it could utilize 
 and to make the test as thorough as possible. 
 
 The trees that were planted had been dug and heeled in just 
 previous to the unprecedented freeze of February 12, 1899, dur- 
 ing which the thermometer went to ten degrees above zero. All 
 of the trees had their tops severely frozen back, and when we 
 came to plant, the majority of the trees showed but a few inches 
 to a foot of live wood above the bud. Planting frozen-back trees 
 on absolutely wild, sour land is not, under ordinary circum- 
 stances, a commendable project, and would hardly have been 
 done in this instance except for the purpose of inaugurating 
 at the earliest possible moment, a test orchard that should show 
 the comparative growth, productiveness, hardiness, time of rip 
 ening, etc., of all the prominent varieties on sour and Citru« 
 trifoliata stocks. 
 
 The tabulated statement herewith given was inade June 20. 
 1901, twenty-seven months after the trees were planted. In ob- 
 taining the height, breadth and number of fruits each tree was 
 accurately measured and the fruits carefully counted; and the 
 result given is the average of two trees, except in a very few 
 Instances, where one tree of a variety had died and had to be 
 replaced a year later. In such cases the comparisons are be- 
 tween one tree each of sour and Citrus trifoliata. 
 
STOCKS FOB CITRUS TREES. 209 
 
 ORANGES. 
 
 Variety. Stock. 
 
 Bessie Sour 
 
 Bessie C. T. 
 
 Centennial Sour 
 
 Centennial C. T. 
 
 Du Roi Sweet 
 
 Du Roi C. T. 
 
 Early Oblong Sour 
 
 Early Oblong C. T. 
 
 Hart's Late Sour 
 
 Hart's Late C. T. 
 
 Homosassa Sour 
 
 Homosassa C. T. 
 
 JafEa Sour 
 
 Jaffa C. T. 
 
 King Sour 
 
 King C. T. 
 
 Mad. Vinous Sour 
 
 Mad. Vinous C. T. 
 
 Magnum Bonum Sweet 
 
 Magnum Bonum C. T. 
 
 Majorca Sour 
 
 Majorca C. T. 
 
 Maltese Blood Sour 
 
 Maltese Blood C. T. 
 
 Maltese Oval Sweet 
 
 Maltese Oval C. T. 
 
 Nonpareil Sour 
 
 Nonpareil C. T. 
 
 Old Vini Sour 
 
 Old Vini C. T. 
 
 Pineapple Sour 
 
 Pineapple C. T. 
 
 Ruby Sour 
 
 Ruby C. T. 
 
 St. Michael's Blood Sour 
 
 St. Michael's Blood C. T. 
 
 Tangerine Sweet 
 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 H'ght. 
 
 Br'dth. 
 
 Pr't. 
 
 6 1-2 
 
 71-2 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 5 1-2 
 
 58 
 
 6 
 
 71-2 
 
 1 
 
 41-2 
 
 4 1-2 
 
 87 
 
 61-2 
 
 5 1-2 
 
 
 
 61-2 
 
 7 
 
 61 
 
 61-2 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 5 1-2 
 
 61-2 
 
 95 
 
 61-2 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 44 
 
 6 
 
 71-2 
 
 4 
 
 61-2 
 
 5 1-2 
 
 26 
 
 61-2 
 
 6 1-2 
 
 
 
 5 1-2 
 
 6 
 
 34 
 
 8 1-2 
 
 5 
 
 81 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 281 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 6 1-2 
 
 8 
 
 36 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 3 1-2 
 
 3 1-2 
 
 35 
 
 5 1-2 
 
 6 1-2 
 
 96 
 
 31-2 
 
 4 1-2 
 
 62 
 
 6 1-2 
 
 7 1-2 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 1-2 
 
 50 
 
 6 1-2 
 
 61-2 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 44 
 
 5 1-2 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 5 1-2 
 
 5 
 
 41 
 
 6 
 
 4 1-2 
 
 
 
 4 1-2 
 
 3 1-2 
 
 38 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 3 1-2 
 
 5 1-2 
 
 75 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 43 
 
210 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Variety. Stock. H'ght. Br'dth ■'^°:,°^ 
 
 Tangerine C. T. 4 1-2 5 78 
 
 Washington Navel Sour 5 1-2 6 1-2 
 
 Washington Navel C. T. 3 1-2 4 1-2 32 
 
 POMELOS. 
 
 Duncan Sour 5 7 60 
 
 Duncan Sour 6 7 27 
 
 Marsh Seedless Sour 7 7 1-2 10 
 
 Marsh Seedless C. T. 3 41-2 33 
 
 Triumph Sweet 7 1-2 6 1-2 
 
 Triumph C. T. 6 6 75 
 
 TABULATED STATEMENT. 
 
 Recapitulation of the above figures shows that of the twenty- 
 three varieties above named thirteen on sour stock failed to 
 hold any fruit this year, while on Citrus trifoliata the whole 
 twenty-three have fruit on. The average number of fruits on 
 the whole number of trees on sour stock is thirteen, and the 
 average number on Citrus trifoliata Is fifty-seven. The aver- 
 age excess of height of trees on sour over those on trifoliata 
 is one and one-fourth feet, and the average excess of breadth 
 of those on sour over those on trifoliata is one foot. 
 
 While the trees average larger on sour than on trifoliata, 
 yet there are a few varieties that show no appreciable differ- 
 ence, and two of the varieties show actually larger on Citrus 
 trifoliata than on sour or sweet. One of these is Du Roi orange 
 and the other, Duncan pomelo. A few of the other varieties are 
 so nearly of the same size on the two stocks that one would 
 have trouble in designating which of the trees were on sour and 
 which on Citrus trifoliata if he did not know. Amongst these 
 sorts are King and Madam Vinous. In the whole twenty-three 
 varieties there are only two in which the trees on sour stock 
 show an excess of fruit over those on trifoliata. These are Malt- 
 ese Oval orange and Duncan pomelo. In the former there are 
 a large number of very small oranges from late bloom which 
 are not noticeable in any other variety. 
 
 It should be mentioned that all of the trees planted were 
 as nearly of the same size as it was possible to obtain; the idea 
 
STOCKS FOR CTTRVS' TREMS: 21 1 
 
 being to make the test as accurate as possible in every particu- 
 lar. For instance, in the pineapple variety we could have planted 
 larger trees on sour, but instead of doing so we planted the same 
 size that we were able to obtain of the same variety upon Citrus 
 trifoliata. In another part of the orchard — entirely independent 
 of the test part — we planted larger trees of Pineapple and several 
 other varieties upon sour stock which are now fruiting. The 
 comparisons above given are made only between the trees that 
 were planted side by side for test purposes, all of which have 
 been given the same treatment in every particular. In another 
 part of the grove we have both Washington Navel and Tangerine 
 upon Citrus trifoliata that show up much better that the test 
 trees; but, as above stated, for comparative purposes we have 
 confined the test strictly to the test trees. 
 
 A SATSUMA ORCHARD. 
 
 In this particular test orchard the Satsuma is not included 
 rrom the fact that we had several orchards of this variety 
 already planted upon both sweet and Citrus trifoliata stocks. 
 A comparison of two of these orchards, planted in the winter 
 of 97-98, and which were, of course, frozen to the ground in the 
 freeze of '99, shows the following averages: The Satsuma on 
 sweet, height six feet, breadth eight feet, number of oranges, 
 twenty; Satsuma on trifoliata, height five and two-thirds feet, 
 breadth six and two-thirds feet; number of oranges, one hundred. 
 
 We have also some twenty other varieties of oranges and 
 pomelos on Citrus trifoliate in orchards that were planted in 
 '97-'98, but with no trees on sour, side by side, for test pur- 
 poses. Of these older trees, Washington Navel, Tangerine, Par- 
 son Brown, Homosassa, Nonpareil, Du Roi and Madam Vinous 
 oranges and Duncan pomelo now average about eight feet in 
 height and the same in breadth, and all are bearing well. The 
 Washington Navel tfee is carrying seventy-nine oranges. 
 
 EARLY BEARING OF TRIFOLIATA STOCKS. 
 
 One thing has been fully determined and that is that all 
 varieties come into bearing at a very early age when budded 
 upon Citrus trifoliate. Another thing that is fully determined 
 is that the fruit from trees on Citrus trifoliata roots is fully 
 
212 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 equal in quality to the same variety on sour roots, and still 
 another thing that experience has proven is that the same var- 
 ieties ripen earlier in the season upon Citrus trifoliata than 
 upon sour. The longevity of the trees on Citrus trifoliata, the 
 ultimate size that they will attain and their comparative value, 
 in the long run, with those on sour, remain to be proven. It 
 is probable that as the trees get older, there will be more differ- 
 ence in size between trees on the two stocks than is now ap- 
 parent. This will be the natural consequence of the trees fruit- 
 ing so heavily when young. This smaller ultimate size of trees 
 is a quality, whether advantageous or otherwise, each can fig- 
 ure out for himself. It admits of close planting, and a conse- 
 quent heavy crop from a given acreage. It is also probable that 
 some varieties will show more affinity for the trifoliata stock 
 than others, and that while some varieties will prove perma- 
 nently successful on this stock, others may not. The exact 
 extent to which extra hardiness is induced by using Citrus tri- 
 foliata stock is also more or less conjectural, but experience 
 has snown that the claim for extra hardiness is well founded, 
 with certain varieties. Whether it will prove equally so with 
 all varieties is one of the points that further careful comparisons 
 in the test orchard must determine. The test orchard estab- 
 lished is one of these long time experiments in which years 
 must pass before actual definite comparisons can be made that 
 will cover all the points involved. 
 
 In the meantime it is an inspiriting sight to see the trees 
 on Citrus trifoliata bearing heavily, not only in the orchard, 
 but in the nursery rows, and it suggests promising possibilities 
 for the colder sections of the State; with thick planting and 
 banking of the trees in winter. For if the trees are frozen 
 back to the banking, they immediately put on a new top and 
 come into bearing again very soon. In my own orchards and 
 nurseries, situated at Glen St. Mary, in northern Florida, within 
 ten miles of the Georgia line, the crop for this year is estimated 
 at 1,000 boxes. All of the trees that are bearing in nursery, 
 and a large proportion of those in orchard are upon Citrus tri- 
 foliata stock. 
 
 G. L. TABER. 
 
 Glen St, Mary, Fla., June 22, 1901. 
 
STOCKS FOR CITRUS TREES. 213 
 
 EXPERIMENTAL GROVE. 
 
 TREES ON SOUR AND CITRUS TRIFOLIATA STOCK. 
 
 Editor Farmer and Fruit-Grower : 
 
 It may interest your readers to hear how my test orchard 
 of oranges on sour and Citrus trifoliata stocks is coming on. 
 I made a report on this one year ago, and now, July 26, 1902, 
 having just finished the annual record of it for this year, will 
 give a summary of the results. 
 
 The experimental grove referred to was planted in March. 
 1899, about a month after one of the heaviest freezes that Flor- 
 ida ever experienced — the thermometer having gone to 10 de- 
 gress above zero at my place. With twenty acres of grove frozen 
 to the banking it looked a little like tempting Providence to 
 go ahead and set out five acres additional that I had already 
 planned, but that was what I did. And right here I would say 
 that the conditions under which this five-acre grove was planted 
 were far from Ideal — in more ways than one. In the first place 
 our nursery planting for the season had overrun my estimate 
 and used up all the available cUared land, and the grove, if 
 planted at all that spring had to be set in absolutely wild, un- 
 broken pine sod. In the second place not a nursery tree in my 
 own, nor any other nursery for a long distance south, remained 
 unfrozen — except that small portion of the bud covered by the 
 banking. Interesting conditions under which to place a grove,, 
 weren't they? 
 
 Although five acres were planted that spring, as per above, 
 there were really but a little over two acres strictly experi- 
 mental. On this experimental plot were planted one hundred 
 orange and pomelo trees, twenty-five varieties, four of a variety, 
 half on sour stock and half on Citrus trifoliata stock, planted 
 altehrnately at thirty feet apart each way. Taking Jaffa, for 
 instance; the first tree planted was on sour, the second on C. 
 trifoliata, the third on sour and the fourth on C. trifoliata. 
 The distance of thirty feet was given them so that each tree 
 might have absolutely all the room it wanted. The entire or- 
 chard has received the same treatment in the way of fertili- 
 zation and cultivation, and the experiment, as far as it has 
 progressed, is as fair a one as it is possible to make. A part of 
 
2U CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 the trees of two varieties of the twenty-five had to be reset, leav- 
 ing but twenty-thres varieties — 92 trees — for actual comparison. 
 It would require too much space to give exact sizes of every 
 tree and the actual number of oranges on each tree, although 
 the record that I have just completed shows this. Following is 
 a summary of the twenty-three varieties: 
 
 Average height trees on sour stock, 8 feet, 2 inches. 
 
 Average breadth trees on sour stock, 9 feet, 2 Inches. 
 
 Average height trees on C. trifoliata, 6 feet, 2 inches. 
 
 Average breadth trees on C. trifoliata, 7 feet. 
 
 Adding together the average height and breadth the trees 
 on sour stock would be represented by 17 feet, 4 inches. 
 
 Adding together the average height and breadth the trees 
 on C. trifoliata would be represented by 13 feet, 2 inches. 
 
 Adding the actual number of fruit that these trees are now 
 holding to the number they produced last year, and dividing by 
 the number of trees, we find those on sour have a total aver- 
 age of 69 oranges per tree for the two years, and those on C. 
 trifoliata have 'J3 oranges to the tree for the two years — an in- 
 crease to date of just about one-third over those on sour. 
 
 It is not to be expected that these trees on C. trifoliata will 
 continue indefinitely to produce more oranges per tree than 
 those on sour, and it may be that when the trees on sour attain 
 full size results per tree will be in favor of those on sour. But, 
 be that as it may, here is a point that is generally overlooked: 
 by setting the trees on C. trifoliata two-thirds or three-quarters 
 as far apart as those on sour the number of trees per acre is 
 doubled. This is about the comparative distance that we would 
 recommend — one-quarter to one-third less distance on C. trifol- 
 iata than would be given those on sour. As above stated, this 
 will double the number of trees to the acre and, figured on that 
 basis, the result so far would have been an increase in %-uit 
 of 270 per cent from the trees on C. trifoliata above those on 
 sour for an equal acreage. This, taken in conjunction with the 
 fact that trees on C. trifoliata can be frozen to the banking one 
 year out of three and still produce a good crop of fruit one year 
 out of three, proves its extra advantages for frosty sections, 
 even if we leave out entirely the question of hardiness. Last 
 winter I personally picked a box and a half of Ruby oranges 
 
STOCKS FOR CITRUS TREES. 215 
 
 off from a section of a row sixty feet long of two-year-old nursery 
 trees — trees one foot apart in the row. I am not at all sure 
 but what these trees planted four to six feet apart in the rows 
 and rows twelve to fifteen feet apart — to leave room to fertilize 
 and cultivate one way — would be a good investment. The fruit, 
 for the first few years at least, would be a sight to behold. 
 
 The above suggestion is perhaps unfair to the C. trifoliata 
 as applied to all varieties budded on it, from the fact that 
 several years of experiment prove that there is quite a distinct 
 difference in the varieties, as to their comparative growth, when 
 budded on this stock. In fact out of the twenty-three varieties 
 summarized in this article there are two varieties of orange, 
 Jaffa a:nd King, and one variety of pomelo, Duncan, that actu- 
 ally average larger on C. trifoliata after having been planted 
 a little over three years than the corresponding varieties on 
 sour alongside. 
 
 In addition to the varieties above mentioned, the following 
 on C. trifoliata compare well, as regards growth, with those on 
 sour: Du Roi, Early Oblong, Homosassa, Madam Vinous, Mag- 
 num Bonum, Nonpareil, Pineapple and Tangerine. There are 
 quite a number of these kinds that would put a man to guessing 
 as to which stock they were budded on unless he ex- 
 amined the roots. And speaking about the roots, here 
 is an illustration showing how facts may and often 
 do, confound theories: The C. trifoliata, although naturally a 
 much more dwarf tree than are most of the varieties that are 
 budded on it, will invariably keep ahead of the bud inserted on 
 it. In other words, if the diameter of the bud is, say three inches 
 just above the point of union, the C. trifoliata stock just below 
 the point of union will be about 3 1-2 inches. The stock of C. 
 trifoliata always develops growth faster than the bud inserted 
 on it, although the natural inference would be that, as the stock 
 itself is of a dwarfish nature, the bud would outgrow the stock. 
 * # * 
 
 Comparative results so far are distinctly in favor of C. 
 trifoliata as a stock for this section. I know of no reason why 
 this should not apply equally to other sections subject to fre- 
 quent freezes. In the Islands, or at points outside the range 
 of Jack Frost's visitations, the reason for using C. trifoliata as. 
 
216 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 a stocK might not be so pronounced. Its precocity in throwing 
 the bud into early fruiting, makes it desirable however, 
 wherever immediate results are wished for. As a matter of fact 
 this article is not written as a plea for the Citrus trifoliata, 
 but simply to record comparative results based upon what is 
 perhaps the most extensive and comprehensive line of experi- 
 ments with it that have ever been systematically undertaken 
 In this country. G. L. TABER. 
 
 Glen St. Mary, Florida, July 26, 1902. 
 
 SWEET ORANGE (C. AURANTIUM). 
 
 The sweet orange is not so hardy as the sour and tri- 
 foliate oranges. For colder regions, other things being 
 equal, one of the latter two is to be preferred. It has 
 been pointed out that in California sweet stock is not 
 deep rooted, most of the roots being found in the top 
 eighteen inches of soil. J. W. Mills, on page 11 and 12 
 Bulletin 138, California Experiment Station, states the 
 results of his investigation in these words: "In short, 
 the general experience on all kinds of soils and under 
 different methods of cultivation shows that it is the na- 
 ture of the sweet orange seedling to form a shallow root 
 system," and further: "To sum this up, the sweet orange 
 is a surface feeding stock which has few or no deeply pen- 
 etrating roots." In Florida, investigations have not been 
 carried far enough to prove what the conditions are, but 
 of nursery trees it may be said that the sweet stock is 
 equal in root development to sour stock. 
 
 Sweet stock is subject to the attacks of mal-di-goma 
 and hence should not be used on soils where this disease 
 is likely to occur. Damp soils, such as are found in the 
 hammocks and flat woods of Florida should not be planted 
 A\'ith trees on sweet stock ; even on higher ground they are 
 frequenlly attacked. On the other hand, it may be pointed 
 
STOCKS FOR CITRUS TREES. 217 
 
 out that on light, well-drained soils, trees worked on this 
 stock make a good growth and develop into shapely, sym- 
 metrical trees. The growth of trees on sweet stock is 
 more rapid than on sour or trifoliate orange and in gen- 
 eral it may be said that in rapidity of development, it is 
 surpassed as a stock only by the rough lemon and pomelo. 
 When frozen back, sweet stocks sprout readily and 
 seldom is it necessary to replace them. In some sections 
 it may be advisable to use sweet stock, but the planter 
 should never forget that it is susceptible to the attacks 
 of mal-di-goma, and should not use it without counting 
 the risk. In Florida its use as a stock has been discontin- 
 ued almost entirely, but in California, Australia and 
 other districts, it is still used. 
 
 POMELO (C. DECUMANA). 
 
 As already pointed out, the pomelo surpasses the 
 rough lemon in hardiness, but does not equal the sweet 
 orange. It is a strong, vigorous grower, and seedling pom- 
 elo trees throughout Florida have attained a size sur- 
 passed by no other species of citrus, and generally sur- 
 passing all others in the amount of fruit borne. 
 
 Within the past few years, attention has been di- 
 rected towards its use as a stock, most of the citrus trees 
 on this stock being planted on the lower west coast reg- 
 ion of Florida. But outside of this region it has not been 
 used to any considerable extent and most of the plantings 
 in South Florida are still made on sour orange and rough 
 lemon stock. In southern California this stock appears 
 to be replacing the sweet orange stock to a very consider- 
 able extent and it appears to be superior to the latter. 
 As a stock for dry soils, it is surpassed by none, except- 
 ing the rough lemon, and if we are to .iudge by the behav- 
 
218 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 ior of seedling trees, it is successful on soils of intermed- 
 iate moisture content. 
 
 The pomelo root system is well developed and well 
 distributed in the soil and, so far as observed in Florida, 
 no cases of mal-di-goma have been noted and none have 
 been authentically reported. In regard to its behavior 
 in California, J. W. Mills, in Bulletin 138, California 
 Experiment Station, says, "It is resistant, to a certain 
 extent, to the form of gum disease that attacks the roots 
 of citrus trees." 
 
 LIME (CITRUS LIMETTA). 
 
 In the southern east coast of Florida this stock has 
 been tried to some extent and the results on rocky soils, 
 or those underlaid with rock, appear to be quite satisfac- 
 tory. Trees on this root upwards of twenty years old 
 may be seen at Palm Beach, Florida, and they are cer- 
 tainly growing there under conditions where it is ex- 
 tremely doubtful whether any other stock now in use 
 would have succeeded. It may reasonably be expected 
 that this stock will be used to a greater extent than it 
 now is. It is probably better adapted to tropical regions 
 than the trifoliate orange and may be instrumental in 
 extending the citrus industry into those regions. Lime 
 trees succeed well on dry soils and make a good growth. 
 
CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 CITRUS SOILS. 
 
 While citrus trees possess a wide range of soil adap 
 tability, it is true that any and every kind of soil cannot 
 be used for their culture. Many soils can be planted to 
 citrus trees where certain seedlings would not succeed, 
 if the right stock be chosen on which to work them, and, 
 fortunately, there is a goodly number of stocks with a 
 fairly wide range of adaptability from which to choose. 
 
 But even with this advantage there are certain classes 
 of soils which should be avoided and, of course, of those 
 which may be used, many are more suitable than others. 
 Sticky, heavy soils, through which water does not readily 
 percolate should be avoided and those which are extremely 
 dry, unless they can be irrigated, are unsuitable. Again, 
 soils which are damp and wet and those which are under- 
 laid with hardpan should not be chosen for the citrus 
 grove, unless the strata of rock or hard soil can be broken 
 up so as to allow the roots to penetrate deeply into the 
 soil. 
 
 Citrus trees succeed best on well drained soils of a 
 rather open nature. If naturally well drained, so much 
 the better, but if not, drainage must be provided. No 
 stagnant water should stand in the grove, neither should 
 the soil be completely charged with water. Soils of an ex- 
 tremely open, porous nature are unsuitable, as they do not 
 hold sufficient moisture and if they are deficient in plant 
 food and recourse has to be made to commercial fertili- 
 zers to make up the lack of fertility, these leach readily 
 from the soil, and the full effects from their use cannot 
 be obtained. If the surface is good, tillable earth, with n 
 
2120 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 fair admixture of sand, so as to open it up, and the sub- 
 soil is somewhat closer so as to hold moisture and pre- 
 vent leaching, the ideal conditions have been secured. 
 
 FLORIDA SOILS. 
 
 The soils of Florida are commonly grouped according 
 to ele\ation and the groAvth which they support or have 
 supported in a virgin state. Those commonly used for 
 citrus culture are high pine land, flat Avoods, high ham- 
 mock and low hammock. On all of these citrus fruits 
 have been and are grown successfully. 
 
 High pine land, as the term denotes, is well elevated 
 and well drained. In a native state it is covered with a 
 growth of long-leaf pine (Pinus australis Michx.), with 
 little or no undergrowth. Sometimes a few high ground 
 willow oaks (Quercus (Jinerea Michx.), and other trees 
 are found. Those with a mixture of deciduous trees are 
 usually conceded to be somewhat superior to those cov- 
 ered with a pure growth of pine. The surface soil gener- 
 ally contains a fair amount of humus, the sub-soil is 
 clay or a rather loamy sand, though frequently the clay 
 is not found until a considerable depth is reached. These 
 soils are not rich, but they respond readily to good treat- 
 ment and make good citrus soils. They contain about 
 .026 per cent nitrogen, .016 per cent potash, .022 per cent 
 lime and .05 per cent phosphoric acid. 
 
 The flat woods land likewise supports a growth of 
 long-leaf pine (Pinus australis), but the elevation is con- 
 siderably less and the ground is quite flat and level. In 
 Ihe southern part of the State, in the vicinity of ^liami 
 and Punta Gorda, for instance, and generally south of 
 a line from Cape Canaveral to Tampa Bay, the long-leaf 
 pine is replaced by the Cuban pine (Pinus Cubensis Gris- 
 
CITRUS SOILS. 221 
 
 eb.). Frequently flat woods land is thickly covered with an 
 undergrowth of saw palmetto (Serenoa serrulata Hook.), 
 and gallberry (Ilex glabra). In many places the flat 
 woods land approaches the high pine land in elevation. 
 Such lands are usually well adapted to citrus culture. 
 On the other hand, much of the land designated as flat 
 woods is low, flat and undrainable and is entirely un- 
 suited to the growth of citrus trees. The surface soil con- 
 tains a considerable amount of humus, while the sub-soil 
 may be clay, hardpan or rock. Those which are subject 
 to overflow, not readily drained and which have a hard, 
 compact sub-soil, should be avoided. On the other hand, 
 those of intermediate character, as noted above, are among 
 the best of Florida's citrus soils. 
 
 High hammock lands correspond in a large measure 
 to the high pine lands. They are well drained and ele- 
 vated, but are covered with a native growth of hardwood, 
 evergreen and deciduous trees. Among these may be men- 
 tioned holly (Ilex opaca Ait.), hickory (Carya tomen- 
 tosa Nutt.), live oak (Quercus virens Ait.), dogwood 
 (Cornus Florida) and magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora). 
 Lands of this character are well supplied with humus, 
 have a comparatively deep, rich soil and are well adapted 
 for citrus culture. The analyses of these soils show about 
 .0658 per cent of nitrogen, .06 per cent of lime, .014 per 
 cent phosphoric acid and a trace of potash. 
 
 The high hammock lands shade off into the low ham- 
 mocks. These latter are covered with a growth of nearly 
 the same character, but the live oak is more in evidence 
 and the cabbage palmetto (Sabal palmetto E. & S.) is quite 
 abundant. The surface soil contains a large amount of 
 humus and they are consequently rich in nitrogen. They 
 are generally difiicult and costly to clear, but if well 
 
222 CITRUS FRVIT8 ANV THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 drained, or the evil effects of a superabundance of water 
 can be avoided, they are very desirable for citrus fruits. 
 It is on these soils that large numbers of citrus trees have 
 been set and good groves established along the Caloosa- 
 hatchee River as well as elsewhere in Florida. 
 
 In addition to these soils, mention should be made 
 of the hickory or the hickory scrub lands, stretching in 
 broken areas along the shores of the Indian River, from 
 about Cape <'unaveral northward. They arc co\ered for 
 the most part with a growth of hickory and the soil is a 
 pure yellow sand with a goodly admixture of humus in 
 the surface layer. In some respects they correspond to 
 <he high pine lands of the interior and appear to be well 
 adapted to citrus fruits. The chemical analyses show 
 the following percentage of the important plant foods: 
 .07 per cent nitrogen, .0862 per cent lime, .0431 per cent 
 phosphoric acid and .011 per cent potash. 
 
 Other soils are used for citrus culture in the State, 
 but those described above have generally proved most 
 satisfactory. 
 
 LOUISIANA. 
 
 In Louisiana, the rich, alluvial soils of the Missis- 
 sippi delta are used for citrus trees. These correspond 
 in some degTee to the low hammock soils of Florida, but 
 are much richer and contain more humus. Particular 
 attention has to be given to drainage. 
 
 CALIFORNIA. 
 
 The best citrus soils in California are found on the 
 higher levels and among the foothills. In most parts of 
 till' Siiilc the actual cdinposition of the soil, wliclher it 
 lie red soil, iji-anite oi- sandv loam, does not matter so 
 
CITRUS SOILS. 223 
 
 mucli as does the drainage and the possibility of supply- 
 ing water by irrigation. 
 
 The soil of the famous Riverside district is of a deep 
 reddish color, while the Eedlands section takes its name 
 from the color of the soil. The mesas are among the best 
 citrus soils of the State, for though the fruit may be pro- 
 duced on other soils, it is not equal in quality to that pro- 
 duced on this class of land and on the foothills. In south- 
 ern California, the great lemon industry has been built 
 up on the mesas and foothills, lands long untouched, 
 many of them covered with a forbidding growth of cacti, 
 sagebrush and like vegetation peculiar to such soil and 
 climatic conditions. 
 
 In California soils underlaid with hardpan, alkaline 
 soils, heavy clay soils (adobe), should be avoided and 
 the lower lands, containing larger amounts of humus and 
 moisture do not produce fruit of as good quality as the 
 uplands. 
 
 CUBA. 
 
 In Cuba there are a number of different types of 
 soil which may be used for citrus groves. Not all of them 
 are equally adapted, and it will require considerable prac- 
 tical experience to determine which class or classes will 
 be most satisfactory. Not until bearing groves have 
 been grown to considerable age can the question be defi- 
 nitely answered. The health and longevity of the trees, 
 the flavor and quality of the fruit are all influenced by 
 the character of the soil. 
 
 The soils which are more or less adapted to citrus 
 fruits may be divided into three general classes. Of these 
 the sandy soils are preferred by many. Soils of this type 
 are easily cultivated, and while some commercial fertilizer 
 
224 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 i\ill have to be used, other advantages may more than 
 offset this expense. They retain moisture well and, lil;e 
 the sandy soils of Florida, will doubtless produce thin- 
 skinned, juicy fruit of excellent quality. 
 
 On the red lands found in large tracts in the prov- 
 inces of Havana and Matanzas, and in smaller areas else- 
 where, many old bearing orange trees are to be found. 
 The old groves planted on them have been quite successful. 
 The chief drawbacks in their management are that they 
 part readily with their moisture, bake and crack ojien 
 during dry weather. They are sticky and pasty during 
 wet weather and, in consequence, are rather hard to culti- 
 vate. l!y incorporating vegetable matter, and perhaps by 
 the use of lime, these conditions can doubtless be con- 
 siderably improved. 
 
 The black lands are likely to produce rank growth 
 in tree and fruit, though by care in fertilizing, when the 
 trees begin to bear, a portion of this difficulty may be 
 overcome. In selecting the location, attention should be 
 given to the question of drainage, as these soils, particu- 
 larly when low and flat, are likely to be wet. 
 
CHAPTER XXIX. 
 LOCATING THE CITRUS GROVE. 
 
 lu selecting a location for planting a grove of citrus 
 trees a number of points have to be carefully considered. 
 The facilities for transportation, the susceptibility of the 
 region to frosts, the nature and direction of the prevailing 
 winds, the exposure and the insect problem must all be 
 studied in their relation to the prospective gains, the wel- 
 fare of the trees and the quality of the output. 
 
 Citrus fruits have a great advantage over many other 
 kinds of fruit. They are not perishable in the same sense 
 that plums and peaches are, and after being removed from 
 the trees they may be kept for weeks, even with ordinary 
 care. Their ability to withstand the inroads of decay 
 producing organisms is not dependent upon the resist- 
 ant power of the inner portion of the fruit, but upon the 
 leathery nature of the cured rind. Their keeping quality 
 bas an important bearing on the transportation problem. 
 With proper care they may be shipped to any of the 
 world's great markets. 
 
 The susceptibility of citrus trees to injury from frost 
 decrees that they must be grown in regions far from the 
 effects of rigorous cold and such sections are far distant 
 from the great markets of the United States in the North- 
 east and Middle West. Consequently, it is impossible 
 to produce the fruit in proximity to the markets and this 
 phase of the question may be dismissed. 
 
 But in regions where the fruit is grown it is best, other 
 things being equal, to locate the grove in proximity to a 
 railroad station or steamboat landing. Transportation 
 by team is expensive and a distance of five, ten or fifteen 
 
 9 
 
22G CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 miles from a railroad must not be overlooked in the pre- 
 liminary reckoning of expenditures and returns. If the 
 grove tan be located conveniently near two railroads, so 
 much the better. ( 'ompetitiou sometimes has an influence 
 on freight tariff. 
 
 It may be safely said that few districts where citrus 
 fruits are grown within the confines of the mainland of 
 the United States are entirely free from the effects of 
 frost, still some localities are notoriously frosty while 
 others may be considered entirely free, so far as damage 
 to the trees, flowers or fruit is concerned. Freedom from, 
 or susceptibility to frosts is not dependent entirely upon 
 either latitude or altitude. A certain situation may not 
 be subject to the baneful effects of frost, while, within a 
 very short distance, another may be repeatedly visited. 
 Even in Florida where the land is comparatively flat and 
 level and where one might expect greater uniformity to 
 prevail, isolated spots are visited by frosts, while others 
 much farther north escape. The topography of the region, 
 the proximity of bodies of water, the presence of mountain 
 barriers, the direction of the prevailing winds are the 
 factors which largely control the climate of a given 
 region. 
 
 It is frequently noted that frosts occur in valleys, 
 hollows and low areas while the adjacent hillsides or ele- 
 vated portions are untouched. The explanation of this 
 phenomenon is that the cold air drains off into the lower 
 levels and settles there, while the warm air rises to re- 
 place it. This interchange of air goes on until frost oc- 
 curs in the lower area while the higher portion escapes. 
 Low ground so situated as to receive the cold air from a 
 higher level should be avoided, a location on the side of 
 the slope or on the top of the elevation being much prefer- 
 
LOCATIlva THE CITRUS GROVE. 227 
 
 able. Even a few feet of rise suflSces to protect the trees. 
 Frequently it may be observed that the lower portion of 
 a grove is badly frosted while the remainder, only a few 
 feet higher, escapes. Sometimes the banking of the cold 
 air is materially increased by a wall of timber so situ- 
 ated, adjoining the lower portion, as to prevent air 
 drainage. 
 
 This trouble may be obviated by opening up the tim- 
 ber belt sufficiently to allow the cold air to drain off. 
 
 It will be seen from the above, that if the grove or 
 a portion of it be situated in a depression, air drainage 
 may be actually injurious, but on the other hand the fact 
 that the cold air flows oflf into the lower areas may be 
 turned to good advantage, if precaution is taken to select 
 a proper location. The site for the grove in regions sub- 
 ject to damage by frost should be selected on sloping or 
 elevated ground, to permit the removal of the cold air. 
 
 It is very desirable to locate the grove on the shore 
 of a lake or other body of water. The proximity of such 
 bodies of water have much to do with equalizing the tem- 
 perature. In Florida, as shown in Chapter XXXV, there 
 are large numbers of lakes and rivers and in that district it 
 is best to locate the grove, if possible, either on the east or 
 south side of a lake. The freezes which have struck the 
 State have generally come either from the north or north- 
 west. If the lake be of considerable depth, the water does 
 not part with its store of accumulated heat so rapidly as 
 when it is shallow and the heat slowly given up will in 
 some measure raise the temperature. In prevention of 
 frosts, bodies of water play an important part. The heat 
 which they have accumulated during the day is given off 
 slowly during the night thus raising the temperature of 
 the air over the adjoining land. 
 
228 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Frosts and freezes must not be confounded. Frosts 
 generally occur in restricted areas on clear, still nights. 
 Freezes on the contrary usually follow or accompany 
 storms of wind and rain. Their effects are not local, but 
 they sweep across great stretches of territory. 
 
 Solid timber areas frequently do much toward stay- 
 ing their progress and preventing damage. But these 
 should be opened up sufficiently to allow some movement 
 of air, or a still air space may be created into which the 
 cold air will settle. Moore, in his Hand-book of Orange 
 Culture, recommends clearing the land and the laying out 
 of the grove in blocks, each block separated from the ad- 
 joining ones by a belt of the native timber. The twenty 
 acre grove of Mr. W. S. Hart, of Hawk's Park, Fla., is 
 laid out in blocks of five acres, separated by belts of na- 
 tive hammock growth, fifty feet wide. Ditches are run 
 along these belts to prevent the roots of the native trees 
 from reaching out into the grove. Mr. Hart has, on a 
 number of occasions, demonstrated the great advantage 
 of this system of planting. So favorably impressed have 
 we been that we can unhesitatingly recommend it to 
 anyone about to locate where frost protection is neces- 
 sary. When open fires have to be resorted to, the heat 
 is confined and becomes much more effective. Cutting 
 off the rays of the morning sun is a point of further 
 importance. If trees have been touched by cold, their 
 power to recuperate is greatly increased by the shade 
 provided in such a location. 
 
 WIND-BREAKS. 
 
 The foliage and fruit of citrus trees may be greatly 
 injured by high winds. In coast regions such winds fre- 
 quently blow almost steadily and great damage is some- 
 
LOCATING THE CITRUS OROVE. 229 
 
 times wrought. In fact, it is well nigh impossible to es- 
 tablish and maintain a grove under these conditions unless 
 shelter of some kind be provided. If the native growth 
 is sufiScient to afford protection, a belt should be left, if 
 not, a wind-break should be planted or an artificial one 
 constructed. Along the shores of the Indian River in the 
 famous Indian Eiver district in Florida, wind-breaks have 
 to be provided to break the force of the whipping wind. 
 The shores of the river are usually fringed with a dense 
 growth of cabbage palmetto and other trees. This growth 
 has generally been left by planters, fig. A., plate XVI, but 
 occasionally it has been necessary to build a wind-break. 
 Fig. B., plate XVI, is an illustration of one of these. It is 
 built of slats, sixteen feet long, three inches apart and 
 nailed to three, two-by-four stringers supported by five- 
 inch posts placed ten feet apart. To give additional sup- 
 port, the whole structure is guyed with No. 8 wire every 
 twenty feet on opposite sides. 
 
 A slat wind-break may be advisable if land be very 
 expensive, or if it is felt that shelter must be provided 
 without delay. Generally, however, it is best to provide 
 a more substantial one of trees. In California the Mon- 
 terey cypress, pepper trees and gums are most desirable 
 for wind-breaks. The cypress is generally planted alone, 
 while the pepper trees and gums are frequently mixed. 
 The pepper trees are spreading while the gums are tall 
 and upright, consequently the combination is a good one. 
 The best trees for wind-breaks in Florida are the upland 
 willow oak, willow leaved oak and other native trees. They 
 are usually exempt from frost injuries. The Australian 
 pine (Casuarina equisetifolia) and camphor tree are quite 
 good. The camphor tree is considerably hardier than 
 most species of citrus, yet not sufficiently so to render it 
 
Plate XYI. 
 
 Pig A. A wind-break of native growth, mostly palmettos, on 
 the shore of the Indian River, Florida. 
 
 Pig, B. An artificial wind-break of slats. 
 
LOCATING THE CITRUS GROVE. 281 
 
 a very desirable tree to use in the more exposed sections. 
 It does not do well on high, dry soils. The Australian 
 pine is also subject to frost injury and should be planted 
 only in the southern portion of the State. Where frosts 
 do not prevail, the Mexican lime planted as a hedge and 
 allowed to attain a height of ten to twelve feet is quite 
 desirable. 
 
 Preferably the wind-break should be planted at the 
 same time as the grove. In any case, it will be found 
 necessary to ditch the ground between the line of wind- 
 break and the first tree r(nv, to prevent the roots of the 
 wind-break from spreading out into the grove and depriv- 
 ing the citrus trees of food and moisture. This ditch may 
 be filled up again after cutting the roots, if fo desired, 
 but will need to be opened up and the roots cut back 
 again every third or fourth year. It need not be wide, 
 a foot or fifteen inches is sufficient, with suflflcient depth 
 to cut off the surface feeding roots. 
 
 Generally speaking, an exposure opening to the south 
 is best for citrus trees, but in frosty districts it is advisa- 
 ble to plant on the south or east side of a lake or other 
 body of water as already stated, in which case the grove 
 should be set on ground sloping toward the lake. 
 
 In irrigation districts a piece of ground should not 
 be selected which cannot be irrigated, and the prospective 
 planter should assure himself that the available supply 
 will always be ample for his needs. Many failures have 
 resulted because this rule was not observed. As one 
 writer has expressed it, "find water, then find a piece of 
 ground to put it on." 
 
 The insect problem is one to which some considera- 
 tion may be given. The insects affecting citrus fruits are 
 pretty well distributed and it is perhaps not too much to 
 
2;jo CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 say that conditions are nearly equalized throughout the 
 country. Regions which are free from one pest generally 
 have another equally troublesome. No one section can 
 expect to long remain free from their inroads. Still some 
 climatic cojiditions appear to be more favorable for the 
 development of some insects than others. The black scale 
 of citrus trees is a great pest in the coast regions of Cali- 
 fornia, while farther inland it is not so troublesome. 
 
CHAPTER XXX. 
 PREPARATIONS FOR PLANTING. 
 
 CLEARING THE LAND. 
 
 If the piece of land selected for the grove is covered 
 with timber, one of two plans may be adopted — partial 
 clearing or complete clearing. In all cases the latter is 
 preferable, but the former can be made to give good re- 
 sults. 
 
 If it has been decided to plant the trees in a partial 
 clearing, the rows in which the trees are to stand should 
 be cleared out, or the ground should be staked off and 
 a space in the form of a circle cleared where each tree is 
 to stand. This row or space, as the case may be, should 
 be carefully cleared. No roots of the adjoining standing 
 timber should be left in it, but it should be free from all 
 roots to a depth of not less than fifteen or eighteen inches. 
 The timber which stood on the ground may be burned and 
 the ashes returned to the soil, or the larger wood may be 
 saved for firing in some cases, or the wood may be piled 
 and allowed to rot on the ground, while the brush in 
 small quantities may be used as a mulch. All the re- 
 mainder of the standing timber should be cut out not later 
 than the next winter and every precaution must be taken 
 to guard against the newly planted trees being deprived 
 of food and moisture by the native growth. 
 
 In clearing standing timber, wind-breaks should al- 
 ways be allowed to remain. A fifty-foot belt will usually 
 
234 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 suffice, and the plan advised by Moore, of planting in 
 small blocks with shelter belts intervening, is by all 
 means advisable. In exposed regions this plan should 
 always be adopted. 
 
 Having decided to make a complete clearing, it is 
 best to commence operations one year previous to plant- 
 ing. The standing timber and all growth should be cut 
 down. Then the stumps should be removed. The use of 
 a good stump-puller is alwa\'s advisable and dynamite 
 is otten a necessity. Clear thoroughly and either dis- 
 pose of the wood and brush and plant a cover crop in 
 summer or allow the brush, roots and trunks to shelter 
 the ground during the summer. If the latter course is 
 adopted, the brush should not be piled and should be al- 
 lowed to remain spread out over the surface. 
 
 Preferably the ground selected for the citrus grove 
 should be cleared the winter before the one during which 
 the trees are to be planted. After having removed the 
 standing stumps and rubbish, the ground should be 
 plowed, harrowed and leveled. During the intervening 
 summer season, a cover crop should be planted. The roots 
 of this crop will open up the soil, nitrogen will be added 
 (if a legume is planted), humus will be added and on 
 the whole no better preparation can be given the soil for* 
 the future grove than liy adopting this plan. If possible 
 to do so, it should always be followed, and if a piece of 
 old ground is to be planted in trees it is the best method 
 of insuring satisfactory results. In the latter case, more 
 than one season may be required to get the ground in 
 shape. As a covei- cio]!, beggarweed, velvet beans or cow- 
 peas may be planted, and the remarks on these crops in 
 Chapter XXXIII apply equally well here. Cowpeas gen 
 
PREPARATIONS FOR PLANTING. 235 
 
 erally give excellent results on new ground. Mr. W. S. 
 Hart, of Hawks' Park, Fla., a successful grower of 
 more than twenty-five years' experience, makes the follow- 
 ing statement regarding this method of preparation : "The 
 quickest profits that I ever realized from an orange grove 
 was where I thoroughly worked the soil and planted it 
 in cowpeas the first year after clearing, and before I set 
 tlie trees." 
 
 Cultivation. Before planting the trees the ground 
 should be put in thorough tilth. It should be loosened 
 up and stirred. It is not advisable to turn the top soil 
 under unless the sub-soil brought to the surface is quite 
 rich. But the soil should be stirred to a good depth in 
 all cases. If the lower soil is firm and compact, a sub- 
 soil plow should be used to loosen the soil sufficiently to 
 allow the roots to penetrate. After the plowing, the cul- 
 tivator or harrow should be used. This followed by the 
 iloat or planker will leave the ground smooth and mellow, 
 in excellent condition, both for staking off and for plant- 
 ing. 
 
 Dead furrows should be avoided unless it is desired 
 to use them as open ditches afterward. To do this the 
 plowing should be done from a line down the center of 
 the field, two furrows being first throAvn together, then 
 others added on either side until the work is completed. 
 
 GROVE PLANS. 
 
 A number of different systems may be used in the 
 planting of citrus groves. The most important of these 
 are triangular, square or rectangular, hexagonal or sep- 
 tuple, quincunx and double or mixed plantings. 
 
23G 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Triangular System. 
 The triangular system 
 is sometimes referred 
 to as the hexagonal sys- 
 tem, but the latter sys- 
 tem is one of equilateral 
 triangles, while the term 
 triangular, as here used, 
 is applied to the method 
 of planting in inequi- 
 lateral triangles. For in- 
 stance, in fig. 5o, the 
 trees are set in rows 
 thirty feet apart in the 
 rows running east and 
 west. But in every other 
 row the trees are set not 
 
 > 
 
 
 '■} --} 
 
 ■v- -4 ) 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 !'J 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ) ^ 
 
 
 § 
 
 1 
 
 
 ■? 
 
 f 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 V' 
 
 f' 
 
 
 ^ # 
 
 
 
 ') 
 
 
 f 
 
 s^ 
 
 <) 
 
 O' 
 
 Fig. 56. Square system of planting;. 
 
 Fig. 55. Triangular system of planting. 
 
 on the corners of the 
 ~| t h i r t y • f o t squares, 
 '■ I but half way between the 
 corners, and the distance 
 from tree to tree diag- 
 onally across the field is, 
 planted per acre than 
 thirty feet. In fact, they 
 are about thirty-three and 
 a half feet apart. By this 
 method "fewer trees are 
 planted pei- acre than 
 by the square system. In 
 laying out a grove by 
 the triangular method, 
 the field is first laid out 
 in squares. A line is 
 
PREPARATIONS FOR PLANTING. S.^" 
 
 then run diagonally acioss the field and a tree is planted 
 wherever this line passes through the corners or cuts the 
 side of a square. 
 
 There is little to be gained by this system of plant- 
 ing, except thai it makes it possible to cultivate readily 
 (hree ways through the grove. The trees are given some- 
 what more space. But by planting trees according to 
 the triangular system at thirty foot distance, for in- 
 stance, is the same as planting in rectangles 30x33 1-2 
 feet, so far as the number of trees is concerned. Tri- 
 angles laid out on twenty-foot squares would be the same 
 as planting in rectangles 20x22.4 feet. 
 
 Square or Rectanguhir System.. In this system is in- 
 cluded only the methods of setting trees in rectangles, 
 either square or oblong. It is by far the most commonly 
 used of all the systems and the ease with which a field can 
 be laid off in rectangles is greatly in its favor. 
 
 The rows of trees intersect each other at right angles 
 and cultivation may be carried on conveniently either 
 crosswise or lengthwise of the grove. The planter has 
 the choice of placing the trees the same distance apart 
 both ways or of planting them closer together in the rows 
 than the distance between the rows. 
 
 It has been argued that space is not equally divided 
 among the trees and while this is apparently true, yet, on 
 the other hand, the roots of citrus trees, in most cases, 
 penetrate and permeate all the space allowed in ordinary 
 distances. The roots will certainly secure all the food 
 and moisture in the top fifteen inches of soil. 
 
 When trees are to be planted by this system, the 
 stakes must be set so as to be exactly in line, whether 
 \iewert from tlie end or froui the side of the field. 
 
238 
 
 CIXBXJE .FRUITS AND TBEIR CULTURE: 
 
 -■- - - — f 
 
 -'»■- ■;---•■ ■ ;■-■.*■ 
 
 i-r-:--y 
 
 •; ;*; — ■;?; 't r:- 
 
 '■■■■*'-- }-'y-- 
 
 *' t- W- -U — -}■» 'J 
 
 f ¥ ? f f 
 
 f ^ '^ ^ <!/■■ 4 
 
 f f $ f ® 
 
 ^ 9 
 
 * ? 
 
 Fig. 57. Hexagonal system of 
 plautiiig. 
 
 triangles. 
 
 It is tlie only system 
 whereby each tree is 
 placed equally distant 
 from each of its adjoin- 
 ing neighbors and the 
 only system which equal- 
 ly divides the space 
 among the trees. By this 
 method about 15 per cent 
 more trees can be set per 
 acre than by the rectang- 
 ular. 
 
 For permanent plant- 
 ings, at regular distances 
 this system and the rect- 
 angular should be rec- 
 ommended before the others. 
 
 Hexagonal, Septuple or 
 Equilateral Triangle System. 
 By this system six trees are 
 set equidistant from a seventh 
 placed in the center. The ba- 
 sis of the system is not the 
 square but the circle, since the 
 radius of the circle is approx- 
 imately equal to one-sixth of 
 the circumference of the circle. 
 The name septuple, sometimes 
 applied to this system, refers 
 to the fact that the number of 
 trees in each group-unit is 
 seven. Equilateral triangle 
 system refers to the planting 
 of the trees in equilateral 
 
 it- :»r-— y.-y ■*: ■■■ ■■■^ -' ■■ ;* 
 
 '^- -/■ >' X ■■,»■■■ :.* 
 
 y. A, 
 
 « V 
 
 V. -.V*; i- » -•- ^ 
 
 i^ Z} -q <f <) 
 
 <^ ^ 9 ^^ <? f? 
 
 t^ <? Y ^ ^ 
 
 ^ ^ '? ^ '? 
 
 Si t,^ V n ? 
 
 <> ^ ^ ? V ^ 
 fy n ,> (^ '■? 
 
 ,A -^ (> O <} ?? 
 
 Pig. 
 
 Quiucunx system of planting. 
 
PREPARATIONS FOR PLANTING. 
 
 239 
 
 Quincunx System. By this system four trees consti- 
 tute a square, and a fifth is set in the center of each square. 
 Hence the number of rows is greatly increased and about 
 78 per cent more trees can be set per acre than by the rect- 
 angular system. 
 
 For permanent plantings of varieties of uniform size, 
 it does not possess any particular advantage. But if it is 
 desired to set a tree of some smaller variety in the center 
 of each square then the system of quincunx planting be- 
 comes useful. 
 
 In double plantings, where the intention is to remove 
 some of the trees, this system can be recommended. If. 
 for instance, peaches are set with oranges, a peach tree may 
 be set in each square of oranges, and after serving four 
 or five years of usefulness, can be cut out. 
 
 APPROXIMATE NUMBER OP TREES PER ACRE FOR 
 DIFFERENT PLANTING SYSTEMS. 
 
 DISTANCE APART 
 
 Triangular 
 
 Rectangu- 
 lar 
 
 Hexagonal Quincunx 
 
 10 X 10 feet 
 
 12 X 12 feet 
 
 396 
 
 275 
 
 164 
 
 175 
 
 132 
 
 122 
 
 98 
 
 79 
 
 64 
 
 44 
 
 33 
 
 486 
 303 
 
 290 
 
 193 
 
 145 
 
 134 
 
 108 
 
 87 
 
 70 
 
 48 
 
 36 
 
 501 831 
 348 ."i^S 
 
 15 X 10 feet 
 
 
 
 15x15 feet ' 
 
 20x15 feet 
 
 217 
 
 347 
 
 18 X 18 feet 
 
 20 X 20 feet 
 
 25 X 20 feet 
 
 25 X 25 feet 
 
 30 X 30 feet 
 
 35 X 35 feet . . 
 
 142 
 124 
 
 "si" 
 
 55 
 
 41 
 
 247 
 199 
 
 126 ' 
 83 
 65 
 
 
 
 Hedge Plantings. Some growers have occasionally 
 resorted to this system of planting. The trees are set 
 so as to form a dense line one way while a space of 
 twenty feet or so is left between the rows. Large quan- 
 tities of fruit are obtained from a small area and the 
 
240 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 system, for a few years at least, works well. But it can 
 scarcely be recommended for general adoption. Event- 
 ually the trees will crowd each other and many of the 
 branches may die. 
 
 DotiMe Planting. By this system of planting is 
 meant the setting of two or more kinds of fruit trees or 
 plants in the same area. In Florida, citruH trees and 
 pineapi)les, citrus trees and guavas, and citrus trees and 
 peaches are frequently planted together. In Louisiana 
 
 Fig. -j!!. Double planting — Citrus fruits and pineapples. 
 
 citi-n.s trees and ];('c:ins arc often sn planted. A double 
 planting of ]ionielos and pincajijiles, a method quite suc- 
 cessfully used by ^li-. (.'. T. Mc(_'arty, ou hickory scrub 
 land a lit<le north of Fnrt Pieice, Fla., is illustrated in 
 figure 59. The plan shows the pineapples occupying a 
 jHirtion of the space between the rows of trees. The 
 ponicbis are set 17 feet apart in rows which are 22 feet 
 a] art. Six rows of pinea])]iles. I.~)x2() iiiclies apart are 
 sel iu each 1 weuty-tw<>-fi!iit s])ace. 
 
 This leaAcs a six-foot space on each side of the pine- 
 apple bed between the edges and the row of trees. The 
 
PREPARATIONS FOB PLANTING. 241 
 
 plan has worked quite successfully. After three or four 
 years the pineapples will be removed entirely and the 
 whole space given up to the trees. 
 
 Whenever tliis plan is adopted, one mistake must 
 be guarded against. The favorite pineapple fertilizers 
 used in Florida to-day contain organic sources of nitro- 
 gen. If these be used on a double planting of pineapples 
 and citrus trees, the latter will almost surely be affected 
 with die-back. A fertilizer containing sulphate of am- 
 monia and a little nitrate of soda as sources of nitrogen 
 is the only safe one to use. 
 
 Peaches and citrus trees may be planted together. 
 The quincunx method may be used and after the peaches 
 have served their term of usefulness they can be removed. 
 Both kinds of trees succeed well when given the same 
 kind' of cultivation and supplied with the same fertilizer, 
 viz., one containing no organic sources of nitrogen. 
 
 Other double plantings may be made, but in general 
 it may be said that no tree or plant should be set with 
 citrus trees and allowed to occupy the ground to the detri- 
 ment of the latter. Vegetables are permissible in the 
 citrus grove only in regions not exposed to frost, and 
 when supplied with fertilizers congenial to the trees. In 
 frosty regions there is always a chance that the cultiva- 
 tion, fertilizing and watering of the soil, when planted in 
 vegetables, will cause the trees to grow during the winter 
 months. Generally, vegetables should be planted else- 
 where than in the citrus grove, for the trees succeed best 
 when given all the space. 
 
 LEVELING AND SMOOTHING. 
 
 Lands upon which citrus trees are to be planted are 
 frequently quite rough. If the ground is left in this con- 
 
242 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 dition, its uneven character will prove to be a consider- 
 able nuisance in after years. It will interfere with all 
 kinds of horse work among the trees. Pains should be 
 taken to have the ground level and smooth. Small, abrupt 
 elevations or knolls should be removed. Long, sweeping 
 slopes are not objectionable, and if they give the right 
 exposure, they are a decided advantage. In the irriga- 
 tion districts they are quite necessary for the successful 
 distribution and disposal of the water. But in those dis- 
 tricts small knolls, two or three feet in height, or even 
 less may act as a barrier over which water cannot be suc- 
 cessfully carried. Grading should be very carefully done 
 before planting, and only after a careful survey of the 
 ground. In fact, the best advice that can be given is to 
 turn this part of the work over to a competent surveyor 
 
 Before attempting to 
 grade the ground, it 
 should be plowed. The 
 depth will depend upon 
 the nature of the soil 
 and the character of 
 the surface. It may be 
 necessary to use the 
 scraper to remove some of the knolls, in which case the 
 plow should be run somewhat deeper on the higher por- 
 tion. If only very slight inequalities are present, they 
 may be disposed of by harrowing after plowing and then 
 following the harrow \N'ith the float or planker shown in 
 fig. GO. 
 
 This is made of six pieces of 8x2 inch plank, seven 
 feet long. Two of these are rounded off at each end and 
 a hole is bored in one end of each piece. These two pieces 
 are then notched as shown in tlie figure. The notches on 
 
 Fig. 60. Float for smoothing ground. 
 
PREPARATIONS FOR PLANTING. 243 
 
 the two pieces must correspond, and the first notch should 
 be cut about a foot back from the front end. They are 
 two inches deep at the front, and slope out to the edge of 
 the plank six inches back, thus leaving two inches of the 
 plank for overlapping. The six pieces of plank are then 
 laid in the notches and nailed or bolted firmly in place. 
 A chain is run through the holes already provided and 
 to this the whiffletrees are attached. This has proved 
 to be a very satisfactory device for leveling lumps and 
 even for filling up shallow depressions. 
 
 DISTANCES FOR PLANTING. 
 
 Growers differ greatly regarding the distance apart 
 at which citrus trees should be set. As a matter of fact, 
 no set of distances can be given which will be best for all 
 conditions. Many things have to be considered in decid- 
 ing the point. Much depends upon the natural moisture 
 content of the soil, the amount of water that can be se- 
 cured, either by irrigation or from rainfall, the amount of 
 fertility in the soil, the kind of stocks, the variety of 
 tree, and whether it is necessary to protect the trees from 
 frost — all have to be taken into consideration. A canvass 
 of the situation in Florida some years ago showed that 
 sweet oranges are, or have been, planted all the way 
 from 15x15 feet to 35x35 feet; pomelos the same; manda- 
 rins 15x15 feet to 25x25 feet; lemons 20x20 feet to 30x40 
 feet; and limes 15x15 feet to 20x20 feet. 
 
 If the trees are planted in a region subject to frost, 
 and protection by means of open wood fires is tO' be prac- 
 ticed, it is best to plant the trees so as to leave suflScient 
 space for firing. A plan sometimes adopted is to plant 
 sweet orange trees 15x15 feet and omit every third row. 
 It must be remembered also that the effects of frost or 
 
244 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 freezes is uot so severe on densly planted gioves as it is 
 where the trees are separated by wide avenues through 
 which the wind can sweep unchecked. 
 
 The insect problem must be considered as well. If 
 spraying or fumigating has to be adopted to control in- 
 sect pests, the trees should stand sufficiently far apart 
 to allow either of these operations to be carried on con- 
 veniently. 
 
 In general it may be said that if the trees are planted 
 in rectangles, it is better to place them, not in squares, 
 but in oblongs, the spaces between the tree rows being 
 greater than the distance between the trees in the row. 
 
 The following distances may be regarded as being 
 approximately correct, though much depends upon the 
 habit of growth of 1he different varieties in each grouj) : 
 
 Kumquats 10 to 12 feet. 
 
 Mandarin oranges 15 to 20 feet. 
 
 Lemons and SAveet oranges 20 to 25 feet. 
 
 Pomelos 2.'5 to 30 feet. 
 
 Limes 15 to 20 feet. 
 
 LAYING OUT BEFORE PLANTING. 
 
 The trees should stand in straight rows. It looks 
 better and cultivation is easier. Nothing looks worse than 
 zigzag rows of trees, and it is impossible to plow or cul- 
 tivate straight through the grove. 
 
 Laying Out HqiKires or Rectangles toith the Ploio. 
 If a good plowman can be secured, very satisfactory work 
 can be done with the plow. In some cases a man can be 
 found who needs nothing in the way of a guide, except 
 two or three stakes. But with a sufficient number of 
 stakes and a marker attached to the plow, good results 
 ran be secured by almost any plowman. 
 
PREPARATIONS FOR PLANTING. 245 
 
 Furrows should be run both lengthwise and crosswise 
 of the field, their intersections marking the place where 
 the trees are to stand. A stake should be set for each 
 tree, ordinary building laths answering very well for this 
 purpose. 
 
 It is essential that a true, square corner should be 
 secured. This may be done by sighting with an ordinary 
 carpenter's square set upon three posts. 
 
 Laying Out in Rectangles with a Wire. A wire long 
 enough to reach down one side of the field should be pro- 
 vided. Stretch this straight out between two posts and 
 mark off the distance which the trees are to stand apart, 
 upon it. At each point marked firmly twist a piece of 
 small wire about the larger one. These should then be 
 soldered in place. It will not do to have them shift. This 
 wire may be rolled upon a roller when not in use. 
 
 Measure otl along both ends of the field and set small 
 pickets on the tree rows. Tightly stretch the wire down 
 the first tree row, attaching it firmly at the ground level 
 to a pair of good, stout posts. Then plant a lath stake 
 at each mark on the wire. Set all of them on the outside 
 of the wire, so as not to interfere with moving it. When 
 this row is completed, lift the end shakes with the wire at- 
 tached, stretch on the second row, set the stakes as be- 
 fore and repeat the operations until the work is com- 
 pleted. 
 
 Laying Out in Triangles. This system can be most 
 easily marked out by using the wire already described. 
 On every other row stretch the wire, so that exactly one 
 half of a tree space will lie outside the end tree row, then 
 proceed to set the stakes on the marks on the wire as be- 
 fore. 
 
246 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Laying Out in Hexagons. Stretch the wire down one 
 side of the field and firmly set the tree stakes, or stake 
 out the base line by any method, firmly setting a stake 
 for each tree. Then procure two pieces of wire with rings 
 at each end, the length of wire and rings to be exactly 
 the distance between the stakes as set on the base line. 
 Stretch these wires out toward the side where the next tree 
 row is to stand. At the point where the rings overlap 
 set a stake for a tree. Eemove wire number one and set 
 it on the third stake in the base line, stretch the two tight 
 and set a tree stake. Repeat as often as necessary. In 
 setting the third row of stakes, use the second as a base 
 line and so on. 
 
 Laying Out in Quincunx. By this method the trees 
 are in groups of five, four forming a square, the fifth 
 placed in the center. 
 
 The best plan is to lay out with a wire, though the 
 plow may be used. In setting with the wire, each space 
 on the wire should be divided in the center and marked 
 as before. If, for instance, to reduce the discussion to a 
 concrete form, we saj' the trees are to be set in squares 
 of tn^enty-seven feet, with a fifth in the center, divide the 
 spaces on the wire and mark each one at the thirteen-and- 
 a-half-foot point. On the base line set the trees at the 
 twenty-seven-foot point. Then stretch the line for the next 
 row, thirteen and a half feet in from the base line. On 
 this row set the stakes at the thirteen-and-a-half-foot 
 marks, thus leaving the stakes twenty-seven feet apart as 
 before. Set the third row to correspond with the base 
 line, the fourth with the second, and proceed in this way 
 until the work is completed. 
 
CHAPTER XXXI. 
 SETTING THE GROVE. 
 
 The planting of the trees is the actual starting of 
 the grove and any reasonable amount of time and care 
 spent in the operation is well spent. All the details should 
 be carefully looked after and the work should be done 
 either under the supervision of a competent foreman or 
 under the direction of the owner himself. The varieties 
 must be selected, the trees purchased, the ground laid out 
 and the trees set. When the ground is placed about the 
 last tree, mulched and shaded on the south side, the work 
 may be considered finished. 
 
 SELECTING VARIETIES. 
 
 In the colder or more exposed sections it is best to 
 plant the hardier varieties and those which mature early. 
 The fruit will not stand the same amount of frost as the 
 tree, and if it is suflSciently mature to pick before the 
 cold comes on it is a decided advantage; the cost of pro- 
 tection will be materially lessened. But it should be borne 
 in mind that for early shipments from any section, early 
 maturing varieties should be planted. Green fruit should 
 not be shipped, just because the market happens to be 
 good. It is ruinous to the reputation of any section that 
 carries on the practice. 
 
 Groves in sections farther south or free from the 
 effects of frost should pay attention to late varieties such 
 as cannot be safely matured in sections more exposed to 
 frosts. As a matter of fact, either very early or very late 
 fruit brings the most money in the markets and by grow- 
 
248 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 ing late varieties competition with the sections growing 
 earl)- varieties would be obviated. 
 
 It is, however, the best policy, where weather condi- 
 tions permit, to make a selection of such varieties as will 
 give fruit continually from the early shipping season 
 until the end. The grower who can do this has his fruit 
 in the market all the time and if his fruit is of good 
 quality and it is handled as it should be, his customers 
 can be held for the whole season. Most handlers of 
 fruit much prefer a steady supply of fruit from a relia- 
 ble shipper to having it come in spasmodically. 
 
 The number of varieties selected should not be large. 
 Only he who grows citrus fruits as an amusement or 
 the nurseryman who desires to have a known and relia- 
 ble source from Avhich to secure budwood, or who desires 
 to test the relative merits of varieties, should attempt 
 the planting of any large number. In dollars and cents, 
 it does not pay the ordinary man. Select, at most, a suf- 
 ficient number of varieties to give a continuous crop of 
 good sized, marketable oranges throughout the shipping 
 season and stop at that. 
 
 Just because certain varieties fruit well in some 
 sections and bring fancy prices, planters too fre- 
 quently jump at the conclusion that the same varieties 
 will do as well in other localities far removed from that 
 ill which they are apparently at home. In California, 
 the Bahia is the commercial orange, but it would be folly 
 for a Florida grower to plant large areas with this vari- 
 ety. They fruit fairly well on rough lemon and trifol- 
 iate orange stock, but even then it is extremely doubt- 
 ful whether the variety will hold and mature sufticient 
 fruit to make it profitable. The point in question is 
 further illustrated bv the action of some California 
 
SETTING THE GROVE. 249 
 
 planters immediately following the disastrous freeze in 
 Florida — 1894-95. The demand for pomelos could not 
 be supplied and the price increased enormously, which 
 led many in the western State to plant heavily. In 1900 
 Professor Wickson said, "The results of these attempts 
 were not satisfactory, and unless some new conditions 
 should arise, it is possible that the California pomelo 
 passion may subside as rapidly as it uprose." Florida 
 varieties were the ones planted, but Lelong points out 
 that some varieties of California origin have been more 
 successful since. 
 
 Another problem, one which frequently arises, is that 
 concerning the relative number of each citrus group which 
 should be planted. In most groves there are to be found 
 a number of pomelos, mandarin oranges and sweet 
 oranges. How many of each group would it be well to 
 set out? No one can say but the man who is going to 
 set them. He should know best what his aims and objects 
 are. The mandarin orange is a fancy fruit of exquisite 
 quality, but is a fancy fruit; the sweet orange is a staple 
 commodity, always in demand and never out of season ; 
 the pomelo has become a staple fruit and all markets 
 have not been reached yet. It is a new fruit commercially, 
 but it has come to stay. The writer once said, "The sweet 
 orange must, however, be considered the staple product, 
 and it would probably be best to make three-quarters of 
 the planting from this group, leaving the remaining one- 
 fourth to be divided between the pomelos and mandarin 
 oranges," but now he is prepared to place the pomelos 
 with the sweet orange in a commercial venture, in sections 
 where both will grow and fruit equally well. 
 
250 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 PURCHASING TREES. 
 
 Citrus nursery stock matures in autumn and is put 
 on the market during the winter months — November to 
 March. Whether for winter or summer planting, the trees 
 should be purchased in good season. Then there will be 
 fewer disappointments. Buy in September or October 
 at latest. "First come, first served," is true in purchas- 
 ing nursery trees, but it is equally true that he who comes 
 first will be best served. Generally speaking, the supply 
 of nursery stock in California and Florida is inadequate 
 to the demand and may continue to be so for several 
 seasons to come. 
 
