Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tlie Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924076067952 THE FOREIGN BIBLICAL LIBRARY. EDITED BT THE REV. W. ROBERTSON NICOLL» M.A., B^ttr iifUu ' BxfatUtr," KURTZ'S CHURCH HISTORY. NEW YORK: FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY, LONDON AND TORONTO. CHURCH HISTORY. BT PROFESSOR KURTZ. AUTHORIZED TRANSLATION FROM LATEST REVISED EDITION BY THE REV. JOHN MACPHERSON, MA IN THREE VOLUMES. VOL. IIL NEW YORK: FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY, LONDON AND TORONTO. CONTENTS. THEBD DIVISION.— >S.E00iV2) SECTION. OHUKCH HISTORY OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. I. EELATIONS BETWEEN THE DUTEBENT CHDECHES. § 152. East Ain> West ......,., 1 (1) Boman Catholic Hopes. •••••• 1 (2) Calvinistio Hopes ..•••««« 1 (8) Orthodox Constancy .•••••• 2 § 153. Catholicism and Pbotestantish . • • • • 8 (1) Conversions of Protestant Princes .... 8 (2) The Eestoration in Germany and Neighbouring States ......... 4 (8) In Iiivonia and Hungary ..•••. 4 (4) The Huguenots in France ...•(. 5 (5) The Waldensians in Piedmont ..... 6 (6) The Catholics in England and Ireland ... 6 (7) Union Efforts 8 (8) The Lehuiu Prophecy ....... 10 § 154. LUTHEBANISH AND CaLYINISU ...... 10 (1) Calvinizing of Hesse-Cassel ...... 10 (2) „ „ Lippe 12 (3) Elector of Brandenburg becomes Calyinist. . . 12 (4) Union Attempts .13 § 155. Aholicakibh and Pubitanisu ...... 14 (1) The First Two Stuarts 16 (2) The Commonwealth and the Protector ... 16 (8) The Eestoration and Act of Toleration ... 17 ■n CONTENTS. n. THE EOMAN CATHOLIC CHDECH. S 156. Thb Papacy, Mohkeet, ahd Fobbioh Mibsioss (1) The Papacy (2) The Jesuits and the Eepnhlie of Venice (3) The GfaUican liberties (4) Gralileo and the Inquisition . (5) Controversy on the Inunacolate Conception (6) Devotion of the Sacred Heart . . (7-8) New Congregations and Orders . • (9) The Propaganda (10-12) Foreign Missions . . • • • (13) Trade and Industry of Jesuits ■ . (14) An Apostate to Judaism . • • § 157. Quietism asxi Jaibenism .... (1) Francis de Sales and Madame Chantal (2) Michael Molinos (3) Madame Guyon and F^elon . • (4) Mysticism Tinged with Pantheism . (5) Jansenism : £rst stage .... § 158. SciEircE AiTD Abt ih the Catholic Chubch (1-2) Theological Science .... (3) Art and Poetry in. THE LUTHEEAN (3HDECH. 19 20 21 22 23 23 24 24 26 27 29 29 30 30 31 32 34 34 36 36 89 § 159. Obthodoxt Aim its Battles . . • • « (1) Christological Controversies • • • • • 89 (2) Syncretist Controversy ..•••• 40 (3) Pietist Controversy: first stage . • • « • 41 (4-5) Theological Literature ...•••• 43 § 160. Tee Beligious Life 44 (1) Mysticism and Ascetism ..■.•• 44 (2) „ „ Theosophy 45 (3-4) Sacred Song .46 (5) Sacred Music. ....!••• 49 (6) The Christian Life of the People .... 49 (7) Missions 50 IV. THE EEFOEMED CMUJiCH. { 161. Thboixkjy A3n its Battles .... (1) Preliminaries of the Arminian Controvetsy (2) The Arminian Controversy .... 0) Consequences of the ArmiTimTi Controversy 50 51 51 53 CONTENTS. Vll (4-5) Cocceian and Cartesian Controversies • • • • 5^ (6-7) Theological Literature ...•••• 66 (8) The Apocrypha Controversy . . . • • 58 162. The Beliqioos Life ...••••• 69 (1-S) England and Scotland 69 (4-6) The Netherlands 64 (6) France , 4 t ^^ (7) Foreign Missions ..••••••66 V. ANTI- AND EXTBA-ECCLESIASTICAL PAETIES. ! 163. Sects and Fanatics ...••••• 66 (1) Socinians < • • • 67 (2) Baptists of the Continent •■•••• 68 (8) English Baptists 69 (4-6) Quakers 70 (7-8) Labadie and Labadists , . 78 (9) Fanatical Sects 75 (10) Bnssian Sects 76 I 164. Fhilosophebs and Fbeethikkebs • • • • . 79 (1-2) Philosophy 79 (8-4) Freethinkers .82 TSIBV SECTION. CHUUCH mSTOEY m THE EIGHTEENTH GENTUET. L THE CATHOLIC CHUBCH IN EAST AND "WEST. § 165. The Bouan Catholic Chubcb 84 (1) The Popes 85 (2) Old and New Orders 86 (S) Foreign Missions 87 (4) Coonter-Beformation 87 (5) „ „ in France 88 (6) Conversions 88 (7) Jansenism : second stage ..•••• 89 (8) Old Catholic Church in Netherlands .... 90 (9) Suppression of Order of Jesuits 92 (10) Anti-hierarchical Movements in Germany and Italy 93 (11-12) Theological Literature 94 (18) German Catholic Contribution to the Illumination . 96 (14-15) French Contribution to the Illumination ... 98 (16-17) Pseudo-Catholics 100 VIU CONTENTS. § 166. The Obiehtai, Chdbches .....*• 102 (l; The Sussian State Chnrch .,.,,. lOB (2) Bnssiaii Sects 1(^ n. THE PEOTESTANT CHDECHEa § 167. The Lutherah Chuech befobe the " Illuhihatiob " . 104 (1-2) Pietist Controveisies after Fonndiiig of Halle Uni- versity .......•• 105 (3) Theology 108 (4) Umonist Efforts 109 (5) Theories of Ecclesiastical law . . • • • 110 (6) Church Song Ill (7) Sacred Music 112 (8) The Christian Life and Devotional Idteratora . 113 (9) Missions to the Heathen .... • 114 § 168. The Chubch of the Mobatias Bbethbes . . • 115 (1) Founder of the Moravian Brotherhood . . • 116 (2) Pounding of the Brotherhood 117 (3) Development of Brotherhood to Zinzendorf s Death . 118 (4) Zinzendorf s Plan and Work 119 (5) Extravagances of Zinzendorf . • . . . 120 (6) Zrnzendorf's Greatness. ...»•• 121 (7) Brotherhood under Spangeuberg. . . • • 121 (8) Doctrinal Peculiarities of the Brotherhood . . 123 (9) Peculiarities of Worship among the Brethren . . 123 (10) Christian Life 124 (11) Missions to Heathen ....... 124 { 169. The Befobmeu Chubch befobe the " IiiUMiHATioH " . 125 (1) The German Beformed Church 126 (2) Beformed Church in Switzerland .... 127 (3) The Dutch Beformed Church . . ... 127 (4-5) Methodism 128 (6) Theological Literature. ...... 131 S 170. New Sects abd Pahatics . 132 (1) Fanatics and Separatists in Germany ... 133 (2) Inspired Societies in Wetterau ..... 133 (3)Dippel 134 (4) Separatists of Immoral Tendency .... 135 (5) Swedenborgians •......, 136 (6) New Baptist Sects 137 (7) „ Quaker Sects , iss (8) Predestinaiian-Mystical Sects 139 CONTENTS. IX nam § 171. Bblioioh, Theoloqt, and Litebatube of the " Illumi- nation " 189 (1) Deism, Ariamsm, and Unitariaiiism in English Churoh 140 (2) Freemasons 143 (8-6) German "Illumination " 143 (6) Transition Theology 146 (7) Bationalistic Theology . . • • . 147 (8) Supematuralism ....•••• 148 (9) Mysticism and Theosophy ...••• 149 (10) The German Philosophy 149 (11) German National Literature • • • . . 150 (12) Pestalozzi 152 § 172. Chubch Life in the Pebioo of the "Illumination" . 152 (1) The Hymnbook and Churoh Music .... 153 (2) Eeligious Characters 154 (8) „ Sects . . . .• , . . .154 (4) nationalistic " Illumination " outside of Germany . 155 (5) Missionary Societies and Missionary Enterprise . 155 FOURTH SECTION. CHUECH HISTOEY OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURT L GENEEAL AND INTEODUCTOEY. § 178. SuBVEr OP Eelioious Movements op Nineteenth Cen- TUBY 157 § 174. Nineteenth Centuby Coltube in Eelation to Chbis- tianity and the Chubch 158 (1-2) The German Philosophy ...... 158 (8) The Sciences 160 (4) Jurisprudence ........ 162 (5-7) National Literature ....... 162 (8) Popular Education 165 (9) Art 166 (10) Music and the Drama 167 S 175. Intebcoubse and NEaoriATioNS between the Chubches 168 (1) Eomanizing Tendencies among Protestants . . 168 (2) Attitude of Catholicism toward Protestantism . . 169 (3) Eomish Controversy 170 (4) Eoman Catholic Union Schemes 170 (5) Greek Orthodox Union Schemes ..... 171 X CONTENTS. MSI (6) Old Catholic TTnion Schemes 171 (1-9) Conversions ,...■•••• 1^2 (10) Luther Centenary, AJD. 1883 178 n, PEOTESTANTISM IN GKNEBAIi. S 176. B&TIOHALISK AXD PlETISK ...••• 174 (1) Old EationaUsm 174 (2) Pietism 175 (8) KOnigsherg Eeligiona Movement, aj>. 1835-1842 . 176 (4) The Bender Controversy • 177 § 177. EVAHQELICAI. IThIOS ASO LnTHEEAB Sefabatioh • • 178 (1) The Evangelical Union ,178 (2) Lutheran Separation ...•••• 179 (3) Separation within the Separation • • • • 179 § 178. EVAIQELICAI. COHFEDEBATIOB .«•••• 180 (1) Gustavns Adolphus Society .••••• 180 (2) Eisenach Conference ..••••• 180 (8) Evangelical Alliance 181 (4) „ Church AUiance 182 (5) „ League 182 S 179, LUTHEBABISU, MEIASCBTROSIAiriSIC, ABD CjlLVUTIBH • 183 (1) Lutheranism within the Union 1B3 (2) „ outside the Union . • • . . 1S4 (3) Helanchthonianism and Calvinism • • • • 184 § 180. The " PEOTESTA JiTKa v KU Eor " ...... 186 (1) Protestant Aasemhly . . .. ... 187 (2) "Protestantenverein" Propaganda .... 187 (8-5) Sufferings Endured 187 § 181. BisPirrES abovt Porhs ov Wobship .... 189 (1) The Hynmhook 189 (2) Book of Chorales 190 (3) Liturgy 190 (4) Holy Scriptures 190 § 182. Peotesiaht THEoix>eT ni Gebmabt ..... 191 (1) Schleiermacher ........ 192 (2) Older Eationalistic Theology 193 (3) Historico-Critjxal Bationalism ..... 194 (4) Supematuralism . ....... 195 (5) Eational Supematuralism 196 (6) Speculative Theology 197 (7) The Tabingen School 197 CONTENTS. Zi (8) Strauss 198 (9) Mediating Theology 199 (10) The Schleiermacher School ...... 200 (11) Old Testament Exegetes 201 (12) Beck 202 (18) Lutheran Confessional Theology • • • • 203 (14) Hofmann, Oehler, etc 204 (15) K&hnis, Frank, etc. .•«•••• 205 (16) Befonued ConfessionaUsm ••<••• 205 (17) Free Protestant Theology 206 (18) Critical Old Testament School .. ... 206 (19) Dogmatists — Biedermann .•••*• 208 (20) Eitschl 208 (21) Opponents of lUtschl 210 (22) Writers on Constitutional Lav • • • • • 211 § 183. HouE Missions 212 (1) Institutions 212 (2) Order of St. John ........ 213 (8) Gustav Werner of Wflrttemherg , ... 213 (4) Bible Societies ........ 214 § 184. FoBEioN Missions .•.••... 214 (1) Missionary Societies ..•••.. 215 (2) Europe and America, ..*•... 216 (8) Africa 216 (4) Livingstone .•.•.•••. 217 (5) Asia— Lidia 218 (6) China 219 (7) Polynesia and Australia ••.... 220 (8) Missions to the Jews ....... 221 (9) „ to Eastern Churches 221 m. CATHOLICISM IN GENEEAL. § 185. The Fapact and States of the Chubch ... 222 (1) The First Four Popes of the Century ... .223 (2) Pius IX 224 (8) Overthrow of Papal States 225 (4) Prisoner of the Vatican 227 (6) Leo Xin 228 § 186, Yabioub Obdebs and Associations 280 (1) Society of Jesus and Belated Orders .... 230 (2) Other Orders and Congregations ..... 232 (8) The Pius Verein .238 XU CONTENTS. (4) Yarioos Gtennan TTnions • • • • . 233 (5) Capital 234 (6-7) Catholic Missions 234 § 187, TiTBKBAT. Catholic MovEUEins ..•••• 236 (1) Mystical Irenical Tendencies . • • * • 236 (2) Eyangelical-Eevival Tendencies . . • • • 237 (3) Liberal-Sciepti&c Tendencies . • • . • 238 (4) Badical-Liberalistic Tendencies . . . . • 238 (^) Attempts at Eeform in Chnrcli Government . . 239 (6-8) „ to Fonnd National Catholic Chnrohes . 239 § 188. Catholic Ultbamontakism ....•• 241 (1) Ultramontane Propaganda 242 (2) Miracles 242 (8-5) Stigmati^ations 243 (6) Manifestations of Mother of G!od in Prance . . 244 (7) 1) n » itt Germany . . 245 (8) Canonizations ........ 245 (9) Discoveries of Belies 246 (10) Blood of St. Jannarins 246 (11) Procession at Echtemach 246 (12) Devotion of the Sacred Heart 247 (13) Ultramontane Amulets . . . . . . 247 (14) „ Pulpit Eloquence 248 § 189. The Vaticajj Cootcil 249 (1) Preliminary History of Council ..... ^0 (2) Organization of Council 251 (3) Proceedings of Council ..•••• 252 (4) Acceptance of Decrees of Council • . . . 254 § 190. The Old Catholics ^6 (1-2) Formation and Development of Old Catholic Church in Gfermany 256 (3) Old Catholics in other I^mds . . . , , 259 § 191. Catholic Theology, bspeciallt lb Gebxast . , . 261 (1) Hermes and his School 262 (2) Baader and his School 262 (3) Gunther and his School , 263 (4) J. A, Mohler 263 (5) DOllinger 264 (6) Systematic Theologians ...... 265 (7) Historical Theology 266 (8) Exegetical Theology 268 (9) Eepresentatives of the New Scholasticism ... 269 CONTENTS. XllI net (10) Miudch Congress of Catholic Scholais • • • 269 (11) Theological Journals ,270 (12) The Pope and Theological Science .... 270 IV. EELATION OP CHUECH TO THE EMPIRE AND TO THE STATES. S 192. The Gebmab Confedebation ..•••• 271 (1) Imperial Commission's Decree . . • • • 272 (2) Prinoe-Primate of Confederation of the Bhine . • 272 (3) Vienna Congress and the Concordat ...» 273 (4) Frankfort Parliament and "Warzhurg Congress . . 274 § 198. Pkusbia 275 (1) Catholic Church to Close of Cologne Conflict . . 276 (2) Golden Age of Prussian Ultramontanism . • • 278 (3) Evangelical Church in Old Prussia to 1848 . . 280 (4) „ „ „ „ to 1872 . . 281 (5-6) ^ „ „ „ to 1880 .. 282 (7-9) „ n II Annexed Provinces . . 285 S 194. KoBTH Gebman Sualleb States . . • • 288 (1) Kingdom of Saxony ...•••• 289 (2) Saxon Duchies 290 (8) Kingdom of Hanover 291 (4) Hesse 292 (5) Brunswick, etc 293 (6) Mecklenburg 293 S 195. Bavabia 294 (1) Bavarian Ecclesiastical Polity under Maximilian I. . 295 (2) „ „ „ under Louis I. . . 296 (8) „ „ „ under Maximilian H. andliouisll. 297 (4) Attempts at Beorganization of Lutheran Church . 293 (5) Union in Palatine of the Bhine 299 8 196. South Gebhah Smaxleb States abd Bhenish Alsace ASn LOBBAINE 800 (1) Upper Bhenish Church Province .... 800 (2) Catholic Troubles in Baden to 1873 . . . , 801 (8) Protestant Troubles in Baden ..... 803 (4) Hesse-Darmstadt and IN'assau ..... 805 (5) Protestant Wtottemberg 807 (6) Catholic Church in Wtottemberg . . . . 808 (7) Imperial Territory of Alsace and Lorraine . . . 80S XIV COKTENTS. Msa S 197. The So-cai Evpibb . 810 (1) AggresBion of Ultiamontajugm . . . • • 812 (2) Conflicts over Protection of Old Catholics . , , 814 (3) Struggles over Educational Questions . • * 815 (4) Kanzelparagiapli and Jesuit Law . • • > 816 (5) Prussian Ecclesiastical laws, 1873-1875 . . ,816 {&) Opposition in States to Prussian iSay law* , • 818 (7) Share in Conflict hy Pope ...... 820 (8) Encyclical Quod numquam ...... 822 (9) Papal Overtures for Peace . ' 823 (10) Prussian Government Conciliatory .... 824 (11) Conciliatory Negotiations ...... 826 (12) Besumption on both sides of Conciliatory Measures . 827 (13) Definitive Conclusion of Peace ..... 829 (14-15) Independent Procedure of other (Jennan Governments 831 § 198. AUSTSIA-HUBOAET ........ 833 (1) Zillerthal Emigration 834 (2) The Concordat .335 (3) Protestant Church in (Tisleithaa Austria ... 336 (4) Clerical Landtag Opposition in Tyrol. . • • 837 (^) Austrian IJniverBities ....... 338 (6) „ Ecclesiastical Laws 838 (7) Protestant (Thurch in Transleithan Provinces . . 840 S 199. 8viivzissiLan> ......... 341 (1) (Nathalie Church in Switzerland ..... 842 (2) Geneva Conflict 843 (8) (Jonflict in Basel-Soleare 844 (4) Protestant Church in German Switzerland . , 847 (5) » » ■> French , , . 