 As a general rule it is best to purchase directly from 
 the nurseryman. Beware of the unaccredited tree peddler 
 as you would of the very devil ! The expression may not be 
 elegant, but it contains the soundest advice. A legitimate 
 nursery business may be done through properly accredited 
 agents, but too frequently it is difiScult to obtain definite 
 information regarding the kind of stock, and where it is 
 grown. Should a mistake of any kind occur in deal- 
 ing with a responsible nurseryman, he will always be 
 found willing to rectify it. but if a mistake be made 
 through an agent, the responsibility is too frequently 
 shifted. 
 
 If possible, visit the nursery. See the conditions 
 under which the trees are grown, make a thorough inspec- 
 tion and select the trees desired. Become personally ac- 
 quainted with the nurseryman. Buy only from those of 
 good repute. In most cases there are no marks by which 
 the genuineness of a variety may be known and in the 
 end the only assurance the planter can have that the 
 stock is true to name. Is the truth and honesty of the man 
 from whom he purchases. Fortunate is the nurseryman 
 
SETTING THE GROYE. 251 
 
 whose character warrants a reputation for square, honest 
 dealing. 
 
 The best citrus tree for setting out is one having a 
 root system about three or four years old with a stocky, 
 healthy, vigorous top of one or two season's growth 
 Trees should be free from insect pests and should not 
 show signs of poor, stunted growth. Nor. on the 
 other hand, should they show evidence in long internodes* 
 and sappy, angular growth, of having been unduly forced 
 to bring them up to size. Some have thought to gain 
 time by purchasing large nursery trees, four or five years 
 old or even older, but in the end they have generally 
 found that nothing is gained and frequently much is 
 lost. If given particular care and attention, well sup- 
 plied with water and planted in a favorable season, they 
 sometimes repay the trouble, but speaking broadly, such 
 trees are a poor investment for the average planter. No 
 mistake can be made in selecting flrst-class trees fourf 
 to six feet high. The very best that can be secured are 
 the cheapest in the end, and poor stock is dear at any 
 price. Have nothing to do with hard, stunted stock. 
 
 Trees on trifoliate stock are more diflScult to trans- 
 plant than on other stocks and if this stock is used, the 
 purchaser should insist that the nurseryman puddle the 
 roots before shipment. The crust of mud should be 
 washed off just before planting. 
 
 The price of citrus stock is, of course, subject to the 
 laws of supply and demand. In Florida the price varies 
 in proportion to the height of the tree. At present the price 
 of first-class nursery trees per hundred is about as fol- 
 
 * Spaces on the branch between leaves, thorns or buds. 
 
 t In California, nursery trees are usually sold by the diameter of 
 the bud one inch above the point of insertion. 
 
■2-yZ CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 lows : 2 to 3 feet, |25.00 ; 3 to 4 feet, $30.00 ; 4 to 5 feet, 
 140.00; and 5 to 7 feet, f 50.00. In lots of 1,000 the 
 prices are from 4 to (j per cent lower and for smaller 
 lots they are increased considerably. In California, trees 
 are sold by caliper measurement of the bud one inch above 
 the point of insertion. The prices are furnished by Mr. 
 R. M. Teague, of the San Dimas Nurseries, San Dimas, 
 Cal., for one-year-old trees are as follows: 3-8 to 1-2 inch 
 caliper, 50 to 70 cents each, 1-2 to 5-8 inch caliper, 60 to 
 80 cents each, 5-8 inch caliper and over, 70 to 90 cents, 
 depending upon the variety. Trees lifted with a 40-lb. 
 ball of earth, or less, cost five cents extra and two-year- 
 old buds with a 60 to 75-lb. ball of earth, ten cents extra. 
 
 It is probable that a combination of the Florida and 
 California methods would be advisable, that is to desig- 
 nate both the height and diameter of the trees in listing 
 them for sale. 
 
 If orders arrive late, the vexed question of substitu- 
 tion of varieties usually arises. But if the orders have 
 been placed in good season this difficulty is not so likely 
 to come up. The planter with well defined ideas of what 
 he wants should be content with nothing except w^hat he 
 orders. Provided one nurseryman cannot supply the 
 desired trees, try elsewhere before changing the list of var- 
 ieties. In some cases, varieties are so nearly alike that 
 substitution may be permissible. 
 
 The directions for shipment sliould be plain and ex- 
 plicit. Give the route, the time when shipment is to be 
 made and Avrite the address plainly. 
 
 BEST TIME TO PLANT. 
 
 As already noted, citrus trees are not periodic in 
 their growth. Several growths are made each year and 
 
SETTING THE GROVE. 253 
 
 SO long as they are transplanted during their dormant 
 periods, they may be set out at almost any season of the 
 year so far as the condition of the tree is concerned. 
 Hut while this is true, much better results attend the 
 transplanting of the trees at certain periods than at 
 others, because of more favorable climatic conditions. 
 The best time for setting citrus trees in California is in 
 spring, just after the completion of the first growth and 
 before the starting of the second. 
 
 In Florida and the Islands, trees may be planted 
 during the winter months or just after the beginning of 
 the rainy season. Some hesitate to plant in winter in 
 certain sections, because of the risk of injury from frost, 
 but, all things considered, it is more satisfactory to set 
 the trees then and, if necessary, bank them immediately 
 after planting. Bearing in mind that the dry season in 
 Florida generally commences in March, it is best to set 
 the trees some time between December 15th and Febru- 
 ary 15th. The winter rains will settle the soil firmly 
 about the roots, the roots may make some growth, the 
 cut surfaces will at least callus, and with the warmer 
 days of spring they will start off vigorously. Summer 
 planting is quite successful, if the trees can be secured 
 in a dormant state and sufficient water is provided either 
 by irrigation or by rainfall. It sometimes happens, how 
 ever, that summer planted trees have a tendency to j)ro 
 long their growth too late in the fall. 
 
 PLANTING. 
 
 When trees are shipped in boxes or bales, as is most 
 commonly done, they should be unpacked as soon as re- 
 ceived and heeled in, in a shady place. Plow out a fur- 
 row of sufficient length to accommodate the trees when 
 
254 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 spread out singly, side by side. With a sliovel slope off the 
 furrow at an angle of forty-iive degrees, place the roots of 
 the trees in the furrow, spread the roots out well, pack 
 the earth about them and water. 
 
 Everj'thing having been arranged for planting, remove 
 the trees from the furrow, a few at a time as needed for 
 setting, trim the roots and wrap them in a damp blanket 
 for carrying to the field. Under no consideration should 
 
 Pig. 61. 
 
 Branching' of citrus roots in tlie soU after 
 trimming". 
 
 the strong sunlight or the wind be allowed to strike the 
 roots. The roots of citrus trees are extremely susceptible 
 to injury from these causes. 
 
 In trimming the roots, remove the broken ones, cut- 
 ting them smoothly off with a sloping cut from the under 
 side. The advantage of a smoothly cut root end over 
 a torn and ragged one is that it calluses and heals much 
 more readily. From the root just back of the callus, large 
 numbers of small roots start out (fig 61), which soon 
 
SETTING THE GROVE. 
 
 255 
 
 
 
 (^.^^^ 
 
 1 
 
 v-^fl 
 
 
 
 M^ 
 
 .^..-?'^' 
 
 ;K. 
 
 f //* 
 
 Fig. 62. Pruning and root trimming of 
 citrus tree at time of planting. Four- 
 year tree on trifoliate stock, 5 feet 6 
 inches from crown to top of branches. 
 Cuts to be made where the lines cross 
 the roots, stems, branches and leaves. 
 
 take the place and do 
 the work of the por- 
 tion removed. A good- 
 ly portion of the small, 
 fibrous roots, all if they 
 have become slightly 
 dried, should be re- 
 moved and all roots 
 should be cut back 
 somewhat at the tips. 
 Where a double tap- 
 root is found, it is gen- 
 erally considered best 
 to leave one of the 
 parts somewhat longer 
 than the other. 
 Some idea of the root 
 systems of trees as 
 they come from the 
 nursery and the 
 method of trimming 
 them may be secured 
 from an examination 
 of figures 62 and 65. 
 
 If possible to so ar 
 range the work, the 
 holes should not be 
 dug until just before 
 planting. The soil 
 will still contain its 
 natural moisture when 
 placed about the trees 
 and in some soils the 
 
250 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 sides of the holes become hard and compact, so much so as 
 to necessitate their being shaved off before setting the tree 
 in them. The planting board shown in figure 64 is very 
 helpful in keeping the rows of trees straight in the grove. 
 It should be made from a piece of inch board, four or five 
 feet long and four inches wide. In each end bore 
 an inch hole and cut a notch in one side at the 
 center. Place the notch against the tree, stake and shove 
 a pair of small wooden pegs through the holes in the 
 ends. Remove the board and the tree stake, leaving the 
 pegs in place. Dig the hole, making it large enough and 
 deep enough to hold the root system without cramping. 
 Place the planting board in position over the pegs and 
 
 Fig. 63. The right way to plant a tree. 
 
 holding the tree in the central notch, fill in the soil with 
 the hands. A helper may place the earth in the hole in small 
 
SETTING THE GROVE. 257 
 
 shovelfuls. Pack the soil well around the roots, spread- 
 ing and straightening , 
 
 them out at the right i^,...^ _, ^ 
 
 level, as the hole is "^'s- "^- I'l^'t'^s "'"""■ 
 
 filled up. Fig. (i.'l illustrates the best method of planting 
 a tree, and it may be said that the man who will not get 
 down on his knees to plant a tree does not deserve to have 
 it live for him. Trees planted in poor soil will be much 
 benefited by thoroughly incorporating a pound of good 
 commercial fertilizer with the soil before placing it about 
 the roots. The surface and subsoil should be kept sepa- 
 rate, the surface soil to be placed in first, in filling up the 
 hole. Water may be applied when the hole is filled in 
 about three-fourths, and after planting is completed a 
 liberal supply of water, sufficient to establish the capil- 
 lary movement of the soil moisture should be given. In 
 California about half a barrel should be given to each 
 tree. Having applied the water, mulch the surface with 
 grass, leaves or dry dust about the tree, to prevent evapo- 
 ration. In the irrigation districts, apply water every 
 ten or fifteen days until the trees are well established. 
 
 Trees should never be set deeper than they stood in 
 the nursery row. Q'he better plan is to set them higher 
 rather than lower, to allow for settling. They do not 
 do well if planted too deep. 
 
 In the hot, dry districts, the trunks of the young 
 trees should be protected from the rays of the sun to pre- 
 vent sunburn. Thousands of trees are annually destroyed 
 by this cause and many others are so injured that they 
 never afterward make a satisfactory growth. Lath cylin- 
 ders or those made of yucca or paper serve the purpose 
 well. The trunks may be wrapped in paper or straw, or 
 they may be covered with whitewash. 
 
 10 
 
258 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 As soon as the trees are set, the tops should be pruned 
 back. It is better to do it at this time than before plant- 
 ing, as more uniform trees can be secured throughout 
 the grove. The disposition on the part of most planters 
 
 Pig. 65. Pruningr and root trimming- of citrus tree at time 
 of planting. Two-year Tardift orange tree on a four-year 
 rough lemon root, thirty inches from crown roots to branches. 
 Cuts to be made where lines cross tlie roots and branches. 
 
 is to retain too much of the top. When the trees are 
 lifted from the nursery row, more than half of the root 
 system is left in the ground. The top and leaf area 
 
SETTING THE GROVE. 259 
 
 should be reduced proportionately and all trees should 
 be shipped cut back and defoliated. If the trees have been 
 grown to a single shoot, without branches, they should 
 be cut off with a sloping cut just above a node, about 
 two or two and a half feet from the ground. If well-de 
 veloped branches are found at this height or perhaps a 
 little higher, trim them in to spurs with two or three 
 buds. Should the trees not start promptly they should 
 be more severely cut back. Figures 63 and 65 illustrate 
 the methods of pruning the top and reducing the leaf 
 area of citrus trees. 
 
 The system of lifting the citrus trees with a ball of 
 earth still remaining about them and then encasing this 
 in a sack is an excellent one. The trees may be transported 
 long distances and planted out without even wilting the 
 foliage, if the work is carefully done. To lift the trees a 
 trench is dug along one side of the nursery row, about 
 eighteen inches deep and six or eight inches away from 
 the trees. In digging this trench, the layer of lateral 
 roots are cut off, and at the bottom the tap-root is sev- 
 ered. The top soil is then removed so as to barely ex- 
 pose the crown roots and a sharp spade is thrust into the 
 soil on the three uncut sides to sever the remaining lat- 
 erals. When all the roots have been cut the tree is care- 
 fully lifted from its place. The angles are rounded off 
 and the tree is set on a piece of burlap sufficiently large 
 to completely cover the ball. The burlap is carefully 
 drawn around and tied about the earth. The size of the 
 ball should correspond with the size of the tree. Smaller 
 trees have about forty pounds of earth, larger ones about 
 sixty. This method of digging trees cannot be pursued on 
 loose, sandy soils, but only on those which have sufficient 
 clay to make the ball adhere well about the roots. 
 
260 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 THE REED SYSTEM OF TKANSPLANTING. 
 
 A system of transplanting citrus trees that lias been 
 used by Mr. J. H. Reed, of Riverside, California, has 
 proved very successful. The method is hardly applica- 
 ble to Florida conditions on account of the loose nature 
 of the soils, but wherever practicable, it is an excellent 
 one to follow. Prof. J. W. Mills thus describes it in BuL 
 138, Cal. Agri. Exp. Station: 
 
 "According to this method, vigorous trees are selected 
 in the nursery, and are well watered before removal. 
 The longer branches are but slightly cut back, leaving 
 most of the foliage on. The trees are then lifted with 
 large balls of earth, and are taken directly to the plan- 
 tation, where holes two feet deep and two and a half feet 
 wide have been prepared, into which they are placed, 
 and the earth is walled in around each ball, not firmed, 
 but settled with water, so that the trees will stand at 
 the same height as they did at the nursery. No planting 
 should be done unless there is irrigation water availa- 
 ble at the time. After the ground has been soaked for 
 several feet on all sides of the newly set trees, thorough 
 cultivation should follow, as soon as the land is in a 
 proper condition. Under this system of transplanting 
 this is a good practice." 
 
 "Mr. Reed says further: 'A small amount of ferti- 
 lizer is applied soon after planting, for the young roots 
 to use when they first start out from the balls. A pure 
 bat guano with a high percentage of nitrogen, about three- 
 fourths of a pound to the tree, has been found to give 
 the liest results; but any comnieicial fertilizer rich in 
 nitrogen, or animal fertilizer, if placed proi)frly and kept 
 moist, answers well. It is a])plied in trenches each side 
 of the ball, at right angles with the irrigation furrows, 
 
SETTING THE GROVE. 261 
 
 and reaching to them. They may be made by plowing 
 a deep furrow and deepening with a shovel to ten or 
 twelve inches. The material is carefully distributed and 
 slightly mixed with the earth at the bottom of the fur- 
 rows; the water from the irrigating furrows keeping 
 this always moist, it is available as soon as reached by 
 the rootlets. This also tends to deep rooting. Thorough 
 irrigation should follow planting every twelve or fifteen 
 days during the first summer. The whole space between 
 the rows should be thoroughly and deeply wet — not 
 merely a narrow strip on each side of the rows. I have 
 traced roots that have grown during the first summer 
 over six feet from the tree and these should be well sup- 
 plied with moisture at all times. 
 
 "The advantage claimed for the Reed method is that it 
 retains the top of the tree, and makes use of it immedi- 
 ately. This retention of nearly all the leaves and 
 branches enables trees under proper conditions to pro- 
 duce a much more vigorous growth than under the ordi 
 nary system of severe pruning, when moved from the 
 nursery. The best care is essential to success in this 
 method. If trees are to receive poor or only ordinary 
 treatment after being set in the orchard, the common 
 method of severe pruning is best. Mr. Reed himself prunes 
 back any trees that show lack of vigor after being trans- 
 planted, watered and fertilized. 
 
 "The good start given to trees by the Reed method 
 is shown in their size, vigor and productiveness for an 
 indefinite time, and it is also claimed that a crop of 
 oranges is obtained, without injury to the trees, one year 
 earlier than if they were planted by the usual method. 
 Trees thus planted (on the Reed system) produced over 
 one hundred boxes of oranges on ten acres the second 
 
202 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 year from planting, and one box per tree three years 
 from the time of planting. Ten acres of trees five years 
 old produced 2,500 boxes. There was no appreciable in- 
 jury done the young trees on account of the early bearing, 
 for they continued to make a sturdy growth while ma- 
 turing the crop of fruit. Trees planted in the usual way 
 one year before, on adjoining land that is similar in char- 
 acter, although receiving good care from the start, are 
 not now as large as those of Mr. Reed, though apparently 
 thrifty. 
 
 "This method of transferring trees to the orchard and 
 securing their rapid establishment there, is based upon 
 intelligent selection in the nursery and very careful at- 
 tention to details after transplanting. Mr. Reed does 
 not claim that he originated the method, but it has not 
 been observed except in his orchard, which furnishes an 
 excellent illustration of its value under proper conditions." 
 
 LABELS AND MAPS. 
 
 r^ 
 
 After the trees 
 have been plant- 
 
 P>.r>i«iAJU/ 7/3/03 ■ J J 1 
 
 ^ ' ___ ed and pruned. 
 
 they should be 
 Fig. 66. Zinc label. labeled. For this 
 
 purpose there is nothing better than a piece of zinc, five 
 inches long, 3-t inch wide at one end and tapering to a 
 j.oiut. (Fig. G6). On this the name is simply written 
 with a lead ])encil aiul the tapered end is then wrapped 
 about a branch. The labels should be placed on the same 
 side of each of the trees and on branches as nearly as pos- 
 sible in like positions. If many varieties are planted on 
 any considerable area, the grove should be mapped and 
 the name of each tree and its position designated thereon. 
 The best material for the map is a piece of glazed muslin 
 such as is used bv architects. 
 
CHAPTER XXXII. 
 CULTIVATION OF CITEUS GROVES. 
 
 There is probably no practice connected with the 
 growing of citrus fruits regarding which there is more 
 difference of opinion than there is upon the question of 
 the best methods of cultivation. In the citrus districts 
 of America, the soils are so varied in character and in 
 the amount of fertility and moisture which they contain, 
 that it is not to be wondered at that such is the case. To 
 anyone who understands the nature of these soils it must 
 be patent that in a large measure, the system of cultiva- 
 tion adopted must meet the requirements of the particular 
 soil. After all, though practices may differ and many 
 different methods may be advocated, it will generally be 
 found that underlying each and every system from which 
 good results are obtained, there is some broad, general 
 principle, applicable in all cases. 
 
 Benefits of Tillage. Because of their loose, open na- 
 ture, it is not so difficult to keep citrus fruit lands in good 
 condition. Neither the same amount of time, nor the same 
 amount of hard labor is necessary to keep citrus groves 
 in good tilth as is required by fruit plantations in most 
 of the fruit growing districts of America. Perhaps, herein 
 lies the reason why some have neglected cultivation alto- 
 gether on lands that would be benefited by it, while others 
 have, in many cases, carried the practice too far. But, 
 if our soils are in apparently good condition and roots 
 can easily penetrate them in all directions, then in what 
 way does cultivation benefit the trees and why is the ope- 
 ration necessarv? 
 
204 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Cultivation is beneficial in the following ways: It 
 increases the water-holding capacity of the soil and con- 
 serves moisture, both by allowing rain to sink more freely 
 into it and by checking evaporation. It pulverizes the 
 soil and allows the air to penetrate, thus supplying oxy- 
 gen to the roots. It assists in setting free plant food and 
 makes the soil fine, thus enabling the roots to reach all 
 parts of it. In cultivated soils, decomposition and nitri- 
 fication go on more readily and if the materials are pres- 
 ent from which nitrogen can be set free, its liberation 
 takes place more rapidly than if the soil be left unculti- 
 vated. 
 
 Most of the moisture in tillable soil is held as a mi- 
 nute film surrounding the soil particles. It necessarily 
 follows that the more numerous the soil particles in a 
 given space, i. e., the smaller they are, the greater will 
 be the water-holding capacity of the soil, because the 
 total surface area of all the particles increases as they 
 are reduced in size. And it is true, within certain limits, 
 that the water-holding capacity of a soil increases as the 
 size of the particles diminishes. If, however, the particles 
 become too small, they may become too closely packed, and 
 thus this object of cultivation will be defeated. This con- 
 dition is not likely to occur in light, sandy soils as a re- 
 sult of cultivation. The size of the particles can be re- 
 duced by cultivation hy breaking up masses which may 
 have become more or less cemented together, and the water- 
 holding capacity may be thereby increased. 
 
 The opening and loosening of the soi! permits the 
 rain to penetrate. If the surface of the ground becomes 
 hard and compact, the water \vill run over the surface or 
 collect in puddles and disappear by evaporation. In either 
 
CULTIVATION OF CITRUS GROVES. 2(i5 
 
 case, the loss will be great. But if the soil is well stirred 
 and loose, the water will enter. 
 
 Once it is safely beneath the surface, it is necessary 
 to keep it there; it has gained entrance by a passage 
 through which it should not be allowed to escape. The 
 water will again make its way to the surface by capillary 
 attraction, passing upward through the minute spaces 
 between the particles of soil. If these minute tubes or 
 passages extend right to the surface, the water rises to 
 the top, comes out and is carried away by evaporation. 
 Frequent shallow cultivation will prevent this escape of 
 water, by breaking the capillary tubes. If the top inch 
 or two of the earth is stirred, it parts with its moisture 
 and becomes quite dry. Then it acts as a dust blanket 
 and the great amount of moisture below is not .*'owed 
 to reach the surface to be carried away by the moving air 
 above. Thus moisture is conserved and held for the use 
 of the trees. During the rainy season, it is not necessary 
 to conserve moisture, but often in April, May and June 
 in Florida, and sometimes even later, week after week 
 goes by without a shower. The California cultivator is 
 confronted by even worse conditions and must resort to 
 irrigation. During the period of drought is when water is 
 needed, the time for which preparation should be made be- 
 fore it comes. The horse and cultivator are often a most 
 excellent substitute for an irrigation plant. 
 
 We know that a hard, compact soil, into which 
 air does not enter, is no fit place for the roots of plants 
 to grow and live in. The roots absorb water and food in 
 solution only through their newer parts, and new roots 
 must be formed constantly to carry on this work. For 
 the formation of roots, oxygen is necessary, and if the air 
 cannot enter, oxygen cannot be supplied, and the roots 
 
266 GITRVS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 suffer in consequence. The soil should be kept loose and 
 friable during the period of greatest growth that the roots 
 may be freely supplied with air. 
 
 If, in addition to this, the rootlets can reach and 
 penetrate every portion of the soil, growing here and 
 there at will, they then have every opportunity to come in 
 contact with and absorb the plant food in the soil. While 
 it is true that food materials in solution may move to- 
 wards the roots, still, in general, the roots must search 
 out and procure the plant food. How can they do this 
 important T\ork if the soil is hard, compact and impene- 
 trable? 
 
 The food materials in any soil are found either in 
 chemical substances present in the soil, or in organic com 
 binat- „ns. If fertilizers are applied or added to the soil, 
 tiiev, too, fall into either one or the other of these classes. 
 Most of these materials do not immediately yield up the 
 plant food which they contain, but they must be acted 
 upon by certain agents before their store of food becomes 
 available, i. e., so that the roots can absorb and the plants 
 use it. A large part, or practically all, of the plant food in 
 organic substances is liberated through the agency of mi- 
 croscopic plants called bacteria. That these may thrive 
 and multiply, plenty of air should be admitted to the soil, 
 and the soil should at the same time be warm and moist. 
 Cultivation goes a long way towards making the condi- 
 tions ideal for the growth and development of soil bac 
 teria. The other class of agents is those which act chem- 
 ically. To this group lielong the acids and other sub- 
 stances which are capable of breaking up the food-con- 
 taining materials in the soil. Some of these disintegra- 
 tors are present in the air, and are carried to the soil 
 
CULTIVATION OF CITRUS GROVES. 267 
 
 in the rain. Here, again, cultivation helps by admitting the 
 air to the soil and allowing the rain to penetrate. 
 
 CLEAN CULTURE OR NO CULTURE. 
 
 The practice of keeping the ground on which the 
 orange grove stands perfectly free from herbage and 
 thoroughly cultivated throughout the whole season, year 
 in and year out, has been indulged in by many and is still 
 followed by some. This practice has little to recommend 
 it. A soil so treated soon becomes depleted of its natu- 
 ral fertility and the humus soon becomes used up through 
 constant cultivation and the application of various ferti- 
 lizers. Xo amount of fertilizer will do the work it should 
 if the soil once loses its natural body and becomes defi- 
 cient in humus. In spite of every effort in the line of fer- 
 tilizing, such a soil will become poor and infertile and the 
 trees will soon show the effects in their unhealthy condi- 
 tion, and the owner will realize it in his diminishing re- 
 turns. 
 
 If clean culture is adopted, humus iimst be supplied 
 in some way, and the plan used by a number of success- 
 ful growers in the citrus districts is to cover the 
 ground with a liberal coating of leaves and leaf mold 
 from au adjoining woods. By this means, a mulch and 
 rhe material from which humus may be formed are pro- 
 vided for the soil. It is far easier to maintain the humus 
 content of soils than it is to replace it after it has been 
 once worked out of them, a fact which it is well to bear 
 in mind. 
 
 Humii/>, one of the most, if not the most important 
 ingredient in any fertile soil, is generally found in inads- 
 qttate amounts in citrus soils, and any system of cultiva- 
 tion ichich does not tend to increase the amotint or main- 
 
268 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 tain a considerable quantity of this substance in the soil 
 is not based upon scientific principles. 
 
 Any piece of ground denuded of its natural covering 
 of vegetation, and so exposed continually to the burning 
 heat of a sub-tropical sun, rapidly loses most of its fer- 
 tility and becomes dead, lifeless and useless. The soil 
 must not be regarded only as a place for roots to grow 
 and live in, it must be looked upon as nature's food-pro- 
 ducing laboratory, in Avhich multitudes of micro-organ- 
 isms 01- bacteria, are busily engaged in preparing food 
 for the plants which grow on it. They fail utterly in 
 the performance of their work if their natural element, 
 a soil rich in humus, is by some means converted into a 
 sandbank. This is exactly the result of long-continued, 
 clean cultivation. 
 
 On the other hand, many growers do not cultivate 
 the soil at all, and on some classes of soil, this method is 
 really the best. Only on naturally moist soils, low, damp 
 hammocks in Florida, for instance, should this plan be 
 adopted. On high pine lands, or on those lands naturally 
 deficient in moisture, it is not a safe method to follow. 
 Cultivation conserves soil moisture, and increases the 
 water-holding capacity of the soil. Perhaps never before 
 in the histoi"y of citrus culture in Florida was the neces- 
 sity for frequent cultivation so forcibly borne in upon 
 the minds of all thinking growers as it was in the spring 
 of the year 1902, and yet if all the moisture, or even a 
 considerable portion of that which the soil contained at 
 the beginning of the season could have been held and 
 dealt out gradually to the trees, there would have been 
 sufficient for their needs. Frequent shallow cultivation 
 would have helped materially in this direction. 
 
CULTIVATION OF CITRUS OB0VE8. 269 
 
 In June, 1902, two samples of soil were taken as rep- 
 resentative of cultivated and uncultivated soil. Both 
 were from the horticultural grounds of the Florida Ex- 
 periment Station, one from soil planted in citrus trees, 
 cultivated frequently from March until that time, the 
 other from a piece of ground which had received no cul- 
 tivation at all during the season, but which had lain bare 
 and exposed to the sun. The samples were weighed, then 
 dried and weighed again. The weights and differences 
 were as follows: 
 
 Cultivated soil — 
 
 Weight when collected 247.8 grams. 
 
 Weight after drying 230.5 grams. 
 
 Loss of moisture in drying .... 17.3 grams. 
 Uncultivated soil — ■ 
 
 Weight when collected 251.4 grams. 
 
 Weight after drying 240.9 grams. 
 
 Loss of moisture in drying 10.5 grams. 
 
 Per cent, of moisture in sample No. 1 — 
 
 17.3-^247.8x100=6.97% 
 Per cent, of moisiu'e in sample No. 2 — 
 10.6^-'51.4 x 100=4.17% 
 
 The cultivated soil contained 6.97 per cent, moisture, 
 while the uncultivated soil contained 4.17 per cent, mois- 
 ture — a difference in favor of the former of 2.8 per cent, 
 or, expressed otherwise, cultivation bad increased the 
 moisture content of the soil by 66.5 per cent. It is true 
 Ihat the water-holding capacity of most citrus soils, and 
 particularly of those rich in humus, is well up to the 
 average, but this does not mean that every effort should 
 not be made to hold and conserve the moisture for use 
 during periods of drouth. Lands deficient in moisture 
 
270 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 should be cultivated frequently during the first half of 
 the year, or rather from the coinmencetaent of the grow- 
 ing season until the rainy season begins in districts where 
 the heaviest rainfall comes in summer. 
 
 Humus and Its Value. Humus is a product of the 
 decay of organic substances. When these undergo de- 
 composition in the soil, humus is the intermediate product 
 formed; that is, just before the resolution of the organic 
 material into its component chemical parts. It is prob- 
 ably not too much to say that humus is the most impor- 
 tant substance found in any fertile soil and its presence 
 may generally be taken as the index of fertility. The 
 truth of this statement may be realized more fully when 
 we remember the fact that all barren soils are lacking in 
 this substance and the chief difference between a barren 
 and a fertile soil is usually a difference in humus content, 
 not in the mineral ingredients. 
 
 The changes which are constantly taking place in 
 soil may be grouped as physical, chemical and biologi- 
 cal. The first relates to movement of water, the size of 
 the particles and the mechanical changes, such as those 
 produced by the displacement of the soil particles by ani- 
 mals or the roots of plants. The second includes all 
 changes wrought liy the action of acids or other disinte- 
 grators of a chemical nature, while the third, in its use 
 here, refers to the changes brought about by soil bacteria. 
 All tliree of these changes, whether physical, chemical or 
 biological, are intimately associated with the presence of 
 humus. 
 
 In regard to the first, it may be premised that soils 
 rich in humus are not solid and compact, but loose, open 
 and better aerated than those lacking humus and that 
 the water-holding capacity is materially increased by a 
 
CULTIVATION OF CITRUS GROVES. 271 
 
 fair admixture of humus. Now, if the ability of a soil to 
 retain moisture is increased by the presence of humus, 
 it follows that all plant food in solution will be held as 
 well and this is an important feature. 
 
 Humus contains from three to twelve per cent of ni- 
 trogen and this in itself is a fact worth bearing in mind, 
 but it has been ascertained besides that soils rich in 
 humus are usually well supplied with phosphoric acid 
 and potash. 
 
 Reference has already been made to the bacteria 
 which play such an important part in the formation of 
 plant food and which are so intimately associated with 
 the work of providing nitrogen for the use of the trees, 
 it may be said that but little nitrogen from those mate- 
 rials in which it is usually found in or supplied to the soil 
 would be available for the trees were it not for their 
 presence, and the bacterial content of the soil, other con- 
 ditions having been met, is dependent entirely upon the 
 presence of humus. 
 
 Hence, it will be seen that humus is a very valuable 
 soil component and is intimately associated with the life 
 activities of a fertile soil. Growers of citrus fruits in 
 Florida use commercial fertilizer in large quantities and 
 in all districts the same practice will have to be followed 
 eventually. Many of the substances applied must under- 
 go certain changes before they can become available. 
 This change from an unavailable to an available state 
 is dependent either upon the action of soil bacteria or 
 chemical agents. Humus forms the media in which the 
 bacteria work and, furthermore, it holds the plant food 
 when in solution until the roots have a chance to use it. 
 The best and fullest effects cannot be secured from appli- 
 
CULTIVATION OF CITRUS GROVES. 273 
 
 cations of fertilizers to citrus trees unless the soil be 
 plentifully supplied with humus. 
 
 DEPTH OP CULTIVATION. 
 
 It is always preferable to prepare the ground well 
 before the trees are planted. The earth should be well 
 stirred and free from roots and stumps. During the first 
 years of the life of the young grove, the ground may be 
 plowed, if deemed advisable, provided always that the 
 plow is not run deep close up to the trees. The tree rows 
 should be cultivated comparatively shallow. This treat- 
 ment will have a tendency to send the roots deeper into 
 the soil as they spread out from the tree. If plowing is 
 resorted to, the depth should be varied from year to year, 
 so that the soil may not become hard and compact at a 
 certain fixed depth, as is likely to be the case if the plow 
 is always run at the same distance from the surface. 
 
 Florida. When the trees have attained considerable 
 size and the roots have occupied the whole space between 
 the tree rows, the plowing should be very shallow, or 
 should be abandoned entirely, the plow giving place to 
 the cultivator. The method followed in the old groves 
 around Orange Lake was to give three or four hoeings 
 during the year, all the cultivation the trees received, and 
 results were highly satisfactory. The plow as an imple- 
 ment for continuous cultivation should not be used. If 
 used at all, plowing should be done only during the dor- 
 mant period, early in spring or late in autumn. Its use 
 after this time should not be resorted to. Large numbers 
 of roots are broken or torn by the plow as a result of 
 which new ones are formed rapidly, food is absorbed in 
 great quantities and a die-back condition only too fre- 
 quently results. 
 
274 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 In most eases, the fibrous feeding roots in old groves 
 form a solid mass and these extend quite close to the sur- 
 face. In such cases ttie cultivation should he shallow, 
 but if a proper system of cultivation has been carried on 
 from the first, the roots \\ill not be too close to the surface. 
 This mat of roots is usually disturbed to some extent, 
 but considering the fact that commercial fertilizers are 
 used ex(cnsi\ely, it is not gnod policy to culti\ate deejily 
 and break them up ton much. Sliallov/ cultivation should 
 be the rub', a rule to which there may, of course, be ex- 
 ceptions. 
 
 California ami .{^rizunu. On the heavier soils of 
 California and Arizona the plow can be used to advan- 
 tage, and, in fact, as an implement of cultivation, it is 
 well nigh indispensable. 
 
 Irrigation is an essential part of citrus culture in 
 all western districts and after each irrigation the ground 
 must be cultivated. Frequently the mistake has been 
 made of cultivating at exactly the same depth year after 
 year. The result has been the formation of a hard, im- 
 pervious layer just below the top layer of cultivated soil. 
 This layer of hard earth has been termed "hard-pan," 
 "irrigation hard pan," and "plow-sole." Through it the 
 water cannot penetrate. As a result none reaches the 
 lower roots and the trees suffer. 
 
 To break up this hard-pan, the sub-soil plow has fre- 
 quently been brought into operation, and while good re- 
 sults have followed in some cases, much damage has been 
 done in others. Frequently the difficulty may be over- 
 come by slightly increasing the depth of cultivation after 
 eacli irrigation, until the cultivator or plow finally makes 
 its way down tlirough the hard-pan. 
 
CULTIVATION OF CITRUS GROVES. 275 
 
 To prevent the formation of this hard-pan, the depth 
 of cultivation should be varied from year to year. The 
 usual depth of cultivation is about eight inches. This 
 should be increased from year to year until a depth of 
 thirteen or fourteen inches is reached, then cultivate at 
 eight inches again, gradually increasing to fourteen, and 
 so on. 
 
 Frequency of Cultivation. During the period of 
 most active growth, the citrus plantation should be cul- 
 tivated frequently. The only exception to this is when 
 it is located on damp soil, such as the low hammock soils 
 of Florida, where there is an abundance of moisture. 
 
 If the weather is dry, the ground should be culti- 
 vated every week or ten days to prevent the evaporation 
 of moisture. It is an excellent plan to keep the culti- 
 vator going all the time. As soon as the work is finished 
 on one side of the area, it should be commenced again 
 on the opposite. A light harrow or weeder should be 
 used. If showers fall during spring, it is a wise plan to 
 cultivate as soon as possible after each one, that the water 
 which has entered the soil may be retained. 
 
 In the irrigation districts the soil should be culti- 
 vated after each application of water, just as soon as the 
 surface is dry enough to allow a horse to walk over it. 
 Generally two or three days must elapse before cultiva- 
 tion can be started, depending upon the nature of the 
 soil. 
 
 Weeds should not be allowed to grow in the grove 
 during the period of cultivation. They pump the water 
 from the soil and in a measure defeat the objects of cul- 
 tivation. After cultivation has been discontinued for the 
 season, a cover crop should then be given possession of 
 the ground. 
 
276 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Cultivation in Relation to Irrigation. Perhaps the 
 ijiost important thing to be considered in those districts 
 where irrigation must be carried on is the relation be- 
 tween cultivation and irrigation. One of the best dis- 
 cussions of this phase of citrus culture is that given by 
 J. W. Mills in Bulletin No. 138 of the California Experi- 
 ment Station, here reproduced in full : 
 
 "In order to achieve the highest results, it becomes 
 more and more essential that the grower shall keep the 
 soil in the most perfect condition, shall apply all needed 
 water and plant food in sufficient, but not in excessive, 
 amounts, and shall pay especial attention to keeping the 
 feeding roots as low as practicable, and to preventing 
 the formation of what is called 'hard-pan,' but is only 
 the well-known 'plow-sole,' aggravated by shallow irriga- 
 tion. 
 
 " 'Hard-pan,' some growers say, appears now where 
 it was never known before. The fibrous roots of orange 
 trees run along the surface and thus are subject to every 
 vicissitude. It often happens that what orchardists call 
 'hard-pan' is only the firm layer of soil caused by uniform 
 cultivation, or plowing, whether deep or shallow. The 
 depth to which the soil is stirred should vary from year 
 to year ; eight inches, twelve inches, ten inches, fourteen 
 inches, and then eight inches again, would put an end to 
 much of the present outcry against 'hard-pan.' Cultiva- 
 tor teeth should always be kept sharp and should be 
 'set down' to various depths, so as to prevent the forma- 
 tion of 'plow-sole' of any description, and to assist in 
 breaking up that which former neglect has caused. 
 
 "Very few orange groves have been planted upon true 
 'Iiard-pan' and if so planted have seldom succeeded. Only 
 a few tvccs, snch as our native oaks, are capable of thrust- 
 
CULTIVATION OF CITRUS GROVES. 277 
 
 ing roots through the iron-like layer of natural sub-soil 
 that is properly termed 'hard-pan.' When found to exist 
 it should be deemed sufficient to debar citrus culture, un- 
 less so thin that by boring or blasting the root system 
 can be established in good soil below the 'hard-pan/ or 
 when it is so constituted that when kept irrigated the 
 roots will penetrate it. 
 
 '•An instance of the latter occurred at Riverside, 
 where Mr. Reed planted a few trees on a terrace border- 
 ing on an arroyo, and found what was reported as true 
 'hard-pan' near the surface. The trees received 'an abun- 
 dance of water over the whole area for a year,' and it 
 was then found that the roots had penetrated it to a con- 
 siderable distance. 
 
 "The term 'irrigation hard-pan' is quite generally 
 used in some orange-growing districts to describe the 
 condition of some small areas in orchards where irriga- 
 tion and subsequent culture have been careless, or where 
 sufficient attention has not been paid to the difference of 
 treatment required by lighter and heavier soils. 
 
 "Of course, very sandy soils can be handled sooner 
 after irrigation than can heavier soils, and when a sandy 
 piece of land containing areas of heavy soil is cultivated 
 as soon after irrigation as the sandiest part will permit, 
 trouble may be expected with the so-called 'irrigation 
 hard-pan,' by the puddling of the sub-soil, partly directly 
 by the plow, partly by the soaking in of clay-water. 
 
 It is usual for orchardists to put in a sub-soil plow 
 to help in breaking up the heavy spots of what is called 
 'irrigation hard-pan.' But this difficulty can easily be 
 overcome without using a sub-soil plow, as was shown by 
 the experience of Mr. W. J. Cox, of Glendora, Los Ange- 
 les County, who found that 'irrigation hard-pan' was 
 
278 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 forming in a part of his orange grove. He irrigated a 
 few trees that were within reach of the domestic water 
 supply, and followed this up at the proper time with thor- 
 ough cultivation. After each irrigation he cultivated a 
 little deeper. As a result of deep irrigation and cultiva- 
 tion, the soil took in water as readily as ever and the 
 trees regained their vigorous appearance. He simply 
 used a chisel-tooth cultivator and plenty of water. 
 
 "A somewhat different case was that of Mrs. McKen- 
 zie, of Riverside, whose orange grove failed to be profit- 
 able, though apparently well irrigated. This orchard 
 had been cultivated to the same depth until a hard, clay 
 'plow-sole' had been formed. The stratum of hard sub-soil 
 was several inches thick and contained a number of large 
 surface roots. She wrote to the California Experiment 
 Station, sending samples of soil for examination. It was 
 found that the plow-sole prevented the irrigation water 
 from reaching the deeper roots, and she was advised to 
 plow the entire orchard, roots and all, as deep as the 
 plow ^A'ould go. This was done, much to the alarm of 
 many growers, and great numbers of orange roots of all 
 sizes were turned to the surface. Following further ad- 
 vice, she irrigated and cultivated the ground deeply, and 
 the folloA\iii2 season she harvested the largest crop ever 
 taken from this grove. 
 
 "The (irlendora grove, to which allusion has been 
 made, had had deep cultivation from the beginning, and 
 riic roots were mainly below the so-called hard-pan. The 
 McKenzie grove had many roots in the hard 'plow-sole,' 
 so that the only remedy was to destroy these useless roots 
 and force the growth of new and deeper ones, at the same 
 time giving the irrigation water a chance to penetrate. 
 This rather drastic root-pruning was necessary, and if 
 
CULTIVATION OF CITRUS OROYES. 279 
 
 the Glendora grove had been cultivated to a uniform depth 
 a few more seasons, deeper plowing and the destruction 
 of the surface roots would have become inevitable there 
 also. The breaking up of all hard layers of soil caused 
 by improper cultivation or careless use of water is of the 
 first importance to the health and profit of an orchard. 
 
 ''After Mrs. McKenzie's experience at Riverside, pre- 
 viously mentioned, sub-soilers of different forms were 
 used, and the idea soon became common among growers 
 that the deeper a plow could be run, the better would be 
 the results that would follow. The injurious results of 
 such practice cannot be estimated without careful study 
 of the root systems of orange trees on various stocks and 
 soils. A number of bearing citrus groves were so much 
 injured by the reckless use of sub-soil plows, that the 
 leaves of the trees actually wilted down immediately after 
 the operation. In these cases, the sharp-cutting plow 
 was run close to and on all sides of the trees. When trees 
 over ten years of age, which have been subjected to uni- 
 form shallow plowing and irrigation, are submitted to 
 such treatment, they probably lose at one blow not less 
 than seventy-five per cent of their active roots. The shock 
 is such that it would take several years of careful treat- 
 ment to restore the trees. 
 
 "It is almost always more economical to use a sub- 
 soiler or plow where 'irrigation hard-pan' has been formed 
 than it is to use the large amount of water necessary to 
 soften it; but according to the best practice the deepen- 
 ing of cultivation should be gradual, and the implement 
 should never run deeper than fifteen inches. One must 
 remember that the really serious loss in sudden deep culti 
 vation comes from the destruction of thousands of fibrous 
 
280 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 I'oots that grow from the liundreds of laterals branching 
 from the large main roots. 
 
 "If a plow is run to a depth of one foot, in three fur- 
 rows, between the rows, and water percolates slowly for 
 a long time through these furrows, no need can arise for 
 a sub-soiler. 'Irrigation hard-pan' within reach of the 
 plow simply shows, as has been said, that too shallow 
 and too uniform cultivation has been practiced. In that 
 case the entire surface should be thoroughly broken up, 
 and irrigation in deep furrows after this will restore the 
 proper conditions. 
 
 "Experience also shows that when the water is slowly 
 run in deep furrows for a long time and the greater part 
 of the surface is kept dry and is deeply cultivated, better 
 results are obtained than when the basin or block method 
 or even the shallow-furrow plan is used, even though they 
 are followed by deep cultivation. When the water is 
 applied below the first foot of soil, and the soil above is 
 kept comparatively dry, there is nothing to attract the 
 roots to the surface; and when the water is thus applied, 
 a team can be driven along the dry strips of land between 
 the furrows, and with a harrow or other appliance the 
 dry soil can be dragged into the wet furrows, to lessen 
 the evaporation, immediately after the irrigation water 
 is turned olf. By any other system it is absolutely nec- 
 essary to wait at least twelve hours, and sometimes much 
 longer, before a team can be driven over the ground. 
 Then, too, when a soil irrigated by these more wasteful 
 methods hns been cultivated, it is still moist near the top, 
 and is soon filled with a mass of new roots so close to 
 the surface that tliey must be destroyed. 
 
 "Water applied to the soil sinks and spreads. Some 
 of it is being taken up by the still dry soil underneath 
 
CULTIVATION OF CITRUS GROVES. 281 
 
 and at the sides long after the last drop is visible. Some 
 of it, too, is being draAvn back to the surface and thence 
 evaporated into the warm air. Irrigation after sundown 
 has some distinct advantages, if the water can be handled. 
 Sub-irrigation upon soils adapted to its use is the ideal 
 system of applying water, and greatly lessens waste. 
 Orange roots will not enter a pipe-line, unless it is full 
 of water all the time. If the pipe is on a grade and open 
 at bottom and top so that air passes through it, there will 
 never be trouble from orange roots. Valves, once thought 
 necessary, are not now used. The high cost of the present 
 sub-irrigation systems places them beyond the reach of 
 most orange growers." 
 
 Cultivation in Relation to Dormancy and Frosts. 
 In regions subject to frost every effort should be made 
 to have the trees in a perfectly dormant condition dtiring 
 the period when frosts are likely to occur. Citrus trees 
 are notoriously responsive to slight elevations of tem- 
 perature during the winter months. In a perfectly dor- 
 mant condition they will withstand a considerable de 
 gree of cold, but if the sap is moving, a very slight degree 
 of cold may injure them seriously. 
 
 Unfortunately, they cannot be put in a complete state 
 of dormancy, to remain so throughout the winter despite 
 changes in temperature. Still, something may be done. 
 Fertilizers, particularly those rich in nitrogen, which 
 have a tendency to prolong the growth of the tree, should 
 not be applied late in the season. Cultivation should 
 not be continued late into the fall, as the stirring of the 
 soil tends to cause the trees to grow late into the autumn. 
 
 All cultivation should be discontinued early. Grass 
 and weeds should not, however, be allowed to remain in 
 the grove during the winter months. If open fires are 
 
282 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 used to protect the trees, the presence of dry herbage 
 among them is a menace to the safety of the grove. Fire 
 may easily spread through the grove and the trees suffer 
 greatly in consequence. Moreover, it has been observed 
 in Florida, that trees standing among dead grass and 
 weeds are much more injuriously affected by frost than 
 are those in clean-cultivated soil. Hence, the best prac- 
 tice is to cultivate sufficiently to partially incorporate the 
 dead herbage with the soil about the middle of November. 
 
 The Die-Back Prohletii. In groves where trees are 
 affected by die-back, the trouble may be seriously aggra- 
 vated by continuance of cultivation. Particularly is this 
 the case where the disease has been caused by the use of 
 organic fertilizers or by too much humus having been in- 
 corporated with the soil. Where the disease is caused by 
 the presence of hard-pan or by poor drainage, and not 
 by cultural mistakes, the problem is, of course, an entirely 
 different one. 
 
 In the former vase, however, much may be accom- 
 plished by changing the method of cultivation and ferti- 
 lizing. Cultivation should be discontinued, thereby re 
 stricting the growth of the trees and lessening the amount 
 of available nitrogen in the soil. The fertilizers used 
 should contain no nitrogen and when fertilizers are again 
 applied, organic sources of nitrogen should be rigidly 
 avoided. If beggarweed is growing in the grove, it should 
 be cut frequently and removed. By this line of treatment 
 groves can usually be brought back to their normal con- 
 dition. The question is discussed further in the chapter 
 on Fungous and Physiological Diseases. 
 
 Implements. The implements used for cultivating 
 must be adapted to the soil conditions and in the end 
 each grower should know what will best answer his pur- 
 
CULTIVATION OF CITRUS GROVES. 283 
 
 poses. Various cultivators can be procured, adapted to 
 shallow or deep cultivation, to light or heavy soils. 
 
 Of the implements used for shallow orchard cultiva- 
 tion, one of the best is the Acme harrow. To this may be 
 added a weeder and a light harrow. For deep work, a disc 
 harrow is very useful, while a Planet Jr. cultivator will 
 be found very good. A cornstalk-smasher is frequently 
 quite iiseful in disposing of a heavy cover crop. 
 
 General Remarlcs. Cultivation should be intrusted 
 only to a careful man. The Sherwood harness should 
 be used, or, if not possible to procure it, the ends of the 
 whifiletrees should be covered so as to prevent injury to 
 the trunks of the trees. The California whiffletree, the 
 ends of which are protected by the tugs, is made on correct 
 principles. Hames with tall iron tops should not be used. 
 The hames should not project above the collar. 
 
 Cultivate thoroughly and intelligently, as the condi- 
 tions indicate. 
 
CHAPTER XXXIIL 
 COVER CKOPS. 
 
 In the judicious management of the citrus grove, the 
 use of a cover crop is frequently an important factor and 
 one well worthy the consideration of the producer of 
 (dtrus fruits. Not all soils can be treated in the same 
 way. The soils are unlike, conditions difiEer and no one 
 should know the peculiarities of any soil better than the 
 man who tills it, who comes in contact with it day after 
 day. He should study it carefully, become acquainted 
 with all its peculiarities and then he is in a position to 
 handle it to the best advantage. No other person can 
 know so much about a given piece of land, as the intelli- 
 gent man who tills it and studies it as he works. He, in 
 the end, should be best able to decide whether clean cul- 
 ture throughout the year, clean culture with a cover crop 
 or no culture is best for his conditions. The amount of 
 fertility in the soil, the amount of available moisture, the 
 physical qualities of the soil and the climate are the more 
 or less known quantities with which he must work out 
 the equation of citrus fruit production. When the differ- 
 ent conditions are brought to mind it may readily be seen 
 that no one kind of treatment will be best for all groves. 
 
 The benefits to be derived from the use of cover crops 
 in the citrus districts are in part the same as those which 
 obtain in more northern fruit regions, but the problem is, 
 in some respects different. The advantages, presented 
 briefly at this point, are as follows: 
 1. Affecting the physical condition of the soil. 
 
286 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 (a). Huums is added and the Avater holdint; capac- 
 ity of the soil is increased. 
 
 (b) . The soil is opened up, hard layers are prevented 
 from forming and clay soils from becoming compact. 
 
 (c). Moisture is removed from the soil during the 
 rainy season in Florida and the Islands. 
 
 (d). Prevents surface washing in rainy season. 
 2. Affecting the fertility of the soil. 
 
 (a). Prevents leaching of nitrates during the period 
 of excessive rainfall. 
 
 (b). Promotes nitrification. 
 
 (c). Adds plant food (leguminous crops). 
 
 (d). Breaks up the plant food in the soil and ren- 
 ders it available. 
 
 (Jover crojis are usually divided into two classes: 
 nitrogen collectors and nitrogen consumers. 
 
 To the first group belong the leguminous plants, such 
 as clover, cowpeas, beans, peas, beggarweed, velvet beans 
 vetch, lupines, alfalfa and many others. 
 
 Buckwheat, rye, oats, grasses of different kinds, rape 
 and, in short, all cover crop plants not belonging to the 
 Family Leguminosae are placed in the second group. 
 
 The groups are based upon the fact that upon the 
 roots of leguminous plants, nodules of various shapes and 
 sizes are found. Two kinds of these are shown in figures 
 67 and 69. There are usually various different shapes for 
 each species of plants, each having its own form, and they 
 vary considerably in size. They are formed by the action 
 of bacteria which find entrance to the roots through the 
 root-hairs. These nodules are distinct in form, and must 
 not be confounded with the irregularly shaped swellings 
 caused by the action of the root-knot, producing nematode 
 
COVER CROPS. 287 
 
 worm, Heterodera radicicola, so common in southern 
 regions. 
 
 These bacteria are commonly known as nitrogen 
 fixers, because of their ability to collect and store the free 
 nitrogen of the air in the tubercles formed by their action. 
 This nitrogen eventually becomes available to the plants 
 growing on the soil. The tubercles are most in evidence 
 during the earlier period of growth of the legumes. The 
 greater number of them decay and become shrunken later 
 in the season, their nitrogen contents having been taken 
 up by the plants. 
 
 Rye, oats, crab-grass, sand-spurs and other grass 
 plants do not collect nitrogen, but when returned to the 
 soil, give back only that which they have withdrawn. 
 However, tbey add fibre to the soil, increasing the humus 
 content and have a general ameliorating effect. 
 
 The benefits derived from cover crops may be ren- 
 dered entirely negative, unless proper care is exercised in 
 handling them. In the hot climate of the citrus districts, 
 they should not be plowed under while green, but should 
 be allowed to become dry and partially rotted before being 
 incorporated with the soil. Unless this plan be followed, 
 an acid condition of the soil, inimical to the growth of 
 citrus or any other fruit trees, may result. When com- 
 mercial fertilizers are used, the potash content should be 
 increased in proportion to the amount of nitrogen returned 
 by the cover crop and only pure chemical fertilizers should 
 be applied. None containing organic source of nitrogen 
 should be used, else in many localities, die-hack will but 
 too frequently result. 
 
 VALUABLE COVER-CROP PLANTS FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 The legumes most serviceable as cover crops in Flor- 
 ida are Beggarweed [Desinodium tortiiosum DC.) and 
 
2SS 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 and a 
 
 Velvet Bean (Miicuna iililis W'al- 
 licit). The former is a well-known 
 native plant, while the latter was 
 introduced into America, jiresuni- 
 ablv about 1869. The Cowpeas 
 (Yigna catjang) are also some- 
 times grown, but the presence o( 
 the nematode worm, already re- 
 ferred to, so frequently interferes 
 with their growth that it cannot 
 be recommended for all soils. So 
 far as known this nematode does 
 not attack orange roots, Dut it is 
 frequently present in the soil in 
 the roots of native plants. 
 
 It is generally necessary to get 
 rid of the cover crop before the 
 picking season . This may be done 
 by cutting it and allowing it to lie 
 on the surface until it decays par- 
 tially, or it may 
 be harrowed in- 
 to the soil if 
 dead and dry. 
 
 i. x'hia'bt beak 
 (mucuna 
 
 UTILIS) . 
 
 The velvet 
 bean makes 
 a n enormous 
 growth, and, in 
 autumn, after 
 being lightly 
 
 tt bean pods, two-fittlis natural 
 nitrogen nodule, natural size. 
 
COVER CROPS. 
 
 2811 
 
 touched by frost in Noi-thern Florida, several inches in 
 depth of dead leaves and vines cover the ground. No other 
 legume will make such a growth in the same length of 
 time. In the full vigor of its growth it covers the ground 
 to a depth of two or three feet with a tangled mass of 
 vines, individuals of which are frequently upwards of 
 seventy-five feet long. Miller has estimated the amount of 
 green material on an acre to be 21,132 pounds, or 5,953 
 pounds of dry substance. As a cover crop it is diflflcult to 
 handle in regions remote from frost, as it continues grow- 
 ing and the plants in a green state are difficult to handle. 
 It can, however, be cut with a mowing machine and drawn 
 aside between the tree rows, if still green in the autumn, 
 for it is generally advisable to get the cover crop out 
 of the way before the picking season approaches. 
 
 Nitrogen is collected in very large amounts by this 
 cover crop. The following table is given by Prof. H. K. 
 Miller in Bui. 60 of the Florida Agricultural Experi- 
 ment Station, and shows the results obtained by the Ala- 
 bama. Louisiana and Florida Experiment Stations with 
 velvet beans as a field crop : 
 
 Weight of green material from an acre.. 
 Weiglit of dried material from an acre. . 
 
 Weight of dried roots from an acre 
 
 Weight of nitrogen in vines from an acre 
 Weight of nitrogen in roots from an acre 
 Total nitrogen in crop from one acre 
 
 ALABAMA 
 
 LOUISIANA 
 
 FLORIDA 
 
 19,040 
 
 2!i,919 
 
 21,132 
 
 8,240 
 
 7,495 
 
 5,953 
 
 1,8B8 
 
 191 
 
 690 
 
 yOl.3 
 
 iro 
 
 131.5 
 
 12.6 
 
 3.9 
 
 9,7 
 
 21.S.il 
 
 172.9 
 
 141.2 
 
 Such results could not be obtained in the citrus 
 grove, as the whole space cannot be planted, but one 
 hundred pounds of nitrogen per acre would probably be 
 a conservative estimate. 
 
290 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 The root system spreads out well from the plant and 
 the roots penetrate the soil deeply. The tubercles formed 
 by the nitrogen-flxing bacteria are very large, frequently 
 an inch and a quarter or more in diameter, black or 
 brownish black, and covered with projections. (Fig. 67). 
 The seed should be sown not later than the end of 
 May and earlier if possible. The crop is benefited by cul- 
 tivation, as it is somewhat slow in starting and the weeds 
 should be kept down until it is well established. Cultiva- 
 tion may be continued for three or four weeks after plant- 
 ing. While the seed may be sown broadcast, it is better 
 to sow in drills, four or five feet apart, or in hills, three 
 or four beans to the hill in checks four or five feet square. 
 One bushel is sufficient seed for four acres. They should not 
 be planted closer to the tree row than six or eight feet and 
 care must be exercised to turn the vines away from the 
 trees, else they may cover and smother them. This has 
 happened in the groves of careless cultivators. 
 
 Baron H. von Luttichau, of Earleton, has been very 
 successful with velvet beans as a cover crop. His method 
 of handling it, as given in his own words in Bui. 69, Flor- 
 ida Experiment Station, is well worth reproducing here: 
 
 "Since our first big freeze, when all the trees went, 
 I handle my groves in a different way from what I had 
 up until that time. The velvet bean was introduced and 
 with that, the change. Until then my groves were worked 
 and fertilized according to established rules. 
 
 "Last week in January, or thereabouts, before the 
 bloom and growth starts, the plow is run, very shallow, 
 straight along six feet away from the tree rows. The 
 strip between the trees is left, never being disturbed, 
 either by plow or hoe. Nothing further is done until 
 about March 1st, when all the rest of the land and the old 
 
COYER CROPS. 
 
 291 
 
 stubble of last year is planted as thick as possible with 
 velvet beans. The vines receive one working with a plow, 
 no hoeing. They grow, covering everything with a dense 
 mass of vines and a layer of rotten leaves. An Acme cul- 
 tivator is run along the six feet of plowed ground as long 
 as the vines will permit. Nothing more is done, except to 
 keep the vines from the trees, and the trees are never 
 plowed. When the cold kills the vines, they are drawn 
 into piles with the horse-rake, and later they are placed 
 around the trees and on the strip between. No beans are 
 picked, except enough for seed. The trees are banked by 
 December 1st. No other fertilizer than the velvet beans 
 has been used now for six years or more. Date of writ- 
 ing, all trees look luxuriant, covered with new growth 
 and extra heavy bloom. Last fruit was perfect, pro- 
 nounced by Mr. Arnold, of Jacksonville, who bought it 
 all on the trees, as being the best he had ever handled. 
 I will not claim that I shall never have to use any other 
 fertilizer, but thus far there is no indication of the need 
 of it. Expenses per year are about $25.00, except cost 
 of banking and removing same." 
 
 Some growers have objected to the velvet bean as 
 a cover crop because it harbors insects, particularly the 
 soldier bug, cotton stainer and allied insects. These, when 
 the crop is removed or dies down, transfer their attentions 
 to the fruit on the trees, to the consternation of the 
 grower, and much damage is sometimes done. But these 
 insects are more or less periodic and rarely, if ever, 
 attack a grove year after year in numbers large enough 
 to prove injurious. Whether the velvet bean is more 
 likely to attract them than any other crop is also some- 
 what problematical. 
 
l.'!)2 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 BEGGARWEED. (DESMODIUM TORTUOSUM.) 
 
 "^1 
 
 Beggarweed is a 
 strong, erect, an- 
 nual plant. It is 
 a native of Florida 
 and is perfectly at 
 home in all parts 
 of the State. 
 When standing 
 apart, unshaded 
 by other plants, it 
 is much branched, 
 but closelj' plant- 
 ed, it produces a 
 single stem with- 
 out branches. In 
 soils where plenty 
 of tubercles are 
 formed, it fre- 
 quently grows to 
 a height of six or 
 eight feet, the stem 
 beiiii; nuuriy tln-c('-(|iiarter,s of an inch thick at the ground. 
 At the end nf the season a goodly covering of par- 
 tially decayed foliage is found on the ground. As a 
 cover crop, it is easily managed. On many soils it should 
 not lie allowed to grow throughout the whole season un- 
 checked, as the stems become hard, woody and difficult to 
 iiii'orjiorate with the soil. The crop should be cut once 
 or twice during the season and if a good length of stub- 
 ble be left, it will stoo' our, producing another crop. 
 Each cutting may be allowed tc dec;!y on the surface, or 
 
 6'^. Seed stern and flowering stem of 
 Beggarweed. 
 
COVER CROPS. 293 
 
 one or two may be removed for hay, though by this plan 
 the full benefit of the crop cannot be secured. The last 
 cutting should not be so late as to prevent seed forma- 
 tion, for if once well established, the crop will reseed itself 
 year after year, if well managed. 
 
 The amount of nitrogen collected, up to the time of 
 the formation of flower buds, is shown by the following 
 unpublished analysis made by Prof. W. A. Blair, of the 
 Deparltment of Chemistry, in the University of Florida: 
 
 Weight in pounds of dried stems and leaves per acre 3,489.15 
 
 Weight in pounds of dried roots per acre 105.85 
 
 Weight of nitrogen per acre in stems and leaves 90.71 
 
 Weight of nitrogen per acre in roots 10.02 
 
 Total nitrogen in roots, stems and leaves per acre... 100.73 
 
 But a single cutting is represented in the above analy- 
 ses. If allowed to grow throughout the whole summer, 
 or if cut once or twice and the crop allowed to return to 
 the soil, the amount of nitrogen collected during the 
 entire season would probably be increased one-half. 
 
 A .straight, strong tap-root with numerous laterals 
 is produced. These penetrate well into the soil, loosen- 
 ing and opening it to a depth of twelve to fifteen inches, 
 or even more. The nodules are comparatively small, 
 rounded, smooth, and under favorable conditions, pro- 
 duced abundantly. Figure 69 shows the nodules natu- 
 ral size and also gives a fair idea of how plentifully they 
 are formed on the roots. 
 
 From five to ten pounds of seed are required per acre, 
 but, as already noted, when once seeded, sowing is not 
 necessary for the next season. The seed should be scattered 
 broadcast on freshly harrowed ground, and a second har- 
 rowing then given. If it is deemed necessary to 
 
294 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 continue cultivation after 
 sowing the seed, it may be 
 done for a time, but this will 
 have to be confined to the 
 tree rows eventually, culti- 
 vating one way only, and al- 
 lowing the beggarweed free 
 possession of the middles. 
 After having become well 
 established, so as to produce 
 plenty of seed, cultivation 
 may be carried on over the 
 whole surface from early 
 spring to about the middle of 
 June, after which the plants 
 will spring up and cover the 
 ground. 
 
 This cover crop can easily 
 
 ^ ' * 7 -.''1 \ 
 
 
 1 f, 
 
 . ( 
 
 B H 
 
 Fig. 69. A, nodules on Beg-garweed roots natural size. 
 
 B. root system of Beggarweed. with an abundance of 
 
 nitrogen nodules. 
 
COVER CROPS. 295 
 
 be disposed of in autumn by cutting with a mower 
 and allowing it to remain on the surface until 
 it becomes dry and brittle, when it may be worked 
 into the soil. If it has not been cut during the 
 summer and has become dry while still standing, it nmy 
 be broken down with a corn stalk smasher. This followed 
 by a cutaway harrow will incorporate it fairly well with 
 the soil. 
 
 If, for any reason, it is deemed advisable to get rid 
 of the beggarweed in a grove, it may be done by cutting 
 frequently to prevent seeding and by prolonging spring 
 cultivation well into the rainy season, when the rapid 
 growth of crab-grass and other native plants will choke 
 it out. 
 
 OTHER COVER CROPS. 
 
 A crop of sand-spurs, crab-grass and other plants 
 may also be allowed to grow in the grove after cultiva- 
 tion ceases. This plan is adopted by some Florida grow- 
 ers who prefer to apply the nitrogen required, instead of 
 depending upon a leguminous cover crop for the supply. 
 Seeding for these crops is not necessary as they spring up 
 spontaneously. Some people object to these plants as 
 cover crops, but better by far to have them than to have 
 bare, exposed ground. 
 
 COVER CROPS IN CALIFORNIA. 
 
 In California and Arizona, where recourse has to 
 be made to irrigation to keep up the water supply, the 
 growing of cover crops does not receive the same atten- 
 tion as it does in the eastern sections. Whether they are 
 planted or not depends Inraely upon the amount of water 
 available. If a supply suflScient for both cover crop and 
 
296 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 trees can be had, then the latter may be grown between 
 the tree rows. If a plant could be secured which would 
 make a good growth during the winter season and which 
 could readily be disposed of in spring, so as to permit 
 of frequent cultivation during the dry summer months, 
 it would be very desirable. Unfortunately, it is too dry, 
 early in autumn, to start a crop satisfactorily without 
 recourse to irrigation, and heavy applications of water 
 at this season are not best for the trees. The Canada 
 field pea, Bur clover and lupines have received the most 
 attention. Fortunately the more retentive nature of the 
 California soils and their greater store of fertility has 
 not as yet rendered the growing of a cover crop of so 
 much importance as it is in Florida. 
 
 In some cases, however, the soils are becoming de- 
 pleted, and the day is not far distant, in fact has already 
 come in some instances, when the cover crop question 
 will be one of great moment to the growers on the Pa- 
 cific coast. Clean culture cannot produce good results 
 indefinitely and the sooner cover crops are given attention, 
 the better for the future of the citrus industrv. 
 
CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 FERTILIZERS AND FERTILIZING. 
 
 Tke problems connected with the supplying of the 
 proper food materials to citrus trees are extremely im- 
 portant. Fertilizers in some form must be used sooner 
 or later in all citrus districts, for no soil is inexhausti- 
 ble. In many sections, however, they must be used eveu) 
 from the planting of the trees. In Florida, where the 
 soils are very deficient in plant food, the kinds, quanti- 
 ties of materials, and the time of their application con- 
 stitutes the great problem of citrus culture. In Califor- 
 nia the most important problems connected with citrus 
 fruit growing are not those which have to do with the 
 use of fertilizers, but with the best methods of irriga- 
 tion and cultivation instead. As pointed out elsewhere, 
 the soils of California and the arid region generally, are 
 extremely rich when compared with those of Florida, 
 and in some places the need of fertilizers has not jet 
 been evidenced. Mo'st growers in the western districts, 
 however, already realize the importance of keeping up 
 the fertility of the land and make regular applications 
 of fertilizers. The fact should be borne in mind that 
 crops of fruit cannot be harvested year after year from 
 a given area without depleting the soil, decreasing the 
 quantity and impairing the quality of the output, unless 
 some return be made to the soil to replace the plant food 
 removed. The elements which enter into the composition 
 of plants are carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, potas- 
 sium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, sulphur, iron 
 and sometimes chlorine, but of those obtained from the 
 
298 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 soil, all except phosphorus, potash, nitrogen and some- 
 times lime, are usually present in sufficient quantities for 
 the needs of the trees. In some soils, even these four may 
 be present in the virgin soil in sufficient quantities to 
 last some time, but they become exhausted after a few 
 years cropping. 
 
 The following analyses show the amounts of the 
 three more important fertilizer ingredients removed in 
 the fruit of pomelos, mandarin oranges and kumquats in 
 Florida, as determined by Professors Miller and Blair, 
 of the Department of Chemistry of the University of 
 Florida, and of sweet oranges and Eureka lemon as com- 
 puted from the data given by Mr. Hubert L. Dyer in Bul- 
 letin 93, University of California, Agricultural Experi- 
 ment Station: 
 
 FERTILIZER ANALYSES OF THE FRUIT OF SIX VARIETIES 
 OF POMELOS. 
 
 [From Bui. 58, Fla. Exp. Station.] 
 
 per cent, per cent. 
 
 Royal 
 
 Pernambuoo 
 
 Manville 
 
 Aurantiuni 
 
 Walters 
 
 Triumph ... 
 
 Average ' . 050 
 
 .040 
 
 .250 
 
 .056 
 
 213 
 
 .054 
 
 .251 
 
 .053 
 
 .239 
 
 .049 
 
 233 
 
 ,050 
 
 .237 
 
 .237 
 
 per cent. 
 
 .119 
 .111 
 
 .102 
 085 
 129 
 
 .117 
 
 .110 
 
FERTILIZERS AND FERTILIZING. 
 
 299 
 
 FERTILIZER ANALYSES OP THE FRUIT OP SIX VARIETIES 
 OP MANDARIN ORANGES. 
 
 [From Bui. «;, Fla. Jg. Exp. Station] 
 
 Satsuma . . . 
 China 
 
 Dancy 
 
 Oneco 
 
 Cleopatra, . 
 King 
 
 Average 
 
 V.,0, to- 
 
 K 
 
 .Otot'l 
 
 N total 
 
 tal perct. 
 
 pe 
 
 r cent 
 
 per cent. 
 
 .0386 
 
 
 ,2121 
 
 1661 
 
 .0758 
 
 
 ,2576 
 
 1404 
 
 .0591 
 
 
 .1903 
 
 1501) 
 
 .0573 
 
 
 .2732 
 
 ,1653 
 
 .0529 
 
 
 .3199 
 
 ,1639 
 
 .0531 
 
 
 .2791 
 
 1506 
 
 .0561 
 
 
 2570 
 
 ,1560 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 FERTILIZER ANALSES OF THE FRUIT OF TWO VARIETIES 
 OP KUMQUATS. 
 
 [From Bui CO. Fla. Ag. Exp. Station.] 
 
 per cent 
 
 Marumi 
 Nagami 
 
 ,0528 
 .0531 
 
 Average. 
 
 ,0529 
 
 per cent, 
 
 , 2623 
 ,2796 
 
 ,2709 
 
 N 
 per cent, 
 
 .114 
 ,132 
 
 ,136 
 
 FERTILIZER ANALYSES OF THE FRUIT OF FIVE VARIETIES 
 OF SWEET ORANGES. 
 
 [Computed from Bui. 93, Univ. Cal. Ag E.i'p. Station.] 
 
 Navel Oranges , 
 Med. Sweet 
 St. Michael's 
 Malta Blood , 
 
 Average , , 
 
 PjO, KaO I N 
 per cent, per cent.jper cent. 
 
 .051 
 065 
 .053 
 .062 
 
 058 
 
 .215 .j 
 
 211 
 
 .225 
 
 .154 
 
 .216 
 
 228 
 
 .221 1 
 
 168 
 
 .219 
 
 )90 
 
300 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 FERTILIZER ANALYSIS OF THE FKUIT OF ONE VABIETY OP LBJIOX. 
 [Computed frovi Bid. 0.3. Univ. Cal. Ag. Ej-p. Station.'] 
 
 Eureka . 
 
 per cent, per cent. ] per cent. 
 .058 253 .151 
 
 It will be seen from these analyses that the fruit of 
 all kinds of citrus contain practically the same percent- 
 age of fertilizer ingredients. The averages of the five 
 tables given above are .055 per cent, phosphoric acid, 
 .249 per cent, potash and .149 per cent, nitrogen. 
 
 For purposes of computation it may be assumed 
 that a box of citrus fruit will weigh about eighty pounds. 
 No fixed and definite weight can be given. Much de- 
 pends upon the size of the fruit, the season, the curing, 
 and the methods of cultivation, irrigation and fertili- 
 zation. The weights may vary anywhere between sixty- 
 five and one hundred pounds, but the weight fixed upon, 
 viz., 80 pounds, will not be far from a general average. 
 The weight of ten boxes would then be 800 pounds. This 
 amount of fruit would remove from the soil .440 pounds 
 jthosphoric acid, 1.97G pounds of potash and 1.192 pounds 
 of nitrogen. 
 
 That soil depletion may be prevented, these are the 
 losses which must be made good for each crop of ten 
 boxes. In addition, provision should be made for a var- 
 iable and unknown quantity of plant food which leaches 
 from the soil and besides, the tree must have a sufficient 
 food supjily to enable it to add new growth in roots, 
 branch and leaf. A fair approximation, covering the 
 fertilizer removed in the fruit and that lost by leaching 
 and required for new growth would be two or three times 
 
FERTILIZERS AND FERTILIZING. 301 
 
 the amount estimated for every ten boxes of fruit. Fer- 
 tilizing is a more or less local matter, one which it is 
 well nigh impossible to reduce to a matter of absolute 
 facts and figures, and each grower must determine for 
 himself how much his trees require and how much it is 
 economical to use. It has generally been observed in. 
 Florida, where commercial fertilizers are largely used, 
 that the grower who fertilizes liberally with the proper 
 material generally meets with the best success. This, per- 
 haps, is not only the result of the additional fertilizer 
 applied, but because a liberal policy along this line leads 
 him to give greater attention to all details connected 
 with the care of the trees. A citrus tree may get along 
 after a fashion and give some returns with poor treat- 
 ment. It may live and eke out a miserable existence when 
 abused and neglected, but in all cases it amply repays 
 good care and attention and will not be profitable unless 
 it is given. 
 
 THE FUNCTIONS OF PHOSPHORIC ACID, POTASH, NITROGEN 
 AND LIME. 
 
 Phosphoric Add. This substance is a very essen- 
 tial one and plays an important part in the life activi- 
 ties of plants. It enters into the formation and is a con- 
 stituent of a certain class of nitrogenous compounds 
 known as proteids. Phosphoric acid is found in consid- 
 erable amounts in the different parts of the fruit of citrus 
 trees, but the seeds contain the highest percentage. The 
 fresh rind of pomelos contains .035 per cent.; the pulp 
 .044 per cent. ; and the seeds .815 per cent, and these per- 
 centages may be regarded as close approximations for all 
 citrus fruits. Unless the requisite amount of phosphoric 
 acid be available, the fruit does not develop normally, 
 
302 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 and the maturity of tlie fruit is somewhat hastened by 
 heavy applications of this material, unless offset by an 
 abundant supply of nitrogen. 
 
 Potash. In the formation of starch, sugar, fruit and 
 woody parts of the tree, potash plays an active part. By 
 photosynthesis, starch is formed in the leaves as a solid 
 substance. Before it can be transferred to the different 
 parts of the plant, it must be dissolved. Potash assists 
 in this process, thus enabling the starch to pass through 
 the cell walls of the plant. Sugar is probably formed 
 from starch and various other related compounds in the 
 plant which enter so largely into the composition of the 
 wood and fruit are probably derived from the same 
 source. The great importance of a goodly supply of pot- 
 ash can thus be easily understood. 
 
 If large amounts of potash are taken up by the trees 
 it will be found that the rind of the fruit will be much 
 thinner than otherwise and the amount of rag will be 
 greatly lessened. A plentiful supply of potash in the 
 fruit has an excellent influence on its keeping quality. 
 If too little be present, the fruit will be soft and is likely 
 to break down shortly after removal from the trees. To 
 increase the keeping and carrying quality of citrus fruits 
 a large amount of potash with a small amount of nitro- 
 gen should be used. The influence of potash on the hard- 
 ening of the wood is worthy of note. Trees plentifully 
 supplied with potash are more likely to form firm, hard 
 wood, less liable to damage by cold and the attacks of 
 Insects than if a preponderance of nitrogen be applied. 
 
 Nitrogen. The effects of an abundant supply of ni- 
 trogen are much more apparent than the effects of an excess 
 of either potash or phosphoric acid. When the leaves have a 
 dark green, glossy color they are receiving plenty of nitro- 
 
FERTILIZERS AND FERTILIZING. 303 
 
 geiious food. The effects are further shown in the increased 
 area of individual leaves, strong, vigorous, sappy growth 
 and long internodes. Very large amounts of nitrogen 
 impair the fruitfulness of the tree, wood formation tak- 
 ing place at the expense of fruit. It has a tendency to 
 retard the maturity of the fruit and large amounts ma- 
 terially increase the amount of rag and the thickness of 
 the rind. 
 
 On the other hand, when the nitrogen supply is not 
 sufficient, the leaves become yellow, the trees have a 
 stunted, starved appearance and do not make a normal 
 growth of branch and leaf. 
 
 Lime. The value of lime as a fertilizer may be viewed 
 from two points: its eifect upon the soil and its effect 
 upon the plant. Both of these have a direct bearing on 
 the subject under discussion. 
 
 Much of the fertility of the soil depends upon the 
 number and activity of soil bacteria. These liberate plant 
 food and make it available so that the roots of trees and 
 other plants may take it up. Soils, especially in warm 
 climates, have a tendency to become acid and under such 
 conditions the bacteria cannot live. The presence of 
 lime counteracts the acid condition and it should be ap- 
 plied whenever necessary. Furthermore, it helps to bring 
 about the decomposition of humus and liberates the ni- 
 trogen which it contains. Large amounts of plant food 
 may be liberated by or through the use of lime, hence, in 
 applying it to citrus groves it is best to use it sparingly 
 or. at the time of its use, discontinue the nitrogenous 
 fertilizer and depend upon the amount of nitrogen lib- 
 erated to make up the deficit. 
 
 In the plant, the presence of lime appears to favor the 
 forma+'o;i of stronger cell walls and thus aids in mak- 
 
;j()4 CiriiUS FRUITS AND TUEIK CULTURE. 
 
 ing the trees stronger and more sturdy. Citrus trees planted 
 on soils fairly well supplied with lime have a tendency 
 to mature their fruit somewhat earlier and the fruit 
 is bright and clean. 
 
 Sources of Plant Food. The most noteworthy sources 
 from which the required fertilizing elements may be se- 
 cured are barnyard manure and commercial fertilizers. 
 A good quality of the former, when well rotted, will con- 
 tain about .03 per cent, of phosphoric acid, .05 per cent, of 
 potash and .OG per cent, of nitrogen, while the latter may 
 be of almost any conceivable composition. 
 
 The use of stable manure as a fertilizer for citrus 
 trees in California has been followed by satisfactory re- 
 sults, but in Florida, its use has too frequently been fol- 
 lowed by attacks of die-back and by other troubles. 
 Whether this be true in all cases or not, in the vast ma- 
 jority of instances the benefits to be derived from the use 
 of stable manure are doubtful. It is essentially a nitro- 
 genous fertilizer, and, whenever used, should be accom- 
 panied by heavy applications of potash, unless the soil 
 is already rich in this substance. Potash is notoriously 
 deficient in Florida soils. An additional supply of phos- 
 phoric acid may also be needed. The greatest difliculty 
 encountered in the use of stable manure is that people 
 generally fail to realize that it is, at best, a one-sided 
 fertilizer. 
 
 Sources of Phosphoric Acid. The principal sources 
 of phosphoric acid are bone and phosphatic rock. The 
 bone is sold either as ground bone, steamed bone or dis- 
 solved bone. The other as super-phosphate (acid phos- 
 phate) and double super-phosphate. Ground bone contains 
 about 22 to 20 per cent, phosphoric acid. Steamed bone 
 ;;l)ont tlie snme; dissolved bone, 10 to 19 per cent.; 
 
FERTILIZERS AND FERTILIZING- ;J05 
 
 superphosphate, 13 to 15 per cent, available; a 
 high-grade super-phosphate, 16 to 19 per cent, available; 
 and double super-phosphate, 45 to 57 per cent, available. 
 
 The readiness with which the phosphoric acid may 
 be obtained from bone depends largely upon the fineness 
 of division of the particles. The finer it is ground, the 
 more readily the roots of the tree can take it up. It must 
 undergo decomposition before yielding up its phosphoric 
 acid and for this reason it is not well to use it where 
 quick results are desired. It is an excellent substance 
 to use to increase the phosphoric acid content of the soil, 
 supplying a store from which the tree may draw gradually. 
 Its use is strongly recommended at the time of planting 
 citrus trees. A pound or two incorporated with the soil 
 before placing it about the roots, is an excellent practice. 
 
 For general use in citrus fertilizers, dissolved bone 
 is the best of the materials derived from bone to use. It 
 contains, as already noted, from 16 to 19 per cent, of 
 available phosphoric acid. 
 
 Phosphoric acid fertilizers derived from phosphate 
 rock are of two kinds : super-phosphate, known to the 
 trade as acid phosphate or high-grade acid phosphate 
 and double super-phosphate. The latter is not 
 used to any great extent. It has been claimed 
 that it is best to use dissolved bone as a source 
 of phosphoric acid, and yet acid phosphate has been used 
 in some groves in Florida continually for ten or fifteen 
 years with uniformly satisfactory results. Each year 
 the crops have been all that could be desired. 
 
 In the face of results obtained from the use of either 
 dissolved bone or acid phosphate, we are probably safe 
 in saying that one is as good as the other as a source of 
 phosphoric acid. 
 

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FERTILIZERS AND FERTILIZING. ;5|J7 
 
 Sources of Potash. The forms in which potash may 
 b€ supplied to citrus trees are: high-grade potash, con 
 taining about 51 per cent, available potash; low-grade 
 sulphate of potash, containing about 2G per cent.; and 
 muriate of potash, containing about 50 per cent. The 
 raw salt, kainit, is also used sometimes, but the bulk per 
 unit of potash is so great that it is too expensive to be 
 recommended. 
 
 Of all the materials used, the sulphates are the saf 
 est and best. It is well established that it is not well to 
 use muriate of potash on some crops. Their quality is 
 impaired thereby. This is true of tobacco, the Irish po- 
 tato, the sugar beet and perhaps other crops. The deteri- 
 oration is ascribed to the presence of chlorine, which inter- 
 feres with the accumulation of starch as a stored product. 
 There is a general impression abroad that muriate of 
 potash is not a good substance to use on orange trees, 
 and while its deleterious effects have never been properly 
 elucidated, the impression is probably well grounded. It 
 may be that chlorine interferes with sugar formation 
 and we know that starch and sugar are very closely re- 
 lated compounds, fruit sugar being C^ H,^ 0^; starch. 
 
 High-grade sulphate of potash is usually preferable 
 to low-grade, as the cost of freight and handling is less 
 per unit of potash, but either may be used. 
 
 Sources of Nitrogen. Nitrogen may be obtained as 
 nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, dried blood, cot- 
 tonseed meal and castor pomace. Tankage, generally 
 sold in the markets as blood and bone, is also another 
 source of supply. Nitrate of soda contains approxi- 
 mately 16 per cent, nitrogen ; sulphate of ammonia, 21 per 
 cent. ; dried blood, 14 per cent. ; cottonseed meal, 6.5 per 
 
;](IS CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 cent.; castor pomace, 6 per cent.; and tankage, G per cent. 
 The last three also contain some phosphoric acid. These 
 six substances may be divided into two grouits, the first 
 two being designated as chemical sources of nitrogen, 
 the last four as organic sources, vegetable or animal. 
 
 In Florida the use of the chemical sources is always 
 advised, owing to the fact that applications of cotton- 
 seed meal and blood and other organic sources, or of 
 mixed fertilizers containing these materials, have been 
 followed by die-back. This has happened so repeatedly 
 that any organic source of nitrogen is always, and justly, 
 regarded with suspicion. Their use is always attended 
 with considerable risk and it too frequently happens that 
 all the growth added may be lost owing to the disturb- 
 ance of the functions of the tree. In sections where die- 
 back does not follow their use, organic sources are good, 
 if used with discretion, but heavy applications may im 
 pair the quality of the fruit. 
 
 The nitrogen in nitrate of soda is available as soon 
 as it is dissolved in the soil. Most of the nitrogen taken 
 up by plants is in the form of nitrate, which explains 
 why the trees respond so readily to applications of ni- 
 trate of soda. It must be used with discretion, else a 
 considerable part may be leached from the soil, and it 
 is preferably applied in a number of separate dressings 
 of two or three hundred pounds per acre. 
 
 Sulphate of ammonia is of STich physical character 
 as to be readily distributed through the soil. The form 
 of the nitrogen has to be changed before it can be used 
 by plants, hence it does not act so quickly as nitrate of 
 soda. It is an excellent form of nitrogen to use on citrus 
 groves, particularly among bearing trees. Lime should 
 
FERTILIZERS AND FERTILIZING. 309 
 
 be present in goodly quantities in the soil to secure the 
 best results from its use. 
 
 Some have said, and perhaps on good grounds so far 
 as some crops are concerned, that it does not matter from 
 what source the three important plant foods are derived. 
 While this may apply to some crops and some fruits, of 
 citrus it is not true. They reflect the food supply; they 
 may be thin-skinned, heavy and juicy through the use of 
 the proper materials and the very flavor may be influenced 
 by the materials used as fertilizer. On the other hand, 
 they may be thick-skinned, full of rag, insipid and lack- 
 ing in character, owing to the use of poorly balanced 
 fertilizers. The tree itself may come to an untimely end 
 through the persistent use of rank organic sources of ni- 
 trogen. 
 
 Formulas. A number of years ago it was very diffi- 
 cult to secure fertilizer from any except domestic sources. 
 Now, however, various brands of fertilizers for use on 
 citrus trees are placed on the market. Many of these 
 give excellent results and annually bear testimony tO' 
 the scrupulous care exercised in their preparation. Still 
 there is no question but that in these brands the cost 
 per unit of plant food is greater than in the raw mate- 
 rials. Even after making allowance for the cost of mix- 
 ing and sacking there still remains a substantial bal 
 ance in favor of the raw material. Excellent results 
 have been obtained from the use of formulas made up 
 by growers themselves. These results, together with the 
 difference in cost, has led to the use of home mixtures on 
 the part of many. Much may be said both for and against 
 them, but on the whole they are to be advised rather thau 
 condemned. 
 
;jl() GITRVS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 The greatest difficulty is in securing a uniform mix- 
 ture, but if sufficient care be exercised, this may be over- 
 come. Many growers, however, prefer to have the dealer, 
 from whom he secures his raw materials, mix them for 
 him. If the dealer can be relied upon to do the work 
 right, this plan has much to commend it. But good, uni- 
 form mixtures can be made at home, as has been demon- 
 strated time and again to our own satisfaction. For 
 home mixing of fertilizers a strong box, with smooth 
 sides and bottom, sufficiently lai'gc t(.i contain from ."00 
 to 1,000 pounds, should be provided, or the mixing may 
 be done on a tight, smooth, board or cement floor. 
 
 Young and old trees differ in their fertilizer require- 
 ments. Young trees use their food supply in the forma- 
 tion of wood and leaves. For the first two or three sea- 
 sous they grow vigorously. When the bearing period is 
 reached, a gradual change comes about; the trees do not 
 grow so rapidly and a large portion of the food supply 
 is diverted to fruit formation. 
 
 The demands on the trees being different, the food 
 supplied should be different in character. Young trees 
 require a large amount of nitrogen, while bearing trees 
 require less nitrogen relatively and more phosphoric acid 
 and potash. 
 
 For young trees the fertilizer should contain about 
 6 per cent, phosphoric acid, 8 per cent, potash, and 4 per 
 cent, nitrogen, while one containing 8 per cent, phosphoric 
 acid, 12 per cent, potash and 3 1-2 per cent, nitrogen should 
 be applied to the grove of bearing trees. 
 
 The following formulas contain approximately the 
 percentage of the three important plant foods given above 
 for young and for bearing trees. It is not possible to 
 make up an exart ton of fertilizer, using the most desira- 
 
FERTILIZERS AND FERTILIZING. 311 
 
 ble materials, without put1 ing in some make-weight. This 
 is frequently done, land plaster and other materials being 
 used for the purpose. Land plaster, as a source of lime, 
 is valuable to some extent. Sand or other extraneous 
 matter is also used, but anything of this kind always 
 adds to the cost of handling. It is recommended that the 
 make-weight be omitted, in which case a smaller amount 
 of fertilizer should be applied to each tree, if ihe total 
 amount is less than one ton, and more if it is more than 
 one ton. Formula No. 1, for instance, without the make- 
 weight, calls for 1,614 pounds of material and this weight 
 contains as much actual phosphoric acid and nitrogen 
 as a ton weight of fertilizer analyzing 6 per cent phos- 
 phoric acid, 8 per cent, potash and 4 per cent, nitrogen. 
 It should then be used in place of one ton of fertilizer. 
 On the other hand some of the formulas call for more than 
 a ton of materials. These should be used as a ton would 
 be. 
 
 FORMULAS FOR YOUNG TREES. 
 FORMULA NO. 1. 
 
 Acid Phosphate 800 pounds. 
 
 H. G. Sulphate Potash 314 pounds. 
 
 Nitrate of Soda 500 pounds. 
 
 Make-weight 386 pounds 
 
 2,000 pounds. 
 
 FORMULA NO. 2. 
 
 Dissolved Bone 666 pounds. 
 
 H. G. Sulphate Potash 314 pounds. 
 
 Nitrate of Soda 500 pounds. 
 
 Make-weight 520 pounds. 
 
 2,000 pounds. 
 
312 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 FORMULA NO. 3. 
 
 Acid Phosphate 800 pounds. 
 
 H. G. Sulphate Potash 314 pounds. 
 
 Nitrate Soda 250 pounds. 
 
 Sulphate Ammonia 190 pounds. 
 
 Make-weight 446 pounds. 
 
 2,000 pounds. 
 
 FORMULA NO. 4. 
 
 Dissolved Bone 666 pounds. 
 
 H. G. Sulphate Potash 314 pounds. 
 
 Nitrate Soda 250 pounds. 
 
 Sulphate Ammonia 190 pounds. 
 
 Make-weight 580 pounds. 
 
 2,000 pounds. 
 
 FOU.MULA .NO. 5. 
 
 Acid Phosphate 800 pounds. 
 
 H. G. Sulphate Potash 314 pounds. 
 
 *Nitrate Soda 250 pounds. 
 
 Cotton-seed Meal 615 pounds. 
 
 Make-weight 21 pounds. 
 
 2,000 pounds. 
 
 FORMULA NO. 6. 
 
 Dissolved Bone 666 pounds. 
 
 H. G. Sulphate Potash 314 pounds. 
 
 Nitrate Soda 250 pounds. 
 
 Cotton-seed Meal 615 pounds. 
 
 Make-weight 155 pounds. 
 
 2,000 pounds 
 
 * Nitrate of .soda or .sulphate of ammonia, when used in conjunc- 
 tion with an organic source of nitrogen such as cotton-seed meal or 
 dried blood, should be applied only as a separate dressing, either 
 before or after the organic fertilizer has been applied, to avoid de- 
 nitrification. 
 
FERTILIZERS AND FERTILIZING. 313 
 
 FORMULA NO. 7. 
 
 Acid Phospliate 800 pounds. 
 
 H. G. Sulphate Potash 314 pounds. 
 
 Sulphate Ammonia 190 pounds. 
 
 Cotton-seed Meal 615 pounds 
 
 Make-weight 81 pounds. 
 
 2,000 pounds 
 
 FORMULA NO. 8. 
 
 Dissolved Bone 666 pounds, 
 
 H. G. Sulphate Potash 314 pounds. 
 
 Sulphate Ammonia 190 pounds. 
 
 Cotton-seed Meal 615 pounds. 
 
 Make-weight 215 pounds. 
 
 2,000 pounds, 
 
 FORMULA NO. 9. 
 
 Acid Phosphate 800 pounds. 
 
 H. G. Sulphate Potash 314 pounds. 
 
 Cotton-seed Meal 1,231 pounds. 
 
 2,345 pounds. 
 
 FOI!MUL\ NO. 10. 
 
 Dissolved Bone 666 pounds. 
 
 H. G. Sulphate Potash 314 pounds. 
 
 Cotton-seed Meal 1,231 pounds. 
 
 2,211 pounds. 
 
 The cotton-seed meal may be replaced by about one-half its 
 weight of dried blood, if so desired, or the high-grade sulphate 
 of potash by double its weight of low-grade sulphate of potash, 
 but for use in Florida neither cotton-seed meal nor dried blood 
 is recommended. 
 
;!14 CITRUb FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 FORMULAS FOR BEARING TREES. 
 
 FORMULA NO. 1. 
 
 Acid Phosphate 1,066 pounds. 
 
 H. G. Sulphate Potash 470 pounds. 
 
 Sulphate Ammonia 333 pounds. 
 
 Make-weight 131 pounds 
 
 2,000 pounds. 
 
 FORMULA NO. 2. 
 
 Dissolved Bone 888 pounds. 
 
 H. G. Sulphate Potash 470 pounds. 
 
 Sulphate Ammonia 333 pounds. 
 
 Make-weight 309 pounds. 
 
 2,000 pounds. 
 
 FORMULA NO. 3. 
 
 Acid Phosphate 1,066 pounds. 
 
 H. G. Sulphate Potash 470 pounds. 
 
 Nitrate Soda 466 pounds. 
 
 2,002 pounds. 
 
 FORMULA NO. 4. 
 
 Dissolved Bone 888 pounds. 
 
 H. G. Sulphate Potash 470 pounds. 
 
 Nitrate Soda 466 pounds. 
 
 Make-weighu 176 pounds. 
 
 2,000 pounds. 
 
 FORMULA NO. 5. 
 
 Acid Phosphate 1,066 pounds. 
 
 H. G. Sulphate Potash 470 pounds. 
 
 Sulphate Ammonia 166 pounds. 
 
 Cotton-seed Meal 588 pounds. 
 
 2,290 pounds. 
 
CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 315 
 
 FORMULA NO. 6. 
 
 Dissolved Bone 888 pounds. 
 
 H. G. Sulphate Potash 470 pounds. 
 
 Sulphate Ammonia 166 pounds. 
 
 Cotton-seed Meal 588 pounds. 
 
 2,112 pounds. 
 
 FORMULA NO. 7. 
 
 Acid Phosphate 1,066 pounds. 
 
 H. G. Sulphate Potash 470 pounds. 
 
 Nitrate of Soda 233 pounds. 
 
 Cotton-seed Meal 588 pounds. 
 
 2,357 pounds. 
 
 FORMULA NO. 8. 
 
 Dissolved Bone 888 pounds. 
 
 H. G. Sulphate Potash 470 pounds. 
 
 Nitrate of Soda 233 pounds. 
 
 Cotton-seed Meal 588 pounds. 
 
 2,179 pounds. 
 
 FORMULA NO. 9. 
 
 Acid Phosphate 1,066 pounds. 
 
 H. G. Sulphate Potash 470 pounds. 
 
 Cotton-seed Meal 1,077 pounds. 
 
 2,613 pounds. 
 
 FORMULA NO. 10. 
 
 Dissolved Bone 888 pounds. 
 
 H. G. Sulphate Potash 470 pounds. 
 
 Cotton-seed Meal 1,077 pounds. 
 
 2,435 pounds. 
 
 Amounts Required. The amounts of fertilizer re- 
 quired depends upon the age and size of the trees, the 
 quantity of fruit borne, the amount of fertility already 
 
316 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 in the soil and the amount of nitrogen supplied by the 
 cover crop, if one be grown. 
 
 On poor soils a pound or two of the fertilizer used 
 for young ti'ees should be incorporated with the soil at 
 the time of planting. If the trees are set in winter an 
 additional pound should be given in June. The second 
 year the amount to the tree should be increased as the 
 trees will be well established and can use more to advan- 
 tage. Each succeeding year the amount must be in- 
 creased, never allowing the trees to become stunted or 
 to assume a starved appearance. It is better to antici- 
 pate their needs than to wait until they are badly in need 
 of food. 
 
 Where a leguminous cover crop is grown, the amount 
 of nitrogen may be lessened and on all soils rich in cer- 
 tain plant food, those which are present in sufficient quan- 
 tities should be omitted in the fertilizer applied. If it is 
 no^ed that the trees are growing too vigorously, the 
 amount of nitrogen should be decreased. In case of die 
 back, nitrogen should not be used and the actual amount 
 of pdfash and phosphoric acid may be increased to good 
 advantage. 
 
 A\'hen the trees begin to fruit, the formula should 
 be changed to one for fruit and the formula for growth 
 may be applied at any time it is seen that the trees are 
 not adding sufficient new wood. Trees producing ten 
 boxes of fruit on Florida soil should receive about thirty 
 or tliirty-fivp pounds per tree. This same proportion 
 may lie preserved for each ten boxes of fruit. It may be 
 noted that the pomelo is an exceedingly vigorous grower 
 and can use more fertilizer to advantage than some 
 othei' kinds of citrus. 
 
FERTILIZERS AND FERTILIZING. 317 
 
 Applying the fertilizer. In applying fertilizer to 
 young trees it should be scattered in a circle of four or 
 five feet radius or more, depending upon the extent 
 of area covered by the feeding roots. It is best that none 
 be applied closer than two feet to the tree as injury may 
 result to the crown roots. Fertilizer for large, bearing 
 trees should be scattered broadcast through the grove. 
 
 After applying fertilizer the ground should be culti- 
 vated. This prevents the formation of a crust on the 
 surface and the wasting of fertilizer. Besides, some 
 materials become fixed soon after being applied, and it is 
 best that they be incorporated with the soil before this 
 takes place. 
 
 Fertilizers are generally applied some little time be- 
 fore growth starts in the spring and again about the 
 month of June. Some growers make an application about 
 October.' Care should be exercised in regions where citrus 
 trees are liable to damage from frost that the growing 
 period is not prolonged too late in autumn. The growth 
 should be well hardened up before frost comes. In the 
 hope of evading this evil, Mr. Cyrus W. Butler, of St. 
 Petersburg, Fla., says he fertilizes, "First about the last 
 of January, using a high percentage of nitrogen; second, 
 during May, using a small percentage of nitrogen; and 
 third, in September or October, using little or no nitro- 
 gen." His practice is founded on sound principles. 
 

 ^Y) 
 
 
 Fis. 70. Map of Florid!^, showing Lake Regions and Artesian Vi'eli Area. 
 
 ], Jacksonville. :;, St. Augustine. 3. Sanford. 4, Titusvllle. 5, Bartow. 
 6, Terra Ceia. 7, Paiinetto. 8, Manatee. 9, Myers. 10, Palatka. 
 
CHAPTER XXXV. 
 THE IRRIGATION OF CITRUS GROVES. 
 
 It is useless to attempt the culture of citrus fruit?^ 
 where an adequate supply of water cannot be secured, 
 either naturally as rainfall, or artificially, by irrigation. 
 If the trees do not receive a sufficient amount of water, 
 the results will not be satisfactory. When an inadequate 
 quantity, only, is available, the trees do not make a nor- 
 mal growth, the leaves curl and drop, the young fruit 
 falls off and such as is brought to maturity is deficient 
 in juice and inferior in quality. Under such conditions, 
 the trees become fit subjects for the attacks of fungous 
 parasites and scale insects. The combination of unthrifti- 
 ness due to the lack of water and the inroads of differ 
 ent enemies, soon brings about the death of the trees or 
 the abandonment of the grove by the owner. 
 
 Hence, in selecting a site for a grove it is well to be 
 assured that a sufficient amount of water will always be 
 available. It should be borne in mind that citrus trees 
 require more water than deciduous trees of equal size 
 and age. Transpiration is greatly reduced during the 
 winter season or dormant period in such trees as peaches, 
 plums and pears. They shed their leaves in autumn and, 
 in consequence, the transpiration area is greatly lessened. 
 On the other hand, the leaf area of citrus trees is the 
 same winter and summer alike and a like amount of water 
 is transpired in winter as in summer, where the climatic 
 conditions are favorable to growth. As a matter of fact, 
 citrus trees are more or less active all the time. 
 
;JO|) CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 The minimum quantity of water required depends 
 upon the character and depth of the soil, the kind of 
 stock, the age and the bearing capacity of the trees. 
 
 In California, where irrigation of citrus fruits is 
 practiced on an extensive scale and where intelligent care 
 is exercised in the conservation of moisture, the total 
 amount of water provided by rainfall and irrigation is, 
 in most cases, between thirty and forty inches. In times 
 of extreme drought and scarcity, even less than two feet 
 has sufliced. But if the attempt were made to make this 
 amount do season after season, failure would result in 
 most cases. 
 
 In relation to irrigation, the areas in which citrus 
 fruits are grown in the United States may be divided into 
 two sections. The first embraces California and Arizona, 
 in which water must be supplied artificially that the 
 trees may grow and mature fruit. The second consists 
 of the citrus sections of Florida, where irrigation is the 
 exception, not the rule, but where it is occasionally re- 
 sorted to, to supplement a copious, but sometimes irregu- 
 lar, rainfall. 
 
 IRRIGATION IN FLORIDA. 
 
 A XX UAL PREOIPITATIox IX INCHES AT FOUR POINTS IN PLOKIDA FOR 
 FIVE YEAHS, AND THE AVEPiAGE PREC'I PIT.iTION FOR THE STATE. 
 
 1899 
 
 54 
 
 0-) 
 
 76 
 
 OS 
 
 37 
 
 02 1 
 
 42 
 
 06 1 
 
 Jiieksonville . , ! 5S 85 
 
 Jupiter [ 52.65 
 
 Key West , , . , : 4S SI 
 
 Tampa 55 4. 'i 
 
 State average. 52 30 l 51 72 44 98 48 36 51 
 
 1 9O0 
 
 i901 
 
 190'.; 
 
 55 52 
 
 45 71 
 
 3S 59 
 
 45 79 
 
 39 10 
 
 61 93 
 
 :iH 61 
 
 48 ;-!9 
 
 29 55 
 
 50 88 
 
 51) 53 
 
 68 S2 
 
THE IRRIGATION OF CITRUS GROVES. 321 
 
 The annual rainfall in Florida, as shown in the ac- 
 companying table, is certainly ample for the development 
 of citrns fruits. In fact, viewed in the light of the state- 
 ments made regarding the amounts of water used in Cal- 
 ifornia, it might by some be deemed excessive. But even 
 with such a heavy precipitation, it sometimes happens 
 that the groves suffer to some extent, or at least they 
 would at times be benefited by an additional supply of 
 moisture. If the heavy rainfall were divided up into 
 a large number of equal portions and these distributed 
 at regular intervals, citrus trees would certainly never 
 suffer from lack of moisture. Frequently the total rain- 
 fall for a month comes in a few hours, and most of it 
 runs off in the streams and rivers. The water has no 
 opportunity to sink in, and consequently the soil is not 
 capable of retaining it. 
 
 The period during which this is most likely to occur 
 and the period likewise in which the rainfall is most un- 
 certain and during which the groves are most likely to 
 suffer is between the first of March and the middle of June. 
 Frequently during this time, weeks pass without a shower, 
 while at other times, an amount of water sufficient for 
 the whole period is precipitated within a few hours. It 
 is during this time that groves would be benefited by 
 being irrigated and the constant recurrence of these con- 
 ditions, year after year, has led many growers located 
 even on comparatively moist soils, to make provision for 
 applying water artificially. The period from June to 
 October is usually designated as the "rainy season," the 
 season of heavy precipitation, during which showers are 
 of daily occurrence and during which irrigation is un- 
 necessarv and needless. 
 
 32 
 
;J2:i CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 As i)ninted out in ('liaptcr XX\'1II, the soils oJ' 
 Florida an- litilit, .sandy and porous. Comj)arcd with Cali- 
 fornia soils, their water holding capacity is considerably 
 less. Hence, under similar climatic conditions, at equal alti- 
 tudes. Florida soils would prove greatly inferior to those 
 of <'alifornia, if the irrigation problem alone were con- 
 sidered. 
 
 On the other hand, it must be noted that were it 
 necessary to irrigate to the same extent as it is necessary 
 both in California and Arizona, under present existing 
 conditions, it could be done much more economically in 
 Florida than in the above mentioned sections. The in- 
 numerable lakes, streams and springs afford an ample 
 water supply, one which might be drawn on at a small 
 cost, while the underground waters are in close prox- 
 imi1y to the surface and quite acressilile. A glance at 
 Fig. 70 will give an idea of the nundjer of lakes scattered 
 throughout Florida. In the lake region of Polk County, 
 for instance, tliey are so thickly scattered tliat large num- 
 bers are in view from a single elevated point, and within 
 a radius of five miles from Winter Haven, there are one 
 hundred and fifteen lakes. 
 
 ARTESIAN WELIjS.* 
 
 The Florida artesian basin is an imp<ir1ant feature. 
 Commencing at Jacksnuville. Fig. TO the area follows the 
 St. Johns River and somewhere south of Sanford swings 
 across to r,ar(o«', Jlyers and the IManatee section. Flow- 
 ing wells have been obtained at St. .Vugusiine (Fig 7t), 2). 
 Palatka (10), Sanford (.3), Titu.sville (4), Palmetto (7^ 
 
 * It is pruljably best to secure water from lakes, rivers or sliallow 
 woUs in FloriOn. In this State, artesian water lias freqiientlly 
 pro veil injnrioits to citrus trees. 
 
THE IRRIGATION OF CITRUS GROVES. 323 
 
 Terra Ceia (6), as well as at the points already mentioned 
 and many others not indicated on the map. One of these 
 wells is shown in Fig. T-i. 
 
 While the surface of Florida is remarkably flat to 
 the eye and such elevations as do occur are not strongly 
 marked, there are two main anticlinal folds, the higher 
 
 Fig. VI. Elevations and depressions in Florida, between Tampa and 
 Titusville. (From Eep. TJ. S. G Survey.) 
 
 one passing through Jasper, Lake City, Gainesville, 
 Brooksville, Lakeland, Bartow, Fort Meade, Arcadia and 
 gradually disappearing at the southern end of the penin- 
 sula. Some points upon the crest of the other are Mac- 
 clenny, Lawtey, Starke, Hampton, Interlachen, Summit, 
 Highland, Orlando and Narcoose. It may be noted here 
 that some of the points on these ridges, as Brook.syille, 
 Lake City and Highland, are more than 200 feet above 
 sea level, while many of the points in the syncline or 
 valley between the two folds, as well as points on either 
 coast are but a few feet above sea level. These folds give 
 plenty of head for the downward flow of water. Fig. 
 71, which represents a section of the State from Tampa 
 to Titusville, illustrates this point. 
 
 The artesian wells are made possible by the collec- 
 tion of water in an inclined pervious layer of rock which 
 lies between two impervious laj^ers. Water collects in 
 this layer under pressure and Avhen wells are drilled into 
 it, it rushes upward, reaching nearly the same level as 
 
324 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 the plane at whicli it entered. Xow, it is not improba- 
 ble that the lakes in the higher sections of Florida are 
 the source of many artesian wells. Numbers of these 
 lakes are not drained by rivers or streams and have no 
 visible outlet, but in a number of cases they have 
 been entirely emptied for a time, by the disap- 
 
 Fig. 
 
 Diagram showing liow artesian wells are formed. A, lake. 
 B, pervious layer of rock. C, artesian well. 
 
 pearance of the water through an opening in 
 the bottom. It is probable that water frequently 
 escapes constantly through a pervious stratum lo- 
 cated in the bottom or o]ieniiij; into the side. Fig. ~'2 
 shows how this might be. Opening into the lake, A., is 
 a pervious layer, B., located between two impervious 
 layers into which the water passes. The water following 
 the dip in the strata flows downward, and if a well is 
 bored at C, the water will rise above the surface. The 
 Florida wells are usually between forty and two hun- 
 dred and fifty feet deep, though some are even deeper. 
 From this it will lie seen that irrigation from artesian 
 wells is feasible onlv on the lower levels. 
 
 PUJIPTNa WATER. 
 
 The higher grounds can, however, be irrigated by 
 pumping from wells or lakes. Many lakes are located on 
 the higher levels. Tii the vicinity of Lake City, two hun- 
 
Plate XX. 
 
 Fig. A. Wind-mill, pump and tank in a citrus grove. 
 
 Pig. B. A temporary steam pumping plant on a lake-shore in Florida. 
 
;J2G CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 dred and two feet above the sea level, there are eight lakes. 
 From these water could readily be obtained by pumping, 
 using wind, steam or gasolene power. A temporary steam 
 pumping plant on the shore of a Florida lake is shown 
 in Fig. B, Plate XX. 
 
 In most sections of the State, water can easily be 
 secured from wells. These are sometimes dug, but in 
 many cases, a sharp, hollow, perforated joint at the end 
 of an inch and a half galvanized iron pipe is driven into 
 the soil until a water-bearing level is reached, often at 
 a depth of not more than fifteen or twenty feet, and water 
 is then pumped out by means of a windmill. In such 
 cases, a tank must always lie provided, as the stream 
 pumped directly from the well would be much too small 
 to accomplish any good. A pumping plant with wind- 
 mill power is illustrated in Plate XX. 
 
 The following table was given liy King in Farmers' 
 Bulletin, No. 46, U. S. Department of Agriculture, and 
 is of interest as showing the amount of work that can 
 be accomplished by wind-motor power : 
 
 XUMBER OP ACRES \ KIRST-Cl.A SS WIND-MILL WILL IRRIGATE TWO 
 AND FOOR IN'CHES DEEP EVERY TEN DAYS WHEN" WORKING EIGHT 
 HOURS PER DAY, AND LIFTING WATER TEN, FIFTEEN' ANI> TWENTY- 
 FIVE FEET, RESPECTIVELY. 
 
 Diameier nf 
 
 LIFT OF 10 FEET. 
 
 LIFT OF 
 
 15 FEET 
 
 LIFT OF 2 
 
 r, FEET 
 
 Wind-inill 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > V iiiii mill 
 Lift 
 
 '2 Inches 
 
 \CIVS 
 
 4 Ini-hes ; 
 .\crt-s 
 
 a Inches 1 
 
 •1 luche- 
 
 Arfi-S 
 
 i «Tn 
 
 A C 
 
 ches 
 re.s 
 
 4 Inci.es 
 
 Ffi-t 
 
 Auivs 
 
 Aci-es 
 
 s .5 
 
 1 85 
 
 67 
 
 0.9 
 
 45 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 27 
 
 10 
 
 4 27 
 
 2 13 
 
 2 S5 
 
 1 42 
 
 1 
 
 70 
 
 85 
 
 12 
 
 7 66 
 
 3 S3 
 
 5.11 
 
 2 55 
 
 3 
 
 00 
 
 1.50 
 
 14 
 
 9 87 
 
 4 93 
 
 6 58 i 
 
 3 29 
 
 3 
 
 99 
 
 1 99 
 
 16 
 
 13.79 
 
 6 S9 
 
 9 19 
 
 4 59 
 
 5 
 
 71 
 
 2 85 
 
 IK 
 
 22 Oil 
 
 11.04 
 
 14.14 ! 
 
 ' 07 
 
 8 
 
 64 
 
 4 32 
 
 20 
 
 27 3H 
 
 13 6K 
 
 18 -.5 1 
 
 9 12 
 
 11 
 
 04 
 
 5 52 
 
 25 
 
 47. OB 
 
 23 53 : 
 
 31 38 
 
 15 6'.i 
 
 IS 
 
 77 
 
 9 38 
 
 30 
 
 95 46 
 
 47 73 
 
 (il 42 
 
 32 21 
 
 3S 
 
 08 
 
 19 04 
 
THE IRRIGATION OF CITRUS GROVES. 
 
 327 
 
 Sub-irrigation with jointed tile or perforated pipe 
 is not feasible in citrus groves, as the tile or pipe soon 
 beeouies plugged bv the fibrous roots. In a few cases 
 
 cement tile has been used, 
 but in most ca.ses the water 
 is conducted to the trees 
 bv means of iron pipes laid 
 beneath the surface so as 
 not to interfere with culti- 
 vation. From these, stand- 
 pipes, provided with taps 
 or spraying nozzles, are 
 brought up near each tree. 
 In irrigating by steam en- 
 gine or gasolene power, the 
 water may be pumped di- 
 I'ecily into the pipes. Gen- 
 erally the power provided 
 is not sufficient to irrigate 
 the whole area at one time. 
 The taps in one section are 
 opened and the ground is 
 thoroughly moistened. This 
 accomplished, they are 
 closed and another set is 
 opened, and so on until the 
 whole grove receives its 
 quota of water. 
 
 Soils provided with a 
 comparatively compact clay sub-soil at a depth of eighteen 
 to twenty-four inches may be irrigated by the furrow sys- 
 tem, as described further on. If water is conducted to the 
 grove under pressure in iron pi^jes, it may be sprayed upon 
 
 Fig. 73. SprayiiJg stands used in 
 Florida, provided witli Japanese 
 and Cyclone nozzles. 
 
328 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 the trees during the dry season to check the ravages of red 
 spider. This insect cannot withstand the presence of a 
 considerable amount of moisture on the trees. 
 
 It must be conceded, however, that the cheapest way 
 to distribute water in a grove of orange trees is to allow 
 it to run in furrows over the surface of the ground and, 
 other conditions being equal, this method should be given 
 preference. Less power is required to provide the supply 
 and the equipment is, on the whole, less expensive. On 
 clay soils or soils with a clay subsoil close to the surface, 
 and with sufScient fall, it is the best plan to follow. 
 
 IRRIGATION IN CALIFORNIA AND ARIZONA. 
 
 In California and Arizona, it is not possible to main- 
 tain a grove of citrus trees without resorting to irriga- 
 tion. The water supplied by rainfall is insufficient for 
 their needs, and a considerable amount of the cost of 
 fruit production must be charged to the irrigation ac- 
 count. Prof. Xewell says, "The annual charge for the 
 irrigation of citrus lands in southern California varies 
 from !$.") to .^30 per acre, and will probably not average 
 far from |10 per acre irrigated, the supply being usually 
 12 inches in depth of irrigation water." 
 
 The amount required in different localities and even 
 on adjacent ranches varies greatly. The following table 
 copied from Bulletin No. 1(18, U. S. Department of Agri- 
 culture, Office of Experiment Stations, by Prof. E. J. 
 Wickson, shows the season of year during which irriga- 
 tion is practiced, the amount of rainfall and the amount 
 of irrigation water supplied in several of the citrus dis 
 tricts : 
 
THE IRRIGATION OF CITRUS GROTES. 
 
 329 
 
 SUMMARY SHOWING IRRIGATION SEASON AND FREQUENCY OF 
 APPLICATION AND AJIOUNTS OF WATER USED FOR CITRUS 
 FRUITS IN CALIFORNIA. 
 
 County 
 
 Rain- 
 fall 
 
 Irrigation Season 
 
 Number of 
 Irrigations 
 
 Deptli of 
 Esch Ap- 
 plication 
 
 Total 
 
 Depth for 
 
 Season 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Inches 
 
 Inches 
 
 Butte 
 
 
 April to Oct. . . 
 
 5- 
 
 6 
 
 4 5 
 
 22-26 
 
 Fresno 
 
 "s" 
 
 2- 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 4-14 
 
 Tular 
 
 e 
 
 
 March to Sept. 
 April to Oct. .. 
 
 5- 
 
 6 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 
 "io" 
 
 20-32 
 
 ' ' 
 
 
 March to Oct . . 
 
 8-10 
 
 6 
 
 48-60 
 
 Santa Barbara. 
 
 
 " " 
 
 5- 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 10-14 
 
 Ventura 
 
 "26" 
 
 " " 
 
 5- 
 
 6 
 
 2.5 
 
 12.5-15 
 
 Los Angeles. . . 
 
 12 
 
 June to Oct. . . 
 
 
 3 
 
 6.8 
 
 18-27 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 May to Oct . . . . 
 
 
 6 
 
 3.5 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 June to Oct. . . 
 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 July to Sept. .. 
 
 3- 
 
 4 
 
 1.5 
 
 4.5-6 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 " '* 
 
 3- 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 3-7 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 " " 
 
 
 6 
 
 0.75-2 
 
 4.5-12 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 March to Nov. 
 
 
 7 
 
 1.5 
 
 10.5 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 (1 1 1 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 May to Oct 
 
 
 6 
 
 1.5 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 July to Oct 
 
 
 4 
 
 1.5 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 April to Oct... 
 
 
 7 
 
 2.5 
 
 17.5 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 May to Oct. . . . 
 
 
 6 
 
 2.75 
 
 16.5 
 
 Orange 
 
 18 
 
 May, July, Sept. 
 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 
 IS 
 
 May to Oct .... 
 
 
 4 
 
 2.5 
 
 10 
 
 
 10 
 
 " " 
 
 4- 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 8-16 
 
 
 12 
 
 * ' " 
 
 6- 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 24-32 
 
 
 12 
 
 When needed. . 
 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 40 
 
 
 12 
 
 March to Dec. . 
 
 3- 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 12-20 
 
 
 12 
 
 When needed. . 
 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 San Bernardino 
 
 
 March to Oct . . 
 
 
 8 
 
 .75-1.5 
 
 6-12 
 
 ' ' 
 
 "12" 
 
 June to Oct 
 
 6- 
 
 7 
 
 4.5 
 
 24-31.5 
 
 '* 
 
 12 
 
 May to Sept. . . 
 
 4- 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 24-36 
 
 ' ' 
 
 12 
 
 April to Dec... 
 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 River 
 
 side 
 
 
 When needed. . 
 
 
 8 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 i.s 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 13.5 
 
 " 
 
 "12" 
 
 May to Nov. . . 
 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 21 
 
 ' ' 
 
 7 
 
 April to Sept. . 
 
 
 6 
 
 1.66 
 
 10 
 
 t ( 
 
 10 
 
 April to Nov. . 
 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 21 
 
 I ( 
 
 8 
 
 April to Dec. . . 
 May to Nov. . . 
 May to Sept . . . 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 (( 
 
 11 
 
 3- 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 10 
 
 4- 
 
 6 
 
 ""e"" 
 
 "24-36" 
 
 San Diego 
 
 8 
 
 May to Oct 
 
 
 4 
 
 2.5 
 
 10 
 
 (( 
 
 12 
 
 ( ( (i 
 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 ** 
 
 10 
 
 
 4- 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 8-16 
 
 ( ( 
 
 8 
 
 ( i (I 
 
 6- 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 24-32 
 
 
 18 
 
 June to Oct. . . 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
Plate. XXI. 
 
 V\g. A. Irrigating Ijy means of furrows. 
 
 Fig. B. Basin irrigation of citrus trees. 
 
 Pltotus from K if Teague. Naa Dimas, Cal . 
 
 Fig. C. Zigzag irrigation of citrus trees. 
 
THE IRRIGATION OF CITRUS GROVES. 
 
 331 
 
 From this table it will be seen that the average 
 annual rainfall is 13.7 inches, but that it varies all the 
 way from 7 to 20 inches. It will be noted further that 
 the irrigation season runs fi'om March to about October, 
 this being the period of greatest heat, least rainfall and 
 most vigorous growth of fruit and branch. The amount of 
 irrigation water in most cases does not exceed thirty 
 inches and by far the greater number of citrus groves 
 receive twenty inches or less in addition to the rainfall. 
 
 Fig. 74. Artesian Well at Sanford, Florida. 
 
 The variation in the amount used is due to the elevation, 
 tJie temperature, the character of the soil and the rain- 
 fall. Some localities are specially favored in receiving 
 a large amount of water at a small cost and there it is 
 generally found that it is used more freely than where 
 higher rates prevail. Still, the amount used in all cases 
 is small and bears testimony to a careful and conserva- 
 tive use of water hv the growers. 
 
332 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Though in some cases water is obtained from wells, 
 most of it is procured from reservoirs in the mountains 
 or from rivers, being conducted to the fruit districts in 
 pipe lines or canals. From these each individual grower 
 receives his supply. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF WATER. 
 
 The water is usually delivered in ditches, cement 
 flumes, wooden flumes or cement tile lines at the highest 
 part of the grove and from there distributed to the 
 trees. The methods of irrigation commonly used are 
 the furrow and check, the former being the one most 
 generally adopted. 
 
 FURROW SYSTEM. 
 
 In the furrow system the water is delivered in a 
 flume along the higher portion of the grove and the water 
 is delivered through the gates into the furrows which 
 run out between the tree rows. The number of furrows 
 to each interspar-e varies with the size of the trees as 
 well as their age. In irrigating small trees fewer fur- 
 rows are used, while in groves of large trees set twenty 
 to thirty feet apart from five to nine furrows are used. 
 The water is not turned into all the furrows of the grove 
 at once, but is supplied to a small number at one time. 
 Through these furrows the water makes its way, until 
 it reaches the lower end when the gates in the flume are 
 closed and the water diverted into another set of furrows. 
 
 The continued application of water at the same depth 
 frequently brings about the formation of what has been 
 termed "irrigation hardpan." The soil on a level with the 
 bottom furrows becomes hard and compact and prevents 
 
THE IRRIGATION OF CITRUS GROVES. 333 
 
 the water from entering. This difficulty was overcome 
 by breaking up this hard layer with a subsoil plow and 
 in many cases this method was so vigorously followed 
 that great injury was done the ti'ees. Large numbers 
 of roots were torn up and destroyed. Following this 
 a reaction set in and experience has taught that the 
 best method to pursue in treating irrigation hardpan 
 is to deepen the soil gradually instead of attempting to 
 accomplish it at one operation. The depth of cultivation 
 should be varied from time to time, and the irrigation 
 furrows should open well into the lower soil to permit 
 the free entrance of water. 
 
 In distributing the water through the grove it should 
 be allowed to flow gradually and sink well in. By this 
 plan better results will be obtained with the same amount 
 of water than by applying it in a shorter space of time. 
 
 Following the application of water the soil should 
 be cultivated as soon as its condition will permit. Shal- 
 low cultivation at this time will prevent the formation 
 of a hard crust on the surface and the consequent loss 
 of moisture by capillary movement. 
 
 CHECK SYSTEM. 
 
 Citrus trees may be irrigated by the check method 
 and, when thoroughly done, it leaves little to be desired. 
 It entails a great amount of hard labor in preparing 
 the surface to receive the water, in distributing it and 
 in getting the soil leveled and in tillable condition after 
 the work of irrigation is completed. Generally, the method 
 gives better results on porous soils than the furrow sys- 
 tem. This method is described as follows by Mr. Syd- 
 mer Ross, of Fullerton. Cal., in Bulletin No. 108, U. S. 
 D. A., Office of Experiment Stations: 
 
SM CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 "The ground must be cultivated, say, about five 
 inches deep, so as to have plenty of loose soil with which 
 to throw up a high ridge. Then a four or six-horse 
 'ridger' should be run once each way between the rows, 
 if it is a citrus or deciduous orchard, or twice should 
 the trees be walnuts, because these trees are grown about 
 forty feet apart. After this is done the ridger should 
 be run entirely around the outside of the piece to be 
 irrigated, so as to have as perfect a ridge as possible on 
 the outside. One man will ridge about fifteen acres in 
 a day. The ridger should be built with a steel plate ex- 
 tending along the bottom of both sides, bolted to the in- 
 side and projecting about two inches, so as to take a 
 good hold of the ground. Then Avith one horse attached 
 to what is locally known as a 'jump scraper,' one side 
 of the checks should be closed up, for the ridger in mak- 
 ing the cross ridges brealfs down the first ridge at its 
 intersection. These repairs were first made with a shovel, 
 but the 'jump scraper,' also locally called the 'horse- 
 shovel,' closes up the gaps very quickly. The practice 
 generally followed is to close up the high side of the 
 checks if the land does not cut by running water, but 
 if it cuts, close up the lower side. 
 
 ''After closing up the checks the ditches are plowed 
 out and then the "S'-shaped 'crowder' is run through 
 them. On lands inclined to cut, it is advisable that the 
 length of the rows to be irrii^atcd should not be over 2.30 
 feet, but in heavy land this distance can be considerably 
 increased, if necessary, without danger of cutting the 
 ridges by too long a run of water. 
 
 "If the checks have been closed up on the low side 
 of the ridge, it is better to run the water to the ends 
 (if the ditch and water the last row first; but if the high 
 
THE IRRIGATION OF CITRUS GROVES. 335 
 
 side has been closed up, it is best to water first the row 
 nearest the gate or the main ditch, as the case may be, 
 as in each instance dry earth will thus be available, if 
 necessary, to close up the checks. The water is run down 
 the row to the end tree, and as soon as the last check is 
 filled it is closed up, and so on till all are filled and 
 closed, when water is turned down the next row. 
 
 "To do good work, it is usual to allow three men 
 for every fifty inches of water, but in our own practice 
 we have had much better results by dividing up our 
 water and running from 35 to 40 inches to a ditch and 
 allowing two men tor such streams. In doing this we 
 get better work and find it much easier for the men. If 
 everything is well in hand, each man will irrigate about 
 thirty acres in a day. 
 
 ''For turning the water from the ditches into the 
 checks metal dams or tappoons are used. The gate is not 
 a great success, as the water is apt soon to cut its way 
 under the tappoon, but it may be much improved by hav- 
 ing a shelf for the water to drop on after it passes 
 through the opening. The common practice for divid- 
 ing water is to throw a tappoon partly across the ditch, 
 putting a gunny-sack on the opposite side to prevent cut- 
 ling by the water. This is, on the whole, fully as sat- 
 isfactory as using the tappoon with a gate. 
 
 "All who follow this system should get ready for 
 the water before it comes. A great many seem to think 
 that if they ridge up their land, close up the checks and 
 plow out their ditches, everything necessary has been 
 done. Such is not the case, as ditches that are liable 
 to cut should be fixed in the weak places with brush or 
 burlaps. Old gunny-sacks cut open and spread out are 
 excellent for this purpose. Occasionally there are places 
 
;}36 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 where it is impossible to get a perfect ridge. These should 
 be looked up and fixed with a shovel. The jump scraper 
 will not entirely close up a check; it generally requires 
 a shovelful or two to complete it. It is usual after the 
 water is turned down one row to fix up the next one, 
 but it is an excellent plan to have a few rows ahead, for 
 there come times when breaks occur and there is not 
 time to make the necessary repairs, and when water once 
 gets the start there is apt to be much trouble and hard 
 work before it can be jjut under control, besides doing 
 poor work. 
 
 '■After the ground is dry enough to work, the ridges 
 are split with a listing plow or a furrower attached to 
 a cultivator. Then the ground should be run over with 
 a harrow, setting the teeth to go well in, so as to pulverize 
 the surface thoroughly. By using the harrow the ground 
 can be worked about one day earlier than with the cul- 
 tivator, and it also prevents the ground from baking till 
 such times as it can be worked with the latter implement, 
 besides doing far better work than with the cultivator 
 alone, especially when there is much land to go over, as 
 some of it is certain to get too dry before it can be 
 reached, and then it will not pulverize well. All trees 
 should be worked around liy hand with either a fork 
 or a hoe as soon after irrigation as the ground becomes 
 drv enough and liefore it becomes hard." 
 
CHAPTER XXXVI. 
 
 FROST PROTECTION. 
 
 The question of frost protection is one which has been 
 forcibly brought to the attention of citrus growers, dur- 
 ing the last decade, in nearly all districts in the United 
 States in which oranges or other citrus fruits are grown. 
 The frequent occurrence of frost and an occasional freeze, 
 injurious to trees or fruit, or to both, has awakened great 
 interest in the methods of protecting citrus groves from 
 the effects of cold. As a result, many different plans have 
 been brought forward. Some of these have stood the test 
 of many trials, while others have been discarded in favor 
 of better or more economical methods. In no region has 
 the growing of citrus fruits been abandoned entirely be- 
 cause of the effects of cold, and a very considerable degree 
 of success has rewarded the efforts of many to maintain 
 their groves in exposed regions. No matter what means 
 of protection may be adopted, the principal factor in the 
 success of any one of them is the individual himself. Pro- 
 vision must be made beforehand, everything must be in 
 readiness. It will not do to leave the preparations for pro- 
 tection until the last moment and then expect to get good 
 results. 
 
 One of the most necessary and essential things in 
 frost fighting is that the grower should have some means 
 of knowing when frosts are to be expected. If forewarned, 
 everything will be in readiness, and he will be on the alert. 
 In giving warning of the approach of cold waves, the 
 United States Weather Bureau has done excellent service. 
 People are usually warned through the newspapers, and by 
 
;;;jv; CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 telegrams placed in the postoffice or in other conspicuous 
 places, that cold is to be expected. Much good results 
 from these forewarnings. In Florida, knowledge of an 
 approaching cold wave is also given by the railways. They 
 receive news of an expected fall in temperature and give no- 
 tice to those along the railroad line by special whistles 
 blown at intervals. Thus timely warning has frequently 
 been given. 
 
 But. nevertheless, the grower should not be entirely 
 dependent upon some one else for his knowledge of what 
 is to be expected. Sometimes the weather bureau fails to 
 report the full extent of what is to be expected, or local 
 conditions may cause the cold to be more severe in one 
 locality than in another. Hence the citrus grower should 
 rely upon himself to some extent. 
 
 THERMOMETERS. 
 
 If a good alarm thermometer can be secured it should 
 by all means be purchased. A number of different kinds 
 have been jilaced on the market, but unfortunately they 
 are not all satisfactory, and usually they get out of repair 
 and do not read accurately after having been used for one 
 or two seasons. But if tested from time to time by compar- 
 ing them with a good standard thermometer, they may be 
 of considerable service. 
 
 The outfit for setting up an alarm thermometer con- 
 sists of an electric bell, a battery, a thermometer, and suffi- 
 cient wire to permit the latter to be placed in a position 
 where it will accurately represent the temperature in the 
 grove. The bell should be placed where it will be heard 
 — just outside a window being a good place. From this 
 the wires should lead out into the grove where they are 
 attached to the thermometer. 
 
FROST PROTECTION. 
 
 :v.M) 
 
 Two kinds of thermometers are in use, one depending 
 Tifion the contraction of a column of mercury, the other 
 <lepending upon the contraction of a piece of metal, a ther- 
 mostat in short. In fact, an ordinary thermostat, cost- 
 ing about two dollars and a half, makes an excellent sub- 
 stitute for a thermometer. When the mercury falls 
 or the metal contracts the circuit is closed and the 
 bell rings, warning the grower of approaching danger. 
 
 Fig-. 
 
 Bolton alarm thermometers, showing tliei-nijnutjr, 
 wires, bell and battery. 
 
 The thermometer must be adjusted so as to give sufficient 
 time to light fires or for covering the trees. Ordinarily, 
 if set or fixed at 30 degrees Fahr., sufficient v.-arning will 
 l)e given. 
 
 INJURIOUS TEMPERATURES. 
 
 It is difficult to determine exactly the degree of cold 
 at which the different parts, trunk, branches, leaves and 
 fruit will be injured. The danger point is determined by 
 many factors, principally, however, by the state of dor 
 mancy of the tree, the variety, the duration of the cold, 
 and by the weather conditions immediately preceeding the 
 ■cold snap. If the tree has already been partially or wholly 
 
34(} CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 defoliated by cold, the danger of injury to the branches 
 and twigs is very materially increased. 
 
 As an approximation, it may be said that green fruit 
 is injured at 29 degrees, and ripe fruit at 26 degrees. Dor- 
 mant sweet oranges have been known to stand a tempera- 
 ture of 18 to 20 degrees F., for a short period. This ap- 
 proaches the limit. A large Satsuma tree on the Experi- 
 ment Station grounds at Lake City, Fla., stood, on one oc- 
 casion, a temperature of lfi.5 degrees F. without loss of 
 foliage. The tree was dormant at the time. On the other 
 hand, when the sap is moving in the trees they may be 
 severely injured or killed to the ground even at much 
 higher temperatures. One of the most critical periods 
 is when the trees are in bloom. 
 
 EFFECTS OF COLD. 
 
 On the Leaves. The effect of a slight amount of cold 
 on the tree is to curl the leaves to such an extent as to 
 make them appear as though suffering from lack of mois- 
 ture. If chilled only to a slight extent, they may regain 
 their normal condition and still remain on the tree. 
 Whether leaves thus affected will serve a useful purpose, 
 on the tree, as long as those which have not been so affect- 
 ed, is doubtful. At any rate it appears that their useful- 
 ness is material Ij^ impaired for one season at least and it 
 is possible that the life of such leaves is shortened. 
 
 If still further frosted, the leaves are curled and, in the 
 course of a few days, drop from the trees. Usually the 
 upper leaves fall before the lower, some of the latter fre- 
 quently remaining, even when the upper portion of the tree 
 is practically defoliated, as shown in Fig. 76. Defoliated 
 
FROST PROTECTION. 
 
 341 
 
 trees are in great danger of severe injury from a second 
 cold wave. The blanket of thick foliage serves as a very 
 material protection 
 to the branches. 
 
 On the Twigs. 
 The young, tender 
 growth of the trees 
 may be injured to 
 some extent by cold 
 sufficiently intense 
 to defoliate the tree 
 without severe in- 
 jury being done to 
 the larger branches. 
 Much depends, of 
 course, upon the de- 
 gree of dormancy. 
 If sufficiently dor- 
 mant, the twigs will 
 resist a considerable 
 degree of cold; but, 
 of course, they are 
 much more susceptible to injury than the branches. It 
 may be stated as a rule that the resistant power of a branch 
 becomes less and less as it decreases in size, or in other 
 words varies directly with the diameter. Large branches 
 are injured only by intense cold, and the top of a tree may 
 be very decidedly cut back by frost before the large 
 branches are injured. The exact amount of injury to the 
 twigs cannot be determined until sometime after the frost 
 occurred. 
 
 On the Trunk. No portion of the tree can withstand 
 more cold than the trunk. When severelv frozen, however,. 
 
 
 Fig. 76. Effects of a sHght frost on 
 growing- orange tree. Nearly all the 
 leaves have dropped. 
 
:)i-2 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 it is killed to the .yrouud, and iiuiy frequently be split open 
 if the cdld is sufficiently intense. As with the branches, 
 its resistant power is in direct ratio to the diameter. It 
 does not ap])ear that there should be much difference iu 
 ability to withstand cold, between a citrus trunk four 
 inches in diameter and one eight inches in diameter, but 
 such is the case, nevertheless. It may be that larger trees 
 become more dormant than smaller ones and their sap does 
 not respond so readily to elevations of temperature. 
 
 The weakest spot, in the whole anatomy of a budded 
 or grafted citrus tree, is the point of union of stock and 
 cion. This point should be protected by placing about 
 it a mound of earth and, moreover, the union should be as 
 close to the ground as possible. Protection afforded the 
 trunk l)y a dense mass of foliage, twigs and branches is 
 frequently not appreciated to its fullest extent. The warm 
 air is held to some extent, and the cold is prevented from 
 penetrating to the framework of the tree. Low-headed 
 trees are preferable to high-headed ones, because in the 
 former case, the branches serve as a protection to the 
 trunk. High-headed trees should not be grown in exposed 
 regions. 
 
 On the Fiuit. T'p to the present time no statement 
 has been made as io whether the fruit of any variety of 
 citrus is move resistant to cold than others. It is prob- 
 able that no appreciable difference exists, or if there is a 
 difference, it is too slight to be of any practical value. 
 
 Small, whitish specks, l-l! millimeter in diameter, 
 appear in the tissues of the fruit after it has been slightly 
 touched by frost. These are evidently due to chemical 
 changes and are ]ivobably jircsent in all kinds of citrus 
 fruits. They have been noted in lemons, sweet oranges, 
 mandarin oranges, kumquats and pomelos. Their pres- 
 
FROST PROTECTION. 
 