848 § 200, EoUiASD Axs 'B^uaimt .••••.. ^0 (1) United Netherlands ....... %1 (2-^ Kingdom of Holland ... ....%! (5-7) „ „ Belgium K6 (8) Protestant Church in Belgium • • • • • 839 § 201. SCUTDISAVIAS CoUBTBLBg ..«.(«. SSd (1) Denmark ......... 860 (2) Sweden ..«••••«(, 861 (3) Norway ..........862 S 202. Gbeat Bbitaix ijn> Isxlasd ••••.. 863 (1) Episcopal State Church 364 0-3) Tractarians and Bitualists ...... 865 (4) Liberalism on Episcopal Bench . • . • . 869 CONTENTS. XV visa (5) Protestant Disaenters in England • < * • 870 (6) Scotch Marriages in England • • • • • 871 (7) „ State Church 871 (8) Scottish Heresy Cases 872 (9-10) Catholic Church in Ireland 874 (11) „ „ „ England and Scotland . . • 876 (12) German Lutheran Congregations in Australia • • 877 § 208. Fbakce 878 (1) French Church under Napoleon I, . . . • 878 (2) Bestoration and Citizen Kingdom t • • • 880 (8) Catholic Church under Napoleon m. . ■ • • 881 (4) Protestant Churches under Napoleon HI. . i • 881 (5) Catholic Church in Third French Eepublio . . 882 (6-7) French "Kulturkampf" 884 (8) Protestant Churches under the Third Bepublic . . 887 § 204. Italt 889 (1) Kingdom of Sardinia 889 (2) „ „ Italy 890 (8) Evangelization of Italy ...... 392 g 205. Spain abd Pobtuqai. 894 (1) Spain under Ferdinand VH. and Maria Christina . 895 (2) „ „ Isabella n 895 (8) „ „ AlphonsoXn 896 (4) Evangelization of Spain !••••> 897 (5) The Church in Portugal 899 § 206. BussiA 400 (1) Orthodox National Church ...... 40(i (2) Catholic Church 402 (8) Evangelical Church 404 g 207. Gbeece and Titbkey 406 (1) Orthodox Church in Greece .••••• 406 (2) Massacre of Syrian Christiana . • • • • 407 (3) Bulgarian Ecclesiastical Struggle • • . • 407 (4) Armenian Church ......•■ 408 (5) Berlin Treaty, 1878 ... ... 409 g 208. United States of Amebica ...••• 410 (1) English Protestant Denominations • • . . 411 (2-8) Gterman Lutheran Denominations .... 412 (4) „ Beformed „ .... 414 (5) The Catholic Church 415 XVI CONTENTS. rxe> § 209. EoMAH Catholic States of South America ... 415 (1) Mexico .' ' ' t^t Iz) JElepublics of Central and Southern America . • 417 (3) BrazE *^ V. OPPONENTS OF CHDECH AND CHEISTIANirT, S 210. Seotaeieb akd Ehthubiabts ih Eomab Catholic axd OeTHODOX EnSBIAH COHAISB 420 (1-2) Sects and Fanatics in Eoman Catholic Domain . . 421 (3) Enssian Secte and Fanatics 424 i 211. Sectaries ahd Ehthusiasts a the PRorESTAirr Dohaim 426 (1) The Methodist Propaganda 427 (2) The Salvation Army ....... 428 ^) Baptists and Quakers 480 (4) Swedenhorgians and TTnitarians . . . • • 432 (5) Extravagantly Fanatical Manifestations . • • 432 (6) Christian Commnnistic Sects . . • • • 434 (7-8) Millenarian Commnnitiea •••••• 436 (9) New Israelites 438 (10) Catholic Apostolic Church of Irvingites • • • 440 (11) Darbyites and Adventiste ...••« 442 (12-14) Mormons or Latter Day Saints • • > • • 443 (15-16) Taepings in China ....... 446 (17) Spiritualists .449 (18) Theosophism or Occultism ...... 451 § 212, Ahtichristias Socialibu aid CoumiHisic ... 452 (1) Beginnings of Modem Communism .... 453 (2) St. Simonism 453 (3) Owenists and Icarians ....... 453 (4) Intemational Association of Workmen ... 454 (5) German Social Democracy ....*• 455 (d) Eussian Nihilism 457 Chrosoloqical Tables ...•••... 459 Isiasz. ••••••.••••• 485 SECOND SECTION. CHURCH HISTORY OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. I. — Belationa between the Different Chnrches. § 152. East and West. Thb papacy formed new plans for conquest in the domain of the Eastern church, but with at moat only transient success. Still more illusory were the hopes entertained for a while in Geneva and London in regard to the Calvinizing of the Greek church. 1, Boman Catholic Hopes. — ^The Jesuit missions among the Turks and schismatic Greeks failed, but among the Abyssiuians some pro- gress was made. By promising Spanish aid, the Jesuit Faez succeeded, in AJ>. 1621, in indncing the Sultan Segued to abjure the Jacobite heresy. Mendez was made Abyssinian patriarch by Urban Vill. in AJ>. 1626, but the clergy and people repeatedly rebelled against sultan and patriarch. In a.d. 1642 the next sultan drove the Jesuits out of his kingdom, and in it henceforth no traces of Catholicism were to be found. — In Bussia the false Demetrius, in a.d. 1605, working in Polish Catholic interests, sought to catholicize the empire; but this only convinced the Bussians that be was no true czar's son. When his Catholic Polish bride entered Moscow with 200 Poles, a riot ensued, in which Demetrius lost his life.' 2. CalviniBtic Hopes. — C71II Laear, a native of Crete, then under Venetian rule, by long residence in Geneva had come to entertain a strong liViTig to the Beformed church. Expelled from his situation 1 Merimde, " The Bussian Impostors : the False Demetrius." Iion- don, 1852. vol,, in. I » 2 CHUECH HISTOBY OF SEVENTEENTH CBNTUBY. as ^ rector of a Greek seminary at Ostrog by Jesuit machinations, he was made Patriarch of Alexandria, in A.I.. 1602 and of Constantinople in A.D. 1621. He maintained a regular correspondence with Eeformed divines in Holland, SSvitzerland, and England. In A.D. 1628 he sent the famous Codex Alexandrinus as a present to James I. He wrought expressly for a union of the Greek and Eeformed churches, and for this end sent, in a.d. 1629, to Geneva an almost purely Calvinistio confession. But the other Greek bishops opposed his union schemes, and influential Jesuits in Constantinople accused him of poUtical faults. Four times the sultan deposed and banished him, and at last, in A.D. 1638, he was strangled as a traitor- and cast into the sea.— One of his Alexandrian clergy, Metrophanes Critopulus, whom in A.D. 1616 he had sent for his education to England, studied several years at Oxford, then at German Protestant universities, ending with Helmstadt, where, iu a.d. 1625, he composed in Greek a confession of the faith of the Greek Orthodox Church, It was pointedly antago- nistic to the Eomish doctrine, conciliatory toward Protestantism, while abandoning nothing essential in the Greek Orthodox creed, and showing signs of the possession of independent speculative power. Afterwards Metrophanes became Patriarch of Alexandria, and in the synod, presided over by Luoar's successor, Cyril of BerrhoS, at Con- stantinople in A.D. 1638, gave his vote for the formal condemnation of the man who had been already executed.' 3. Orthodox Constancy. — The Eussian Orthodox church, after its emancipation from Constantinople and the erection of an independent patriarchate at Moscow in a.d. 1589 (§ 73, 4), had decidedly the pre- eminence over the Greek Orthodox church, and the Eussian czar took the place formerly occupied by the East Eoman emperor as protector of the whole Orthodox church. The dangers to the Orthodox faith threatened by schemes of union with Catholics and Protestants induced the learned metropolitan, Peter Mogilas of Kiev, to composH a new confession in catechetical form, which, in a.d. 1643, was for- mally authorized by the Orthodox patriarchs as 'OpBoSo^os o/uiKoyla t^ Ka6o\iKTJs Kol &irorince wag pledged by the direoto' y of the Eegensburg Diet of aj). 1653 to care for the interests of the evangelical church. Now that he had become a Catholic, he still formally promised to do so, but had his duties discharged by a commissioner. Subsequently this oflice; 4 CHUBCH EtSTOET OP SEVENTEEKTH CENTTXB'?. was ordered to take his directums from tie evangelical council of Dresden. 2. Tlie Eestoratim in Germany and tlie Heighlxrarliig States (§ 151, 1).— Matthias liaving, in -violation of the royal letter of his predecessor Endolph n. (§ 139, 19), refused to allow the Protestants of Bohemia to build churches, was driven out ; the Jesuits also were expelled, and the (Mvinistic Elector-palatine Frederick V. was chosen as prince in AJ». 1619. Ferdinand IL (aj). 1619-1637) defeated him, tore up the royal letter, restored the Jesuits, and expelled the Protestant pastors. Efforts were made hy Christian IV. of Denmark and other Protestant princes to save Protestantism, hut without success. Ferdinand now issued his B«stitatum Edict of aj>. 1629, which deprived Protestants of their privileges, and gave to Catholic nobles unrestricted liberty to sappteas the evangelical faith in their dommiaos. It was then that Oustavus Adolphns of Swedeai, in religions not less than political interests, made his appearance as ibe saviour of Protestantdsm.* The unhappy war was brought to an end in aj>. 1648 by the publication at Mnnster and Osnabrock of the Peace of Testphalia, which. Innocent X. in his bull '^Zdo Domus Dei" at aj>. 1651 pronotmced " null and void, without influence on past, pr^ent, and future," Germany lost several noble provinces, but its intellectual and religions freedom was saved. Under Swedish and French guarantee the Augsburg Beligioas Peace was confirmed and even extended to the Bef ormed, as related to the Augsburg Confession. The church property was to be restored on January 1st, aj}. 1624. The political equality of Protestants and Catholics throughout Germany was distinctiy secured. In Bohemia, however. Protestantism was thoroughly exttrx-ated, and in the other Austrian states the oppression continaed down to the time of Joseph n. In Silesia, from the passing of the Bestitution Edict, over a thousand churches had been violently taken from the evangelicals. No compensation was now thought of, but rather the persecution continued throughout the whole century (§ 165, 4), and many tLoa- lands were compelled to migrate, for the most part to Upper Lusatia. 8. Also in livonia, from aj>. 1561 under Polish rule, the Jesuits gained a footing and began the restoration, but under Gnstavus Adolphns from aj). 1621 their machinationB were brought to an end. — The ruthless ValteHne Kassacre of mj>. 1^0 may be described as a Swiss St Bartholomew on a small scale. All Protestants were mur- dered in one day. The oonspiratois at a gigna.1 from the clock tower > Stevens, "Idfe and Times of Gnstavus Adolphns." New York, 1884. Trench, " Gtistavus Adolphns in Germany, and other Lectons on the Thirty Tears' War." London. Gardiner, " The Thirty Years' War "in "Epochs of Modem History." London, 1881, § 153. OATHOLIOISM AND PBOTESTANTISM. S in the early mommg broke into the houses of heretics, and pat all to death, down to the very babe in the cradle. Between four and five hundred were slaughtered. — In Hnngary, at the close of the preceding century only three noble families remained Catholic, and the Protes- tant churches numbered 2,000 ; but the Jesuits, who had settled there under the protection of Eudolph II. in 1579, resumed their intrigues, and the Archbishop of Gran, Pazmany, wrought hard for the restora- tion of Catholicism. Rakoczy of Transylvania, in the Treaty of Linz of A.D. 1645, concluded a league offensive and defensive with Sweden and France, which secured political and religious liberty for Hungary ; but of the 400 churches of which the Protestants had been robbed only ninety were given back. The bigoted Leopold I., from a.d. 1655 king of Hungary, inaugurated a yet more savere persecution, which continued until the publication of the Toleration JEkliot of Joseph U. in A.D. 1781. The 2,000 Protestant congregations were by this time reduced to 105. 4. The Huguenots in France (§ 139, 17).— Henry IV. faithfully ful- filled the promises which he made in the Edict of Nantes ; but under Louis XIII., A.D. 1610-1643, the oppressions of the Huguenots were renewed, and led to fresh outbreaks. Eichelieu withdrew their political privileges, but granted them religious toleration in the Edict of Nismes, a.d. 1029. Louis XIV., a.d. 1613-1715, at the instigation of his confessors, sought to atone for his sins by purging his land of heretics. When bribery and court favour had done all that they could do in the way of conversions, the feai-ful dragonnades began, A.D. 1681, The formal Bevocation of the Edict of Nantes followed in A.D. 1685, and persecution raged with the utmost violence. Thousands of churches were torn down, vast numbers of confessors were tortured, burnt, or sent to the galleys. In spite of the terrible penal laws against emigrating, in spite of the watch kept over the frontiers, hundreds of thousands escaped, and were received with open arms as refugees in Brandenbvirg, Holland, England, Denmark, and Switzer- land. Many fled into the wilds of the Cevennes, where under the name of Camisards they maintained a heroic conflict for years, until at last exterminated by an army at least ten times their strength. The struggle reached the utmost intensity of bitterness on both sides in A.D. 1702, when the fanatical and inhumanly cruel inquisitor, the Abb6 du Chaila, was slain. At the head of the Camisard army was a young peasant, Jean Cavalier, who by his energetic and skilful con- duct of the campaign astonished the world. At last the famous Mar- shal Villars, by promising a general amnesty, release of all prisoners, permission to emigrate with possessions, and religious toleration to those who remained, succeeded in persuading Cavalier to lay down his arms. The king ratified this bargain, only refusing the right o< 6 CHUBCH mSTOEY OF SEVENTEENTH CBNTirBT. religions freedom. Many, however, gnbmitted ; wHIe others emigrated, mostly to England. CavaUer entered the Mng's service as colonel; tnt distrusting the arrangements fled to Holland, and afterwards to England, where in a.d. 1740 he died as governor of Jersey. In aj>. 1707 a new outbreak took place, accompanied by prophetic fanaticism, in consequence of repeated dragonnades, but it was put down by the Btak?, the gallows, the axe, and the wheeL France had lost half a million of her most pious, industrious, and capable inhabitants, and yet two millions of Huguenots deprived of all their rights remained in the land.' 5. The Waldensians in Piedmont (§ 139, 25).— Although in aj). 