 343 
 
 ence nuiT be regarded as an indication tliat the fruit lias 
 been frosted, as tliev are not linown to be caused in any 
 other \Yay. 
 
 When touched by frost over a small area, the frosted 
 portion of the rind assumes a light color. Blue-mold 
 soon attacks the fruit and its destruction is complete. 
 
 Frequently citrus fruit may not be sufficiently in- 
 
 tJ^^M 
 
 .^,|H*<ii5l 
 
 ^- ■■'- 
 
 mm^'-: --'^^:-,.:. 
 
 
 
 ; ■;'^i;^i« '-,.:., .-^ 
 
 I >^fr»«w« 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 ''H 
 
 ^m 
 
 Photo by Ensminger. 
 
 Fig. 77. Oranges dropped by the effects of cold. 
 
 jured to show on the rind,, and yet the rind maj' be injured 
 or its nature changed in such a way as to permit the evap- 
 oration of the juice. After a time, nothing is left in the 
 fruit except a chaffy mass of juice-sacks. On the surface 
 the fruit may appear all right, yet it may have so deterio- 
 rated in value as to be worthless. 
 
 In the handling and marketing of frosted fruit, grow- 
 ers cannot be too careful. If it is suspected that fruit has 
 been touched by frost, it should not be shipped until it is 
 determined absolutely that the fruit has not been injured. 
 
344 CITRUS FRUITS A2iD THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Even when only slightly affected, the juice will disappear, 
 no matter whether the fruit is on or off the trees, and in 
 such cases considerable time must elapse before the actual 
 extent of the frost injury can be determined. 
 
 When severely frosted, the fruit falls. This is the in- 
 evitable consequence of severe injury to the twigs and 
 branches, see Fig. 77. 
 
 CONDITIOX WHEN MOST EESISTANT. 
 
 Under certain conditions citrus trees are more resist- 
 ant to frost than under others. The presence of insects, 
 diseased conditions, starvation, and the degree of dor- 
 mancy of the tree all bear an important relation to the 
 amount of cold which a tree can .successfully withstand. 
 
 The Insect Factor. On many different occasions it 
 has been noticed that trees affected ))y white-fly or scale- 
 insects suffer to a far greater degree during a cold period 
 than those free from these pests. A rough estimate of tlie 
 difference in favor of trees free from insects would be four 
 or five degrees. It may be more, it certainly is not less. 
 The insects suck the sap from the tree, devitalize it; in 
 consequence, it is in poor condition to withstand cold. In 
 view of this, every precaution should be exercised to 
 keep the trees free from insects. 
 
 The Disease Factor. Diseased conditions brought 
 about by die-back, foot-rot or other disturbing factors, 
 either of a ])hysiological or a fungous nature, reduce the 
 resistant power of the tree as much as attacks of insects 
 do. The trees must be kept in a healthy, growing condi- 
 tion. 
 
 The Food Farior. When well supplied with food, so 
 xis to form healthy, vigorous shoots and well-developed 
 
FROST PROTECTION. 345 
 
 leaves, citrus trees are in a much better condition to with- 
 stand cold than when the.y are starved, or only poorly 
 supplied with food. A sufQcient supply of nitrogen to 
 give a healthy, dark green color is essential. The trees 
 must not be over-stimulated, however, else the sappy, im- 
 mature wood formed, will suffer severely ; but a sufficient 
 supply of well-balanced food should be available to keep 
 the trees in a healthy condition. A starved condition is 
 analogous to a diseased state. Nitrogen must not be sup- 
 plied in excess of other elements, but it will prove to be 
 poor policy to reduce the amount, in the hope of keeping 
 the tree dormant, so as to interfere with the normal devel- 
 opment of the branches and leaves. 
 
 Dormancy as a Factor. Unfortunately, the citrus tree 
 is not distinctly periodic in its growth. It responds readily 
 to short periods of warm weather ; the sap starts to flow ; 
 the buds commence to swell. In this condition it may be 
 severely injured by a comparatively high temperature. 
 In a perfectly dormant condition, citrus trees will with- 
 stand a very considerable degree of cold. How many de- 
 grees more of cold a tree will stand when dormant, than 
 when not dormant, cannot be definitely stated, but the 
 difference is very appreciable. Practices or treatment of 
 the trees having a tendency to start growth during the 
 danger period, should be promptly discontinued. Among 
 these may be mentioned, heavy pruning and fertilizing 
 and tilling the soil too early. 
 
 FERTILIZERS AND CULTIVATION IX RELATION TO 
 DORMANCY. 
 
 Heavy ajiijlicaticns of nitrogenous fertilizeis followed 
 by cultivation have a tendency to start growth in the trees. 
 As a general rule cultivation should not be commenced 
 
346 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 in spring until all danger of frost injury is passed. It is 
 preferable that the bulk of the nitrogen applied in the fer- 
 tilizer should be given early in spring and that the 
 amounts be gradually lessened in each successive applica- 
 tion as the season progresses. 
 
 Cultivation should not be continued late into the sea- 
 son as it has a tendency to prolong the period of growth. 
 Cutting the surface soil with a cutaway harrow or a shal- 
 low plowing after the cessation of growth, will not affect 
 the trees to any appreciable extent but it must be car- 
 ried too far. 
 
 Liberal amounts of potash have a decided effect on 
 hardening and maturing the new growth, and this feature 
 should not be overlooked in fertilizing. 
 
 Effects of the Stock on the Hardiness of the Top. 
 That there exists a mutual inter-relation between the 
 stock and cion, cannot be doubted. A hardy stock has, 
 in many cases, a marked influence on the power of the cion 
 to withstand cold without injury. 
 
 As pointed out in the chapter on stocks, they vary 
 considerably in their resistance to cold. In order of frost- 
 resistance they may be arranged as follows : trifoliate 
 orange, sour (Bigarade) orange, sweet orange, pomelo 
 and rough lemon. It is probably not too much to say that 
 other things being equal, the hardiness of the tops worked 
 on these stocks will stand in the same order. 
 
 The gain in many cases may be scarcely appreciable, 
 but in others it is well marked. In colder regions, the 
 distinct superiority of sour (Bigarade) orange over rough 
 lemon is (juite noticeable, even on young trees, while <Jitrus 
 trifoliata imparts its hardiness to the top worked upon it 
 to such an extent as to make a very decided difference 
 in its favor. 
 
FROST PROTECTION. 34.7 
 
 In cold regions where soil conditions are suitable, 
 the hardier stocks should always be given the preference. 
 A slight gain in hardiness, due to the influence of the 
 stock on the cion, may frequently be as effective as a de- 
 cided gain. 
 
 HARDY VARIETIES. 
 
 A decidedly hardy stock we already have. If a va- 
 riety could be secured, equally as hardy, total immunity 
 from frost would be secured throughout the Avhole of the 
 citrus regions. The attempt to secure such a variety has 
 been made by Dr. H. J. Webber. Soine measure of suc- 
 cess has been attained and further results may be expected 
 from this work. 
 
 But, while we may look to the final outcome of these 
 investigations and experiments with some degree of hope, 
 we must not lose sight of the fact that for many, many 
 years to come, the citrus growers must depend upon the 
 varieties we now have for the continued prosperity of their 
 industry. 
 
 Some varieties of citrus fruits, fortunately, are con- 
 siderably hardier than others. Satsuma is the hardiest 
 of the mandarin group, and the hardiest known large- 
 fruited, edible citrus. Duncan is the hardiest of the pom- 
 elos, Tresca being one of the most tender. Duncan is 
 equally hardy with most of the sweet oranges, in fact, 
 there appears to be but little difference between them. 
 The Marumi kumquat is decidedly hardier than Nagami. 
 In the lemon group, but little opportunity has been af- 
 forded for observation. Slight differences probably exist. 
 Villafranca is apparently quite hardy. Of the sweet or- 
 anges, Jaffa and Ruby are hardier than some others, 
 though a number of others are quite as hardy as they are. 
 
•^iS CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 In severe freezes, slight differences in resistance to 
 cold disappear entirely, bnt frequently they are distinctly 
 noticeable. 
 
 PROTECTING WITH EARTH. 
 
 Banking to Save the Trunks. No method of protect- 
 ing the trunks of citrus trees from cold is more efficacious 
 than banking. Never yet has a temperature suiSciently 
 low to injure the trunk of a tree through a mound of earth 
 been reached in any of the citrus districts, and implicit 
 confidence can be placed in this method for protecting 
 the parts covered. 
 
 The banks should be placed about the trees early in 
 November. In Northern Florida, for instance, severe 
 frost is likely to occur as early as the middle of the 
 month. If the tree trunks have been slightly touched by 
 frost before the banks are placed about them, very unsatis- 
 factory results are obtained. The bark rots during the 
 winter if it has been slightly frosted and the trees are 
 frequently killed outright in consequence, when they 
 might otherwise survive, provided, of course, that the 
 winter is mild. The best plan is to place the banks about 
 the trees sometime about the beginning of the second week 
 in November. 
 
 The earth should be heaped well up about the trunk 
 so as to protect as much of it as possible. Young trees 
 should not be totally covered however, but a considerable 
 portion should be left exposed. If they are banked too 
 high, respiration will be prevented and death of the trunk 
 and branches will follow. In budded trees the part most 
 susceptible to the effects of cold is the point of union 
 between stock and cion. This point should be close to the 
 ground and the earth should be well banked about it so as 
 
FROST PROTECTION. 
 
 349 
 
 to cover and protect it. After the earth has been placed 
 about the trees, it usually settles somewhat or is washed 
 down by the rain. For this reason it is usually best to 
 go over the work three or four weeks afterward and place 
 more earth about the tree. 
 
 All grass and weeds should be cleaned away from 
 the trees and nothing but fresh, clean soil should be used 
 in banking. If weeds and grass are placed in contact with 
 
 Fig. 78. Citrus trees banlced to protect tlie trunlcs from frost. 
 
 the trunks, wood-lice too frequently cause considerable 
 damage. They commence work first in the decaying vege- 
 tation and then transfer their attentions to the trunk. 
 One of the best ways to secure fresh, clean earth, free 
 from organic matter, is to remove the weeds and four or 
 five inches of surface soil from an area of two square feet 
 or so, then dig a hole deep enough to supply sufiScient 
 earth for the tree. In spring the earth can be thrown 
 
350 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 back into the li(i!i\ If the i;roniid wliere the trees .stand is 
 low hammock, containing a great deal of humus and more 
 or less decaj'ed vegetable matter, it is unsafe to place the 
 soil about the trees. In such cases it may be advisable 
 to haul clean earth with which to bank the trees. 
 
 In spring, usually about the end of March, or as soon 
 as danger of damage from cold is past, the banks should 
 be removed from about the trees. By no means should 
 they be left about the trees throughout the summer, as 
 mal-di-goma may attack the trunk above the point of 
 union of stock and cion. 
 
 Protecting the ^Vhole Tree With Earth. While this 
 method of protection can be applied only to small trees, 
 still it is of considerable importance, and the following 
 experiments carried out by J. Y. McKinney, * of Candler, 
 Fla., are very interesting: "To test this form of protec 
 tion, we had about thirty young trees covered entirely 
 over with sand. Ten of these were covered on December 
 15, and opened up March 21. These died back to within 
 three inches of the bud union. The other twenty were 
 opened at different times with the following results : 
 Those rovered four weeks were but little damaged. Those 
 covered six weeks lost all their foliage and were otherwise 
 so devitalized that they were slow in recovering. Some 
 of my neighbors, however, banked as high as six and seven 
 feet and left the banks for from five to seven weeks, aside 
 from losing their leaves, the trees are but little damaged. 
 
 From other sources on this point I get varying re- 
 sults, so that in forming judgment on this form of pro- 
 tection, it would be said there is great risk attending it, 
 so much so, indeed, that if we place any financial value 
 
 * Fla. State Hort. Repnrt IMfin, 20-30. 
 
FROST PROTECTION. 35I 
 
 on young trees we must exclude this expedient from a plan 
 of orange culture on a sound basis. 
 
 The next device, an original one, we shall term the 
 vcntiluted sand case. We had 150 fine young buds, four to 
 six feet high, placed under this treatment. The trees were 
 first tied up into as small a space as practical by means 
 fit No. 18 galvanized wire; a case was then placed close 
 around the tree. Most of these inner cases were of thin 
 boards — some few, even, of paper. A second case was then 
 made about three inches from the first; this outer case 
 was made of small boards placed laterally between trough- 
 like corner pieces. The space between the two cases was 
 packed with sand. At the bottom a ventilating box ex- 
 tended from the outside into the tree. This vent and the 
 top were closed and covered with sand during the cold- 
 wave period only. The labor of putting up this device and 
 attending to it during the winter and clearing it away in 
 the spring cost us 20 cents per tree. The lumber used was 
 odds and ends from our mill and did not figure in the ex- 
 pense. 
 
 The trees were placed in these cases during the week 
 of December 15, and so remained until the week of March 
 21, with the following results : A number came out with- 
 out loss of leaves and in excellent condition. Others were 
 defoliated on the lower branches, the top branches retain- 
 ing their leaves. Some were entirely defoliated, but the 
 wood was in good condition and quickly put on leaves 
 when the cases were removed. On the whole, this plan 
 may be regarded as a safe one, and if the vents are large 
 enough there will be no serious risk attending it from 
 either suffocation or cold. Its practical use, however, 
 is limited to small trees." 
 
352 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 FIRES. 
 
 The protection of citrus trees by means of open fires 
 has been successfully accomplished both in Florida and 
 California. The materials most commonly used are 
 coal and oil in California, and wood in Florida. 
 
 Wood Fires. In Florida, the wood is probably the 
 cheapest material at the present time. Wood is abundant, 
 easily and cheaply secured, and in consequence will be 
 most commonly used for some time to come. The pro- 
 tection of an acre (80-100) of orange trees with wood fires 
 in Florida, has been variously estimated at from ten to 
 fifteen dollars per acre per year. The total cost in any 
 given winter will, of course, depend upon the number of 
 times the fires have to be lighted. Six or seven is about the 
 usual number. 
 
 There is (■f>nsiderable difference in the kind of wood 
 used by different growers. In size it varies all the way 
 from eighteen-inch stove wood to logs six or eight feet 
 long and a foot or a foot and a half in diameter. Some 
 have kept the stumps and roots, which are usually burned 
 in clearing the land, for use in firing. In the more ex- 
 posed regions, as in Xorth Florida, for instance, large 
 wood should be given the preference; while farther south, 
 smaller fires, one for each tree may answer as well. All 
 things considered, however, cordwood is probably the 
 most convenient. 
 
 Plenty of wood should be provided for immediate use 
 and an ample reserve supply should be close at hand. 
 When large fires are used, tliey should be placed close 
 together around the grove. Freezes are usually accom 
 panied by high winds. The practice in Florida has often 
 been to make ample provision for protection on the north 
 
FROST PROTECTION. 
 
 353 
 
 and west sides, but it has often been noted that 
 before the cold passes over the wind blows from every 
 point of the compass. For this reason Avood should be 
 scattered, and provision made for firing all around the 
 grove. 
 
 Throughout the grove, one large fire in every square 
 of four trees will usually be sufficient. Sufficient wood 
 must be provided to keep the fire going for seven or eight 
 
 u ---^^^^^t 
 
 ^ 3- r Jir'^Tii^tiiB^K'S^MJHMB 
 
 Mi 
 
 ^■'■aMBIiB^Kg^^W 
 
 PUJIS 
 
 ^^H 
 
 - \ 
 
 . , „ ..r _i. 
 
 
 Fig. 79. Wood in place, ready for firing. — North Florida. The piles 
 
 are torn down and used gradually. Note the large size of the 
 
 wood. See also plate XVIII. 
 
 hours at least. In less exposed regions, one small fire 
 should be provided for each tree. 
 
 The temperature at which the fires must be started 
 depends upon the condition of the trees, and the rapidity 
 with which the temperature is falling. Ordinarily, the 
 mercury should not be allowed to drop much below 25 or 
 26 degrees F., though much will depend upon how rapidly 
 the temperature is going down. 
 
!54 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Everything should be in readiness for building the 
 fires. Sufflcient kindling should be distributed. Nothing 
 is better for starting the flres than the waste (chips cov- 
 ored with rosin) , obtained from the turpentine stills, 
 but in addition kerosene or crude petroleum should be 
 provided. Rain frequently accompanies the cold, in which 
 case it is difficult to get the fires started. 
 
 Fig. SO. Orange trees on the Kinney place at Pierson, Fla., planted 
 in Isss and successfully protected in '94-'95 and 
 '119 with wood fires. 
 
 Have the wood piled together, have one man to throw 
 on a gill (ir so of kerosene, let another follow to 
 start the flres, followed by a third to see that they burn 
 well, and others to provide wood and keep the fires replen- 
 ished. Everything miist lie done systematically and with- 
 out delay. 
 
 A good torch or a number of them should be pro- 
 vided for lighting the flres. Mr. W. S. Hart has an excel- 
 lent one which he uses for the purpose. It consists of a 
 
FROST PROTECTION. :J55 
 
 long, hollow, brass cylinder, fitted with a piece of round 
 wick at the end. The cylinder is filled with kerosene. 
 
 In Florida the temperature in the fired area of grove 
 has been raised as much as twelve degrees above that of 
 the surrounding area. Fig. 80 shows sweet orange trees 
 at Pierson, Fla., planted in 1888, and never touched by 
 frost. They were protected by open fires, while adjoining 
 groves not so protected were killed to the ground in 1895, 
 and again in 1899. This shows what may be done. It 
 was probably in this grove that open wood fires were first 
 used in Florida for the protection of citrus trees. 
 
 Coal and Oil. As noted above, these two materials have 
 been used to a greater extent in California than in Florida, 
 though they have been used in the latter State as well. 
 
 The comparative costs of the two materials given, as 
 the results of experiments in California * are as follows: 
 
 Wire coal baskets, each 7 1-2 to 8 cents. 
 
 Ten pounds coal (4 hours) 5 cents. 
 
 Total cost 13 cents. 
 
 Oil pots (3 gals.) 25 to 30 cents. 
 
 Two gallons Oil 6 cents. 
 
 Wicks (if used) 3 cents. 
 
 Total cost 34 to 39 cents. 
 
 The cost is in favor of the baskets, while the oil was 
 more readily ignited, bu1 opinions differ as to the amount 
 of heat given off. 
 
 The diflSculty of readily igniting the coal might be 
 obviated in some such way as that adopted by Mr. James 
 
 * California Cultivator, XIX, No, 17, 257 O. 1902. 
 
356 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 (1) of the Uplands Lemon Exchange, Cal. His method 
 is as follows ; "Cover bottom of basket with dry euca- 
 lyptus or palm leaves, cut into four-inch lengths; make a 
 mixture of melted rosin, not above 85 degrees tempera- 
 ture, and kerosene, mixed to consistency of molasses — 
 three quarters kerosene, one quarter rosin ; sprinkle over 
 leaves. Dip a few short kindlings into this and place 
 in basket, followed by untreated kindling, then fill with 
 coal, small lumps at bottom, coarse above, "cone" up on 
 the top. For protection against rain, cover with at least 
 four thicknesses of newspaper." In Florida, the waste 
 from the turpentine stills might be secured for kindling 
 or "fat" pine might !».' jnovided. 
 
 The experience of Mr. C. C. Teague, (2) of Limoniera, 
 Cal., in fighting frost with coal baskets is well worth re- 
 producing here : 
 
 "We found that the self-registering thermometers 
 which we had were utterly unreliable as a guide, and (hat 
 if we had been governed by them and had followed the ad- 
 vice of all our authorities on frost protection, we would 
 have burned up rnal early in the night when it was not 
 necessary, and our grove would have been frozen in the 
 earlier, colder hours of the morning. When our ther- 
 mometer registered cold so early in the evening, we were 
 in a quandary as to what to do. ^Ye feared if we refrained 
 from lighting too long ^\'e would be injured, and on the 
 other hand if we lighted early our coal would not last. 
 While worrying over this, the thought occurred to us to 
 put out shallow pans with about an inch of water in them, 
 reasoning that the latent heat in the trees and fruit would 
 
 1. L. c. 
 
 2. L. C. 264. 
 
FROliT PROTECTION. 357 
 
 keep the juice in the fruit from congealing and therefore 
 without injury until the water in the pan began freezing 
 over. Developments proved that we were right, as I shall 
 attempt to demonstrate to you. Our experience on both 
 our coldest nights, the 11th and 12th, was almost identi- 
 cal, and I have selected the 12th, which was the colder, 
 and the following is the record of our thermometers on 
 that night: 
 
 7 p. m 32 degrees. 
 
 8 p. m 28 degrees. 
 
 9 p. m 26 degrees. 
 
 10 p. m 24 degrees. 
 
 11 p. m . . 22 degrees. 
 
 11 :30 p. m 21 degrees. 
 
 "At this time the water in the pans began freezing 
 over and we began lighting our baskets. Our men were 
 divided into squads, and each squad being in charge of a 
 competent man. Our reason for this was that it would 
 not be economical to have a large crew of men working 
 together, as they would be obliged to do a great deal of 
 unnecessary walking. In other words, a crew of forty 
 men lighting on forty rows would oblige the man on the 
 first row to walk across the end of forty rows to reach the 
 forty-first, or his next row. On the night in question 
 we had forty men lighting, and it took from one and a 
 half to two hours to light 2500, or one-half the baskets. 
 At 12 o'clock, midnight, before the baskets were well 
 under way, and giving off a good heat, the thermometer 
 registered 20 degrees; at 1:00 o'clock 22 degrees; at 1:30 
 22 degrees. (At this time we began lighting the other 
 
358 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 half of our baskets) ; 2:00 o'clock 22 degrees; 3:00 o'clock 
 24 degrees ; 4 :00 o'clock 26 degrees ; and the thermometer 
 did not register 26 degrees after this time. 
 
 "Please note that the thermometer registered below 
 28 degrees for three and one-half hours before the pan 
 of water was frozen over, and for four hours after the 
 temperature was affected by our fires. Also that the drop 
 in temperature up to the lighting had been about 2 de- 
 grees per hour, which was checked and forced up, until, 
 when all our fires were going, it reached 26 degrees, and 
 did not again get below this, notwithstanding the fact 
 that the temperature usually continues falling until sun- 
 rise unless a breeze springs up, which in this case did 
 not occur. Notwithstanding this, however, our thermom- 
 eters registered below 28 degrees for ten hours without 
 injury to our trees and lemons. I cannot account for this, 
 except that possibly after we lighted our fires, the heat 
 and smoke rising from them and hanging over the grove 
 acted as a sort of blanket, preventing the cold air from 
 settling. Our thermometers are hung on posts about 
 three feet from the ground, and it has been suggested to 
 me as an explanation of the low temperature shown by 
 the thermometers resulting in no injury, that the heat ra- 
 diating from the baskets would radiate in streaks, and 
 that the whole body of cold air would not necessarily 
 become heated, and the thermometers being protected 
 by the post and boxing, would not be sensitive to the heat 
 radiation, and would therefore read colder than the heat 
 was in reality. I have since regretted that I did not take 
 the temperature ten and twelve feet from the ground. 
 
 "In a few of the coldest spots in our grove, there is a 
 slight singeing of the tenderest leaves, but nothing of any 
 consequence. The portion of the grove where this singeing 
 
FROST PROTECTION. 359 
 
 is most in evidence is a small portion where I have before 
 mentioned, and which had only one coal basket to five 
 trees. 
 
 "In conclusion, I will say that after two years" careful 
 experience with coal baskets, I am more than ever con- 
 vinced that by careful, intelligent handling, we can save 
 our groves and fruit during our most severe freezes. We 
 concluded with 37 baskets to the acre, we were running 
 too close to the danger line, and have since doubled our 
 supply, and I would recommend that 75 to the acre be 
 used in groves that are subject to frost visitation. It is 
 not probable that it will be necessary to light all only in 
 
 Fig. 81. Firing a California gfrove, using crude petroleum in 
 Froude's oil pots. 
 
 extreme cases, but the extra insurance is well worth the 
 outlay. It is also certain that a small operator would not 
 get nearly as good results and should therefore have more 
 baskets to the acre. 
 
 "My last word is, do not forget the importance of 
 knowing when to begin lighting. And if you will re- 
 member the pan of water it will save your nerves." 
 
 The best, as well as the most commonly used recep- 
 tacle for firing with crude petroleum, is the Froude crude 
 petroleum pot. This has given good satisfaction in many 
 instances in California. Fig. 81 illustrates this pot in use 
 in protecting a citrus grove in California. 
 
3G0 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 WALLS AND FIRES. 
 
 Great difficulty may be eucountered in protecting 
 citrus trees by means of open flres, because it so frequent- 
 ly happens that freezes are accompanied by high winds, 
 rain and sleet. The wind is often so strong as to extin- 
 guish the fires and even though this is not done, the heat 
 is blown away. It has been noted that while the temper- 
 ature was sufficiently high on the side of the tree nearest 
 the fire, on the opposite side the thermometer registered 
 several degrees below freezing. 
 
 To overcome this undersirable condition of things, 
 triangular or circular walls have been used in many 
 cases with excellent results. Sometimes these are mov- 
 able, at other times they are built stationary on the north 
 and west sides of the trees. The wind frequently shifts 
 its direction, making the movable ones somewhat more 
 desirable. A fire can be placed on the opposite side from 
 the triangle with very effective results. Wood, oil or coal 
 may be used. 
 
 Wind-hreaks and Water Protection. These have 
 been fullj' discussed in a former chapter, to which the 
 reader is referred. In many respects, the wind-break, 
 either artificial or natural, may serve the same purpose 
 as a wall on the northwest sides of the 1rees. The wind- 
 break stops the force of the driving wind and prevents 
 the dissemination of the heat. In many cases, growers, 
 in Florida, finding that their sheds were not entirely 
 satisfactory, have removed the covering, leaving the walls 
 still standing. These have acted as very eflScient checks 
 to the wind. 
 
 Protection by irrigation or by applying water to the 
 ground and trees as a spray may, in certain cases, be 
 
FROST PROTECTION. 361 
 
 used to advantage. If the water has a constant temper- 
 ature of 60 to 70 degrees F., much can bsi accomplished, 
 provided sufflcient of it is available, and can be readily 
 applied. 
 
 The ameliorating influence of adjoining bodies of 
 water should not be overlooked, and, whenever possible, 
 the grove should be so located as to receive the beneficial 
 influence of the heat given off slowly by a body of water. 
 The water becomes heated during the day. It parts with 
 its heat more slowly than the land, during the night, and 
 its influence is considerable. 
 
 TENT PROTECTION. 
 
 Protection of citrus trees by means of tents has been 
 quite successful. 
 
 Various kinds of tents and structures working on the 
 same principle have been tried from time to time. Trees 
 have been boxed, or covered over with boards or veneer, 
 but more usually cloth of some kind has been used. 
 
 The two styles of tents which have been most com- 
 monly used in Florida are shown in Plate XXII, Figs. A 
 and B. The first known as MacFarland's tent, consists 
 of three posts, supporting a cypress hoop surrounding the 
 tree. The tent itself is shown at the left, drawn together 
 about the derrick-like frame. It is strengthened from top 
 to bottom by means of slats which project below the bot- 
 tom of the cloth and are shoved into the ground to keep 
 the tent more securely in place. On the approach of cold 
 weather, the tent is drawn around the framework, closed 
 up and the supporting slats shoved into the ground. 
 
 Mr. E. O. Painter, of the E. O. Painter Fertilizer 
 Company, Jacksonville, Fla., was the originator of the 
 second style of tent. It consists of four posts set in the 
 
Plate XXII. 
 
 Fig. A. Protection by Tents. MacFarland's Tent, open K.nd closed 
 
 Fig. B. Protection by Tent.s. Painter's Tent, open and closed. 
 
FROST PROTECTION. 363 
 
 ground, at the cornei's of a rectangle, enclosing the tree. 
 Around these posts good, stout cloth is stretched and at- 
 tached to a frame at the bottom. The top of the struc- 
 ture is covered, as illustrated on the right, with a frame 
 covered with the same cloth. This cover is removed and 
 the cloth sides lifted up in opening the tent. 
 
 Tents afford an excellent method for pr'^tecting a 
 few trees. Citrus trees might be grown as ornamental 
 trees in gardens about the home, far outside the regions 
 where they are cultivated commercially, if tents are used 
 to protect them. The objection to their use in commercial 
 groves, however, is that they are too costly, and have to 
 be enlarged too frequently. For protecting young trees, 
 they have many desirable features, and are probably 
 sufficiently economical. 
 
 Tents alone will not protect the trees. In fact, it may 
 be colder inside the tent than outside. The tent must be 
 warmed up, for which purpose some sort of kerosene lamp 
 is usually most serviceable. An ordinary lantern may be 
 used or a lamp made from a can with a burner attached 
 may suffice. 
 
 SHEDS. 
 
 Both in Florida and California, sheds have been 
 erected to protect, citrus trees from cold. In some cases 
 these have proved quite satisfactory, in others they have 
 not. If properly managed, there is no reason why the 
 shed should not prove satisfactory. Provision must be 
 made for allowing the entrance of plenty of light and air, 
 a shed which may be opened or closed in a short time is 
 the ideal. The shed should be left open as much as pos- 
 sible, closing it only on the approach of severe cold. The 
 methods of cultivation and fertilizing must be changed. 
 
3G4 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Moisture is present in the soil in ^'reater abundance un- 
 der the shed than outside. Die-back may result from the 
 same methods of cultivation as might be used with per 
 fectly satisfactory results outside. Less cultivation 
 should be given shedded groves and chemical fertilizers 
 only should be used. 
 
 All things considered, a shed constructed after the 
 model of Mr. Stevens, manager of the J. B. Stetson 
 groves, at DeLand, Fla., is probably the most satisfac 
 tory. A shed of this pattern, erected by G. L. Taber, of 
 Glen St. Mary, Fla., for the purpose of protecting healed 
 in nursery stock, is illustrated in Plate XXIII. The posts 
 are four by four, the framework is made of inch boards, 
 built together like angle iron. An ample supply of braces 
 is provided and the structure is very substantial. The 
 cover and walls are made in panels. These are made of 
 one-half-inch boards, four feet long, nailed between 
 three one-inch strips which run lengthwise of the panel. 
 The panels may be made of any desired lengths, sixteen 
 feet being found quite desirable. They must, however, 
 be of such a length as to lap on the cross beams of the 
 roof. When it is desired to open up the shed, the pan- 
 els of the roof are piled on top of one another on the 
 framework. If so desired, the side-walls and all the 
 covering may be removed, leaving nothing but the frame- 
 work. 
 
 It must be borne in mind that, as in the case of 
 tents, the shed alone will not protect the trees. Fires 
 must be provided with Avhich to elevate the temperature; 
 either wood, coal or oil may be used. 
 
Plate JLXIII. 
 
 Fig. A, Cover of Shed. 
 
 L^ 
 
 %.- ^f" 
 
 %-a 
 
 
 ^,i ,^ ^^- ^ . , J 
 
 .y ' ■-' 
 
 
 ^^- 
 
 Fig". B. Interior view, showing construction. 
 Shed erected by G. L. Taber, G]en Saint Mary Fla. 
 
366 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 FLORIDA SHEDS. 
 
 In the Florida State Horticultural Report for 1903, 
 an excellent report on the condition of the shedded 
 groves in Florida is given by Mr. E. O. Painter. The de- 
 scriptions of the protection of the Mead grove at Oviedo, 
 Fla., the Swift grove at Pomona, Fla., the Haw Creek 
 grove at Crescent City, Fla., the Wetumpka grove at 
 Hastings, Fla., and the Barney shed (J. A. Stevens) at 
 Citra, Fla., are reproduced here. 
 
 THE MEAD GROVE AT OVIEDO. 
 
 The cloth is twelve feet above the ground, and has 
 now been made movable by ropes and pulleys, so as 1o 
 let in the sunlight whenever it is not too cold. 
 
 The trees are planted 5x20, the intention being that 
 each row shall be practically one tree 250 feet long. Have 
 used 10,000 pounds of fertilizer on one acre in the past 
 two years, using one pound per month to each tree till 
 signs of die-back appeared. Have put on no fertilizer 
 since last June. Prior to that, had used only Simon Pure 
 Die-back for some months, and the trees have mostly re- 
 covered. I have had some good fruit, mostly grapefruit, 
 each year, including the first year the trees were planted. 
 The trees are 2r)0 tangerines, 125 grapefruit, 84 Euby 
 Blood orange, making 495 trees to the acre. 
 
 The shed is irrigated and warmed by sulphur water 
 from a deep six-inch well, and supplied by a powerful 
 steam pump. Hydrants, forty feet apart each way, each 
 with a spray-nozzle covering a circle forty feet in 
 diameter, nearly cover the ground, like rain, and in cold 
 nights keep the shed as warm as can be desired, the tem- 
 perature of the water being always at seventy degrees. 
 
FROST PROTECTION. 367 
 
 When the thermometer outside stood at eighteen degrees 
 for several hours, the temperature inside ranged from 
 forty-eight to fifty degrees, with a dense vaporous fog 
 that acted lilie a blanket. When the cloth is open the 
 spray keeps off frost only where it actually falls. The 
 capacity of my pump is 300 gallons per minute, which 
 is enough to keep frost out of a good many acres, if cov- 
 ered in. In summer the cloth is taken off and stored 
 away. It is absolutely necessary to have it movable in 
 winter, otherwise the fruit is watery and tasteless, and 
 the trees fail to bloom properly in the spring. The sides 
 are of 1x8 lumber put on clapboardwise. The cost of 
 the structure itself, including cloth and labor, was 
 f 1,200 and it covers 1 1-10 acres. — Theo. L. Mead. 
 
 THE SWIFT GROVE AT POMONA. 
 
 So far the shed has proved to be a success. A shed 
 will easily pay for itself in a comparatively short time 
 on the poorest pine land. The shedded grove has many 
 advantages that the open grove does not have. The wind 
 cannot get in to blow off the fruit or twist the trees 
 around so as to thorn it. Last spring and summer, dur- 
 ing the great drouth, 1he trees in the shed did not suffer 
 at all — not one of the healthy trees even wilted, and none 
 of the fruit either dropped off or was stunted. Down 
 three or four inches the ground was quite moist, while 
 outside you could hardly strike moisture at six inches. 
 I attribute this to the partial shade which the shed af- 
 forded. Of course, I cultivated twice a month regularly. 
 
 I find that the insects are about the same inside the 
 shed as they are in the open grove. 
 
 The trees are easily kept from freezing by means of 
 a few fires which are easily attended to. Night labor 
 
3G8 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 costs but 25 cents per hour, and one man can keep from 
 twenty to forty fires going. When the shed is closed the 
 temperature is from four to ten degrees higher Avilliout 
 any fires than it is outside. In the winter when the trees 
 are dormant, I build fires between twenty-eight and 
 twenty-nine degrees, but in the early spring, when the 
 trees begin to grow, I "fire'' up at thirty-two degrees. 
 My shed covers about two and one-half acres, and during 
 a freeze when the temperature outside fell to 17 1-2 de- 
 grees, I kept the temperature between 31 and 34 degrees 
 without any trouble and had only ten fires, burning not 
 more than one-quarter of a cord of wood in nine hours 
 and a half. 
 
 Some people think that trees will not bear under a 
 shed, but it is a mistake. !My trees bore well in the spring 
 of 1902, and I fertilized them last fall for fruit, and thio 
 spring they are bearing as heavily as they can. My tree(= 
 look fine and are free from disease. The shed is a wood- 
 top one, and opens and shuts by meaixs of doors thirty- 
 two inches liy seven feet, which are fastened to stationary 
 walk-^\■ays Iwenty-eight inches wide. Two rows of doors 
 are fastened to one walk-way and constitute little more 
 than two-thirds of the top. The doors are fastened by 
 means of wire lo(i|)s hooked over nails, and can be readily 
 taken down. Part of the sides of my shed are made of 
 veneer panels four feet wide and part of one-inch boards. 
 The panels and boards are set in racks so they can be 
 readily taken dnwii and put up without nails. In my 
 opinion, the panels are far superior to the boards, as they 
 make a tighter wall and are much easier and quicker 
 handled. The cost of taking down the sides and doors and 
 putting thein up ag:iin is about flO jicr year. — F. t<irift. 
 
FROST PROTECTION. 3G9 
 
 THE IIAW CREEK GROVE AT CRESCENT CITY. 
 
 The covered shed of this company was constructed 
 during the fall of 1901, but was not finished on account 
 of the wet weather, in time to entirely protect the young 
 trees from the severe cold of December of that year. On 
 about half of the grove the framework was up and ma- 
 terial scattered about, and this slight protection sufficed 
 to preserve the trees from the injurious effects of the 
 cold, while the other or east half being without any pro- 
 tection whatever, was cut by the frost so as to be set back 
 about a year behind the west half. The trees were young 
 buds set out in the summer and fall of 1900, all tanger- 
 ines. The present structure covers a little less than ten 
 acres, about 650 feet square. It is surrounded by a wall 
 sixteen feet high, with posts supporting the overhead 
 structure placed 12 1-2x17 feet apart. The overhead cov- 
 ering is cotton cloth, Osnaburg, treated after a process 
 of our own to preserve it from mildew. We use sheet- 
 iron stoves in which we burn coke to raise the tempera- 
 ture in severe cold, about 125 to the ten acres, but think 
 we should use more. Each strip of canvas is pulled by 
 itself one-half across the grove. We design, how- 
 ever, to pull two strips all across the grove at one pull. 
 At present, one pull of twelve and one-half feet covers a 
 space of seventeen feet wide by 325 feet long, and it takes 
 about two and a half hours to cover the whole gi'ove. The 
 condition of the trees under the shed, so far as our ex- 
 perience goes, is perfectly normal and healthy. The 
 trees untouched by the cold have made an astonishing 
 growth and give fine promise for fruit. Last fall's croy> 
 was forty boxes. This year we anticipate a crop of 400 
 to 500 boxes, mostly from the west half. Of course, it is 
 too early to estimate profits from the venture, but we be- 
 
37U CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CVLTURh. 
 
 lieve we can grow and protect the fruit successfully if 
 the market will continue favorable. We have an addi- 
 tional ten acres which we expect to cover in a year or 
 two, as soon as the trees are a little larger, protecting 
 them in the meantime with fires and banking. — Thos. H. 
 Strijl-er. 
 
 THE VS^ETUMPKA GROVE AT HASTINGS. 
 
 You ask in regard to cost of shed. As you know, 
 we have the Rollins patent, board wall and cloth top. 
 It has cost us more than I think it can be done for again, 
 from the fact we were inexperienced to start with, and 
 ruined one set of cloth by running it through parafHne 
 wax. It seemed to take the life out of the cloth. It has 
 cost about |1,200 per acre, besides the cloth that was 
 ruined. Our trees when we put the shed up were 20x25 
 feet apart, but a year ago this spring we doubled the num- 
 ber, making about IGO trees to the acre. The last trees 
 set are of the Tardiff variety, and have made a very satis- 
 factory growth. Many of them have twenty-tive or fifty 
 fruits on them now. Last year our trees bore very shy, 
 and I laid it to the treatment, viz : no fertilizer, for fear 
 of bringing on die-back. Some of the trees were showing 
 symptoms of it, but last fall they were healthy; so I put on 
 the following mixture, five pounds per tree: seven hun- 
 dred pounds boneblack and 400 pounds H. G. sulphate 
 potash on half an acre. On The balance of the shed, three 
 and a half acres, I used your Special Simon Pure. The 
 grove to-day is in perfect health and has set fruit plentiful- 
 ly. I am satisfied the trees can be kept healthy and free 
 from scale and see no reason why they will not bear as 
 lieavy crops as they used to outside of protection. 
 
FROST PROTECTION. 371 
 
 We have the shed arranged now so that we can cover 
 one acre at a time, and can do it in seven or eight minutes. 
 It is the most satisfactory cover I have seen. — G. W. 
 Leonard. 
 
 COVERED GROVE AT CITRA. 
 
 The Barnej' shed, covering three acres, was originally 
 built on the same plan as the Clifford shed, but because of 
 the difficulties of operating that style of cover, as enumer- 
 ated in my letter describing the Clifford shed, this has 
 been made over. The framework of this shed divides the 
 area covered into squares of twelve and a half feet each, 
 and where two swinging shutters of 6x12 feet each origin- 
 ally filled the square, these two swinging shutters have 
 been made over into three panels of 4x12 feet each. One 
 of these panels is put down stationary, and four rafters 
 are put up over it, two at each end, to support the other 
 two panels, which, when open, are raised up and leaned 
 against the rafters toward each other and form a roof 
 over the lower or stationary panel. 
 
 When the cover is open in this way two-thirds of the 
 cover is open, one-third is always closed. When closed 
 Ihe two side panels are turned down until they lie flat 
 on the framework and the whole top of the shed is closed 
 snug. 
 
 This plan gives the trees both sunshine and shade. 
 The openings in the cover, when open, run east and west. 
 The sun in passing over throws sunshine and also casts 
 a shadow upon the trees below in its day's journey. The 
 trees in this shed are doing well and now have a nice crop 
 of young oranges on them. I could give you numerous ex- 
 perience we have had with our sheds, but I understand 
 
J72 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 that you are principally interested in the construction of 
 the sheds. 
 
 As to the cost of this shed, it would be pretty hard 
 to come at it, as we had to make it over from another 
 style. But I should say that a shed on this plan could be 
 built for 1800 per acre. 
 
 Trees in this shed are twelve and a half feet apart 
 each way. There are 735 of them ; varieties, Pineapple 
 orange. Triumph pomelo and Dancy Tangierine. 
 
 Cost of firing is the same per acre as in the Clifford 
 shed. (Four acres |14 per night with wood, |9 with 
 coke.) 
 
 This shed is opened and closed by two men walking 
 on top, taking hold of each end of a panel and raising 
 or lowering it as the case may be. It cannot be operated 
 quite as rapidly as the Clifford shutter-shed. It takes two 
 men half a day to go over the whole shed. But in the win- 
 ter we do not open it all at once, except on bright, warm 
 days. Every night in winter we have at least half of the 
 cover down, so as to be able to close the rest quickly if it 
 should be necessary. — ./. A. Htevens. 
 
 The protection of citrus trees by the Everest Bancho 
 Incorporation in California is thus described by B. M. 
 Lelong.* 
 
 ROOFING PROTECTION AGAINST FROSTS, AND HEAT IN 
 SUMMER. 
 
 "After having tried several other methods of protecting 
 frees from frost, none of which proved absolutely safe, the 
 Everest Rancho Incorporation at Arlington Place, Rivev- 
 side County, decided to roof over a portion of their orange 
 giove. Such were the results of the first trial on three 
 
 Culture of tne Citrus in California, 158-160. 1!)02. 
 
FROST PROTECTION. 37;j 
 
 acres that the company extended it over seventeen acres. 
 *,***»***,„ ^j^g proposition embraced 
 in the covering is to prevent the warm air from leaving the 
 immediate vicinity of the trees at night. During the day 
 the earth and trees become warm, biit as night cools the 
 atmosphere, the process of radiation sets in, and the heat 
 from the earth and the trees is carried off, the cold, frosty 
 atmosphere taking its place. The idea was conceived of 
 covering the orchard with canvas, which could be rolled 
 up in the morning and let out at night. One acre was 
 covered in this way, but it was found to be too expensive 
 and unstable, as the canvas would get wet and decay. The 
 present method costs about |450 an acre. The fruit borne 
 by the trees under this covering has matured perfectly 
 and the covering serves two purposes, i. e., protecting 
 the trees from the effects of frost, and from excessi\e heat 
 in the summer. 
 
 The posts are 3x4 redwood, 18 feet long. The trees 
 are so planted that the posts are placed 21 feet 3 inches 
 apart each way, setting them 3 feet in the ground, thus 
 allowing about 15 feet in the clear for height of the trees, 
 which is sufiflcient for most Navel trees. These posts are 
 connected by pieces of 1x4 pine suitably braced, on top 
 of which another strip of 1x4 has been securely nailed to 
 prevent the whole from swaying sideways with the weight 
 of the cover. This, when placed in position, is braced 
 horizontally with braces of 1x3 pine, 7 feet long. Thus 
 is secured a framework that is quite rigid and on which 
 a man may walk freely, provided he has a head clear enough 
 to walk on a four-inch strip. 
 
 Over this were stretched galvanized-iron wires, diag- 
 onally, of No. 11 wire, which are securely stapled on top 
 of each post and to the horizontal braces. These diag- 
 
374 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 onal wires are stretched very tight with iron stretchers, 
 and throw a portion of the weight of the cover on to posts 
 directly that would otherwise be borne by the pieces of 
 1x4 pine. 21 feet 3 inches long. These diagonal wires are 
 supplemented by wires running across the framework at 
 right angles to the dii'ection in which the cover is laid. 
 These four wires — two diagonal and two cross wii'es — 
 steady the whole construction and distribute the weight 
 more evenly. 
 
 Thus is the framework completed. For the cover 
 Arizona lath were used, being the lightest and best for the 
 purpose, and were woven on a lath machine into common 
 chicken-fencing, placing the lath one inch apart and weav- 
 ing with six wires — three double strands. This is made in 
 sections 21 feet 3 inches long and rolled up preparatory 
 to being taken to cover. In covering the framework four 
 rolls made of four-foot lath and one roll of five-foot lath 
 are used, thus filling out the sjiace over each tree of 21 
 feet 3 inches as nearly as is necessary. It takes 100 lath 
 to each roll, or .jOO to each tree: and as the trees are 
 planted 100 to the acre, .jO,000 lath are required to the 
 acre. This Arizona lath is cheaper than ordinary' pine in 
 that part of the State. 
 
 The crop of fruit under this covering was of good 
 size, color, and quality, and while the construction of the 
 cover could be, and no doubt will be, improved upon, it 
 has proved of great benefit as built." 
 
CHAPTER XXXVII. 
 
 PRUNING CITRUS TREES. 
 
 As a whole, no group of fruit trees require less prun- 
 ing than citrus trees, after they are once set out and es- 
 tablished in the grove. 
 Most of the pruning is, in 
 many cases, given at the 
 time of planting, and with 
 the exception of the lemon 
 systematic pruning, such 
 as is given peaches, is not 
 practiced. Excellent spec- 
 imens of citrus trees, to 
 which the pruning shears 
 are entirely unknown, may 
 be found throughout the 
 citrus districts. But while 
 this is the case, pruning 
 must generally be done to 
 some extent at some pe- 
 riod in the life of the tree. 
 
 High vs. Loic-hcadcd 
 Trees. Some years ago it 
 was invariably the rule to 
 grow high-headed trees, 
 trees with from four to six 
 feet of bare trunk. Now 
 the tendency is the other 
 way, viz. : in favor of 
 low-headed trees, with 
 branches sweeping the j,,^ g,^,^ ^„^^.^^, ^^.^^ ^„ ,„,„ ,„^ ^,^ ~ 
 
 cn-niinrl a^i illiistrnfpd'^ pruning, i. e. with the cutting blade- 
 
37G CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 in Figs. 17 and 22. Experience has proved that the latter 
 srvle of Iree is much preferable. The trunk is protected 
 from the rays of the sun and from the effects of cold by the 
 branches and dense foliage. Few realize the amount of 
 l>rotection afforded the trunk and large branches by the 
 mass of leaves. The fruit is more easily and economically 
 removed from low-headed trees than from high-headed 
 ones. Low-headed trees are not so liable to injury during 
 wind storms. Air does not circulate through a grove of 
 low-headed trees so readily as through plantings of high 
 lieaded ones, consequently protection by open flres can be 
 <arried on to better advantage. Low-headed trees shade 
 the ground beneath them and prevent the rapid evapora- 
 tion of moisture. The low, hanging branches serve all 
 the purposes of a mulch. On soils, however, which are in- 
 clined to bake and become hard, it may be necessary to 
 have the lower branches sufficiently elevated above the 
 ground to permit of cultivation, but generally this is un 
 necessary. The expense of spraying is lessened consider- 
 ably by heading the trees low. To secure low-headed 
 trees, they should be cut back severely at the time of 
 planting. Not more than eighteen or twenty^-four inches 
 of trunk sliould be left. The branches which form the 
 strong framework of the tree should be allowed to de- 
 velop from three to four buds at the top. 
 
 Old, high-headed trees may often be improved by 
 building the head downward. Frequently suckers spring 
 from the large branches and shove tlieir way up through 
 the top of the tree. Many growers remove these as soon as 
 they appear. This is not good policy. They should be al- 
 lowed to remain, for after rising above the surrounding 
 top. they branch and bear fruit. Unless they are needed 
 to till out a space in tlic top, or if they crowd or interfere 
 
PRUNING CITRUS TREES. 377 
 
 with branches already developed, they may be carefully 
 drawn down out of the tree, below the lowest branches 
 and bent out to one side, there to grow into large, strong 
 branches, thus bringing the head of the tree closer to the 
 ground. 
 
 Pruning for Insect Treatment. If citrus trees are 
 to be sprayed, it is often essential to thin out some of the 
 interior branches, that the spray may be thoroughly and 
 easily applied. The pruning must not be too vigorous, 
 however, and no more of the center branches should be 
 sacrificed than is absolutely necessary. Heavy pruning 
 is too frequently followed by a vigorous growth of water- 
 sprouts, and unless these are promptly checked, the in- 
 terior of the head will become as dense as before. Upon 
 no condition should so many of the branches be removed 
 as to allow the rays of the sun to penetrate and strike 
 the branches. It is essential that the trunk and larger 
 branches be protected by a mass of leafy twigs. Dead, 
 dry branches, the result of the strong rays of the sun, clear- 
 ly show the necessity of this. Citrus trees, as a whole, are 
 not like deciduous trees. The latter should be pruned so 
 as to admit the strong sunlight to all parts of the head; 
 but not so with cilrus trees. A head, the shape of a 
 hollow cone, may be developed, but the outer band or 
 zone of foliage must be sufficiently dense to exclude the 
 strong, and to the branches, injurious rays of the sun. 
 
 Pruning in Relation to Die-hack. In Florida it has 
 frequently been observed that die-back follows the freez- 
 ing back of the tops of citrus trees. The roots, as a rule, 
 remain uninjured, and large amounts of materials in 
 solution are collected. The enzyme producing die-back 
 enters the trunk in large quantities, and the disease be- 
 comes manifest. Exactly the same condition may result 
 
;i7S CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 fi-om severe pruning of the tops. For this reason so much 
 care must be exercised that the advice is so often given : 
 '•Keep the pruning shears away from the trees and let 
 them develop as iliey will" — advice which it is best for 
 I he Florida grower to follow as a general rule. 
 
 When trees are affected with die-back, much may be 
 done toward effecting a cure on most soils, by root-prun- 
 ing. The amount of pruning required will depend upon 
 the severity of the attack, the size of the tree and the 
 character of the soil. Pruning may be done by cutting a 
 circle around the tree with a sharp spade, thrusting it 
 n-ell into the soil so as to sever a large number of roots. 
 The balance of the tree is restored by this method, and a 
 complete recovery frequently follows the practice. It 
 should be borne in mind, however, that in addition to this 
 treatment, the cause of the disorder in the tree, should be 
 sought for and the conditions favoring the development 
 of die-back removed as far as possible. 
 
 Pruning Frozen Trees. In treating trees which have 
 been severely injured by cold, three courses are open: 
 first, to leave tliem alone ; second, to cut them back to the 
 ground; third, to cut them ))ack part way. 
 
 The first mentioned method is open to the objection 
 lliat after the tree sprouts, (and the roots of a citrus tree, 
 in the citrus districts, are seldom, if ever, entirely killed 
 l)y frost) the old, dead trunk and branches must neces- 
 sarily be removed sooner or later, and much of the new 
 growtli nmst be sacrificed in the final pruning of the old 
 top. In addition the shade cast by the dead branches 
 may cause a weak, sap]jy growth of sprouts. For these 
 reasons it is best that some pruning be done. If, however, 
 the trees are but slightly injured, no pruning need be 
 
PRUNING CITRUS TREES. 379 
 
 done immediately, but the injured twigs and brandies 
 may be broken out after they become dry. 
 
 In cases where the trees have been severely injured, 
 so as to leave but little of the trunk, it is best to cut it off 
 at the ground. Grafts may be inserted or sprouts allowed 
 to develop, to be budded when they have attained suffi 
 cient size. But on the other hand, if a considerable por- 
 tion of the trunk still remains uninjured, the upper por- 
 tion only should be cut away. Just below the line of 
 division between the sound and the frozen wood, is the best 
 place to cut, but unfortunately it cannot be definitely 
 located; hence, each must use his own judgment in decid 
 ing where to cut. The best plan is probably to wait until 
 sprouts start and then cut back below the top ones to 
 where they are healthy, strong and vigorous. The usual 
 tendency is to leave too much old wood; the heart wood 
 rots away, leaving nothing but a shell, frequently so thin 
 and weak that the branches which develop upon it break 
 down when they become loaded with fruit. Wiring must 
 be resorted to to support them and even this is not always 
 successful. 
 
 Where sprouts are slow in starting, the removal 
 of the earth from about the crown and crown roots will 
 hasten them. Good cultivation, loosening and opening 
 the soil will also assist in bringing them forward. 
 
 It has been repeatedly demonstrated that there is a 
 distinct relation between the size of the trunk and its re- 
 sistance to cold. Small trees suffer much more severely 
 than large ones. For this reason a single trunk from each 
 frozen back tree is desirable. A scheme frequently adop- 
 ted is to allow one good strong sprout to develop in the 
 trunk, and inarch a number of others into it. At most, no 
 more than two or three sprouts should be allowed to de- 
 
380 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 velop. Thill them out after they have grown sufiicieiitly 
 to make it possible to choose the more vigorous ones. Ap 
 ply the rule of the survival of the fittest and remove the 
 weaker sprouts. 
 
 After the sprouts have started, it may be necessary 
 in some cases to resort to root-pruning to secure a more 
 vigorous and healthy growth. This may be accomplished 
 by plowing rather deeply, or by the use of the spade. The 
 amount of pruning should be governed by the size of the 
 trees. 
 
 Wliiiifl Sprouts from /■ rozen Trees. Supporting 
 sprouts by one or more wires drawn tightly around them 
 to hold them together is probably the best means ot pre- 
 venting their breaking away. Telegraph wire is best. 
 Some have taken infinite pains in boring a small hole 
 through each branch, through which to pass the wire, be- 
 lieving that if it were simply tied about them that the wire 
 would gradually cut into and destroy the branch. Though 
 such would seem to be a logical conclusion, it does not 
 apiiear to be the case, and observation has shown that the 
 wire or wires may be simply tied around the branches. 
 The wire cuts into the wood but the wood grows over 
 and unites on the outside, leaving the wire firmly imbed- 
 ded in till- wood. Branches wired in this way in 1890 
 have been noted. They are now three to five inches in 
 diameter and the wire jtasscs directly tliroui;li their cen- 
 ters, wirh the wood firmly united about it. The flow of 
 sap and the growth and devclojiment of the liranch are not 
 interfered \vith. 
 
 If the sjirouts start from the ground, a wire should 
 he placed about them three and a half or four feet from the 
 ground. 
 
 Prirniiir/ Tools. The tools used in pruning should 
 
PRUNING CITHUti TREES. 
 
 381 
 
 be made of tlie best materials. The cuttiDg edges should 
 be keen and sharp. Only with a well-sharpened tool can a 
 clean, smooth cut be made ; and a smooth cut is essential 
 to rapid and complete healing of the resulting wound, and 
 the sooner it is healed the better. The injury resulting 
 from the removal of a branch frequently allows the germs 
 of decay to attack the wood and destroy it, and every 
 possible precaution should be taken to avoid their attacks. 
 For the removal of small branches nothing is better 
 than a good pruning-knife with a curved blade (Figure 
 83 E.). In nearly all cases the pruning-knife has been 
 supplanted by the pruning-shears. Many different kinds 
 are placed on the market, but it is generally conceded that 
 durability, ease of operation and everything else consid- 
 ered, pruning-shears of the 
 type illustrated in Figure 83 
 B, are the best. They can be 
 obtained in several different 
 sizes. For the removal of 
 small branches high up in the 
 trees, a pair of tree-pruners 
 such as illustrated in Figure 
 83 A, are essential. They are 
 provided with a handle ten 
 or twelve feet long and are 
 operated from the ground, 
 thus making it possible to re- 
 move branches fifteen to 
 eighteen feet from the ground 
 without the use of a ladder. 
 Two kinds of pruning-saws 
 
 Fig. S3. Pruning Tools. A, Waters „,,„ cliQ-iyT) in Figure 83 TllP 
 trec-pruner. B, Pruning-shears. C. ^ ' ' 
 
 Two-edgea pruning-saw^ ''•'?''''?''' two-cdged saw is a verv use- 
 
 nia prunmg-saw. E, Pnining-knite. ^ 
 
;!,S2 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 ful tool, but is open to the objection that it is not suited 
 (o the removal of branches in close contact, as the remain- 
 ing ones are frequently injured bv the teeth on the back 
 of the saw, i. e., the side opposite the one in use. The Cali- 
 fornia saw is a very convenient tool. The blade may be 
 placed at any angle, thus making it possible to remove 
 branches in cramped positions and to cul them at any an- 
 gle. In pruning lemon trees, a pair of long-handled shears, 
 commonly called lopping-shears are frequently quite 
 useful. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS. 
 
 Dead branches should be cut off and burned. 
 Frequently they harbor insects or the spores of 
 fungi, and these may attack the living parts. All 
 cuts should be made parallel and close to the trunk 
 or branch from which the part is removed. Stubs should 
 not be left. The cut should be smoothed off with a knife, 
 and as soon as completed the cut surface should be painted 
 with white-lead paint. In no case, where a branch of any 
 considerable size is removed, should this precaution be 
 omitted. The paint preserves the part by preventing the en- 
 trance of the germs of decay. 
 
 All heavy pruning in Florida and the Islands should 
 be done before June or the period of heavy rainfall. 
 
 PRUNING THE LEMON. 
 
 The Baronio l^ystcni. This method of pruning the 
 lemon so as to form a low, flat top was brought forward 
 by Mr. A. C. Baronio, of La Mesa, San Diego County, Cali- 
 fornia. The method appears to be best adapted t<i shallow 
 soils, and is not held in favor by those who cultivate the 
 lemon on stronger and heavier soils, as it does not permit 
 
PRUNING CITRUS TREES. 383 
 
 of a sufficiently large fruiting area on the tree. The 
 method is fully described by Mr. Baronio in Culture of 
 the Citrus in California, by B. M. Lelong. 
 
 The ideal tree of the Baronio system is one with a 
 low, flat, wide-spreading top as shown in Plate XXIV. The 
 natural habit of the lemon as in the case of most citrus 
 trees is to develop one or more leading, upright branches in 
 the center of the tree. In pruning by the Baronio system 
 these must be removed from old trees or their formation 
 prevented in the case of young ones. The first branches are 
 allowed to form within sixteen to twenty-four inches of the 
 ground. Large, horizontal branches which form the 
 framework of the tree are allowed to develop. These 
 branches should be some distance one above another, no 
 two of them being allowed to start out at points directly 
 opposite. Three or four primary branches are sufficient. 
 In re-modeling old trees it is frequently necessary to bend 
 these backward and outward until they touch the ground, 
 where they are held in place by stones placed upon their 
 tips. Upon each of these strong laterals, "two suckers are 
 allowed to run, say, one about one foot and the other six- 
 teen .inches from the trunk (all other growth being sup- 
 pressed), and when properly matured these suckers are 
 similarly arched, one to the right and one to the left of 
 the respective original three branches, which by this time 
 will be set into position and may therefore be shortened 
 in, leaving to each a sufficiently projecting stub to which 
 the corresponding newly-arched suckers may be fastened, 
 and thus no longer obstruct the ground below. There 
 will then be three main branches, each subdivided into 
 two secondary branches, giving six structural points 
 around a circle ; and by a succession of similar operations 
 these are in due time doubled to make twelve, and so on. 
 
Plate XXIV. 
 
 Fig. A. Baronio system of Lemon Pruning. 
 
 h'if,'. n. J3aronio system of Lemon Pruning-, aclapted to sliallow soils. 
 
PRUNING CITRUS TREES. 385 
 
 always remembering to leave sufficient space between 
 each of these fan-like main branches so as to allow a man 
 to crawl through them and get into the middle of the tree 
 to command the inside surface as far as he can reach." 
 
 Open-center System. To meet the demand for a 
 large tree and still make it possible to eliminate the cen- 
 tral upright portion of the tree, a number of systems have 
 been brought forward. The most important of these, and 
 one which is steadily growing in favor is the Open-center 
 System. By this method, the central branches are dis- 
 pensed with and the fruit-bearing branches are confined 
 to the outer zone of branches. When the work is well 
 done the tree top resembles an inverted cone when viewed 
 from above the tree, downwards. 
 
 The system is well described as follows by Mr. C. W. 
 I^ffingwell, Jr., manager of the Leffingwell Orchards, 
 Fullerton, Cal.* 
 
 "In the early days of citrus culture in California many 
 lemon-growers did not believe in pruning. At the present 
 time there may be a few who still cling to the idea that 
 nature should be let alone; but nearly all observant grow 
 ers have been forced, by the logic of facts, to the conclu- 
 sion that the lemon tree, in all its varieties, needs pruning, 
 more or less severe, to bring about the best results. 
 
 While the untrained tree grows rapidly and produces 
 heavy crops, the fruit runs largely to culls, and often 
 fails to come to a profitable size. The tree, with its great 
 load of fruit growing at the ends of long limbs, is at the 
 mercy of the winds, and is often split and ruined by the 
 mere weight of its burden. Therefore, it may be true that 
 the lemon tree left to itself will produce heavily, but it is 
 
 * Culture of the Citrus in California, pp. 191-196. 
 14 
 
386 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 i:enerallj- recognized that to produce the largest per ceut 
 of good-sized and fancy lemons the tree must be intelli- 
 gently pruned. 
 
 In the method of pruning (usually adopted) the main 
 object has been to shorten back and strengthen the scaf- 
 fold or main limbs, so that they will carry their load 
 nearer the center of the tree and be stocky and stiff 
 enough to withstand strong winds without swaying and 
 bruising the fruit. This method, properly carried out, 
 has produced good results. It has, however, caused a 
 tendency in the tree to form too thick and dense a head ; 
 a tendency very hard to combat. Even when carefully 
 thinned out, trees shortened back in this way grow faster 
 in their tops than in their lalei'al branches, on the prin- 
 cipal that the sap flows most freely in vertical lines. The 
 result is apt to be a tree high and all top; and this top, 
 while beautiful to behold (to a "tenderfoot") is not fruit- 
 ful, but consists chiefly of rank-growing, vertical leaders, 
 commonly called suckers. These suckers are not supplied 
 with fruit spurs, and are as worthless as so much bam- 
 boo. Even did they bear fruit, it would be almost inac- 
 cessible, and expelisive to pick. The lower limbs, natur- 
 ally the most fruitful, are robbed of sap by the superior 
 drawing powers of the i^p and fail to do their duty. 
 
 To overcome these difficulties the ''open-center" style 
 of pruning has been tried, and has given good results 
 By eliminaling the 1op entirely, the sap is thrown into 
 the lower branches. Tlies(> limbs being horizontal rather 
 than verlical, and more or less bent, elaborate or digest 
 the sa]! and produce heavy cro]is of good-sized fruit. This 
 fruit, moreover, is within reach from the ground and can 
 be economically picked. When the tree is once adapted 
 to this form, the regular pruning is more easily and 
 
PRUNING CITRUS TREES. 387 
 
 quickly performed, the number of limbs to be rut being 
 greatly reduced, and all being within reach from the 
 ground. 
 
 An explanation of the details of this system should 
 properly come under two heads: "Pruning of young 
 trees," and "Altering old trees." As most of the lemon 
 trees in California are three years old or over, this paper 
 will be confined to a discussion of the method of altering 
 old trees to conform to the "open-center" style. 
 
 It is assumed that the trees to be altered are branched 
 fairly near the ground. If they have been up high no sys- 
 tem of pruning will bring the fruit within reach from the 
 ground, but to cut out the tops will save sap and make the 
 lower limbs, such as they are, more fruitful. 
 
 Assuming, then, that the grower has trained his trees 
 near the ground, and has not caused the branches to grow 
 up for elephants to walk under, the method of procedure 
 is as follows : Draw an imaginary line around the out- 
 side of the tree, as high up as a man can reach standing 
 on a picking-box. All the limbs that terminate above this 
 line should be cut out. Cut them off at their juncture 
 with the limbs that terminate below the imaginary line. 
 When this is done the top of the tree, looking down into 
 it, will look like the inside of an inverted cone, and the 
 tree may be called open-centered. 
 
 If the trees are small, cut out all limbs that extend 
 up from the center of the tree at an angle greater than 
 forty-five degrees from the horizontal. The tree in appear- 
 ance will then be proportionately the same as the older 
 tree above described, and can be trained gradually to the 
 same limit of height. 
 
 Thei after-treatment of an open-centered tree, what- 
 ever its size, resolves itself into two distinct operations : 
 
388 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 the treatment of the hollow top, and the training of the 
 main branches. 
 
 The hollow, cone-shaped opening in the top of the 
 tree will soon be filled with shoots springing from buds 
 on the main limbs, these buds being now exposed to the 
 sun and excited into growth. Some of these shoots will 
 stop growing when from six to twelve inches long, and 
 will harden up and form fruit spurs. Others of these 
 shoots will continue to grow at their terminal bud, retain- 
 ing the color and appearance of tender sucker growth. 
 When all have grown long enough to show their charac- 
 ter, cut out the suckers and leave the fruit-spurs. As a 
 result, the saucer-like top of the tree will in time be 
 clothed with short spurs, shading the main limbs, and 
 bearing fruit of finest quality. The top, before a dense 
 thicket, is now made fruitful, without in any way inter- 
 fering with the remaining (most fruitful) branches. 
 With each growth the suckers will for some years persist 
 in coming, but are easy to take out as soon as they show 
 their identity. 
 
 The treatment of the lower branches which remain 
 is the same as if the top had not been removed. If the tree 
 has been well trained from the start its skeleton will con- 
 sist of three or four strong main branches leaving the 
 trunk near the ground, and running out more or less hori- 
 zontally; and one or two more sets or decks of the same 
 number of branches, leaving the trunk above these and 
 extending out at an angle of from thirty to forty-five de- 
 grees. These limbs will have been pruned back at inter 
 VJils, and, formini; forks at e;ic-h ])iuning, will be found 
 to support an increasing number of branches as the out 
 side of the tree is approached. 
 
PRUNING CITRUS TREES. 389 
 
 The problem is how to handle the new growth on the 
 tips of these branches. In solving this problem we should 
 keep in mind the objects in view, which are: to make 
 the tree stocky, and at the same time to keep it from get- 
 ting too dense. The pruning should be confined entirely 
 to an effort to control the growth of the skeleton of the 
 tree, letting nature take care of the fruit-spurs with which 
 this skeleton is clothed. 
 
 The terminal shoots or leaders of the tree should be 
 left alone until they have grown to be several feet in 
 length and from one quarter to one half inch in diame- 
 ter. They should then be cut back, leaving from six to ten 
 inches from the last pruning. In cutting back a vertical 
 leader, cut to a bud that points out, away from the tree; 
 horizontal leaders should be cut to a bud that points up 
 By persevering in this practice the limbs can be trained 
 out, then up, then out again ; they will be angular and 
 crooked, which is conducive to fruitfulness. Their angl- 
 ing direction will help to brace them against the ever- 
 growing leverage of their fruit and foliage, so that, while 
 they may in time be bent down to the horizontal, they 
 will never droop and rest upon the ground. 
 