1654 the Buke of Savoy confirmed to the "Waldensians their privileges, by Easter of the following year a bloody persecution broke out, in which a Kedmontese army, together with a horde of released prisoners and Irish refugees, driven from their native land by Cromwell's severities, to whom the duke had given shelter in the valleys, perpetrated the most horrible cruelties. Yet in the desperate conflict the Waldensians held their ground. The inter\ ention of the Protestant Swiss cantons won for them again a measure of toleration, and liberal gifts from abroad compensated them for their loss of property. Cromwell too gent to the relief of the suffferers the celebrated Lord Morland in a-d. 1658. "While in the valleys he got possession of a number of MSS. (§ 108, 11), which he took home with him and deposited in the Cam- bridge Library. In a.d. 1685 the persecution and civil war were agEun renewed at the instigation of Louis XIV. The soldiers besieged the vaUeys, and more than 14,000 captives were consigned to fortresses and prisons. But the rest of the "Waldensians plxicked up courage, inflicted many defeats upon their enemy, and so moved the government in AJ). 1686 to release the prisoners and send them out of the country. Some found their way to Gfermany, others fled to Switzerland. These last, aided by Swiss troops, and led by their own pastor, Henry Amaud, made an attack upon Piedmont in a.o, 1689, and conquered again their own country. They continued in. poeaession, notwith- standing all attempts to dislodge them. 6. The Catholics in England and Ireland. — ^When James L, aj>. 1608- 1625, the son of Mary Stuart, ascended the English throne (§ 139, 11), the Catholics expected from him nothing short of the complete restora- tion of the old religion. But great as James' inclination towards ' Bray, " Eevolt of the Protestants of the Cevennes." London, 1870. Poole, " History of the Huguenots of the I>ispersion." London, 1880k Agnew, " Protestant Exiles from France in the Beign of Louis XIV." 8 vols. London, 1871. "Weiss, "History of French Protestant Befa- gees." London, 1854 § 153. CATHOLICISM AND PEOTESTANTISM. 7 Catholicism may have been, his love of despotic authority was siill greater. He therefore rigorously suppressed the Jesuits, who disputed the royal supremacy over the church; and the hittemess of the Catholics now reached its height. They organized the so-called Gunpowder Plot, with the intention of blowing up the royal family and the whole Parliament at the first meeting of the house. At the head cf the conspiracy stood Eob. Catesby, Thomas Percy of Northumber- land, and Guy Fawkes, an English officer in the Spanish service. The plan was discovered shortly before the day appointed for its execution. On November 5th, a.d. 1605, Fawkes, with lantern and matches, was seized in the cellar. • The rest of the conspirators fled, but, after a desperate struggle, in which Catesby and Percy fell, were arrested, and, together with two Jesuit accomplices, executed as traitors. Great severities were then exercised toward the Catholics, not only in England, but also in Ireland, where the bulk of the population was attached to the Eomish faith. James I. completed the transference of ecclesiastical property to the Anglican church, and robbed the Irish nobles of almost all their estates, and gifted them over to Scottish and English favourites. All Catholics, because they refused to take the oath of supremacy, i.e. to recognise the king as head of the ohuroh, were declared ineligible for any civil office. These oppressions at last led to the fearful Irish massacre. In October, a.d. 1641, a desperate outbreak of the Catholics took place throughout the country. It aimed at the destruction of all Protestants in Ireland. The conspirators rushed from aU sides into the houses of the Protes- tants, murdered the inhabitants, and drove them naked and helpless from their homes. Many thousands died on the roadside of hunger and cold. In other places they were driven in crowds into the rivers and drowned, or into empty houses, which were burnt over them. The number of those who suffered is variously estimated from 40,000 to 400,000. Charles I., a.d. 1625-1649, was suspected as instigator of this terrible deed, and it may be regarded as his first step toward the scaffold (§ 155, 1). After the execution of Charles, Oliver Cromwell, in A,D 1649, at the call of Parliament, took fearful revenge for the Irish crime. In the two cities -.vhioh he took by storm he had all the citizens cut down without distinction. Panic-stricken, the inhabitant* of the other cities fled to the bogs. Within nine months the whole island was reconquered. Hundreds of thousands, driven from their native soil, wandered as homeless fugitives, and their lands were divided among English soldiers and settlers. During the time of the English Commonwealth, a.d. 1649-1660, all moderate men, even those who had formerly demanded religious toleration, not only for all Christian sects, but also for Jews and Mohammadans, and even atheists, were now at one in excluding Catholics from its benefit, 8 CHUECH mSTOEY OP SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. hec&JiBe tliey all sair in the CathoUcs a party ready at any momenj to prove traitors to their country at the bidding of a foreign sovereign- — The Eestoration under Charles IL could not greatly ameliorate the calamities of the Irish. Eeligions persecution indeed ceased, hnt the property taken from the Catholic chnioh and native owners still remained in the hands of the Anglican church and the Protestant occnpiersu To counterbalance the Catholic proclivities of Charles IL (§ IK, 3), the English Parliament of aj>. 1673 passed the Teat Aet, which required every oi-vil and military oSeer to take the test oaths, condemning transuhstantiation and the worship of the saints, and to receive the communion according to the Anglican rite as members of the State church. The statements of a certain Titos Dates, that the Jesuits had oi^anized a plot for murdering the king and restoring the pajjacy, led to fearful riots in aj). 1678 and many exeoationfl. But the reports were seemingly unfounded, and were probably the fruit of an intrigue to deprive the king's Catholic brother, James IL, of the right of soccessiDn. When James ascended the throne, in aj). 16K, he inrmediately entered into negotiations with Borne, and filled almost all offices with Catholics. At the invitafion of the Protestants, the king's son-in-law, "William ILL of Orange, landed in Kngland in Aj>. 1688, and on James' flight was declared king by the Parliament. The Act of Toleration, iasoed by him in aj>. 1689, still withheld from Papists the privileges now extended to Protestant dissenters {§ 155, 3).' 7. tTnion Efforts. — (1) Although Hugo Grotlos distinctly took the side of the Ejtmonstrants (§ 160, 2), his whole dispoeitiim was essen- tially irenical. He attempted, bat in vain, not only the reconfiiliatinn of the Arminians and Oalvinists, but also the union of aU Protestant sects on a common basis. Toward Catholidsm he long maintained a decidedly hostile attitude. But through intimate intercouise witJi distinguished Catholics, espetaally dnring his exile in Prance, his feelings were completely changed. He now invariably espreaaed himself more favourably in r^ard to the faith and tSie institntions of the Catholic church. Its semi-Pelagianism was acceptable to him as a decided ArminiaTi. In his " Volum pro Pace" he recommended as the only possible way to restore ecclesiastical union, a return to Catholidsm, on the nnderstEmding that a thorongh re Jor ui should be made. But that he was himself ready to pass over, and was hindered only by his sudden death in aj>. 16^, is merely cm iUuacn of > Macaulay, " History of Kjigland from the Accession of James IL" London, 1816. Hassencamp, " History of Ireland from the Bef orma- tion to the TTnion." London, 1888. Adair, "Bise and I'rogress of the Pnsbyterian Church of Ireland from 1623 to 1670." Belfast, 1866. Hamilton, "History of Prtsbyterian Church in Ireland." ^Min _ 1887 §153. CATHOLICISM AN1> PEOTESTANTISM. 9 Eomish imaguiation.' — (2) King Wladislaus IV. of Poland thought a vmiou of Protestants and Catholics in his dominions not impossible, and with this end in view arranged the Beliglons Conference of Thorn in AJ>. 1645, Prussia and Brandenburg were also invited to take part in it. The elector sent his court preacher, John Berg, and asked from the Duke of Brunswick the assistance of the Uelmstadt theologian, George Calixt. The chief representatives of the Lutheran side were Abraham Calov, of Danzig, and John Hiilsemann, of Witten- berg. That Calixt, a Lutheran, took the part of the Eeformed, intensified the bitterness of the Lutherans at the outset. The result was to increase the split on all sides. The Eeformed set forth their opinions in the "Dedaralio Thorunenaia,''^ which in Brandenburg ob- tained symbolical rank. — (3) J. B. Bossuet, who died in a.d. 1704, Bishop of Meaux, used all his eloquence to prepare a way for the return of Protestants to the church in which alone is salvation. In several treatises he gave an idealized exposition of the Catholic doctrine, glossed over what was most offensive to Protestants, and sought by ■ubtlety and sophistry to represent the Protestant system as contradic- tory and untenable.' During the same period the Spaniard Spiiiola, Bishop of Neustadt, who had come into the country as father confessor of the empress, proposed a scheme of union at the imperial court. The controverted points were to be decided at a free council, but the primacy of the pope and the hierarchical system, as founded jure humano, were to be retained. In prosecuting his scheme, with the secret support of Leopold I., Spinola, between a.d. 1676 and 1691, travelled through all Protestant Germany. He found most success, out of respect for the emperor, in Hanover, where the Abbot of Loccum, Molanus, zealously advocated the proposed union, in which on the Catholic side Bossuet, on the Protestant side the great philosopher Leibnitz, took part. But the negotiations ended in no practical result. That Leibnitz had himself been already secretly inclined to Catholicism, ■ome think to have proved by a manuscript, found after his death, entitled in another's hand, " Systema Theologicum Leibnitii," Favour- ably disposed as Leibnitz was to investigate and recognise what was profound and true even in Catholicism, so that he reached the conviction that neither of the two churches had given perfect and adequate expres- sion to Christian truth, he has apparently sought in this work to make > Butler, "Life of Hugo Grotius." London, 1826. Motley, "John of Bameveld," voL iL New York, 1874. ' " An Exposition of the Doctrine of the CathoUo Church in Matters of Controversy." London, 1685. " Variations of Protestantism." 2 vols. Dublin, 1836. Butler, "Some Account of the life and Writings of Bishop Bossuet." London, 1812. 10 CHUECH HISTORY OP SEVENTBBKTH CENTTTBT. clear to himself what aad how mtich of specifically Oatholio a. 1599. At a visitation of churches in aj). 1602, the festivals of Mary and the apostles, exorcism, the sign of the cross, the host burning candles, and Luther's catechism were rejected. Opposing pastors were deposed, and Calvinists put in their place. The city lemgo stood out longest, and persevered in its adherence to the Lutheran confession during an eleven years' struggle with its prince, from AJ). 1606 to 1617. After the death of Simon VL, his successor, Simon VLL, allowed the city the free exercise of its Lutheran religion. 3. The Elector of Brandenhnrg becomes Calvlnist, AJ). 1618. — John Sigismun d, ao). 1608-1619, had promised his grandfather, John George, to maintain his connexion with the Lutheran church. But his own incli- § 154. LUTHEBANISM AND OALVmiSM. 13 nation, which was strengthened hy his son's marriage with a princess of the Palatinate, and his connexion with the Netherlands, made hira forget his promise. Also his court preacher, the crypto-Calvinist Solomon Mnk, contributed to the same result. On Christmas Day, a.d. 1613, he went over to the Reformed church. In order to share in the Augsburg Peace, he still retained the Augsburg Confession, naturally in the form known as the Vatiala. In a.d. 1624, he issued a Calvinist confession of his own, the Con/essio Sigismutidi or Marchica, which Bought to reconcile the universality of grace with the particularity of election (§ 168, 1). His people, however, did not follow the prince, not even his consort, Anne of Prussia. The court preacher, Gredicke, who would not retract his invectives against the prince and the Eefoimed confession, was obliged to flee from Berlin, as also another preacher, Mart. Willich. But when altars, images, and baptismal fonts were thrown out of the Berlin churches, a tumult arose, in a.d. 1615, which was not suppressed without bloodshed. In the following year the elector forbade the teaching of the communicatio idiomatum and the libiquitaa corporis (§ 141, 9) at the University of Frankfort-on-the- Oder. In a.d. 1614, owing to the publication of a keen controveisial treatise of Hutter (§ 158, 5) he forbade any of his subjects going to the University of Wittenberg, and soon afterwards struck out the Formula of Concord from the collection of the symbolical books of the Lutheran church of his realm. — Continuation, § 169, 1. 