 After each cutting back these leaders should be left 
 alone and nature given full sway; and this is what will 
 happen : Five or six buds nearest the cut will be excited 
 into growth. Then will ensue a struggle to see which of 
 these buds will get the most sap. The terminal bud is 
 sure to get its share, and become a strong, sucker-like 
 shoot. Probably one or two others will secure enough 
 nutriment to become suckers likewise. The rest of the 
 buds will have to give up their ambition to shine, and 
 will settle down to the domestic role of bearing lemons, 
 and thus perpetuating their species. These are the shoots 
 
390 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 that we are after. Were it not for the cutting back 
 these buds would become dormant and lost to use; the 
 leader on which they are situated would grow five or sii 
 feet perhaps, before nature would make another branch 
 ing, and give more buds a chance to go to housekeeping. 
 
 How to handle the shoots which get the sap and be 
 come leaders is an important question. It is right her( 
 that judicious thinning should be done, to keep the tret 
 from becoming too dense. All the shoots should be lefl 
 until long enough to show which will be fruit-spurs and 
 which leaders. All but one of the leaders, the one which 
 points in the desired direction, should be cut off clean 
 This leader will thus become the foundation of all future 
 growth on this branch. At the next pruning it would be 
 well to leave two leaders, laying the foundation for a nev. 
 branch. By alternating in this way we can increase the 
 number of ramifications of the tree, without getting it 
 too dense — the trouble with most lemon trees. 
 
 These new leaders, when grown big enough, should in 
 turn be cut back, and treated in the same manner. Be 
 yond this, and keeping water-sprouts out of the center, 
 little need be done to the tree. Nature will take care oi 
 the rest. 
 
 It may seem impracticable to apply one set of rules 
 to all varieties of the lemon tree, but in the experience 
 of the Avriter^ all have responded to this method of treat 
 ment. The Lisbon, being first and last a lusty grower, 
 is bound, whatever the style of pruning, to' make a rank 
 mass of new wood. Let it grow, and cut off what is not 
 wanted; let it grow again, and cut it back again. It can 
 be made to bear plenty of fruit within easy reach ; if left 
 to itself it will produce little but stovewood. 
 
PRVNINa CITRUS TREES. 391 
 
 The Eureka and Villaf rak ca, being of more tract- 
 able habits, form less and less new wood as they grow older 
 and their crops increase; so that in time little or no prun- 
 ing is necessary. 
 
 The question has been asked whether the fruit- 
 spurs of the lemon go on bearing, or die after bearing a 
 few crops; making necessary a constant growth of new 
 wood, as with the orange and peach. From observation, 
 the writer believes that the lemon spur, with the apple and 
 pear, is long lived and goes on bearing for years. If, on 
 the other hand, the spurs are really short lived, severe 
 pruning alone will insure new wood. 
 
 Xo radical system should be generally adopted with- 
 out careful trial. The "open-center" system has been ap- 
 plied to a large acreage of lemon trees, with unmistakable 
 benefits, and the number of acres so treated is increasing. 
 In the orchards in charge of the writer sixteen thousand 
 trees, mostly three years old, have been changed to con- 
 form to this style. Hardly a tree has been lost in the 
 transformation, and prominent horticulturists pronounce 
 the trees unsurpassed for their age, in size, condition, or 
 fruitfulness. Where before was despair as to what to do 
 with the troublesome tops, now all is simple and easily 
 done. It would pay every lemon-grower to try these sug- 
 gestions on a few trees, and let the results speak for 
 themselves." 
 
 Other systems of pruning the lemon are in use in 
 California, but the two just described are probably the 
 most important which have been brought forward up to 
 the present time. 
 
Plate XXV. 
 
 Tub-grown Orange Trer in Flower an<l Fruit. 
 
CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
 
 POT CULTURE OF CITRUS FRUITS. 
 
 All varieties of citrus fruits umj- be grown in pots or 
 tubs. The perfumed flowers and the riih, glossy foliage 
 of well-kept specimens make tliem exceedingly desirable 
 plants for the greenhouse or house conservatory. Fruit 
 can be secured in greenhouses if care is exercised, but 
 when grown in an ordinary livingroom, the chances for 
 fruit production are not so good. The writer has grown 
 the pomelo so as to secure a box of fruit from a single tree, 
 fruit, too, that was juicy and of good quality. 
 
 Specimens for planting in pots can usually be secured 
 from nurserj'men in the citrus-growing districts. They 
 should be of small or medium size, with well-developed 
 root systems. Plants may be propagated if so desired. 
 Cuttings may be made, rooted and afterwards either bud- 
 ded or allowed to retain their own tops. Specimens 
 raised from cuttings of such varieties as can be raised 
 from cuttings, are quite satisfactory. It is possible to 
 raise Otaheite and trifoliate oranges, lemons and citrons 
 from cuttings, but it is not practicable to root cuttings of 
 sweet orange, pomelo and lime. If so desired, citrus seeds 
 may be procured and sowed in flats (Fig. 41). When they 
 have germinated and reached a height of three or four 
 inches they should be transferred to pots. As soon as 
 they are as thick as a lead pencil or a little larger, they 
 may be budded. Buds can be secured from any citrus 
 nurseryman. 
 
 Perhaps the most desirable stock for potted plants 
 is C. trifoliata, but the Otaheite orange is also good. 
 Either of these, it is believed, will make the potted plant 
 
394 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 a little more precocious and prolific. But good results 
 can be obtained with almost any stock. Even Rough 
 lemon, than which there is no more rapid-growing stock, 
 has proved satisfactory. The confinement of the roots by 
 the pot or tub, reduces all stocks to nearly the same level 
 so far as inducing fruitfulness is concerned. 
 
 In dealing with potted plants, the soil is almost en- 
 tirely under the control of the grower. A number of dif- 
 ferent soils give good results. One composed of equal 
 parts of virgin soil from the woods, sand and well-rotted 
 cow manure has proved satisfactory. When the materials 
 can be obtained easily, a soil made up of one-quarter good 
 garden soil, one-quarter sand, one-quarter leaf mold and 
 one-quarter thoroughly-rotted cow manure is probably as 
 good as can be put together. The composition may be 
 varied greatly, but in all cases a sticky, pasty soil, too re- 
 tentive of moisture should be avoided. 
 
 Careful attention must be given to the size of the pot. 
 As the trees increase in size, they should be transferred 
 from one size to another as they become pot-bound. Older 
 trees should be placed in large tubs, but in general it may 
 be said that it is not advisable to increase the size of the 
 tub beyond a diameter of three feet. Perfect drainage 
 should be jirovided, a point too frequently overlooked. 
 This may be secured by bnring holes in the bottoms of the 
 tubs, and filling in to a depth of two or three inches with 
 large pieces of broken pottery. The soil should be well 
 packed about the roots in potting. The large tubs should 
 be filled only to within four or five inches of the top with 
 soil. Afterward, when the plant has become established 
 and the soil somewhat depleted, this space can be filled in 
 with potting soil containing a half or so of well-rotted 
 cow manure. Re-potting may be obviated by replacing 
 this top laj'er with fresh material from time to time. 
 
POT CULTURtl OF CITRUS FRUITS. i r-, 
 
 * '39S 
 
 Dwarf varieties, such as Otahite (useless for its 
 fruit), the kumquat and the Myrtle-leaved orange. (C. 
 Myrtifolia of Bisso) make excellent pot plants. They do 
 not need large pots and do not require re-potting as fre- 
 quently as the large varieties. They produce flowers of 
 rather small size but in great abundance and fruit may be 
 easily secured. If flowers are the desired object, no va- 
 riety surpasses Satsuma, which produces its flowers dense- 
 ly packed along the branches. The sweet lemon produces 
 a profusion of sweet-scented flowers, purple on the outside 
 of the corollas. Of the sweet oranges, it is best to choose 
 those which can be dwarfed by growing on C. trifoliata, 
 if that stock is used. The following lists of varieties are 
 recommended : 
 
 Sweet Oranges — 
 Majorca, JafEa, 
 Pineapple, Centen- 
 nial, Ruby, Maltese 
 Blood and Tardifif. 
 
 Pomelos — Dun- 
 can, Hall, Pernam- 
 buco, Marsh and 
 Royal. 
 
 Lemons — Villa- 
 franca, Genoa, Pon- 
 derosa and Sweet. 
 
 Limes — Tahiti, 
 Mexican and Rang- 
 pur. 
 
 Eumquats — .Ma- 
 
 rumi and Nagami. ^..^ 3, Pot-grown Maruml Kumquat. 
 
396 CITRUS FRUIT8 AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 MaiiddiiiiK — Satsuiiia. Dancy and China. 
 .MIsccllaiicoiis — < Itlieite and Myrtle-leaved. 
 It is not advisable to grow seedling specimens in pots, 
 as they seldom bloom or fruit. 
 
 PRUNING POT PLANTS. 
 
 From time to time it is necessary to prune the tops of 
 pot plants. Small, immature branches accumulate and 
 should be removed before they die. Every five or six years 
 it may be necessary to head-in the tops to keep them with- 
 in bounds and to favor tlie production of new, vigorous 
 wood. In doing this, all the large or medium-sized 
 branches should be cut back, leaving three or four good 
 buds on each one and the smaller branches should be re- 
 moved entirely. As a result of this treatment no fruit 
 will be borne for at least two seasons, but a healthy, vigor- 
 ous top will be secured. 
 
 FERTILIZING AND WATERING. 
 
 Fertilizers may be given in the form of liquid manure 
 and lop dressings of bone meal and sulphate of potash. 
 This latter substance should be used with caution, else In- 
 jury to the roots may result. It should be given only in 
 numerous small applications. Good results have also been 
 obtained from the use of dried blood and bone meal in com- 
 bination with sulphate of potash. IMants should not be 
 allowed to become starved. This condition is readily 
 shown by the yellowing of the foliage and by poor wood 
 development. 
 
 Water must be supplied in sufficient quantities. Xo 
 citrus tree will long lemain in a healthy condition if a suf- 
 ficiency of water is not supplied. If an insufficient amount 
 is given, the leaves curl and drop, fruit, if present, also 
 
POT CULTURE OF CITRUS FRUITS. 397 
 
 fulls and the smaller twigs die back. On the other hand 
 if too much water is applied, the leaves become yellow and 
 fall and the whole plant assumes a sickly appearance. 
 The remedy for the first condition is to give water, and if 
 the plant has been exposed to strong sunlight, it should be 
 shaded or transferred to a shady place. If the plant is 
 suffering from a superabundance of water, it should be 
 turned out of the pot or tub immediately, a large portion 
 of the wet soil removed and the plant repotted. A moist 
 atmospheric condition is beneficial to citrus trees. 
 
 Some make the mistake of thinking that citrus trees 
 do not need a rest, forgetting that a period of rest is as 
 necessary for their welfare as it is for ordinary deciduous 
 fruit trees. For about two months during the winter 
 season, the full amount of water should not be given and 
 the temperature should be reduced to 40 or 50 degrees. 
 Water should, of course, be given but not in sufficient 
 quantities to excite growth, though this would hardly hap- 
 pen at so low a temperature, but enough should be supplied 
 to make good the loss through the leaves and prevent their 
 falling. 
 
 This treatment will cause the wood to harden and 
 prepare it for blooming. Following this rest period, a 
 higher temperature, 75 degrees or more, should be given, 
 water should be supplied in the usual amounts, fertilizer 
 applied and the plants placed in a well-lighted, airy place. 
 Plants of sufflcient age, treated in this way will bloom 
 during the spring or summer months. In summer the pot- 
 ted plants may be set out of doors. 
 
 TREATMENT OF INSECTS. 
 
 Considerable difficulty is usually experienced in keep- 
 ing potted plants free from insects. The worst and most 
 
398 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 common enemies are the scale insects and mealy-bug (Dac- 
 tylopiiis citri). The scales can best be held in check, either 
 by spraying, for which purpose Good's Potash Whale Oil 
 Soap No. 3 is recommended, or by fumigating. The 
 mealy-bugs are more difficult to deal with. The cottony 
 substance by which they are generally covered is imper- 
 vious to sprays and the only method which is at all effi- 
 cacious is to go carefully over the trees and brush the 
 mealy-bugs off, then spray thoroughly with whale-oil soap 
 and follow with thorough applications of the same mixture 
 at intervals of ten days. It should be worked-in well so as 
 to penetrate the woolly covering. For further notes on 
 these insects see section on insects. 
 
CHAPTER XXXIX. 
 HANDLING THE CITRUS CROP. 
 
 No portion of the history of citrus fruit culture is 
 more interesting than that which pertains to the evolu- 
 tion of our present systems of preparing the fruit for 
 market. When the first oranges were shipped to nearby 
 points from the Florida districts, boxes and barrels of 
 various sorts and sizes were used. The curing of the 
 fruit and its preparation for market were not understood 
 as they are now. As a natural result, heavy losses were 
 frequently suffered and many became disgusted with the 
 growing of citrus fruits. 
 
 Mr. F. G. Sampson, of Boardman, Fla., under date of 
 August 2, 1903, has written the following interesting letter 
 to the author, giving his first experiences in marketing cit- 
 rus fruits. Many others went through much the same 
 trials before they discovered the secret of placing the fruit 
 on the market in inviting shape : 
 
 "When we came to Florida in 1874, oranges were 
 poured into second-hand barrels, shaken down and headed 
 up and rather roughly handled all the way through. 
 After two or three years the supply of barrels was not 
 enough for the increasing crops, and boxes were brought 
 in from Maine. They were of different sizes and we 
 found a great deal of trouble in filling them, often hav- 
 ing to take the fruit out and repack so as to make the 
 box right on top. 
 
 "I should think it was in '76 that Mr. E. Bean (who 
 lately died at Jacksonville) bought a number of crops of 
 oranges on Orange Lake at Citra, and he, with Messrs. 
 
4(l:> CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Harris and Bishop — I thinli they were the chief ones — 
 decided that the square box, 12x12x27, was the most con- 
 venient size. They figured up the size of orange for each 
 pack and practically the present style of packing and 
 number per box as generally packed now. AN'e sized the 
 fruit by holes cut in a piece of thin wood, handling each 
 orange and placing it in the box, but Mr. H. B. SI evens, 
 then with Bishop & Co. (now manager for J. B. Stetson, 
 DeLand), got up a sizer which did much better work and 
 saved an immense amount of labor. 
 
 "It was the second year of our shipping that we got 
 a bit of experience which showed us the need of careful 
 handling. Our fruit had to be hauled twenty miles to the 
 railroad and the time those railroads made was very slow, 
 so that, although our crops were being sold in South Caro- 
 lina, we often had complaints of rot. We had a visitor 
 who urged us to ship a few barrels to a friend of his in 
 the commission business in New York, and we made i 
 shipment of six barrels. The reports said that half were 
 rotten. The remainder sold for fll.OO per barrel for the 
 three barrels of sound fruit. Before we got those re- 
 turns six barrels more were on the way. That trip the 
 steamer picked up a disabled steamer and, bringing her 
 back to port, made a very long passage for our fruit. TJic 
 report came 'seventy sound oranges only. Please remit 
 balance on freight.' That seemed to settle the matter, as 
 a neighbor said. 'It is as I told you, you can't ship oranges 
 to New York,' and told of his experience the year before. 
 
 "I was not satisfied, however, that fruit which would 
 remain sound on the trees for months could not be pul 
 in Xcw York sound. I knew the fruit was not being 
 liandled decently anyhow, so I said I would make one 
 more shipment. Captain Keej) said he wanted to join in, 
 
HANDLING THE CITRUS CROP. 493 
 
 ?o he took three of the barrels to his house (first being 
 more careful in picking and handling fruit) and he packed 
 them first a layer of black moss, then a layer of oranges, 
 and so on, and marked the number of oranges on each 
 barrel outside. I packed one barrel first a layer of 
 oranges, then a sheet of newspaper, second barrel papered 
 each orange, and third barrel no paper (same as all ship- 
 ments before), and marking the number of fruit in each 
 barrel. We requested an exact report on each barrel by 
 number. The report came: 'Not a rotten orange in any 
 barrel,' and they sold at |16.00 per barrel. That seemed 
 to tell the story and from that day my brand has had the 
 reputation of standing up. An orange does not show 
 a bruise, but it is likely to be there all the same, and the 
 only safe way is to handle, not pour the fruit. If fruit 
 drops the shortest distance, it should not go in the regular 
 shipment." 
 
 For convenience in discussing the marketing of citrus 
 fruits we have considered the subject under these heads: 
 (1) Picking, (2) Curing, (3) Grading, (4) Packing, ^5) 
 Marketing. 
 
 PICKING THE FRUIT. 
 
 Time. Early in the season, when the markets are 
 good, there is a strong temptation to pick sweet oranges, 
 pomelos and mandarin oranges before they are ripe. Only 
 too frequently large quantities of green fruit are placed 
 on the market, particularly during the months of Sep- 
 tember, October and November. • The result is that the 
 market is weakened, the reputation of the growers suffers 
 and frequently loss of money brings the folly of the prac- 
 tice more strongly to the notice of those who would be 
 
404 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 lirst in the market, whether the fruit is ready to ship or 
 not. 
 
 For the early market, early ripening varieties should 
 be planted. If oranges and pomelos are removed from 
 the trees before they are matured, they assume a light 
 yellow color and an exterior appearance which may de- 
 ceive one into believing they are ripe, but they never ac- 
 quire the rich, delicate flavor of the fruit ripened on the 
 trees and, more than that, they generally have a decidedly 
 disagreeable bitter flavor. The taste and flavor of the fruit 
 first eaten, leaves no wish or desire to sample another. 
 The practice of picking and marketing green fruit can- 
 not be too strongly condemned. 
 
 The early varieties of oranges, such as Early Oblong, 
 Parson Brown and Boone, should be picked just as soon 
 as matured. It is a fact that but few of the early oranges 
 ever equal the late varieties in quality and flavor, and 
 they become very flat and insipid if allowed to remain on 
 the trees after they reach maturity. The best rule is to 
 pick them immediately they have acquired their best fla- 
 vor. This, unfortunately, is often a little before they are 
 fully colored. 
 
 In the case of mid-season and late oranges there is 
 a longer period during which they are in good condition 
 and there is much less danger of their deteriorating in 
 quality, because of over-ripeness. The period during which 
 the.y are in good marketable condition may extend over 
 a number of weeks and the grower has an opportunity 
 to market his fruit to better advantage. Mid-season and 
 late varieties should not, however, be picked until fully 
 ripened. The sugar content and quality gradually in- 
 crease up to the time of full matTirity and if removed 
 from tlie trees before this time, the quality and flavor is 
 
HANDLIXG THE CITRUS CROP. 405 
 
 not all that might be desired. On the other hand, if held 
 on the trees too long, oranges may become deficient in 
 juice and a considerable amount of fruit may drop. 
 
 Though most of the pomelos grown in Florida are 
 shipped before the first of January, it is a fact that but 
 few varieties reach their highest perfection until Febru- 
 ary or March, or even later. To secure the finest quality 
 of fruit it should not be picked until about that time. 
 
 Lemons and limes must be picked while green, but 
 they should be well grown before they are taken from the 
 trees. The rule for lemons is to pick them when they will 
 pass through a two-and-a-quarter-inch ring. But any va- 
 riety of lemon which is not well grown at that diameter 
 is not desirable. If allowed to ripen on the trees, lemons 
 become overgrown and do not develop the strong, clear 
 acid that characterizes the well-cured fruit. 
 
 Kumquats should be picked as soon as well matured 
 and colored. 
 
 During the time of picking, it is preferable that the 
 weather be dry and the atmosphere free from fog or other 
 moisture. Bright, clear weather, with a temperature of 
 about seventy degrees is ideal. 
 
 Clippers. Since all citrus fruits should be cut, not 
 pulled, from the trees, because the rind of pulled fruit 
 is broken, giving a chance for decay to set in, clippers of 
 some sort are a necessity. The blades of orange clippers 
 must have sharp cutting edges, and so curved as to make 
 it possible to cut the stem close to the fruit. Xo portion 
 of the stem should remain on the fruit, else it may punc- 
 ture the rinds of other fruits in the processes of picking and 
 packing, therefore the cut should be made close to the 
 calvx. 
 
406 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Many different kinds of clippers have been put on 
 the market, but those of the Weiss type, with rather thin, 
 curved blades, permitting close cutting of the fruit stems 
 are best. They can be obtained of any dealer in horti- 
 cultural supplies at a cost of about one dollar per pair. 
 
 Field Boxes. Quite a number of different kinds of 
 field boxes are in common use in our citrus groves or 
 orchards. Some growers use the ordinary orange boxes, 
 those in which the fruit is to be shipped, filling them in 
 the grove, transporting them to the packing house and 
 then repacking them in the same boxes after curing, siz- 
 ing and wrapping. This method is very good where the 
 fruit has to be transported long distances to the packing 
 house, but there is danger of soiling the boxes and they 
 are somewhat awkward to handle. 
 
 Convenient field boxes may be made from orange 
 boxes by providing them with handles by cutting a hand 
 hold through the ends two or two and a half inches down 
 from the upper edges. These cannot thereafter be used 
 for shipping fruit, but must be used entirely as field 
 boxes. 
 
 A handy field box is illustrated in Fig. 85. Mr. W. S. 
 Hart, of Hawks' Park, Fla., who invented it, thus de- 
 scribes it in the Report of the Florida State Horticultural 
 Society for 1892: 
 
 "The ends or heads are 1x10x12 inches, and have a 
 hand hold two inches down from the upper edge; on the 
 inside at the top is a half-inch rabbet, cut one-half inch 
 deep; and across the ends of the heads, except for one 
 inch up from the bottom is nailed a cleat, 1x1 1-2 inches. 
 This strip forms a stop at each end of the rabbet and also 
 prevents the heads from splitting. Just flush with the 
 Ijottoin of the ral)bet is nailed a linlf-inch cleat along its 
 
HANDLING THE CITRUS CROP. 
 
 407 
 
 lengtli that serves to make the bottom of the rabbet one 
 inch wide. 
 
 "The heads are one inch further apart at the top than 
 at the bottom. 
 
 "The sides and bottoms are the ordinary sawed pine, 
 1-4 inch tliick by 6 inches wide and 26 5-8 inches long ; 
 these are better tlian veneer, being stiffer, which prevents 
 pinching of the fruit; the sides are nailed 1 inch up from 
 the bottoms, leaving free circulation of air ; the ends stand 
 ?. inches above the sides. 
 
 "These boxes hold about two-thirds of a standard 
 
 Fig-. S5. Field box for Iiandling fruit. 
 
 box of packed fruit, and can be piled, one above another, 
 as high as a person can reach without danger of crush- 
 ing the fruit. The rabbets hold them from slipping, when 
 tiered up in hauling, and as there is free ventilation and 
 no heavy mass of fruit in any one box, they can be stacked 
 up in the packing house and left until the fruit is needed, 
 with as little danger of injury as though they were in 
 slatted bins." 
 
 Picking Bags or Baskets. The most common form of 
 receptacle for holding the fruit in picking is a canvas or 
 duck bag, slung across the shoulder with the mouth' open- 
 ing on the left hand side. The objection to any form of 
 
4(.t8 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 picking bag or saclv is that the fruit may be jammed or 
 bi-uised through the saclv against the sides and rounds of 
 Ihe ladder or the branches and trunlis of the trees. In- 
 Jury to the fruit would not occur from this source if 
 careful, conscientious pickers could always be secured, 
 but even then it is diCflcult to keep from bruising the 
 fruit. Furthermore, there is always a strong tempta 
 tion to pour the fruit from the picking bag into the field 
 box without removing it from the shoulder. As a matte?- 
 ■of fact, under ideal methods of handling the fruit, it should 
 
 never be poured out. 
 
 All things considered, one of 
 the very best picking recep 
 tacles is the wickerwork bas- 
 ket — Fig. 86 — manufactured by 
 the Wakefield Rattan Com- 
 pany, of Boston, Mass. The 
 bottom is of wood and inside 
 it is lined with heavy duck. 
 By means of a stout, broad 
 strap it is slung across the 
 shoulder. Inside it measures 
 13 1-2 X 15 1-2 X 7 3-4 inches. 
 The newer ones have the front 
 higher than the back, which in- 
 creases its capacity, as it dips 
 forward somewhat when filled. 
 The advantage of this basket 
 Fig. 86. wickj^r-work picking j^ that the sidcs protcct the 
 
 fruit from injury and the fruit 
 can be conveniently lifted out with the hands and placed 
 in the field boxes. 
 
Fig. 87. Ladders for picking- fruit. 
 
410 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Ladders. In picking citrus fruits a ladder of some 
 sort is generally a necessity. If the trees are low and com- 
 pactly headed, a ladder may not be in much demand, but 
 usually in removing fruit from trees of any consider- 
 able size something of the kind must be provided. 
 
 For removing the fruit from the outside branches 
 a light, strong ladder, such as illustrated in the upper 
 right-hand corner of Fig. 87 is best. It should have suffi- 
 cient breadth at the base to prevent its tipping when laid 
 flat against the branches of the tree. The length will, 
 of course, be governed by the height of the trees. 
 
 It is a difficult matter to place an ordinary ladder 
 in the centre of a tree when removing the fruit from the 
 inside branches. For this part of the tree a ladder in 
 which the uprights are united at the top is not so likely 
 to calch in the branches and is, therefore, much more 
 easily handled. Such a ladder is illustratefl in Fig. 87. 
 
 Stepladders of the ordinary type are somewhat diffi- 
 cult to manage. The trouble with them is that they will 
 not stand securely unless the ground is perfectly level, 
 a condition not always secured, and the lower branches 
 of the tree frequently interfere with the double supports 
 in placing the ladder straight against the tree. A step- 
 ladder with a single support, such as is shown in Plate 
 XX^'i'I is much preferable, much more easily placed in posi- 
 tion, and just as secure and substantial as though pro- 
 vided with two supports. 
 
 Firhl Wagons. A low truck is best for hauling fruit 
 from the grove to the packing house. The height to which 
 the fruit has (n be lifted in loading is much less and the 
 low wheels arc not so likely to interfere with the l)ranches 
 of the trees in passing thvoiigli the grove. The wagons 
 
HANDLING THE CITRUS CROP. 411 
 
 used in hauling fruit should be provided with good 
 springs. 
 
 It is best that the fruit be not exposed to the sun 
 after it is removed from the trees. Neither should the 
 packed boxes of fruit be exposed to the strong rays of the 
 sun. To protect the fruit, either in hauling from the grove 
 to the packing house or from the packing house to the 
 shipping point, a duck or canvas cover should be thrown 
 over it. 
 
 Pickers and Picking. Good, reliable pickers only, 
 should be engaged. They should be careful men, who 
 can be trusted to handle the fruit carefully. Too much 
 stress cannot be laid upon the proper manner of hand- 
 ling the fruit at this stage. When the fruit is removed 
 from the trees, the rind is charged with moisture, par- 
 ticularly early in the season, and great care must be 
 exercised in handling it. The pickers should be in 
 structed that fruit must not be dropped, poured from one 
 receptacle to another, or bruised in any way. Slight 
 bruises cannot be seen, but they may be there neverthe- 
 less, and will eventually show up in the form of soft, 
 rotten spots. Any picker who handles fruit carelessly, and 
 who will not mend his ways should be promptly dismissed. 
 If a number of pickers are engaged they should be placed 
 in charge of a competent foreman. 
 
 The picker's fingernails should be trimmed short, 
 particularly in picking lemons. The rind of the fruit is 
 frequently cut and punctured by long, sharp nails, and 
 fruit otherwise good and sound frequently has to be con- 
 signed to the cull heap for this reason alone. 
 
 Pickers may be engaged by the day, week or month, 
 or the picking may be paid for by the box. In the latter 
 case, some system of checking must be employed. The 
 
412 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 fruit picked by eacli individual may be designated by a 
 number marked on the end of the field box. 
 
 CURING. 
 
 Washing. If it is necessary to wash the fruit, it 
 should be done as soon as it is brought to the packing 
 house. Washing, whether by machinerj^ or by hand, 
 should be very carefully done. Care must be taken not 
 to bruise or injure the rind of the fruit. Various ma- 
 chines are in use for washing and brushing the fruit so 
 as to make it bright and clean. Among these may be 
 mentioned the Warner washer, manufactured by S. C. 
 Warner, Palatka, Fla., and the Tangent Fruit Washer, 
 manufactured by AA'right Bros., Riverside, Cal. The 
 ideal washer should do the work thoroughly without in- 
 jury to the rind of the fruit. AVhile it is a fact that the 
 appearance of fruit which shows the presence of sooty 
 mold, fly-speck fungus or scales, can be very materially 
 im|)roved by washing, still the process must not be so 
 severe as to injure the shipping quality of the fruit. 
 
 If small lots of fruit are to be washed, it may be 
 done by hand, using a medium stiff brush or the membrane 
 of the dish-rag gourd. To polish fruit so as to give it 
 a bright, glossy appearance nothing is better than a hand- 
 ful of natural sheep's wool or a piece of soft flannel rag. 
 
 Effects and Need of Curing. When citrus fruits are 
 freshly removed from the trees, the cells of the rind are 
 filled A\'ith moisture to their fullest extent. In this con- 
 dition, the rind is brittle and easily cracked or broken 
 in handling. This is more particularly true of the fruit 
 in the first part of the season than it is along in March 
 and April. 
 
413 
 
 If the fruit is bruised or bumped when the cells of 
 the rind are congested, it is very injurious to its keeping 
 quality. In fact it would be very difficult to put it 
 through the processes of grading, sizing and packing with- 
 out doing serious damage to the fruit. In packing, it is 
 always advisable to have the fruit a half inch or so above 
 the edges of the box before putting the head or cover 
 on it. The cover is pressed down in a header or press 
 and considerable pressure is necessary. The writer has 
 stood in packing houses and seen the heads put on boxes 
 of uncured fruit with such force as to burst the rinds 
 of the fruit and send the juice spurting in tiny streams 
 through the cracks in the box or trickling down the sides. 
 Such practice is ruinous to the keeping quality of the 
 fruit and to the trade. 
 
 Citrus fruits should not be packed without curing. 
 Late in the season there may be occasional exceptions. 
 In the process of curing, the rind decreases in thickness, 
 parts with much of its moisture, becomes tough and 
 leather}', and adheres closely to the pulp ball. When thor- 
 oughly cured, the fruit may be squeezed out of shape and 
 properly packed without bursting the rind. Fig. 88 shov/s 
 a cross-section of a well-cured pomelo, while Plate XXVII 
 illustrates the difference in thickness between a cured and 
 an uncured lemon. Note how the rind of the pomelo is 
 indented and bent from its former spherical shape. Its 
 ability to withstand injury has been materially increased, 
 and so in the curing of all citrus fruits. 
 
 The loss of the moisture from the rind is another 
 important item. If packed fresh from the trees the mois- 
 ture leaves the fruit after packing, and the damp, wet con- 
 dition in the box is particularly favorable to the devel- 
 opment of decay. In the process of curing, all slight im- 
 
414 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 perfections and bruises show plainly, thus making it pos- 
 sible to select and pack a finer grade of fruit. 
 
 Curing Oranges and Pomelos. The treatment of 
 these fruits preparatory to shipping is different from the 
 curing or processing of the lemon. Fruits of these groups 
 should generally be cured about four or five days. Under 
 
 Fig. NS. Cross-section of a well-cured Pomelo. Note 
 the thin, leathery rind. 
 
 special conditions a shorter time will sufflce, and if very 
 long- distance shipments are to be made, it may even be 
 necessary to cure for a longer period. Fruit has been 
 shipped from Florida to England, Russia and Australia 
 without refrigeration and arrived in perfect condition, 
 but special pains were taken in curing and packing. 
 This simply illustrates what may be accomplished. 
 
HANDLING THE CITRUS CROP. 415 
 
 The packing house must be sufficiently couiniodious 
 to accommodate a considerable amount of fruit. During 
 the process the fruit may be placed iu shallow bins placed 
 against the wall. These should be padded on the bottoms 
 and sides. One of the most efficient arrangements of 
 bins for citrus fruit curing is that used by W. S. Hart, 
 of Hawks' Park, Fla. Trays are provided, 6x5 feet 
 and sufficiently deep to hold two or three layers of fruit. 
 They are placed in two tiers across the room, pivoted in 
 pairs between upright posts. Pins placed through the 
 posts hold them in place. When it is desired to roll or 
 move the fruit about, the pin in a certain tray, holding 
 that tray in a horizontal position, is withdrawn and it 
 is tipped either to one side or the other. This gives an 
 excellent chance to expose the fruit to the air. The bot- 
 toms are made of slats two or two and one-half inches 
 wide and rounded off on the edges, spaced about one- 
 half inch apart. 
 
 Fruit may be cured very nicely in field boxes, such 
 as illustrated in Fig. 85. A sufficient number of these must 
 be provided to hold the picking and they may be stacked 
 in the packing house in tiers, as high as convenient. 
 
 During the process of curing there should be a free 
 circulation of cool, dry air. 
 
 Curing Lemons. The curing and holding of lemons 
 for market is a much more difficult undertaking than the 
 curing of sweet oranges, for instance. The latter are 
 usually marketed as soon as cured, but the bulk of the 
 lemon crop must be held for a considerable length of time 
 before it is marketed. In the first place, the fruit is 
 green when cut, and must be cured and colored before 
 being marketed, and in the second, the fall and winter 
 months are not the ones for lemons. Much of the fruit 
 
HANDLING THE CITRUS CROP. 417 
 
 matures so late that it cannot be placed on the market for 
 a number of months after it is picked. 
 
 The objects to be held in view in curing the lemon are : 
 to reduce the thickness of the rind, make it smooth, tough 
 and leathery; to increase its juiciness proportionately; 
 and hold it in perfect shape until the market season. 
 Many methods for securing these desirable and necessary 
 conditions have been brought forward, but it is, perhaps, 
 not too much to say that an entirely satisfactory method 
 has not yet been advanced. Something still remains to 
 be desired, and in the interests of the industry a thor- 
 ough investigation should be made. 
 
 What appears to be one of the most satisfactory 
 methods of curing lemons and one from which very sat- 
 isfactory resultb have been secured, is that used by the 
 Limoneira Company, of Santa Paula, Cal. Mr. C. C. 
 Teague, the manager, thus describes it in the California 
 Fruit Qroioer, July 11, 1903, and comments 'as well upon 
 the practicability of shipping lemons east to be held in 
 cold storage: 
 
 "The past year marked one of the greatest, if not 
 the greatest, strides that has been taken in the lemon 
 business since the shipping of lemons from California 
 has assumed anything like commercial proportions; a 
 stride that has been a complete revolution of old methods 
 and one that is destined to have a far-reaching effect upon 
 the future of the business. I refer to the open air method 
 as it has been termed, of holding and curing lemons. 
 
 Unfortunately, about 75 per cent of our lemons 
 are gathered in the winter and spring months, and 
 up to last year the experience of our growers and ship- 
 pers who had attempted to hold their fruit until the 
 summer months, had been so disastrous, on account of the 
 
418 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 heavy decay, that they had concluded the most profit- 
 able way was to ship the fruit within from four to six 
 weeks after gathering. The I'esult was that the fruit was 
 not equably distributed throughout the year, and at times 
 the n:arket would be so glutted that the shipper would 
 get "led ink" for his shipment. Not being able to hold 
 his lemons when the market was low, and having only 
 the smaller percentage of his crop in the summer, when the 
 
 price is usually high, 
 one can perhaps im- 
 agine how the lemon 
 growers' books have 
 been balancing at the 
 end of the year and 
 will probably be able 
 to answer the ques- 
 tion often asked : 
 
 Fig. 89. A package of Italian lemons as 
 tbey arrived lu an .Vmorican market. 
 
 budded over to oranges? 
 
 Why are so many 
 lemon groves being 
 
 "STYLB OP PAI.'KIXG HOUSES. 
 
 ''The old stylo lemon house, and the one still used 
 by many of our growers, is a double-walled, double-roofed 
 affair, some of them having patent systems of ventila- 
 tion, and others depending simply upon doors and win- 
 dows. When attempting to hold lemons by this method, 
 they are massed in the house and the fruit just clipped 
 given exactly the same ventilation as that which has been 
 in the house several months; when, as a matter of fact, 
 lemons in different stages of curing require radically dif- 
 ferent treatment as regards ventilation. As a result of 
 this treatment some of the fruit is usuallv wilted from 
 
HANDLING THE CITRV8 CROP. 419 
 
 receiving too much air, while the greater portion of it 
 is badly decayed from receiving too little. 
 
 "Proper ventilation is the keynote of success in keep- 
 ing lemons, and after extensive and expensive experience 
 along the old lines, I assert that it is entirely impractical 
 to hold lemons in large quantities, for any great length of 
 time by the old method. We have all been on the wrong 
 track in believing a low temperature first in importance. 
 If the ventilation is right the temperature will take care 
 of itself. I have always said that the proper keeping 
 point for lemons is just that point between where they 
 will wilt and where they will sweat. 
 
 "The Limoneria Company, of Santa Paula, was the 
 first to equip a house on the open air plan, and as that 
 company has the most extensive plant and the widest 
 experience in this method, perhaps a description of its 
 lemon house and its methods may be of interest : 
 
 "the method of packing. 
 
 "To begin with, the lemons are very carefully gath- 
 ered, great care being taken in handling so as not to bruise 
 the fruit. Rings of 2 5-16 inches in diameter are used for 
 winter pickings and 2 1-4 inches in diameter for spring 
 and summer, never more than six weeks being allowed to 
 elapse between clippings, and the fruit is usually 
 gathered about once a month. By careful attention to this, 
 desirable sizes and good keeping stock are obtained. I 
 want to say right here that this is the weak point of over 
 90 per cent of the lemon growers of California. I have 
 just returned from a tour of the principal lemon growing 
 sections of the State, and I found, as I have always found, 
 that the carelessness with which clipping is done is al- 
 most criminal. In grove after grove which I visited at 
 
420 CITRC^ FRUITt^ AXD THEIR CCLTCHE. 
 
 least 50 per cent of the value had been lost by allowing 
 the fruit to hang on the trees too long. Not only on ac- 
 count of the large sizes would it have been discounted 
 50c. ]ier box, but the keeping quality of the lemon which 
 is allowed to mature on the tree is never good. Good 
 results cannot be obtained, even by the best methods of 
 keeping lemons, unless the fruit is picked at the proper 
 time and carefully handled. A little illustration will, 
 perhaps, be in point. 
 
 "Some time ago I \-isited one of the Southern Cali- 
 fornia packing houses and they happened to be getting 
 out a car of lemons at the time. I noted the rough, care- 
 less manner in which the fruit was being handled, and 
 spoke to the manager about it, remarking that our fruit 
 would not stand that kind of treatment, and asked him 
 if he did not have trouble with decay. His rejily was 
 that they had practically no decay and that their fruit 
 was giving fine satisfaction. Before leaving I took note 
 of the car number and watched it in my bulletin. When 
 the car arrived East, 25 per cent decay A^as reported. 
 
 "THE PACKING HOUSE. 
 
 "The Limoneira Company's house is :'>00 by 100 feet. 
 The flooring is 2-inch planking and the roof covered with 
 gravel paper rooling. The building has no sides what- 
 ever, allowing free circulation of air. The fruit for stor- 
 age is i)ut into regular shipping boxes, piled in blocks of 
 5G0 boxes. There is a double row of these blocks on either 
 side of a Iwonty-fool space which extends the entire length 
 of the building and which answers the double purpose of 
 a workroom and an air space. The boxes are so piled 
 as to permit of the circulation of air around each box. 
 Each block of fruit is covered with a canvas 10x10x20 
 
HANDLING THE CITRUS CROP. 421 
 
 feet, made box shape and open at the four corners. The 
 ventilation is controlled by the raising or lowering of 
 this canvas, and each block of fruit can be given exactly 
 the ventilation that it requires irrespective of the other 
 fruit in the house. By this method fifty or even one hun- 
 dred cars of fruit can be handled and kept in as good con- 
 dition as if there was only one. Each block being num- 
 bered, a complete record of the lemons from each of the 
 six sections of the ranch is kept from the time it is gath- 
 ered until shipped. The fruit is all washed in a lemon 
 washing machine and is piled up in the house wet just as 
 it comes from the machine. The canvas covers are not 
 dropped over it, however, until it is thoroughly dry. 
 
 "The Limoneira Company handled over one hundred 
 cars by this method last year with perfect success, some 
 of the fruit being kept for nearly six months in good con- 
 dition. Not a lemon was shipped under ice, and no allow- 
 ance was allowed nor claim made for decay, excepting on 
 one car which contained weak stock and which, by reason 
 of a mistake in transportation, was nearly a month in 
 transit. In this case 5 per cent deduction was allowed. 
 There were, ' some weeks ago, about sixty-five " cars of 
 lemons in the company's packing house and we did not 
 feel the least uneasiness regarding it, knowing that by 
 this method we are masters of the situation. Anyone 
 trying to handle that quantity of fruit by the old method 
 would be gray-headed in a single season. 
 
 "AN IMPRACTICABLE PLAN. 
 
 "We hear a great deal of late about sending our 
 lemons East as soon as cut, there to be held in cold stor- 
 age for a favorable market. I must say that I have no 
 
422 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 faith in the plan, and the following are a few reasons 
 why I think it impracticable: 
 
 "(1) The lemon when picked and handled properly 
 should stand shipment to the eastern markets without 
 ice, and the ventilated lemon that arrives in good condi- 
 tion invariably gives better satisfaction than fruit that 
 has been iced. True, sometimes fruit that is a little weak 
 can be iced and made to arrive in fairly good condition, 
 and will, perhajis, sell well; but Avhat does it do when 
 taken out of the low temperature of the car and subjected 
 to the hot, humid atmosphere of the East? It decays 
 and goes in as evidence that California lemons are not 
 good keepers? I believe that the keeping quality of hun- 
 dreds of cars of California lemons is injured every year 
 by icing. In the early summer months a few cars of 
 lemons will, perhaps, arrive in bad condition and the 
 order will be sent out : 'In the future, ice your cars.' And 
 the shipper immediately goes to icing regardless of 
 whether the fruit to be shipped is hard, good keeping 
 stock or not. If it is bad practice to refrigerate fruit in 
 transit it is certainly not good practice to put it in cold 
 storage after it arrives in the East. 
 
 "(2) To be successful in the lemon business means 
 eternal vigilance as to care in handling, so as not to bruise 
 the fruit. When we who grow the lemon and are so deeply 
 interested in having it handled properly have such diffi- 
 culty in securing help that will touch it carefully, what 
 could we expect when it went from under our watchful 
 eye to the cold storage plant in the East, there to be 
 stored, sorted over and repacked before going to our cus- 
 tomers ? 
 
 "(3) The expense of storage and rejiacking; freight 
 on decay. 
 
HANDLING THE CITRUS CROP. 
 
 423 
 
 "(i) Why ship them East when they can be held 
 here as long as it is necessary? 
 
 "But we do not want to hold all of our lemons. What 
 we should do is to have them more evenly distributed 
 throughout the year and to sell them when we can get u 
 fair price, and be able to hold them when we cannot. If 
 we can do this, and I think we can ; and if we will strive 
 to pick our lemons carefully and at the proper time; 
 handle them carefully all of the time; put up an honest, 
 well-graded pack : if we will do these things, good mar- 
 ket conditions are sure to follow, and we will all find 
 our lemon groves protitable." 
 
 GRADING. 
 
 No part of the 
 process of prepar- 
 ing is more im- 
 portant than the 
 grading. Seldom 
 is the fruit fit for 
 market without it, 
 and were it 
 shipped without 
 grading, serious 
 losses would fre- 
 quently result. The grade of a package is usually established 
 in the market by the poorer specimens. A box of oranges 
 might contain seventy-flve good fruits, but if it contained 
 seventy-five, or even fewer, poor specimens, it would cer- 
 tainly be graded and sold on the market as an inferior 
 package. 
 
 It does not pay to ship poor fruit. One or two poor 
 specimens in a box injures the appearance of the whole 
 
 Fig. 90 The Huntley sizer. 
 
424 GITRU8 FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 and there is no use in paying transportation charges 
 on poor fruit that will injure the sale of the good. 
 
 To any one examining the citrus fruits in any large 
 market the fact that there is a great lack of uniformity 
 in grading soon becomes apparent. California shipments 
 are usually well graded owing to the fact that so much 
 of the fruit is packed and shipped by large fruit com- 
 panies. The output is graded better and it is possible 
 to maintain more uniform standards. But where the fruit 
 is shipped by a large number of small growers, each of 
 whom has his own ideals of grades, there is very likely 
 to be great lack of uniformity. Each one seems to be 
 impressed with the fact that he must label his best oranges 
 "Fancy," when as a matter of fact there may not be a 
 strictly fancy box of oranges in his Avhole grove. Again, 
 the fancj' package put up by one grower may not equal 
 the second grade of another. 
 
 There is no good way of getting over this difficulty, 
 and yet growers should have a well defined standard of 
 grades and adhere strictly to it. A fancy orange may 
 be difficult to lind and yet it may be possible to put up a 
 package of good marketable fruit. It is the package taken 
 as a whole that establishes the grade. 
 
 Grades. In Florida, two classes of fruit must often 
 be made. A certain portion of the fruit has been attacked 
 by the rust mite and shows the effects of its work in the 
 rusty color of the fruit. Certain localities are free from 
 its ravages, while many growers keep the insect down by 
 spraying. But in general the fruit must be classed as 
 Bright and Russet. They should be rigidly classed. 
 Every fruit showing the le;ist russet mark should go in 
 the russet class. Each of these classes must be divided 
 into grades. The question of the number of grades at 
 
HANDLING THE CITRUS CROP. 425 
 
 once arises. The California grades are thus described by 
 B. M. LeLong: 
 
 "Oi-auges classed as 'fancy should be extra bright, 
 with very smooth, thin skin. Rough, thick-skinned fruit, 
 be it ever so bright, should never be classed as fancy. 
 
 "Oranges classed as 'choice bright' should be strictly 
 bright and of fairly smooth skin and desirable size. 
 
 "Oranges classed as 'bright' should be bright and 
 free from smut." 
 
 Mr. W. S. Hart's grades may be thus described : 
 
 Fancy — Bright, smooth, thin-skinned, without specks, 
 spots or injuries. Quality and appearance fancy. 
 
 Xo. 1 — Smooth, thin-skinned, with a few small spots 
 or specks. Quality equal to Fancy grade. 
 
 No. 2 — Large spots or marks, slight indentures and 
 discolorations. 
 
 Tbe author's preference would be to use a classifica- 
 tion of grades somewhat like the latter and designate 
 the fruit as Bright Fancy, Bright No. 1, Bright No. 2; 
 Russet Fancy and Russet No. 1. Two grades of russeta 
 will generally be found sufficient. 
 
 The fruit should be carefully culled. Fruits showing 
 large unsightly marks, sunburned specimens, thorned or 
 bruised fruit, fruit showing marks of die-back (ammon- 
 iated), creased fruit and fruit that for any reason does 
 not look well and will not carry well should not be 
 shipped. Its place is in the cull heap. 
 
 Time to Grade. Grading may be done in the grove 
 or the fruit may be graded in the packing house. The 
 former plan ^ill save handling, but if there is sufficient 
 room, the fruit may be graded better in the packing house 
 Than in the field. 
 
Plate XXTIII. 
 
 Fig. A. The Ayer sizer in operation. 
 
 Fig. B. A pneumatic sizer made tjy Maull and Jones. 
 
HANDLING THE CITRUS CROP. 427 
 
 With a double sizer, such as the Huntley, the bright 
 and russet oranges maj- be separated as they go to the 
 sizer, running one class through one side while the other 
 goes through the opposite side. 
 
 Sizers and Sizing. Citrus fruits of round or oblate 
 form can be accurately sized by machinery. Lemons and 
 limes must be sized by the eye and either sized before or 
 at the time of packing. 
 
 Many different kinds of sizer s are on the market and 
 nearly all of them are good, though some are better than 
 others. The most recent styles brought forward are the 
 pneumatic sizers, one of which is shown in Fig. B, Plate 
 XXVIII. 
 
 A good sizer must possess the following points: 
 
 It must size all fruit accurately, whether round or 
 flat, passing the fruit through on its greatest diameter. 
 It must not injure the fruit. It must be easy to operate, 
 for in many cases it is necessary to run it by hand or 
 foot power, though in up-to-date packing houses an en- 
 gine is provided to operate all machinery. It must have 
 sufficient capacity. 
 
 For an ordinary machine a carload per day is very 
 good work. It should be easy to keep in repair and eas- 
 ily adjusted to different sizes. It should be capable of 
 sizing all kinds of round and oblate citrus fruits. 
 
 The diameters of the different sizes of citrus fruits 
 are given in the tables accompanying the section on pack- 
 ing. The sizes of lemons are considerably smaller than 
 those of sweet oranges. The sizes usually packed are : 
 210, 240. 275, 288, -300, 360 and 420. Sizes 300 and 360 
 are regarded as standard or regular sizes, while the others 
 are designated as "off size." 
 
4;,>,S CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 PACKING. 
 
 The late Mr. E. Bean, of Jacksonville, Fla., was the 
 originator of the present package used for citrus fruits 
 in Florida, and it is perhaps not too much to say that 
 Ihe influence of his work has been felt in everj' citrus dis 
 trict in America. More than that, the rational methods 
 of packing and handling introduced by him have been of 
 paramount importance in the success of the industry and 
 have had a moulding influence on the methods of hand- 
 ling every other tree fruit in America. The following 
 letter from his pen, giving the interesting details of his 
 early experience, appeared in the Florida Agriculturist, 
 Xov. 7, 1900: 
 
 "In compliance with your request for some reminis- 
 cences of the origin of the systematic handling of Florida 
 oranges, I will say that I arrived in Florida on Thursday 
 evening early in >;ovember of 1875, and on the following 
 Monday accompanied my brother-in-law, Mr. P. P. Bishop, 
 went to Fernandina 1o attend a meeting of the Fruit Grow- 
 ers' Convention. During the meeting I introduced a reso- 
 lution making the 12x12x27 box the standard package of 
 the State. The resolution -was adopted and the package 
 has been used since. I opened a packing house at Pa- 
 latka and conuuenced the use of them at once, having them 
 cut from cypress at Mr. Boyd's mill. The next year as 
 there were no veneer mills in Florida we ordered a cargo 
 from Maine. After securing the box it was necessary to 
 learn how to pack it so as to fill and make a solid pack. 
 This we found to be a difficult problem. We spent much 
 time in experimenting, sizing and learning how to place 
 the oranges in the box, eventually developing the 225, 200, 
 176, lie, 128, 96, 80 sizes, which with slight variations 
 have liccn used since. 
 
HANDLING THE CITRUS CROP. 429 
 
 "It might interest yonr readers to know why the 
 12x12x27 box was decided upon. 
 
 "Before coming South I canvassed the cities of Buf- 
 falo, Rochester, Syracuse, lltica, Albany and New York, 
 soliciting orders for Florida oranges. I found that the 
 few that had reached those markets were packed in soap 
 boxes, meat boxes, dry-goods boxes and old flour barrels, 
 unwrapped and arriving in very bad order. I secured 
 a few small orders in Buffalo and Rochester, but could 
 not sell an orange in New York, although I canvassed 
 faithfully. I was met in every case with the statement 
 that the oranges were no good, that they would not bear 
 transportation. They jeered me when I said that I was 
 going down to engage in the business of handling them. 
 One prominent dealer said that he thought that I would 
 simply illustrate the proverb that a fool and his money 
 would soon part company. In the course of the canvass 
 I was seeking information, not only as to the best pack- 
 age to use, but also to learn all that I could about the 
 manipulation of oranges in older countries. I called on 
 several Italian packers, who kindly gave me a full de- 
 scription of their methods of handling and packing and 
 showed me photographs of their packing houses. From 
 all the information that I could gather I reached the con- 
 clusion that a square box that would give a multiple of 
 3 inches would be the best. After reaching here and 
 conferring with Mr. Bishop, going into a storehouse where 
 there was a quantity of loose oranges, piling them up, 
 comparing the 12x12 space with the 10x11 of the foreign 
 box, we decided that the 12x12 was far preferable and 
 that size was agreed upon. 
 
 "T might add in conclusion that the results of my 
 shipments from Palatka during the winter 1875-6 were 
 
430 CITRUS FROITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 satisfactory, as they demonstrated tliat with a suitable 
 package and careful handling and manipulation that 
 oranges could be transported and sold ; for when we closed 
 the packing house in the spring, we had standing orders 
 from New York alone for about 200 boxes per week. In 
 my canvass among the dealers and packers in New York 
 I came to the conclusion that the success or failure of 
 the enterprise would to a great extent depend upon the 
 care in handling and the proper classification of the fruit, 
 and that only perfect fruit should be put in the box. We, 
 therefore, from the start rejected creased, plugged, thorned 
 nnd all imperfect oranges. As the result of this care, we 
 had but one complaint of fruit arriving in bad order. We 
 had a considerable quantity of very fine oranges from the 
 Lee grove, Leesburg. One lot came in a little soft. We 
 shipped twenty boxes of it to Mills & Everals, New York, 
 billing them at |6.00 per box, f. o. b. Palatka. They com- 
 plained they were not quite up to standard in condition, 
 and asked for a reduction of |1.00 per box, which we, of 
 course, conceded. This close assorting left a considerable 
 quantity of cull fruit. A laughable incident in connec- 
 tion with it is worth relating : 
 
 "Judge Gillis, a prominent lawyer of Palatka, came 
 into the packing house one day to see what we were doing. 
 Looking about he saw quite a pile of culls in one corner, 
 and asked what we intended to do with them. I replied 
 that we expected to sell them in T'alatka, but if we failed, 
 we should dump them. He expressed some surprise, and 
 soon left. Meeting a friend on the street he said to him 
 that he had been down to see that Yankee who had come 
 to show them how to pack oranges; that he was shown 
 quite a pile of nice-looking fruit in one corner and was 
 told that unless it could be sold in Palatka it would be 
 
HANDLING THE CITRV& CROP. 431 
 
 dumped into the river. He guessed that Yankee would 
 not last long. 
 
 •'A\e did get more culls than we could sell in Palatka. 
 Selecting the best of them, we packed and shipped them 
 to parties in New York who were verj' pronounced in 
 their expressions of the opinion that the Florida oranges 
 would not stand transportation. They reached them in 
 good order and sold for satisfactory prices, and we con- 
 tinued to ship them during the winter. The house was 
 so much pleased with the result that they sent a man 
 down in the spring to negotiate for an interest in the 
 business. 
 
 "The most of the oranges handled at Palatka were 
 pulled from the trees and as a consequence many of the 
 stems were pulled out and the skin broken, and besides, 
 many were bruised by rough handling, and had to be put 
 in the cull pile. We, therefore, concluded that in the 
 future we must buy the oranges on the trees, have the 
 stems cut, and provide for careful handling in the va- 
 rious stages of the work. This policy was inaugurated 
 for the next season's business, and as most of the fruit 
 came from the St. Johns and Ocklawaha Rivers, a pack- 
 ing house was built at San Mateo, as being the most con- 
 venient point for concentration. Contracts were made 
 for most of the oranges in sight, but the severe cold of 
 December 1, 187(5, destroyed all the fruit north of Lake 
 Munroe, and we practically lost the season's business. In 
 1877-8 there was a considerable quantity of fruit. 
 
 "Carryini; out the policies outlined above we were 
 fairly successful and did a satisfactory business. 
 
 "As our system required tight packages, we found 
 that the fruit must be held until the skin softened and 
 became flexible, for if packed when it was hard and crisp 
 
432 CITRUS FRUITS AiVD THEIR CULTURiJ. 
 
 the cells would be broken and more or less decay would 
 follow. We, therefore, held them for several days after 
 they were taken from the trees before assorting, which 
 enabled us to detect the bruised, injured and thorned 
 fruit. Our assorting and classification was very carefully 
 done; each orange was taken up separately and carefully 
 examined and placed in the class where it belonged. 
 
 "We made three grades of bright oranges and two 
 of the russets, putting them under separate brands. I 
 put my name on the first class, which was supposed to 
 be absolutely perfect, and will relate a little incident that 
 occurred in relation to it. I was making a trip through 
 the West and, being detained several hours at a junction 
 point, strolled up into the town, a place of two or three 
 thousand inhabitants. Passing up the main street, and 
 hapi)ening to look up, I found that I was standing di- 
 rectly under a sign, 'Headquarters for E. Bean's Oranges.' 
 1 went in and inquired what there was about E. Bean's 
 oranges that justified so prominent a notice. The pro- 
 prietor replied that when they saw that name on a box 
 of oranges, they knew that it meant that they were per- 
 fect. 
 
 "I have written the above, which I think is about 
 what you asked for. It is largely personal, but this could 
 not be avoided, as there was apparently no one else who 
 had the courage to undertake such an enterprise. Later 
 on many dealers and growers became packers, using sub- 
 stantially the same methods.'' 
 
 Citfiis Friiil Pttcldf/ri^. With the exception of the 
 lemon box, which is the same in both sections, the pack 
 ages used in Florida differ in size and shape from those 
 which are used in California. Each section has come to 
 regard its orange box, used also for pomelos, as the stan- 
 
HANDLING THE CITRUS CROP. 
 
 433 
 
 dard package, and it is not lil^ely tliat a uniform pack 
 age, liowever desira- 
 ble, will be adopted. 
 The Florida pack- 
 ages in common use 
 are as follows: The 
 standard box and 
 standard half box 
 for sweet oranges 
 and pomelos, the 
 strap for mandarin 
 oranges, the stan- 
 dard box for lemons 
 (uniform with the 
 California box) , the 
 16 or 24 quart car- 
 rier for kumquats 
 
 and the six-basket ^^S- 91. Kumquats packed in quart baskets. 
 
 carrier sometimes used for limes. 
 
 The Florida standard orange box should be so con- 
 structed as to contain exactly two cubic feet of fruit. It 
 does not, however, always do so, owing to slight variations 
 in the length of the sides and the thickness of the ends and 
 partition. The sides of the original box were 27 inches 
 long, and one-inch solid heads and partitions were used. 
 Seven-eighths-inch solid heads and partitions afterward 
 came into use and the length of the sides was reduced to 
 2fi 5-8 inches. Later the paneled heads and partitions came 
 into use. These vary some\^"hat in thickness, being about 
 1 or 1 1-6 inch thick, and the length of the sides has in 
 many cases, even with one-inch heads remained at 26 5-8 
 inches. Anything of this kind is a departure from the 
 standard measurements. Whatever changes may be made, 
 
434 GITROB FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 the length of the sides and the thickness of the heads and 
 partitions should be so adjusted relatively as to give two 
 equal compartments in the box, each 12x12x12 inches. 
 
 The Florida standard half box for sweet oranges and 
 pomelos is generally made by reducing the length of the 
 ordinary box so as to make it 14 inches long outside with 
 one-inch heads, or 13 3-4 inches outside with seven-eighths 
 inch heads. 
 
 The mandarin oranges must be regarded as fancy 
 fruit and should therefore be placed on the markets in 
 smaller packages. For oranges of this group, the best 
 package is the strap, consisting of two half-boxes, packed 
 separately and strapped together with the tops inward. 
 When they have reached their market the half-boxes can 
 be taken apart and sold separately while the two together 
 can be shipped at the same rate as an ordinary sweet 
 orange box. 
 
 It is conceded that the length and thickness of the 
 heads and partitions should be the same as the sweet 
 orange and pomelo box. Opinions differ, however, as to 
 the depth. Some hold that the inside measurement should 
 be six inches for each half, while others believe that it 
 should be 5 3-4 inches inside, so that when strapped together 
 they measure 12 1-2 inches outside, the same as the standard 
 sweet orange box. No rule can be laid down which should 
 govern in this matter, but the latter size is preferable, 
 particularly when mixed shipments of sweet oranges or 
 pomelos and mandarin oranges are made in carload lots. 
 If boxes of different outside measurements are used, it 
 complicates the loading of the car. 
 
 In Louisiana, the China mandarin is a favorite va- 
 riety, and it is frequently shipped to the New Orleans 
 market in ordinarv sweet orange boxes. The fruit is cut 
 
HANDLING THE CITRUS CROP. 435 
 
 with leafy twigs, four or five inches long, and packed in 
 the boxes. Before displaying them on their stands the 
 dealers frequently string them together. 
 
 The California standard lemon box is used both in 
 California and Florida for lemons and the larger limes. 
 It measures 1 1-2x14x25 5-8 inches, inside measurements. 
 While, as noted above the lemon box is sometimes used 
 for limes, it is not suited to the shipping of the small- 
 siz^d Mexican limes grown in Florida and other citrus 
 districts. The best package for these, one occasionally 
 seen in the markets, is the six, ten-pound basket carrier, 
 such as is commonly used for tomatoes and other vege- 
 tables. They are generally packed without wrapping and 
 the ten-pound basket is a convenient receptacle for hand- 
 ling them in the retail trade. 
 
 FLORIDA STANDARD ORANGE AND POMELO BOXES. 
 
 121-2x121-2x26 5-8 inches outside; 12x12x24 7-8 inches 
 inside — if heads and partition are 7-8 inch thick. 
 
 Ends and partition 3 pieces, 7-8x12x12 inches. 
 
 Sides, top and bottom ....4 pieces, 12x26 5-8x1-4 inches. 
 Straps 3 pieces, half round, 54x3-4 inches. 
 
 HALF ORANGE AND POMELO BOXES. 
 
 Ends 2 pieces, 7-8x12x12 inches. 
 
 Sides, top and bottom ... 4 pieces, 12x13 7-8x1-4 inches. 
 Straps 2 pieces, half round, 54x3-4 inches. 
 
 FLORIDA STANDARD MANDARIN STRAP. 
 
 Ends and partitions 6 pieces, 7-8x12x5 3-4 inches. 
 
 Sides 4 pieces, 14x26 5-8x5 3-4 inches. 
 
 Tops and bottoms 4 pieces 1-4x26 5-8x12 inches. 
 
 Straps 3 pieces, half round, 54x3-4 inches. 
 
436 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 LIMB CAHRIBR. 
 
 Carrier holding six ten-pound baskets. 
 
 KUMQUAT CABRIBH. 
 
 Strawberry crate liolding 16 or 24 or 32 cups. 
 
 CALIFORNIA STANDARD ORANGE BOXES. 
 
 11 1-2x11 1-2x26 inches. 
 
 Ends 3 pieces, 11-16x11 1-2x11 1-2 inches. 
 
 Ends 3 pieces, 11-16x11 1-2x11 1-2 inches. 
 
 Sides 8 pieces, 1-4x5 1-4x26 inches. 
 
 Cleats 2 pieces, 3-8x11-16x11 1-4 inches. 
 
 STAXn.VRD ORANGE BOXES. 
 
 11 1-2x11 1-2x20 inches. 
 
 Ends 3 pieces, 11-16x11 1-2x11 1-2 inches. 
 
 Sides and bottoms .... 9 pieces, 1-4x3 1-2x26 inches. 
 
 Tops 2 pieces, 1-4x5 l-4x2o inches. 
 
 Cleats 2 pieces, 3-8x11-16x11 1-4 inches. 
 
 STANDARD ORANGE BOXES. 
 
 11 1-2x11 1-2x26 inches. 
 
 Ends S pieces, 11-16x11 1-2x11 1-2 inches. 
 
 Tops and bottoms and sides, 12 pieces, 1-4x3 1-2x26 inches. 
 Cleats 2 pieces, 3-8x11-16x11 1-4 inches. 
 
 H.\LF OR-VNGE BOXES. 
 
 5 3-4x11 l-2x2(i inches. 
 
 Ends 3 pieces, 11-1 6x5 3-4x11 1-2 inches. 
 
 Slats 6 pieces, 1-4x5 1-4x26 inches. 
 
 Cleats 2 pieces, 3-8x11-16x11 1-4 inches. 
 
HANDLING THE CITRVti CHOP. 437 
 
 HALF ORANGE BOXES. 
 
 .J ;>-4xll l-2x2(; inches. 
 
 Ends 3 pieces, 11-16x5 3-4x11 1-2 inches. 
 
 Tops and bottom.s 6 pieces, 1-1x3 1-2x26 inches. 
 
 Sides 2 pieces, l-4x.j 1-1x26 inches. 
 
 Cleats 2 pieces, 3-8x11-16x11 1-4 inches. 
 
 HALF ORANGE BOXES. 
 
 11 1-2x11 1-2x13 inches. 
 
 Ends 2 pieces, 11-16x11 1-2x11 1-2 inches. 
 
 Slats S ])ieces, l-lx.j 1-4x13 inches. 
 
 Cleats 2 pieces, 3-8x11-16x11 1-4 inches. 
 
 STANDARD LEMOX BOX. 
 
 10 1-2x14x25 5-8 inches inside. 
 
 Ends 3 pieces, 11-16x10 1-2x14 inches. 
 
 Sides 2 pieces, l-4x!) 7-8x27 inches. 
 
 Tops and bottoms 4 pieces, 1-4x6 3-4x27 inches. 
 
 Cleats 2 pieces, 3-8x3-4x13 1-2 inches. 
 
 All materials which enter into the construction of 
 packages for citrus fruits should be bright, clean and 
 well seasoned. All similar parts should be of uniform 
 size. Yellow jiine is commonly used in Florida. Though 
 both solid and paneled heads are in use, the latter are 
 more common in Florida, while in California the solid 
 heads are at present used almost entirely. The solid heads 
 are preferred by some because of the greater solidity of 
 the box, but when expressmen and others have once 
 handled boxes with the paneled heads, they dislike very 
 much to have anything to do with solid-headed boxes. 
 
 If the edges of the sides used for boxes are rounded 
 off with a spokeshave or plane, it adds much to the tidy 
 appearance of the package. 
 
438 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 The strips used for strengthening the package in 
 Florida are usually made from the outside of birch and 
 are brought in from Maine. By some, strips of thin, 
 rounded cypress are used, but they are rather too brittle 
 to come into general favor. In a few instances the long 
 petioles of the leaves of the saw palmetto are used. They 
 must be used while green. 
 
 Making Packages. It is essential that the boxes used 
 for shipping citrus fruits should be strong and well made. 
 The fruit is heavy, and the box must therefore be ca- 
 pable of standing a considerable amount of strain. Wire 
 nails should be used. All stained or discolored pieces 
 should be discarded, so that all boxes, when completed, 
 may be bright, clean and attractive. 
 
 For making boxes a 
 table such as is illus- 
 trated in Fig. 93 A., may 
 be used. The cleats 
 tacked upon the top 
 should be about one 
 inch square and just 
 far enough apart to ad- 
 mit the ends and par- 
 tition. For making 
 Florida standard or- 
 ange boxes with one- 
 inch heads, the distance 
 from center to center of 
 the groves between 
 the cleats should be ex- 
 actly thirteen inches. 
 Variations in the thick 
 ness of the heads or the size of the compartments will 
 
 Fig. 92. Making crates. 
 
HANDLING THE CITRUS CROP. 439 
 
 render it necessarj- to cliange the position of the cleats, 
 but they must always be so adjusted that the finished 
 box will have two compartments of exactly the same di- 
 mensions. The slightest variation increases the diflScul- 
 ties of packing. Instead of using cleats, grooves may 
 be cut in the table top. 
 