4. Union Attempts. — Hoe von Hoenegg, of an old Austrian family, was from a.d. 1612 chief court preacher at Dresden, and as spiritual adviser of the elector, John George, on the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War, got Lutheran Saxony to take the side of the CathoUo emperor against the Calvinist Frederick V. of the Palatinate, elected king of Bohemia. In a.d. 1621, he had proved that " on ninety -nine points the Calvinists were in accord with the Arians and the Turks." At the Beligious Conference of Leipzig of a.d. 1631 a compromise was accepted on both sides ; but no practical result was secured. The EeUgious Conference of Cassel, in a.d. 1661, was a well meant endeavour by some Marburg Eeformed theologians and Lutherans of the school of Calixt (§ 158, 2) ; but owing to the agitation caused by the Synergist controversy, no important advance toward union could be accom- plished. The union efforts of Duke WiUiam of Brandenbui'g, a.d. 1640- 1688, were opposed by Paul Gerhardt, preacher in the chuioL of St. Nicholas in Berlin. On refusing to abstain from attacks on the Beformed doctrine he was deposed from his office. He was soon ap- pointed pastor at Liibben in Lnsatia, where he died in a.d. 1676. — The most zealous apostle of universal Protestant union, embracing even the Anglican church, was the Scottish Presbyterian John Duiie. From A.P, 1628 when he officiated as pastor of an English colony at Elbing, 14 CHimCH HISTOET OF SEVENTEENTH CENTUEY. till his death at Cassel in a.d. 1640, he devoted his energiea xm- weariedly to this one task. He repeatedly travelled through Germany, Sweden, Denmark, England, and the Netherlands, formed acquain- tance with clerical and civfl. anthoritifis, had interoonrse with them by word and letter, published a multitTide of tracts on this snlqect; but at last could only look back with bitter complaints over the lost labotiTS of a lifetime.' — Continnation, § 169, L § 155. Akglicanism and Pueitanism.' On the outbreak of t he English Revolnti on, occasioned by the despotism of the fi rst two Stnarts, c rowd s of P nritan ezilea returned from Holland and North America to their old home. They powerfolly 8trengtii'enec['€BS!F"leCTer^^patHsers in their successfdl struggle against the episcopacy of the State church (§ 131, 6) ; but, brea Mng u p into rival parties, a a Presbyterians and Independe nts (§ 143, B, 4), gave way to fanatical extravagances. The victorious party of Indepen- dents also split into two divisions : the one, after the old Dutch style, simple and strict believers in Scripture ; the other, first iu Cromwell's army, fanatical enthusiasts and visionary saints (§ 161, 1). Th e. Restoration, under the la st t wo Stug jtfj, annght tfl r ft-introduc e Catholicism. It was William of Orange, b y his Act of Tolera tion of a.d. 1689, who first brought to^ a close the Reformation straggles within the Anglican d^nich. It guaranteed, indeed, all the I " The Work of John Dnrie in behalf of Christian TJnioa in the Seventeenth Century," by Dr. Briggs in Presbyterian Beviea, vol, viii, 1887, pp. 297-300. To which is attached an account by Duria himself, never before published, of his own union effi>rtB from July, 1631, tiU September, 1633. See pp. 301-309. » Clarendon, " History of the Eebellion in England, 1649-1666." 3 vols. Oxford, 1667. Burnet, " History of his Own Time, 1660-17ia'' 2 vols. London, 1724. Guizot, " History of r.ngliab Eevolution of 1640." London, 1^6. Gardiner, "History of F.ngUTiH, 1G03-1642." 10 vols. London, iSS5. Marsden, " History of Early and Later Puri- tans, down to the Injection of the ly onconformista in 1662." 2 vols. London, 1S8. Maason, " Life of Milton." i vols. London, 18592. § 155. ANGLICANISM AND PURITANISM. 15 pre-eminent privileges of an establishment to the Anglican and Episcopal church, but also granted toleration to dis- senters, while refusing it to Catholics. 1. The First Two Stnarts.— James I., dominated by the idea of the royal supremacy, and so estranged from the Presbyterianism in which he was brought up (§ 139, 11), as king of England, a.d. 1603-162 5. attached himself to the national Episcopal church, pejgggfligjjjiie T-Tip;1''!3ti Pnritfrm so that many of them again fled to Holland (§ 143, 4), and fnrn^^l T1f;annpn.gy npfin t.Tio {;jpr*/.Vi Charlss I., A-T). 1625-1649, wonf. ^^^oy»n^^ ||ja fathgi; in fht^ry ynj practice, and thus incurred the hatred of his Protest ant snbj gcts. William Laud, from A.D. 1683 Archbishop Ot Canterbur y, was the recklessly zealous pro- moter of his flpapt||Yr if''"^ rapT-cganl.iTig- t.Vio Episcopaoy, by reason of its Divine institution and apostolic succession, as the foundation of the church and the pillar of an absolute monarchy. Laud used his position as primate to secure the introduction of his own theory into the public church services, among other things making the communion office an imitation as near as possible of the Eomish mass. But when he attempted to fnrpji -npf^ji |.>ip Snnt"^ a"*^ "P-^ni T,rn^n>.;|p « -^y the command of th e kipp:.t '^P|y fr>Trmpi^ a. Ipggn^ jj\ t-n. ], pi^8far , | ^h e defence of Presbvterianis m. the an '' ji l]'i|]| ^rpat Pv^vpT ig.nt and emphasised their demand by sending "J^ ^iflHiy ^'"^ift FtTlg|"'"'^ The ki ng, wh o had ruled for eleven ye ars without a Parliament^.w.aa.ekSiiaiLpow to call together the represen tatives of the people. Sci jiyf-iplp ti^l the Long Parliament, A.D. 1640-1653, in which the Purita n element was supre me, pacified theSeotch, t han 5l w as anew"p"ou"red on the flames by the Irish ml ^acre ot a.d . i^i /i; loa, d). xne .Lower ITouBe' In 'spite of the poraiatoTit nppnait.ir.Ti nf \]\S,'^i<^-nrt; roynlyplf/tT^-^ltial^ the bishopg from the Upper House and fprma ll v ^^abpl ishin g Episeonacv: and in A.D. 1648, summoned thp "^pat.miijatjr A aaprnjviy^ |(^,^ppnnflol the Organi- zation of the T'^c-''i'°^iifihp reh. at -^hich.. Scotch, .reg msentatives were to have a seat. After long and violent debat es with a n Ind ependent minority, till. a.d. 1648, t he A i Seui'Ul.V, Jip,B r np "■ Prp-abytj-riaTi con- stitution with a" ±-uriM,n J^ce,.ajj,d^^e-^estmiiister Confession a strictly Ca lvinistic cree d. But only in Scotland were these decis iong heartily accepted. In Kn gland, notwithstauSang" their confirmation by the Parliament, they reoeivea only partial and occasional accep- tance, owing to the preval^!^ flf IMepeiicJggt opinions among the people. — Since a.d. 1642, the tensira. Between court and Parliament had brought about the Civil "W a r between Cavaliers and Boundheads. In A.D. 1645, the royal troo ps were cut to pieces at Naseby by the parliamentary army under l''airfax and Cromwell. The king fled to 16 CHTTBCH HISTOBT OF SEVENTEENTH CBNTUBT. the Scotch, hy -whom he was enrrendered to the English Parliament in A.n. 1647. But when now the fanatical Bidependenta, who formed a majority in the army, b^an to terrorise the Parliament, it opened negotiations for peace with the Iring. He was now ready to make almost any sacrifice, only on religions and consdentionB grotmda he oonld not agree to the nnconditional abandonment of Episcopacy. Even the S sptch, whose Presbyteri anJOTn. wM now thr eatened^ by the Independents, aabetore it Ta3^|^^n^^gJibfeiBpi,yT^SiSS^""j^j ^°^ the restoration ot lojalty^J^S^io .^Min this sent an army into 'Rnglatirl in A.D. 1648. "Uujthey were defeated by Cromwell, who thea dismissed the Parliament anTSaitTdl-ite-PreBbyterian members either imprisoned or driven intoretireiriJHlt: The Independent remnant, known as the Snmp Parliament, aj>. 1648-1653, tried the king for high treason and sentenced hiTn to death. On January 30th, aj). 1649, he mounted the scaffold, on which Archbishop Laud had preceded him in AJ>. 1645, and fell under the executioner's a:se.' 2. The Commonwealth and the Protector. — Ireland had never yet atoned for its crime of aj>. 1641 (§ 153, 6), and as it tefoaed to acknowledge the Commonwealth, Cromwell took terrible revenge in AJ>. 1649. In Aj>. 1650 at Dunbar, and in aj>. 1^1 at Worcester, he completely destroyed the army of the Scots, who had crowned Charles XL, son of the executed king, drove out, in Axiril aj). 1^8, the Sump of the Iiong Parliament, which had come to r^ard itself as a permanent institution, and in July opened, with a powerful speech, two hours in length, on God's ways and judgments, the Short or Barebones' Parlia- ment, composed of " pious and God-fearing men " selected by himself. In this new Parliament which, with prayer and psafan-singing, wrought hard at the re-organization of the executive, the bendi, and the church, the two parties of Independents were represented, the fanatical enthusiasts indeed predominating, and so victorious in all matters of debate. To this party Cromwell himself belonged. His attachment to it, however, was considerably cooled in consequence of tiie excesses of the Levellers (§ 161, 2), and the fantastic policy of the parliamentarian Saints disgusted him more and more. When there- fore, on December 12th, aj). 1653, after five months' fruitless opposition to the radical demands of the extravagant majority, all the most moderate members of the Parliament had resigned their seats and returned their mandates into Cromwell's hands, he burst in upon • Mitchell, "The Westminster Assembly." London, 1882. Mitchell and Struthers, "Minutes of Westminster Assembly." Edinburgh, 1874. Macpherson. " Handbook to Westminster Confession." 2nd edi Edinburgh, 1882. Hetherington, " History of Westminster Assembly .*• 4th ed. Edinburgh, 1878, § 155. ANGLICANISM AND PUBITANISM. 17 the psalm-singing remnant with his soldiers, and entered npon his life-long office of the Protector of the Commonwealth with a new con- stitution. He proclaimed toleration of all religious sects, Catholics only being excepted on political grounds (§ 153, 6), giving equal rights to Presbyterians, and offering no hindrance to the revival of Episrxjpacy. He yet remained firmly attached to his early convictions. He Delieved in a kingdom of the saints embracing the whole earth, and looked on England as destined for the protection and spread of Protestantism. Zurich greeted him as the great Protestant champion, and he showed himself in this rSle in the vallesrs of Piedmont (§ 153, 5), in Prance, in Poland, and in Silesia. He joined with all Protestant govermnents into a league, offensive and defensive, against fanatical attempts of Papists to recover their lost ground. When Spain and France sued for his alliance, he made it a condition with the former that, besides allowing free trade with the West Indies, it should abolish the Inquisition ; and of France he required an assurance that the rights of Huguenofa should be respected. And when in Germany a new election ot emperor was to take place, he urged the great electors that they should by no means aUow the imperial throne to continue with the Catholic house of Austria. Meanwhile his path at home was a thorny one. He was obliged to suppress fifteen open rebellions during five vears of his reign, countless secret plots threatened his life every day, and his bitterest foes were his former comrades in the camp of the the seiints. After refusing the crown offered him in a.d. 1657, without being able thereby to quell the discontents of parties, he died on September 8rd, a.d. 1658, the anniversary of his glorious victories of Dunbar and Worcester.' 8. The Bestoration and the Act of Toleration. — The Bestoration of royalty under Charles IX., a.d. 166(>-1685, began with the reinstating of the Episcopal church in all the privileges granted to it under Elizabeth. The Corporation Act of December, a.d. 1661, was the first of a series of enactments for this purpose. It required of all magis- trates and civil officers that they should take an oath acknowledging the royal supremacy and communicate in the Episcopal church. The Act of Uniformity of May, a.d. 1662, was stiU more oppressive. It prohibited any clergyman entering the English pulpit or discharging any ministerial function, unless he had been ordained by a bishop, had signed the Thirty-nine Articles, and undertook to conduct worship ■ Carlyle, "Cromwell's Letters and Speeches." 2 vols. London, 1845. Guizot, "Life of Cromwell." London, 1877. Paxtun Hood, " Oliver Cromwell." London, 1882. Picton, " Oliver Cromwell." London, 1878. Harrison, " Oliver Cromwell." London, 1888. Barclay, " The Inner Me of the Beligious Societies of the Commonwealth," London, 187? VOL. ni. a 18 CHUBCH HiSTOET OF SEVENTEENTH CENTTTBT. exactly in accordance with the newly revised Book of Common Prayer More than 2.000 Puritan ministers, who oonld not conscientiously sub- mit to those terms, were driven out of their churches. Then in June, AJ>. 1664, the Conventicle Act was renewed, enforcing attendance at the Episcopal church, and threatening with imprisonment or esdle all found in any private religious meeting of more than five persons. In the follawing year the Five Mile Act inflicted heavy fines on all nonconformist ministers who should approach within five miles cf their former congregation or indeed of any city. All these laws, although primarily directed against all Protestant dissenters, told equally against the CathoUca, whom the king's Catholic sympathies would wilimgly have spared. When now his league with Catholic France against the Protestant Netherlands made it necessary for >iiTn to appease his Protestant subjects, he hoped to accomplish this and save the Catholics by his " Declaration of Indulgence " of aj). 1672, issued with the consent of Parliament, which suspended all penal laTTs hitherto in force against dissenters. But the Protestant non- conf ormists saw through this scheme, and the Parliament of a.d. 1673 passed the anti-Catholic Test Act (§ 153, 6). Equally vain were all later attempts to secure greater liberties and privileges to the C^tho- hca. They only served to develop the powers of Parliament and to bring the Episcopalians and nonconformists more closely together. After spending his whole life oscillating between frivolous unbelief and Catholic superstition, Charles IL, on his death-bed, formally went ov^ to the Eomish church, and had the commnnion and extreme unction adnunistered by a Catholic priest. His brother and successor James II., AJ). 16S-1688, who was from a.d. 1672 an avowed CathoUc, sent a decla- ration of obedience to Home, received a papal nuncio in London, and in the exercise of despotic power issued, in aj). 1687, a "Declaration of Freedom of Consdence," which, under the fair colour of universal toleration and by the setting aside of the test oath, enabled him to fin aU civil and mflitaiy offices with Catholics. This act proved equally oppressive to the Episcopalians and to Protestant dissenters. This intrigue cost him his throne. He had, as he biTngplf ga^H , Bt^y^ *^^-^"f'^""'^""'^ ™^^^^l'^taUthetEie e. ViUiam III, of Orange^ AJ3. 1689-1702, grandson of OiarlesX and son-in-law of James TT., gave a final decision to the rights of the national Episcopal church and the position of dissenters in the Act cf Toleration of aj). 1689 which he passed with consent of the Parliament. AU penal laws against the latter were abrogated, and religions liberty was extended to aU with the exception of CathoUcs and Socinians. The retention of the Corporation and T^t Acts, however, stiU excluded them from the exercise of all political rights. They were also stiU obliged to pay tithes and other church dues to the Episcopal clergy of theii §156. PAPACY, MONKEBT, AND FOREIGN MISSIONS. 19 dioceses, tmd their marriages and baptisms had to be administered in the parish churches. Their ministers were also obliged to subscribe the Thirty-nine Articles, with reservation of those points opposed to their principles. The Act of TJnion of a.d. 1707, passed under Queen Anne, a daughter of James II., which united England and Scotland into the one kingdom of Great Britain, gave legitimate sanction to a separate ecclesiastical establishment for each country. In Scotland the Presbyterian ohurcliea-eQaiiimed the established church, while the Episcopal was tolerated as a dissentmfr body. Con g reRi '|j|';nai1VTOiii]i'"'°^' ever, has been prn.n|-.i>.fl.1Jj^Jj^^.pd,to Ihgl and and North America.'— Continuation, § 202, 6. - '■ .-■a'"-.-.~«™»«»«.,»«„.«„_«,««.. XI. — The Boman Catholic Clmrcli. § 156. The Papacy, Monkery, and roREiGN Missions. Notwithstanding the regeneration of papal Catholicism since the middle of the sixteenth century, Hildebrand's poU- tico-theocratic ideal was not realized. Even Catholic princes would not be dictated to on political matters by the vicar of Christ. The most powerful of them, Trance, Austria, and Spain, during the sixteenth century, and subsequently also Portugal, had succeeded in the claim to the right of excluding objectionable candidates in papal elections. Ban and inter- dict had lost their power. The popes, however, still clung to the idea after they had been obliged to surrender the reality, and issued from time to time powerless protesta- tions against disagreeable facts of history. Several new monkish orders were instituted during this century, mostly for teaching the young and tending the sick, but some also expressly for the promoting of theological science. Of all the orders, new and old, the Jesuits were by far the most powerful. They were regarded with jealousy and suspicion by the other orders. In respect of doctrine the Dominicans ' Guizot, " Eichard Cromwell and the Eestoration of Charles 11." 2 vols. London, 1856. Macpherson, " History of Great Britain from the Restoration." London, 1875. 20 CHUECH HISTOET OF SEVENTEENTH CENTUET. were as far removed from them as possible ■witMn the limits of the Tridentine Creed. But notwithstanding any such mutnal jealonsies, they were all animated by one yearning desire to oppose, restrict, and, where that was possible, to uproot Protestantism. With similar zeal they devoted them- selves with wonderful success to the work of foreign missions. 1. The Papacy. — Panl V., a.d. 1605-1621, eqtially energetic in Ids civil and in his ecclesiastical policy, in a struggle with Venice, vaa obliged to behold the powerlessness of the papal interdict. His suc- cessor, Gregory IV., a.d. 1621-1623, founded the Propaganda, prescribed a secret scrutiny in papal elections, and canonized Loyola, Xavier, and Neri. He enriched the Vatican Library by the addition of the valu- able treasures of the Heidelberg Library, which Maximilian L of Bavaria sent him on his conquest of the Palatinate. ITrban Vlil., i,D. 1 623-1644, increased the Propaganda., improved the Eoman " Breviary " (§ 56, 2), condemned Jansen's Auguitinua (§ 156, 5), and compelled Galileo to recant. But on the other hand, through his onesided ecclesiastical policy he was led into sacrificing the interests of the imperial house of Austria. Kot only did he fail to give support to the emperor, but quite openly hailed Gustavus Adolphus, the saviour of German Protestantism, as the Gfod-sent saviour from the Spanish- Ansfcrian tyranny. For this he was pronounced a heretic at the imperial court, and threatened with a second edition of the sack of Eome (§ 132, 2). At the same time his soul was so filled with fanati- cal hatred against Protestantism, that in a letter of 1631 he congratu- lated the Emperor Ferdin a nd IL on the destruction of Magdeburg as an act most pleasing to heaven and reflecting the highest credit upon Germany, and expressed the hope that the glory of so great a victory shoTild not be restricted to the ruins of a single city. On receiving the news of the death of Gustavus Adolphus in 1632 he broke out into loud jubilation, saying that now "the serpent was slain which with its poison had sought to destroy the whole world," His successor. Innocent X, a.d. 1644-1655, though vigorously protesting against the Peace of "Westphalia (§ 158, 2), was, owing to his abject suhservienoy to a woman, his own sister-in-law, reproached with the title of a new Johanna PapUsa. Alexander VH., aj). 1655-1667, had the expensive guardianship of his godoMld C!hristina of Sweden (§ 153, 1), and fanned into a flame the spark kindled by his predecessor in the Jansenist con- troversy (§156, 5), so that his successor, Clement IX, aj). 1667-1670, could only gradually extinguish it. Clement X., a.d. 1670-1676, by his preference for Spain roused the French Ving Louis XTV., who avenged himself by various encroachments on the ecclesiastical ad- § 156. PAPACY, MONKERY, AND FOBEIGN MISSIONS. 21 ministration in his dominions. Innocent XI., a.d. 1676-1689, was a powerful pope, zealously promoting the weal of the church and the Papal States by introducing discipline among the clergy and attack- ing the immorality that prevailed among all classes of society. He unhesitatingly condemned sixty-five propositions from the lax Jesuit code of morals. Against the arrogant ambassador of Louis XIV. he energetically maintained his sovereign rights in his own domains, while he unreservedly refused the claims of the French clergy, urged by the king on the ground of the exceptional constitution of the GSaUican church. Alexander VIII., a.d. 1689-1691, continued the fight against GraUioanism, and condemned the Jesuit distinction between theological and philosophical sin (§ 149, 10). Innocent XII., a.d. 1691- 1700, could boast of having secured the complete subjugation of the QaUican clergy after a hard struggle. He too wrought earnestly for the reform of abuses in the curia. Specially creditable to him "is the stringent buU " Somanum decet pontificem " against nepotism, which extirpated the evil disease, so tliat it was never again openly practised as an acknowledged right. — Continuation, § 165, 1. 2. The Jesuits and the Eepublic of Venice. — Venice was one of the first of the Italian cities to receive the Jesuits with open arms, A.D. 1530. But the influence obtained by them over public affairs through school and confessional, and their vast wealth accumulated from bequests and donations, led the government, in a.d. 1605, to forbid their receiving legacies or erecting new cloisters. In vain did Paul V. remonstrate. He then put Venice under an interdict. The Jesuits sought to excite the people against the government, and for this were banished in a.d. 1606. The pious and learned historian of the Council of Trent and adviser of the State, Paul Sarpi, proved a vigorous sup- porter of civil rights against the assumptions of the curia and the Jesuits. When in a.d. 1607 he refused a citation of Inquisition, he was dangerously wounded by three dagger stabs, inflicted by hired bandits, in whose stilettos he recognised the atilum curies. He died in A.D. 1623. After a ten months' vain endeavour to enforce the inter- dict, the pope at last, through French mediation, concluded a peace with the republic, without, however, being able to obtain either the abolition of the objectionable ecclesiastico-poUtioal laws or permission for the return of the Jesuits. Only after the repubUo had been weak- ened through the unfortunate Turkish war of a.d. 1645 was it found willing to submit.' Even in a.d. 1653 it refused the ofifer of 150,000 ducats from the Jesuit general for the Turkish campaign ; but when Alexander VH. suppressed several rich cloisters, their revenues were thanifuUy accepted for this purpose. In a.d. 1657, on the pope's promise of further pecuniary aid, the decree of banishment was with- drawn. The Jesuit fathers now returned in crowds, and soon regained 22 CHUBCH HI8T0EY OF SBYBKTBBKTH CBKTUEY. mnch of their former inflnenoe and -wealth. No pope has ever since issued an intOidict against any cotintry.' 3. The Gallican Liberties.— Although Louis XTV. of France, aj). 164S- 1715, as a good Catholie king, powerfully supported the claims of papal dogmatics against the Jansenists (§§ 156, 5 ; 164, 7), he waa by no means unfaithful to the traditional ecclesiastical polity of his house (§§ 96, 21 ; 110, 1, 9, 13, 14), and was often irritated to thi utmost pitch by the pope's opposition to his political interests. He rigorously insisted upon the old customary right of the Crown to the income of certain vacant ecclesiastical offices, the jui regaUte, and extended it to aJl bishoprics, burdened church revenues with military pensions, confiscated ecclesiastical property, etc. Innocent XL ener- getically protested against such exactions. The king then had an assembly of the French oaUed together in Paris on March ISth, a.». 1682, which issued the famous Foot Propositions of the GaUican Clergy, drawn np by Bishop Eossuet of Means. These set forth the funda- mental lights of the French chxirch : (1) In secnlar affiiirs the pope has no jurisdiction over princes and kings, and cannot release their subjects from thar aUegiam^ ; (2) The spiritual power of the pope is sulgeet to the higher authority of the general coxmcils ; (8) For France it is further limited by the old French ecclesiastical laira ; and, (4)Even in matters of faith the judgment of the pope without the approval of a general assembly of the church is not unalterable. Innocent conse- quently refused to institute any of the newly appointed bishops. He was not even appeased by the lievocation of the Edict of Nantes in AJ). 1685. He was pleased indeed, and praised the deed, and celebrated it by a Te Deum, but objected to the violent measures for the conver- sion of Protestants as contrary to the teaching of Christ. Then also there arose a keen struggle against the mischievous extension of the right of asylum on the part of foreign emba^ies at £ome. On the pope's representation all the powers but France agreed to a restriction of the custom. The pope tolerated the nuisance till the death of the French ambassador in a.d. 1687, but then insisted on its abolition under pain of the ban. In consequenxse of this Louis sent his new ambassador into Bome with two companies of cavaliirs, threw the papal nuntio in France into prison, and laid siege to the papal state of Avignon (§ 110, 4). But Innocent was not thus to be terrorized, and the French ambassador was obliged, after eighteen months* vain de- monstrations, to quit Eome. Alexander VHL repeated the condenma- tion of the Four Propositions, and Innocent XTTT. also stood firm. The French episcopate, on the pope's persistent refusal to install bishopa • Bargraves, " Alexander VIL and His Oardinals." Ed. by Bobert< eon. London, 1866. § 156. PAPACY, MONKEBY, AND FOaJilGN MISSIONS. 23 lominatad by the king, was at last constrained to submit. "Lying tt tbe feet of his holiness," the bishops declared that everything con- iluded in that assembly was null and void ; and even Louis XIV., under the influence of Madame de Maintenon (§ 157, 3), wrote to the pope in A.D. 1693, saying that he recalled the order that the Four Propositions should be taught in all the schools. There still , however, survived among the French clergy a firm conviction of the GaUican Liberties, and the droit de regale continued to have the force of law.' — Continuation, § 197, 1. 4. Galileo and the Inqaiaition. — Galileo Gtalilei, professor of mathe- matics at Pisa and Padua, who died in a.d. 1642, among his many distinguished services to the physical, mathematical, and astronomical sciences, has the honour of being the pioneer champion of the Copernican system. On this account he was charged by the monks with contra- dicting Scripture. In a.d. 1616 Paul V., through Cardinal BeUarmine, threatened him with the Inquisition and prison unless he agreed to cease from vindicating and lecturing upon his heretical doctrine. He gave the required promise. But in a.d. 1632 he published a dialogue, in which three friends discussed the Ptolemaic and Copernican systems, without any formal conclusion, but giving overwhelming reasons in favour of the latter. Urban VIII., in a.d. 1636, called upon the In- quisition to institute a process against him. He was forced to recant, was condemned to prison for an indefinite period, but was soon liberated through powerful influence. How far the old man of seventy-two years of age was compelled by torture to retract is still a matter of controversy. It is, however, quite evident that it was forced from him by threats. But that Galileo went out after his recantation, gnashing his teeth and stamping his feet, muttering, " Nevertheless it moves ! " is a legend of a romancing age. This, however, is the fact, that the Congregation of the Index declared the Copernican theory to be false, irrational, and directly contrary to Scripture ; and that even in a.d. 1660 Alexander VH., with apostoUo authority, formally couflrmed this decree and pronounced it ex cathedrA (§ 149, 4) irrevocable. It was only in a.d. 1822 that the cuna set it aside, and in a new edition of the Index (§ 149, 14) in a.d. 1835 omitted the works of Galileo as well as those of Copernicus.' 6. The Controversy on the Immaculate Conception (§ 112, 4) received ' Cunningham, "Discussions on Church Principles." Edin., 1863. Chap. V. : " The Liberties of the GaUican Church," pp. 133-163. " Von Gebler, " Galileo Galilei and the Eoman Curia," transl. by Sturge, London, 1879. Madden, "Galileo and the Inquisition." London, 1863. Brewster, "Martyrs of Science." Edin., 1841. Von (}ebler denies that any oondemnation ex cathedra waa given. 24 CHUECH HISTOBY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTXJEX. anBwimpukefromthenTUiMary of Jesns, died 1665, of Agreda, in 013 Castile, superior of the doister there of the Immaculate Conception, ■writer of the " Mystical City of God." This book professed to give an inspired accorait of the life of the Yiiffn, full of the strangest ahenr- dities about the immaculate conception- The Sorbonne pronounced it ofifensive and silly; the Inquisition in Spain, Portugal, and Borne forbad the reading of it ; but the Franciscans defended it as a divine revelation. A -violent controversy ensued, which A lex a nd c T ' Vli. silenced in aj>. 1661 by expressing approval of the doctrine of the immaculate conception set forth in the book. — Continuation, § 185, 2. 6. The Devotion of the Sacred Heart of Jesus. — The nun Margaret Alacoqne, in the Boxgundian cloister of Paray le Monial, bom aj). 1647, recorering from a painful illness when but three years old, vowed to the mother of God, who frequently appeared to her, perpetual chastity, and in gratitude for her recovery adopted the name of Mary, and when grown up resisted temptations by inflicfcrng on herself the severest discipline, such as long fasts, sharp flageUatians, lying on thorns, etc Visions of the Virgin no longer satisBed her. She longed to lavish her affections on the Eedeemer himself, which she expressed in the most extravagant terms. She took the Jesuit La Colombiire as her spiritual adviser in aj>. 1675. In a new vision she beheld the side of her Beloved opened, and saw his heart glowing Uke a sun, into which her own was absorbed. Down to her death in aj>. 1690 she felt the most violent burning pains in her side. In a second vision she saw her Beloved's heart burning like a furnace, into which were taken her own heart and that of her spiritual-adviser. In a third vision he enjoined the observance of a special "Devotion of the Sacred Heart" by all Christendom on the Friday after the octave of the Corput Ckritti festival and on the first Friday of every month. La'ColombiSre, being made director, put forth every effort to get this celebration introduced throughout the church, and on his death the idea was taken up by the whole Jesuit order. Their effiirts, however, for fully a century proved unavailing. At this point, too, their most bitter opponents were the Dominicans. But even without papal authority the Jesuits so iai succeeded in Introducing the absurdities of this cult, and giving expression to it in word and by images, that by the begin- ning of the eighteenth century there were more than SOO male and female societies engaged in this devotion, and at laei^ in Ajy. llSo, Clement XTTT., the great friend of the Jesuits, gave formal gaTi>rriiin to this special celebration. — Continuation, § 188, 12. 7. 'Sev Coagie^tioDs and Orders. — (1) At the head of the new oideta of this century stands the Benedictine Congregatian of St. Banne at Verdun, founded by Didier de la Cour. Elected Abbot of St. Banne in Aj>. 1^96, he gave his whole strength to the reforming of this § 156. PAPACY, MONKERY, AND FOREIGN MISSIONS. 25 cloister, which had fallen into luxurious atai immoral habits. By a papal hull of a.d. 1604 all cloisters combining with St. Banne into a oongi-egation were endowed with rich privileges. Gradually all the Benedictine monasteries of Lorraine and Alsace joined the union, Didier's reforms were mostly in the direction of moral discipliue and asceticism ; but in the new congregation scholarship was ropresented by Cahnet, Ceillier, etc., and many gave themselves to work as teachers in the schools. — (2) Much more important for the promotion of theological science, especially for patristics and church history, was another Benedictine congregation founded in France in a.d. 1618 by Laurence Bernard, tliat of St. Maur, named after a disciple of St. Benedict. The members of this older devoted themselves exclusively to science and literary pursuits. To them belonged the distinguished names, Mabillon, Montfaucon, Eeinart, MartSne, D'Achery, Le Nourry, Durand, Surius, etc. They showed unwearied diligence in research and a noble liberality of judgment. The editions of the most cele- brated Fathers issued by them are the best of the kind, and this may also be said of the great historical collections which we owe to their diligence. — (3) The Fathers of the Oratory of Jesns are an imitation of the Priests of the Oratory founded by Philip Neri (§ 149, 7). Peter of BaryUa, son of a member of parliament, founded it in a.d. 1611 by b uildin g an oratory at Paris. He was more of a mystic than of a scholar, but his order sejit out many distinguished and briUiant theologians ; e.g, Malebranche, Moriuus, Thomassinus, Eioh. Simon, Houbigant. — (4) The Piarists, Pairea scholarum ^jiarajn, were founded in Eome in a.d. 1607 by the Spaniard Joseph Calasanza. The order adopted as a fourth vow the obligation of gratuitous tuition. They were hated by the Obscurantist Jesuits for their successful labours for the improvement of Catholic education, especially in Poland and Austria, and also because they objected to all participation in political schemes. — (5) The Order of the Visitation of Mary, or Salesian Nuns, in- stituted in A.D. 1610 by the mystic Francis de Sales and Prancisca Chantal (§ 157, 1). They visited the poor and sick in imitation of Elizabeth's visit to the Virgin (Luke i. 89) ; but the papal rescript of A.D. 1618 gave prominence to the education of children. 8. —(6) The Priests of the Missions and Sisters of Charity were both fouijied by Vincent de Paul. Bom of poor parents, he was, after completing his education, captured by pirates, and as a slave con- verted his renegade master to Christianity. As domestic chaplain to the noble family of Gondy he was characterized in a remarkable degree for unassuming humility, and he wrought earnestly and successfully as a home missionary. In a.d. 1618 he founded the order of Sisters of Mercy, who became devotea nurses of the sick throughout all Prance, and in a.d. 1627 that of the Priests of the Missions, or Lazarists, who 26 CHUECH HI8T0BT OP SBVBNTBBNTH CENTUET. travelled the ootintry attending to the spiritual and hodily wants of men. After the death of the Conntess Gondy in aj>. 1625, he placed at the head of the Sisters of Mercy the widow Ionise le Gras, di»- trnguished eqnally for quaUties of head and heart. Vincent died in AJ). 1660, and was subsequently canonized.' — (7) Tie Trappists, founded by De Banc6, a distinguished canon, who in aj). 1664 passed from the extreme of worldliness to the extreme of fanatical asceti- cism- The order got its name from the Cistercian abbey la Trappe in Normandy, of which Eanc6 was commendatory abbot. Amid many difficulties he succeeded, in aj). 1665, in thoroughly reform- ing the wild monks, who were called "the bandits of La Trappe.' His rule enjoined on the monks perpetual silence, only broken in public prayer and singing and in uttering the greeting as they met, Menueido mori. Their bed was a hard board with some straw ; their only food was bread and water, roots, herbs, some fruit and vegetables, without butter, fat, or oil. Study was forbidden, and they occupied themselves with hard field labour. Their clothing was a dart-brown cloak worn on the naked body, with wooden shoes. Very few cloisters besides La Trappe submitted to such severities {§ iSS, 2). — (8) The Kiglish Hmu, founded at St. Omer, in France, by Mary VT'ard, the daughter of an English Catholic nobleman, for the education of girls. Originally composed of EngUsh maidens, it was afterwards enlai^ed by receiving those of other nationalities, with establishments in Germany, Italy, and the Xetherlands. It did not obtain papal con- firmation, and in aj>. 1^0 Urban VUL, giving heed to the calumnies of enemies, formally dissolved it on account of arrogance, insubordina- tion, and heresy. All its institutions a-nrl schools were then dcsed, while Mary herself was imprisoned and given over to the Inquisition in Borne. Urban was soon convinced of her innocence and set her free. Her scattered nuns were now collected again, but succeeded onlyinAj>. 17C8 in obtaining confirmation from Clement XL Their chief tasks were the education of youth and care of the sick. They were arranged in three classes, according to their rank in life, and were bound by their vows for a year or at the most three years, after which they might return to the world and marry. Their chief centre was Bavaria with the mother cloister in Munich. — Continuafion, § 1£&, 2. 9. The Propaganda. — Gregory XV. gave unity and strength to the efforts for conversion of heretics and heathens by instituting, in a.d, 1662, the Cottgregatio de Propaganda Fide. Urban VUL in aj). 1627 attached to it a missionary training school, recruited as fax as possible from natives of the respective countri^ like Loyola's CdUegiwm G^rmameam founded in aj). 1552 (§ 151, 1), He was thus able every » Wilson, " life of Vincent de PauL" London, 1874. § 166. PAPAOT, MONKEET, AND FOEEIGN MISSIONS. 27 Epiphany to astonish Romans and foreigners hy what seemed a repeti- tion of the Pentecostal miracle of tongues. At this institute training in all languages was given, and breviaries, mass and devotional hooks, and handbooks were printed for the use of the missions. It was also the centre from which all missionary enterprises originated. — Con- tinuation, § 204, 2. 10. Foreig^u Missions. — Even during this century the Jesuits excelled all others m missionary zeal. In a.d. 1608 they sent out from Madidd mission colonies among the wandering Indians of South America, and no Spaniard could settle there without their permission. The most thoroughly organized of these was that of Paraguay, in which, accord- ing to their own reports, over 100,000 converted savages lived happily and contented under the mild, patriarchal rule of the Jesuits for 140 years, a.d. 1610-1750; but according to another well informed, though perhaps not altogether impartial, account, that of Ibagnez, a member of the mission, expelled for advising submission to the decree depriving it of political independence, the paternal government was flavoured by a liberal dose of slave-driver despotism. It was at least an undoubted fact, notwithstanding the boasted patriarchal idyllic character of the Jesuit state, that the order amassed great wealth from the proceeds of the industry of their proUg^. — Continuation, § 165, 3. 11. In the East Indies (§ 150, 1) the Jesuits had uninterrupted success. In a.d. 1606, in order to make way among the Brahmans, the Jesuit Bob. Nobili assumed their dress, avoided aU contact with even the converts of low caste, giving them the communion elements not directly, but by an instrument, or laying them down for them outside the door, and as a Christian Brahman made a considerable impressioii upon the most exclusive classes. — In Japan the mission prospects were dark (§ 150, 2). Mendicants and Jesuits opposed and mutually ex- communicated one another. The Catholic Spaniards and Portuguese were at feud among themselves, and only agreed in intriguing agains* Dutch and English Protestants. When the land was opened to foreign trade, it became the gathering point of the moral scum of all European countries, and the traffic in Japanese slaves, especially by the Portuguese, brought discredit on the Christian cause. The idea gained ground that the efforts at Christianization were but a prelude to conquest by the Spaniards and Portuguese. In the new organization of the country by the ahiogun Ijejasu all governors were to vow hostility to ChristiaAs and foreigners. In a.d. 1606 he forbad the observance of the Christian religion anywhere in the land. When the conspiracy of a Christian daimio was discovered, he caused, in a.d. 1614, whole shiploads of Jesuits, mendicants, and native priests to be sent out of the country. But as many of the banished returned, death was threater ;d against all who might be found, and in a.d. 1624 all foreigners, wth the ex- 28 CHUECH HISTOBT OF SEVENTEENTH CENTTTET. cej tion of Chinese and Dutch, were rigorously driven out And now a bloody persecatdon of native Christians began. Many thousands fled to China and the neighbouring islands ; crowds of those re maining were buried alive or burnt on piles made up of the wood of Christian crosses. The victims displayed a martyr spirit like those of the early days. Those who escaped organized in aj). 1637 an armed resistance, and held the fortres of An'Tna. in face of the ahiogutCs army sent against them. After a three months' siege the fortress was conquered by the help of Dutch cannon ; 37,000 were massacred in the fort, and the rest were hurled down from high rocks. The most severe enact- ments were passed against Christians, and the edicts filled with fearful curses against " the wicked sect " and " the vile God " of the Christians werepostedonaU the bridges, street comers, and squares. Christianity now seemed to be completely stamped out The recollection of this work, however, was still retained down to the nineteenth century. For when French missionaries went in a.d. 1860 to Nagasaki, they found to their surprise in the villages around thousands (?) who greeted them joyfully as the successors of the first Christian missionaries. 12. In CMna, after Eicci's death (§ 150, 1), the success of the mission continued uninterrupted. In a.d. 1628 a German Jesuit, Adam Schell, went out from Cologne, who gained great fame at court for his mathematical sTrill. Louis XIV. founded at Paris a missionary college, which sent out Jesuits thoroughly trained in mathematics. But Dominicans and Franciscans over and over again complained to Eome of the Jesuits. They never allowed missionaries of other orders to come near their own establishments, and actually drove fi^fm away from places where they had begun to work. They even opposed prists, bishops, and vicais-apcstoUe sent by the Propaganda, declared their papal briefs forgeries, forbad their congregations to have any inter- cooise with those " heretics," and under suspicion of Jansenism brought them before the Inquisition of Goa. Clement X. isued a firm-toned bull against such proceedings ; but the Jesuits gave no heed to it, and attended only to their own general. The papal condemnation a cen- tury later of the Jesuits' accommodation scheme, and their permission of heathen rites and beliefs to the new converts, complained against by the Dominicans, was equally fruitless. Jn aj). 1645 Innocent X. forbad this practice on pain of excommxmication ; but still they con- tinued it tUl the decree was modified by Alexander Til. in aj>. 1656. After persistent complaints by the Dominicans, Innocent XTT . ap- pointed a new congregation in Eome to investigate the question, but their deliberations yielded no result for ten years. At last Clement XL confirmed the first decree of Innocent X., condemned anew the so called Chinese rites, and sent the legate Thomas of Toumon in aj>. 1708 to enforce his decision. Toumon, received at first by the emperor § 156. PAPACY, MONKEBY, AKL FOEEIGN MISSIONS. 29 at Pekin with great consideration, fell into disfavour throTigli Jesuit intrigues, was banished from tlie capital, and returned to Nankin. But as he continued his efforts from this point, and an attempt to poison him failed in a.d. 1707, he went to Macao, where he was put in prison hy the Portuguese, in which he died in a.d. 1710. Clement XI., in A.D. 1715, issued his decree against the Chinese rites in a yet severer form; hut the Franciscan who proclaimed the papal bull was put in prison as an offender against the laws of the country, and, after being maltreated for seventeen months, was banished. So proudly confident had the Jesuits become, that in a.d. 1720 they treated with scorn and contempt the papal legate Mezzabarba, Patri- arch of Alexandria, who tried by certain concessions to move them to submit. A more severe decree of Clement XII. of a.d. 1735 was scoffed at by being proclaimed only in the Latin original. Benedict XIV. succeeded for the first time, in a.d. 1742, in breaking down their oppo- sition, after the charges had been renewed by the Capuchin Norbert. All the Jesuit missionaries were now obliged by oath to exclude all pagan customs and rites ; but with this all the glory and wonderful success of their Asiatic missions came to an end. — Continuation, § 165, 8. 18. Trade and Industry of the Jesuits. — As Christian missions gene- rally deserve credit, not only for introducing civilization and culture along with the preaching of the gospel into far distant heathen lands, but also for having greatly promoted the knowledge of countries, peoples, and languages among their fellow countrymen at home, open- ing up new fields for colonization and trade, these ends were also served by the world-wide missionary entei-prises of the Jesuits, and were in perfect accordance with the character and intention of this order, which aimed at universal dominion. In carrying out these schemes the Jesuits abandoned the ascetical principles of their founder and their vow of poverty, amassing enormous wealth by securing in many parts a practical monopoly of trade. Their fifth general, Aquaviva (§ 149, 8), secured from Gregory XHI., avowedly in favour of the mission, exclusive right to trade with both Indies. They soon erected great factories in all parts of the world, and had ships laden with valuable merchandise on all seas. They had mines, farms, sugar plantations, apothecary shops, bakeries, etc., founded banks, sold relics, miracle-working amulets, rosaries, healing Ignatius- aud Xavier-water (§ 149, 11), etc., and in successful legacy-hunting excelled all other orders. Urban VIII. and Clement XI. issued severe buUa against such abuses, but only succeeded in restricting them to some extent. — Continuation, § 165, 9. 14. An Apostate to Judaism. — Gabriel, or as he was called after circum- cision, Uriel Acosta, was sprang from a noble Portuguese family, origi- 30 CHUBCH HISTOBT OF SEVENTEENTH CENTTJBT. nally Jewish. Doubting Christianity in consequence of the trafSc in indulgences, he at last repudiated the Xew Testament in favour of the Old. JSe rrfnaed rich ecclesiastical appointments, fled to AmBterdam, and theie formally went over to Judaism. Instead of the Hblical Mosaism, however, he was disappointed to find only Pharisaic pride and Talmudifi traditionalism, against which he wrote a treatise m Aj). 1623. The Jews now denounced Th'tti to the civil authorities as a denier of God and bnmortality. The whole issue of his hook was burat. Twice the synagogue thundered, its ban against him. The first was withdrawn on his recantation, and the second, seven years after, upon his submitting to a severe flagellation. In spite of all he held to hia Sadducean standpoint to his end in aj). 1647, when he died by his own h!>.T. 1602 Bishop of Gteneva, Le. in partSms, with Annec^ as his residonee, had shown himself a. good Catholic by his aeal in rooting cut Protestantism in Chablais, on the s-oath of the Genevan lake. In AJ>. 1604 meeting the young Ti-idowed. Baroness de Chantal, along with whom at a later period he founded the Order of the Visitation of Mary {§ 156, 7), he proved a good physician to her amid hex sorrow, doubts, § 157. QtflETISM AND JANSENISM. 31 and temptations. He sought to qualify himself for this task by read- ing the writings of St. Theresc. Teacher and scholar so profited by their mystical studies, that in a.d. 1665 Alexander VII. deemed the one worthy of canonization and the other of beatification. In a.d, 1877 Pius IX. raised Francis to the dignity of doctor ecdesiae. His " Intro- duction to the Devout Life " affords a guide to laymen to the life of the soul, amid all the disturbances of the world resting in cahn con- templation and imselfish love of God. In the Catholic Church, next to A Kempis' " Imitation of Christ," it is the most appreciated and most widely used book of devotion. In his " Theotime " he leads the reader deeper into the yearnings of the soul after fellowship with God, and describes the perfect peace which the soul reaches in God.' 2. Michael Molinos.— After Francis de Sales a great multitude of male and female apostles of the new mystical gospel sprang up, and were favourably received by aU the more moderate church leaders. The reactionaries, headed by the Jesuits, sought therefore all the more eagerly to deal severely with the Spaniard Michael MoUnos. Having settled in Home in a.d. 1669, he soon became the most popular of father confessors. His " Spiritual Guide " in a.d. 1675 received the approval of the Holy Office, and was introduced into Protestant Germany through a Latin translation by Prancke in a.d. 1687, and a German translation in a.d. 1699 by Arnold. In it he taught those who came to the confessional that the way to the perfection of the Christian life, which consists in peaceful rest in the most intimate communion with God, is to be found in spiritual conference, secret prayer, active and passive contempla- tion, in rigorous destruction of all self-will, and in disinterested love of God, fortified, wherever tuot is possible, by daily communion. The success of the book was astonishing. It promptly influenced all ranks and classes, both men and women, lay and clerical, not only in Italy, but also by means of translations in France and Spain. But soon a reaction set in. As early as a.d. 1681 the famous Jesuit Segneri issued a treatise, in which he charged Molinos' contemplative mysticism with onesidedness and exaggeration. He was answered by the pious and learned Oratorian Petmccl. A commission, appointed by the Inquisi- tion to examine the writings of both parties, pronounced the views of MoHnos and Petruc«i to be in accordance with church doctrine and Segneri's objections to be unfoundi^d. All that Jesuitism reckoned as foundation, means, and end of piety was characterized as purely elementary. No hope could be entertained of winning over Innocent XL, the bitter enemy of the Jesuits. But Louis XIV. of France ■ at the instigation of his Jesuit father confessor, Lachaise, expressed > Marsolier, "Life ol Francis de Sales" translated by Coombea. London, 1812. 32 CHUBCH HISTOEY OF SBYENTBENTH OENTUBT. throngli bis ambassador bis snTprise tbat bis holiness should, not only tolerate, but even encourage and support so dangerous a heretic, who taught all Christendom to undervalue the pubUo services of the Church. In a.d. 1685 Innocent referred the matter to the tribxmal of the Inquisition. Throughout the two years during which tha investigation proceeded all arts were used to secure condemnation, JExtreme statements of fanatical adherents of Molinos were not rarely met with, depreciating the public ordinances and ceremonies, confession, hearing of mass, church prayers, rosaries, etc The pope, facile with age, amid groans and lamentations, allowed things to take their course, and at last conSrmed the decree of the Inquisition of August 28ij), A.D. 1687, by which Molinos was found guilty of spreading; godlea* doctrine, and sixty-eight propositions, partly from his own writings, I)artly from the utterances of bis adherents, were condemned as heretical and blasphemxms. The heretic was to abjure his heresies publicly, clad in penitential garments, and was then consigned to lifelong solitary confinement in a Dominican cloister, where he died in xj>. 1697.' 8. Madame Gnyon and Fenelon.— After her husband's death, Madame Gnyon, in company with her father confessor, the Bamabite Lacombe, who had been initiated during a long residence at Some into the mjrsteries of Molinist mysticism, spent five years travelling through Prance, Switzerland, Savoy, and Piedmont. Though already much sus- pected, she won the hearts of many men and women among the clergy and laity, and enkindled in them by personal conference, correspond- ence, and her literary work, the ardour of mystical love. Her brilliant writings are indeed disfigured by traces of foolish exaggeration, fana- ticism and spiritual pride. She calls herself the woman of ^Revelation xii 1, and the mere de la grace of her adhearents. The following are the main distinguishing characteristics of her mysticism: The necessity of turning away from everything creaturely, rejecting all earthly pleasure and destroying every selfish interest, as well as of turning to Gtod in passive contemplation, silent devotion, naked faith, which dispensed with all intellectual evidence, and pure disinterested love, which loves God for Himself alone, not for the eternal salvation obtained through Him. On her return to Paris with Lacombe in A,D. 1686 the proper martyrdom of her hfe b^an. Her chief per- •ecutor was her step-brother, the Parisian superior of the Bamabites, La Mothe, who spread the most scandalous reports about his half-sister and Lacombe, and had them both imprisoned by a royal decree in AJ>. 1688. Lacombe never regained his libeily. Taken from one prison to another, he lost his reason, and died in an asylum in a.h. > " Golden Thoughts from the ' Spiritual Guide ' of Molinos." With preface by J. H. Shorthouse. London, 1883. § 157. QUIETISM AND JANSENISM. 33 1699. Madame Quyon, however, by the influence of Madame de Main- tenon, was released after ten months' confinement. The favour of this royal dame was not of long continuance. Warned on all sides of the dangerous heretic, she broke oflf all intercourse with her in a.d. 1693, and persuaded the king to appoint a new commission, in a.d. 1694, with Bishop Bossnet of Meaux at its head, to examine her suspected writings. This commission meeting at Issy, had already, in February, a.d. 1695, drawn up thirty test articles, when Ffinalon, tutor of the king's grandson, and now nominated to the archbishopric of Cambray, was ordered by the king to take part in the proceedings. He signed the articles, though he objected to much in them, and had four articles of his own added. Madame Guyon also did so, and Bossuet at last testified for her that he had found her moral character stainless and her doctrine free from MoUnist heresy. But the bigot Maintenon was not satisfied with this. Bossuet demanded the surrender of this certificate that he might draw up another ; and when Madame Guyon refused, on the basis of a statement by the crazed Lacombe, she was sent to the Bastile in A.D. 1696. In a.d. 1697 Ftoelon had written in her defence his " Ex^icatien dea Maximes dea Saintea sur la Vie Intirieur" showing that the condemned doctrines of passive contemplation, secret prayer, naked faith, and disinterested love, had all been previously taught by St. Theresa, John of the Cross, Francis de Sales, and other saints. He sent this treatise for an opinion to Eome. A violent controversy then arose between Bossuet and F6nelon. The pious, well-meaning pope. Innocent XII., endeavoured vainly to bring about a good understanding. Bossuet and the all-powerful Maintenon wished no reconciliation, but condemnation, and gave the king and pope no rest till very reluctantly he prohibited the objectionable book by a brief in a.d. 1899, and condemned twenty-three propositioiis from it as hereticaL FSnelon, strongly attached to the church, and a bitter persecutor of Protestants, made an unconditional surrender, aa guilty of a defective exposition of the truth. But Madame Guyon continued in the Bastile tiU a.d. 1701, when she retired to Blois, where she died in a.d. 1717. Bossuet had died in a.d. 1704, and F6nelon in a.d. 1715. She published only two of her writings : " An Exposition of the Song," and the " Moyen Court et tris Facile defaire Oraison." Many others, including her trans- lation and expositions of the Bible, were during her lifetime edited in twenty volumes by her friend, the Eef ormed preacher of the Palatinate, Peter Poiret." > Upham, " Life, BeUgious Opinions, and Experience of Madame da I3, Mothe Guyon, with an account of F6nelon." London, 1854. Brooke, « Exemplary Life of the Pious Lady Guion." Bristol, 1806. Butler, « Life of F6nelon." London, 1810. 34 CHUECH HISTOET OF SEVENTEENTH CENTTIBl 4. MysHcism Tinged with Theosopliy and Pantheism. — Antoinetts Bonrignon, the danghter of a rich merchant of lille, in Prance, while matron of a hospital in her native city, had in aj>. 1662 gathered around her a party of believers in her theosophio and fantastic reve- lations. Sihe was ohUged to flee to the Netherlands, and there, by the force of her eloquence in speech and Ti-riting, spread her views among the Protestants. Among them she attracted the great scien- tist Swammerdam. Bnt when she introduced politics, she escaped imprisonment only by flight. Down to her death in aj>. 1680 she earnestly and successfully prosecuted her mission in north-west Ger- many. Peter Poiret collected her writings and published them in twenty-one volumes at Amsterdam, in a-d. 1679. — Quite of another sort was the pantheistic mysticism of Angelus Silesius. Originally a Protestant physician at Breslau, he went over to the !Bomish church in A.D. 1653, and in consequence received from Vienna the honorarj- title of physician to the emperor. He was made priest in aj). 1661, and till his death in aj). 1677 maintained a keen polemic against the Protestant church with aU a pervert's zeaL Most of his hymns be- long to his Protestant period. As a Catholic he trrote his " Cherubi- nUeher WaTidersmann," a collection of rhymes in which, with childish fuiivete and hearty, gT3shing ardour, he merges self into the abyss of the universal Deity, and develojs a system of the most pronounced pantheism. 5. Jacsenism in its first Stage. — ^Bishop Cornelius Jansen, of Tpres, who died in a.d. 1638, gave the fruits of his lifelong studies of Augus'ine in his learned work, " Augustiitus s. doctr. Aug. de humav.a Natures Sanitate, ^rUudine, et Medicina adv. Pdagianos el Masgiliense«~ which was published after his death in three volumes, Louvain, 1640. The Jesuits induced Urban YUE., in a.d. 1642, to prohibit it in his bull In eminenti. Augustine's numerous followers in Prance felt themseh ( s hit by this decree. Jansen's pupU at Port Eoyal from aj). 16S.5, Duvergier de Hauraime, usually called St. Cyran, from the Benedictine monastery of which he was abbot, was the bitter foe of the Jesuits and Bichelieu, who had him cast into prison in aj>. 1638, from which he ■was liberated after the death of the cardinal in aj). 1643, and shortly before his own. Another distingnishea memVr of the party was Antoine Amauld, doctor of the Sorbonue, who died in aj). 1694, the youngest of twenty children of a parliamentary advocate, whose powerful defence of the tlniversity of Paris against the Jesuits called forth their hatred and lifelong persecution. His mantle, as a vigorous polemistj had fallen upon his youngest son. Very important too was the influence of his much older sister, Angelica Amauld, Abbess ot the Cistercian cloister of Port Eoyal des Champs, six m^^pa from Pari% which under her became the centre of religious life and effort for all § 167. QUIETISM AND JAKSBNI8M. 35 Fraace. Around her gathered some of the noblest, most pious, and talented men of the time : the poet Eacine, the mathematician and apologist Pascal, the Bible translator De Saoy, the church historian TiUemont, all ardent admirers of Augustine and determined oppo- nents of the lax morality of the Jesuits. Arnauld's book, " De la friquente Communion," was approved by the Sorbonne, the Parliament, and the most distinguished of the French clergy ; but in a.d. 1653 Inno- cent X. condemned five Jansenist propositions in it as heretical. The Augustiniani now maintained that these doctrines were not taught in the sense attributed to them by the pope. Amauld distinguished the question du fait from the question du droit, maintaining that the latter only were subject to the judgment of the Holy See. The Sorbonne, now greatly changed in composition and character, expelled him on account of this position from its corporation in a.d. 165S. About this time, at Arnauld's instigation, Pascal, the profound and brilliant author of " Pensies sur la Religion," began, under the name of Louis de Montalte to publish his famous " Provincial Letters," which in an admirable style expossd and lashed with deep earnestness and biting wit the base moral principles of Jesuit casuistry. The truly annihi- lating efEect of these letters upon the reputation of the powerful order could not be checked by their being burnt by order of Parliament by the hangman at Aix in a.d. 1657, and at Paris in a.d. 1660. But meanwhile the specifically Jansenist movement entered upon a new phase of its development. Alexander YII. had issued in a.d. 1656 a bull which denounced the application of the distinction dufait and du droit to the papal decrees as derogatory to the holy see, and afiirmed that Jansen taught the five propositions in the sense they had been condemned. In order to enforce the sentecce, Annal, the Jesuit father confessor of Louis XXV., obtained in 1661 a royal decree requiring all French clergy, monks, nuns, and teachers to sign a formula uncondi- tionally accepting this bull. Those who refused were banished, and fled mostly to the Netherlands. The sorely oppressed nuns of Port Royal at last reluctantly agreed to sign it ; but they were still per- secuted, and in a.d. 1684 the new archbishop, Perefixe, inaugurated a more severe persecution, placed this cloister under the interdict, and removed some of the nuns to other convents. In a.d. 1669, Alexander's successor, Clement EX., secured the submission of Arnauld, De Sacy, Nicole, and many of the nuns by a policy of mild connivance. But the hatred of the Jesuits was still directed against their cloister. In a.d. 1705 Clement XI. again demanded full and unconditioned acceptance of the decree of Alexander VII., and when the nuns refused, the pope, in a.d. 1703, declared this convent an irredeemable nest of heresy, and ordered its suppression, which was carried out in a.d. 1709. In a.d. 1710 cloister and church were levelled to the 36 CHUBCH HISTOBY OP SBVBNTBBNTH CENTTJBY. ground, and the very corpses taken out of their graves.!— Continuft- tion, § 165, 7. § 158. Science and Aet dt the Catholic Chdbch. Catholic theology flonrislied during tie seventeenth cen- tury as it had never done siace the twelfth and thirteenth. IfepeciaUy in the liberal (jaUican church there was a vigorous scientific Ufe. The Parisian Sorhonne and the orders of the Jesuits, St. Maur, and the Oratorians, excelled in theological, particularly in patristic and historical, learning, and the contemporary brilliancy of Reformed theology in France afforded a powerfal stimulus. But the best days of art, especially Italian paintiug, were now past. Sacred music was diligently cultivated, though in a secularized style, and many gifted hymn- writers made their appearance in Spain and Germany. 1. Theological Science (§ 149, 14).— The parliamentary advocate, Mich, le Jay, published at his own expense the Parisian Polyglott in ten folio vols^ aj>. 1629-1645, which, besides complete Syriac and Arabic translations, included also the Samaritan. The chief contributor waa the Oratorian Moriaus, -R-ho edited the T.x x. and the Samaritan texts, which he regarded as incomparably superior to the Masoretictext cor- rupted by the Jews, The Jansenists produced a French translation of the Bible with practical notes, condemned by the pope, but much read by the people. It was mainly the work of the brothers De Sacy. The New Tffitament was issued in aj). 1667 and the Old Testament somewhat later, called the Bible of MJons from the fictitions name of the place of publication. Sichard Simon, the Oratorian, who died in aj). 1712, treated Scripture with a boldness of eritieism never before heard of within the church. While opposed by Tnany on the Catholic side, the curia feivoured his work as undermining the Protestant doctrine of Scripture, ComeUos a Lapide, who died aj). 1637, expounded Scripture according to the fourfold sense.— In systematic theology the old scholastic method still held sway. Moral theology was wrought out in the form 1 Beard, "Port Koyal." 2 vols. London, 1861. St. Amour, ' Journal in France and Borne, containing Account of Five Points of Controversy between Jansenists and Molinists," London, 1664. Schimmelpenninck, " Select Memoira of Port Eoyal." Fourth editJDD. 2 vols. London, 1835. § 158. SCIENCE AND ABT IN THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. 37 of casuistry mth Tmexampled lasomousness, especially by the Jeauita (§ 149, 10). The work of the Spaniard Escobar, who died in a.d. 1669, ran through fifty editions, and that of Busembanm, professor in Cologne and afterwards rector of Munster, who died a.d. 1668, went through seventy editions. On account of the attempted assassination of Louis XV. by Damiens in a.d. 1757, with which the Jesuits and their doctrine of tyrannicide were charged, the Parliament of Toulouse in a.d. 1757, and of Paris in a.d. 1761, had Buserabaum's book publicly burnt, and several popes, Alexander Til., VIII., and Innocent XI., condemned a number of propositions from the moral writings of these and other Jesuits. Among polemical writers the most distinguished were Beoanus, who died in a.d. 1624, and Bossuet (§ 163, 7). Among the Jansenists the most prominent controversialists were Nicole and Amanld, who, in order to escape the reproach of Calvinism, sought to prove the Catholic doctrine of the supper to be the same as that of the apostles, and were answered by the Eeformed theologians Claude and Jurieu. In apologetics the leading place is occupied by Pascal with his brilliant "Pensies." Huetiua, a French bishop and editor of Origen, who died in a.d. 1721, replied to Spinoza's attacks on the Pentateuch, and applying to reason itself the Cartesian principle, that philosophy must begin with doubt, pointed the doubter to the supernatural revealed truths in the Catholio church as the only anchor of salvation. The learned Jesuit Dionysins Petavius, who died in a.d. 1652, edited Epiphanius and wrote gigantic chronological works and numerous violent polemics against Calvinists and Jansenists. TTia chief work is the unfinished patristic-dogmatic treatise in five vols, folio, a.d. 1680, " De theologicis Dogmatibus." The Oratorian Thomassinus wrote an able archaeological work : " Veiua et Nova JEcd. DiscipUna circa JBeneficia et Beneficiarios." 2. In church history, besides those named in § 5, 2, we may mention Pagi, the keen critic and corrector of Baronins. The study of sources was vigorously pursued. We have collections of mediaeval writings and documents by Sirmond, D'Achery, Mabillon, Martfine, Baluzius; of acts of councils by Iiabb6 and Cossart, those of France by Jac. Sirmond, and of Spain by Aguirre ; acts of the martyrs by Ruinart ; monastic rules by Holstenins, a pervert, who became Vatican librarian, and died at Borne a,d. 1661. Bafresne Bncange, an advocate, who died in A.D. 1688, wrote glossaries of the mediaeval and barbarous Latin and Greek, indispensable for the study of documents belonging to those times. The greatest prodigy of learning was Mabillon, who died in A.D. 1707, a Benediptine of St. Maur, and historian of his order. Pet. de Maroa, who died Archbishop of Paris a.d. 1662, wrote the famous work on the Gallioan liberties "i?e Concordia Sacerdotii et Imperii." Tha Jansenist doctor of the Sorbonne, Eliaa da Pin, who died a.d. 1719, wrota 38 CHUBCH HISTOBX OP SEVENTEENTH CENTTJBX. "NouvdU Btbliotheque des Auteurs JEcdet.'" in forty-seven vols. The Jesuit Maimboitrg, died a.d. 1686, compiled several party histories of Widifism, Lutheianisin, and Calvinism ; bnt as a Gallican was deprived of office hy the pope, and afterwaj^ supported by a royal pension. The Antwerp Jesoils Bolland, Henschen, Papebroch started, in aj). 1643, the gigantic work "-Acta Sanctorum," carried on by the learned members of their order in Belgium, known as Bollandists. It was stopped by the French invasion of aj). 1794, when it had reached October 15th with the fifty-third folio voL The Belgian Jesuits continued the work from AJ). 1845-1867, reaching in six vols, the end of October, but not displaying the ability and liberality of their predecessors. In Venice Paul Sarpi (§ 155, 2) wrote a history of the Tridentine Council, one of the most brilliant historical works of any period. leo Allatius, a Greek convert at Home, who died in aj). 1669, wrote a work to show the agreement of the Eastern and Western churches. Cardinal Bona distinguished himself as a liturgical writer. — ^In France pulpit elo- quence reached the highest pitch in such men as Flechier, Bossuet, Bourdaloue, Ffenelon, Massillon, and Bridaine. In Vienna Abraham > St. Clara inveighed in a humorous, grotesque way against the corruption of manners, with an undercurrent of deep moral earnestness. Similar in style and spirit, but much more deeply sunk in Catholic super- stition, was his contemporary the Capuchin Martin of Cochcm, who misaionarized the Ehine Provinces and western Germany for forty years, and issned a large number of popular religious tracts. — Con- tinuation, § 165, 14. 3. Art and Poetry (§ 149, 15).— The greatest master of the musical school founded by Palestrina was Allegri, whose Miserere is performed yearly on the "Wednesday afternoon of Passion Week in the Sistine Chapel in Borne. The oratorio originated from the application of the lofty music of this school to dramatic scenes drawn from the Bible, for purely musical and not theatrical performance. Phflip Neri patronized this music freely in his oratory, from which it took the name. This new church music became gradually more and more secularized and approximated to the ordinary opera style.— In ecclesiastical arcMtecture the Eenaissanee style stfll prevailed, but debased with senseless, taste- less ornamentation.- In the Italian school of painting the decline, both in creative power and imitative sHE. was very marked from the end of the sixteenth century. In Spain during the seventeenth century religious painting reached a high point of excellence in Murillo of Seville, who died in a.d. 1682, a master in representing cahn meditation and entranced felicity.-The two greatest posts of Spain, the creator of the Spanish drama. Lope de Vega (died a.d. 1635) and Pedro Calderon ,'died AJ). 1681), both at first soldiers and afterwards priests, flouriabed during this century. The elder exceUed the younger, not only in § 169. OBTHODOXY AND ITS BATTLES. 39 fruitfulness and versatility (1,500 comedies, 820 autos, § 115, 12, etc.), but also in poetic genius and patriotism, Calderon, with his 122 dramas, 73 festival plays, 200 preludes, etc., excelled De Vega in artistic expression and beauty of imagery. Both aUke glorify the Inquisition, but occasionally subordinate Mary and the saints to the gi-eat redemption of the cross. — Specially deserving of notice is the noble German Jesuit Priedr. von Spee, died a.d. 1635. His spirit aal songs show deep love to the Saviour and a profound feeling for nature, approaching in some respects the style of the evangelical hymn-writers. Spee was a keen but imsuocessful opponent of witch prosecution. Another eminent poetic genius of the age was the Jesuit Jac. Balde of Munich, who died in a.d. 1688. He is at lus best in lyrical poetry. A deep religious vein runs through all his Latin odes, in which he enthusiastically appeals to the Virgin to raise him above all earthly passions. To Herder belongs the merit of rescuing him from oblivion. IIL — ^Ihe Lutheran Church. § 159. Oethodoxt and its Battles.* The formula of Concord commended itself to the hearts and intelligences of Lutherans, and secured a hundred years' supremacy of orthodoxy, notwithstanding two Christological controversies. Gradually, however, a new dogmatic scho- lasticism arose, which had the defects as well as the excellences of the mediaeval system. The orthodoxy of this school deteriorated, on the one hand, into violent polemic on confessional differences, and, on the other, into undue depreciation of outward forms in favour of a spiritual life and personal piety. These tendencies are represented by the Synoretist and Pietist controversies. 1. Christological Controversies. — (1) The Cryptist and KenotiBt Contro- versy between the Giessen and Tubingen theologians, in a.d. 1619, about Christ's state of humiliation, led to the publication of many violent treatises down to a.d. 1626. The Kenotists of Giessen, with Mentzer and Feuerbom at their head, assigned the humiliation only to the human nature, and explained it as an actual Kepuait, i.e. a completa but voluntary resigning of the omnipresence and omnipotence im. ' Somer, " History of Protestant Theology," vol. ii., pp. 98-261. 40 CHUKCH HISTOET OF SBTENTEBNTH CENTUBX. manent in His diTOiity (cr^tJ, but not xpn