 Fig. 93, B., illustrates a frame for making citrus 
 boxes invented by W. S. Hart, of Hawks' Park, Fla., used 
 by Cyrus W. Butler, of St. Petersburg, Fla., and others. 
 It has many desirable points to recommend it. To 
 make this frame four pieces of board and three steel 
 springs are required. The baseboard should be somewhat 
 longer than the length of the box and not quite so wide. 
 The upright pieces should not equal the depth of the box 
 in length. They should be slightly wider than the base- 
 board, and should be rounded off on one edge and one 
 side. They should be firmly attached to the baseboard 
 with wood screws. The springs are placed against 
 these so that, when the heads are dropped down against 
 the uprights, they will hold them firmly in place. It is 
 preferable that one of the end springs be a stiff spring 
 with a coil so as to hold one head very firmly in place. 
 The distance between the uprights must be carefully 
 adjusted according to the box to be made, for the reasons 
 given above. By means of this frame, boxes may be well 
 and accurately made, there being no danger that the 
 center head or partitions will be a quarter of an inch 
 or so to one side or the other of the middle of the box. 
 
 The directions for making an orange box, as given 
 by the Florida Fruit Exchange, are full and explicit. 
 They are as follows: "Put heads in frame with grain of 
 wood running horizontal. Then nail on the first side, 
 by putting two nails in each head. Then put on hoops 
 
440 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 
 
 >4 
 
 -^ 
 
 by putting ends of hoops at longitudinal center of sides 
 over the heads. Nail with two nails. The hoops pro 
 jecting opposite from where the operator stands. Turn 
 box over towards operator. ■ Put on side No. 2. Bend 
 hoops down and put four nails in heads. Two nails in 
 center piece, about one and a half inches from edge of 
 box, and should be so nailed as to be easily removed. Turn 
 box toward operator, place on side No. 3, bend down 
 hoops, put in four nails, ends and center piece. Turn box 
 loward operator. Bend hoops neatly over the open side 
 and fasten at place of beginning on side No. 1, with one 
 
 nail half driven in. 
 Then this can be 
 easily drawn when 
 box is full and side 
 No. 4 put on just as 
 side No. 3. No. 4 
 becomes the bottom 
 of the box and No. 2 
 the top for opening." 
 In making boxes 
 with the frame illus- 
 trated in Pig. 93, the 
 three sides and the 
 strips or hoops are 
 put on as described 
 above, after which 
 the box is drawn off 
 the frame and the 
 loose end of the 
 strips is then temporarily tacked down. 
 
 When large quantities of fruit are to be handled, it 
 is well to have a considerable number of boxes made up 
 in advance of the picking season. 
 
 vi-is- 
 
 Fig". 93. A. table for making: citrus boxes. 
 B. a frame uwhiI for the same purpose. 
 
HANDLING THE CITRUS CROP. 441 
 
 Paper. The paper used for wrapping citrus fruits 
 shoiild be thin and strong. Frequently the wrappers sup- 
 plied are so thin and Aveak that the fruit cannot be 
 wrapped and packed without breaking the paper. The 
 paper serves as a protection to the fruit and should sur- 
 round the fruit intact when snugly placed in the box. 
 
 The size should be varied according to the diameter 
 of the fruit, but must be sufSciently large to allow enough 
 margin for a good twist. The following sizes are approx- 
 imately correct : 
 
 Fruits per hoac. Size of paper. 
 
 36-46 16 X 16 inches. 
 
 •"■i- 64 14 X 14 inches. 
 
 72-96 12 X 12 inches. 
 
 112-150 11 X 11 inches. 
 
 176-200 10 X 10 inches. 
 
 21G-226-252 9 x 9 inches. 
 
 270-360 S X 8 inches. 
 
 Paper printed with a suitable design and the name 
 and address of the grower is somewhat more expensive 
 than fancy paper, but fruit wrapped with such paper pre- 
 sents a much more attractive appearance than if plain 
 paper is used. Colored and fringed paper is also some- 
 times used to advantage. The Italian lemons shipped to 
 this country are usually wrapped in colored and fringed 
 paper. Note the appearance of the boxes shown in plate. 
 
 Packing Conveniences. The fruit runs out from the 
 sizer, each size in its own bin. The box is placed on a 
 table of convenient height by the side of the bin so that 
 the packer can readily reach the fruit. When the end 
 of the box nearest the bin is packed, it is picked up and 
 
w. 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 reversed so as to bring the empty compartment close to 
 the bin. The labor of lifting the half-filled box is con- 
 siderable, besides time is wasted. 
 
 A handy table used by W. S. Hart, Hawks' I'ark, 
 Fla., who has one of the best equipped and most conven- 
 iently arranged jiacking houses in Florida is shown in 
 
 Fig. di. The table is 
 "^ solidly built, the legs 
 
 being 2x4 inches. 
 The front pair of 
 legs are provided 
 with double castors. 
 The top slopes to- 
 ward the packer and 
 upon it is a second 
 revolving top, Fig. 94, 
 <.\ In the center of 
 the second top is a 
 groove to receive the 
 center hoop of the 
 box that it may sit 
 level. The revolving top is held fast by a pin, B., coming 
 up through the lower top and into the upper one, and 
 when it is desired to turn the top, the spring is bent down, 
 the top is revolved and the si)ring is released. The pin 
 or stop is attached to a wooden spring, A. 
 
 Small trays should be provided for holding the wrap- 
 ping paper. The bottom should be made from a piece of 
 board, slightly lai-per than the paper. The back should 
 be of 1-2 inch board, two inches high, and the sides of the 
 same material, aud sloping off in front. The paper can 
 be placed in these trays and the backs and sides will pre- 
 vent, in some measure, its being blown about bv the wind. 
 
 Fig. 94. Packing table. A, sprin 
 stop. C, revolving table 
 
Plate XXIX. 
 
 Fig:. A. A "well-packed box of Sweet 
 Oranges, 176 in pack. 
 
 Fig. B, Shelf paper used, in packing 
 
 oranges. A fancy package of fancy 
 
 fruit, 126 in pack. 
 
444 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Pacliitg. After auourately sizing tlie fruit, ijrevioiis 
 to which it has been proper!}- graded and cured, it is 
 ready for packing. The packer grasps a piece of paper 
 with the tips of his fingers, so as to leave it spread out in 
 his hand, with the right hand he places a fruit on the 
 paper in the palm of his left hand, and then with the 
 right draws the edges together, giving them a dexterous 
 twist to hold it in place. It is then placed in position 
 in the box. 
 
 The first two layers of fruit in the bottom of the 
 box (the top when opened), should have the twists on the 
 'japer upward, afterwards they should be turned dow^n. 
 Each laj'er should be snugly packed and each fruit gently 
 but firmly placed in position. If a system of packing dia- 
 grams is used and the boxes are properly made, each in- 
 dividual fruit has its own special place in the box into 
 which it should fit snug and tight. 
 
 When packing is completed the fruit should stand 
 about one-half inch above the sides of the box. Mandarin 
 oranges should project less, rather than more. 
 
 If linings are used, a good quality of shelf paper 
 should be secured for the purpose. It should be cut into 
 lengths of 11 inches and should be about 8I/2 inches 
 wide. It may be glued to the inner edges of the box, or 
 it may be folded about two and a half inches back from 
 the straight edge. Place it in place so that the first layer 
 of oranges will rest upon it and hold it in place. 
 The lower box in Plate XXIX shows the lining paper cov- 
 ering one-half the liox, while from the other it is thrown 
 back to show the fruit. Colored paper may be used, but 
 pure white paper is very neat and attractive. Colored 
 paper is open to the objection that a slight amount of 
 moisture causes the color to run. 
 
I'laie J<XX 
 
 A wen-packed half-strap of 136 Dancy Mandarin 
 
 Oranges 
 
440 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Puvkiiiti Diugrains. That the fruit may exactly fill 
 the box it must not only be properly sized, but each fruit- 
 must be placed in position in the box according to a defi- 
 nite arrangement. These arrangements are commonly 
 referred to as diugrains. Each layer contains a certain 
 number of fruit placed in position. The fruit in the next 
 layer above should never rest directly upon tke individ- 
 ual fruits in the layer below, but should be placed so as 
 to come between two or more fruits with a tendency to 
 spread them. With the fruit placed so that the spaces or 
 joints are broken, the contents of the box are solidly 
 packed and yet, retain a certain amount of elasticity. 
 
 The following tables give the size of the fruit, the 
 number of layers, their arrangement and the number of 
 fruits in each layer for the packing systems now coni- 
 monlv used in Florida and California: 
 
 FLORIDA SWEET ORANGE PACKS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. and 
 Size 
 
 Diameter 
 of Fruit 
 
 3 1- 2 
 
 3 1-4 
 
 3 1- S 
 
 No. of 
 Layers 
 
 96 
 
 112 
 126 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 5 
 
 150 
 
 3 
 
 1-16 
 
 5 
 
 176 
 
 2 
 
 15-16 
 
 5 
 
 200 
 
 o 
 
 13-16 
 
 5 
 
 216 
 
 2 
 
 11-16 
 
 6 
 
 226 
 
 o 
 
 9-16 
 
 5 
 
 252 
 
 o 
 
 7-16 
 
 6 
 
 HOW PACKED 
 
 Laycr.s 1 and 3=12 fruits; layers 2 and 4=12. 
 Layers 1 and 3^14 fruits; la}crs 2 and 4=14. 
 La\crs 1, 3 and 5^13 fruits; layers 2 and 
 
 4=12. 
 Layers 1, 3 and 5=;15 fruits; layers 2 and 
 
 "4=15 
 Layers 1, 3 and 5=18 fruits; layers 2 and 
 
 '4=17. 
 Layers 1, 3 and 5^20 fruits; la\'ers 2 and 
 
 ■4=20. 
 Layers 1, 3 and 5=18 fruits; layers 2, 4 and 
 
 >)=18. 
 Layers 1, 3 and 5^23 fruits; la\ers 2 and 
 
 4=22. 
 La\er^ 1, 3 and 5=21 fruits; layers 2. 4 and 
 
 V,=21. 
 
HANDLINa THE CITRUS CROP. 
 FLORIDA POMELO PACKS. 
 
 447 
 
 No. and 
 Size 
 
 28 
 36 
 46 
 54 
 64 
 72 
 80 
 
 76 
 
 90 
 
 120 
 
 168 
 
 216 
 
 60 
 76 
 90 
 106 
 120 
 136 
 144 
 
 210 
 250 
 270 
 300 
 360 
 420 
 
 Diamte- of 
 
 No. of 
 
 Fruit 
 
 La.vers 
 
 5 1-4 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 4 8-4 
 
 3 
 
 4 1-2 
 
 3 
 
 4 1-4 
 
 4 
 
 4 1-8 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 3 5-8 
 
 4 
 
 HOW PACKEIJ 
 
 FLORIDA 
 1-1 
 
 3-1 
 1-2 
 1-1 
 
 Layers 1 and 3=5 fruits ; layer 2=4.* 
 Layers 1 and 3=(i fruits ; layer 2=6. 
 Layers 1 and 3=8 fruits ; layer 2=7. 
 Layers 1 and 3=9 fruits ; layer 2=9. 
 Layers 1 and 3— S fruits ; layers 2 and 4=8. 
 Layers 1 and 3=9 fruits ; layers 2 and 4^9. 
 Layers 1 and 3=10 fruits ; layers 2 and 4=10. 
 Layers 1 and 3=12 fruits ; layers 2 and 4=12. 
 
 SATSUMA MANDARIN PACKS. 
 
 Layers 1 and 3=13 fruits ; layer 2=12. 
 Layers 1 and 3=15 fruits; layer 2=15. 
 Layers 1 and 3=20 fruits ; layer 2=20. 
 Layers 1 and 3^21 fruits ; layers 2 and 4^21. 
 Layers 1 and 3=27 fruits; layers 2 and 4=27. 
 
 FLORIDA MANDARIN ORANGE PACKS. 
 
 1-2 3 Layers 1 and 3=10 fruits ; layer 2=10. 
 
 1-4 ^ Layers 1 and 3=13 fruits ; layer 2=12. 
 
 3 Layers 1 and 3=15 fruits ; layer 2=15. 
 
 3-4 3 Layers 1 and 3=1S fruits ; layer 2=17. 
 
 1-2 3 Layers 1 and 3=20 fruits ; layer 2=20. 
 
 3-8 3 , Layers 1 and 3=23 fruits ; layer 2=22. 
 
 1—4 4 iLayers I and 3^=18 fruits ; layers 2 and 4= 
 
 =18. 
 
 LEMONS AND LIMES. 
 
 2 3-4 I 5 Each layer, 21 fruits. 
 
 2 5-8 5 Each layer, 25 fruits. 
 
 2 1-2 5 Each layer, 27 fruits. 
 
 2 3-8 ' 5 Each layer, 25 fruits. 
 
 2 1-1 6 jEach layer, 30 fruits. 
 
 2-218 6 !Each layer, 35 fruits. 
 
 No. in Box 
 112 
 126. . . 
 150... 
 176 .. . 
 200 .. 
 216. . 
 250. . . 
 300... 
 
 CALIFORNIA SIZES OF 
 
 ORANGES. 
 
 Inches ill 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 .2 
 
 Diniii 
 2-8 
 
 1-8 
 
 7-8 
 6-8 
 5-8 
 4-8 
 3-8 
 
 * This 4 — 5 or 5 — 4 pack is well adapted to all sizes up to 64. 
 
448 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Headers. It is necessary that the fruit should be 
 absolutely tight and solid. To this end, it is quite 
 essential that the fruit stand one-half to three-quarters 
 of an inch, depending on the size of the fruit, above the 
 sides (if the box when jiacked. Then when the head is 
 placed on and piesseil down, the fruit will not jostle or 
 shift in transit, provided it has been well cured. 
 
 Various types of headers or presses are in common 
 use. Most of these are home-made and quite simple in 
 construction. Tavo different tyjies are shown in figures 
 9.J and 9f.. 
 
 The first of these is 
 used, and was made by 
 a blacksmith, accord- 
 ing to plans provided 
 by I\Ir. P- J. Bayley, of 
 Largo, Fla. The box 
 is placed on the frame 
 under the curved up- 
 rights. The strip hoop, 
 which until now has 
 been tacked down, is 
 loosened and the head 
 or co\er is placed in 
 position. The foot is 
 placed on the lever 
 attached to the spring 
 shown in the illustra- 
 tion. The whole top 
 frame then moves 
 down on to the box as the foot is passed down. A set of 
 notches catch and hold the lever, thus sustaining the 
 pressure on the cover. Three cross-pieces between the 
 
 Fig. OG. Header, or pres.s, used !")>' P. J. 
 Bayley, Larg:o, Fla. 
 
HANDLING THE CITRUS CROP. 
 
 449 
 
 top bars press down just inside the ends and to 
 one side of the partition of the box. The top is then nailed 
 down, the hoops are placed on and the box is complete. 
 The other, shown in Figure 96, is much simpler in con- 
 struction. Two pieces of curved metal are loosely at- 
 tached to a pair of horizontal pieces of wood, which are 
 held together at the outer end by a cross-strip at the ends. 
 
 Fig. 9 
 
 Press used by Mr. W. S. Hart for putting heads 
 on orange boxes. 
 
 At the inner end they are attached to a horizontal piece 
 by two links. The upper horizontal piece against the 
 wall is nailed firmly in place, while the lower one is at- 
 tached to it by a link at each end. This allows some play, 
 necessary to the smooth working of the header. The 
 pieces of curved metal are just long enough to fit inside 
 of the ends without resting on the partition. In nailing 
 the cover on the box, the operator sits down on the outer 
 
 16 
 
450 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Strip, his weiglit presses the head down, whereupon it is 
 nailed in place. 
 
 An_y nian of ordinary ingenuity can readily make a 
 simple press of some description to press the heads into 
 place. They may not be so good as those described above, 
 but will be just as efficient. 
 
 Packing and Bhipinng Do)i'ts. Every separate step 
 in preparing the fruit for market should increase its value 
 by at least the cost of the labor expended and the ma- 
 terials used. But, strange to say, the money value of the 
 crop is frequently greater as it hangs on the trees than it 
 is after it has been gathered, and made ready for market. 
 In many cases the actual worth of the fruit is decreased 
 at every separate step in the process of preparing it for 
 market. The value is, too often, lessened by careless hand- 
 ling, by unbusinesslike methods. 
 
 The author has had the opportunity on a number of 
 different occasions of examining citrus fruits in the mar- 
 ket, and has seen boxes of fruit showing proof of many of 
 the practices condemned in the following suggestions : 
 
 Never place bright and russet fruit in the same box. 
 
 Do not pack inferior grades of fruit and stencil it 
 fancy. No one is deceived thereby and the shipper loses 
 in the end. 
 
 Do not pack different sizes in the same box. 
 
 Do not wrap oran^i^s with three or four pieces of 
 paper to bring tlieni up to size. 
 
 Do not pack fruit liutil it has been properly sized. 
 
 Do not pack and ship uncured fruit. 
 
 Do not pack slack lioxcs. The bu_ver is honestly en- 
 titled t3 a full box of fruit. 
 
 Iio not stencil packages falsely. For instance, do not 
 mark 200 on a l)Ox containing 1.50 fruits. 
 
HANDLING THE CITRUS CROP. 451 
 
 In each box place only fruit of uniform grade and 
 ripeness. Tlie boxes should not be falsely faced and poor 
 fruit placed in the centers. The outer layers should fairly 
 represent the contents of the box. False packing of any 
 kind soon becomes known in a market. 
 
 Don't criticise the commission merchant too severely, 
 for there is too frequently a vast difference between the 
 fruit in the packing house and the same fruit when it 
 arrives in the market. 
 
 Don't ship fruit to unknown commission men with- 
 out first investigating their standing. 
 
 Stenciling. As soon as the covers have been placed 
 upon the boxes they are ready to be stenciled or labeled. 
 Fancy pasters are sometimes placed on the ends of the 
 boxes. In California this is commonly done, in Florida 
 ir is the exception rather than the rule. Upon the end 
 of the box there should be stamped the grade of fruit, the 
 name of the variety, the number which also indicates the 
 size, the consignee, and if the fruit is of fine grade, the 
 name and address of the consignor. Growers whose names 
 have won a place in the markets frequently place their 
 private brand only upon flrst-class fruit, while all other 
 fruit is shipped without it. 
 
 While it is best for a shipper not to stamp inferior 
 fruit with his name, on the other hand, all fruit that is 
 sound and salable should bear his name. His reputation 
 will suffer no injury, if he honestly stamps the grade of 
 fruit on the box. Fruit that will not carry and is not of 
 good quality should not be shipped. Bruised fruit, 
 thorned fruit, cracked fruit, creased fruit, fruit showing 
 distinct marks of die-back, fruits touched by frost, should 
 go in the cull heap. This done, and after careful grading 
 
452 
 
 OITBVS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 and selection of that which is shipped, no grower need 
 fear to have his name appear on his packages. 
 
 When properly stamped, the ends of the box should 
 appear somewhat like this: 
 
 176. 
 
 FANCY BRIGHT. JAFFA. 
 
 Consi0ned to 
 
 176. 
 
 Groicii 6,7/ 
 
 [Trade-mark ] 
 
 Packing Houses. Every grower of citrus fruits has 
 his own ideal of a packing house, whether he has that 
 ideal house or not. There are as manj' different, kinds 
 as there are growers. Hence, it is not possible to describe 
 an ideal packing house, and the attempt will not be made 
 at this time. 
 
 The capacity of the packing house depends upon the 
 quantity of fruit to be handled. The floor S]iace should 
 be ample to provide room for storing the fruit before 
 
HANDLING THE CITRUS CROP. 
 
 453 
 
 packing, for storing fruit for a short time after packing, 
 for making boxes, for storing boxes and box materials, 
 for headers or presses, for the sizer, and yet leave suflficient 
 room for moving about. The boxes may be made and the 
 materials and made-up boxes may be stored on the sec- 
 ond floor of the building, but this is practically all the 
 second story can be used for. 
 
 As a general rule, the fruit should enter at one end 
 of the packing house and as it passes through the several 
 processes of grading, curing, sizing and packing, it should 
 move toward the opposite end. Sometimes it is possible 
 to have the fruit move gradually downward from the 
 point of entrance to the place of exit, and this is always 
 advisable, as it saves much hard labor in lifting and hand- 
 ling the fruit. 
 
 Pig. 97. Packing- house of P. J. Bayley. 
 
 Fig. 97 is an illustration of the packing house of P. 
 J. Bayley, Largo, Fla. The building is rectangular, with 
 a lean-to on one side (not shown in the figure), in which 
 
454 CITRUS FRUITS AXD THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 the boxes jut- iiiude. Tlic fruit is deliveied at the rear <in 
 a high iilatforni. Just inside, fiimr space is ]irovided for 
 storing the finiit in field boxes. Tlic sizer occui»ies a 
 central position in the room and just inside the front door 
 the fruit is packed and stenciled ready fnv shipping. The 
 floor at the front is high enough from the ground to allow 
 loading of the fruit into tlie wagon without unnecessary 
 labor. 
 
 Plate XXXI shows the packing house of W. S. Hart. 
 Here the fruit is delivered at the platform shown in the 
 front, and to which a flight of ste]is lead up. In the corner 
 is a small gasoline engine, used in operating the machin- 
 evy in the i)acking house. As soon as the fruit is deliv- 
 ered, it is run through the large vat-like washer standing 
 on the back of the jilatforni. From the washer the fruit 
 is lifted out and placed on the raised drying table at the 
 right-hand end. The bottom of this table is composed 
 of slats and it s]o])es gently away from the washer. From 
 this drying table the fruit is gently rolled with a clotli 
 covered broom into field lioxcs, and lifted into the curing 
 racks inside. These run across the end of the lean-to, at 
 the right end, ihnxu the entire length of the building. 
 From the curing racks the fruit goes to the sizer, which 
 stands in the ]ieak-roofed ]iortion at the left. The packing 
 is done just inside the door at the left and the heads 
 are placed on the boxes en the platform at the left. From 
 this iiJattorni tlie fruit is hauled to the shipping jioint. 
 Thus it will be seen that the fruit travels S(iiiieA\'hat in a 
 circle. The second story of the left-ham! part serves for 
 a s1ore-room for materials and made-up boxes, and in this 
 room the boxes are made as \\ell. 
 
 ShippiiHj. The ex]iress car is the ideal way of siiip- 
 ping, but it is, unfortunately, too exjiensive. Hence, in 
 
4,-)(; CITRUS FRUITS AXD THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 the majority of cases, the shipper must fall batk upon 
 the freight train, ilost railroads in the citrns districts 
 run through freiglits. Citrus fruits can generally be 
 shipped without refrigeration, but clean, ventilated fruit 
 ears sliould he used. Whenever jmssilde, ship in carload 
 lots. The fruit is not handled so frequently, there is 
 not so much confusion at the receiver's end of the line 
 and rates are usually less per box for carload lots. 
 
 The standard car of oranges, as given by the South- 
 ern ('alifornia Fruit (irowers' and Sliippers" Assot-iation, 
 is as follows : 
 
 ••Xarrl Ordin/cs. A standard car of navel oranges 
 to consist of si/.es 9G"s and gild's, inclusive; not over 15 
 jier cent !MVs and 112's. Any excess of 15 per cent 96's 
 and 112"s to be considered oft-sizes and invoiced at a re- 
 duction of 5(1 cents ])er box. Sizes (jl's. SO's and 250's, 
 navel, to be considered off-sizes and invoiced at a reduc- 
 tion of 50 cents ]ier box from th.e price for regular sizes. 
 Size 2ir)'s in navels to be considered off-sizes and invoiced 
 at a reduction of 25 cents per box. 
 
 ■■Sci'iUiiifis. Mcdilirranciin l^irccts:. etc. The standard 
 (■ar of other varieties (except Valencias and Paper-rind 
 St. iMichaels) to consist of sizes 12(>'s to 25(rs, Inclusive; 
 not to exceed 15 per cent 12(p's and 15 per cent 250"s. 
 Any excess of 15 ]ier cent 12(i's and 15 per cent 25lt's to 
 be considered otl-sizes and invoiceil at a reduction of 25 
 cents per liox. Sizes of seedling oranges, larger and 
 smaller than 12<rs and 25(i's, inclusive, to be considered 
 oll'-sizes and invoiced at a reduction of 25 cents ]ier box. 
 It is understood that each car of oranges may contain 
 a reasonable quantity of otl'-sizes at the reduction named 
 alio\e." 
 
HANDLING THE CITRUS CROP. 457 
 
 MAHKETIXG. 
 
 The ways in Avhich the fruit is disposed of may be 
 roii^'lily divided into — (1) Selling to a private trade. 
 (2) Selling through commission merchants. (3) Sell- 
 ing through associations. Each person must make his own 
 choice, after carefully considering the merits of each 
 system. 
 
 The Private Trade. The fruit supplied to the private 
 Irade must be strictly fancy, and first-class in every re- 
 spect. It must be neatly and carefully packed, in clean, 
 neat packages. Everything in the appearance of the pack- 
 age and the quality of the contents must be indicative of 
 a desire to please and satisfy the taste of the consumer. 
 
 Large quantities of fruit cannot he handled in a i)ri- 
 vate trade. But when a trade is once established, there is 
 a handsome profit from a comparatively small number of 
 boxes. 
 
 The price obtained is, of course, much above that 
 paid for ordinary packages. A fair price should be set 
 on each package, and if a prospective buj'er does not care 
 to pay that price, then let him purchase elsewhere. 
 
 Every effort should be made to supply the same kind 
 and grade of fruit each month or year. Do not ship a 
 box of oranges of superior quality to a private customer 
 one month and follow it up thirty days later with a some- 
 what inferior package. That is likely to create distrust, 
 but let the fruit in the different shipments be uniform. 
 The object should always be to hold a customer, once he 
 is secured. Give him fruit that will make him want more 
 of the same. 
 
 The fruit, going out as it does in small lots of one 
 to five boxes, must generally be shipped by express. Ex- 
 press rates from the citrus districts are high, hence the 
 
458 CITRUI^ FRl'ir,^ AXD THEIR VULTURE. 
 
 private tvude is usually dependent for ils existence upon 
 fruit (diisumers of considerable means. 
 
 Coiiiiuissinn Mrrclmiits. The conmiission merchant 
 either directly or indirectly handles the greater portion of 
 the citrus fruits put on the market in America. He seems 
 to he a necessity in reaching the consumer, both in large 
 cities and in out-of-the-way ])hues. !Much has been said 
 against him, little in his favor. "We hear much of the dis- 
 honest ciimmission man; we hear little of the dishonest, 
 unscrupulous shipjier, of the man who i)uts up false pack- 
 ages and who shijis boxes, the contents of which are a 
 disgrace to the labels they bear. The truth of the state- 
 ment that the shi]i]ier is entirely at the mercy of the com- 
 mission iiien-liant cannot be denied, the selling of the fruit 
 is left entirely in his hands. Still, there are honest men 
 in the comuiission business and there are always A\ays of 
 finding out whether a firm is reliable or not. Frequently 
 ship]iers themselves are resjionsible for the existence of 
 bogus commission houses. It may be well to discuss the 
 selling of litrus fi-ni(s through commission men under 
 separate heads. 
 
 Irrcsjtdiixihlc Finns. I'^very now and then one hears 
 of shippers who nmde a consignment to a certain house 
 from which no return came. The loss might as well be 
 placed on tlie credit side of the exj)erience account. If 
 a shi])]ier lias been sending his fruit forward for a number 
 of seasons, he should know that his best jxilicy is Id stidv 
 to the firm he knows. The new shi]i|ier should find out 
 whether the firm is reliable or not. Too frequently the 
 fruit is picked and packed before the shijiper has the re- 
 motest idea of where or to whom to send it. A letter is 
 received giving glowing quotations, g\iaranteeing satis- 
 faction, smoothly written and — well, the shipment is made 
 
HANDLIXG THE CITRUS CROP. 459 
 
 and never heard from. Know the firm to whom you ship. 
 If they are new, consult Bi-<iilstrcct ; enquire and go slow. 
 
 Dividbuj f<liipuicnts. Frequently the man with fifty 
 boxes of oranges to ship will consign them to four or five 
 different commission merchants in the same city. This 
 practice seldom pays. He has to write four or five ad- 
 vices of shipment where one would suffice, and he annoys 
 and worries the express and freight agents by compelling 
 them to write out a greater number of receipts. The fruit 
 arrives in the city. Along comes a small fruit dealer who 
 in a few minutes makes a rapid tour of the commission 
 houses. In four or five of them he finds fruit shipped 
 by Mr. A. and plans his campaign accordingly. Of a 
 commission merchant he asks the price, then blandly 
 
 states, "I saw the same fruit down at and they 
 
 quoted it to me at twenty-flve cents less." Another comes 
 along and does the same thing and then another. Event- 
 ually that commission merchant believes the tale. The 
 prices are cut and all the fruit of that kind in the mar- 
 ket goes for less than it should. Ship to one man in a 
 city. 
 
 Spasmodic Shipments. A urower shipjiing to New 
 York learns that pomelos are fifty cents a box more in 
 Boston. He ships to Boston, and perhaps by the time 
 his fruit arrives the market has dropped and he gets just 
 what he was receiving in New York. Then he hears of 
 better prices in Philadelphia, ships there and gets fifty 
 cents less per box than he could have got in New York. 
 This may be somewhat exaggerated, but similar things 
 happen nearly every day. If a small quantity of fruit 
 is to be shipped, choose a mai'ket for it and ship it there, 
 ship right along. The ups and downs will average as 
 well as the spasmodic shipments will, and generally bet- 
 
CD 
 
HANDLING THE CITRUS CROP. 461 
 
 ter. If a large quantity of fruit is to be sold, distribute 
 it to two or three markets and sliip it right along, week 
 after week, day after day. 
 
 Choose a Trade-mark. If a good grade of fruit has 
 been grown, it will pay to select a design and put it on 
 the packages. Put up neat, honest packages and send 
 them forward. The result in time will be, "Have you any 
 of that Crown Brand to-day?" "No, but a shipment is 
 due to-morrow." "Well, I'll wait." Or the reply may be, 
 "Yes, we have a shipment of one hundred boxes." "What 
 is the price?" "Three dollars and fifty cents." "Very 
 well, I'll take it." The buyer has not seen the shipment, 
 but he knows that that Crown Brand stands for the best 
 quality of oranges, first-class all the way through, and 
 buys them on their reputation. That sort of a reputation 
 pays. Read E. Bean's letter again. 
 
 Associations. The association has been brought for- 
 ward as a substitute for the commission men to do away 
 with the middleman and to bring the retailer and pro- 
 ducer into closer contact. Much can be said in its favor 
 and considerable can be said against it. It possesses 
 some of the advantages of the large corporation over the 
 small dealer. Lower rates of transportation can fre- 
 quently be secured and fruit can be distributed to better 
 advantage. Advertising can be done better, and more 
 fruit can be handled. Uniform grades of fruit can be 
 put up, if central packing houses are used, and many other 
 desirable advantages can be secured. 
 
 But in practice the association has not always been 
 an unbounded success. The fruit is generally sold by 
 pool and this is unsatisfactory to those who grow fine 
 
 fruit ; result trouble. Too frequently the salesman of 
 
 the association is lacking in business capacity and ability. 
 
462 CITRUH FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 It is no easT matter to handle large amounts of fruit and 
 market it advantageously. Again, he may be hampered in 
 his work by having to please or try to please too many peo- 
 ple. Trouble and dissensions arise and the association, 
 however good in theory, too frequently, perhaps, goes to 
 ]Heces in practice. 
 
 In California associations have met with consider- 
 able success and it is unfortunate that there are not more 
 of them in existence in the citrus districts 
 
PART III. 
 
 DISEASES AND INSECTS. 
 
CHAPTER XL. 
 FUNGOUS AND PHYSIOLOGICAL DISEASES. 
 
 While the number of diseases affecting cirtus fruits 
 is not nearly so large as that affecting many other groups 
 of fruits, still they are of sufficient importance to attract 
 serious attention. As a general thing they can be suc- 
 cessfully combated by means at the disposal of every 
 grower. Some, however, are due to negligence or mal- 
 treatment. Others of these diseases are intimately asso- 
 ciated with the methods of cultivation and fertilization, 
 but they may appear in groves where the best and most 
 intelligent care is given. 
 
 Many of the diseases are due to the attacks of fungi. 
 These attack different parts of the plants — the roots, 
 stems, branches or leaves — and interfere with their func- 
 tions, eventually bringing about the death of the part 
 attacked and, in some cases, the whole tree succumbs. 
 These fungi are spread by means of spores which bear the 
 same relation to the fungus as seed does to the higher 
 plants. The s])ores are scattered by the wind or rain 
 and under favorable conditions of heat and moisture, 
 grow and enter the tissues of the plant. Slender fungal 
 threads, the mycelium, grow about in the tissues until 
 they have obtained food enough and have grown suffi- 
 ciently to produce spores again. These are again scat- 
 tered, and so the life circle is completed. In the follow- 
 ing 7>ages diseases of this nature are placed under the 
 heading of Fungous Diseases. 
 
 There is another class of disease which attack citrus 
 and other trees or plants. These are intimately associ- 
 
4(;0 CITRU.S FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 ated with tlic life functions of the cells. These are 
 grouped under the general name of Physiolofjicul Dis- 
 eases. 
 
 FUNGUS DISEASES. 
 
 Foot-rot, Ouin Disease, ihd-di-goma. So far as 
 known, this disease occurs in nearly every citrus dis- 
 trict in the world and none of our American centers 
 are free from it entirely. Its history in Europe extends 
 back to about 1845 and it worked destruction in the 
 groves of the Azores some years previous to that time, 
 and, in fact, seems to have been first noted there. In 
 Florida, it has been responsible for the disappearance 
 of many of the old sweet seedling groves and the discontin- 
 uance of the use of the sweet orange as a stock, as noted 
 in the chapter on stocks. 
 
 Foot-rot is clearly marked and not likely to be con- 
 founded with any other disease. It is confined to the 
 crown and main roots of the tree, extending a foot or 
 so above the ground and downward along the roots. Its 
 presence is first indicated by an exudation of gum, which 
 forms in drops on the bark covering the diseased spot. 
 Further examination at this time reveals a brownish 
 coloration of the outer cortex and a decayed condition 
 of the inner. The affected areas emit a fetid odor simi- 
 lar to that from a decaying orange. All plants, when 
 attacked by a disease, strive to overcome it, and this the 
 orange tries to do by cutting off the affected portion by 
 a wall of new tissues similar to that formed around an 
 ordinary wound. Following this, the bark covering the 
 spot dries up, breaks away from the adjoining parts, and 
 drojis off. The wood is then found to be decayed for a 
 short distance beneath. 
 
FUNGOUS AND PHYSIOLOGICAL DISEASES. 
 
 467 
 
 Though the tree still continues to bear fruit, its ap- 
 pearance is far from healthy; the leaves become yellow, 
 the twigs and young 
 branches die, and 
 the whole tree as- 
 sumes an unthrifty 
 appearance. Where 
 the affected tree can 
 be seen from a dis- 
 tance, it stands out 
 in marked contrast 
 to its neighbors. Un- 
 less the disease is 
 checked in some way, 
 the tree attacked 
 eventually succumbs 
 and has to be re- 
 moved. 
 
 Fortunately, all 
 varieties of citrus 
 stock are not in the 
 same degree subject 
 to this dreaded dis- 
 ease. In order of 
 foot-rot resistance 
 they stand about 
 as follows : Sour 
 orange, Citrus higa- Fig. as. 
 radia; rough lemon, 
 G. Limonum; trifoliate orange, C. frifoUata; pomelo, C. 
 decumana; lemon, C. Limonum; sweet orange, G. auran- 
 tium. Roughly, we may class the first four as decidedly 
 resistant, the last two as very much subject to the disease. 
 
 Foot-rot on crown roots and trunk 
 of sweet t range. 
 
4GS CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Cattle-] tenning; deep-setting; a wet, soggy soil con- 
 dition ; the use of rank, organic nitrogenous fertilizers ; 
 planting in localities underlaid with hard-pan; faulty 
 drainage; a shaded condition of the soil, and many similar 
 circumstances and practices have been given as the cause 
 of foot-rot. While it is not probable that the disorder 
 is due to any of these, there is no doubt that they have 
 a deleterious effect on the general health of the tree, and 
 so act as a predisposing cause. A healthy, vigorous tree 
 has all the chances in its favor for withstanding the in- 
 roads of disease, and any decrease iu its vitality simply 
 gives its enemies an opportunity to gain a foot-hold. 
 
 The specific cause of the disease is still in doubt, but 
 it is probably due to some form of vegetable parasite. 
 Prof. Giovanni Brioze,* in 1878, found a fungus, Fusis- 
 porium liinonii, constantly associated with the disorder, 
 but was not certain as to whether it was the speciiic 
 cause or not. Regarding it he states : "But that its 
 presence ought to accelerate the disorganization of the 
 tissue and contribute to extend the evil, I think I see 
 without any doubt." 
 
 As pointed out above, there are many conditions 
 which bear an important relation to foot-rot, and a brief 
 discussion of some of these will not be out of place, (a) 
 Cattle-penning and pasturing, so often resorted to for 
 the purpose of fertilizing the groves, is, to say the least, 
 a questionable practice. The sharp hoofs of the animals 
 cut and bruise the bark on the crown roots, and thus, 
 Ihrough their agency, this possibly parasitic disease may 
 be more rapidly carried from affected to unaffected trees. 
 
 * Intorno al Mai Goma Delgi Agrumi, Statione Chimico-Agraia 
 Kperlmentale Di Roma. pp. 1-16, pi. I. 1878. (Bstrata dal Vol. 11, 
 Series 3a Atta della R. Academia del Lincei.) 
 
FUNGOUS AND PHYSIOLOGICAL DISEASES 4^(j9 
 
 Then, too, the rank manure may act injuriously, and 
 there is no doubt that there are better means for supply- 
 ing the requisite plant food than this. In fact, we be- 
 lieve that the best orange is produced by the 
 judicious use of commercial fertilizers. (6) Close plant- 
 ing is often resorted to as a means for shading the ground. 
 A moist or damp condition of the soil is produced about 
 the tree, which, in the warm citrus climates, is exactly 
 suited to the development of disease. It would be de- 
 cidedly better to provide a surface mulch, either by the 
 growing of leguminous crops or by providing a mulch of 
 leaves and leaf-mold. Air would then be freely admitted, 
 and the sunlight, one of the best germicides we have, 
 would be allowed to reach the soil, (c) The piling of 
 rubbish, old tin cans, palmetto roots, etc., about the 
 trunks of trees is to be strongly condemned. Where a 
 mulch of leaves or grass is placed close to the trunks 
 it should, from time to time, be removed to allow the 
 soil to dry out on the surface. When banking with earth 
 as a protection against frost is practiced, the banks 
 should be promptly removed in spring, {d) Strict at- 
 tention should be paid to drainage, that no stagnant 
 water be allowed among the trees. A soggy, ill-drained 
 soil is not conducive to the health of an orange tree, (e) 
 In sections where the basin method of irrigation is used, 
 a cone of earth should be banked against the trees to keep 
 the water from the trunks. This bank should be removed 
 shortly after irrigating, (f) New groves should be set 
 only on resistant stocks and where injury from frost is 
 not feared, they should be worked a considerable distance 
 above the ground. The disease frequently attacks the 
 trunk above the point of union, particularly if it be close 
 to the ground. 
 
470 CITIWS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Treatment. This consists in removing, as far as pos- 
 sible, the detrimental conditions to which reference has 
 just been made and particular attention should be paid 
 to everything conducive to the health of the grove. 
 
 Carefully remove the earth from about the tree, 
 avoiding injury to the healthy roots. With a sharp, 
 strong knife, cut out all the diseased tissue down to the 
 healthy wood. Burn the material removed. With a brush 
 paint the freshly cut wood with solution Xo. (3), (4), or 
 (5), or sprinkle solutions X'os. (4) or (5i over the cut 
 surfaces and the adjoining soil. 
 
 Leave the earth removed until such time as the tree 
 has recovered, and then it would be better to fill in with 
 fresh, porous earth. In closely planted groves remove a 
 sufficient number of trees to let the light reach the 
 ground. These can be set out in another plot of gTOund. 
 Disinfect cultivators, plo\\s and harrows with carbolic 
 acid after using them in diseased groves, and before use 
 among healthy trees. As a preventive measure, use re- 
 sistant stocks, as already indicated, and where trees 
 have died out, re-set with others budded on sour orange, 
 rough lemon or pomelo, as the soil conditions render 
 Decessa]-y. 
 
 Frequently trees may be made to serve some years 
 of usefulness by planting a number of small resistant 
 stocks around the affected tree and inarching them above 
 the injured parts. 
 
 )S'c';Zj, Lemon Hi-ah. f<ouf Oraiifir Sent. This citrus 
 disease attacks the sour orange, bitter-sweet, lemon, Sat- 
 suma. Rangpur lime, and it has been found slightly af- 
 fecting till' King mandarin, the pomelo and kumquat. 
 in some districts it has become a serious inconvenience 
 in the production of smooth, marketable lemons, but for- 
 
FUNGOUS AND PHYSIOLOGICAL DISEASES. 
 
 471 
 
 tunately it has not made its way into the California dis- 
 tricts, at present the most important in America. 
 
 While the 
 sour orange 
 is very bad- 
 ly affected 
 by scab, lit- 
 tle notice is 
 taken of the 
 disease on 
 that host, as 
 it is used 
 principal 1 y 
 as a stock 
 on which to 
 work other 
 varie ties, 
 and is usu- 
 ally cut off 
 
 when a year or two old. It is, however, a drawback in 
 the production of healthy, vigorous stock. But it is with 
 the injury done to the fruit of the lemon that we are most 
 concerned from an economic standpoint. Lemons, to 
 sell well, must be perfectly bright, clean and smooth, 
 and when they are badly affected by this disease, thej- are 
 rendered unsalable. A rough, distorted fruit finds no 
 place in our markets. 
 
 The scabby leaves, twigs and fruit are very charac- 
 teristically marked. Warty, corky elevations cover the 
 surface, giving to it an unsightly, roughened appearance. 
 Often the leaves are twisted or drawn out of shape, and 
 they are in a considerable degree deprived of the power 
 to fulfill their natural functions, namely: respiration. 
 
 Fis- 99. Scab on young fruit and leaves of Satsuina. 
 
472 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 transpiration and the assimilation of food. Beneath the 
 warts on the opposite side of the leaf, there is often a 
 well-marked, conical depression, corresponding to the 
 elevation on which the excrescence is situated. Under the 
 warts on the fruit there is an abnormal thickening of 
 the tissue, resulting in the formation of somewhat conical 
 elevations. Thus the corky portions are lifted above the 
 normal level of the rind. The warts are at first yellowish, 
 then grayish, becoming dusky in appearance as the dis- 
 ease advances, until they become almost black, and event- 
 ually crack and open. When the excrescences are iso- 
 lated they are minute and of the shape of a cone or trun- 
 cated cone. Generally, however, they are confluent, pre- 
 senting the appearance of a bark-like substance firmly at- 
 tached to the 
 epidermis. 
 
 ^ The specific 
 
 y)'^ cause of the dis- 
 
 ,J n ease is a minute 
 
 / ,'-y i ) parasitic fun- 
 
 j / , ''"^ ^ / ,yC/ gus, a species 
 
 y ' / .''.' ' of Cladosporium 
 
 .,.^ -'•>-' described b y 
 
 /' , Prof. F. Lam- 
 
 C..__^.,^- ■ son-Scribner m 
 1S8G, probably 
 
 Fig. 100. Spores and spore-bearing parts of .scab IQSHtlcal Wltn 
 
 fungus (Cladosporium elegans penzig). ri plonnm Ppti- 
 
 B. spores. A, spore-bearing parts. ^- •^''^I/""* ^ ^" 
 
 zig. The spores 
 are \ory small, smoky in color, and usually one or two, 
 though sometimes three-celled. They are borne on brown- 
 
FUNGOUS AND PHYSIOLOGICAL DISEASES. 473 
 
 ish colored sporophores (spore-bearing filaments). When 
 mature, they become detached and, through the agency 
 of the wind, they are carried about from one tree to an- 
 other. Falling upon the young leaves of their host, under 
 favorable conditions they germinate by sending out a deli- 
 cate, slender tube, which enters the leaves and gives rise, 
 in due time, to the well-marked and easily recognized 
 diseased condition. 
 
 Remedies. The disease can be successfully controlled 
 by using one of the copper spraying solutions, Bordeaux 
 mixture or ammoniacal solution of copper carbonate. 
 The latter must receive the higher recommendation, as it 
 if less likely to injure the tender leaves and blossoms of 
 the lemon, but a weak solution of Bordeaux mixture is 
 likely to prove quite as efScacious, without any harmful 
 results. 
 
 The question at once arises, "Am I not likely to do 
 injury by killing as well the parasitic species of fungi 
 that work destruction to the various scales that infest 
 the trees?" This will have to be borne in mind, and, if 
 necessary, follow the spraying with an application of 
 whale-oil soap, kerosene emulsion or resin wash. To pre- 
 vent scab, spray three times. Give the first application 
 just after the petals have fallen from the first blossoms 
 and two others inside the next six weeks. If the disease 
 gains ground on the young fruit, further spraying will 
 be necessary. Shoots of sour orange and diseased fruit 
 should be removed and burned. 
 
 Leaf /Sfpof. Frequently upon the leaves of citrus trees 
 round dead spots are found. These spots eventually 
 break away, leaving the leaf tattei*ed and torn. The fol- 
 
474 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Fig". 101. S'pore ana spore-bearing parts of 
 
 leaf-spot fungus. B, spore-bearing" branches. 
 
 A. spores. 
 
 lowing description of the disease will assist in recognizing 
 it : Large, some- 
 
 what circular, 
 Yellowish spots 
 are noticed on 
 the leaves. Close 
 examination re- 
 veals the pres- 
 ence of minute 
 dark dots scat- 
 tered thickly 
 over the discol- 
 r e d areas. 
 These small, 
 dark spots con- 
 tain the spores 
 of a parasitic fungus, which is the cause of the trouble. 
 The sporules are borne on short filaments which are con- 
 tained in the brownish-black conceptacles. Fig. 101 show^s 
 some of these conidia and basidia, greatly enlarged. 
 
 This fungus has been known under two different 
 names. It was described as Pln/Ilosticta (nhista E. & M. 
 from the specimens collected by Dr. Jfartin. Later it was 
 referred to the genus Collctotricliuiii and named C. ad lift 
 inn E. It appears, however, to be identical with f'oUcto- 
 tridi.ii.m f/locospoiioidcs Penz. 
 
 More recenliy, Rolfs has demonstrated that two or 
 Ihi'ee diseases, hitherto not investigated, are caused by the 
 same fungus. It is responsible for the dying back of the 
 twigs of citrus h'ees, for the death of the lilossoms of th'^ 
 lime, for the anthracnose of the lime and the black-spot 
 disease on the rind of the lemon.* 
 
 * More recently the author has in-\-estii^ated a. serious disease of 
 pomelo fruit caused by the same organism. 
 
FUNGOUS AND PHYSIOLOGICAL DISEASES. 
 
 475 
 
 Treatment. — The disease can be held in check by spray- 
 ing with Bordeaux mix- 
 ture or ammoniacal solu- 
 tion. 
 
 Ripe-rot of Citrus 
 Fruits. Frequently ripe 
 specimens of citrus 
 fruits, more particular- 
 ly, perhaps, oranges and 
 lemons, show a yellow 
 covering of dust-like, 
 bluish powder. If ob- 
 served in an earlier 
 stage, the area will be 
 whitish, instead of blu- 
 ish, later the whole fruit 
 ball becomes small and 
 shriveled and the powd- 
 ery substance occupies a 
 relatively larger space. 
 
 The rotting of the fruit is caused by a fungus, Penieil- 
 lium Italicinii, closely allied to the common blue mold 
 which forms on bread, and the powdery mass is composed 
 of innumerable spores. The white coating of the fruit, on 
 some injured spot, is the "mycelium," the vegetative jiart, 
 which bears the same relation to the fung-us that the roots 
 do to a higher plant. The mycelium groAvs into 
 and through The tissue of the fruit. After de 
 veloping for some time and reaching a certain 
 stage of growth, the fungus forms spores. These are vis- 
 ible as the bluish, powdery moss. The spores are joined 
 together in the early stages in bead-like strings. As they 
 become matured, thev break off and blow awav. Thev are 
 
 rig. 102. Leaf-spot fungus ou itomelo leaves 
 TLe light areas are the spots affected. 
 
47«; 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 tliin-walled and oval in outline. The upper portion of 
 Fig. 10.'! slio^vs a number of these s]iores much enlarged. 
 
 The spores are 
 lilown about by 
 the wind and 
 fall upon the 
 fruit. There in 
 the presence of 
 moisture t h e j 
 start to grow, as 
 shown i n the 
 lower half of 
 Pig. 103. A slen- 
 der tube is sent 
 out which con- 
 tinues to length- 
 en. If it can find 
 an entrance into 
 a fruit it grows 
 and develops, 
 forming a mvce- 
 lium.and spores 
 are again soon 
 produced. 
 
 <-' e r t a i n 
 
 M.tr>i-iJli<ii<nir<iliIi 1>U Mi-'"' '- 31rriill,„li. 
 
 Fig. 103. .S])(irt^s of ripe-rot fung:us abi:i\'e, 
 germinating spores below, g'reatly enlarged. 
 
 weather conditions are particularly favorable to the 
 disease. Hot, damp days and nights are ideal 
 for the gr(i\\tli of the fungus, while cold, dry weather 
 does not fa\(ir its development. 
 
 The disease most frequently gains access to the fruit 
 in some injured spot. A slight bruise is sufficient. In- 
 sects ])un(ture the rind and give a chance for it to enter. 
 If fruit is improperly cured and tightly packed into the 
 
FUNGOUS AND PHYSIOLOGICAL DISEASES. 477 
 
 boxes, it uiay be injured and the fungus have a chance to 
 attack the fruit, most usually developing where two are 
 pressed closely in contact. In the field it frequently at- 
 tacks fruits hanging together on the trees and causes con- 
 siderable damage. In California, Woodworth reports the 
 entrance of the fungus through the navel end of the Bahia 
 orange as being quite common. 
 
 Treatment. Fruit should be carefully handled and 
 packed. The fruit should be thoroughly cured and dry 
 when packed. Carefully wrap the fruit, using a good 
 quality of paper, one not readily aflfected by moisture. 
 This will prevent the spread of the disease from one fruit 
 to another in the box. If the spores of the fungus have 
 become abundant in the packing house, it should be 
 tightly closed and fumigated by burning sulphur in it. 
 Plenty should be used. Thorough ventilation of the pack- 
 ing house will assist materially. Cull fruit should not 
 be left about to rot and decay. Decayed fruit should be 
 destroyed, preferably by burning. 
 
 Sooty-mold, Meliola Camelliae (Catt.) Sacc, is 
 widely distributed throughout the different sections 
 where citrus fruits are grown. It occurs as a sooty- 
 black covering on the leaves, fruits and twigs of many 
 plants, and is intimately associated with various insects 
 belonging to the families Aleyrodidae Coccidae and 
 ApMdidae. In Florida it follows Lecanium oleae on Ne- 
 rium oleander and Persea Carolinensis ; Aphis gossypii 
 on the orange, eggplant, and many other herbs, shrubs 
 and trees ; Lecanium hesperidium, Ceroplastes floriden- 
 sis, Icerya purcliasi, Aleyrodes citri and other insects on 
 citrus trees. In short, may be said that it is found 
 with all the scale and allied insects which exude hone>- 
 dew in any considerable quantities. 
 
47S 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 The fungus is a saprophyte, 
 and is dependent upon this honey- 
 dew for its sustenance. The in- 
 sects already referred to are gre- 
 garious in tlieir habits. Conse- 
 quently, the honey-dew accumu- 
 lates in considerable quantities 
 on various ]iarts of the plant, 
 and in this substance the fungus 
 lives. The black covering is com- 
 posed of its vegetative threads. 
 A number of different kinds of re- 
 productive bodies are produced, 
 and, through the agency of the 
 wind, are carried about from tree 
 to tree. A"\'herever suitable food 
 material is found, there the fun- 
 gus develops. 
 
 Pig. 104. Sooty-moia. A, Myce 
 
 liuin. B, Conidinpliori'S. C. Con 
 
 idia or sitiu-os. (Enlarged.) 
 
 It is when it follows the at- 
 tacks of the white fly, Alci/rodes 
 citri, or allied insects occurring in enormous numbers on 
 citrus trees, that it does the most damage. The white 
 fly spends a great jiortion of its life on the under sides 
 of the leaves. The honey-dew exuded by it falls upon 
 the ujiper sides of the leaves beneath and upon the twigs 
 and the sit'ni ends of the fruit. In this honey-dew the 
 fungus grows and soon covt'vs the trees with a thick, 
 black, sooty covering, so that thoy appear from a distance 
 as though covered with a liberal application of stove- 
 black. 
 
 Sunligjit is necessary to the leaves of a tree, that they 
 may carry out their work in the plant's economy. The 
 
FUNGOUS AND PHYSIOLOGICAL DI8EASIJS. 479 
 
 black screen of fungal threads preveuts the light from 
 reaching the leaves. Their natural functions are inter- 
 fered with and the tendencj' is to keep the tree in an un- 
 healthy condition. Often the yield of bearing trees is 
 greatly lessened as a direct consequence. 
 
 Bearing on the effects of sooty-mold and white-fly 
 on citrus trees, the following remarks by H. A. Gossard, 
 in Bulletin 67, Florida Experiment Station, are of in- 
 terest : 
 
 "The following table shows the results of a chemi- 
 cal analysis made at my request by Professors Miller 
 and Blair, of three lots of fruit picked the same day from 
 adjoining Dancy tangierine groves, both of which were 
 infested with white-fly and had been given practically 
 the same treatment as regards cultivation and fertiliz- 
 ing. Fifteen or twenty oranges were selected for each 
 of the three lots, representing as accurately as possible 
 the average condition as to size and maturity on each 
 of the three trees from which they were taken. 
 
 "Sample Xo. 1 was from a tree that had been in- 
 fested for several years and had been left to take care 
 of itself. 
 
 "Sample Xo. 2 was from a tree about forty feet from 
 Xo. 1 and was regularly and properly sprayed three or 
 four times each year, but stood in the row adjoining the 
 unsprayed grove, and the insects could not be prevented 
 from developing upon it in numbers sufficient to cause 
 more or less mold. 
 
 "Sample Xo. 3 was from a tree eighty feet from Xo. 1 
 and was properly sprayed as was Xo. 2, but with better 
 results. A few larvae were present on the leaves, but. 
 practically, white-fly could be considered wholly absent. 
 
J 80 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Reducing Siiear— Total Sugar De.r/irw— Cilrii And— 
 Xii. Pi' I- fill I. Percent. Per Lent. 
 
 Sample No. 1 2.18 6.71 .425 
 
 Sample No. 2 2.23 6.2.5 .394 
 
 Sample No. 3 2..'38 7.91 .445 
 
 "Tlipse sam])les were collected in February, after they 
 had passed their best, but it is believed that they kept 
 their relative quality.'' 
 
 The immediate damage is to the crop. The 
 stem end of the fruit becomes covered by the mold ; it 
 colors irregularly and, unless cleaned in some way, is 
 often unfit for market. Various methods are used to re- 
 move the sooty covering from the oranges. Some use a 
 lidless box. Over the open side, a piece of coarse sack- 
 cloth or canvas is stretched and on this cross-cut sawdust 
 is scattered. The oranges, one or two at a time, are taken 
 and ground about on this until the soot is removed. 
 Another machine consists of a hollow cylinder mounted 
 on stationary posts, and having a crank attachment. This 
 is ])artially filled with oranges and sawdust and revolved 
 until the fruit is bright. Washing with a cloth or brush 
 is also resorted to, and some sim^ily use a dry brush. 
 Often, however, the oranges appear on the market with 
 the mark of mold upon them. This is particularly the 
 rase if the fruit is anywise rough-skinned, the fungal 
 threads still remaining in the depressions. 
 
 The additional cost of harvesting and marketing a 
 crop of oj-auges is very considerably increased and the 
 fruit can not help but suffer to some extent from the harsh 
 treatment it often receives. Oranges have been noticed 
 which liad been so vigorously cleaned that the epidermis 
 had been torn and the oil-glands of the rind laid open. 
 
FUNGOUS AND PHYSIOLOGICAL DISEASES. 481 
 
 This, together with the injurj' occasioned by bumping the 
 fruit about, is certain to impair the keeping qualities. 
 
 For washing the fruit, the cylinder-washer manu- 
 factured by S. C. ^Varner, of Palatka, Pla., is one of the 
 best. 
 
 Treatment. No method of treatment for the fungus 
 alone can be recommended, the insects should be de- 
 stroyed and, if this be done, the fungus will disappear, 
 as the honey-dew provided by the insects will no longer 
 be present. 
 
 Flyspeck or Sooty Fungus (Leptothyrium Pomi 
 (Mont, et Fr.), Sacc.) The flyspeck fungus covers the 
 rind of the citrus fruits with a superficial sooty covering 
 of greater or less extent. Sometimes this covering is 
 almost continuous over considerable areas, while in other 
 cases it occurs in isolated, irregular patches. When the 
 rind is badly affected, it gives the fruit a blotched ap- 
 pearance far different from the bright yellow or golden 
 hue of the fruit. The blotched appearance is caused by the 
 sooty patches alternating with patches of unspotted rind. 
 
 On the sooty areas, large numbers of minute black 
 specks, each about the size of an ordinary pin point, are 
 frequently found. Generally they are more or less ag- 
 gregated. Sometimes these specks are found without any 
 accompanying sooty growth, in which case it may be con- 
 cluded that the sooty growth was at one time present, 
 but eventually disappeared, leaving only the small, black 
 spots. The sooty covering must not be confused with 
 sooty-mold, so common a companion of various insects, 
 as already noted. It is entirely distinct from it and the 
 flyspeck fungus is in no way connected with the attacks 
 of insects or their presence on citrus trees. 
 
482 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 The cause of the trouble is a fungus, the scientific 
 i;ame of which is Lepiothijriiim Ponii, common in apple 
 districts, where it develops on the fruit, both on the tree 
 and in storage. 
 
 The sooty spots consist of a formation of the fungal 
 threads ; on the rind they are black, but viewed under the 
 light, they are light brown in color. The minute spots 
 appear to consist of more closely-woven strands of fun- 
 gus, as though a small spore case were in process of form- 
 ation. Whether this is the case or not, spores, by means 
 of which most fungi are disseminated and propagated, 
 have not yet been discovered in this fungus, and appear 
 in all cases to be entirely lacking. 
 
 Anything which may be said regarding the way in 
 which the fungus spreads must be more or less conject- 
 ural. The fungal threads may become detached and blow 
 about, or it may be that spores, not yet discovered, may 
 be produced. Since citrus fruits frequently grow ir 
 clusters, the fungus may easily spread from one fruit to 
 another. 
 
 So far as has been observed, no damage is done the 
 fruit, but when the fungus is present in abundance, it 
 renders the fruit unsightly, and, consequently, depre- 
 ciates the mai'ket value. 
 
 Treatment. Nearly all traces of the fungus may be 
 removed if the fruit is Avashed, and since it makes its 
 appearance about the Time the fruit matures, this is the 
 best possible treatment. It will yield readily to an ap- 
 plication of solution No. 1, but this treatment can 
 scarcely be recommended. 
 
 Melatiose. This disease was first brought to notice 
 by Webber and Swingle in ISfln. It was quite prevalent 
 in the vicinity of Citra, Fla., at that time. Since then. 
 
FUNGOUS AND PHYSIOLOGICAL DISEASES. 483 
 
 it has been found in a number of different places, but 
 as yet has not caused sufficient damage to attract serious 
 attention. 
 
 On the leaves, fruit and twigs of affected trees small 
 brownish-black spots are to be seen. These spots are 
 sometimes separate and sometimes confluent. Where 
 separate, the intervening tissue is apparently quite nor- 
 mal, but where confluent to any considerable extent, a 
 brownish tinge is given to the whole leaf. The spots are 
 somewhat elevated and are occasionally found to be 
 cracked or fissured at the apex. Under diseased trees 
 large numbers of leaves are found, showing to what ex- 
 tent the disease has been injurious. The disorder causes 
 damage to the trees by defoliating them, rendering the 
 leaves unable to carry out assimilative processes for quite 
 a time before they drop, and also in rendering the fruit 
 unsightly, because of the irregular dark-colored areas 
 which cover the surface. 
 
 Careful microscopical examination has been made of 
 the diseased spots, but nothing has been found to which 
 the trouble might be attributed. It has been suggested that 
 it may be caused by some vegetable organism, but thus 
 far nothing has been found to establish this fact beyond 
 the observation that the disease seems to spread from 
 tree to tree, and the fact that it yields to applications 
 of fungicides. 
 
 Dr. N. A. Cobb, of New South Wales, called atten- 
 tion to a disease of citrus fruit to which he applied the 
 same name, believing them to be identical. McAlpine,* 
 however, after carefully comparing Australian and Florida 
 specimens of diseased leaves, says, "For the present, at 
 any rate, the two diseases cannot be considered identical." 
 
 Fungus Diseases of Citrus Fruits in Australia. 16. N., 1899. 
 
484 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Treatment. Experiments have shown that this 
 trouble may be controlled by the use of Bordeaux mix- 
 ture in very weak solution, one to twelve and one-half 
 or fifteen used as a preventive, not as a curative. The 
 dangerous period to the fruit is while it is still young. 
 It would be best to commence spraying during the dor- 
 mant period, before the trees bloom, and spray once a 
 Bionth until the fruit is well formed, that is, about the 
 month of Jul v. 
 
 Lichen.^. These plants 
 are found growing upon 
 stones, logs, boards, fences 
 and liviuj; trees through- 
 out the country. In color 
 they are yellow, green, red- 
 dish or jiiay. Their forms 
 are many and varied; 
 some adhere closely to the 
 substances on which they 
 iii'ow i crustaveous) ; some 
 are branched and elevated 
 (fniticti.sr) ; while others 
 ])i-('sent a rouiili, crumpled 
 surf a (■ e ( foMacroits) . 
 From the botanist's stand- 
 lioiiit, lichens are among 
 the most interesting mem- 
 bers of tlie vegetable king- 
 dom; they consist of a 
 fungus and an alga grow- 
 ing together, each contrib- 
 uting to the welfare of the other ( si/mliiof!/.^). The fungus 
 furnishes water containing food in solution and shades 
 
 
 Fig-. 1115. 
 
 Lichens on trunli of an 
 orange tree. 
 
FUNGOUS AND PHYSIOLOGICAL DISEASES. 
 
 485 
 
 the alga, which, in return for these good offices, supplies 
 the former with the result of its assimilative processes. 
 
 The moist, warm climate of some of the citrus dis- 
 tricts is ideal for their development. In many orange 
 groves the trunks and the larger branches of the trees are 
 covered with lichens; thej' are obnoxious to the eye, and 
 to a certain degree detrimental to the health of the tree. 
 They are not parasitic, but they prevent a free inter- 
 change of gases through the bark, thus to some extent, 
 producing a condition injurious to the health of the tree; 
 and certain it is, they are never so plentiful on healthy, 
 vigorous trees as upon those which are in poor condition. 
 They serve also as a harborage for insects and insect eggs. 
 
 Consequently, it is very desirable 
 that the trunks of the trees should 
 be kept free from lichens, and, for- 
 tunately, this is easily accomplished 
 at a very slight cost. One treatment 
 every two or three years will be suf- 
 ficient to keep the trunks in a clean, 
 healthy condition. 
 
 Besides those found on the trunk 
 and large branches, a lichen, fitrig- 
 iila complanata (Fee and Mont.) 
 Nyl., is frequently met with on the 
 leaves of citrus trees. It occurs in 
 the form of small ashy-gray dots and 
 blotches on the upper surface of the 
 leaves. Fig. 106. Here and there on 
 these blotches may be seen small, 
 black specks, the fruiting bodies of 
 Fig. 106. Lichen (stnguiathc Hchcn. This spccles injuriously 
 ^rt.f.'Tn'ieifof KumSluIt'. affects the leaves by preventing the 
 
48G 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Pig. 107. Tree Scraper. 
 
 access of light and upon the action of light, the assimila- 
 tion of food depends. 
 
 Trratmcnt. Spray the 
 leaves with formula (1), 
 and either ajijily to the 
 trunks as a spray or ap- 
 ply with a stiff brush and 
 scrub them clean. Scrub 
 trunks and limbs with soap suds. A tree scraper may 
 frequently be used to advantage. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL DISEASES. 
 
 Die-Back. This disease takes its name from the fact 
 that the young twigs and branches of affected trees die 
 
 back to a distance of 
 from two to eight 
 inches, or even more, 
 from their tips. Sub- 
 se(iuently the older and 
 larger limbs and 
 branches are affected, 
 unless the disease is 
 checked. 
 
 No citrus trouble is 
 more widelj' distrib- 
 uted throughout Flor- 
 ida than die-back, and 
 it occurs in California 
 and other citrus dis- 
 tricts as well. Xo lo- 
 cality is exempt from 
 it and no variety free 
 
 Fig. lOS. Orange. tree showing effects f^om itS attack. Trees, 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 £' 
 
 r-.^^^ 
 
 
 M"* 
 
 1 liM9SiM^^B9^''r 
 
 
 m 
 
 ^^HBB 
 
 V^ 
 
 P 
 
 -jeiPIS.'.:- 
 
 ^fe?%^ 
 
FUNGOUS AND PHYSIOLOGICAL DISEASES. 487 
 
 young and old, suffer alike, and a few trees have been 
 found affected which were still standing in the nursery 
 rows. Very often, little notice is taken of it, and it gradu- 
 ally works its way, nipping off the new growth, and the 
 trees, in consequence, make very little progress. Years of 
 work and much capital are often wasted in mistaken efforts 
 to bring a grove into healthy condition. 
 
 The disease is easily recognized. The young twigs 
 die back several inches. Irregular, reddish-brown ele- 
 vations, at first closed, later cracked open and filled with 
 a resinous substance, make their appearance on the small 
 branches and twigs. These vary greatly in length, height 
 and shape. Often elevated pustules, filled with a gummy 
 substance, occur on the young growth. These seem, in 
 some cases, at least, to develop into open ruptures. Ad- 
 ventitious buds are frequently produced, and those which 
 are not smothered by the resinous exudation develop, 
 thus giving rise to several branches from a single node. 
 Sometimes the only noticeable mark of the disorder on a 
 branch is the presence of a resinous knot in the axils of 
 the leaves, where the buds should be. Slightly affected 
 branches have often a dark, greasy appearance. The 
 small growth is usually twisted and bent. On the fruit 
 the disease is manifested by the presence of dark, brown- 
 ish blotches and by cracking or splitting. Many fruits 
 drop off. As the disease advances the trees try in vain to 
 throw out new branches. Symptoms become more strongly 
 marked, the tips of the bare, distorted branches protrude 
 above the dark-green foliage. Gradually the larger 
 branches are embraced, water-sprouts develop only to be- 
 come affected and die. Eventually the tree succumbs. 
 
 Die-back is not a fungous disease, no spores nor fun- 
 gal threads having been found connected with it as causal 
 
4S8 CITRUK FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 agents. It appears rather to be a (lisnrdcr brought aboiit 
 bv a variety of circumstances, and the external marl'is of 
 tlu' disease are to be regarded as an indication of a de- 
 ranged condition of the whole tree. In certain locali- 
 ties it seems to be brought about by the presence of hard- 
 pan in proxiniiiy to the surface. Again, the condition 
 seems to ))e due t" a wet, poorly aerated soil. But perhaps 
 the most prolitir source of the trouble is the use of ferti- 
 lizers unsuitable to the orange tree. Now, whether we 
 should make a distinction in die-back as induced by these 
 several causes, it is diflBcult to say, but it is probable that 
 in eacji and every case, the same causative agent, an en- 
 zyme, is at work. 
 
 Many instances have come under the observation of 
 the writer, of the occurrence of the disease where trees 
 were jdanted in ground jireviously iised in growing vege- 
 tables, and wlii(h was heavily fertilized with blood and 
 bone and cnttonseed meal. Then, too, in some localities 
 the s|iaces between the tree rows have been used for grow- 
 ing vegetables, the same fertilizers applied as in the cases 
 just mentioned, and with the same deplm-able effect on the 
 orange trees. The disease has been observed in groves 
 regTilarly feiUlized Avith rank nitrogenous fertilizers, 
 and trees standing near and receiving nutriment from 
 staldes, closets and hencoops are generally affected. The 
 general conclusion reached by all oliservers during the 
 jiast fifteen years or more has been for the most part to 
 the effect that the excessive use of organic nitrogenous 
 fertilizers will cause die-liack, and the matter has been 
 jiretty thoroughly discussed in the horticultural jiapers 
 of tlie citrus distrids. 
 
FUNGOUS AXD PHYSIOLOGICAL DISEASE!, 
 
 481) 
 
 Treatment. This consists for 
 the most part in removing con- 
 ditions and discontinuing prac- 
 tices which induce the disease. 
 Make a thorough study of the 
 soil and the methods of fertiliz- 
 ing. In some places, with trees 
 growing on ha^d-pan, the follow- 
 ing plan was adopted and they 
 made a complete recovery : The 
 trees were cut back, lifted from 
 the ground, the hard-pan re- 
 moved, either by blasting or pick- 
 ing it out, and the trees re-set. 
 The remedy for trees growing in 
 damp ground consists in paying 
 proper attention to drainage and 
 fertilizing. Tile or box drains 
 should be put in to remove the 
 water and allow the air to enter. ^'^- irange^iw^S" °" 
 Where the disease has been brought about by the use nf 
 fertilizers, as before indicated, discontinue their use, dis- 
 continue cultivation, allow the natural vegetation to spring 
 up and apply potash and phosphoric acid as usual. Con- 
 tinue this treatment until recovery takes place; then re- 
 sume cultivation and fertilization, using nitrate of soda 
 or sulphate of ammonia as a source of nitrogen. 
 
 Solution K"o. (1) has in many cases given excellent 
 results, but sometimes no results have been obtained. 
 It is doubtful whether the injurious effects of a hard- 
 pan sub-soil can be overcome by spraying. But in other 
 instances it may prove beneficial. Because Bordeaux 
 mixture is a fungicide and has given results in cases of 
 
490 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 die-back, some have argued that this disease is due to a 
 fungus. This is not the case, however, and the beneficial 
 results must be attributed to the chemo-toxic effects of 
 the solution in accelerating the assimilative processes in 
 the leaves and other green parts of the trees. 
 
 If the S])raying method of control is adopted, three 
 or four applications should be given at intervals of about 
 thirty days. It must be borne in mind that Bordeaux 
 mixture is not an insecticide, but on the other hand its 
 use is generally followed by an enormous increase in the 
 number of scale insects. Therefore, it is absolutely neces- 
 sary to follow the applications of Bordeaux up with a good 
 insecticide, such as Good Potash Whale-oil Soap, Xo. 3, 
 to keep the scale insects in check. If the grower is iinwill- 
 ing to do this then spraying must be left alone and the cul- 
 tural treatment adopted. 
 
 Bl if/lit. This is the most dreaded of all citrus diseases, 
 because, thus far, no satisfactory means have been discov- 
 ered of preventing or i(iml)ating it. The history of the 
 disease is not definitely known, but it has been prevalent 
 in the Florida districts for a number of years. Many of 
 the worst affected proves have disappeared, but the dis- 
 ease is still quite iire\ alent. 
 
 Blighted trees apjiear as though suffering from 
 drought, or look as though they had recently been trans- 
 planted. The leaves wilt, droop and finally drop off. In 
 some cases the disease works very rapidly, in others its 
 progress is decidedly slow. It often manifests itself on 
 a single hraiicli and from that gradually siireails over the 
 whole tree. Trees aflecled in this Avay live for a consid- 
 erable length of time. But in many cases it soon brings 
 aliout the death nf the tree. Shoots spring out from the 
 trunk and crown roots of the tree. These also snccuniU 
 
FUNGOUS AND PHYSIOLOGICAL DISEASES. 491 
 
 eventually. The leaves produced on these shoots are usu- 
 ally quite yellow between the veins and have a peculiar 
 constricted appearance. 
 
 Thus far, the cause of the disease remains unknown. 
 Trees may be attacked at any age, whether old or young, 
 but as a general thing it appears most commonly in old 
 bearing trees. Up to the time when they are attacked they 
 generally appear to be quite healthy. No external agent 
 has been found connected with it. It appears rather to be 
 the result of internal derangement of the functional pro- 
 cesses carried on within the tree. It may be that it is 
 caused by an enzyme, a poisonous substance present in 
 the soil. In fact, it appears at the present time that this 
 is about the only plausible explanation of its cause. A 
 number of other plant diseases, such as peach-yellows 
 and rosette, may belong to this same class of diseases, 
 though in none of these cases has this theory been act- 
 ually proven. 
 
 Color is given to this theory of the cause of the blight 
 of citrus trees by the fact that it is usually more or less 
 localized in a grove and there may be a number of sepa- 
 rate centers of the disease in a single grove. The peculiar 
 nature of the new growth and the trenched appearance of 
 the foliage tend to strengthen this view. 
 
 Treatment. Pruning does not stay the progress of 
 the disease. Diseased branches may be removed, leaving 
 only the healthy ones and yet the disease will reappear. 
 Observations have led to the belief that it is contagious, 
 at least, trees adjoining those diseased also become affected 
 in due time. In the premises the best suggestion that 
 can be made regarding the control of the disease is to 
 dig out and burn the diseased trees as fast as they show 
 symptoms of the disease. Dig them up and destroy them 
 
40:2 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 root and branch. It is probable that the causative agent 
 moves through the soil in the ground water. This may ex- 
 plain the apparently contagious nature of the disease. 
 Nevertheless, the trees should be destroyed as already sug- 
 gested as the decaying roots in the soil may tend to increase 
 the disease. If the disease is ever successfully combated, 
 it will probably have to come through the application of 
 some chemical substance to the soil. 
 
CHAPTEE XLI. 
 
 INSECTS IXJUKIOUS TO CITKUS TREES. 
 
 The insects attacking titrus trees may be conven- 
 iently grouped as hitiiig and sucking insects. The first 
 group, including the grasshopjjers, orange-dog and a few 
 other insects of less importance, injure the trees by eat- 
 ing the foliage and other tender parts. The sucking 
 insects, however, obtain their food from the trees by 
 sucking the juices out of the cells. Many of them also 
 appear to inject a poisonous substance into the tissues 
 which assists in destroying the cells. The members of 
 this second group are far more numerous than those of 
 the first; in fact, the most dreaded insect enemies of 
 citrus trees are found here. This group may be further 
 divided into Scale Insects and Insects other than Scales, 
 the latter embracing the white fly and different kinds of 
 mites. The scales may be divided into armored or pro- 
 tected scales and unarmored or unprotected scales. The 
 armored scales have a protective covering and are unable 
 to move about after having once settled themselves in 
 a certain position. The unarmored scales have no hard 
 covering and are motile during the greater part of their 
 existence, moving freely while young, but in a very lim- 
 ited way when matured. If we present a graphic out- 
 line of the groups of the more important citrus insects 
 as described in this chapter we have — 
 
 I. Biting Insects. 
 
 II. Sucking Insects. 
 
 (1). Scales, (a) Armored Scales, (b). Un- 
 armored Scales. 
 
 (2). Insects other than Scales, (c) White Fly. 
 (d) Citrus Mites. 
 
494 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Those insects which feed by biting off and chewing 
 parts of the plant can be destroyed by putting a poison- 
 ous substance on the part of the plant attacked; not 
 so with those which nbtain their nourishment by sucking 
 the juices of the plant. These can only be destroyed by 
 spraying over them some penetrating or sticky substance, 
 such as kerosene emulsion, whale-oil soap or resin wash, 
 which will enter their bodies through the walls or close 
 out the air from them by plastering them under. 
 
 Poisonous gases, liberated under tents over the trees, 
 suffocate them, and flue ]io\vders, such as pyrethrum, pre- 
 vent their breathing by stopping up their spiracles. 
 
 I. CITING INSECTS. 
 
 Grasshoppers, among 
 which may be mentioned 
 Rhonialea inicropicrn Serv.. 
 K c h i s t c c r a (iiiicriva- 
 111(111 Send., and t'^chistoccra 
 olisciiniiii Burm. Fig. 110 fre- 
 quently p r V e trouble- 
 some on citrus trees. 
 They feed upon the tender 
 leaves and gnnvth, thus re- 
 ducing the foliage area of 
 the trees and lessening their 
 vigor. They most frequent- 
 ly attack the outer rows of 
 trees in the grove, those ad- 
 joining grass fields or pas- 
 tures. \Vhen they become 
 more numerdus they spread 
 through the grove and do 
 considerable damage. If 
 
 Fig. 110. Grasshoper feeding on 
 orange leaves. ( Schif^tocciti oh- 
 .^ciii-nm Burm.) 
 
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CITRUS GROVES. 495 
 
 they attack first the young fruit and bite a small area 
 of the rind, this area enlarges as the fruit grows and 
 presents a rough, scurfy appearance. Such fruit must be 
 classed as seconds or culls. 
 
 Treat lit cut. In the Canadian northwest, the Criddle 
 mixture, formula (15), has given excellent satisfaction 
 and has in many sections supplanted all other means 
 of fighting these pests. It should be scattered well 
 through the groves and the insects are said to be attracted 
 to this bait from a distance of forty feet. No injury to 
 poultry has resulted from its use. 
 
 The Orange-Dog. (Papilio Crcsphontrs Cramer). 
 Frequently a large, disagreeable-looking caterpillar, 3 1-3 
 inches, or slightly more, in length may be observed feed- 
 ing upon the leaves of citrus trees. It is dark brownish- 
 black in color and marked with large blotches of a dirty 
 white color on the posterior end, the sixth and seventh 
 segments and the sides of the head. The anterior end is 
 much enlarged and when at rest the mouth parts are 
 drawn in under it as shown in Plate 33. When irritated or 
 disturbed, the insect protrudes a pair of golden-colored, 
 horn-like feelers and at the same time a liquid having an 
 exceedingly disagreeable and repellant odor is emitted. 
 
 It is in the larval stage that damage is done. The 
 appetite of the caterpillar is enormous, an ordinary sized 
 orange leaf being disposed of in about five minutes. After 
 feeding to satisfaction, the caterpillar retreats to a shady 
 place and rests until its next feeding time. A great deal 
 of damage may be done to a tree in a very short time and 
 particularly on young trees the effects of their presence 
 are very noticeable. 
 
 When full grown, the larva seeks out some secluded 
 spot on the side of a limb or leaves the tree entirely, 
 
Plate XXXm. 
 
 1^ 
 
 ill {'■■nait^.i 
 
 f 
 
 B 
 
 w 
 
 ^^«/. 
 
 # ^ 
 
 
 JS' 
 
 
 :*^ 
 
 C 
 
 <_»ran^;H Dog- — iPaitillo Crcsphoiiivs Cramer.) 
 
 A, Larva, two-tbirds natural size. 
 
 B, L.arvn. pvftnu-ed lo pupalc; two-tbinls uat. size. 
 
 C, V\\\\;\ casi-: two-thirfls natural size. 
 I>. Bnttei-Hy; (.tiH-third iiatiinil sizr. 
 
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CITRUS GROVES. 497 
 
 makes its way to an adjacent fence, tree or log. There it 
 enters the chrysalis stage. First an attachment is made 
 by means of a matted web joining the posterior end to 
 the chosen place. Then a strand of silk is attached to 
 the support, passed around the body, and with head up- 
 wards and the body inclining outward at an angle of 
 about 45 degrees, it spends its period of pupation, last- 
 ing from twelve to seventeen days, depending somewhat 
 upon weather conditions. The chrysalis is inconspicu- 
 ous on account of the strong similarity in color between 
 it and the object to which it is attached. It is brown 
 and gray-spotted and has a number of projections on the 
 anterior end. (Fig. C, Plate 33.) 
 
 From this case, emerges a gorgeous black and yel- 
 low butterfly (Fig. D), about six inches across the tips 
 of the expanded wings. The yellow markings form two 
 bands, the upper one crescent-shaped, the lower almost 
 semicircular. On the projecting tips of the hinder wings 
 are two yellow, oval spots surrounded by a margin of 
 black and at the rear inner edges of the same pair of 
 wings, are two brownish or reddish spots with a small 
 crescent of blue dots above. Each female is capable of 
 depositing from four to five hundred eggs, which are de- 
 posited on the tender shoots and there are usually four 
 broods each season. 
 
 Treatment. Hand-picking of eggs and caterpillars. 
 Paris green at the rate of four ounces to fifty gallons of 
 water may be sprayed on the foliage when the larvae are 
 present. 
 
 Hubbard recommends shooting the butterflies. 
 
 Besides citrus trees, the caterpillar feeds upon Xan- 
 thoxylum, on Ptelea and some other trees. 
 
498 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 II. ARMOEED SCALES. 
 
 The Purple Scale, (Mytilaspis citricola Fackard). 
 This is one of tlie commonest and most conspicuous citrus 
 scales in Florida. The insect seems to be widely known 
 wherever the orange is grown, either in this country or 
 abroad. Hubbard observed in 1885 that it was more 
 abundant in the northern than in the southern portions 
 of the orange belt. The freezes since that time seem to 
 have reversed this order of distribution. 
 
 The scale of this species is one of the largest in the 
 genus. The scale of mature females sometimes reaches 
 a length of 0.12 of an inch (3 mm.), and that of the 
 male 0.05 of an inch (1.4 mm.). The name, "Oyster 
 Shell Bark-louse," has been applied to one member of 
 the genus, Mytilaspis poiiiorum. a common apple pest, 
 because the general outline of the scale, together with 
 its ridgings and markings, are so suggestive of an oyster 
 shell in miniature; the purple scale, Mytilaspis citricola, 
 and in lesser degree, the long scale, Mytikispis gloverii, 
 share this resemblance, and so it is not uncommon to hear 
 the term, "Oyster Shell Bark-louse," applied to any one 
 of them by the general public. The form may be de- 
 scribed as broadl.v trumpet-shaped, increasing in width 
 behind, often curved like an oyster shell, but rarely or 
 never with the sides parallel. The surface is glossy and 
 smooth and from a light to a dark red-brown purple 
 color. The male scales, being less than half the length of 
 the females, of a more linear shape and straight outline, 
 may suggest some other species of insect upon superfi- 
 cial examination, but its identity cannot be confused with 
 any other species than the long scale, Mytilaspis gloverii. 
 the female of which is twice as long as the male citricola. 
 and llie male of which is shorter and rather more slender. 
 
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CITRUS OROTES. 499 
 
 both, absolutely and relatively. The characteristic pur- 
 ple color with the male gives to a mass of scales belongs 
 to no other species of Mytilaspis. 
 
 The eggs are pearly white, very minute, elongate- 
 oval, and are usually laid in four rows, but sometimes 
 promiscuously. Each female deposits from 25 to 70 eggs. 
 
 The newly-hatched larva is irregularly oval in shape, 
 0.12 of an inch long, of a transparent white color, and 
 with fierj' red eyes, which have been likened to grains 
 of cayenne pepper. This young insect wanders about 
 a very short time, and then settles upon the bark or 
 leaves; when upon the latter, preferably along the mid- 
 rib, and is soon covered with a white film of wax threads, 
 some of which stand out from the rest, and if not car- 
 ried away by the wind, they accumulate and form cottony 
 tufts or tangles. 
 
 The shedding of the larval skin or first moult occurs 
 about three weeks after hatching, and the formation of 
 the true scale is begun. A second moult of the female 
 occurs three or four weeks later, and when nine or ten 
 weeks old egg-laying begins, the eggs being deposited 
 beneath the scale, from beneath which the young begin 
 to issue in about a week after the eggs are deposited, 
 unless retarded by cold weather. 
 
 The male goes through its second moult and changes 
 into a pupa several days earlier than the female, from 
 which it emerges as a winged fly, and is ready for mating 
 at the time the females are passing through their first 
 moults. 
 
 There are three or four generations per year, but the 
 separation into distinct broods is often more or less con- 
 fused, one generation overlapping the succeeding one, so 
 
500 
 
 V1TKU8 FRUITS AND THEIR CVLTVRE. 
 
 that all stages of the insect may 
 generally be found at almost any 
 season of the year upon infested 
 trees. Generally speaking, the 
 greatest numbers of migrating 
 young may be found in one of 
 three periods, namely : in the 
 spring, usually in March and some- 
 times extending into April ; in 
 June or July; and in September 
 or October. During mild winters 
 a fourth brood commences in Jan 
 uary and straggles through this 
 and the following month. 
 
 The recorded food plants of the 
 insect are as follows: 
 
 Banksia integrifolia, Croton 
 Eucalyptus, Murraya exotica,. 
 ^. -,,,„, , ,,,,,., Orange and Ptelea trifoliata. 
 
 Fig. 111. Purple scale (Miltu- » 
 
 a.5p<s ci7rico!o Packard) on Treatment: Solutions Nos. (9). 
 
 orange, ^ ' ' 
 
 (S) or (7). 
 
 37i6 Long Scale, (Mytilaspis gloverii Packard). 
 The long scale is of a more linear shape than the purple 
 scale, with which it is so often associated. The outline 
 of the body is not so often curved as is that of the pur- 
 ple scale. 
 
 The female scale is broAvnish, about 0.11 of an inch 
 (3 mm.) in length, and less than one-fourth as wide. 
 When crowded the scales adjust themselves to their sur- 
 roundings by taking all sorts of shapes, and many will 
 be dwarfed and malformed almost beyond recognition, 
 except by microscopic examination. The young insects 
 themselves are of a translucent waxv white, with the 
 
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CITRUS GROVES. 
 
 5(11 
 
 outer edge of the last joint yellowish. As they grow 
 older they incline to purple, which becomes deeper as rh- 
 insects increase in age. The adult female is 
 about 0.05 of an inch (1.3 mm.) in length. 
 The sucking proboscis is longer than thebody. 
 
 Fig. 112. Long scale (.Mytilaspis qloverli Packard) on orange branch. 
 
 The scale of the male is smaller than that of the 
 female, about 0.04 of an inch (1 mm.) in length, and 
 usually straight. The color varies from shades of brown 
 to yellow when young, becoming darker with age, and 
 reaching a dark brown in the older females. Generally 
 speaking, densely clustered colonies, including both 
 sexes, have a reddish hue. The male insect is a minute, 
 two-winged fly, 0.01 of an inch in length. Its body is 
 pale pink in color, and about one-fourth as wide as long. 
 The eggs are elongate-oval in shape, passing from a light 
 to a purple color before hatching. 
 
 The life history of this scale is so nearly parallel 
 with that of the purple scale that it is unnecessary to enter 
 into details. It has practically the same number of 
 broods, which occur at about the same time as those 
 of the other species. Sometimes the broods of the one 
 species precede or follow those of the other by a few 
 davs. but thev are often simultaneous. The times of ap- 
 
-,0-2 
 
 CITRUS FinjITS A^D THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 plying remedies, tlierefore, can be stated to be parallel 
 with those chosen for the purple scale. The parasites 
 of th(^ two sjx^cics are, likewise, the same. 
 
 Treatment: The same as for the purple scale. 
 
 Bed iScale of Jloiida. (Aspidiotus pens Ashmead). 
 The female is circular, dark reddish brown to black in 
 color and two mm. in diameter. The scale of the male 
 is considerably smaller, being about one-fourth the size 
 of the female scales. 
 
 This spe- 
 cies infests 
 branches, 
 leaves and 
 fruit alike. 
 It was prob- 
 ably intro- 
 duced into 
 Florida from 
 ("uba, but at 
 the present 
 time it is not 
 very widely 
 distrib u t e d 
 and does not 
 
 cause nearly so much damage as the purple and long 
 scales. 
 
 Eemedies: (9), (7) or (8). 
 
 Red Sailc of California. ( Aspidiotus aurantii Mas- 
 kell). This species of scale insect appears to have at- 
 tracted attention within the confines of the United States 
 only in California, and, on the other hand, it is worthy of 
 
 Pig. 113. Fluiiila Red Scale (Aximliotus flcus 
 
 Ashmead) un the under side of pomelo 
 
 leaf. .-VI tout natural size. 
 
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CITRUS GROVES. 503. 
 
 note that the Red Scale of Florida has not gained a foot- 
 hold in California. 
 
 The female scales of Aspidiofiis aurantii are light 
 grey in color, but the brown body of the insect showing 
 through it gives a reddish brown cast. The male scale 
 is one-fourth as large as that of the female, and the pos- 
 terior end is a projecting flap. 
 
 Like its close relative, the Aspidiotus ficus, it infests 
 the trunk, branches, leaves and fruit. It has proved tO' 
 be a very troublesome pest in California and since no 
 predaceous enemies have been secured to control it, tJie 
 grower must rely upon his own efforts. 
 
 Remedies: Fumigation, spraying with formula (7), 
 (8 or 9). 
 
 Chaff Scale. (Parlatoria pcryaiidii Comstock). The 
 female scale of this species is 1.4 to 1.6 mm. long. It 
 is thin, light straw colored and more or less circular in 
 outline. The body of the insect showing through the 
 scale, imparts to it a somewhat greenish cast. Several 
 faintly marked ridges, radiating from the point of origin 
 of the scale are to be found. The male scale is smaller 
 than the female, being 1 mm. in length. It is thin, white 
 and almost oblong in outline, the sides being nearly 
 parallel. 
 
 This scale is found most commonly on the trunk and 
 larger branches of citrus trees, spreading to the fruit and 
 leaves only when it becomes very abundant. Frequently 
 its presence is overlooked, owing to its resembling the 
 bark in color and the trees frequently suffer severely 
 before the grower finds out where the trouble lies. 
 
 Rcnieclics: Same as for Purple Scale. 
 
 Remedies : Same as for Purple Scale. 
 
 The Orange Hiiow Scale or Orange Cliiona.^pis. 
 (Chioiiaspis eifri Comstock). The female scale 
 
504 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND TBEIR CULTURE. 
 
 is flat or very slightly con- 
 vex and the more recently 
 shed skins are toward the 
 narrow end. The male 
 scales are smaller, white 
 and marked with three par- 
 allel ridges. When clus- 
 tered on the twigs or leaves 
 of the citrus plants, the 
 males are very conspicuous 
 (Fig. lUj. 
 
 This scale is rarely 
 found in Florida, but is 
 abundant in Louisiana, 
 Bermuda and Cuba. 
 
 Remedies: Same as for 
 Purple Scale, formula (9), 
 (8) or (7). 
 
 III. UXARMORED SCALES. 
 
 The Turtle-hack Scale {Le- 
 caniiiiii hesperidum Linn.) 
 The Turtle-back scale, with 
 others described in the fol- 
 lowing pages, belongs to a 
 sub-family of naked or 
 waxy scales, kno\vn as Lc- 
 caninjp ; and are not covered 
 with a true scale. The genus of Lcvuniums is unprotected 
 by any covering, except their skins, which becomes tough- 
 ened with age so as to resemble parchment. 
 
 The full grown insect is from 0.12 to 0.16 of an inch 
 (■J to 4 mm.) long, broadly oval, more or less swollen 
 and convex upon the disk, surrounded bv a thin, flat 
 
 Fi^^ 114. Tbe orange sjuiw scale (Chi- 
 oinisjii.s citri Comstock), on under 
 side III" orauge leaf. 
 
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CITRUS GROVES. 505 
 
 margin, whicli is notched on the sides and behind; this 
 shape, with the brownish color, gives it its popular name. 
 The legs are concealed beneath the body. 
 
 The young insect is of a yellowish color, and always 
 settles upon the bark and leaves of tender growth. The 
 adult insects appear to be unable to pierce the bark of 
 the trunk or older branches, always being found upon 
 wood of newest growth. 
 
 In the spring and early summer, when new growth 
 is forming, the increase of the insect is most rapid, es- 
 pecially during the month of June. Later in the season 
 the colonies disappear, only a few gravid females re- 
 maining to restock the plants at the next favorable op- 
 portunity. The young, hatching in the latter part of the 
 season, often starve, because they are unable to reach 
 tender twigs upon which to feed. 
 
 Treatment. Solutions Nos. (9), (8), (7) or (6). 
 
 The Black ^cale, (Lecanium olcrc Bernard.) This scale 
 is nearly black in color, approaching hemispherical in form, 
 and longer than broad. Length from 0.16 to 0.20 of an inch 
 (4 to 5mm.), height about 0.12 of an inch (3 mm.). The 
 middle of the back carries an elevated keel, which is 
 crossed at right angles by two elevated ridges, the latter 
 dividing the body into three nearly equal parts. The 
 body is slightly margined, the outer part of the disk 
 being marked with many small ridges, which extend from 
 the margin half way up to the centre of the back. 
 
 The eggs are long, oval in shape, about .0012 of an 
 inch in length and of a yellowish color. 
 
 The young larvse prefer the smaller twigs of the 
 plants which they infest, and usually settle upon the 
 leaves. The development of the species is slow, so there 
 is probably not more than one brood per year. It lives 
 
506 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 upon all citrus plants, olive, pear, apricot, plum, pome- 
 granate, apple, eucalyptus, rose, cape jessamine, live oak, 
 holly, oleander and some other plants. 
 
 Treatment: Solutions Xos. (9), (7|, (6) or (8). 
 
 The Hemispherical Scale, (Lecantuin hemispJuericum 
 Targioni). This scale is of a more rounded form than 
 the other common species of Lecanium, approaching the 
 form of a hemisphere; about 0.14 of an inch (3.5 mm) 
 
 Fig-. 115. The hemispherical scale (Lecanium liniiisphacricum Targioni) 
 on an orang-e twig:. 
 
 in length, 0.12 of an incli (3 mm) in width, 0.08 of an 
 inch (2 mm) in height. The color varies from a light, 
 almost reddish brown, when young, to a dark brown, 
 slightly tinged with red when old. The insects found 
 upon twigs are usually more elongate than those found 
 upon leaves. 
 
 The egg is of an ellipsoidal shape, about 0.006 of 
 an inch (0.1") mm) in length, and of a whitish color, in- 
 clining to yellow. 
 
 It feeds upon orange, palms, orchids. Camellia ja- 
 ponica, guavas, chrysanthemums and quite a number of 
 other plants. 
 
 Treatiiiciit: Solutions Xos. (9), (8), (7) or (6). 
 
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CITRUS GROVES. 507 
 
 The Wax or White Scale, (Ceroplastes floridensis 
 Comstock). This beautiful insect is 0.08 to 0.12 of an 
 inch (2 to 3 mm) in length, of an oval form, convex 
 above, and concave beneath. The upper surface presents 
 a rounded protuberance in the centre, around which are 
 arranged six or eight smaller prominences or lobes, which 
 are separated by a groove from the central projection. 
 The white covering consists of soft wax, quite similar 
 to the commercial article. The color in clean specimens 
 inclines to a beautiful, flesh-tinted white, the pinkish 
 tinge being given by the reflection of the light through 
 the wax from the red insect beneath. The insect itself 
 bears on its upper surface six tubercles, three on each 
 side, and shows a short anal tube, the end of which is 
 seen projecting from the posterior extremity of the waxy 
 covering at the bottom of a deep pit. The walls of the 
 body are very thin, and enclose liquids or eggs of a dark 
 red color. The egg is 0.01 of an inch (0.25 mm) long, 
 and of ellipsoidal form. 
 
 The eggs, 71 or 100 in number, are extruded from the 
 body and hatched beneath the waxy scale. The young, 
 escaping from beneath the scale, attach themselves by 
 their beaks to the surfaces of the leaves, chiefly along 
 the midribs and veins. As they approach maturity they 
 go to the bark of the twigs and smaller branches. The 
 exudations of wax first form in ridges, the marginal ones 
 uniting around the central one. 
 
 About a dozen or fifteen similar tufts of wax arise 
 around the centre, and the young louse, when about a 
 week old, has been compared to an oval white star upon 
 the leaf. At this stage it has some superficial resem- 
 blance to some of the stages of insects belonging in the 
 
508 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Aleyrodidfe. The adult insect is covered with six large 
 plates, three upon each side, and three smaller plates, 
 located one at each end and one in the centre. The wax 
 finally becomes covered with dust and dirt, giving it 
 an appearance quite different from that possessed when 
 its development was just completed. 
 
 There are about three broods, each extending over 
 three or four months. The first brood occurs in April 
 and May, the second in July and August, and the third 
 in October and November. This insect is native to Flor- 
 ida, and is very commonly found upon gallberry in great 
 numbers. It also occurs upon quince, apple, pear, the 
 citrus fruits, ferns, figs, mj'rtles, guavas and a number 
 of other plants. As the insects become aged many of 
 them fall to the ground and perish, being unable to re- 
 ascend the plants from which they fell. The insect does 
 not often become numerous upon orchard or grove trees, 
 but sometimes gets thick enough to cause some alarm. 
 
 Trcatiiieni. It is not often that the wax scales re- 
 quire particular attention, but we have some reports 
 indicating that the3' may inflict considerable damage dur- 
 ing a short period. If fully developed, they will prob- 
 ably lose their hold and fall to the ground in a short time, 
 so ai'e not worthy of much attention while in this stage. 
 When the growing larv» become numerous they can be 
 checked by an application of resin wash, kerosene emul- 
 sion or whale-oil soap if made while very young. 
 
 The Barnacle Scale. (GeropJastes cirripediformis 
 Oomstock). This insect agrees with the preceding spe- 
 cies in possessing a white, waxy covering, but is differ- 
 ently marked. The average length is 0.20 of an inch 
 (5 mm); width, 0.16 of an inch ( t mm), and height. 
 
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CITRUS GROVES. 509 
 
 0.16 of an inch (4 mm). The naked insect is dark red- 
 dish brown in color, of sub-globular shape, and with 
 a strong spine-like projection at the posterior end of the 
 body. The general white color is often mottled with 
 shades of grayish or light brown, the boundary lines 
 of the plates remaining apparent, even at an advanced 
 age. The back is covered by a convex dorsal plate which 
 is met on each side by six lateral ones, each of which is 
 marked by a radiating nucleus in the centre. The pos- 
 terior plate is larger than the others, possessing two nu- 
 clei, thus indicating that two plates are joined together. 
 The eggs are 0.014 of an inch (0.35 mm) in length, and 
 of a light reddish brown color. 
 
 The newly hatched larvw are dark' brown in color, 
 and follow pratctically the same course of development 
 as Ceroplastes floridcnsis. ■ ^ 
 
 It feeds on oranges, quince, Eupatoriuvi and probably 
 upon a number of the same food plants as C. florid en, sis, 
 but the species is much more rare thati the white scale. 
 
 Treatment : Same as for the preceding species. 
 
 The Cottony Cushion Scale. {Icenja purchasi Mas- 
 kell). Immediately after the moult bV which the female 
 insect passes into the adult stage it is free from waxy 
 excretion and presents a broadly oval form with two 
 prominent raised surfaces on the second and third tho- 
 racic segments. Its color is still reddish brown, with 
 several dark spots along the front sides, and along the 
 sides of the posterior part of the body, while the anten- 
 nsB and legs are black. Just after the insect in any stage 
 has withdraAvn from its old shell in moulting, the legs 
 are perhaps the most transparent and whitish parts of 
 the body; but they begin to darken in about a half hour 
 
510 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 and within two hours are black in this stage, and as 
 dark as they become in the preceding stages. The an- 
 tenna; are eleven-jointed, the club being one and one- 
 half times as long as joint number ten. The whole body 
 is furnished with tufts of short black hairs, which arc 
 
 
 
 nr 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 Ik 
 
 
 
 
 Photo bt/ H. A. Gost>ard. 
 
 Fig. 116. AiJult females of the Cottony Cushion Scale (Iccrya 
 purcliasi Maskell) on myrtle branch, slightly enlarged. 
 
 gathered into a parallel row around the edge of the body. 
 The secretory pores are very numerous, occurring in enor- 
 mous numbers beneath the sides of the body and scat- 
 tered more sparsely over the back. The inner row of 
 tufts on the back is broken at its anal point by a depres- 
 sion, in which is situated a very large pore from which 
 
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CITRUS GROVES. 511 
 
 the insect occasionally ejects a globule of semi-liquid 
 honey-dew. This depression is surrounded by an irregular 
 ring of hairs which are yellowish in color instead of black. 
 The glassy filaments described in the last stage are now 
 very long and radiate from the body in almost every di- 
 rection. They break off very easily, yet they often reach 
 a length double that of the insect and her egg-sac to- 
 gether. 
 
 Just as the body of the female begins to swell from 
 the eggs forming inside, the beginning of the egg-sac is 
 made. The insect lies flat on the bark. The edges of 
 the body turn slightly upward, and the waxy material 
 of which the sac is composed begins to issue from number- 
 less pores on the under side of the body, but more espec- 
 ially along the sides below. As the secretion advances 
 the body is raised, the head end still being attached, uttil 
 the insect is apparently standing on its head, nearly at 
 right angles to the surface to which it is attached. The 
 egg-laying commences as soon as the thin layer of secre- 
 tion has begun on the inner side of the abdomen and it 
 continues during the formation of the sac. Around the 
 edge of the abdomen there soon appears a narrow ring of 
 white felt-like wax, which is divided into a number of 
 flutings. These flutings grow in length and a mass of 
 eggs and wax under them increases, forcing the female 
 upwards until the sac is completed. When complete it 
 is from two to two and one-half times the length of the 
 female's body. It is of a snow-white color. The outside 
 is covered with fifteen of these longitudinal ridgings or 
 flutings of about equal size, except that the middle one 
 is smaller than the others. The upper part of the sac 
 is firm in texture, but the lower is looser and thinner 
 and from the inner side the young make their escape after 
 
r,X2 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 hatrhing. The size of the sac and length of time required 
 for its growth depend, leaving the weather and the health 
 of the food plant out of consideration, upon the number 
 of eggs which the female deposits. The excretion of the 
 egg-sac continues as long as oviposition lasts. 
 
 It pnibably requires from 60 to 90 days to complete 
 the egg-sac from the time of its beginning. The length of 
 time depends largely upon the health of the tree on which 
 the insect is located and also upon the number of insects 
 infesting it. Development is much more rapid upon vig- 
 orous than upon sickly trees. 
 
 The adult male is a winged insect with dark red 
 body, grayish wings, and of very slender, fragile struc- 
 ture. The antennae are dark colored and have two whorls 
 of light hairs extending from each joint except the first. 
 Wlien the insect is at rest the wings lie flat upon the 
 back. It is readily found in situations where the male 
 larvEe have pupated, under boards, beneath cracks and 
 in the general litter of the grove. 
 
 Itemed icts. It was against the cottony cushion scale 
 that fumigation way first practiced. But neither fumi- 
 gation nor s]iraying. although the insect was held in 
 check 1o some extent, availed much against its inroads. 
 The entire citrus industry of California was threatened, 
 and it was nol until the Auslralian lady-bug was intro- 
 duced that its ravages were cliccked. Uy this predaceous 
 enemy, Narliis cardinalis, the cottony cushion scale was 
 brought under absolute control. In Florida the same 
 method of control was likewise entirely successful. 
 Hence, when the cottony cushion scale gains a foothold, 
 ils enemy, the Australian lady-bug, should be introduced 
 :i1 (iiK I'. While waiting temjiorarily for the arrival of the 
 lady-bugs, resin wasli or kerosene emulsion may be used. 
 
IXt^KCTS IXJURIOUS TO CITRUS GROVES. 
 
 513 
 
 The Mealy Bay. (Daetijlopius citri Risso). This 
 insect, with other closely allied species, is very common in 
 Florida. The adult female is from about 0.14 to 0.16 of 
 an inch (3.5 mm to 1 mm) in length, 0.08 of an inch in 
 width, and very flat. The color is dull brownish yellow, 
 
 the legs and antennae agree- 
 ing with the body in color. 
 There are seventeen ap- 
 pendages on each side, and 
 most parts of the body are 
 more or less powdered with 
 particles lighter than the 
 ground color. The egg is 
 about .01 of an inch in 
 length, of long ellipsoidal 
 
 Fig. 117, Mealy bug (Dactylopius citri Risso) clustered 
 
 at base of young lemon fruit above, on under side 
 
 of pomelo leaf below. About natural size. 
 
 form, and light yellow color. 
 
 The eggs are laid in a large cottony mass at the 
 posterior extremity of the abdomen, and require consid- 
 erable time to hatch. After hatching, the larv:e exhibit 
 a marked tendency to settle along the midribs and veins 
 
 IS 
 
514 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 on the under side of the leaves or upon the younger 
 twigs, especially in the forks. Ants are very industrious 
 agents in scattering them. The honey-dew excreted by 
 the mealy bugs forms the attraction for the ants which 
 care for them in a way that has been compared to the 
 attention man gives to his domestic animals. Free use 
 of carbon di-sulphide or scalding water in the nests of 
 the ants often furnishes the best means of controlling 
 the mealy bug. 
 
 It feeds upon house plants, orange, coffee, tobacco, 
 cioton, Ipomea, Learii, Habrothamnus, Pseonia, Solanum 
 jasmoides and probably a number of others. 
 
 Treatment. Use a powerful force pump and pene- 
 trating insecticide, such as kerosene emulsion, upon ma- 
 ture insects. Thoroughness and frequency of application 
 will govern the degree of success achieved in fighting 
 this insect. Repeated applications of potash whale-oil 
 soap, one pound in two or three gallons of water, made 
 while the insects are young will give most successful re- 
 sults. Limbs that are badly infested should have the 
 insecticide painted upon them with a brush or they may 
 sometimes be pruned out altogether. 
 
 IV. SUI'KING INSECTS OTHEU THAN SCALES. 
 
 Tlie Wliitc Fly. (Alci/rndrs citri Riley and Howard). 
 The egg is very minute, about 1-125 of an inch (0.2 mm) 
 in length, being attached to the leaf ))y a slender stem 
 or footstalk; about four times as long as thick, widest 
 just beyond tlie middle towards the free end; color pale 
 yellow, when first laid tinged with greenish, becoming 
 darker as the eml)ry(i develops and some s' ociniens b?- 
 coming of a dark steel gray or blue, t^urface smooth and 
 shiny, often with clinging particles of wliite wax. Red 
 
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CITRUS GROVES. 
 
 515 
 
 eyes of embryo conspicuous through the shell as it ap- 
 proaches maturity. 
 
 Egg-laying begins with 
 in eighteen to thirty hours 
 after the adults issue 
 when the weather is warm 
 (sixty-five to seventy-five 
 degrees), but with damp, 
 cool weather several days 
 may elapse before they are 
 deposited. Egg deposition 
 occurs upon the under 
 surface of the leaves, pre- 
 ferably upon new ones 
 especially those of water 
 sprouts, but old leaves 
 may also be well covered 
 with them ; they are usual- 
 ly scattered over the sur- 
 face of the leaf without 
 much order of arrange- 
 ment, but sometimes are 
 laid in the arc of a circle. 
 From four to ten eggs may 
 be observed in such an arc 
 and are so placed by the 
 female, using her beak as 
 a pivot around which the 
 
 PXoto by Dorset/. 
 
 Fisr. lis. White fly (Aleyrodes bodv IS SWUng duriUg the 
 citri Riley & Howard). Pupa cases ... 
 above, mature flies in tlie middle ovipOSition. 
 (slightlv enlarged), mature flies ^ 
 
 and eggs below (mucii enlarged). By mathematical Com- 
 putation a leaf from young orange, five inches long and two 
 and one-half inches wide in the middle, collected at Myers. 
 
510 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 June 22, 1901, had upon it upwards of 2(1,000 eggs. While 
 so many egj;R upon such a space is be,yond the average, it 
 is by no means rare, and I have sometimes seen the number 
 exceeded. 
 
 Hatching occurs in from three to twenty days, ac- 
 cording to the weather. 
 
 The larva passes through four moults before reaching 
 the pupa stage. When first hatched the insect is about 
 ISO of an inch in length (0.;inim). of a jialc greenish yel- 
 low color, with two darker yellow spots on the back of the 
 abdomen. There are four conspicuously long bristles at 
 the posterior part of the body and six long ones on the 
 anterior end with minute ones along the sides, each aris- 
 ing from a tubercle. Antennae, three or four jointed. 
 Four eyes, dark reddish. Legs short, si.x in number. 
 Mouth parts consist of a long sucking tube. On the 
 dorsal side of the last abdominal segment is a subovate, 
 brown colored upening, the vasiform orifice. A])pearance 
 in second and third stage not maikedly different from the 
 first, rxce]it in size and minute microscopical characters. 
 In the fourth stage the length lias increased to about 6-100 
 of an inch (1.5 mm), the width to 4-100 of an inch (1 
 mm), and the conspicuous bristles have vanished; a pair 
 of persistent, minute bristles is found on the anterior 
 border, one on each side, and another pair, also minute, is 
 disposed one on each side of the anal cleft. The insect is 
 very flat and close jiressed tn the leaf; the dorsum or back 
 is crossed by twelve transverse ridges, indicating the seg- 
 ments. Arising from the prothoracic region on each side, 
 extending oblicpiely (mtAxard and forward (o the margin is 
 a distinct ridge or fold, the breathing fold. The outline of 
 the developing wings of the endjryo can be distinctly seen 
 from the fiist. 
 
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CITRUS GROVES. 517 
 
 The young larv£E are motile and crawl about over the 
 leaves and twigs for several hours like young scales 
 before they fasten themselves to the leaves. The larvai 
 are attached to the under sides of the leaves and are in- 
 conspicuous, because of their transparency and greenish 
 tinge. If the leaf be so doubled in the hand that air is 
 admitted beneath the insect, it at once becomes readily 
 seen and is translucent, whitish green, spotted with orange. 
 
 The pupa, to an ordinary observer, is quite similar 
 to the fourth larval stage, but more plump and of thicker 
 body; broadly oval. Measurements about as in fourth 
 stage, slightly narrower. A broad, deep orange or coral- 
 red spot on the back near the anterior end of abdomen; 
 eyes purplish; vasiform opening and ring brown; trans- 
 verse ridges on abdomen shorter and less distinct than 
 in last larval stage. 
 
 The adult female is slightly over 1-20 of an inch 
 (1.4 mm) in length, the wing expanse being about twice 
 the length of the body (2.8 mm). The color is light 
 orange, with the rostrum, or beak, tipped with black. 
 The wings are colorless when newly hatched, but within 
 two or three hours become covered with a fine white wax, 
 hence, the name, "mealy-wing," sometimes given to the 
 insect. The body also becomes covered with more or less 
 of wax, but its ground color is not wholly obscured. 
 The tarsi are two-jointed. The eyes, reddish-brown in 
 color, are each divided into two parts by a curved ridge 
 projecting from the cheek, the upper divisions being 
 the smaller. The ovipositor is short and retractile. 
 
 The male resembles the female, but is smaller, with 
 the head and abdomen having heavier tufts of adhering 
 wax. The abdomen is more slender and has at its termi- 
 nation a pair of claspers slightly curved upwards. 
 
51S CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 I^cuialies: White fly is diflacult to control. Little 
 can be done when the insects are flying about, and all 
 remedial work must be undertaken during the larval and 
 pupal stages. During these stages the insects are at rest 
 on the under sides of the leaves. Fumigation or spraying 
 at this time is efi:ective. The best time for fumigating is 
 from the middle of December to the end of February. 
 Si)raying may be done during the same period or in the 
 summer. When the insects are pupating use solutions 
 (6), (8) or (9). 
 
 Strong effort should be made to introduce such bene- 
 ficial fungi as the Red Aschersonia and the Brown fungus 
 This may be successfully done in a number of ways. See 
 page 550. 
 
 The complete defoliation or destruction of all infected 
 trees and plants during the periods recommended for fumi- 
 gating will insure the destruction of the insects. Some- 
 times this is feasible. The principal host plants are all 
 species of citrus, Chinaberry tree, Umbrella China tree, 
 Cape Jessamine and occasionally cherry laurel. Magnolia 
 fuscuta and Japan honeysuckle. 
 
 Oraitgo Rust Mite and Lemon Hiivcr Mite. (Phy- 
 toptus olcivorus Ashmead.) This mite is quite minute, 
 being 0.14 mm. in length. In outline its body is rather 
 wedge-shaped, widest near the head and tapering grad- 
 ually to the i)Osterior end, which is provided with a pair 
 of appendages. The abdomen is divided into about thirty 
 segments. The legs are four in number, placed close 
 together on the anterior portion. 
 
 The young insects are bright yellow in color, becom 
 ing darker as they groAV older. The eggs are yellow in 
 color, spherical and transparent, and are deposited by the 
 adult singly or in clusters on the leaves. 
 
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CITRUS GROVES. 519 
 
 Eust mites occur in great numbers on the leaves and 
 fruit, as many as 4,508 having been found by the late 
 H. G. Hubbard on a square inch of leaf surface in winter. 
 During warm weather, when not too dry, these insects 
 multiply rapidly. 
 
 They attack both the leaves and the fruit. When the 
 leaves are attacked they lose their glossy color and be- 
 come covered with brownish spots, but it is upon the fruit 
 that its effects are most noticeable. The mites feed upon 
 the essential oil of the rind and through the punctures 
 which they make the air comes in contact with the oil, 
 bringing about a change in color. On the lemon, the col- 
 oration is somewhat silvery, hence the name applied to 
 the insect by Mr. jNIarlatt. Fruit wlien attacked does 
 not develop normally, but remains undersized. The in- 
 sects prefer and seek the shade, hence, the under side of 
 the fruit not exposed to the sun becomes "rusty," while 
 the upper portion in the strong light is not affected. 
 
 Because of its attacks, the cost of handling the citrus 
 crop is increased materially, as two classes of fruit have 
 to be made. As a matter of fact the russet fruit is sweeter 
 than the bright, but usually brings somewhat less money, 
 the markets generally preferring a smooth, bright fruit. 
 
 Remedies. Spray with formula (11), (12), or 
 (13) or dust with sulphur and lime in equal parts every 
 two weeks. A more adhesive solution, formula (13), may 
 be used, if so desired, and this will destroy the scales as 
 well. If this solution is used, the intervals of applica- 
 tion may be lengthened out to about a month with fairly 
 good results. 
 
 The BlT-Hpotted Mite. (Tetranychiis se.r-maculntus 
 Riley). The length of full grown specimens is 0.3 mm, 
 or about .012 of an inch. This is slightly smaller than 
 
520 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 most members of its family. It is of oval shape, being 
 widest just back of the eves. General color pale greenish 
 yellow, the abdomen in mature specimens being marked 
 with six or less small dusky spots, arranged in two lat- 
 eral rows of three in each row on the back. Most of the 
 younger mites are without these spots or have but part 
 of them present. Some of the mature specimens have 
 fewer than six spots and these are often quite indistinct. 
 Eyes, two on each side, the anterior one of each pair being 
 blood-red, and the pigment so disposed as to give the ap- 
 pearance of two red eyes on each side ; the posterior ej^es 
 are colorous and transparent. A lateral constriction jusi 
 back of the eyes divides the body in two more or less 
 distinct regions. The terminal joint of the legs is long- 
 est. The thumb of the palpus is quite stout and bears 
 on its tip three fingers, of which the middle one is the 
 largest. The young mites have but three pairs of feet. 
 The eggs, which are globular in shape and either color- 
 less or of a pale greenisli yellow, are hisely attached to 
 the delicate web which may be found chiefly along the 
 under sides of the leaves. With warm, dry weather the 
 life cycle from egg to adult is not more than ten days. 
 
 The insects are carried from tree to tree upon the 
 feathers of birds, by becoming attached to the feet of 
 lady lings, upon fallen leaves driven before the wind, etc. 
 They ran travel upon a leaf surface about two inches 
 in one minute or ten feet in an hour, and therefore they 
 quickly spread from any point where they have become 
 newly established. 
 
 A yellowing of the leaves, showing as streaks and 
 spots along the midrib on the upper surface of the leaves 
 and as blotches of yellowish rusty brown on the lower 
 sides, indicates the insect's presence. The excrements 
 
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CITRUS GROVES. 521 
 
 show as minute black spots and the cast skins, where ag- 
 gregated together, constitute whitish silvery patches. 
 After a few weeks the leaves curl, shrivel and fall, more 
 than one-half of the leaves often coming down and from 
 one-third to two-thirds of the immature fruit. In 1899 
 one grove located in Citra, Fla., reported a crop of only 
 about ten thousand boxes from the heaviest bloom the 
 grove had ever put forth, whereas it had yielded twenty- 
 four thousand boxes the preceding year, the whole shrink- 
 age of product being attributed to the six-spotted mite. 
 
 The rainy season of June and July causes the mites 
 to practically disappear and they remain in such small 
 numbers during the latter part of the year that they are 
 rarely noticed at all. Vigorous trees, especially those 
 grown on high hammock land or low, moist soil, are not 
 apt to be injured, and where irrigation or artificial wat- 
 ering is practiced damage is slight. Drenching the trees 
 with water from a hose, where the water supply is abun- 
 dant, as in the case of irrigated groves, meets every de- 
 mand. 
 
 Treatment: Formulas (14), (11), (12) or (13). 
 
 Purple Mite or Bed Spider. (Tetranychus mytilas- 
 pidis). The Red Spider appears to be identical with the 
 insect known throughout Florida as the Purple Mite. 
 This insect is quite small, yet distinctly visible "to the 
 naked eye. During the summer months they frequently 
 appear in large numbers and cause great damage by caus- 
 ing the fruit to drop and injuring the leaves so that they 
 do not properly perform their functions. The leaves 
 become spotted and lose their natural glossy green color. 
 
 The females are considerably larger than the males. 
 Both are covered with a number of stiff hairs, which act 
 as a protection. The color of these insects is somewhat 
 
,■322 CITRUS FR0IT8 AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 purplish or reddish-purple in the old ones, while the 
 younger ones are lighter, the newly-hatched ones being al- 
 most colorless or straw-colored. 
 
 The eggs are bright red in color and are deposited 
 mostly on the under side of the leaves in jiroximity to 
 the midrib. They are attached to the leaf l>y a number 
 of silken threads attached to a stalk fastened to the egg 
 at right angles on the upper surface. Eggs hatch rather 
 irregularly, but generally take between one and two 
 weeks. As soon as the ycjung are out of the shell, they 
 commence to such the juices of the plant and continue 
 feeding throughout their whole existence. 
 
 Remedies. The insect disappears in Florida Avith the 
 coming of the rainy season, but much damage is wrought 
 in all citrus districts during dry weather. Spray with 
 formulas (14) and (11) alternately every two or three 
 weeks until damage ceases. 
 
CHAPTER XLIl. 
 FORMULAS FOR SPRAYING MIXTURES. 
 
 HOUDEAUX JIIXTURE, FORMULA (1). 
 
 For Fungi. 
 
 Copper sulphate 6 pounds. 
 
 Unslacked lime 4 pounds. 
 
 A'S'ater 50 gallons. 
 
 Place the six pounds of copper sulphate in a coarse 
 sack and suspend it in a barrel containing twenty-five 
 gallons of water. Hang it from a stick laid across the 
 barrel, so that it is just covered by the water. In this 
 way, the copper sulphate will dissolve much more read- 
 ily than if it be simply thrown into the barrel. Slack the 
 lime in a wooden bucket by adding water, a little at a 
 time, and reduce the whole to a thin paste. Then place 
 the paste in a second barrel in twenty-five gallons of 
 water. Allow sufficient time to cool, then agitate thor- 
 oughly before attempting to mix the two solutions. In 
 pouring the copper sulphate and lime solutions together 
 into the barrel of the spray pump, dip out a bucketful 
 from each and pour them together in a united stream, 
 at the same time thoroughly agitating the mixture in the 
 pump barrel. This method will secure a mixture of the 
 finest quality. 
 
 If a large amount of spraying is to be done, stock 
 solutions of copper sulphate should be prepared. In a 
 barrel holding fifty gallons of water, suspend a sack con- 
 taining 100 pounds of copper sulphate. After the sul- 
 
524 CITRUhi FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 phate has dissolved, fill np the barrel to the fifty gallon 
 mark. When tlioionghlT stirred, each gallon will con- 
 tain two pounds of copper sulphate. 
 
 d'arefully slack 100 pounds of good, fresh lime, ]ilace 
 it in a second barrel and add water to make fifty gal- 
 lons. This solution will contain two pounds of lime to 
 each gallon, when thoroughly agitated. 
 
 In making up the sjiraying mixture from these stock 
 solutions, stir well, then dip out three gallons of the 
 copper sulphate solution and dilute to twenty-flye gallons 
 with water in one barrel and place two gallons of the 
 lime solution in a second barrel and dilute to twenty- 
 five gallons. Then pour these together in the barrel of 
 the sjiray pumjj as already directed. 
 
 If sufficient lime is not put into the mixture, there 
 is danger of injuring the foliage. To obviate this, the 
 mixture should be tested before using and if deficient in 
 lime, more should be added. One of three tests may be 
 used. Dip out a small quantity in a shallow dish, hold 
 it U]) between the eye and the light and blow the breath 
 gently into it. If a thin ]iellicle forms on the surface, 
 there is sufficient lime present, but if this pellicle is not 
 seen, lime must be added until it Ijcconies visible. Second, 
 dij) a clean steel blade into the scihition and hold it there 
 for a minute or more. If a thin film of cojiper forms on 
 the blade, more lime must be added. Third, prepare a 
 solution (if feri(i( yanide of potash liy dissolving an ounce 
 of the substance in four or five ounces of water. Dij) out 
 a jtortioH of the Bordeaux mixture into a shallow, white 
 jxircelain dish and allow a dro[) or two of the ferrocya- 
 nide of potash solution to fall into it. If a brownish red 
 coloration is noted, lime must lie added until no color 
 is seen. 
 
FORMULAS FOR SPRAYING MIXTURES. 525 
 
 Straiu all solutions into the sinay pump, to prevent 
 clogging and use only wooden vessels in preparing the 
 mixture. 
 
 AJIMONIACAL SOLUTION OF COPPER CAP.UOXATE, FORMULA (2). 
 
 For Ftiiigi. 
 
 Copper cai'bonate 5 ounces. 
 
 Strong ammonia i 2(i per cent.) 3 pints. 
 
 Water 45-50 gallons. 
 
 Keduce the copper carbonate to a thin paste with 
 water; about a pint and a half is sufficient. Then very 
 slowly add the ammonia. Then add forty-five to fifty 
 gallons of water. 
 
 If so desired, the stock solution of topper carbonate 
 made as directed above, may be kept in a tightly corked 
 glass bottle or stone jug and diluted in the proportion 
 given in the formula when desired for use. 
 
 LIME, CRUDE CARBOLIC ACID AND SALT, FORMULA (3). 
 
 For Foot Rot. 
 
 Unslacked lime 1 peck. 
 
 Crude carbolic acid 4 ounces. 
 
 Salt 3 pounds. 
 
 Water - gallons. 
 
 Slack the lime in two gallons of water, then add the 
 crude carbolic acid and stir in the salt. If too thick, 
 add a little more water. 
 
 CRUDE CARBOLIC ACID SOLUTION, FORMULA (4). 
 
 For Foot Rot. 
 
 ^lix together crude carbolic acid and water in equal 
 parts. 
 
52(i CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 SULPHUROi;S ACID SOLUTIOX, FORMULA (5). 
 
 For Foot Rot. 
 
 Mix together sulphurous acid and water in the pro- 
 portion of three of the former to seventeen of the latter. 
 
 RESIN WASHj FORMULA (6). 
 
 For winter use against Wltite Fly and i^cale Insects. 
 
 Resin 30 pounds. 
 
 Caustic Soda (98 per cent.) 8 pounds. 
 
 Fish oil 4 1-2 pints. 
 
 ^^'ater, to make 100 gallons. 
 
 Place the resin (well broken up), caustic soda and 
 fish oil in a large iron kettle. Pour over them twenty 
 gallons of water and cook Avell over a good fire for not 
 less than three hours. Then add hot water, a little at a 
 time, and stir thoroughly until there is at least fifty gal- 
 lons of the hot solution. Place this in a spray pump and 
 add cold water to make up 100 gallons, or keep the mix- 
 ture of fifty gallons as a stock solution and dilute with 
 an equal amount of water as desired for use. Void icatcr 
 should not he added dniing the cooking process, hut a 
 sufficient quanl'iti/ of hot nratcr should he provided [or 
 that j)vrj)ose. 
 
 ItESIN WASH, F0R:\It!LA (7). 
 
 For White Flij and locale In sect. s in siinuncr. 
 
 Resin 20 pounds. 
 
 Caustic Soda i !IS per cent.) 5 pounds. 
 
 Fish oil 3 pints. 
 
 ^yater, to make 150 gallons. 
 
 Prepare as directed for formula (fi). 
 
FORMULAS FOR SPRAYING MIXTURES. 527 
 
 KEROSENE EMULSION, FORMULA (8). 
 
 For Scale Iiisccis and White Fhj. 
 
 Kerosene oil 2 gallons. 
 
 Soft whale oil soap 1 quart. 
 
 or chipped hard soap 1-3 pound. 
 
 Water 1 gallon. 
 
 Dissolve the soap by boiling in the gallon of water 
 and while still boiling hot, pour out into another vessel, 
 removed from the fire. Then add the kerosene and churn 
 steadily for fifteen or twenty minutes or until a good, 
 stable emulsion is formed. The best implement for do- 
 ing the necessary churning is a force pump, the liquid 
 being pumped back into itself until the emulsion is formed. 
 Make good the amount of water lost in boiling by adding 
 sufficient warm water to bring the solution up to 4 1-4 
 gallons. 
 
 For use during winter months, dilute each gallon with 
 ten of water, and for use in summer months, dilute 
 at the rate of one gallon of the mixture to fifteen of 
 water. Never use kerosene emulsion on trees while shedded. 
 
 good's caustic potash whale oil soap, 
 no. 3, formula (9). 
 
 For t^cale Insects. 
 
 Soap 12 to 15 pounds. 
 
 Water 50 gallons. 
 
 This soap was recommended by Prof. H. A. Gossard 
 in Bulletin No. 51, Florida Experiment Station, for use 
 against citrus scales of different kinds. It is now com- 
 monly used throughout Florida and has given good satis- 
 faction. 
 
528 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 kahle's distillate solution, formula (10). 
 
 For Scale Insects. 
 
 Untreated Distillate, 28 degr-ees 5 gallons. 
 
 Whale-oil soap 11-2 pounds. 
 
 Boiling water 5 gallons. 
 
 Dissolve the soap in the water. Place the distil- 
 late in the barrel of the spray pump and pour the soapy 
 water in on top. Pump the mixture out of the barrel 
 and back into it until a uniform creamy substance is 
 secured. Pumping must be continued until a complete 
 emulsion is formed and all oil globules have disappeared 
 from its surface. This makes the stock solution. 
 
 For use on dormant trees dilute one gallon of stock 
 with from twelve to fourteen gallons of water. On grow- 
 ing trees it may be used somewhat stronger — one gallon 
 of stock solution to about eleven of water. 
 
 SODA-SULPHUR SOLUTION'. FORMULA (11). 
 
 For Red ,'^pider. f<i.r-f<i>ottcd and Rust Mites. 
 
 Suljdiur 2(1 pounds. 
 
 Caustic soda ( OS per cent.) 10 pounds. 
 
 Water 2() gallons. 
 
 To make the stock solution, mix the sulphur to a 
 medium thick jiaste with cold water in a barrel. Then 
 add the caustic soda so that it may boil the sulphur after 
 the same manner as lime boils when slacking. Have at 
 hand twenty gallons of water and as the boiling prrxcss 
 ])rogresses, add it to prevent burning. 
 
FORMULAS FOR SPRAYING MIXTURES. 529 
 
 For use, take one-half gallon of the stock solution 
 and dilute with forty gallons of water, being careful to 
 strain it well. 
 
 SODA-SULPHUR SOLUTION^ FORMULA (12). 
 
 For Purple Mite, Red Spider and Rust Mites. 
 
 Sulphur 30 pounds. 
 
 Caustic soda (98 per cent.) 20 pounds. 
 
 Water 3 gallons. 
 
 To make the stock solution, place the sulphur in a 
 half-barrel and reduce it to a thick paste with the three 
 gallons of water. Then add the caustic soda and mix 
 it well with the sulphur paste. As the mixture becomes 
 warm, gradually add water to prevent burning. Stir 
 thoroughly, adding water until twenty gallons of solu- 
 tion are obtained. Drain off into a keg and use as 
 desired. 
 
 For use, take one or two quarts of this stock solution 
 to fifty gallons for rust mite and double this strength for 
 six-spotted mite. 
 
 SULPHUR-LIME SOLUTION, FORMULA (13). 
 
 Sulphur 6 1-1 pounds. 
 
 Lime 1 peck. 
 
 Water 10 gallons. 
 
 Place the three substances together and boil for thirty 
 minutes. Place in a keg and use as a stock solution. 
 
 For use, dilute two gallons of stock solution with 
 fort.y-eight gallons of water. 
 
-,30 CITRU.S FRUITO AXD THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 rOTASH, WHALE OIL SOAP AND SODA-Sl'LPHUR SOLUTION, 
 FORMULA (14). 
 
 For Scale, Mites and Red Spider. 
 
 Good's Potasli AVhale Oil Soaii, No. :! 13 to lo pounds. 
 Soda-vSulphiir Solution (Formula 11) 1 to 2 quarts. 
 ^^'ater .■51) gallons. 
 
 CEIDDLE MIXTURE, FORMULA (15). 
 
 For GrasslioppeiH. 
 
 Paris Green 1 part. 
 
 Salt 2 parts. 
 
 Horse manure ( by measure ) 10 parts. 
 
 Water — sufficient to make it soft \yithout being slopp^■. 
 Scatter through che grove. 
 
t-1 
 
CHAPTER XLIII. 
 SPBAYING AND FUMIGATING. 
 
 In controlling the most injurious citrus insects by 
 direct means, resorl must be made either to fumigation or 
 spraying. Under certain conditions each method has its 
 advantages. In Florida more attention has been given to 
 spraying than to fumigating, while in California fumigat- 
 ing has received more attention relatively. 
 
 The equipment for fumigating, consisting of tents, 
 wagons, and hoisting apparatus and the cost of operating 
 is much more expensive than the equipment for spraying; 
 for this reason the former method of control is not likely 
 to come into favor with owners of small groves. On the 
 other hand, it may be said that fumigating is more efficient 
 against most insects, as one fumigation will prove as satis- 
 factory as two or three sprayings. As pointed out by 
 Prof. Gossard, the cost of one fumigation and three spray- 
 ings is about equal after leaving out of consideration the 
 cost of the tents and the wear and tear on the apparatus. 
 Wherever the expense of fumigating seems justifiable it 
 should be borne, as the results are likely to prove much 
 more satisfactory. 
 
 The choice of methods must in some degree be govern- 
 ed by the shape and density of the tops of the trees or the 
 shape of the tree tops must be made to conform to the 
 method of control. It is impracticable to thoroughly 
 spray ti'ees with dense, thick heads, they must he pruned 
 out. The heads of the trees must be formed like a hollow 
 cone with a leaf zone covering the framework of branches. 
 Trees with low, flat heads such as are found by the Ea- 
 
:y.'A CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 r(H]io s\.stcin of leiuon pruning, are well adapted to siira.y- 
 ing. All dead woml must be pruned from the interior of 
 the tree before spraying is commenced. 
 
 Trees with dense, thick heads, as alreadj^ noted, are 
 much more easily fumigated than sprayed. The mass of 
 brandies prevents the spray from penetrating thoroughly 
 and efficient work cannot be done except by fumigating. 
 
 SPRAYING. 
 
 In sjirayiug trees for scale and allied insects, it will 
 be found that, to secure the best results, the work must 
 be thoroughly done. A liberal application should be 
 given. Ten to fifteen gallons will be required for trees 
 from fifteen to twenty feet high, while those from twenty 
 live to thirty-live will require about half a barrel. 
 
 For spraying large areas, a gasoline or steam engine 
 (see Plate 34), a strong pump carrying three or four leads 
 of hose and a tank holding about three hundred gallons 
 will jjriive most satisfactory. For smaller areas, hand 
 pumjis may be used and of these there are a number of 
 good ones on the market. The Gould, Deming, Stahl. 
 Friend and Field pumps may te mentioned here as giving 
 good satisfaction. 
 
 To hold most insects in check, two or three winter 
 sprayings and one or two summer sprayings will be 
 necessary. As a general rule the armored scales must be 
 sprayed during the inunature stages, as they are not easily 
 destroyed when their hard covering is fully developed 
 Wliitc-fly must be attacked during the larval and pupa 
 stages, while the mites must lie s]iraye<l whenever active. 
 Resin wash and similar mixtures should not be applied 
 (o ti'ces Avben the fruit is only partially grown. Serious 
 
SPRAYING AND FUMIGATING. 5;J5 
 
 loss has been occasioned in some instances in Florida bv 
 spraying in May. 
 
 It may be stated that fumigation is not effective 
 against the purple uiite, the rust mite and similar insects. 
 They must be sprayed, though against the rust mite in 
 Florida, flowers of sulphur applied with a powder gun has 
 proved effective. The sulphur must be applied in the 
 morning when the trees are damp with dew. To keep the 
 fruit bright, by destroying the rust uiite, sprays must be 
 applied once about every three weeks during the summer 
 and fall months. 
 
 FUMIGATING. 
 
 For fumigating citrus trees hydrocyanic-acid gas gen- 
 erated by treating potassium cyanide with diluted sul- 
 phuric acid is used. The gas is liberated under a tent 
 which covers the tree. 
 
 Many different kinds of tents are in common use. 
 Among 1hese may be mentioned the sheet hoop and bell 
 tents (Plate 35). The style of tent used is governed in a 
 large measure by the size of the trees, but the sheet tent 
 is probably the most useful of all. For small trees, up to 
 ten or twelve feet, the hoop ten^ Is very serviceable. 
 
 Tents and Treatment. The following is from the pen 
 of Prof. C. W. Woodworth, in regard to the materials for 
 making tents and the treatment which must be given to 
 render them gas-tight. 
 
 "Common duck is now uniformly employed for mak- 
 ing the tent, most of them being made of the 8-ounce can- 
 vas, such as is used for light sails. The cloth is lapped and 
 double-sewed in the same manner as for tents or sails. 
 The edge is usually simply hemmed, but some bind it with 
 rope. Whenever permanent rings for handling are at- 
 
5:>(; CITRUH FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 tached, the tent is reinforced, but this is a matter in which 
 there is much diversity. The details of the construction 
 will depend somewhat on the size and kind of tent, and 
 will be referred to again, below. 
 
 After the tent is made, it is treated in some manner 
 to make it gas-tight, so as to confine the gas better. Three 
 methods are used for this purpose, all of which seem to 
 give good satisfaction. 
 
 The first method is to thoroughly treat the tent with 
 boiled linseed oil. It is applied freely with a brush, and 
 the whole cloth becomes saturated with it. The tent must 
 be kept s]iread out till quite dry, for the oil has a great 
 tendency t6 heat if not exposed freely to the air, and the 
 cloth chars and becomes i-otten. If properly done, the 
 tent remains strong and tight, and is not too stiff. 
 
 The second method consists in the use of sizing and 
 paint. The sizing is applied in the same manner as the oil. 
 and penetrates the fiber of the cloth in the same way. As 
 soon as this coat is dry it is followed by another of rather 
 thin flexible paint, sometimes on both sides; the result 
 being a perfectly tight tent with a very smooth surface 
 and fully as flexible as the oiled tent. The sizing protects 
 the fiber of the cloth, so thei-e is no danger of heating. 
 
 The tliird method is the saturation of the cloth by a 
 decciction of the cliopped-u]) leaves of the common jirickly- 
 pear cactus {Opuiilia nigilinani) . This decoction is made 
 Iiy filling a jiarrei twothirds full of the chojjped stems, 
 adding cold wal(^r till the barrel is nearly full; then let- 
 ling it soak twenty-four hours, when it is drawn off and 
 strained, and is ready for use. This decoction is seldom 
 used liy itself, but other substances are added according 
 to tlii^ whim of the i;crson treating the tents. Very gener- 
 ally a pigment like yellow ochre or "\'enetian red, is added 
 
SPRAYING AND FUMIGATING. 537 
 
 to give more body to the mixture; sometimes glue is added 
 also. There is some tendency in tents treated with the 
 cactus decoction, to become moldy when not in use, to pre- 
 vent which some prepare a tannin solution to add to the 
 mixture. The decoction may be applied to the tents with 
 a brush, but a better way is to soak them during the night 
 in a trough containing the mixture. In the morning they 
 can be raised by means of ropes and pulleys and allowed 
 to drain for some time and then spread out to dry. Tents 
 treated with this mixture are scarcely at all stiffened and 
 seem to be satisfactorily tight." 
 
 In treating cloth so as to render it gas-tight. Prof. 
 H. A. Gossard used and recommends the following: 
 
 "Five pounds white lead, fifteen pounds of laundry 
 soap, chipped, ten pounds of lampblack, two gallons of 
 boiled linseed oil, six gallons of water. Heat to boiling 
 two vessels of water, having three gallons in each. In one 
 dissolve the soap and keep the other hot. Thoroughly pul- 
 verize the lampblack by stirring and mixing well with one- 
 half gallon of vinegar. Now add the lampblack to the 
 linseed oil, stir, and pour into the soap solution. Add 
 the white lead, mix the whole thoroughly, using all the 
 water, and apply to cloth with brush, keepin^j, the paint 
 hot enough to Just show steaming while being used. If 
 the first coating is not suflScient, reverse the tent and give 
 an application to the opposite side." 
 
 The manipulation of tents is a matter requiring con- 
 siderable skill, and as a rule it is best to secure skilled 
 labor in first undertaking the work. Excellent directions 
 are given by Prof. Woodworth in Bulletin 122, ("alifornia 
 Experiment Station. The following on the form and 
 handling of sheet tents is taken from that publication : 
 
^•iS CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 ■■t^heet tents arc made either in a regular or in an 
 o\al hexagon, and perfectly flat. A pair of rings is often 
 attached on each side, near what is intended as the front 
 edge; it is convenient to attach these rings by iron links, 
 so that they can be rattled and found in the dark by shak- 
 ing the tent. 
 
 The nioyement of the tent is accomplished by the use 
 of t^yo jioles. These are usually simple poles ^yith a small 
 rod projecting from the upper end, oyer which the ring 
 of the tent is slipped, a rope is also fastened at the upper 
 end. The length of the jiole is slightly greater than the 
 height of the trees it is desired to coyer. Sometimes the 
 pdle has the same shape as the lifter used for the box 
 tents, but the pulleys and guy-ropes are not needed, ex- 
 cept for the largest trees. 
 
 * * « * * * * ^ * rpjj,, j^-|gjj approach the tent to be 
 nio\ed, poles in hand, and finding the rings insert the small 
 rods at the end of the poles and take a hitch with the rope 
 oyer the ring to prevent the latter from slipping off. They 
 then proceed to the other end of their poles, which they 
 ha\e placed even with the trunk on opjiosite sides of the 
 tree to which the tent is to go. AMiile taking this station 
 they have not let go of the rope, but have held it tight 
 enough not to loosen the tent ring. The next step in the 
 pri)i/ess is to place one foot on the end of the pole, to pre- 
 vent it from slipping, and to pull on the rope. This will 
 lift up the edge of the tent ****** ^s 
 the men continue to j)ull on the rope the end attached to 
 the tent moves thnnigh the arc indicated by the line of 
 arrows. As soon as the pole becomes nearly enough up- 
 right, as not to slip when the foot is removed from the end 
 the man backs off, away from the tree, and thus gets a 
 more direi;t pull on the tent which by this time has begun 
 
SPRAYING AND FUMIGATING. -,:',>) 
 
 fo require some considerable effori. Tliis becomes neceb 
 sary also in order that the pull from each side may 
 stretch out the front edge of the tent so that it may clear 
 the tojt of the tree. 
 
 The tent is now spread out over two trees and reaches 
 the ground on either side. As the men at the ropes contin- 
 ue to back away the tent is slipped from one tree to the 
 next and the poles fall to the ground. In this last stage in 
 the process care must br taken that both poles reach the 
 ground at about the same time. If this is not done the 
 tent will shift to the side of the pole which first reaches 
 the ground, and if that side is pulled very much too fast 
 the tent may not reach the ground on the opposite side, 
 and sheet tents are rather harder to adjust than other 
 kinds. This same difficulty, in regard to the front and 
 back ends of the tent, often occurs when using a tent 
 barely large enough for the tree. If the tent is pulled too 
 slowly the poles will slip when the tent is not quite over, 
 and the front will not reach the ground; and on the other 
 hand, if it is pulled too rapidly, the tent will go too far, 
 and the back end be free from the ground. The oval tent 
 was made to overcome this difficulty, for with it care only 
 need be taken to slide the tent far enough. 
 
 When using a large tent for a very small tree the tent 
 is pulled up so as to have sufficient slack canvas to go over 
 the tree, and this is pulled over by hand. When being 
 removed, the cloth is pulled back in the same manner as 
 it was put on and dragged along the ground to the next 
 tree. 
 
 In the case of very large trees, which require the lifter 
 style of pole, the process is as follows : The poles are set 
 uj) and the guv-ropes attached as described for the box 
 tent, only that two poles are used. The other ropes are 
 
,540 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 now attached to the tent at the near edge and the latter 
 pulled to the top of the pole. The rope is then made fast, 
 the guy-ropes pulled, and the tent slid in the same man- 
 ner as with smaller tents. Sometimes the jjole is not set 
 at such an angle but nearer the tent, when it will be neces- 
 sary, after sliding the tent part of the way, to again tie 
 the guy-rofte and lift the bottom of the pole over; it will 
 then be opposite the trunk, and the tent will be lifted 
 high enough when it is given the final shift. 
 
 When there is fear of breaking the branches in re- 
 moving a tent, the practice is to "skin it off,'' using a pole 
 of the lifter pattern, and carry the rope around to the far 
 side and attach it to the edge of the tent there. The tent 
 liy this method slides over itself and saves the tree to that 
 extent; it is pulled over on to the next tree as in the pre- 
 ceding methods. Since much of the tent by this method 
 falls to the ground, it is harder on the tree while it is being 
 tented. By this process the tent is reversed each time it is 
 changed." 
 
 Chciiticals (111(1 Amountf:. Only chemicals of high 
 quality should be used, and to this matter particular at- 
 tention must be given. There is much variation in dosage 
 as given by different fumigators. In part, this may be 
 due to climalic and other conditions, but the wide differ- 
 ence may be attributed, in a large measure, to a lack 
 of thorough in\estigation of the subject. Potassium cya- 
 nide, sulphuric acid and water in the proportion of 2 
 to 3 to (i will give excellent results. 
 
 ^lost of the fumigation of citrus trees has been for 
 scale insects. Sufficient work on white tly has been done 
 to justify the rdurlusion that it requires the same dosage 
 as for scales. 
 
SPRAYING AND FUMIGATING. 
 
 541 
 
 One of the most accurate fumigation tables is given 
 by Mr. W. J. Allen, of New South Wales. The following 
 table has been selected from this : 
 
 
 
 
 SULPHURIC 
 
 
 TREE 
 
 
 (98 per cent) 
 
 ACID 
 
 (66 per cent.) 
 
 WATER 
 
 Feet 
 
 Feet 
 
 Ounces 
 
 Ounces 
 
 Ounces 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 '4 
 
 •i 
 
 IX 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 'A 
 
 '4 
 
 1''2 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 '-2 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 2's 
 
 2>8' 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 T4 
 
 7 '4 
 
 21 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 10'/, 
 
 10 '-2 
 
 30 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 45 
 
 17 
 
 22 
 
 21,!4: 
 
 21-4 
 
 63 
 
 18 
 
 24 
 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 78 
 
 20 
 
 24 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 96 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 41 
 
 41 
 
 123 
 
 23 
 
 26 
 
 46 
 
 46 
 
 148 
 
 After the tent is in place over the tree, a few shovel- 
 fuls of earth should be thrown on the lower rim of the tent, 
 resting on the ground to make it completely gas-tight. 
 
 The tent is then ready for charging. The best gener- 
 ator is an earthenware vessel. This is placed outside, close 
 to the tent. The requisite amount of water is placed in the 
 vessel and the acid is added. Into this the cyanide of 
 potassium, previously weighed out in a small sack, is 
 dropped. The generator is then held at arms-length and 
 placed beneath the tent, which is then snugly closed and 
 left for 40 or 45 minutes. Both the cyanide of potassium 
 and the gas are extremely poisonous and must be handled 
 with great care. 
 
 Usually the fumigation is done at night. If earned 
 on during the day the tent should be painted black. 
 
 The most complete work on the subject of fumigation 
 is one entitled Fumigation Methods, by Prof. W. G. John- 
 son. 
 
CHAPTER XLIV. 
 
 FUNGOUS AND INSECT FRIENDS. 
 
 Fortunately, all fungi and insects are not enemies. 
 While many of them are arrayed against the grower, and, 
 a,t times, interfere seriously with the cultivation of his 
 fruit trees and other plants, on the other hand a consider- 
 able number, a bj'-no-means-insigniflcant force, wage war 
 against the insects which destroy his crops. The two forces, 
 one working in harmony with the cultivator, the other 
 against him, frequently balance each other, and the injury 
 to the trees and fruit is slight ; sometimes his friends over- 
 come the injurious insects and so greatly reduce their 
 numbers that the crop matures without injury; at other 
 times his enemies, under favorable conditions, increase 
 more rapidly than his friends and when such is the case 
 the fruit crop suffers severely unless the grower himself 
 intervenes. 
 
 Where fungi and insects can be relied upon to hold 
 the enemies of citrus trees in check, the grower possesses 
 a very considerable advantage over the cultivator who is 
 not so fortunately situated. The latter must resort to 
 spraying or fumigating to protect his fruit and trees from 
 injury, and the added expense is quite an item. If fun- 
 gous and insect friends can be relied upon to do their part 
 and do it eflftciently, the control of insect enemies should 
 be left to them. Many growers have been able to do this, 
 others have not. As a result the growers of citrus fruits 
 have separated along these lines and we now have advo- 
 cates of spraying, advocates of non-spraying and those 
 
544 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 whd mix the two practices. Tlie last-meutioned class ^et 
 all the bad ettects of the other two practices and none of 
 the jiood. They do enough spraying to destroy <>r drive 
 away their friends, too little to destroy their foes, and 
 ciinsequeutly they leave themselves to the tender mercies 
 of the latter. It should be distinctly understood that there 
 is no intermediate ground. The citius-fruit gi-ower must 
 either sjiray and do it thoroughly and systematically, just 
 as he would cultivate, fertilize or irrigate, or if he decides 
 to depend upon certain fungi and insects to control the 
 insect foes which attack his trees and fruit, he must leave 
 the field entirely to them and do everything in his power 
 to foster and assist them. There must be no mixing of 
 jiractices. 
 
 Which plan is the best to adopt no one but the 
 grower can determine, and then only after having obtained 
 a thorough knowledge of his own conditions. 
 
 To successfully control insects, by natural agents, cer- 
 tain conditions are necessary. The insects to be controll- 
 ed, must be gregarious and sufiicieHtly numerous in the 
 beginning at least, to enable the cdntiolling agent to be- 
 come thoroughly established. Thereafter the host insect 
 must always remain in sufiflcient quantities to sn])ply suffi- 
 cient food for the existence of the friendly insect nr fun- 
 gus as the case may be. Lacking this, the grower nmst 
 see lo it that a sufficient nundier of the injurious insects 
 are kejit to insure the perpetuation and nnilti])licati(in, to 
 a considerable extent, of their fungous and insect enemies. 
 In short the latter must be bred and kept for use in case 
 of outbreaks. Then when injurious insects are ]iresent 
 in alarming numbers in a section, 1lie controlling agents, 
 fungous or insect, may lie introduced and established. 
 
FUNGOUS AND INSECT FRIENDS. 545 
 
 Ftnigoiis riiends. Fungi can be successfully used, 
 to check the ravages of insects, only in those regions hav- 
 ing a moist climate and a season sufficiently long to per- 
 mit of their development. In Florida, Louisiana and the 
 Islands, fungi may be depended upon, to a certain extent 
 and in many cases to a very considerable extent, to control 
 injurious insects, but they would fail utterly in the arid 
 or semi-arid climate of Arizona and Southern California. 
 These regions must depend upon predaceous and parasitic 
 insects as controlling agents. Whether these same agents 
 can be as successfully used in the more humid regions 
 has not been entirely proven, though in one instance at 
 least they have. In some cases a combination of fungous 
 and insect control has been satisfactorily established. 
 
 In Florida the control of the more injurious citrus 
 insects, the scales and their relatives, by means of their 
 fungous enemies has received more attention than in any 
 other portion of the world. Kone of these fungi, so far as 
 known, are introduced species, though some of them may 
 be. 
 
 The principal fungous enemies of citrus insects in 
 Florida are the Red Fungus, SpJiwrostihle coccopliila 
 Tul., well known through the work of Prof. P. H. Rolfs, 
 as an enemy of the San-Jose Scale (on peaches), the Gray 
 Fungus, Ophioncct)ia coccicola E. and E., and the Black 
 Fungus, probably belonging to the Pyrenomycetes. 
 
 Preying on the White Fly, AJcyrodvs citri, are two 
 fungi, first brought prominently to notice by Dr. H. J. 
 Webber. These are the Red Aschersonia, Aschcrsonia 
 aleyrodis Webber, and the Brown Fimgus. 
 
 The Red Fungus, Sphwrostilhe coccopliila Tul. — 
 
 19 
 
54(i 
 
 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 When attacked by this dis- 
 ease, tlie body of the scale be- 
 comes filled AN'ith a mass of 
 fungal threads ( iiiyceliiim) 
 and shortly after the time of 
 attack, the insect is dead. ]!y 
 the time the fruit stage of 
 the fungus is rea<-hed, the 
 
 )Ody of the insect has been pig. mi. Red Fungus of Smk- insects 
 
 (Sitlitirro^tilbe cocropliiln Tul.) 
 
 A, S|MHHs Igrcaiiy enlarged). 
 
 B. Spore-bearing bodies grow- 
 ing out of scales (enlarged). 
 
 destroyed; the scale covering 
 alone remains. 
 
 Following this ]ierio(l of growth in the body of the 
 insect, one or more orange-colored, knob-like bodies are 
 produced. Sometimes these actually break through the 
 scale, at other times the> emerge from the sides. One of 
 these, enlarged, is shown in Fig. 111). These knob-shaped 
 bodies contain the sjiores which arc microscopical in size. 
 By means of them the disease sjireads to other insects, 
 the s]iores light ujion or near other scales. A delicate 
 myrelial tube is jiroduced wliirli jienetrates the body of the 
 scale and its death is brougjit ab(jut as before. The s])ores, 
 greatly enlarged, arc shown in Fig. ll'.t. 
 
 This fungus is (juite effective in holding scale insects 
 in check. It is also found occasionally on the pupse of 
 Wliite Fly. 
 
 The (iKuj J-'iiiif/iis. Ophconcitrin cnccirohi E. and 
 E. So far as observation goes, this is probably the most 
 widely dislribuled fungous enemy of the citrus scale insects 
 found in Florida. In the early si ages, the disease attacks 
 the scale much as the Red Fungus does. A myrelium is 
 produced which grows and (hn'elops in the body of the in- 
 
 S(M-1. 
 
FUNGOUS AND INSECT FRIENDS. 
 
 547 
 
 Two kinds of spores are produced. The first of tli(\se, 
 not heretofore reported as being produced by this fungus, 
 are borne in rather conical knobs, Fig. 120 A. These knobs 
 are composed of spores (conidia) 
 borne upon a veiT short stalk, 
 called the coiiidiophore. When 
 clustered together over the dead 
 scales these coiiidiojihores give 
 a pebbled appearance to the part. 
 They are grey in color. The spores 
 (conidia) Fig. 120B are divided into 
 three parts, trident-shaped, the cen- 
 tral one being the largest. Each 
 side projection has from five to 
 eight cells, while well-developed 
 central ones have about fifteen. 
 After having dried for a time, these 
 trident-shaped conidia spread apart 
 on the application of moisture 
 and thus are set free from the 
 
 Fig. 120. Spores and spore 
 cases of gray-headed fungus 
 (Ophionectria coccicola B. & 
 E.) A. Conidiophore in -which 
 the spores are clustered in a 
 head. B, Conidia or spores. 
 C, Asci, or spore cases and 
 spores. 
 
 conidiophore. If placed under the microscope and a drop 
 of water is added, they move like animate objects. 
 
 The other kind of spores, (.spo)-i<]iw) are twelve to 
 fifteen celled, club-shaped and produced, eight together, 
 in a spore case (Fig. 120 C). In this stage the fungus as- 
 sumes a gray dirty buff color. These spores are special- 
 ly provided to carry the fungus through periods unsuit- 
 able to its growth. 
 
 Both kinds of spores (conidia and sporidia) are in- 
 strumental in disseminating the disease. It serves as a 
 very eflicient check in many cases against the Long and 
 Purple scales. 
 
548 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 The Black Fungus. Frequently black incrustations 
 covering the dead bodies of scale insects nuiv be seen on 
 citrus trees. This black substance is a fungous growth, 
 evidently a pyrenomycete, but thus far no spores have 
 been found in it in Florida. It evidently does a great deal 
 toward holding scale insects in check in Florida, and 
 Prof. Earle has also found it in Porto Kico. 
 
 The Red Aschersonia. {Aschersonia (ilri/rodis Web- 
 ber). This is an extremely important enemy of the White 
 Fly, Aleyrodis cUri. It attacks the insect in the pupa 
 stage. An elevated ruby or pinkish pus- 
 tule is formed upon the pupa. This is sur- (jll \\ .! 
 rounded by a little yellowish or whitish h \\ (,\A 
 band. As the fungus matures the color ^\ j ^.^ 
 becomes deep red. In this red portion, the 
 spores (sporules) of the fungus are pro- ^^s- ^^i- ^sporos 
 duced. These are borne in pits. They are ^™'"- 
 narrow, pointed and frequently curved. Usually they 
 consist of but a single cell. 
 
 The mycelium of the fungus grows and develops in 
 the body of the pupse, the spore formation taking place 
 after the insect is dead as in other cases. 
 
 The fungus, when once established, spreads quite 
 rapidly through a white fly-infcctcil j^rcive. Unfortunately, 
 it is not so readily spread, artificially, as the Grey Fungus 
 of scale insects. 
 
 The Brown Fuiifius. This fungus was first brought 
 to notice by Dr. H. -T. Webber, of the United States De 
 partment of Agricultiue. It is probably the most effective 
 fungous enemy of the White Fly. 
 
 The fungus forms hard, brown pustules on he pupae 
 of the insects. They are attacked when at re.'st on the 
 leaves. The fungus having oivc gained a foothold, spreads 
 
FUNGOUS AND INSECT FRIENDS. 
 
 549 
 
 by means of minute threads wliich grow out from the 
 sides of the pustule. Frequently it forms a thin, solid tis- 
 sue over the under side of a citrus leaf as it grows from 
 pupa to pupa. 
 
 Pig. 122. Fungous enemies of White Fly on the 
 pupae on orange leaves, Brown Fungus on the left, 
 Red Aschersonia on the right 
 
 Thus far, the spores of this fungus ha\e not been de- 
 scribed, and in fact are not known positively to exist. 
 There is rea.'<on to believe, however, that spores are borne 
 in July and August in Southern Florida. 
 
 The fung-us is disseminated by portions of the inijcc- 
 lium blowing from one leaf or tree to another, and prob- 
 ably by means of spores. 
 
550 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 METHOIiS OF DISSEMINATING THE SPORES OP 
 BENEFICIAL FUNGI, 
 
 The Red and (:li-ey Fungi may be cultivated artifi- 
 cially in the laboratory and afterwards may be placed on 
 the scales, in the grove. A plan which has succeeded in 
 some cases is to take a twig on which the fungus is pres- 
 ent, and tie it closely in contact with the scales on an af- 
 fected branch. 
 
 During the year 1907, :Mr. H. S. Fawcett, of the 
 Florida Experiment Station, succeeded in producing cul- 
 tures of both the Red Aschersonia and the Brown Fungus, 
 on artificial media, in the laboratory. In the same year 
 Dr. E. W. Berger, of the same institution, successfully 
 demonstrated that the Aschersonia disease of the white 
 fly could ))(' distributed satisfactorily both by sjiraying 
 the pupte with water containing spores of the fungus and 
 by pinning leaves, bearing jinpse covered liy the fungus 
 in a fruiting stage, in contact with the insects on the 
 under side of infected lea\es. The most satisfactory 
 results Averc obtaintd during the rainy season, using about 
 one dozen leaxcs t" a good-sized tree. This plan will 
 doubtless rapidly supersede the older plan of spreading 
 the fungus liy jdanting a small tree, on which it is present 
 on the pu]ia', so close to the tree in which it is desired to 
 introduce it, that the branches will interlap and alloAv 
 the fungus to spread naturally. 
 
 The sucrcss which has rewarded the efforts of these 
 two workers maiks another step in the successful control 
 of insect foes by means of fungi parasitic upon them. 
 
 Iiisrct Frlcixls. The greatest triumjjh of modern 
 economic entomology was the control of the cottony 
 cushion scale (Ichcri/a piu-cha.si) by the imported Aus- 
 tralian ladybug, ^^oriiis canliiiaJis. The cottony cushion 
 scale secured a strong foothold in California, and 
 thi'eatened the destruction of the whole citrus industrv. 
 
FUNGOUS AND INSECT FRIENDS. 
 
 551 
 
 Spraying and fumigating were attempted with in- 
 different success, when the happy suggestion was made 
 by Mr. Alexander Craw, to send some one to Australia, 
 to find and introduce the natural enemies of the pest. 
 This was accomplished through the co-operation of the 
 United States Department of 
 Agriculture and Mr. Frank Mc- 
 Coppin, of San Francisco, United 
 States Commissioner to the Mel- 
 bourne (Australia) Exposition. 
 Mr. Albert Koebele was selected 
 to do the work. The task was 
 successfully accomplished. He 
 found the natural enemy, Novius 
 cardinalis. It was sent to Cali- 
 fornia, thrived in its new home 
 and speedily destroyed the dread- 
 ed Icherya purchasi. 
 When the cottony cushion scale 
 became established in Florida, 
 Prof. H. A. Gossard, of the 
 Florida Experiment Station, was 
 instrumental in introducing the 
 ladybug from California, and the 
 ravages of the insect were again 
 checked. 
 
 Following this signal triumph, 
 the attention of entomologists 
 has been directed to this means 
 of insect control. The mealybug ^tX^'^J't'So^Zl^ctViril 
 has been checked in California ^"^ ™"'- ""= "'•"''"'■ 
 by a ladybug, Cryptplaeiitus montrouzieri , which preys 
 upon it. Another, Rliizohkis ventralis has proved effective 
 as an enemy of the Black scale, Lecanimn. 
 
CITRU.S FJUJITS AXD THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 In Florida the two-spotted ladybug is an effective 
 enemy of scale insects. The ladybugs are very common 
 
 throughont the State. The pupie 
 are shown in Fig. 123. One 
 mature insect is shown on the 
 right of the twig near its base. 
 Both the larva^ and the mature 
 insects feed upon scale insects. 
 
 The Hemispherical scale in 
 Florida is usually held in check 
 by internal parasites of the order 
 Hi/iiicitoptcra. Insects of the 
 same class usually destroy the 
 green lice or plant lice (Aphis) 
 which frequently infest the new 
 growth on citrus trees. The 
 appearance of the parasitized 
 plant lice is well shown in Fig. 
 124. The bodies of the aphids 
 are congested, swollen and globu- 
 lar. The minute openings, from 
 which the parasites emerge after 
 having matured inside the bodies of the aphids. are repre- 
 sented by ronnd. lilack dots on the swollen bodies. 
 
 There is no limit to the advances which may be made 
 along these lines. We have probably but entered upon an 
 era which may sec our methods of (■(imbating insects 
 entireh' chaii^ed. 
 
 Fiff. 124, Para.S)tize(l plant 
 lice on an orange tree. 
 
PART IV. 
 
 LITERATURE. 
 
CHAPTER XLV. 
 
 AMERICAN CITRUS LITERATURE. 
 
 Literature on the culture of citrus fruits in America 
 is brief and scattered. In tliis country no monumental 
 work, such as Ferrari's Hesperides, Volckamer's Hesper- 
 ides Norimbergensium, Gallesio's Traite du Citrus, or 
 Risso & Poiteau's Histoire et Culture des Grangers, has 
 been produced. The following list comprises nearly all 
 that has been published, except that which may be found 
 in the Reports of the Florida State Horticultural Soci- 
 ety and of the California State Board of Horticulture. 
 Many of the books and papers listed are out of print and 
 are no longer available. Most of the publications of the 
 Experiment Stations, both of California and Florida, 
 can still be obtained. 
 
 Adee, Alvery A. The Orange and the Lemon in Fruit 
 Culture in Foreign Countries. Reports of the Con- 
 suls of the United States on fruit culture in their 
 several districts in answer to a circular letter from 
 the Department of State. Washington: Government 
 Printing Office. 1890. Part 1, pp. 399-585. Special 
 Consular Report U. S. Dept. of State. 
 
 T?ailey s Cyclopedia of American Horticulture. New 
 York: The Macmillan Company; Copyrt. 1900-02. 
 Numerous articles by different writers; see citrus, 
 orange, lemon, lime, pomelo, citron and kumquat. 
 
 Davis, George W. A Treatise on the Culture of the 
 Orange and other Citrus Fruits. Jacksonville: Ash- 
 mead Bros. Copyrt. 1881-1882. Pp. iv. and 86. 
 
5r)G CITRUS FRDIT8 AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Downing, A. J. The Orange Family in Fruits and Fruit 
 Trees of Anicrica. New Yorli : John Wiley & G. Put- 
 nam. Ninth 1](1. ISiO; pp 542-540. 
 
 Garey, Thos. A. Orange Culture in California. San 
 Franc-isco : J'acific Rural Press. Opyrt. 1SS2 l.SS.'J. 
 I'j). 210. A]!]!, on (4ra]ie ('ultnre by L. J. Rose. Pp. 
 210-227. 
 
 Goff, K. S. ("itrus Fruits in Lessons in Commercial 
 Fruit Giiiwing. ^ladison : University (Cooperative 
 Association. Cojiyrt. 1002. 1002. Sec. 4; pp. 101- 
 10.5. 
 
 Oossard, li. A. Some ('omnion Florida Scales. Jack- 
 sonville: The H. & W. r,. Drew Co., 1000. Illustr. ; 
 pp. 106-12S. Bulletin No. 51, Florida Agri. Exp. 
 Station. 
 
 The Cottony Cushion Scale. DeLand: E. 0. 
 
 Painter & Co. 1901. Illustr. ; jip. 310-;_!5G. Bulletin 
 No. 50, Floriila Agri. Exp. Station. 
 
 White Flv. DeLaud : E. O. Painter & Co. 
 
 lOO.;. Illustr.; pp. 505-(;(;(i. Bulletin No. 07. Flor- 
 ida Agri. Exji. Station. 
 
 Hart. E. H. (.'itrus Fruits. In the American Fruit Cul- 
 turist, by J. J. Thomas. Twentieth l']d., by William 
 H. S. Wood. New York: Wni. Wood ^^ Co. (:oi)yrt. 
 1S07. 1S',)7. I'art 3; Chap. 25; pp. 55S-58S. 
 
 Harcourt, H. "Culture of r'itrus Fruits" in Florida. 
 Fruits and How to Raise Them. Revised and En- 
 larged Edition. Louisville: J. P. IMorton & Co. 
 (;o]iyrt. ISSO. 1880. Chaji. I-XVII ; jij). 0-110. 
 
 Henderson, I'eler. Citrus in Henderson's Handbook ef 
 Plants and (ieneral Horticulture. New edition. 
 New Ycirk: i'etrr Henderson & (^'o. Co]iyrt. 18S0.. 
 1S!)0. Pa"e SS. 
 
AMERICAN CITRUS LITERATURE. 557 
 
 HubbiU'd, H. G. Insects Affecting the Orange. Report 
 on Insects Affecting the ("nltnie of the Orange and 
 Other Plants of the <_'itvns Family, with Practical 
 Suggestions for their Control or Extermination, 
 made under direction of the Entomologist, ^^'ash- 
 ington: (lovt. Printing Office. 1885. Illustr. Pp. 
 227. Division of Entomology, IT. S. Dept. of Agri. 
 
 Hnme, H. Harold. Some Citrus Troubles. Jacksonville: 
 H. & W. B. Drew Co. 1900. Illustr. pp. 145-180. 
 Bulletin No. 53, Florida Agri. Exp. Station. 
 
 Pomelos. Jacksonville: H. & W. B. Drew Co. 
 
 1901. Illustr. pp. 381-421. Bulletin No. 58, Flor- 
 ida Agri. Exp. Station. 
 
 Diagrams for Packing Citrus Fruits, with brief 
 
 directions. DeLand : E. O. Painter & Co. 1902. 
 Illustr. folio. Bulletin No. 63, Florida Agri. Exp. 
 Station. 
 
 Kumqimts. DeLand: E. 0. Painter & Co. 1902. 
 
 Illustr. pp. 551-516. Bulletin No. 65, Florida Agri. 
 Exp. Station. 
 
 The Mandarin Orange Group. DeLand: Iv O. 
 
 Painter & Co. 1903. Illustr. pp. 567-594. Bulletin 
 No. 66, Florida Agri. Exp. Station. 
 
 Cultivation of Citrus Groves. Jacksonville: 
 
 Industrial Eecord Printing Co. 1904. Illstr. Bulle- 
 tin No. 69. Florida Agri. Exp. Station. 
 
 Klee, W. G. Citrus Fruits — Orange, Lemon, Lime, etc., 
 in the Eeport on the Condition of Tropical and 
 Semi-Tropical Fruits in the United States in 1SS7. 
 1887. pp. 111-124. Bulletin No. 1, Division of Pomol- 
 ogv, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
 The same. Eejirint. 1891. 
 
558 CITRUS FRUITS AXD THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Leloni;', B. M. Culture of the Citrus in California. Sac- 
 ramento: A. J. Johnson, Supt. State Printing. 19112. 
 Illustr. pp. 2()7. 
 
 Marlatt, (', L. The Scale Insect and ilite Enemies of 
 Citrus Trees, in Yearbook of U. S. Dept. of A.iiri- 
 culture. liMIO. Washington; Govt. Printing Office. 
 1901. Illustr. pp. 247-29(1. 
 
 Manville, A. H. Practical Orange Culture, lucluding the 
 Culture of the Orange, Lemon, Lime and other Citrus 
 Fruits, as (iroAvn in Florida. Jacksonville: Ash- 
 mead Bros. iss:;. pp. VI. IKi. 
 
 Mills, J. W. Citrus Fruit Culture. Sacramento: A. J. 
 Johnson, Sujjt. State Printing. 1902. 1902. Illustr. 
 pp. 4G. Bulletin No. I-'IS, University of California, 
 College of Agriculture, Agri. Exp. Station. 
 
 Moore, T. W Treatise and Handbook on Orange Culture 
 in Florida. Jacksonville: Florida Sun & Press. 
 Cojijrt. ]S77. 1S77. pp. YI — (17. 
 
 The same. Second edition. New York: E. R. 
 
 Pelton I.K; Co. Jacksonville: Aslimead Bros, (.'ojivrt. 
 1S81. ISSl. pp. IX— 170. 
 
 The same. Third edition. Revised and enlarned, 
 
 embracing Florida, Louisiana and California. New 
 Y'ork : E. R. Pelton iSc ('o. Jacksonville: Ashmead 
 Bros. Copyrt. ISSl. 188:1. pj). IX— 170. 
 
 Reasoner, P. W. Orange, Pomelo, Lemon, etc., in the 
 Report on the (^'oudition of Tropical and Semi-Trop- 
 ical Fruits in the Unite, 1 States in ISS". Washing- 
 ton: Covt. Printing Office. 18S7. pji. .")7-87. Bul- 
 letin No. 1, Di\isi(in of Pomology. U S. Dept. of 
 A.'.'ri culture. 
 
 The same. Reprint. PS'.n. 
 
AMERICAN CITRUS LITERATURE. 559 
 
 S] aiding, \V. A. The Orange: Its Culture in Califor- 
 nia, with a brief discussion on the Lemon, Lime and 
 Other Citrus Fruits. l{iverside: Press & Horticul- 
 turist Steam Print. Cojiyrt. 1884. 1885. Illustr. 
 pp. VIII— 97. 
 
 Stubbs, W. C. & ^Morgan, H. A. The Orange and Other 
 Citrus Fruits from Seed to Market, with Insects 
 Beneficial and Injurious, with Kemedies for the Lat- 
 ter. Baton Rouge ; Truth Book and Job Office. 1893. 
 Illustr. pp. 110. Special Bulletin of the Louisiana 
 Exp. Station. 
 
 Swingle, W. T. X- \\'ebber, H. J. The Principal Diseases 
 of Citrus Fruits in Florida. Washington : Govt. 
 Printing Office. 1896. Illustr. pp. VIII— 32. Bul- 
 letin No. 8, Division of Pomology and Pathology, 
 T. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
 Van Deman, H. E. Report on the Relative Merits of 
 "Spurious Stocks for the Orange, with Notes on Mal- 
 di-goma and the jNIutual Influence of Stock and Scion. 
 AVashington : Govt. Printing Office. 1891. pp. 1^1. 
 Bulletin No. 4, Division of Pomology, V S. Dept. of 
 Agriculture. 
 
 Webber, H. J. Methods of Propagating the Orange and 
 Other Citrus Fruits in Yearbook of U. S. Dept. of 
 Agriculture, 1896. Washington: (iovt. Printing Of- 
 fice. 1897. Illustr. pp. 471-488. 
 
 Fertilization of the Soil as Affecting the Orange 
 
 in Health and Disease, in Yearbook of the U. S. De- 
 partment of Agriculture, 1894. Washington : Govt. 
 Printing Office. 1895. Illustr. pp. 193-202. 
 
 The same. Reprint. 
 
r,(i() CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 Sdoty :Muld of the Or;u]i;e and Its Treatment. 
 
 AVashington: Govt. Printing Office. 18'.»7. Illustr. 
 
 pp. lY — .!(). Bulletin No. l.', Division Phj'siology 
 
 and Patholiigy, U. S. Dept. (if Agriculture. 
 White, W. X. Citrus — The Orange Faniilv. in Gardening 
 
 for the South. New York: C. ^l. Saxton & Co. 
 
 Copyi't. is.'c.. is.ic. pp. :.!27-:>;!(i. 
 Orange, Lemon, etc., in (hardening for the South, 
 
 second edition, by J. Van Buren i.^ Jas. Camak. 
 
 New York: Orange Judd 6c Co. Copyrt. 1S08. ISOS. 
 
 pp. :i8i^ ;!84. 
 
 Whitner, J. N. Kumquat — Otaheite (Grange, Orange in 
 Gardening in Florida, a Treatise on the vegetables 
 and Tropical Fruits of Florida. Jacksonville: (\ 
 W. Da(;osta. Cojiyrt. 1884. 188.'). pp. 210-21G. 
 
 Wickson, K. J. The (»rauge. Lemon, Lime, etc., in The 
 California Fruits and How to Grow Them. Third 
 edition. San Francisco: Pacific Eural Press. 
 Copyrt. 18S!). 100(1. Chap. XXX-XXXL, pp. 331- 
 
 ;!8(i. 
 
 Woodworth, (\ W. Orange and Lemon Rot. Sacramento: 
 A. J. Johnson, Supt. State I'rinting, l!l()2. Illustr. 
 ]>]). ^-. Bulletin Xo. i;t'.l, T'niversity of California, 
 College of Agriculture, Agri. Exp.- Station. 
 
 The Red Spider of Citrus Trees. Berkeley: The 
 
 University Press. liHli:. Illustr. pp. 19. Bulletin 
 N<i, 14."i, T'niversily of California, College of Agri- 
 culture, Agri. Exji. Station. 
 
PART V. 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
CHAPTER XLVI. 
 
 VARIETY LISTS. 
 
 Every grower has his own preferences and his own 
 ideals. Hence the following lists may not meet with the 
 approval of every one. No mention is made of the regions 
 to which they are adapted, as this has been touched upon 
 in the chapters on varieties. 
 
 SWEET ORANGES. 
 
 Very Early. — Boone, Early Oblong. 
 Early. — Enterprise, Centennial, Nonpareil, Parson 
 Brown. 
 
 Medium. — Bahia, Pineapple, Ruby, St. Michaels 
 (Blood), Homosassa, Indian River, Jaffa, Magnum Bo- 
 num Maltese Blood, Old Vini. 
 
 Late. — DuRoi, Maltese Oval, Paper Rind. 
 
 Very Late. — Bessie, Hart, Joppa, Valencia. 
 
 MANDARIN ORANGES. 
 
 Early. — Satsuma. 
 Medium. — China, Dancy. 
 Late. — Oneco. 
 Very Late. — King. 
 
 POMELOS. 
 
 Medium Early. — Aurantium, Triumph. 
 Medium and Late. — Duncan, Marsh, Pernambuco, 
 Standard, Royal. 
 
384 C7TA'f',S' FRUITS AiVH THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 KUJtC^UATS. 
 
 Nfigami and ilarumi. 
 
 CITRONS. 
 
 Lemon. 
 
 LEMON.S. 
 
 Eureka, Genoa, Lisbon, Villafranca. 
 
 LIMES. 
 
 ilexiean, Tahiti. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 -"Egle 9, 22 
 
 Adee, report by 555 
 
 Air drainage 226, 227 
 
 Aleyrodes ciiri 514 
 
 Ammonia, sulphate of 308, 309 
 
 Ammoniacal solution 527 
 
 Analyses of fruits 298 
 
 Anther 148 
 
 Anthraonose 474 
 
 Aphis 551 
 
 Artesian wells, Florida 322 
 
 Aschersonia aleyt-ocUs 545, 54S 
 
 Aspidiot'us awantii 502 
 
 Aspidiotus flcus 502 
 
 Associations 461 
 
 Atlantia 7 
 
 Bags, picking 407 
 
 Bailey, L. H., reference to work by 555 
 
 Banking 348 
 
 Barnacle scale 508 
 
 — treatment for 509 
 
 Baronio, A. C, quoted 383 
 
 — system of pruning ^ 382 
 
 Baskets, picking 407 
 
 Bean, E., quoted 428 
 
 Bsggarweed, nitrogen in 293 
 
 Beggarweed cover crop 292 
 
 Bigarade oranges 16, 25 
 
 Bigarade orange, introduction of 26 
 
 — Macfayden on 25 
 
 — varieties 69 
 
 — Bitter Sweet 69 
 
 —Filler 70 
 
 —Sour 71 
 
 Black fungus 548 
 
-j{\{; CITRUX FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 I'AGE 
 
 Black scale 505 
 
 treatment of 506 
 
 Blair, A. W 293, 298 
 
 Blight, citrus tree 490 
 
 — cause of 491 
 
 — treatment for 491 
 
 Blood oranges 31, 90 
 
 — early reference to 32 
 
 Bolton thermometer 339 
 
 Bone, dissolved 304,305 
 
 — ground 3u5 
 
 Bordeaux mixture 523 
 
 Boxes 435, 436 
 
 —field 400 
 
 Box frame 439 
 
 Brioze, G., quoted 468 
 
 Brown fungus 545, 548 
 
 Budding 183 
 
 — curved 191 
 
 — dormant 183 
 
 — knives 182 
 
 — old trees 191 
 
 — right-angled 189 
 
 — spring 183 
 
 — summer . 183 
 
 Budwood 176 
 
 — selection of 177 
 
 — storing 179 
 
 Bur clover 296 
 
 California citrus production ► 4 
 
 — lemon standards 161 
 
 — orange standards 158 
 
 Calyx 148 
 
 Canadian markets fi 
 
 Car, standard ir.ii 
 
 Cattle-penning 468 
 
 f'croplastes cirripedifnrm is 508 
 
 — florideiisis 5ii7 
 
 Charhlocl- 44 
 
 Cliadcc 44 
 
INDEX. 567 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Chaff scale 503 
 
 Chemicals in fumigating 540 
 
 Chionaspis citri 503 
 
 Cltranges 24, 67, 68 
 
 Citron 18, 59 
 
 — history of 59 
 
 — importations 60 
 
 — introduction of 59 
 
 — regions 60 
 
 —list of 564 
 
 Citron varieties 133 
 
 — Lemon 133 
 
 — Lyman 133 
 
 —Orange 133 
 
 — Sorrent'o 133 
 
 Citrus Aurantium 16 
 
 — botany 11 
 
 — decumana 17 
 
 — evolution 11 
 
 — fruit packages 432 
 
 — insects 493 
 
 — Japonica 18 
 
 — leaves of 9 
 
 — Limetta 19 
 
 — Limonum 19 
 
 — literature 555 
 
 — Medica 18 
 
 — nobilis 17 
 
 — nursery 173 
 
 — "over supply" 5 
 
 —soils 219^ 
 
 — statistics 4 
 
 — stocks 197 
 
 —trifoUa 22 
 
 — trifoUata 15 
 
 — trifoliata, introduction of 22 
 
 — trifoliata, literature of 22 
 
 — t'riptera 22 
 
 — vulgaris 16: 
 
i-,(;S CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Citrus trifoUata varieties 22, 23. 24, 67 
 
 — Colman 67 
 
 — Morton 68 
 
 —Rusk 68 
 
 —Rustic 68 
 
 — Savage 68 
 
 Chiilospnrhnn eleyans 472 
 
 Clean culture 267 
 
 Clearing land 233 
 
 Clearings, partial 233 
 
 Cleft-grafting 192 
 
 Clippers, orange 405 
 
 Close planting 469 
 
 Coal fires 355 
 
 — California experience 356 
 
 CoJU-'I'otrictiiim gleosporioides 474 
 
 Commission merchants 458, 565 
 
 C<Jinquot 53 
 
 Corolla 146 
 
 Cotton-seed meal 307 
 
 Cottony-cushion scale 509 
 
 — remedies for 512 
 
 Cover crops 2S5 
 
 — benefits of 285 
 
 — in California 295 
 
 —kinds of 286 
 
 Crab-grass 295 
 
 Criddle mixture 530 
 
 Crosses 146 
 
 Crown-grafting 194 
 
 Crude carbolic acid 525 
 
 Crude petroleum 359 
 
 Cri/ptolaoii IIS moiitroiizieri 552 
 
 Cultivation 235, 263 
 
 Cultivation and dormancy 281 
 
 — and irrigation 276 
 
 — implements for 282 
 
 —depth of 273 
 
 frequency of 275 
 
 Cultivators 282 
 
INDEX. 5(;<) 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Cumquot 53 
 
 Curing 412 
 
 — lemons 415 
 
 — oranges 414 
 
 — pomelos 414 
 
 Cuttings 174 
 
 Dactylopius citri 513 
 
 Davis, Geo. W., book by 555 
 
 Die-back 282, 287, 308, 344, 377, 486 
 
 — causes of 487 
 
 — treatment of 489 
 
 Digging trees 259 
 
 Diseases 465 
 
 — and frosts 344 
 
 Distances, planting 243 
 
 Don, G., quoted 47 
 
 Dormancy 281, 317, 345 
 
 — and frosts 345 
 
 Downing, A. J., quoted 55 
 
 — reference to 556 
 
 Cbas., quoted 48 
 
 Drainage 469 
 
 Dwarf varieties 394 
 
 Dyer, H. L 298 
 
 Effects of curing 412 
 
 Emasculation 151 
 
 Essential Organs 149 
 
 Experiments with stocks 207 
 
 Exposure 231 
 
 Fecundation 149 
 
 Ferrari, Baptiste, quoted 34 
 
 Feronia 7, 8 
 
 Fertilization 149 
 
 Fertilizer formulas 309 
 
 Fertilizers, amounts of 300,315 
 
 — applying 317 
 
 — for bearing trees 314 
 
 — for young trees 310 
 
 Fertilizing, relation to dormancy 317 
 
 Filament 148 
 
,-,70 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Filer Bigarade orange 69 
 
 Field boxes -406 
 
 — wagons -HO 
 
 Fires 352 
 
 Float 242 
 
 Florida, citrus production 4 
 
 — lemon standards 157 
 
 — orange standards 157 
 
 Flower parts 146 
 
 Fly-speck fungus 481 
 
 —treatment of 482 
 
 Foot-rot 466 
 
 — treatment of 470 
 
 Formulas, fertilizer 309 
 
 Fortune, quoted 55 
 
 Fruit, effects of cold on 342 
 
 Frosts and diseases 344 
 
 — dormancy 345 
 
 — food supply 345 
 
 — insects 344 
 
 —stocks 346 
 
 Frost protection 128, 337 
 
 — warnings 337 
 
 Fruit clippers 405 
 
 — green, shipping 247 
 
 Fumigating 537 
 
 — time 541 
 
 Fungous diseases 465, 466 
 
 — friends 545 
 
 — friends, dissemination of 550 
 
 Fii-Sisporiu)n limonii 468 
 
 Gallesio 32 
 
 Garey, Thos. A., book by 556 
 
 Genus, Citrus 15 
 
 Goff, E. S., reference to 556 
 
 Gossard, H. A., quoted 479, 537 
 
 — bulletins by 556 
 
 Grades 424 
 
 — California 425 
 
 — Florida 425 
 
 — recommended 425 
 
INDEX. 571 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Grading 423 
 
 —time 425 
 
 Grafting 191 
 
 — cleft 192 
 
 —iron 182 
 
 — twine 181 
 
 — wax 180 
 
 — whip 194 
 
 Grapefruit, see pomelo. 
 
 Grapefruit, origin of name 44 
 
 Grasshoppers 494 
 
 — treatment for 495 
 
 Gray Fungus 545 
 
 Grove plans 235 
 
 — setting the 247 
 
 Gum disease 466 
 
 Harcourt, H., reference to 556 
 
 Hard-pan 219, 223, 276 
 
 Hardy varieties 347 
 
 Harrows 283 
 
 Hart, B. H., quoted 38 
 
 — reference to 33, 556 
 
 Hart, W. S., quoted 235, 406 
 
 Headers 448 
 
 Hemispherical scale 506 
 
 — treatment for 506 
 
 Henderson, Peter, reference to 556 
 
 Heteroclera raclicicola 286 
 
 High-headed trees 375 
 
 Hubbard, B. S 33, 97 
 
 Hubbard, H. G., bulletin by 557 
 
 Hume, H. Harold, quoted 33, 201 
 
 — bulletins by 557 
 
 Humus 267, 270 
 
 Hybrids 146 
 
 Icerya purchasi 509 
 
 Inarching 196 
 
 Insect factor in location 231 
 
 — friends 550 
 
572 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Insects and frost 344 
 
 —biting 496 
 
 Insects, classification of 495 
 
 — on pot plants 397 
 
 — sucking 495 
 
 Irresponsible firms 460 
 
 Irrigation 319 
 
 — check 333 
 
 — districts 320 
 
 —factor 231 
 
 — furrow 332 
 
 — in California 328 
 
 — in Florida 320 
 
 James, quoted 356 
 
 Judging citrus 155 
 
 Juice sacks in classification 14 
 
 Kaempfer, quoted 54 
 
 Kahle's distillate 530 
 
 Kerosene emulsion 529 
 
 Kid-glove oranges 38 
 
 Kill kail 53 
 
 Kill knit 53 
 
 Klee, W. G., bulletin by 559 
 
 Knife, pruning 182, 383 
 
 Knives, budding 181 
 
 Kumquat 18, 53 
 
 — carrier 435 
 
 — introduction of 54 
 
 —list 564 
 
 — references to 54 
 
 — size of bush 55 
 
 — uses of 57 
 
 Kumquat varieties 129 
 
 OhlDiig 129 
 
 Olirr-slifipeil 129 
 
 Nagami 129 
 
 Marumi 129 
 
 Round 129 
 
 Sour 130 
 
INDEX. 
 
 573 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Labels, nursery 182 
 
 —tree 262 
 
 Ladders 4H 
 
 Lakes in Florida 322 
 
 Laying out 244 
 
 Leaf -spot 475 
 
 — treatment of 477 
 
 Leaves, effects of cold on 340 
 
 Lecaiilmii lifininjiha-'rictan. . 508 
 
 — hesperidum 506 
 
 — oleie 507 
 
 Leffinwell, C. W., quoted 385 
 
 Legumes, list of 286 
 
 Lemon 19 
 
 — box 439 
 
 — importations 61 
 
 — packing 421 
 
 — packing bouses 422 
 
 — pruning 382 
 
 — scab 472 
 
 L-emons 61 
 
 — and limes, identity ol^ 13 
 
 — in California 62 
 
 — in Florida 62 
 
 — introduction of 62 
 
 —list of 564 
 
 — uses of 63 
 
 Lemon varieties 135 
 
 Eureka 135 
 
 Everbearing 136 
 
 Florida Rough 138 
 
 French 138 
 
 Genoa 136 
 
 Lisbon ." 137 
 
 Ponderosa 137 
 
 Rougb 138 
 
 Sicily 139 
 
 Sweet 139 
 
 Villaf ranca 140 
 
574 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Leonard, G. W., quoted 372 
 
 belong, B. M., quoted 29, 33, 374, 427 
 
 — report by 560 
 
 Leptothyrium Pomi 483 
 
 Leveling 241 
 
 Lichens 486 
 
 — on leaves 487 
 
 — treatment for 488 
 
 Lime 19 
 
 — carrier 438 
 
 — Mexican 66 
 
 — Rangpur 66 
 
 —stock 218 
 
 Lime varieties 141 
 
 Mexican 141 
 
 Rangpur 142 
 
 Rungpore 142 
 
 Rungpur 142 
 
 Tahiti 143 
 
 Lime, crude carbolic acid and salt 527 
 
 —functions of 303 
 
 Limes 65 
 
 — introduction of 65 
 
 —list of 564 
 
 — uses of 66 
 
 Long scale 502 
 
 — treatment for 504 
 
 Lopping 189 
 
 Low-headed trees 375 
 
 Lupines 296 
 
 Luttichau, H. von., quoted 290 
 
 Making packages 440 
 
 Mal-di-goma 63, 468 
 
 Mandarin, significance of 38 
 
 Mandarin oranges 17. 37 
 
 — Bonavia on 40 
 
 — hardiness of 42 
 
 —history of 39 
 
 — introduction of 40 
 
INDEX. 57- 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Mandarin oranges — Continued. 
 
 —list of 563 
 
 — status of 41 
 
 —strap 437 
 
 Mandarin orange — varieties. 
 
 Beauty 99 
 
 Beauty of Glen Retreat 99 
 
 Bijou 103 
 
 China 100 
 
 China Celestial 100 
 
 Cleopatra 101 
 
 Dancy 103 
 
 Bancy's t'angierine 103 
 
 Kid-glove tangierine 100 
 
 King 104 
 
 King of Siam 104 
 
 Klnneloa 106 
 
 Kino Kuni 107 
 
 Mikado 108 
 
 Moragne's tangierine 103 
 
 Oneco 108 
 
 Oonshiu 110 
 
 Satsuma 110 
 
 Spice tangierine 101 
 
 Tangierine 103 
 
 Tangerona 112 
 
 Willow-leaved 100 
 
 Manville, A. H., book by 560 
 
 Maps 262 
 
 Marlatt, C. L., report by 560 
 
 McAlpine, quoted 485 
 
 MoKinney, J. Y., quoted 350 
 
 Mead, Theo. L., quoted 366 
 
 Mealy-bug 515 
 
 — treatment 516 
 
 Mediterranean oranges 31, 82 
 
 Melanose 484 
 
 — treatment of 486 
 
 Meliola 479 
 
57(i CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 iJexican lime 66 
 
 Miller, H. K 289, 298 
 
 Mills, J. W., quoted 216, 218, 260, 276 
 
 —bulletin by 560 
 
 Moore, T. W., reference to 48 
 
 — books by 560 
 
 Morgan, H. A., bulletin by 561 
 
 Mosquito-net sack 154 
 
 Mucuna utilis 288 
 
 Murraya exotica 8 
 
 Myt ilaspis citricola 500 
 
 — gloverii 502 
 
 Navel oranges 32, 93 
 
 Need of curing 414 
 
 Newell, F. H., quoted 328 
 
 Nitrate of Soda 307 
 
 Nitrogen, functions of 302 
 
 — organic sources of 308 
 
 —nodules 286 
 
 — sources of 307 
 
 Kovius cardinalis 514, 553 
 
 Nursery, citrus 175 
 
 Nurserymen 250 
 
 Oil cells in classification 13 
 
 Open-center pruning 385 
 
 Ophionectria coccicola 547 
 
 Orangeade 26 
 
 Orange box 437 
 
 — chionaspis 505 
 
 Orange-dog 497 
 
 treatment for 499 
 
 Orange marmalade 26 
 
 — rust mite 520 
 
 Oranges, blood 90 
 
 — Mediterranean 82 
 
 — Navel 93 
 
 — Spanish 73 
 
 Originating new varieties 145 
 
 Otaheite orange stock 393 
 
INDEX. 577 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Ovary 149 
 
 Ovules 149 
 
 Packages 434 
 
 Packing , 43O 
 
 — conveniences 443 
 
 — diagrams 448 
 
 — dont's ' 452 
 
 — early experiences in 430 
 
 —fruit 446 
 
 — houses 454 
 
 Paper for wrapping fruit 443 
 
 Papilio cresphontes 497 
 
 Parlatoria pergandii 505 
 
 Peddlers, tree 252 
 
 Penicillium Italicum 477 
 
 Petal 146 
 
 Petroleum, crude 359 
 
 — pots, Froude's 359 
 
 Phosphate, acid 304 
 
 — super 304 
 
 Phosphoric acid, functions of 301 
 
 — sources of 304 
 
 Physiological diseases 467, 488 
 
 Phytoptus oleivorus 520 
 
 Pickers 413 
 
 Picking 413 
 
 — bags 409 
 
 — baskets 409 
 
 — fruit, time 405 
 
 —ladders 412 
 
 Pistil 148 
 
 Plant food, sources of 304 
 
 Planting 255 
 
 —board 256 
 
 — distances 243 
 
 Planting systems 236 
 
 —Double 240 
 
 — Equilateral triangles 238 
 
 — Hedj-e 239 
 
 20 
 
578 CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Planting systems — Continued. 
 
 — Hexagonal 238 
 
 — Quincunx 239 
 
 — Rectangular 237 
 
 —Septuple 23S 
 
 — Square 237 
 
 — Triangular 236 
 
 Planting time 252 
 
 Plow-sole 276 
 
 Pollen 148 
 
 Pollination 150 
 
 — instruments for 147. 151 
 
 — records 155 
 
 Pomelo 17 
 
 —box 437 
 
 — early references to 43 
 
 — history of 47 
 
 — in California 249 
 
 — introduction of 46 
 
 — judging scale 163 
 
 — opinions on 47 
 
 origin of name 43 
 
 — seeds 168 
 
 — standards 163 
 
 —stock 217 
 
 — uses of the 50 
 
 Pomelo varieties 115 
 
 Aurantium 115 
 
 DeSoto 116 
 
 Duncan 117 
 
 Excelsior 117 
 
 Ej-celaior Late 117 
 
 Hall 117 
 
 Halls 117 
 
 [niliaii River 125 
 
 Josselyn 118 
 
 Klemm's Silver Cluster 117 
 
 Leonardy 119 
 
 Manville 119 
 
mDEX. 579 
 
 PAGE 
 
 MativiUc's Improved 119 
 
 Marsh 120 
 
 Marsh's Seedless 120 
 
 May 121 
 
 May's 121 
 
 McKinley 121 
 
 Nocatee 122 
 
 Orange 115 
 
 Pernambuco 124 
 
 Royal 125 
 
 Silver Cluster 117 
 
 Standard 125 
 
 Tresca 115 
 
 Triumph 125 
 
 Walter 126 
 
 Walters 126 
 
 Pomelos, list 563 
 
 Potash, functions of 302 
 
 — sources of 307 
 
 — whale-oil soap 529 
 
 — whale-oil soap and soda-sulphur solution 532 
 
 Pot culture 393 
 
 Pot plants, list 395 
 
 Presses 450 
 
 Private trade 459 
 
 Propagation 167 
 
 Pruning 375 
 
 —for die-hack 377 
 
 —for insects 377 
 
 — frozen tr^es 378 
 
 — pot plants 396 
 
 — shears 182 
 
 —time for 382 
 
 —tools 380 
 
 —tops 258 
 
 Pxeuihcijh . 22 
 
 Pumping water 324 
 
 Purchasing trees 250 
 
.jSd CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Purple mite 523 
 
 — treatment for 523 
 
 Purple scale 500 
 
 — treatment for 502 
 
 Rainfall in Florida 320 
 
 Rangpur lime 66 
 
 Reasoner, P. W., reports by 560 
 
 Red Aschersonia 547, 550 
 
 Red fungus 547 
 
 Red scale, California 504 
 
 Red scale, Florida 504 
 
 — treatment for 504, 505 
 
 Red spider 523 
 
 — treatment for 523 
 
 Removing banks 471 
 
 Resin wash 528 
 
 Rhizobiiis ventralis 553 
 
 Ripe rot 477 
 
 — treatment for 479 
 
 Root branching 254 
 
 —knot 286 
 
 — trimming 254 
 
 Ross, S., quoted 334 
 
 Rough-lemon seed 170 
 
 — stock 200 
 
 Rust mite 520 
 
 — treatment for 521 
 
 Rutaceir family 7, 14 
 
 Sacks used in pollination 150, 154 
 
 Sand-case ; 351 
 
 Sand-spurs 295 
 
 Sampson, F. G., quoted 403 
 
 Satsuma, hardiness of 42 
 
 Saunders, Wm 22, 67 
 
 Saws, pruning 381 
 
 Scab 199, 472 
 
 — remedies for , 475 
 
 — varieties affected by 472 
 
INDEX. 581 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Scales, armored 500 
 
 unarmored 506 
 
 Scales of points, judging 155 
 
 Seed-beds 171 
 
 Seedling trees 167 
 
 Seed selection 170 
 
 Seeds, care of 170 
 
 Sepals 148 
 
 Seville orange 16 
 
 Shaddock 18 
 
 — distinct from pomelo 51, 52 
 
 — introduction of 51 
 
 — uses of 51 
 
 Shaddock varieties 127 
 
 Mammoth 127 
 
 Pink 127 
 
 Shaddock, synonomy of 45 
 
 Shears, pruning 381 
 
 Shed, Haw Creek 369 
 
 — Leonard's 370 
 
 —Mead's 368 
 
 —Swift's 367 
 
 Sheds ■. 363 
 
 — California 372 
 
 — Citra 371 
 
 — Steven's pattern 364 
 
 Sherwood harness 283 
 
 Shield-budding 188 
 
 Shime, C. H 205 
 
 Shipments, dividing 461 
 
 — spasmodic 461 
 
 Shipping 456 
 
 — fruit experience 403 
 
 Side-grafting 195 
 
 Silver mite 520 
 
 Six-spotted mite 521 
 
 — treatment for 523 
 
 Sizers 429 
 
 Sizing 429 
 
582 CITRUS FRVIT8 AND THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Sloane, Hans., quoted 51 
 
 Smoothing 241 
 
 Snow scale 505 
 
 — remedies for 506 
 
 Soda-sulphur solution 530 
 
 Soils, California 222 
 
 —Cuba 223 
 
 —flat woods 220 
 
 —Florida 220 
 
 — for pot plants 394 
 
 — high hammock 221 
 
 — Louisiana 222 
 
 — low hammock 221 
 
 —pine land 220 
 
 Sooty fungus 483 
 
 Sooty-mold 479 
 
 — effects, of, on trees 481 
 
 — treatment for 483 
 
 Sour Bigarade orange 70 
 
 Sour orange 16 
 
 — scab 472 
 
 — seeds 170 
 
 — stock 198 
 
 Spalding, W. A., book by 561 
 
 — quoted 48 
 
 Spanish oranges 30, 73 
 
 Spharostilbe corcoph ila 547 
 
 Spraying 536 
 
 — formulas 525 
 
 — vs. non-spraying 545 
 
 Stamens 148 
 
 Stenciling 453 
 
 Stevens, J. A., quoted 371 
 
 Stocks and frosts 346 
 
 — and mal-di-goma 469 
 
 Strap, mandarin 437 
 
 Sfrigiila complaiiata 487 
 
 Stryker, Thos. H., quoted 369 
 
 Stubbs, W. C, bulletin by 561 
 
INDEX. 583 
 
 PAGE 
 
 style 149 
 
 Sub-soiling 235, 278 
 
 Substitutions 252 
 
 Sucking insects other than scales 516 
 
 Sulphur-lime solution 531 
 
 Sulphurous acid 528'. 
 
 Super-phosphate 304 
 
 Surprise orange 33 
 
 Sweet oranges 16, 27 
 
 — groups 30 
 
 — introduction of 28 
 
 — in California 29 
 
 —list 563 
 
 — seeds 169 
 
 — ^stocks 216 
 
 Sweet Orange varieties 73 
 
 Acme 73 
 
 Arcadia 73 
 
 Australian 94 
 
 Bahia 94 
 
 Beach's Acme 73 
 
 Beache's No. J/ 80 
 
 Bessie 82 
 
 Boone 74 
 
 Boone's Early 74 
 
 Buena Tista 80 
 
 Centennial 82 
 
 Circassian 83 
 
 Double 95 
 
 Double Imperial 94 
 
 Dr. May's Best 79 
 
 Dummitt 74 
 
 DuRoi 83 
 
 Early Oblong 75 
 
 Egyptian 95 
 
 Enterprise 75 
 
 Enterprise Seedless 75 
 
 Everbearing 85 
 
 Exquisite 84 
 
584 CITRUS FRUITS AXD THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 I'AGE 
 
 Sweet orange varieties — Continued. 
 
 Foster 76 
 
 Oiddings '^^ 
 
 Hart 89 
 
 Hart's Late 89 
 
 Harfs Tardiff 89 
 
 Hicli 77 
 
 Hick's Siieet SeiuJle 77 
 
 Homosassa 77 
 
 Imperial 9-t 
 
 Indian River 78 
 
 Jaffa 85 
 
 John SsaiiVs Hweet Blood 92 
 
 Joppa 86 
 
 Joppa Late 86 
 
 Madam Vinous 78 
 
 IVIagnum Bonum 78 
 
 iWajorca 86 
 
 IWaltese 90 
 
 IWaltese Oval 87 
 
 Marquis 87 
 
 May 79 
 
 Melitensis 96 
 
 Nonpareil 79 
 
 Old Vini 80 
 
 Osceola 80 
 
 Paper Rind 87 
 
 Paper-Rind St. Michael 87 
 
 Parson 96 
 
 Parson Brown .„ 81 
 
 Pineapple 88 
 
 Prata 89 
 
 Ri rerside Ka vel 93 
 
 Ruby 91 
 
 Sanford Blood 92 
 
 Sanford's Street Blood 92 
 
 Saul Blood 93 
 
 Silver 89 
 
 St. Michael (Blood ) 93 
 
INDEX. 5^5 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Sweet orange varieties — Continued. 
 
 St. Michael's Egg 75 
 
 Stark 81 
 
 Stark's Favorite 81 
 
 Surprise 97 
 
 Sustain 98 
 
 Tardiff 89 
 
 Valencia Late 90 
 
 Washington Navel 93 
 
 Whitaker 82 
 
 White 90 
 
 Sweet oranges 27 
 
 — California Introduction 29 
 
 — early -literature of 27 
 
 — introduction of 2S 
 
 Swift, P., quoted 367 
 
 Swingle, W. T., bulletin by 561 
 
 Taber, G. L,., quoted 207 
 
 Tangierines 37 
 
 Tankage 307 
 
 Teague, C. C, quoted 356, 419 
 
 Temperatures, injurious 339 
 
 Tents and treatment 537 
 
 Tents, McParland's 361 
 
 — Painter's 361 
 
 Tent protection 361 
 
 Tetranychus sex-maculatus 521 
 
 Thermometers 338 
 
 Thermostat 339 
 
 Tillage, benefits of '. 263 
 
 Timber protection 228 
 
 Top-working 193 
 
 Trademarks 463 
 
 Transplanting, Reed system 260 
 
 Tree-digging 259 
 
 Tree labels 262 
 
 — peddlers 250 
 
 — pruner, Waters 381 
 
 Trees, cost of 251 
 
y,S(; CITRUS FRUITS AXD THEIR CULTURE. 
 
 r'AGB 
 
 Trees, Cost of — Continued. 
 
 — per acre 239 
 
 — purchasing 250 
 
 —setting 247 
 
 Trifoliate orange 15 
 
 —hybrids 21, 24 
 
 — introduction of 67 
 
 — seeds 169 
 
 — stoclc 203 
 
 — varieties 67 
 
 Triphrasia aurantiola 8 
 
 Trunk, effects of cold on 342 
 
 Turtle-back scale 506 
 
 — treatment of 507 
 
 Twigs, effect of cold on 341 
 
 Unarmored scales 506 
 
 Van Deman, H. E., bulletin by 561 
 
 Varieties 347 
 
 — recommended 565 
 
 — selecting 247 
 
 —lists 565 
 
 Velvet Bean 288 
 
 — nitrogen in 289 
 
 Wagons, field 412 
 
 Walls and flres 360 
 
 Washing fruit 414 
 
 Water influences 227 
 
 — protection 360 
 
 Watering pot plants 396 
 
 Watering trees 257 
 
 Watson, A., quoted 47 
 
 Wax 180 
 
 Waxed cloth 180 
 
 —twine 181 
 
 Wax scale 509 
 
 — treatment for 510 
 
 Webber, H. J., bulletins by 561 
 
 — crosses by 21 
 
 Whale-oil soap 398, 529, 532 
 
 Whip-grafting -.194 
 
IXDEX. 5S7 
 
 PAGE 
 
 White-fly 516 
 
 — treatment for 520 
 
 White scale 509 
 
 White, W. N., quoted 48 
 
 — reference to work by 532 
 
 Whitner, J. U., reference to 562 
 
 Wiclison, E. J., reference to 562 
 
 —quoted 249,329 
 
 Wind-breaks 228, 360 
 
 Windmill power 326 
 
 Wiring sprouts 380 
 
 Wood fires 352 
 
 Woodworth, C. W., bulletins by 562 
 
 —quoted 537, 540 
 
 Wounds, treatment of 382: