iyjMj'i?':t.'^i which reference was made in § 43, and in regard to which doubts were there expressed as to the capability of the snake to use this double gather- ing in conUnuous locomotion. By " superimposilion of twists" we would desig- nate the result of both the pairs of diagonal forces being in action simultaneously. The lateral shapes of both curves will then be suppressed, although the corresponding forces will still lie latent in the spine. On the other hand, the shapes in the per- pendicular plane will remain, since they do not act against each other. When these curvatures in the perpendicular plane are fully gathered, the junction of the two C of each S, where the convexes formed by the two diagonal sets of forces cut each other, will be depressed, as will likewise the anterior and posterior seats of the " points of application," where the courses of these points cut each other. Between these the inter- mediate portion of each C will rise and there 68 ■will be formed for each S two birches in the perpen- .dicular plane, one for each 0. The upjper lines of the arch repesents the apposed convexities which have met in their passage oyer (§ 60). The lower lines the corresponding concaves. § 72. We mil now follow put the details of /orcing, or attempting to repeat, the yarious move- ments of the head-ball and socket — assuming the usual order of the actions, and that the gathering from the diagonal left anterior and right posterior winding lines has been carried to the point of dis- charge, which implies that it can be carried no further. We shall also speak of only a single S. As regards the ball and the socket themselves, the attempt at forcing the left anterior point of' ap- plication to repeat its course along the circumfer- ence of the left side of the socket will cause the pressure of the ball to slip over to the right side of the socket, by the rear — and when the right pos- terior winding line is subsequently forced, an .at- tempt at a repetition of the effects of that line at its head-end will take place in the movement of the right side of the socket, producing an analgous xesult, viz. : the withdrawal of the socket on the left side by the rear, the counterpart of its previous ac- tion on the right side. Thus a cross-strain from 69 ihe cross-tractions of the body will be preserved, but the lateral developments wiU be suppressed, their effects being carried toward the front (or in the snake, lower part) of the joint. Similar effects of passing over a portion of the gathering to the alternate points would result yrom the attempt to force the socket motions brought on by the working of the diagonal right posterior point of application. And also even beginning with the points which correspond to the final movement of the primary sections of the winding lines, although "these last would require a subsequent adjustment with the secondary sections, from having been car- ried out in advance of the regular course of move- ment. It is the rotary movements (a) and (b), § 37, i. e., those which accompany the formation of the secondary sections of the winding lines, that produce the arches. The movements across the joint from rear to front, (a 'J (6 ' ), i. e., those which accompany the primary sections in their special movement, that depress the planes of the cross-lines and points of application. § 73. Let us now look at the accompanying formations along the lines of traction. In doing this, we must bear in mind that the lines of trac- tion are not permanent lines, but exist by certain 4 70 points of the skeleton being in such positions that the muscular actions play on them in certain ways. Thus, if the point where the anterior end of the cross-line for the right anterior winding line shoidd be brought to a certain position in relation to the right anterior point of application, the preliminary form of the primary section of that line wiU be formed, and so on. The_^rs^ effect of forcing the, left anterior point of apphcation will be the passing over of a portion of the gathering from the secondary section of the left anterior winding Hne to what will be the course of the right anterior line. This transfer will begin, first, by the formation of a certaia amount of convexity to the right, at the posterior end of the rear C, i. e., allowing of the passage vnthout a spring of a certain amount of the left side gathering. Second. The forcing of the movement (a ' ) will, at the same time, bring back the anterior cross-Hne end of the left anterior winding line to the centre and advanced to the front, and also cause the ad- justment of the point, on the left side of the spine, which should serve as anterior cross-line end for the right anterior point of application, so that it shall come into a similar position. 71 Third. The farcing of the movement [h'). Here it will be remembered that the cross-line end being held in check (§ 32), the reaction to the right pos- terior point of application was at the head. The movement forward, across the joint of the socket will, therefore, first be equalized for both sides, and, then, the primary section drawing, the pos- terior end of the cross-line will be brought into place to the front, and the point which should serve as posterior cross-line end ia the left pos- terior winding line be likewise similarly adjusted. The requisite displacement for both now occurs to the frcmi. Fourth. The forcing of (b), i. e., of the outicard rotation of the right side of the socket, completes the adjustment of the cross-line ends, forms the left convex of the anterior C equal with that of the right side, and finally equalizes the reciprocal press- ure of head-ball on both sides of the head-joiat. Bemarks. — Referring to what was said in regard to the lines of traction depending for existence upon the relative situation of points in the skel- eton, it is evident that when the superimpositicm of twists (§ 71) is completed, the diagonal lines may disappear, and ike tractions'become collateral. The 72 diagonal relations, howeTer, wotdd be restored by very slight movements of the points. § 74. We have considered the right posterior point of application as actively working in the above movements of excessive action, but, since there is no spring, the induced action of this point by the continued working of its diagonal anterior point (the left) must be the actual course of the movement, and tve may regard the head hall action in the left side of the socket as the only active one throughout. The secondary forcing point being active only in a suiHcient degree to gather up in counter-action the line developed by the leading one. In fact, tlie difference between halting, hy equalizing the four winding lines, as above, and locomotion, is that, in the first, the subsequent lines are formed hy induction from the leading one, its action being the moving principle throughout ; and as the effects are distributed through the frame, the first movement is continually repeated, while in the second the lines form independently and separately. Of course the snake may halt by merely ceasing the action with which it is moving, say just as it has come to the ground with the anterior point gathering, and when its shape would be that of the 73 simple S S curves. We have selected the third result, not that it is the animal's usual way of halting, but, that it is the one important for our purpose. § 75. To retake diagonal gathering from the shape of " superimposition of twists," or, as it might be termed, " double diagonal gathering," it will not be necessary to repeat the diagonal workings of counter-action, for, since both gatherings are now present, the yielding of their lines of traction by one pair of forces to the other, or the overcomii^ of one pair of forces by the other, wiU restore the one-pair gathering on the slightest movement of the head. §76. The " Third Eesult" vnU form the basis of tJie system of Setting-up. § 77. It should seem that the perfect locomotive actions of all animals are directed by the eyes. Whether the eyes lead these actions, or only form a pivot for them, the steady point of every movement centres on the eye-pupiL It is necessary, therefore, that these poles of all the described curves should be freed from the necesaty of ac- companying any particular part in its movements. Such freedom is obtained partiy by the appropria- tion of two or three vertebrae to form a neck, and partly by an independent discharge of the real or 74 relative turning movements of the eyeballs. The dis- charge is secured by a pecuUar arrangement which gives a steady appui to the ball, during the instant in which the small muscles that move it, discharge the twists received by them ia accommodating themselves to the lines of traction of the body. The muscle on the inner side of each eye is made much longer than the others, and instead of simply j&xing itself on the inner surface of the front of the eye- ball socket, is there passed through a ligamentous loop, in which it slips freely, and then bending at a right angle, proceeds to the rear, to be fixed at the back part of the socket. The counter-turns received by this, the " internal obUque muscle," are discharged by its slipping in the loop, while yet the eyeball is kept steadUy in place by it. This musde m&y, ivhen twisted, be regarded as an S, or as a rib, of which the eyeball is the foot end* § 78. There is one more point in the anatomy of the snake which it is requisite to notice in connec- tion with our subject, namely, the Lungs. Although these organs be more imperfectly con- stituted in the snake than in the higher animals, they yet fulfil the function of expanding the chest * See § 133 for detail. The rolati vc action of the muscle remaining the same in the higher animals as in the snaive. 75 so as to form an elastic cushion, compressible in any direction, but always ready to fill out again. On this cushion the front ribs rest themselves, and mot only are the movements thus made more smoothly, but actndl aid is given to the ensuing gathering by the expansion of the air compressed in the lungs during the spring. We shall have occasion to go thoroughly into the discussion of that action of the anterior and pos- terior parts of the lungs, which in the higher ani- mals belongs to the anterior and posterior portions of the central S curve of the body, and shall post- pone further consideration of the subject to that time. We may, however, observe that the form which would give the greatest capacity to that part of the body in which the lungs are situated, is that of the fuU gathered superimposition of ttoists (§ 71). In this the ribs are raised toward the head by their ground ends as much as possible, while the point where the two turns meet is also raised outward by the depression of their spinal ends. 76 PART III. APPLICATION TO THE HIGHER ANIMALS. § 79. Regarding, then, the snake's contortions: as exemplifying the fundamental mechanics on which the locomotions of quadrupeds and man are based, we observe in these higher animals — 1st. — That the spiae is not so pUable as in the snake ; but that it is still a most elastic rod, made up of httle blocks of bone, every two of which, in- stead of having, as in the snake, a ball and socket joint at their surfaces of co-adaptation, are, as it were, threaded together throughout the two sur- faces by an infinite number of short, strong elastic filaments, which, rising from the whole surface of one block, run into the whole corresponding sur- face of the other, and form a solid elastic mas» between them. 2d. — That from a number of the vertebrae the ribs have been removed. In fact, two such vacant spaces exist, one at each end of the spine, and be- tween them is the space to which ribs remain at- tached. 3d. — That, on this space, the motion and the- elasticity of the anterior ribs is very much re- duced, in comparision with the posterior ones, and 77 that, if the analogies are to be carried out, this re- duction must be supplemented by the movement of other parts not present in the snake. § 80. The front space, bare of ribs — ^the neck — carries the head, and the head, as comparative anatomy has shown, is made up of consohdated vertebrae. Like the vertebrae of the back, the head carries ribs, viz., the fore-limbs (or arms), anal- ogues of which have been traced, directly con- nected with it and tJie lower jaw. It is easy, therefore, to conceive that the head may gather to itself, by means of its spiaal attach- ments, of the connections of the lower jaw, and of those of the fore-hmbs, all the threads of force col- lected by the trunk and limbs, and that, thus hold- ing the moulds of aU motions, it may direct their subsequent developments. Thus the articulation of the head is the working medium between the braia and the body, when it gathers the ribs and hmbs of appui on one bear- ing, with the eye diagonal to the rear appui, as the pivot, and when, completing this gathering, with the same eye as a point of direction, it double twists them on the other bearing, and holds the nascent curves of replacement ready to discharge their predecessors. 4* 78 During these moYements, not only do the fore- limbs, after moving with the body, finally settle into position with entire reference to the head, but the lower jaw, experiencing similar effects from the moYements of the body, as conveyed to it through the lungs, finally clinches the whole by its reaction on the head. From this condition of " gathering," in which the elements of motion have, so to speak, their orthographic projection on the base of the skull, the head, by the slightest positive or relative change ia its bearings on the spine, may initiate, and by again changing these bearings, may com- plete any movement. It is in this sense that we may consider the head to be the governor of all perfect motion. In de- formed movement there is a failure of straight connection with the head at certain points, and this default of such connection must be made up for by extra and eccentric movements, which de- stroy the steadiness of the body. § 81. The hinder space, bare of ribs (the loins) carries, at its extreme end, a hoUow but solid framework of bones called the pelvis. This con- sists of the two hip-bones, immovably joined to- gether in front by the meeting of two bones called 79 the jmbis-boTws, and as immovably connected be- Mnd by another bone called the sacrum.* These bones, though seemingly one mass with the pelvis in the full-grown animal, are originally distinct. The sacrum is evidently an analogue of the spinal vertebrae, and we shall, further on, attempt to show that the puMs-bones represent a continua- tion of the breast-bone, the hip-bones standing for the ribs. The sacrum is a direct continuation of the spine, 3Xid this, in quadrupeds, is again continued by the tail. The pelvis is not connected with the spine by a free joint as is the head, but by the same sort of juncture that exists between the several vertebrae of which the spine is made up. The whole pelvis, thus moving in one piece, an- swers, in locomotion, the purpose of an exa^e- rated vertebrae belonging to the trunk of the body as a whole, and furnishing an extended sweep for the thigh-bone sockets which it carries. The trunk of the hody may thus he considered as a COMPOSITE SPINE, o/" which the legs and, for a certain share in their motion, thefor&Hmbs are the ribs. * The pubis-bones are. nt tlieir rear ends, keyed to the hip-bones by other two bones (one on each side), called the ischium-bones, which in man form the seat bones. § 82. The ribs of the higher animals are, like like those of the snake, attached to the spine by ball and socket joints. The relative positions of the ball and socket, however, are reversed, the rib now carrying the ball; and two vertebrae, at the sides of their junctions, carrying the socket. Also, the further extremities of the ribs, which in the snake would have been their "ground-ends," are elastically joined on either side to a soKd piece of bone called the breast-bone, or " sternum." This bone, which represents all the ligamentous scutae of the snake (§§ 44, 66) consolidated, may be considered as a substitute ground on which the ribs perform their movements, as those of the snake do on the real grotind. At each spring the breast-bone is taken up and carried to the position required for the next effort. Almost the whole length of this artificial ground is occupied, on both its sides, by the attachment of only part of the ribs, namely, of the first divis- ion from the head, called the " trv£ ribs." These are separately articulated to it — each rib by the end of its elastic prolongation. Of the remaining division, called the "false ribs," each rib has a longer and still more elastic prolongation than a true rib ; but these prolonga- 81 tions, before reaching the breast-bone, become Tinited on each side into a siagle one-, and the two residting continuations are attached to the hinder — in man the lower — end of the breast-bone. The true ribs diminish in length and capability of independent movement as they approach the neck, so that the upper ones have very httle be- yond a hinge-like movement at the spine, as^ their front ends are raised when the breast-bone is drawn up by muscles from above, in connection wifli the outer turning of the false ribs below. In man there are seven true and five false ribs j ia the horse, eight true and ten false ; in the Hon. and cat, nine true and four false ; in the giraffe^ eight true and six false ; variations which, no doubt, favour certain peculiarities in the motion of each animal. In this way the breast-bone answers, at its sides, to only a part of the length along which the rib sockets extend, being, in fact, only under those of the true ribs. At its rear, however, the breast-bone is power- fully acted on by the false ribs, and these, prin- cipally, give it direction and push it forward, the false ribs of either side driving their motion through the breast-bone up to the head by a con- 82 nection preseatly to be described. At the head it is received and adjusted with the action of the true ribs of the other side. It is possible that we ought to assign one or two of the true ribs to the rear C of the spinal curve ; but the proportionately greater length of that portion of the spine to which the false ribs are attached, and the fact that the first — or first two — upper ribs* seem rather to belong to the joint of the root of the neck (§ 90) and the spine than to the front C, might give sufficient preponderance of force, as propellers to the false ribs alone (§ 62). This being the case, we have adopted the more convenient nomenclature of assigning all the true ribs to the an- terior C, and all the false ribs to the posterior one. § 83. If we give an artificial ground to the ribs, one S in the spine will be required to work on it ; if we attach two rear appui to the trunk thus formed, another S will be required for their sup- port ; and if the whole is to be centred on the head, still another S will be required for combin- ing the two. first, and this last S wiU require some separate appui on which to effect this combination. These requirements, we think, are fulfilled in * These ribs, we believe, are bent from Itont to rear in a different direction from tlie other true ribs. 83 the back or dorsal vertebrae, as the central S ; the loins, or lumbar vertabrce and sacrum, as the S for moving the hinder hmbs, or appuis proper of the trunk ; the n^cJe as the S of combination ; and the arm^ as the appuis of combination. We shall name these three S S S, beginning at the head, the^Vs^ 8, second S, and third S; or, the neck 8 ; the central, and from its more simple ac- tion, the ophidian* 8 ; and the loin 8. The relative actions of these three S S S be- come quite changed from those of three successive S S S in the snake, as will be explained. § 84. The cavity formed by the ribs and the breast-bone is filled by the lungs, and from the extremities of the breast-bone go muscular cords of connection to the head and to the pelvis. These cords of connection join the actions of the central or ophidian S, with those of the loin S, and the actions of both these with those of the neck S. The trunk, composed of the dorsal and lumbar vertebrae, the ribs and sternum and the pelvis, may be regarded as an S, of which the hinder limbs are the ribs. We shall call this the composite 8. The * Acting through the ribs, directlj- on its artificial ground, it has a true opbidian or snake action. 84 pelvis is a vertebra in it. Its posterior C is sep- arated from its anterior C by tbe diaphragm, which will be described further on. The head, neck, shoulder blades and this " com- posite spine " may again be regarded as a com- pound spine, of which the arms are the ribs. We shall call this the bicomposite spine. The head,, taken with the shoulder blades, is a vertebra in it,, distinguished, however, from the pelvis as a ver- tebra, in that while the " composite spine " gov- erns the pelvis, the head governs the "bicomposite spine." To some extent the arms act as ribs to the composite spine; also, and through them, the head draws in a direct way on the hinder limbs.* § 85. Five vertebrce — two for each flexure, and one for the point of contrary flexure — are the smallest number of which an independent 8 curve could be composed. If, now, we allow one at each end for its articulations with other points, we have seven verte- * Although the head be the " governonr " and the spine the proper " origin of all movement," moTemcnt may, in the higher animals, he initiated in other parts. For example, a man in dropping from a height may, by thrxisting forward his hands or jerking back his elbows, and thus changing the centre of gravity by altering the shape of the body, through the medium of the breast-bone, change very materially the point on which he alights from what it would otherwise have been. A horse in taking a fence, often does not know the gronnd on the far- ther side, and no doubt while yet in air, he can, to some extent, deter- mine bis point of descent. 85 brce, the unvarying number contained in the neck of man and (with the exception of the sloth) of quad- rupeds. § 86. The breast-bone is steadied at its upper part by muscles which — ^replaced by equiyalents^ in quadrupeds — exist in their most simple manner in man. We shall, therefore, since we do not ajm at discussing the minute diflferences of action which make an alteration in these muscles neces- sary, consider the type given in man as applicable for reference, whenever we speak of these, or in- deed of any of the muscles. In man these muscles, — ^from the upper end of the breast-bone, called the stemo-cleido-mastoids,. or as we shall generally name them, the sterno- mastoids, — are very prominent, and may be clearly seen one on each side of the neck,* passing from the top of the breast-bone upward, backward and * These muscles take their name in man ftom their various attach- ments, viz., each on its side, to the breast-bone, the collar-bone, and the mastoid protuberance of the skull, just behind the ear. In such ani- mals as have no collar-bone the middle word of the name eTidently falls away. In the horse this muscle is replaced by two—" one, the ' stemo-maa> iUary,' is fixed to the anterior end of the sternum, and passes up the front of the neck to be attached to the back part of the lower jawbone ; the other, the levator humeri, is fixed to the front and upper part of the round bone of the shouldei', and by a detached slip to the upper end of" the sternum, whence it passes up the front and side of the neck, to be attached to the mastoid projection of the skull, giving off, on the way^ slips which are attached to the four or five upper neck vertebrae." 86 •outward to either side of the head, behind the ear. They are so attached to the bottom of the skull, near to and on each side of its articulation with the spine, that they either draw the head down toward the breast-bone, or the breast-bone up- ward toward the head, according as the resisting lines of the spine, as developed in the neck, are brought forward or backward between the two muscles, and so by their positions give the pre- ponderating leverage one way or the other. That is to say, if the plane of junction of the two C of the neck S be well thrust forward between the stemo-mastoids, the action of these muscles wiU raise the breast-bone ; whereas, if this be retired, the same action will lower the head. Suppose the chest well raised and filled with air, and the neck fully gathered by the "super- imposition " of the diagonal counter-actions (§ 71), the plane of junction between its two C C will be advanced, and from this position every change of bearing in the head articulation will alter the drawing of the stemo-mastoids at the upper cor- ners of the breast-bone, whether of both equally ■or of one preponderatingly. Thus a perfect action of the neck is all important to perfect movement. § 87. The stemo-mastoids must partake of the 87 double - twisting action shown for the internal oblique muscle of the eye (§ 77), although with them there is no necessity for a pulley attachment, the support against the neck-spine answering the same purpose. It is easily seen that the two sterno-mastoids ap- proach each other as they descend in front of the neck. Thus their separate action must he diagonal, ending, in fact, for each at the diagonal hip-joint, so soon as the intervening ophidian S has placed the points in the requisite position, by moving its substitute ground, the breast-bone. § 88. At its posterior end the breast-bone is stead- ied against the pelvis by a combination of muscles, which, in relation to the pelvis, carry out from the breast-bone a working in harmony with, but sub- ordinate to that proceeding from the breast-bone, through the sterno-mastoids toward the head. § 89. In the snake a simple ball and socket joint at the head answers every purpose, for allowing the working of the spine over the ribs, these latter being the simple and only appuis ; but in the higher animals another arrangement becomes nec- essary. This consists in dividing the simple ball and socket articulation of the snake from behind for- 88 ward, by a wedge-shaped fissure, and giving to each of the parts thus separated an ovoidal form. The articulation is thus divided into two separate working pieces, one used when the head-ball pressure is from the left, the other when it is from the right, and in the same way for the sockets. Bearing in mind that the head joint always opens in front, we may represent this new form of the articulation by supposing the two halves, which would be obtained by the longitudinal division of a pear, about one inch long, to be soldered by their flat surfaces to the base of the skull, in such a manner that the points converge in front, while the globular ends diverge in rear, at an angle va- rying in different animals, according to the mode of action to be accommodated. These ovoidal pieces are called the Jiead-con- dyUs, and have each a separate socket of corre- sponding shape on either side of the upper surface of the first vertebra of the spine. § 90. In the snake a couple of vertebrae, freed from the ground, are all that is required in order to adjust the eccentric movements of the anterior part of the spine with _ a steady position of the head ; but, as we have seen in man and quadru- peds, there is, after what may be called the ophid- 89 ian or snake moyements on the ribs, another set of movements, namely, that on the hinder limbs, to be accommodated, and on this set again, in order to provide for the master movement of the fore-limbs — carried to its perfection in man — there is yet another set of movements to be accommo- dated, namely, that on these fore-limbs and on the lower jaw. It is with reference to these requirements that we should explain the necessity for a complete S in the neck, added to the couple of extra vertebrae used in the snake ; and, in dividing the vertebrae for this purpose, ice should place the one or iioo ver- iebrce answering to the snake's neck, directly under the seventh vertebra of the neck (§ 82), where they, aided by the general motion of the part, form a viK- TUAL ball and socket joint. The separate motions of the trunk and of the limbs may, we think, be easily noticed ia the horse, and, indeed, Seeger, a Prussian author, in his " Horsemanship," insists much upon mark- ing it. " First the body moves, then the limbs." § 91. In the chest of the higher animals, as has already been noticed, the ribs have great mobility and large development below, while at the ex- treme top they have little of either. It is appaf- 90 ent, on looking at tMs arrangement, that althougli tlie secondary sections of the anterior winding- lines (§§ 25, 68) might be easily established, from " points of application " acting on an anterior plane section, just below the first pair of ribs, and also the primary sections of the posterior lines, from " points " on a posterior plane at the summit of the lumbar vertebrae, yet the estabKshment of the primary sections of the anterior Hnes, and of the secondary sections of the posterior lines, would be seriously interfered with, unless the upper part of the chest be allowed considerable eccentric movement, such as shall successively bring its rib articulations under the course of the sectional lines referred to. This eccentric movement is allowed and regu- lated by the action of the neck S, the lower part of which moves with the upper part of the chest, and must adjust itself by a virtual joint, in which the lowest neck vertebra and one or two of the most anterior ribs take part, and which we shall call the " neck root joint." The head condyles are here essential, in their character as two separate ball and socket joints, because of the break in the " composite " move- ment caused by the interposition of the breast- 91 bone, which (§ 87) must place the intermediate- points of traction in position before the head and pelvis act upon each other. This makes necessary an extra spiral-Hne movement, very much more extended than any for the connection of the S S,^ or C, in the snake's contortions, and which can- not be accommodated on one surface. It tahes place, for the transition from the anterior winding- line of the " ophidian " to that of the " composite- spine," at the posterior end of either condyle ; and for the similar movement between the posterior lines at the anterior end. Further, when the neck, S, allows this eccentric movement to the upper part of the chest, the line of pressure becomes oblique, and to resist this the condyle-sides must be rounded in the perpendic- ular plane. For example, the ianer side of the left condyle to meet the movement of the upper part of the chest to the left, which accompanies the establishment of the primary section of the left anterior Une, and its exterior side against the movement to the right, which accompanies the formation of the secondary section of the right posterior liae, exerted against this side by the up- ward movement of the socket reciprocal to its withdrawal on the right §67 (6). 92 It is to be remembered that, although a part or all of these pressures may, at first, be latent in the neck, they must finally be satisfied at the con- dyles when the spring takes place. § 92. To illustrate what has been said : Suppose the left anteeioe winding-une to form in the ophidian S. Its secondary section will, to some extent, throw the left hind and right fore- feet on their outer bearings, by the change in the <5entres of gravity of the body. It wQl also cause some movement of the head-joint, as if a simple ball and socket existed. At the following combination of this " secondary section " into the " composite spine " (§ 84), the limbs of appui will be thrown decidedly on their outer bearings, and the relative motion at the head joint will be that of the posterior extremity of the left condyle revolving, to the rear and in- ward, in its socket. Its primary section wiU occasion a further change of the centres of gravity in the same di- rection as at first, and, as it moves the anterior ■cross-Une end toward the left side, will require a movement of the upper end of the chest in that di- rection, as well as one forward to correspond with 93 the movement forward of the head-ball in the socket"{§ 67 a'). At the following combination of this " primary section " into the " composite spine," in order to keep the head steady, the above left movement must be met by resistance along the inner edge of the left condyle, and the movement forward by the moving of the condyle along this hne. Suppose next the eight postepjoe line to poem IN THE OPHIDIAN S. Its secondary section reflectedjaction — the cross- Une end being displaced, (§ 32) — will take its first re-action against the anterior plane section of the spine (in which the anterior point of apphcation moved) bringing the posterior left comer of the sternum to the right, as the false ribs come on their inner bearings, and so far as it affects the upper part of the sternum, carrying it further to the left. The change in the [centres^ of gravity will commence the change of the left hind and right fore-legs to their inner bearings. At the following combination of this section into the " composite spine," the turning of the socket against the anterior end of the left condyle would occur, as the right socket^is withdrawn ; but as 94 (&') cannot take full effect until (b) is carried out (§ 37), this movement will be held in abeyance. Its secondary section direct action will move the anterior part of the body to the left, and as it brings about whatever action may be equivalent ta putting the right propeller true ribs on their inner bearings, the alteration of the centres of gravity wiU bring the left hind and right fore-feet still more on their inner bearings. At the following combination of the " primary section" of the posterior winding-Hne into the " composite spine," which, in this order of succes- sion, would be the final action in forming that spine, the diagonalfeet of appuis will be brought strongly upon their inner bearings, and there will be required to resist the passage of the body to the right, as, reciprocally to the withdrawal of the right socket the left socket rises, a pressure of this latter against the outer edge of the left condyle, and corresponding with the suppressed advance of the socket (see the preceding para- graph), a passage forward, along this edge, to the anterior point, -where, finciRy, a turn to the front and inward by the left socket will discharge the gathering, so soon as the alternate set of motions be inaugurated to release it. 95 § 93. While the action of the ophidian and com- posite S S tighten the right comer of the sternum, and the right fore-leg against the left hind-leg, a little additional motion of the head-^'oint tightens the left sterno-mastoid, and thus produces the " bicompo- site S" (§ 84). The bracing of the composite and ophidian S S is diagonal, thai of the hicomposite is collateral. § 94. In this gathering movement the front appui (here the right fore leg) goes mth the body, and, as we shall see, the free fore-limb (here the left) prin- dpally andfmaEy toith tJw nech. § 95. Each motion of the head condyles affects the sternum through the medium of the neck S, but its more immediate action, through the stemo-mas- toids, so directly affects this bone, that if a head con- dyle (not an anterior point of application, at the front of the chest, and, thus the " bicomposite," not the opUdian S) begins the gathering, it will cause the sternum to move before the spine, a circumstance which, as we shall see further on, may explain those movements of the limbs — the pace, &c. — which do not seem to be strictly diagonal. § 96. In attempting to follow out the effects of the head condyle movements on the sterno-mastoid 96 muscles, a very important clew seems to be af- forded by the analogy of those muscles, which, in the horse, replace the stemo-mastoids in man. These are (see note to 86) one musde, which goes from either upper comer of the sternum to. the rear part of the lower jaw, so that its action will close the jaw ; or, this done, bring down the head toward the breast ; and a second, which goes from the mas- toid protuberance, and the anterior C part of the neck S to the upper part of the upper arm-bone, the action of which is " to raise the shoulder and arm, and at the same time draw them forward, or, these being fixed, to turn the neck and head to one side." We should conclude from these facts, as an- alogues, that certain effects, accompanying the motions given to the stemo-mastoids by the upper comers of the sternum, largely, even if indirectly, affect the motions of the lower jaw ; and also that the clavicle (collar bone) in man secures certain connections between the motions of the head and the arm-bone, and ^between the sternum and the lower jaw, which for the horse (it having no coUar bone) must be supplied by extra muscles. It would seem that when the sterno-mastoid of the left side was drawn tight, i. e., (§ 93), when the 97 bicomposite spine (§ 84) formed, the lower jaw should be firmly closed and set on the left side.* Also that, under the same circumstances, the left fore-leg should be raised, or if this were fixed, the head drawn somewhat to one side. This would corroborate what has been said (§ 94) in regard to the free fore-leg being under the influence of the neck. Again, as the left stemo-mastoid must relax after the spring, so must the left side of the jaw, then the opposite (here right) side will begin to take appui in its socket, we expect to show how either side of the jaw gradually sets in its socket, and how, in bearing on its outer or inner side, its actions resemble, with reversed relations, the " bearings " of the ribs and limbs. § 97. Great as is the analogy as to shape which the fore-hmbs have to the hinder-ones, this analogy is by no means complete. Both are modified ribs, but the action of the two is not only different, in that the fore-limbs act more largely as supporters, and the hind-hmbs as propellers, but, while the hind Umbs follow chiefly, the movements of the "composite S," the fore limbs, although connected * We instance the lefc side, but, of course, with proper changes, the same holds good for the right. 98 with all three S S S, JinaRy depend directly upon the head. Thus, although supported by the anterior ribs, and adapting themselves to their motions, the shoulder-blades (which carry the sockets of the fore- limbs) have another connection, viz., that of the neck, and move on a basis exterior to the trunk, during the virtual crossing of the median line by those ribs. During this time, the neck is the S of which- ever fore-Umb is thus engaged. The quasi ball and socket motion, at the base of the neck, is the pivot on which either fore-Umb changes from the trunk to the neck connection. The shoulder-blades are connected in rear with the head by masses of muscle, and with the whole back ridge of the spine, with the ribs and with the pelvis, either directly or through the me- dium of the upper part of bhe arm^bone, by sheets of the same substance. To the neck part of the spine they are not directly attached, but are joiaed on either side by muscles to the whole length of a cord or ligament, which, loosely attached to the central rear line of the neck vertebrae, stretches over them all, from the head to the projecting bone of the lowest neck vertebra in man, and in the horse to the top of the withers. 99 "in. front the shoulder-blades are attached to the hreast-bone and to the front of the ribs by large and powerful muscles, and the breast-bone being joined to the head by the stemo-mastoid muscles, ihere is, in this way, a, front attachment of the shoulder-blades to the head. The massiveness of these connections agrees with the function of the fore-hmbs as the final brace on which all the gatherings are collected, § 98. In the horse the breast muscles suffice for iihe connection in front ; but in man the coUar-bones are added. These are articulated, each at one end, with an upper corner of the breast-bone, and •at the other end with one of the shoulder-blades. - . The breast-bone of man is thus enabled to push against the arm-bones, as well as, like that of the Tiorse, to draw upon them ; and the head of man being, during the working of the condyles, thus braced against the " substitute ground " (§ 82), by the collar-bones, as the head of the horse is against the real ground, by its fore-legs, the sup- porting thrust is transmitted to the pelvis, and in this way the legs of a man can act both as com- ■plete " supporters " and complete " propellers." § 99. Thus, first, the intermediate appui of the action of the neck is the sternum, on which the 100 action of the neck follows, nearly to completion, the torsions of the loins and of the ophidian S, making the centre of this latter between (the lower points of the shoulder-blades*) the centre offorce,f the neck, beiag itself the centre of action. Then an- other torsipn, in which the eyes participate, and into which are brought the final tnxn of the limbs, together with the finishing of all the torsions, makes the head the governour of direction, § 100. It may be remarked that in making the foregoing distinctions of three S S S and of sim- ple composite and bicomposite spines, no one of these, in a perfect body, acts without, at least in some degree, affecting the others. Thus, the sUghtest change in the ophidian S should alter the Une of gravity over the feet, and require a mo- tion of the whole frame to adjust it. § 101. In man the_^■^•e toes, ^e five fingers, and the bones which in the palm of tJte hand and in the"soh of the foot support them, would seem to represent the ends of five ribs belonging to five vertebrae, required to make up an S (§ 85), and, as such, we * Where, as will be seen further on, is also the centre of the lungs' action. t This fundamental centre not being reached, unless the working of the body is perfect, even a moderate distortion by the right-hand de- formity occasions a great loss of power and accuracy in all motion. 101 may suppose them to be attached, the toes to the composite — the fingers to the bicomposite — spine (§ 84). The bones of the arms and legs would then be the consolidated masses of these sets of five ribs. To avoid confusion, where speaking of man and animals tmder the same head, we shall call both fingers and toes " Digits" and number them begin- ning with the thumb or great toe,^}-s^, second, third, fourth anAffth digits. If the third digit (" middle " finger or toe) repre- sent the centre of this S, the fourth and fifth digits will receive their, impressions from the rear C, the first and second from the front C, and the central one from both. Indeed we may go further and say that the fifth digit represents the posterior part of the rear 0, the fourth the anterior part, the second and first the same for the front C. Then (§§ 25, 92, 96) ^e fifth digit receives its impressions from the formation of the secondary section of the anterior winding Hne, the second from the establishment of the primary section of this line, the fourth digit from the establishment of the primary section of the posterior winding line, and the first from the formation of the secondary section of that line. They wiU, also, in these connections be re- 5* 102 lated to the actions of tlie head condyles (§ 92) and to those of the lower jaw, which latter wiU be more fully considered hereafter. § 102. It will be observed that, regarding the fore and hind limbs as ribs, the counter torsions in their length can no longer, as in the real ribs, be received by the elasticity of their substance ; ac- cordingly, separate joints are substituted for elas- ticity. Again, were the bearings mere bevels {§ 51), the passage from one to the other would be very rough ; and, unless the bevels were very broad, quite insuii&cient for the extent of motion. This is remedied by the formation of the foot of the higher animals. In these, however, it is un- necessary that the first digit appear as an actual appui, if they rest on four feet ; it is only in man, and, to some extent in a few other animals, that the development and spreading inward of the great toe renders possible the steady change in the S S, as their forces cross the median* line without any support from anterior appuis. To stiU further assimilate the perfection of sup- port to that which the snake gains from a completely underlying set of appuis, it is necessary that the ♦ Any shoe which interferes with this inward spread of the great toe is a hindrance to inarching. 103 •digits supporting the motions of the rear should still remain on the ground, while those supporting the front C are being brought in action. This seems to be accomplished for the hind limbs by the pro- jecting heel, which, by means of the strong muscle passing from it to the thigh bone, allows of the ioot being rotated on to its outer side, while the passing line of gravity, at the same time, brings its inner side down, — or vice versa. The elbow in the horse may answer the same purpose in respect to its fore limbs ; while iu man the power of turn- ing at the wrist should seem to make any other appliance unnecessary. The heel muscle of the hind Hmbs subserves, of course, other purposes ; being one of many which give to the limb, and that with vastly increased force, all the elasticity of the most elastic ribs. * * It may be doubted that the heel of a man should, in perfect loco- motion, tonch the ground at all; but the idea of this being an essential part of the step has caused an ingenious writer, and apparently capital ihorseman, Captain Eaabe, of the French cavalry, in his work " Examen du Uours d'Eqnitation de M. d'Aure," 1864, to suppose that each foot of a man, when walking, goes through the motions of the gallop of a horse, Jeading with the left leg for the right foot, and with the right leg for the left foot ; that is to say, the outer edge of cither heel stands for the horse's outer hind foot (1st. beat) ; the inner edge of the heel and the outer toes, for the inner hind and outer fore-foot (2d. beatl ; and the great loe for the inner or leading fore-foot (:ld. beat). He says the change of the leading foot, which can thus be performed in place at each step by man (as in " mark time'"), was never performed by any 104 § 103. In the hear, dec, the pieces of the foot are still five, and all of them are still applied flat on the ground. In the dog they are reduced to four ; the digits themselves are still put flat on the ground, but the bones (analogous to the palm of the hand in man) which carry the digits, are raised upright. In the horse, ox, &c., not only these, but aU three sections of the digits (these sections may be counted in the joints of a man's fingers) are also set upright, and the animal moves, as it were, on its nails which have now become '-' hoofs." At the same time, in these last animals, the bones which carry the digits have been very much lengthened, and form the " cannon." In the horse, the third and fourth digit (as we should suppose) have been consoHdated into one, and form, by their joints, the "large and small pastern bones" and the "coffin bone." In the cannon of the horse's leg, the third and fourth of the bones which carry the digits, are consohdated into the horse, excepting " Partisan," an animal, by subduing wbicb Bauclier founded bis reputation. Thus, Captain Baabe seeks to establieli the high character of the human walk, and to refute the slander which, he adds, has represented it as a sort of broken down amble. Our description would count the heel as a support only when supplying the failure of the outer toes to perform their functions, and, therefore, cannot lit in with his supposi- tion. 105 " cannon-bone" and the second and fifth remain as the " splent-bones." These last do not reach down to the length of the cannon bone, and they no longer haye any digits to carry. In the horse and in the dog, the first digit is, at the most, represented by some dislocated piece. The hock-joint is formed of the small bones, which,, in man, compose the ankle ; and the " point of the hock " is the projecting heel of man. In Hke manner, the small wrist bones are aU found repre- sented in the " knee" of a horse or ox, while in these animals the elbow rests close to the body. § 104. In the bottom of the horse's foot, twO' lobes, divided by the cleft of the frog, may be easily seen. Now, if we suppose two fingers of a man's, hand to be placed together, the ball of one finger against that of the other — ^next, that while the nails grow together between the fingers, while on the outer sides the nail of each outer finger turns and pro- longs itself into the skin — we have only to draw away the skin from the inner face of these nails, to get a representation of the bottom of the horse's foot ; the NAILS and their injkxed continuations stand- ing for the " crust " and " bars ; " the skin outside the turning of the nails, and what is drawn back from their inner surface, for the "frog ;" and the portion 106 of skin stretched by this drawing back, for the "sok." If the foot of the horse contains, as we iave supposed, only two digits, we must look for the point of effect of the secondary section of the " anterior winding-line" (§ 101) to the outer splent bone at the hock, and regard it as only mediately affecting the foot, through the connection of this splent bone with the cannon bone. In the same way, we must find the point of effect of the second- ary section of the posterior line on the iimer splent bone, and its action on the foot only mediate, as be- fore. The action of the secondary section of the pos- terior lines and the final adjustment, which, in man, Tvould be carried through the thumb, in imaginary appuij must, for the horse, depend on movement in the fore legs, and in the quasi ball and socket at the base of the neck (§ 90), an unusual require- ment for this movement may possibly account for the " dishing " of a raised fore foot in some horses. The dishing is evidently a prolongation of its in- ner bearing, and this prolongation may, perhaps, be owing to uncommonly extended action of these parts before the " lift." The ox, &c., have two parts to the hoof, and, if 107 these parts represent each the consoUdation of two digits, i. e., the second and third in one, the fourth and fifth in the other, the fact of there being but one bone in the cannon of these animals may show that all the bones having, in this case, digits to carry are consolidated into one for action upon them, and corroborate the supposition that the splent bones in the horse reifiain separate as the unemployed connections of two discarded digits in its foot. § 105. It will be well, perhaps, before giTing a description of the diaphragm to make some allu- sion to the lungs, although a more detailed exami- nation of their functions will be made further on. It has been remarked (§ 76) that when the snake's ribs are fully under the influence of the double turns given them in the " superimposition of twists," then the chest has its greatest possible capacity, and that as a consequence of this the lungs, which fill the chest, are then expanded to their greatest limit. If this air be forcibly detained within them during action, the lungs will form an elastic cushion, which expands after every compression. They thus, like the fly-wheel in machinery, make good any deficiency in force from other sources at every 108 part of the movement. Compressed by one gath- ering they aid in initiating the next ; supporting the chest they form, AT their working centre, (common with that of the ophidian S) the true CENTRE OF FORCE (§ 99) ; and they fulfill another and more important function in the completion of each movement of locomotion, which will be spoken of in connection with the lower jaw. § 106. Within the ribbed portion of the trunk in the higher animals, are the lungs, and below this portion the stomach, bowels, &c. The two are sepa- rated by a sheet of tendon stretched horizontally across the bottom of- the chest and attached by muscular fibres to the upper edges of the lowest ribs, and to the cartilage-prolongations which go from them to the lower end of the breast bone. This sheet of tendon with its muscular border is called the Diaphragm. In our description of it and of the muscular fibres which stretch it we shall speak in general terms, aiming simply at convey- ing such an idea of its action as may be of service in explaining the process of " Setting-up," when we come to that final object of our work. The diaphragm is described in anatomical works as consisting of three lobes, whose shape and situ- 109 ation may be represented by a trefoil, having its stem fixed to the spine. The musctdar fibres form a border from the edges of the two tendinous side lobes to the lower rim of the chest. They will, of course, stretch the- diaphragm, when the ribs turn so as to favor this- action, viz., concave surfaces of ribs to the front,, i. e., the outer-bearing. The muscular fibres from the front part of the centred lobe going toward the breast bone wiU complete this stretching, when the heads of the ribs, by turning in a contrary direction, i. e., on their inner-bearing, and sinking back into their sockets shaU give a double twist to- the ribs. So far, the movements of the diaphragm are gov- erned by the secondary section of the anterior ztdnd- ing-line, as to the outer bearing, and by the primary^ section of the posterior line as to the inner bearing^ The primary section of the anterior line simply increases the effect of the secondary ; but the secondary section of the posterior line which (§ 25) gives inner bearing to the upper of the S S,. has its action in stretching the diaphragm, aided by additional muscular fibres. These form two long^ thick muscles which, between them, gather to- gether the tendinous fibres from the whole sheet 110 of the diapliragin at the rear, as if the " trefoil " stem were split in two. They then pass, the owe on the right, the other on the left of the upper ver- tebrae of the loins, and are fixed, as they descend, to those vertebrsB which we should consider as form- ing the u'pper G 'of the third 8 of ihe spine (§ 83). Prom these yertebrae, as points d'appui, their ac- tion gives a final stretching to the diaphragm, in correspondence with the final inward bearing which is given to the whole body by the action of the secondary section of the posterior line, when, in the bicomposite spine (§ 93), it accompanies the motion of the condyle socket along the outer edge of the head condyle. These muscles are called the " Pillars of the Diaphragm." § 107. The diaphragm supports the lower surface of the lungs, and thus, from the double-twisting action of the spine, which draws the diaphragm flat, as weU as extends the ribs, we have the chest expanded in two directions, length and diameter. It is obvious that the above arrangement of the diaphragm is fitted to act in two parts, a right and a left. These conjoin their actions when the " curves of superimposition " are in force.* * It may be added that, under the diaphragm lies, on the left side, the stomach, on the right, the liver. Any habitual enlargement of Ill § 108. Beginning their tipper attacliments on each side, behind and parallel with the lower at- tachments of the pillars of the diaphragm, that is to say, on the upper C of the third S, are two long and thick muscles called the "Psooe." They de- verge from each other obliquely, outward and downward, until, passing from the inside of the pelvis, they reach the thigh bones, to each of v^hich a psoas muscle is so fixed that by its contraction the thigh bone is rolled outward. Thepsooe muscles, as we should suppose, turn with the effect of the pri- mary sections of the anterior- winding lines on the upper C C, and, with the "pillars," complete the analogy of the diaphragm to the "' digastrics," two small but focal muscles Tio be presently mentioned. § 109. The various muscles above referred to mark out, we think, the leading hnes by, and on which the curvatures of compression and extension are formed. They are assisted by a multitude of other muscles, some larger, some smaller, which all work in harmony with them, if the frame be imdis- torted. § 110. As centres of formation for the new curves, either may, by interfering witli the working of the diaphragm, induce distortion. Such- trouble with the stomach would, by enlarging and fixing the course of the secondai-y section of the left anterior winding- line, favour the right-handed deformity. 112 as well as actual workers in giving the final turn in discharging the old ones, two pair of small mus- cles of very peculiar construction are especially concerned. One pair of these, the Internal Oblique Muscles of the Eyes, has been already described (§ 77), when speaking of the snake. The other pai:?, the Digastrics, through which the lungs are suspended by one end of each muscle from the lower jaw, and, by the other end, from the base of the skull, are, we believe, found only in the higher animals. We shall describe them in con- nection with the wind-pipe (§ 114), the action of which, in the locomotion of the body, these muscles may be said to express. § 111. The Lungs, which may be described as an " air sponge," but one absorbing from the interior instead of the exterior surface, are enclosed in cases which allow the air to enter and to leave them by only one and the same opening. They are made up in man and the higher animals, so far as our purposes are concerned, of four* such inclosed portions,- two on each side. The chest, as can easily be observed, has a coni- * There are, in fact, Ave such parts, three on the right side and two on the left. This disposition may have reference to the heart, which is on the left side. 113 cal shape without, and, within it, the lungs taken as a whole form a sort of cone, the apex of which is above, whUe the base rests on the diaphragm below. The shape of the four incased parts, which are put together to form the cone, may perhaps be best given by supposing first, a perpendicular plane passed lengthwise through the spine and the breast bone, this will divide the lungs into right and left halves. Then another plane, oblique from above downwards its upper surface facing to the front, passed between the true and the false ribs, wiU divide the whole into four pieces, which are called " lobes" and the general shape of each of the four win be given by the direction of the planes. § 112. To each of the two upper lobes of the lungs appendages are added, at their upper ends, which may be called "tips ;"* when unfilled these lie somewhat bent and twisted, at the summit of each lung. As we suppose every part of the lung to fill, not always in the same order, but according as the movements of the chest create a vacuum, these tips would, on our theory, fill from above down- ward, i. e., in the opposite direction to the filling * That these " Tips " may have some special action, is allurled to in an article in " Townsend's Cjclopffidia of Anatomy." 114 of tlie bodies of the upper lobes to which they are attached. They take, we conceive, a double twist, each for the action of its own line, and con- stitute the basis for the connection of the neck- action with that of the central spine, at the quasi ball and socket joint of the " neck root." It will be observed that, as the space of the false ribs, ending in a single continuation in front, § 82, is more extended in rear than in front, so the two lower lobes of the lungs marked out by them will be very much thicker behind than before, while the two upper lobes will be somewhat deeper in front than in rear. The true and false ribs and the lung lobes thus seem to match in shape as they do in motion. § 113. The lung lobes are filled with air through only one set of tubes ; but where (that is, in what part) they become filled depends upon where a vacuum is created in the chest, "by the motions of the ribs and of the diaphragm. Experiment will — so we think — easily show, thatm the fUdngs from the ophidian movement the upper lung lobes fiU from the lower part upward ; the lower lobes from the upper part downward. There are two moments of filling for each set of lobes, viz.: for th£ lower lobes, when the secondary 115 sections of the anterior winding-lines throw the ribs on their outer bearings, a,nd again, when the primary sections of the posterior Hnes bring them on their inner bearings ; for the upper lobes, similar moments, with the necessary substitutions as to sections. Both these fillings will, for the ophidian action, be as just stated, but at the time when each move- ment coalesces with the composite spine, the lung tips (§ 112) will accompany the movement of the quasi baU and socket at the root of the neck, so that whenever a connection of the lower C occurs the lung tips jWL at their upper part from above ; and whenever of the upper G, at their lower part, also from above. The formation of the bicomposite spine tends to straighten the lun^ fillings, destroying the counter tiims, and making the whole lung one ; entirely so, when the " superimposition of curves" (§ 71) has place, and approximately so in single diagonal for- mations. There is a certain action at the lower edges of the lungs (about the diaphragm) analogous to that at the lung tips, but it seems unnecessary to take this into accoimt. 116 § 114. The lobes of the lungs consist of an infi- aiite number of air-cells, which communicate with the air by a multitude of 'tubes ; these unite and reunite, imtil they are reduced to one on each side, coming off about the centxe of the surfaces of ■contact of the lobes of that side, and these two -again unite into one principal tube, the " wind- pipe." This sole conduit for air into the lungs can easily be felt as it passes upward aboTe the breast- bone. § 115. In front of the neck vertebrae the wind- j)ipe is surmounted at top by a sort of box, of considerable size, called the " labynx," prominent in front as " Adam's apple." To this box there is but a single small opening, through the membrane -which forms its upper part, and this opening can, •at any time, be closed by a lid called the " epiglot- tis." It is evident that the amount of air surface which can come into action against the small un- der surface of this lid is exceedingly limited, com- j)ared with the surface presented by the air in the lungs, and that thus the- slender muscles, which close the Hd, are quite competent to hold it tight a,gainsf any escape of that fluid, even when the most violent compression of the lungs, from the 117 action of the ribs, reduces the cayity of the chest at the spring. The epiglottis, still refusing to allow the escape of air, it is condensed, and the equiva- lent expansion assists in developing the alternate shape, so soon as the compression is removed. § 116. It is our next object to trace the succes- sion in filling or exhausting the different parts of the lungs, as the one or the other accompanies the formation of the winding-lines, and their reaction on each other in the different 0. Supposing, as usual, the left anterior point of application to commence the workings, and this by the ophidian S. The formation of the right convex of the upper C, and of the left convex of the lower C, by the left anterior winding-hne, will enlarge the right upper lung lobe upward, and the left lower lobe d,ownward (§ 113). The reflex action from the secondary section of the right posterior line (6' § 68) very particularly enlarges the left lower lung, as it draws downward the rib articulations. Meantime, the air is drawn from the left upper and right lower lobes and into the left lower and right upper. Next we have the direct action of the secondary section of the right posterior line, coming from the 6 118 tnilik toward the articulations of the ribs (§ 58), and meeting the ah-eady formed primary Section of the left anterior line. This completes the filling- of the right upper lobe for the ophidian spine. But the actions of the upper lobes* are very dif- ferent from those of the lower ones, by reason of the eccentric movement of their upper ends, for al- though there must be some eccentric movement of the lower lobes, from their being connected with the upper end of the third S, yet this is met by the considerable extent of the lower lung surface and the elasticity of the lower ribs. On the other hand, the upper points of the upper lobes must re- volve with the baU and socket motions at the base of the neck. Each one of the above ophidian movements is followed by the action which unites it with the composite spine, and which increases still more the filling of the lung, by rendering tenser the en- largement of the chest cavity at the same time that it fiUs the lung tips (§ 112). Finally, the formation of the bicomposite spine in reducing the coimter directions of the filling of the lobes' and of the lung tips, expands the chest stm further. The compressions of the lung are catised by the 119 devdopmerd of the new curve, and, of course, are greatest' at the mbment of discharge, when the shape of the spine changes. § 117. In connection with these movements, we think one may trace the relative workings of the psoce muscles and the diaphragm. — of the small dbUqve muscles at the back of the head and the sterno-mastoids — of the muschs which from the upper part of the shoulder blades, converge at the bach of the head, of the muscles which, from the bach, pass to the arm^, and of the muscular combina- tions which, acting between the lower end of the breast bone and the collateral sides of the pelvis,, straighten the tractions of this bone from diagonal to collateral. In tracing the action of the bony skeleton, as affected by these muscles, we shall leave out of mention the Latissimus dorsi, the obKque muscles of the head, and those connecting the shoulder blades and the head, because we think that their workings may be more clearly defined by tracing the shoulder blades as resting on and following the shape of the chest, and that the movements of the head are sufficiently clear of themselves. § 118. Taking a general view of the action of 120 the tliree spines* — ophidian, composite and bicom- posite (§ 84)— ^it will be observed, at the head ball and socket joint, that the result of a ball and a socket action, fully carried out, is to, as it were, throw off the point of pressure and the pair of coun- ter-acting lines on which it depends to the front, dis- engaging them, one from the other, each to its own side. And if, as in the curve of " superimposition " (§ 71), there be two pairs of counter-acting lines, both are thus thrown forward and disengaged lat- teraUy. In either case, if not discharged, they will straighten, and, in the case of one pair, this position protracted wiU bring the other pair into action, and, suppressing the lateral developments, will produce double superimposition (§■ 71), and make the tractions collateral instead of, as before, diagonal (§ 71). Now, before the whole course of the Unes for all the spines are thus made collateral, this ball and socket action occurs at four points : First. — Between the upper and lower lung lobes, for the ophidian S. Second. — ^At the diaphragm, for theimion between the central and third S. * When considering the bony spine only in relation to its S 8 S, we have called them First, Central and Third. 121 Third. — At the digastiics, for the union between the central and neck S, covering, to some extent, also the third S. Fourth. — At the head joint, for the formation of the bi-composite spine, covering the whole. The second and third are those by which the two ends of the composite S are formed. The fourth and first imite in their action after the action of the third and second, so that the central focus is always between the lung lobes. The action of the digastrics, in representing the central uniting with the neck S through the neck- root joint, is similar to that of the diaphragm in uniting the central and the third S, the flat an- terior part of the diaphragm (§ 106) being the ana- logue of the anterior portion of the digastrics, the diaphragm pillars of the posterior portions. The psose complete the action, and join it with the in- ternal obliques of the eyes. The various S S of the snake are discharged in succession ; those of the higher animals are col- lected together under one S — ^the "bicomposite" — by means of the neck and then discharged together. § 119. The above is the gathering movement, and determines the action of the legs of appui. The free legs are moved in the discharge. In 122 simple diagonal locomotion, such as the trot of the horse, the gathering of one pair of lines, and the discharge of the other pair, are to some degree synchronous, and must be described together. We shall next enter into a more detailed ex- amination of the action of Tarious parts. § 120. The long tube, called the windpipe, is, during locomotion, the subject of various twisting movements, coming from the motions imparted to the lobes of the lungs by the varying shapes of the chest. These twistings are not communiicated to the larynx, or voice box, because the windpipe, just below the plane at which the larynx crowns it, is held up by two loops, one on either side, and these slip on cords stretched from the back part of the under surface of the skull behind the head condyle joints, to the inside-front of the lower jaw, on a line between the two central incisor teeth. These cords, which are each composed of two muscular masses, joined together in the centre where the loops run by a smooth, round tendon, have been already mentioned as the Digastrics. Being joined to the skull behind the head condyles, to the lungs by the windpipe, and to the lower jaw, they obviously connect the motions of all three. 123 § 121. The larynx is a box with ttnyielding sides, but the windpipe is a flexible tube, formed, at its front, by a series of three-quarter hoops. The space between the ends of these hoops, that is the back of the windpipe, is filled out by a yielding membrane. The windpipe thus somewhat resem- Hes the body of a snake, if we suppose the ribs to join below, forming one piece with the scutae (§ 44) and the Yertebrse to be removed above. § 122. It is plain, we think, not only that con- siderable motions of torsion and counter-torsion must take place in the windpipe, but also, that its connections with the lower jaw, to be given in the next section, show that those twistings must exert •a powerful reflex influence on the motions of the whole body. We might also appeal to horsemen, who well know how different the effects of the bit are from those of the cavesson, a difference which can be explained only by the fact that move- ments of the lower jaw affect the lungs, and changes in the lungs affect the trunk. It is when ■the spur, acting on the false ribs near the dia- phragm, alters the filling of the lungs, in counter- action to any attempt of the lower jaw to stiffen itself into one piece with the head, that that perfect 124 mastery over the horse's motions is obtained, which is one grand object in cavahy riding. § 123. The larynx, windpipe and lungs lie, as has: been mentioned, entirely loose within the chest and neck, and are suspended by the digastrics. Be- fore speaking further of the lower jaw we will de- scribe more particularly the points between which the digastrics are stretched. Just behind the ears may be felt, on each side, the bony protuberances to which the upper ends of the sterno-mastoids are fixed. Close inside of each protuberance is the attachment of a digastric. From these points the digastrics go forward, converging toward each other, and having run each through one of the loops on either side of the windpipe, they meet together and fix themselves inside of the front part of the lower jaw, on either side of a line passing down- ward from between the two centre front teeth. The mastoid protuberances, the centre of the lower jaw, and the top of the windpipe, are so easily ta be traced, that after mentioning the fact that these cords sag down in the middle, where the windpipe is suspended, it seems unnecessary to dwell longer on their description. § 124. Just in front of each ear one of the hinge- 126 like,* articulations of the lower jaw is easily recog- nized on opening or shutting it. The weight of the lungs and the contractions of the digastric muscles would continually open it by drawirfg on its front part, were it not for several powerful mus- cles on both sides which easily keep it closed, so long as the windpipe hops do not come too far for- ward. On the plan of describing only such parts as seem necessary to the explanation of our subject, we may ^jere select the two " Temporal musdes" one on each side of the head, as representing the forces which close the lower jaw, and which thus^ as will be presently explained, complete the series of motions that give a double twist to all the springs of the body. For the lower attachments of the temporal mus- cles a projection of bone rises from the upper edge of the lower jaw on either side, in front of the hinge-like articulation with the skull, and, from these projections, the muscles spreading out hke a fan, fix themselves for their upper attachment over the surface of the tempies (whence their name). § 125. When the lower jaw is closed, each di- * In the lion, &e., they are complete hinges ; in man and the hone there is also a lateral movement. 6* 126 gastric has effectually two attachments to the head, one in front and one in the rear of the head con- dyles, so that it is easy to see how the movements of the lungs and of the head are connected by these muscles in harmony with the workings of the neck. It is (§ 118) through their medium that the shoulder and hind-limbs are brought into connec- tion with the bicomposite spine. We have (§ 121) referred to some resemblance between the rings of the windpipe and the ribs of the snake combined with its scutse (§ 44^), suppos- ing the vertebrae to be translated to some other position. The windpipe seems to act in sufficient correspondence with the vertebrae of the neck to admit of the supposition that it is the " artificial ground " on which the iieeh works in the composite ■spine, as the ribs do on the sternum, and, by the connection of the abdominal muscles, likewise on the pubis. The sternum is joined to the head by the stemo-mastoids, just where the windpipe is joined to the head by the rear portions of the di- gastrics. This fact may somewhat corroborate their similarity of functions. The digastrics, when the lower jaw is closed, give the windpipe an attachment to the head, "in front of the head-condyles, but the trunk of the body 127 lias such attachment only through the chest being raised by the lungs, and consequently, also only by the digastrics. We should, therefore, finally, con- sider the lower jaw as the artificial grov/nd of the bi-composite spine. § 126. To sum up what has been said in the last and several preceding sections -we shall have — For the diagonal actions the central, the lumbar, and the neck S S S. For the ball and socket movements connecting the diagonal actions and their lines of traction for- ward each to its respective "substitute ground" and from these to the real ground : The centre of the central S between the lung lobes (connecting the two C C) making the ophidian spine. The diaphragm, between the central and lumbar S S, making the lower half of the composite spine. The nechroot joint between the central and the neck S S, making the upper half of the composite spine, the movement of which is represented by the digastric muscles, between the composite spine and the head. The head joint forms the bi-composite spine, and through the shoulder-blades and lower jaw, so con- 128 nects the parts, that all return again to the move- ments between the upper and lower lung lobes. Finally, the internal oblique musdes of the eye throw off all the gatherings for a renewal of the actions, by the alternate movements. The ball and socket movement, at the root of the neck, being at the plane of the points of application for the ophidian movement, and between the com- posite and bi-composite spines when their last, movement of union takes place, works like the head condyles, parUcdly with all the ball and socket actions, and ceases to do so only when these centre on the plane between the upper and lower lung lobes. EACH OF THE SPINAL MOTEMENTS THUS PASSES TO A " SUBSTITUTE GEOUOT) " to which they transmit the tractions so changed by their passage through their respective ball and socket joints, that, in the case of the synchronous action of all the counteracting lines, they become collateral just before the dis- charge, and in the alternate action by pairs, a like collateral union has also place at some instant during the step. These "substitute grounds" are — Of the ophidian spine, the Sternum. 129 Of the lower half of the composite spine, th& Pubis. Of the upper half of the composite spine, th& v^)per part of the Sternum. Of the composite spine, ■which includes partiall'if the neck (as it does partially the shoulders), the^ Pubis, Sternum and windpipe (§ 125.) Of the bi-composite spine, the lower jaw. For the whole body, the eye balls. § 126. (a) The internal oblique muscles of the eye,, occupying the same relative position as in the snake, are, first of all, and fundamentally connected tvith the ophidian spine. They accept the additional connec- tions as they forrn, and, finally, by the rather extensive movement of the digastrics and the neck, the head joint being the centre, the shoulders and lower jaw are ad- justed with them, and the bi-composite spine is formed. This is the course for what we consider the funda- mental action, viz., the teot; certain variation, taking place for the other gaits. 130 PAET IV. Locomotion of Man and of the Hobse. § 127. Locomotion in man and in quadrupeds, although apparently so dissimilar, is yet, in its chief points, really so alike, that after discussing the action of the horse it wiU need only a few ad- ditions in order to adapt the description to the human frame. And the locomotion of the horse being also the nearer step in the transition from that of the snake, we shaU commence with it. § 128. The teot, for reasons which will appear as we proceed, is more fully based on the ophidian action than any of the other paces, and wiU there- fore more perfectly fit on to the discussion of the various tractions given in the preceding sections. On this account, we select it as the fundamental gait with which we shall compare aU the others. The trot not only exhibits the ophidian action in the change of bearing from the outer to the inner sides of the feet employed as appuis, (equiva- lent to the change of bearing on the ground end bevels of the snake's ribs, but the movement com- menced in the chest at the ophidian S takes, as in the snake, a nearly synchronous spring from the diagonal points d'appui. 131 In this gait it is to be noticed that two diagonal ieet being on the ground and the other two being Ufted, the fixed fore-foot of one side leaves the ground just in time for the collateral raised hind- foot to be put down in its place — that on the op- posite side the two feet (a raised fore and a fixed hind-foot) separate widely, the one forward, the other backward — and that, as we think may be recognized by the eye of an observer, the pro- pelling hind foot leaves the ground an instant hefore its diagonal (the fixed fore-foot) does so. This result seems analogous with the view we have taken of the order of discharge of the two C C forming each S in the snake's locomotion. § 129. Let it be remembered that the air in the lungs expands to support every expansion, and condenses to allow every contraction of the chest ; also that these air actions are of two kinds, one ceidraiL in the lobes proper, coming from the ophidian movement proper, the, other termmal in the lung tips, coming from a working added to that of the central S, in order to accommodate the Action of the two additional S S, i. e., of the loins and of the neck, which work with the hind legs and the fore legs (or arms) respectively and to serve as a warhing pivot for the union of the ophidian and 132 composite spines, as also by a repetition and further extension of its movements for collecting all in the bi-composite spine. The filling of the lung tips (§ 112) takes place as if each lung-tip were an S. The upper part, or C, fiUs from above with an outward turning motion, harmonizing with the outward turning of its diag- onal lower lung lobe as this fiUed, and, by a fur- ther outward turning, not accompanied by filling, harmonizing with that part of the filling of its at- tached upper lobe which requires an outward turn- ing. The lower part, or C, fills from above with an inward turning motion, harmonizing with that part of the filling of both the attached upper and diagonal lower lung lobes which requires an in- ward turning, but especially with that of the at- tached upper lobe, with which this inward turning finally makes one piece of the lobe and its tip. It will be borne in mind that the filling of the lung lobes is accomplished in two times — (1.) By the secondary section of the anterior winding-line for the lower lobe — of the diagonal posterior wind- ing-line for the diagonal upper lobe, causing an outward turning. (2.) By the counter-action of the two lines causing an inward turning throughout their points of meeting, which, finally, raises the 133 outermost point of the lower edge of the ribs and' gives the greatest capacity to the chest. The filling of the upper C of a lung tip is con- nected with the formation of the upper part of the composite spine in the anterior winding-hne. It. thus accompanies the turn outward from the lower part of the collateral stemo-mastoid and of the diagonal diaphragm pillar and psoas. The filling of lower C is connected with the formation of the lower part of the composite spine in the posterior line, and thus accompanies the turn inward of those muscles from their upper parts. § 130. The fore-limbs we suppose to be guided by the anterior part of the trunk, and by the neck,, in the following manner. The edge of the shoul- der blade, opposite to the arm socket, or more exactly speaking, that perpendicular to the prolon- gation of the central axis of the movements of the anterior limb* lies on the posterior true ribs, near the spine, so as to be guided by the propellers of their convex (§ 62), and thus follows their move- ments. * This would not include the whole ot the posterior part of the shoul-' der blade, some portion being under the guidance of the neck. Befer' ring to the best engraTlngs to which we have access, there is a differ- ence in the proportion of the shoulder blade, which might be supposed to be guided by these ribs ; the part under the influence of the neck be-^ ing much larger in the lion than in the horse and giraffe. 134: That end of the shoulder blade which carries the ^hoidder joint sachet lies on the anterior ground end ■of the true ribs, and is guided bjr the movements ■of this part, which amounts io foUomng the move- ments of the front part of bearers of the convex (§ 62) and the tipper end of the sternum.* The upper end of the sternum moves with the stemo-mastoids, and they, finally, move with the neck S. At the formation of the left anterior winding- line, in both its sections, the propeller true ribs (on the rear portion of the convex) would so move the right shoulder blade that the right fore-foot will jest on its outer bearing ; the estabhshment of the primary section will so alter the shape of the ribs as to bring the shoulder socket more against the bearers. The upper end of the stemimi is carried somewhat toward the left. At the formation of the right posterior hue the upper end of the sternum is carried toward the left, at least relatively, by the movement of its posterior end to the right, as the left hind foot comes on to its inner bearing. This movement of the sternum brings the right fore-leg on its inner bearing by the jnovement of its shoulder socket. * The clavicle which exists in some animals would compel this. 135 From this position the spring takes place, and the fore-foot, when lifted, continues presenting its inner bearing, not only, because of the position in which it left the ground, but from its being pres- ently again governed by the upper edge of its shoulder blade, which, on the change of curvature, hes at the rear of a concave of the true ribs. Thus it remains until the formation of the alternate winding- line which has discharged the old curvatures in the ophidian and composite S S, extends to the neck S, brings the (now free) right fore-leg in connec- tion with the new posterior convex of the neck and causes it to present for the outer bearing. Thus we should have in the trot for a fore-foot, while in appui, the outer bearing from tJie upper edge of the shoulder blade, while the anterior line of its formation is in action. The inner bearing from the socket, while the posterior line of its formation is in action. But a raised fore-foot, having the posterior edge -of its shoulder-blade on the rear of the new con- cave of the anterior of the ophidian S remains, presenting for the inner hearing until the ^eck form- ation of the new anterior line puts it on the outer hearing, by connecting its socket with the posterior part of the rear C of the neck S. 136 § 131. Although the ophidian, composite, and bi-oomposite spines begia the development of the winding lines, separately, -yet, once begun, each continues its development throughout ; that is, untn the anterior wiaduig line, beginning in the ophidian S, has formed its bi-composite portion, the ophidian action constantly increases along with the others, and so also for the posterior wind- ing line. Thus, the final action stiU centres be- tween the upper and lower lung lobes (§ 99). § 132. It win be remembered (§§ 32, 33, 34) that to bring both C C of any S into a discharge for- ward, the cross-line must be displaced, and the pos- terior C rests, for its point of reaction, against the plane in which the anterior point of apphcation faoves. For this reason the ophidian posterior thus rests against the neck-root plane ; the poster- ior C of the rear half of the composite spine (its junction with the central S being formed) rests against the same point. The final point of reaction win be at the base of head, to which the points of all the spines will be transferred. These posterior C C, their appuis (the hind-leg, &c.) being fixed, thrust their points of reaction for- ward, and (though the anterior C C discharge, so 137 far as the spring is concerned, before them) their appui, ths hind-leg, precedes in leaving the ground, the appui of the anterior C, the diagonal fore-leg,* the latter being m great part used only as a rest while collecting the spring and in lifting the anter- ior part of the body. It is discharged only when the whole composite S springs from the ground. The posterior winding line prepares the dis- charge of both C on the already formed anterior line, but its working is not completed until the posterior "point of application" has brought the posterior end of the cross-line to its own side, as the anterior point of application has already brought the anterior end. This cannot be done until the anterior end, which holds it in check (§ 32) is completely hberated, consequently not until after the liberation of the spring from the hind-foot, where the direct drawing of the posterior point of application on the posterior cross-line end completes— first, the change of curvature in the anterior C, lifting up the forefoot, and then, completing the ■change of curvature in the posterior G, puts down the * In OUT visual illustration, the parts would be the left anterior and right posterior points of application, the left hind and right lore legs, .and the cross-line would be, at flrst, drawn completely over to the left aide, the anterior end being drawn, and the posterior end held in check 4here by the left anterior winding line. 138 collateral Mnd-foot which is to form the new rear appui.* § 133. The ball and socket moTement of the digastrics, and of the internal oblique muscles of the eyes, we should describe on the principle that a rolling outward of the muscle, beginning at its anterior part, represents the ball motion — a turning inward, commencing ia the rear portion, the reci- procal socket motion (§ 39). The eyes remain steady in the central line of advance while, with movements similar to those of its diagonal eye muscle, each digastrics brings the composite spine into connection with the central movement. The eyes thus belong fundamentally to the ophidian (or snake) spine. The part of both digastric and eye muscles an- terior to the loop rolls outward with the secondary section of the anterior winding line, the part pos- terior to the loop with its primary section — then, to form the double twist, the rear portion rolls in- wards with the primary section of the posterior winding line, the front portion inward with the secondary section. These correspondences take place for the eye musdz during the ophidian spine action — * The newly grounded hind-foot Bhould, in perfect action, come into the print of the fore-foot which gives place to it, unless the spring has carried all four feet forward. 139 for the digastric during the formaUm, of the compo- site spine. As the left anterior winding line enters the " bi- composite spine" formation, the revolution out- ward of the left digastric is completed, and its loop goes to the extreme rear limit of its rear movement. At the formation of the composite spine, in the right posterior winding line, the action of the right digastric, turning outward from above, beguming with its posterior end, which really represents the socket movement, becomes transformed, (§ 39) as to effect, into the left digastric-turning inward, beginning at the rear. § 134. The movement of the left hind-foot in appui, following the left lower lung lobe, corres- sponds with the movement of the left (its collateral) digastric, so long as the composite spine is form- ing. But, so soon as the bi-composite spine forms and the right fore-leg comes into correspondence with the left (its diagonal) digastric, this leg sicb- stitutes itsdffor the digastric in the conmdim with the left hind it the movement penetrates the neck root joint.* * There are some movements, notably, the walk, in which it seems to UB, that the neck root joint shirks more or less of Its full actions. . (Right) upper C (true rib) cavity reduced. "Left -right" and " right-left " anterior cross-line ends (§ 20) equalized with the left- right as to position (both come to centre). This takes effect be- tween the upper and lower lung lobes, re- ducing the right upper lung lobe from its pos- terior part. Posterior portions of eye muscles equalize on outer bearings. 195 (Left) Anteeiob Line Leading. Forcing A a'. Action a', continuing spreads to third S, equalizing sides of pel- vis. The consequent move- ment of the hip-joint sockets causes an equal- ization between the out- er bearings of the left and right feet. The (right) lower lung lobe continues to expand and the (right) diaphragm leaf to spread. The anterior portions of the digastrics equal- ize on outer bearings ; the (right) digastric passing, as it were, over the left. Forcing A a". Action of a'l contin- uing, spreads to neck S. Anterior cross-line ends, still keeping their focus between upper and lower lung lobes, equalize the upper cor- ners of the sternum and of the sides of the spine, at the small of the back — diaphragm pillars — in outer bear- ings. The posterior por- tions of the digastrics equalize on outer bear- ings.* * The arms are affected by this movement, as the legs were by a2, but to trace their motions, as in the trot, will too much com- plicate the table. 196 (Left) Anteeioe Line Leading. Forcing A a». Action of a' contia- iiing, and spreading through a^, equalizes the hinder limbs on their outer bearings. Head joint condyles equalize, in the thor- ough movement, as to their posterior end pressure. Forcing A a". Action of a" contin- uing and spreading through a'». The front C of the lung tips (§ 112) equal- ize as the movement turns on them. Anterior cross-line ends — still in focus be- tween the upper and lower lung lobes, and further moving the up- per corners of- the ster- num and the sides of spine at the small of the back — now equalize the lower jaw articulations on their outer bearings, the (right) articulation making a sort of lateral epicycloidal movement on the (left) one. The head-condyles' equalize in the forward movement across (§ 92) the sockets by inner edge. All being thus drawn up to the head, the arm sockets equalize in out- er bearing from right to left.* *Thi9 action at the shoulder joints, it will be seen, changes the direction of the line of general pressure (§ 91), which up tO' this point, has been toward the right; and introduces, by changing it incipiently toward the left, the posterior line equal- ization whicn ends in the head joint sockeU, The effect of this on the head, connection is to bring the stress on the right stemo-mastoid at right upper comer of the ster- num. 197 (Left) Antebiob Line Leading. Forcing by ) B b". - -1 Induction, f By bringing back the " left - right aaterior oross-line end " from its displacement, the " right - left posterior end " is brought into action, and by but a little further movement of a^, as it flUs the right lower lung lobe, the necessary forcing, in the right posterior line, is given, and the reac- tion of b* begins in the posterior C of the ophidian S. This equalizes the inner bearings of this C, after which the action in the secondary section equalizes the inner bearings of the anterior C. The eye muscles equalize on the inner bearings — fiiat, by re- action in the. posterior portion ; then in the anterior portions at the "secondary sections" of the posterior line (§ 25). 9* Forcing by ) B b». Induction. ( The right lower point of application now draws directly, and at the focus, between the lung lobes, equaUzes the posterior cross-line ends of the ophidian S. The eye muscles equalize on the inner bearing at their pos- terior ends. 198 (Left) Anteeioe Lihe Leading. Forcing by | B b'^. Induction. J The action of a^ c~n- tiauing, the hip-joints are equalized on the inner bearings, and ■with the secondary sec- tion, the lower end of the sternum is equal- ized on its inner bear- ings against the outer beariags A a' of the upper end. By this the (right) false ribs gain in prominence, outward and forward, while the left draw in, as they faU into the traction of the left pos- terior winding-line. The digastrics equal- ize on the inner bear- ing (the right one gain- ing on the left), the posterior portion first, then the anterior. Forcing by ) B b^. Induction. ^ The action of a" con- tinuing, the upper left lung lobe fills from be- low. Digastrics finish equalizing on inner bearing, at their rear ends. 199 (Left) Anteeioe Line Leading. Porctag by / B b". Induction, f Action of a' contiauing througli b'l, equalizes the hinder limbs on inner bearings by the reactionary movement ■with lower O of the neck S, and as b'* takes effect in its secondaiy section, with the upper C of the neck S, equal- izes the shoulder joints. Forcing by ? B b'. Induction. ^ Equalizes the lower jaw articulations, and thus ends with the stress on the right sterno-mas- toid, drawing on* right upper comer of ster- ' After which the finishing ad- justment, bringing both corners of sternum into equal stress, is made in "double action." 200 § 165. We next consider the No. 2 — (Eight) PosTEEiQE Line Leading. Forcing B to". The first action felt is in the secondary sec- tion of the (right) pos- terior line, which is tjiat of the (right) true ribs, forcing theirmove- ment and pressing to the (left) as they turn outward and back- ward ;* but the first result is reflexion, i. e., ■ the lower ribs equalize their inner bearings, from the action in the secondary section. The true ribs then equalize, as the secondary sec- tion. By the first move- ment the (left) lower false rib cavity is dim- inished ; by the second the (left) upper true rib cavity is prepared for enlargement. Eye muscles act as in § 164, same column. * To prevent mistakes, we re- peat what was before said, that if, instead of forcing the old line, the forming of the aUemate pos- terior line lead the action, this movement is forward. Forcing B b'. The forcing of the pos- terior line next brings; about an equalization of the posterior cross- line ends, so far as pos- sible; but from the dis- placed (" left-right "> anterior end (§ 32) holding its correspond- ing posterior end from- its movement to the (right), this equaliza- tion is performed with a decided " list " to the left, and this remains until the change to an- terior \vaJb action liber- ates the displaced (left-right) end. The focus of the cross-line end action is always between the up- per and lower lung lobes. Eye muscles make their inner bearing equalizeition at their posterior ends. 201 (Eight) PosTERiOE Line Leading. Forcing B b'". The action of b" con- tinuing the reaction in the lowei; C of the com- posite spine, and the action in its upper C, first equalize the hip- joints (by the move- ment of the pelvis) on their inner bearings ; then the lower end of the sternum, with which goes the inner bearing of the digastrics, first of their posterior, then of their anterior por- tion. Forcing B b'. Action of b* continuing. Posterior "cross-line ends " still keeping their focus between the upper and lower lung lobes, and the "list" of the general line to the left being still maintained, equalize at the small of the back — diaphragm pillars — ^fol- lowing which the (left) upper lung lobe fills with air from below, and the left line equal- ization begins in the neck-root joint. The posterior por- tions of the digastrics equalize on inner bear- ings at their posterior ends. 202 (Eight) PosTEEiOE Line Leading. Forcing of Bb". The pressures contin- ually collecting and swelling at the anterior end of the left head joint socket, equalize ■with the similar point of the right socket, so far as th,e displaced an- terior cross-line end al- lows. The shoulder- joints equalize, the right giv- ing off to the left, on which latter the stress of the movement de- cidedly comes. Forcing B b'. The lower C of the lung tips equalize as the head joint, with the upper C of the neck S, allows the turning of the outer edge of its sockets.* The lower jaw artic- ulations equalize, changing for this suc- cession of movements (as at A a' the shoul- ders did for the former one) the general line of bearing. But it is to be remembered that all the lines gained are to be held, and that the "induction " of the an- terior line will make its own alterations. * The pressure of the left socket should diminish as it equalizes with the right (both being reflect- ed pressuresi ; but the displaced crosB-line end still holds back the morement. 203 (Eight) Posterior Line Leading. Forcing by ) A a'. Induction, s The inner bearing be- longing to the right side of the posterior C C and to the left side of the anterior C, has already been transfer- red to them, they now receive their portion of the outer bearing. The right lower lung lobe fills. The eye muscles equalize in front on outer bearings. Forcing by / A a'^ Induction, j The anterior cross-line ends equalize between the lung lobes, and to a certain extent, free the posterior ones, to assume the positions from which they have been hitherto restrain- ed. Eye muscles equalize in their rear portions on outer bearings. 204 (Eight) PosTEBioE Line Leading. Forcing by > A a*. Induction. I Hip- joints equalize on outer bearings. Digastrics, equalize in front portions on outward bearings. - ^l Induction. J Upper comers of ster- num equalize. Digastrics on outer bearing at posterior portions. Adjustment of cross- line ends at small of back — diaphragm pil- lars. 205 (Eight) PosTEEiOB Line Leading. Porcing by } A &'. Induction. ) Actions of b'l contin- uing. Equalization of lower jaw articulations finished from b'. Hinder limbs equal- ized throughout. Forcing by ^ A a". Induction. ) As the right head con- dyles equalize, the- shoulder joints do the- same. The right shoul- der passing outer bear- ing to the left one, on ■which, as the right con- dyle comes into place, the left rear neck mus- cles draw,* completing the left posterior wind- ing line. * Finishing movenient,by which rear neclc muscles are equalized,, is made in " double action." See Appendix II. 206 § 166. We have given the table for setting-up, when commencing with the ophidian S, in pretty fuU detail, but as was said, it is not necessary in practice to foUow these details mentally, since one produces the other, if allowed. Tiuo chief points are to be Jcept in mind, viz., that the movement of the cross-line ends more particularly changes the curvatures, and that the focus of this movement must be maintained between the upper and lower lung lobes, that is, at the centre of the ophidian spine. Each motion being brought into this point, whether from the small of the back or from either -end of the sternum, etc. § 167. No. 1.— For " setting-up " with the (left) ■anterior line of the ophidian 8 leading, as in the first table, it seems only necessary to observe the fol- lowing points : The chin, while not initiating the left head con- dyle movement, must be kept sufficiently up, so that no clamping of the head joint in the opposite movement shaU interfere with the current one. The movement being once initiated from a " point -of application " at the base of the neck-root joint on the (left) side, particular attention must be given to the two fundamental motions, i. e., the filli ng of i;he right lower lung lobe, and the subsequent equal- 207 izing of the anterior cross-line ends between the tipper and lower lung lobes. Next comes the extension of these to the peMs and hip joints, and the subsequent equalizing ac- tion at the upper comers of the sternum, and at the small of the back, both brought to bear be- tween the lung lobes. Then the anterior line movement proper ends with the lower jaw equalization, that of the head condyles with " the thorough movement," and that of the shoulder joint initiating the inducing of the (right) posterior line with the continuance of the first mentioned fundamental motions of the an- terior and the change of the general line of press- ure. The induction of the equalization of the posterior Unes comes, first, from the continued fillin g of the (right) lower lung lobe, this reduces the (left) lower lung lobe cavity; and next from the continued action in equalizing the anterior cross-line ends, this causes the equalization of the posterior ones, first, between the lung lobes, then at the small of the back, and at the lower end of the sternum, fills the (left) upper lung lobe which reduces the (left) lower lobe ; lastly, the continued filling of the right lower lung lobe, equahzes the shoulder 208 blades, and establishes the (left) posterior hue at the left shoulder blade (§ 162 sixth); and the equalizing of the cross-line ends brings into equal action the two jaw articulations, the inner bearing passing from the left to the right, and leading the stress of the head condyle movement at the right upper comer of the sternum. § 168. No. 2. — And for " setting up " mith the (right) posterior line of the ophidian S leading. Since the rear " point of application " cannot, at once, exercise its direct working, as did that of the anterior winding hne, the fundamental points are to begin the influence of the " secondary section '* of the (right) posterior line by pressing the (right) true ribs to the left, at the same time that they rotate outward and backward,* producing the effect of equalizing the inner bearing first in the false ribs (posterior 0), as a reflected action from the upper true ribs, on which follows equalization of this bearing at the true ribs, as the secondary section proper ; subsequently to allow the direct action of the (right) posterior " point of apphca- tion " between the upper and lower lung lobes, where, for the ophidian S, it takes effect more es- * Forward, if forming the alternate posterior line first. 209 pecially in reducing the cavity of the chest under the (left) false ribs. Next, for the composite S, with the extension of the ophidian S moTement, comes as a reflected action the equalization of the inner bearing for the pehds at the hip joints ; then, as the proper sec- ondary section, the filling of the left upper lung lobe from below ; then, for the posterior " point of apphcation " the inner bearing equalization at the small of the back, and at the lower end of the ster- num, which last brings the focus back to the space between the upper and lower lung lobes. As the movement by the right posterior winding line takes effect for the bicomposite spine, the reflect- ed secondary section action equalizes the hind-legs on the inner bearings ; the secondary section proper the shoulder blades ; and the drawing of the (right) posterior point of application the lower jaw articu- lations ; during which the head joint sockets equal- ize so far as they can, for the general line still in- clines to the (left). The whole turns on the upper C C of the lung tips. The equalization of the lower jaw articulations changes the movement for the induction of action by the anterior winding line. The induced equalization of the lower ribs on their outer bearings (the secondary, section of 210 the anterior line), fills the right lower lung lobe ; then the action of the primary section, as the an- terior cross line ends equalize between the lung lobes, begins to release the (right-left) posterior cross-line end and the general line of the body gains toward the (right). As the action of the secondary section extends to the composite spine (the right lung continuing its fining), the right hip joint obtains a more equal bearing ; as that of the primary extends, the left upper lung lobe fills more completely, and is nearly fully expanded as the equalization of the anterior cross line ends at the small of the back and the upper end of the sternum, releases the posterior line ends at the small of the back and the lower end of the sternum, all again centering between the lung lobes. The bicomposite spine movement equahzes £or its secondary section the bearings of the hinder limbs, for the cross lines the lower jaw articula- tions, and for its final turn the shoulder blades ; leaving a final stress from the back of the head on the left shoulder-blade, which is to be adjusted with the other by a shght movement in double ac- tion. § 169, No. 3— The "forcing of the winding lines'* 211 may, perhaps,be more advantageously carried ©ut on the pacing movemerd than on that of the trot just described. If we begin with the anterior line» of the hicomposite spine, i. e., the pace in progression, the successive motions would be as follows : First. — The movement of the (left) head condyle equaHzing with the right at its posterior end, brings on the equahzation of the lower jaw articu- lations, the (right) articulation being brought (§ 166) with a sort of lateral epicycloidal movement over the (left) ; thence the movement extends to the equalization of the hind-limbs on the outer bearing;, thence, passing more inward to the equalization of the secondary section of the anterior line in the composite spine, viz., the pelvis, the false ribs, the filling of the (right) lower lung lobe; the secondary section in the ophidian spine bringing the action between the upper and lower lung lobes. Second. — The equalization of the shoulder-blade& on the outer bearings as the head condyles equalize on their cross joint movement, brings on the equal- ization of the other primary sections in the succes- sive spines. The sternum comers and the small of the back are effected by the anterior cross-lines of the composite spine, and, finally, the equaliza- tion of these end between the upper and lower lung lobes. 212 Third. — As the head joint sockets begm their equalization at the forward ends, the shoulder- joints would equalize as representing the second- ary section of the posterior hne action, in the bicomposite spine ; but the " reflected action " which takes place in the hinder-hmbs must first be carried out by their equahzation on the inner bearing ; then succeeds the similar equalization of the shoulder-joints ; next, for the composite spine, comes that of the false ribs, then of the true ribs, and the filhng of the (left) upper lung lobe, from the left lower ; finally, the equalizing of this section in the ophidian S. Fourth. — The head joint sockets equalize on their outer edges ; the lower jaw articulations follow, bringing on the equalization of the posterior cross- line ends in succession ; the lower end of the sternum and the small of the back for the' compos- ite S ; the working between the upper and lower lung lobes for the ophidian. § 170. It will be observed that ilie lower jaw ar- ticiilations go with the posterior G O in each case ; the, shoridder-hlades with the anterior C ; that is, the lower jaw goes with the secondary section of the an- terior lines, and, mth the primary section of the poste- rior, while the shoidder-Uades go with the secondary sec- tions of the posterior, and the primary of the anterior. 213 It will be also observed that the S S were carried out by halves. § 171. No. 4. — If for setting-up we begin with the posterior lines of the bicomposite spine in the retro- gressive pacing action, the successive motions would be as follows : First. — For the bicomposite spine, the hinder limbs in reflected action, then the shoulder-blades as the proper secondary section of the posterior line ; the head-joint sockets equalize at their anterior ends, next, for the composite spine, the false ribs ; then the true ribs and filling of the left upper lung lobe ; lastly, equalizing of this secondary section in the ophidian 8. Second. — Head-joint sockets equalize on their outer edges, the lower jaw articulations equalize on the- inner bearing, succeeded in the several spines by the equal- izing of the posterior cross-line ends as the (right) posterior point of application draws. Third. — The head condyle equalization at the rear ends, and for the bicomposite spine, the lower jaw articula- tions equalize on the outer.bearing, then the hinder limbs ; for the composite spine, the pelvis, false ribs and filling of the (right) lower limg lobe, ac- tion between upper and lower lung lobes. Fourth. — Head condyles equalize on their cross joint move- ment, equalization of shoulder-blades for bicom- 10 214 posite spine ; rbeod, the upper end of sternum, small' of back ; and between lung lobes for composite and ophidian spines. § 172. We have gone through the details of equalizing the tractions of the -winding lines by forcing beyond their hmits those already formed,, this seeming the best way of explaining the sub- ject ; but often, perhaps generally, the most prac- tical method for "setting-up" is forming the alter- nates and discharging in their "wake" the old lines of the composite and ophidian spines, at the same time limiting the action to these spines, which will- allow of equaUzing each line after its formation. * This being done, next forming successiTely, in the same way, the alternate lines of the bicomposite spine, discharging the old ones and equalizing the new ones. No. 5. To equalize the winding lines, the format- Hon of the fright) alternate anterior' line leading. As has been previously remarked, the bearing of the general line and the rear and front direction of the leading moving points will be reversed from those of the already given examples, because these are now those of the new line forming and drawing, * Did the movement extend tbrongh the neck-root joint to the bicom- posite spine we should have the full alternates. 215 instead of those of the old line forcing its actions and, so to speak, pushing. (§ 162. Fifth.) As in all cases, the movement maybe begun at var- ious points. We shall commence with the (left) eye. First. — ^With the (left) eye muscle turning out- ward in its anterior portion, commence the forma- tion of the alternate (right) anterior line in its sec- ondary sections, viz : The filling of the (right) lung lobe, followed by the reduction of the left false-rib concavity and the increased outer bearing at the (right) hip-socket, followed by a reduction of the (left) hip-socket. Then, with the outward turn of the (left) eye muscle, in its posterior portion, com- mence the formation of the primary sections, viz. : the gaining between the (right) lower and left upper lung lobes of the (right-left) cross-hne end to the (left), followed by reduction of the position of the (left-right) end to the (right) ; gaining of the same point at the small of the back to the right followed by the reduction of the (left-right) point to the right,* a similar gain and reduction between * In many cases, from the great displacement of the left-right anterior cross-line end to the left, its restoration is the main feature. The right side at the small of the back straightening its incurvation toward the left in a very marked degree. It may bo remarked here, that the new points rise above the old ones, and also pass (in man) in front of them, corresponding to the passage of the concaves under the convexes in the snake (§ 60). 216 the (right aad left) upper corners of the sternum. * Continuing the drawing will equalize the whole. Second. — With the (left) eye muscle turning in- ward, first, in its rear portion, by reflected action ; lastly, in its anterior portion, by proper action, al- low the alternate (left) posterior winding-line to form for the secondary sections, viz., by bringing the inner bearing on the (right) false ribs, which implies a reduction of -the cavity imder the (left) false ribs (§ 39 and note), by taking the inner bearing from the (left) hip joint to the (right) ; by fiUing the (left) upper lung lobe from below as the lower (left) true ribs turn outward. Then for the primary section, the drawing of the alternate ante- rior (right-left) cross-line end will bring the alter- nate posterior (left-right) end into action ; discharg- ing the old point between the Ixmg lobes ; at the small of the back ; and at the lower -end of the sternum. Third. — From the bicomposite alternate (right) anterior line, first, on the right lower jaw articula- tion, then on the left shoulder blade, discharging the old Hne — equalize. Then the bicomposite alternate (left) posterior hne, on the left shoulder * It l3 ofien necessary to equalize somewliat the small of the back and corners of the sternum before the movement between tlie lung lobes can be effected. 217 blade, then on the right lower jaw articulation, discharging the old line — equalize. § 173. Remarks. — As the alternate line is the "jiew line " of the previous methods, the " anterior line leading " movements end here, as there, with a stress on the same point, viz., the right upper comer of the sternum. In all these movements, where the anterior line leads, the order of succession for the cross-liae ends in the composite spine is small of the back, upper comers of sternum for the anterior ends ; small of back, lower end of sternum, for the posterior ends. This is a necessary conse- quence of the throughout continued filling of the (right) lower lung lobe, as the conspicuous foun- dation of the movement. On the other hand, for the leading of the posterior line where the in- ward pressure of the (right) upper true rib convex, whether forward or to the rear, is the foundation of the movement, the succession is necessarily lower end of sternum, small of back for the pos- terior ends ; upper end of sternum, small of back for the anterior ends. § 174. No. 6. — To equalize the winding lines, the formation of the alternate (left) posterior line leading. As we cannot begin with a rear point of apphca- 218 tion (§167), and, therefore, not with its representa- tive, the rear point of the (left) eye muscle ; and, as we cannot develope the secondary section of the alternate posterior line without some corres- ponding point d'appui, in the old line, we take the right upper ribs as this point d'appui, and begin by forming against it, the secondary section of the alternate (left) posterior winding Hne ; first in its " reflected " action of drawing the inner bear- ing from the (left) false to the (right) false rib ar- ticulation ; and, then, in its " proper " action from the (right) true to the (left) true ribs. It will be remembered (§171), that the move- ment of every point is, now, the reverse of what it was in the forcing of the old line. We shall make the description of this movement in more general terms than have been employed heretofore. In the composite spine. First. — Pressing the upper part of the (right) upper ribs forward and to the (left), an appui is taken on that action in the course of the alternate (left) posterior line, which will, for the secondary section (by reaction), draw the inner bearing from the (left) false ribs to the right ones, then (by proper action), that of the right true ribs to the left ones, and begin to fill the 219 left upper lung lobe in its lower portion as the left true ribs take the inner bearing.* Next, for the primary section. Developing the position of the alternate (left-right) posterior cross- line end discharge the old (right-left) posterior — straightening the right side of the spine at the small of the back, and releasing the traction on the left side of the lower end of the stemum.t Second. — The continuation of the moTement brings on a retraction of the (right) upper point of appli- cation for the ophidian spine ; the filling of the right lower lung lobe for the secondary section of the anterior line. Then, for the primary section, the formation of the new, and discharge of the old-line, between the right and left upper comers of the sternum, and the same for the two sides of the small of the back. In the bicomposite spine. First. — The left shoulder- blade taking from the right shoulder-blade, then, the right jaw articulation from the left one for the alternate posterior Hne. Second. — And, for the whole, lastly. The right jaw articulation taking from the left one ; then, the left shoulder-blade taking from the right shoulder- * This lung lobe does not lill until the preceding movements have 3}een well carried out. t This traction § 39 belongs to the old (right) posterior winding line. 220 blade for the alternate anterior line; the whole ending with a stress on the (left) shoulder-blade. These last bicomposite actions move the neck- root joint and bring the focus of force to the space between the upper and lower lung lobes. § 175. Nos. 9 and 10.— § 177. The forming of the alternate lines in the pace developement, followed by their equalization after the discharge of the old Hues. No. 9 — For the (right) anterior alternate linelead- ing, we have, Jirst, the attempt at rotation back- ward and inward of the (right) head condyle ; then the -incipient convex on the (right) of the lower C of the neck S, followed by the discharge of the {left} upper comer of the sternum ; then the formation on the outer bearing, for the (right) jaw articula- tion, followed by the discharge of the left articula- tion, then the developement of the (right-left) an- terior cross-Hue end in its position, and the reduc- tion of the (left-right) followed by the formation for the left shoulder-blade on the outer bearing,, and reduction of the right. For the (leit) posterior alternate line by induction ; first, imier bearing formed on the right of the lower C of neck S (reaction) ; reduction of left side ; inner bearing on left of upper (proper action) ; 221 reduction of right side ; formation of left shoulder- blade on inner bearing ; reduction of right shoul- der-blade; then the development of (left-right) posterior cross-line end, and reduction of the (right- left) ; followed by the formation for the (right) jaw articulation on the inner bearing, and reduction of the (left). Finally, drawing of (right) stemo-mas- toid. § 176. No. 10. — ^For the (left) alternate posterior line leading. The most marked points seem to be the forming pressure of (right) socket gainiag its pressure at the front part of its condyle — and the reduction of the pressure of the (left) socket, .as if it were separating from its condyle. For this (left) posterior alternate line leading by forming pressure of the (right) socket, we have, first} tlie inner bearing on the (right) side of the lower C of the neck S (reaction) ; reduction of left side ; inner bearing on left of upper C (proper action) &c. &c., being the repetition of No. 9, ex- cepting that the posterior line comes first and de- pends not on induction, but on the forming socket- pressure ; and that the anterior hne comes second by induction, working from the right lower jaw articulation as the posterior line continues its ac- tion. 10* 222 Nos. 7, 8, 9 and 10 run very mucli into each other. In fact, in 9 and 10 the equalization of the compo- site spine follows on the first part of the second set of lines iu action whicheyer this maybe. Thus, in No. 10, so soon as the left shoulder-blade moves in connection with the lower C of the neck, the right shoulder-blade steadies the upper C of the composite spine for its reactionary action in the lower ribs. Pkactical Setting-up. § 177. Of the EIGHT METHODS OF " SETTING-UP," which have just been enumerated, the bases may be described as follows, and with the descriptions already given we shall refer more particularly to the present section for practical explanation.. The process of exhausting and filling the lung lobes will be discussed more fully under " setting-up with double action;" but it may be remarked here that the mouth should be kept closed, the air passing out through the nostril collateral with the exhausting lobe, and entering by tHfe nostril collateral with the filling lobe. It will not, how- ever, be necessary to attend to the latter process, as a good part of the filling will come from trans- fer from an upper to a collateral lower lobe, or 223 ~vice versa. The paragraph conchiding No. 1 ap- plies ■with obvious modifications to all the num- bers. We have taken no notice of the movement of the head condyles or eye muscles, as they will ad- just of themselves. It is to be remembered that the upper lobes fill or exhaust from below, the lower lobes from above. No. 1. — Forcing the anterior Une in the trot- ting movement. (1.) Exhausting the lower (left) lung lobe untU this action brings on the filling •of the lower (right) lobe. (2.) By induction from (1.) and after allowing the necessary connections of the neck and pelvis to adjust themselves. ^Exhausting the upper (right) lung lobe, untU this brings on the filling of the upper (left) lobe, and fresh adjustment of the pelvis and neck. The movement would be begun by drawing back the left upper part of the chest near the first rib. As to the adjustments, these wlQ be — (1.) the (left) lower jaw articulation giving off its inner bearing as the lower (left) lung exhausts, and the (right) jaw articulation taking outer bearing as the lower (right) lobe fills. (2.) The (right) shpul- der joint giving oft' inner bearing as the upper 224 (right) lung lobe exhausts, and the (left) shoulder joint taking outer bearing as the upper (left) lung lobe fills. Consequent on the exhaustion of the lower C of the right lung tip* and filling of the lower of the left, being the final action, the right sterno-mastoid then draws from above on the right upper comer of the sternum. It will be observed that in these movements the lower (left) false rib articulations cross the central Ijne of the body ; both they and the (left) hip joint passing in front, across the body to the (right) and falling outward, as they give off inner bearing. The (right) true ribs and right shoulder blade pass relatively to the (left), beginning below, but the uppermost true, rib is not adjusted imtil the body S being virtually carried through its movement, the right shoulder joint moves with the neck S, completely separating the stemo-mastoids in front. No. 2. — Forcing the posterior line in the trot- ting movement. (1.) Exhausting the upper (right) lung lobe, until this action brings on the filling of the upper (left) lobe. (2.) By induction from (1), and after allowing the pelvis and neck connections to adjust themselves. Exhausting the lower (left * The upper O of each lung tip goes with its diagonal lower lung lobe ; the lower C with the upper lobe, to which it is attached. 225 lung lobe, until this brings on the filling of the lower (right) lobe and fresh adjustments of the neck and pelvis. Since the posterior point of application cannot,, at first, act directly, the movement would be be- gun by drawing backward the (right) upper part of the chest, near the first rib, but at the same time allowing this to press inward, to accommo- date the reflected action in the (left) false ribs^. As to the adjustments, these will be (1) the (right) shoulder joint giving off its inner bearing: as the upper (right) lobe exhausts, and the left shoulder joint, taking outer bearing as the upper (left) lobe fills. (2.) The (left) jaw articulation giving off imier bearing, as the left lower lung lobe exhausts, and the (right) jaw articulation taking outer bearing as the lower (right) lobe fiUs. Con- sequent on the exhaustion of the upper C of the (right) Itmg tip and filling of the upper C of the (left) lung tip being the final action, the left head muscles then draw from above on the left shoulder blade. No. 3. — Forcing the anterior line in the pacing movement. (1.) Begins with the (left) jaw artic- ulation giving off inner bearing with exhaustion of lower (left) lung lobe. The movement of the 226 neck S corresponding to this, brings around the right shoulder joint, giving off inner bearing with exhaustion of the upper (right) lung lobe. (2.) The neck motion continuing, the (right) jaw artic- ulation takes outer bearing with filling of lower (right) lung lobe, and the neck movement still •continuing, the left shoulder joint takes outer bearing with filling of upper left lung lobe. Fi- nally, although differently from the trot, the draw- ing of the right stemo-mastoid is in advance of the equahziation of the lung tips, yet, consequent on the exhaustion of the lower C of the (right) lung tip, and filling of the lower C of the left, being the final movement, the drawing of the upper (right) comer of the sternum is from above. No. 4. — Forcing the posterior line in the pacing movement. (1). Begins with the (right) shoulder joint giving off inner bearing with exhaustion of the upper (right) limg lobe. The movement of the neck S corresponding to this, brings around the (left) jaw articulation, giving off inner bearing with the exhaustion of the lower (left) lung lobe. (2). The neck motion continuing, the (left) shoulder joint takes outer bearing with the filling of the upper (left) lung lobe, and the neck movement still contin- uing, the (right) jaw articulation takes outer bear- 227 ing with the filling of the lower (right) lung lobe. Finally, the drawing of the (left) side back mus- cles of the neck, moviag in advance of the equaliza- tion of the lung tips, consequent on this and on the exhaustion of the upper C of the (right) lung tip, and filling of upper C of the (left) lung tip, being the final action, the drawing on the (left) shotdder- blade is from above. No. 5. — Forming first the alternate anterior line in the trotting movement. (1). Filling the lower (right) lung lobe. Exhausting the lower (left) lobe. (2). Filling the upper (left) lobe. Exhaust- ing the upper (right) lobe. The jaw articulations and shoulder joints, as before, follow the lung movement, the (right) jaw articulation taking outer bearing, then tlje (left) one giving off inner bearing. The (left) shoulder taking outer bearing, the right shoulder giving off inner bearing. Then, as the lung tips equalize, the jaw, and lastly the shoulders, take a final adjustment, ending with a drawing at the right upper comer of the sternum, which, instead of coming as in No. 1, from above, by the stemo-mastoid, now comes from below, along the right side of the sternum. No. 6. — Forming first the alternate posterior line in the trotting movement. (1). Filling the upper 228 (left) lung lobe. Exhausting the upper (right) lobe. (2). Filling the lower (right) lung lobe. Exhaust- ing the lower (left) lobe. Eeferring to the first part of the conclud- ing paragraph of No. 2. (1). The (left) shoul- der joint takes an outer bearing as the upper (left) lobe fiUs, and the (right) shoulder joint gives off inner bearing as the upper (right) lobe exhausts. (2). The (right) jaw articulation takes an outer bearing as the lower (right) lobe fills, and the left jaw articulation gives off inner bearing as the lower (left) lobe exhausts. As the lung tips equalize, the jaw, and lastly the shoulders, take a final adjust- ment, ending with a drawing on the left shoulder- blade from below, instead of, as in No. 2, from above. No. 7. — Forming first the alternate anterior line in the pacing movement. (1). Lower (right) and, suc- ceeding this, the upper (left) lung lobe fills. (2).. Lower (left) and, succeeding this, the upper (right) lung lobe exhausts. The head being raised, the (right) lower jaw ar- ticulation commences the movement, taking on outer bearing, as— following the movement of the jaw — the (right) lower lung lobe fills. Next, the left shoulder-blade, which meantime must not be 229 kept from following the general movement of the- neck, takes on outer bearing as the (left) upper lung lobe fills. The (left) jaw articulation gives off . inner bearing as the (left) lower lung lobe exhausts,, and the left hip joint is released. The (right) stemo-mastoid now draws at the (right) upper cor- ner of the sternum. Finally, the (right) shoulder joint gives off inner bearing as the right true ribs adjust themselves, and the force along the (right), side of the sternum coming from below, unites with that of the right stemo-mastoid in making: the tractions collateral. No. 8. — Forming first the alternate posterior Hne in the pacing movement. (1). Upper (left) and, suc- ceeding this, the lower (right) lung lobe fills. (2).. Upper (right) and, succeeding this, the lower (left), lung lobe exhausts. The (left) shoulder joint takes on outer bearing: as, following the movement of the shoulder joint, the (left) upper lung lobe fills, the (right) jaw ar- ticidation, meantime, following the general neck movement. The (right) jaw articulation takes on outer bearing, and the (right) lower limg lobe fiUs.. The (right) shoulder joint giving off inner bearing,, the right true ribs are released, then, the (left) jaw articulations giving off inner bearing, the left false^ 230 libs and the left hip joint. Lastly, the drawing on the left shoulder-blade from the head having been already established, the line of traction is made collateral by a. drawing from below. § 178. If we have previously succeeded in ex- plaining the successive movements of the parts in detail, the fillings and exhaustions given in this section — ^the action of the leading one being con- tinued throughout — should indicate those move- ments. The key to " setting up," as before men- tioned, is rather the knowing where to yield than where to initiate movement. The pacing movement ought, perhaps, theoreti- cally, to equalize a of the lung tips before its corresponding lower or upper lobe ; but in practice, particularly where there is even the slightest dis- tortion, we think it wiU be necessary to give some precedence to the lobes. § 179. There remain two points to be spoken of. These depend upon the fact that when the shoulder- blades are turned outwards they act upon the lower part of the neck-root joint, and affect the trunk ; but when they are turned inwards they act upon the upper part of this joint and affect the neck S. JBj pressing the right shoulder forward, and to 231 "the left, across the neck, we bring on motion in the secondary section of the left anterior winding line, and thus initiate a forcing of the action of the (left) head condyle. By pressing the left shoulder forward, to the right, across the neck, we bring on motion in the line of reaction of the secondary section of the r^ht posterior winding line, and thus initiate a forcing of the indirect pressure of the left head socket (§39). §180. Eqimlization on two lines at once (or double action in halting). In this, a similar interchange of action and of bearings, from side to side, takes place as when the lines act singly, but the "shapes" do not show themselves laterally. It finishes also in the same result of bringing the tractions into collateral, instead of diagonal connection. As before, the eye muscles accompany more especially the ophidian, the digastrics the composite the lower, jaw the bicomposite spine. §181. No. 11. — Double action equalization, the an- ierir lines leading. On the anterior lines (leading). — Ophidian spine — by outward bearing action, in lower 0, of central S, both lower lung lobes begin to fill as scecondary section action. Then both anterior cross-line 232 ends exchange for collateral actions, between tlie upper and lower lung lobes, as primary section action. The changes caused in the lines of gravity give this fundamental movement a general effect throughout the body. Composite Spine. — The lower lung lobes go on filling and the hip-joints interchange outer-bear- ings for the secondary section. Then the small of the back and the upper comers of the sternum adjust their right and left sides, as continuing the action of the anterior cross-line ends for the prim- ary section. Bicomposite Spiae. — The lower lung lobes con- tinuing to fiU, the hinder limbs adjust themselves for the secondary section, the lines passing in rear of the hip joints. Then, the lower jaw articula- tions adjusting on the outer bearings, followed by the rotary movement of the head condyles, on their rear ends, and the forward across-joint move- ment of the condyles, followed by the adjustment of the shoulder-blades on the outer bearings, rep- resent the anterior cross-line ends in the primary section.* * The movement between the lower jaw articulations and shoulder- blades, crossing at the junction of the necls G C, is as if thj body swung between them, as the bicomposite tractions conflian those which have 233 On.posterior lines (by induction). Since the last point in the development of the anterior lines was a bearing on the shoulder-blades, some action on these wiU result from each stage in the subse- quent development of the posterior hues until they bear on the lower jaw. Ophidian Spine. — ^Interchange of inner bearings between right and left sides of lower ribs begin to straighten these ribs in double twist, and thus complete the filling of the lower lung lobes (reac- tion). Interchange of inner bearings and between sides of the upper C, (proper action,) and com- mencing filling of the upper lung lobes from their lower portions for secondary action. Then, posterior cross-Une ends adjust themselves between the lung lobes for primary section. Composite Spine^ — As the interchange of inner bearings between the lower C ribs continues from the reactionary movement, its effect extends in the muscles from the lower end of the spine to the front of the pelvis, and does not yet reach the hip socket. Extended interchange between lower ribs of inner bearings, which adds to filling of lower gone before. This movement changes the " general lines of thrust " against the edges of the head joint sockets. The lung tips (second C) movement occurs with the two condyle movements. 234 lungs and causes an adjustment between the mus- cles passing from lower end of tlie sternum to the pelvis (reaction). Interchange of inner bearings between rib articulations of upper C and filling of upper lung lobes, for secondary section. Then,, adjustment of posterior cross-Una ends at small of back and lower end of sternum, as continuing ac- tion of posterior cross-line ends* and drawing on posterior points of application (which we may per- haps consider to be placed at the front projecting points of the hip bone) for the primary section. Bicomposite Spine. — Hinder limbs adjust them- selves, as to inner bearing, on front part of feet (reaction). The shoulder-blades adjust themselves,, followed by the movement at the anterior ends of the head sockets (proper action). Then the movement backward of the sockets along the outer edges of the condyles, followed by the adjustment of the jaw articulations, as representing the — on this bearing — posterior cross-line end adjustment; and, finally, the adjustment and drawing of the posterior points of application at the front of the hip sockets and down the hinder hmbs, for the primary section. * We have not thought it worth while to speak of the movement of the diaphragm and its pUlars.. 235 Stress on upper comers of sternum. Upper of lung tips pivot for head socket movement. § 182, No. 12. — Dovhle action equalization, the pos- terior lines leading. On the posterior lines (leading) ophidian spine. Interchange between sides of lower C of central IS of inner bearings (reaction). This action, which, in the preceding formation (§ 181), when superin- duced on the outer bearing, completed the filling of the lower lung lobes, by straightening the ribs in "double twist;" now, on the contrary, having only the effect of pressing the ribs together, drives the air from these lobes. Interchange of inner bearings between the sides of the upper C of the central S (proper action). This action of the pos- terior points of appUcation draws the rib heads down, and thus raising the outer part of their arcs enlarges the upper lung lobes. This for the sec- ondary section. For the primary section the pos- terior cross-line ends separate between the Itmg lobes, and, following this, the posterior points of application, do the same, at the lowest dorsal ver- tebrae.* Composite Spine. — ^Again, the lower ribs are com- * What are " points of application" for tlie " opliidian spine" come to be cross-line ends for the " composite." 236 pressed, the lower lungs are exhausted; the muscles passing from the lower end of the sternum to the pubis adjust themselves so that the lines of gravity of the body come upon the inner sides of the feet (reaction). The upper ribs being raised by their interchange of inner bearings at their articulations are filled (proper action). This for secondary sec- tion. For primary section, the axial line of fiUing for the tipper lung lobes passes through the lower end of the sternum, at which, and following it, at the small of the back, the posterior cross-hue ends adjust themselves on either side. Then the poste- rior points of apphcation on each side at the ante- rior points of the pelvis.* Bicomposite spine. — The hinder limbs inter- "change inner bearing (reaction). The shoulder- blades do the same (proper action) secondary section. The movement on the anterior ends of the head joint sockets followed by their movement backward on the outer edges of the head condyle, which changes the lines of general thrust and brings the bearing on the lower jaw, as represent- ing the cross-line ends. Finally, the adjustment of the posterior points of apphcation at the hip- joints * At every stage more and more appui haa been taken on the sboulder- Uades. 237 in front, which are likewise for this spine, the con- tinuation of the posterior cross-line enda, prima/ry section. On the anterior lines, (by induction) — ophidian spine. "With movement of articulations of lower ribs on to their outer bearings, the lower lung lobes begin to fill for the secondary section. Then, with the movement of the anterior " points of applica- tion" at the lower part of the neck-rook joint, the adjustment of the anterior cross-line ends between the lower and upper lung-lobes for the primary section. Composite spine. — ^With the continued movement of lower ribs on to their outer bearings, and contin- ued filling of lower lung-lobes, comes the adjustment on outer bearing of the hip 'sockets for the piimaiy section. Then the adjustment in continuation of the cross-line ends at the upper part of the sternum and at the small of the back* the anterior points of application rising in the neck above the neck-root joint for the primary section. Bicomposite spine. — ^Adjustment of hinder-limbs on the outer bearing, the movement passing * It will be noticed that the snccession goes from sternum to small of back, with posterior lines leading, both for posterior and anterior lines— whereas it was ftx>m sm%ll of back to sternum, with anterior lines leading. IX 238 through hip joints for the secondary section. Then the adjustment of lower jaw articulations on outer bearing as representing the anterior cross-line ends, and movement of head condyles -on their posterior ends, followed by movement of condyles across the joiat and adjustment of shoulder-blades on the outer bearing for the final movement. § 183. We have rehearsed over again for double action equalization, the details which might have been collected from the movements oh one set of lines. This has been done because the succession of double movements, with the posterior hnes lead- ing, appears to us to be that on which the method taught by Monsieur Morquin, before alluded to, is carried out. This method, which is excellent for a regular exercise,* we shall now discuss. It win, we think, become evident from this ex- ercise — That although Mons. Morquin's method di- rected filling the lungs from the mouth, yet the normal filling of, is through the nostrils. That the upper lobes fill on the posterior Hnes, the lower lobes on the anterior lines. That the lower C of the lung tips fill at the passage from * That is for confirming the setting up by strengthening the defi- cient muscles. It does not, however, quite answer where a rapid " setting up " is called for. 239 posterior to anterior lines, when the "thorough action " of the head sockets passes the hnes from the shoulder-blades to the lower jaw, and the upper C C of the lung tips on the passage from anterior to posterior liaes, when the "thorough action " of the head condyles passes them from the lower jaw to the shoulder-blades. Also that each lung lobe, upper or lower, is exhausted and filled through its collateral nostril. That when both upper and lower lobes are filled, the pressure from the lower lobes, if the filling of these through the nostrils be continued, may be made to drive out the air from the upper lung lobes, through the mouth, and that a long protrac- ted, if not indefinitely continued, current of air may thus be kept up, on which the vocal chords may act, as the cords of any stringed instrument Of the volume of sotmd created, and of the ease with which it may thus be produced, Mons. Morquin gave repeated proofs. § 184. Mons. Morquin, so far as we know, made no attempt at any anatomical explanation of the system, which, he said, had been taught him, as one of the soldiers of a battalion selected for gym- nastic instruction, and which, at the time of the French Eevolution of 1830 was stationed at Eheims. 240 Having been unable to find any reference to this method in the work of Col. Amoros, or to hear anything of it when in France, a number of years ago, we are inclined to think, that, as probably was the case with the motions of the manual of arms, the seat on horseback, &c., the method was derived from a description of the way in which some perfectly formed man naturally accomplished the action in fiUing his own chest and thus setting himself up. In this case, very probably, the in- structor. His directions may, we believe, although per- haps not in his own words, be correctly stated as follows : (1.) " Place the feet parallel to each other, and together, throughout their length." (2.) " Hold the head in its ordinary position, anhd free,y but keep both it and the chest weU for- ward, so as to bring the weight of the body on to the front part of the feet." (3.) " Take a full breath through the mouth." (4.) " Close the mouth, retaining the air thus taken in. Eaise the chin only sufBciently to keep the balance of the body forward, without rising on the toes, and push vnth the upper frwit part of the chest forward and upward." 241 " This action rrmst, as the trial loill show, cause the air to he expelled slowly through the nostrils. This expulsion of the air is to be earned as far as pos- sible." (5.) " Eetainiag the position of aU parts of the body, as thus attained, again fill the chest by the mouth, and again, by " pushing with the upper front part of the chest forward and upward," let air slowly pass out through the nostrils." Bemark, — " Let the inspiration through the mouth be sudden but full. Let the expiration through the nostrils be slow and regular." "The repetition of these actions will at last bring the body into a position in which the chest will be tensely swollen with air, and every joint of the body feel free. Its attainment in the course of the movement will be marked by the feeling that the shoulder-blades are drawn firmly against the body, while at the same time the hands are turned, thumbs outward, elbows near the body, and the neck is perfectly free in front." § 185.' Explanation on the theories already ad- vanced. The whole difference between the above detailed method and No. 12 — " Setting-up by dou- ble action, the posterior lines leading " — consists in the air for the upper lung lobes being drawn 242 through the mouth in the former, which makes it possible to begin by filling them, and to follow this by exhausting the lower lobes by the " reaction " from the secondary section of the posterior lines, with the upper part of the chest as an intermedi- ate starting point, instead of beginning at once with the shoulder-blades. In No. 12 the lower lobes must be first ex- hausted through the nostrils, and then the upper lobes fiUed in the same way at each stage (except- ing so far as the air already in the lungs may ad- just itself). In Mons. Morquin's method the upper lobes are first filled by the mouth, and then the lower lobes exhausted by the nostrils. "When the upper lobes are once filled, the lower lobes, in both methods, are filled through the nos- trils, and the two methods coalesce. A con- tinuance of filling the lower lobes beyond their capacity, will transfer the air to the upper lobes, whence it may be expired through the mouth, and form the voice. Mons. Morquin's method has several advan- tages, especially that the filling of the upper lobes through the mouth, although not thorough, is rapid ; and that, by a few mechanical directions, a recruit may be caused to go through a process 243 which could hardly be explained to the mass of men. In all methods commmdng tuith the posterior lives, it is to he partmiki/rly remembered that no stiffening of the lines from the chest to the Mp joints he allowed in the "reactionary" working of the lower ribs, he- cavse this traction passes backward only gradually, viz : first, by a change of gravity taking effect on the front part x>f the feet ; second, by the adjust- ment in the muscles joining the lower end of the sternum and the front of the pelvis ; third, by the drawing of the posterior points of appUcation from ^6 front of the hip joints (§ 162, sixth). § 186. By a movement analogous to that just given, but carried out on a single hne, viz. : by fill- ing the left upper lung lobe through the mouth, and emptying the left lower lung lobe through the left nostril, it wiU, we think, become apparent that Mons. Morquin's method is a formation of the alter- nate lines, and not a forcing of the old ones. Let the left* upper lobe be filled from the mouth, the air being carried to its upper part, and then the left upper part of the chest being strained upward * It need scarcely be repeated that all these exercises suppose the right-handed deformity. In the contrary case the parts mentioned would change. 244 and forward, let it be so carried around to the left and backward as to cause compression of the left lower lobe, such that the air passes out through the left nostril. After a certain amount of repetition of these actions the right lower lobe wiU begin to fin from the right nostril. After the right lower lobe has thus filled to a certain extent it will begin to compress the left lower lobe, and to form a co- worMng with it which may be likened to the work- ing of the head condyles in their ball and socket connection. After this has been carried to a cer- tain extent, a further enlargement of the left upper lobe will take place by transfer of air from the compressed left lower lobe. The left upper lobe wiU join in a sort of co-working with the right upper lobe, which, after compressing the latter and causing the transfer of air to the right lower lobe, win bring on a shght — finally adjusting— filling of the right upper, and conjoin the action of the two upper lobes, so that they may be likened to the sockets of the ball and socket of the head joint. § 187. It may be that the reason for the fact that few persons can take a so satisfactorily full inhalation through the nostrils as through the mouth consists in the necessity for a full move- ment of the lung tips, or, what comes to the same 245 tMng, of the' "neck-root joint," in order to accom- plish the first, whereas an inhalation through the mouth allows a greater filling qf the upper lobes without moTing the lung tips. § 188. A few directions given by Mons. Morquin for various exercises may be introduced here : (A) Extend the arms and fingers to either side, the fingers being kept close together. Push with the ends of the fimgers from the body, thus stretching the fingers to the utmost. Very soon one of the fingers will experience a tendency to close* and the others to follow it. Keeping up the tension, let the fingers bend on their own joints (i. e., not at the knuckles) till the tips of the fingers rest on the inner faces of the knuckle joints. Next close the knuckle-joints until the nails are supported against the ball of the thumb, and the heel of the palm. Thus the fingers are well sup- ported. This exercise seems an excellent one for developing the strength of the homd. Finally, bend the thumbs which, meanwhile have been kept tensely extended, so that their nail sec- * We think the middle finger first. The stretching is the outer bear- ing carried to its .extreme point — the bending the induced inner bearing. 11* 246 tions rest against the central sections of the two first fingers. (B) In dropping from a height the chest should be kept swoUen with air, the upper part pushed forward and upward. The chin up, the feet close together, toes touching.' The arms extended and stretched tensely upwards. The fingers together and stretched. Push upward with the finger ends. On touching the ground, air should be allowed to pass out through the nostrils, and, if necessary, through the mouth with a shout. Possibly, also, a spring upward should take place. The effort to push up the chest and the ends of the fingers must be continued throughout. (C) If, when dropping from a height, the elbows be bent and brought to the sides, and then be jerked backwards or the fore-arms thrust forward, a considerable change as to the point of descent may be effected. (D) As a general nJe in aU gymnastic exercises, whether on the gymnastic bars or in the manual of the musket, &c., the fingers should be kept stretched when grasping, and the "heel ofthejpalm" should always strike first, i. e., the stroke of the hand should, like that of the foot on the ground in progression, be made on the outer bearing. 247 In the second motion of "charge bayonet" if the left hand be held thus stretched out, the musket on striking the heel of the palm and falling in the <3irection of the knuckle-joints, will close the hand in spite of any effort to keep it extended. § 189. "We may add : (a) That the whole of the difficulty so generally ■experienced in " support arms" comes from the left upper lung-lobe not being properly filled with air, and from the consequent dropping forward on its inner bearing of the left shoulder-blade. (b) The ball and socket action between the limg lobes being the pivot for all the movements of the body, the shoulder-blades, which, by their position, work directly over this pivot, should support each other directly, when the man is perfectly set-up ; that is, the movement of an arm in fencing goes through its own shoulder-blade directly to the other shoulder-blade, as its appui, while the head in a plomb on its condyles regulates the svbordinate ball and socket movements of the hips. The same ■would be the case in writing, &c. The shoulder- blades do not thus support each other where the {right) handed deformity is present, for there is then a restrafl,n£d adjustment of the hips and head which interferes. 248 In walking, &c., the movements of the pelvis in its baU and socket action at the diaphragm is met by the action of the head, and then co-adjusts with the ball and socket action of the shoulder-blades ; so that these last (with more or less movement of the arms) regulate each step. In the horse the suspension of the formation of the alternate ante- rior line in the bicomposite spine (A") until after the grounding of the free fore-foot, in the trot, is necessary in order to maintain the collateral balance. The same thing occurs in the walk of a man, after (e. g.) the left foot has left the ground and the right foot come down, a moment's delay should take place before the old bicomposite gath- ering on the left shoulder is discharged, and it is the imperfect performance of this which causes the backward hitch of the right shoulder after the right foot has come down so generally seen. (c) A well set-up man wiU experience no diffi- culty in carrying the musket in old way, i. e., balanced on the middle finger of the left hand, the stock supported ia the hollow of the left shoulder. Having thus gone into the details of the move- ments in the two identical actions of halting and setting-up, it may, we think, be added that they all follow on a continuous movement of holding up 249 the head.* The attempt to do this vnll of itself iadicate what line is to commence the vdndiiig line movements, and on -this others will follow, if it be bom in mind — First. — That although in actual execution the formations of the ophidian, composite, and bicom- posite spines must run into each other, yet there are three distinct stages, all of which give some movement at the head joint, viz. : The ophidian spine, a general movement, as of a simple ball and socket. The composite spine, a more definite movement of the division into two parts, accompanied with a fuU movement of the corresponding of the neck S. The bicomposite spine, a complete condyle and condyle-socket movement. These movements must bring on the filling of the alternate lung lobes and exhaustion of the ab- normally filled ones for each Kne, anterior and pos- terior ; and, with the beginning of the composite spine movement, as finishing that of the composite spine, the action of the lung tips. Second. — That the action of the posterior line *If the movement is to begin with a posterior line, which Tirtnally brings down the head in front, the front of the socket will rise as the head is raised. 250 b b' consists so much in the reflected secondary action, that the actual primary action occupies but Jittle time, and also the direct secondaiy section is so retarded that the filling of the alternate upper lung lobe may be kept back until the formation of ■even the composite spine is well advanced. The accommodating of the lower convex of the neck to the reflected secondary action in that part, must be particularly remembered, and the inward turn of the filling hiver C of the alternate lung tip, and outward turn of the exhausting lower C, the outward turn of the filling upper and inward turn of the exhausting one. Finally, in causing all the movements to succeed a continued development of the first, and, by in- duction of the succeeding lines in the head-joint, it must not be forgotten that every thing goes for- ward toivard the formation of ike coUdieral tractions, and that thus, whatever the movement, the head keeps steadily up. To complete this subject, see particularly Ap- pendix n, p. 290. 251 PAET YI. EmiNG. § 190. We have endeavored to show how seri- ously the inequality of action in symmetric parts, and the consequent, imperfect, and "shackly" movement of central points may interfere with personal locomotion. Not less do these faults interfere with the seat on horseback, indeed the trouble here is stiU more serious, for the points of appui instead of being on an immoveable surface, which will await the ad- justment of the body, as does the ground, have place on another body, which is continually in motion, and, if not met in time, are at once re- moved. Thus, if the seat bones of -the rider do hot move equally, one of them, generally the right, is left behind by the motion of the horse. Hence, that hanging back of the right shoulder so general- ly to be observed, even in passable horsemen. When this fault exists, it is only by making the knees, in- stead of the seat bones, the points of appui, that an action of the shoulder may make up for this loss of position, and it is in fact thus made up, with a sort of hop on the other seat-bone, for which the 252 appui on the knee, or perhaps on the stirrup, gives the necessary freedom. § 191. The grand difiference between riding and personal locomotion seems to us to exist in the fact that, although the rider sits over the lungs of the horse, the traction which he himself receives at the seat bones is not in the ophidian but in the composite spine. Consequently his first action in following is to combine the composite and ophid- ian spines by the action at the upper end of the sternum for progression, at the lower end for re- trogression, or for a check in progression. This combination once made, the remainder of the movement is executed in the regular succession. Inaugurating his own movement by a leading action in the ophidian S, as does a man on foot, will cause a discrepancy of motion between the rider and his horse sufficient to loosen the seat of the most perfectly formed man. A httle practice, however, should soon overcome this difficulty, and, we think, it may be assumed not only that a thor- oughly set up man may be at once taught to fol- low the motions of his horse, but also that he may at once be able to manage the animal, for he has only to inaugurate in his own body the movements he desires in svch a way that they may meet the 253 horse^s gathering at the proper Umefor farcing or for checldng the latter, and, if the horse be properlj suppled, it will follow up the impressions received. The Setting-up on horseback may, of course, be accomplished by any of the methods we have men- tioned, but there are two among them which ap- pear to be the most appropriate. Both begin in the composite spine ; that on the " anterior wind- ing line " would seem the best fitted to progression, that on the "posterior Une" to retrogression, or to a check in progression. Both follow in the course of the " alternate Hne " methods Nos. 5 and 6, but begin at intermediate positions, and not at the " points of application " — ^that for the left an- terior line commencing with the left shoulder- blade, that for the right posterior line -With the right upper ribs. § 192. For the anterior Une. While the chin is raised weU up and carried forward the left shoulder blad& is pressed forward and to the right, as it were,, across and through the neck. The relative bearing of the shoulder-bla3e is that which it assumes in No. 5, at the conclusion of the movement of the alter- nate (right) condyle acrosss the head joint. In the present case ii first causes the actions and equali- zation preceding this relative bearing to develops 254 "themselTes — the right thigh rolls out — the right lower lung lobe fills — the right upper comer of the sternum reduces the left, the left stemo-mastoid turning outward in its lower portion — the right jaw articulation rises, as it were, OTer the left — the right head condyle turns on its posterior, end — then mOTes across the joint to the front, and con- firms the position of the left shoulder-blade. Second. — The movement of the left shoulder- blade, " as it were, across the neck," is continued, and developes the equalizing of the posterior lines, bringing out the left posterior by induction. The left lower lung lobe is condensed as the " reaction- ary " movement from the secondary section equal- izes the lower false ribs. The left upper lung lobe fills with the " proper " movement of this sec- tion — ^the left shoulder-blade is set in the left al- ternate posterior line — the right head socket presses upward against its condyle as the right upper lung lobe is reduced — ^passes forward across the head joiat, sets the right jaw articulation as the lower C of the right lung tip condenses, and tightens the right stemo-mastoid by a drawing from below. § 193. It is to be remarked that ia the progress of all the setting-up movements it may be neces- 255 sarj occasionally to stretch the central line of the body so that the advance made may distribute itself to the various parts and leave the leading point again in position to draw in its first coimec- tion. There is also a slight, final, "double action" movement necessary to complete the setting-up. § 194. Por the posterior line. The relative bear- ing of the right upper ribs is that in which, after the passing of the right socket across the head joint (No. 6), the right articulation of the lower jaw and the drawing of the right stemo-mastoid would bring them. The actions and equalizations preceding this relative bearing are Jirst develop- ed — the left lower lung lobe is condensed, some- what, as the "reactionary" movement from the secondary section of the forming left posterior (al- ternate) line equalizes the left false ribs — ^left upper lung lobe fills with the " proper " action — ^in the bicomposite spine the left shoulder-blade equalizes with the right — ^the right head joint socket presses up against its condyle, and the pressure crosses the joint to the front, following which the right lower jaw equalizes on its inner bearing, and the right sterno-mastoid draws. Second. — The same carrying forward, and to the left, of the right upper part of the chest being con- 256 turned, the upper lung lobes are fully equalized, then the lower ones ; the right lower lung lobe fill- ing, the right head condyle turns in connection with the right articulation of the lower jaw, and as it passes forward across, the joint draws on the left shoulder-blade. This finally sets by a drawing from below, and a sUght movement of the posterior point of application in double action completes the setting-up. § 195. The last mentioned method § (194), as will be observed, carries out the rule to " bring the right shoulder forward." Both may be used for either progressive or retrogressive movement, be- cause, as was said of all the methods, they directly, if not immediately, find that stage of the horse's actions which coincides with their requirements. But we think that, to recapitulate the general directions, to raise and carry forward the chin, whUe the left shoulder-blade, on its older hearing, is, as it were, carried to the front and right, across the neck, and the spine stretched at intervals, infoUomng the movement, so as to bring its effects into the trunk, and aMow the sides of the pdvis to equalize, the whole ending by a spontaneous drawing from below on -the right stemo-mastoid, and followed by a filling 257 of both upper long lobes, will best stiit for the for- ward movements of the horse. Again, that the general directions to carry the up' per part of the right upper rihi forward and to the l^t, so as to diminish the 'protrusion of the left lower {false) ribs, by sinking tJie lower end of the sternum into their cavity, while ai the same time an effort is made to MOUNT AS IT WEBE, the body, by a backward move- ment of its upper fart, over and upon the left shoulder- blade; the spine stretching, infoUomng the movement, so as to bring its effects into the upper cliest, above which, as the neck-root joint equalizes, the head joint IS LEFT feee to allow of and adjust itself to the move- ment — the whole ending by a spontaneous drawing downward of the left shoulder-blade, and followed by a filling of both lower lung lobes will best suit the backward movements. § 196. Many books have been written on the seat on saddles, and on bita* As to the seat, it may vary somewhat with the "make" of the man, but well set-up men wiU have one uniform enough even for soldiers. As to the saddle, no saddle can be contrived that win be a complete defence against an tmeven seat, or careless packing and adjustment of the soldier's * Major Dtryer'B is one of the best and moat Interesting. -258 "effects." Against the latter a vigilant officer may provide ; the former can be remedied only by a good setting-up, and the unsparing punishment of every trooper who does not maintain it.* § 197. As to -bits, although a horse may be taught to check himself under a severe bit, as he would before a stone wall, its use can no more be called riding than stopping the animal in such a manner can be called halting him. A curb bit, with a high port, may, in most horses, force up the upper jaw, and thus prevent the head jdint from closing as it must for the inner bearing and the spring forward.t It also, by the leverage of its branches, gives in- creased power to the usual way of opening the lower jaw, but it is deficient in lateral action, and to some extent, by making the lower jaw the chief " artificial ground" for motion, in place of the eyes, it is subject to the same objection which that favor- ite of the French army, the Duke of Orleans, made to the — for preliminary breaking, wonderful — sys- * The relation of the knapsack to the foot soldier is the converse of that of the rider to the horse ; if the man's shoulder-blades be flat, and his step be even, a well packed knapsack will hardly worry him. t If in stopping a horse, a man on foot force the snaffle upwards into the mouth, so as to open it by the upper jaw, this action will, we think, be at once recognized ; the direction to hold the hand high in " stand to horse" would seem to depend on the same principle. 259 tem of Baucher : " Je ne veux pas de systeme qui prend sur la vitesse des chevaux." The double-jointed snaffle, conjoined with the other " aids," should, under a well set-up rider,, control a horse reasonably well made, and which the man has ridden for a fortnight, under aU cir- cumstances ; but then the other " aids" must often precede, and be only met, by that of the bit. In fact, the rider must imitate the motions in his own body, and his seat first communicate them to the horse. § 198. The " Aids." Although a perfectly sup- pled horse will generally answer to the movements give]! by the body of his rider, yet if unsuppled, or fractious, certain forcing influences are required. These are called " aids," and together with them we shall discuss some of the changes of gait and of action which they are calculated to produce, and which we have deferred from § 159. § 199. The aids are four in number, namely, the Bit, the Spurs, Pressure by the Seat bones of the rider. Pressure by the Beins on the horse's neck. § 200. The Bit has differing actions according to the changing relative bearings of the side of the lower jaw on which it acts. For example, if the left hind foot have just conie to the ground, in the 260 trot, the pressure of the bit on the left side of the mouth will increase the formation on the outer "bearing, and if continued after the right posterior line has begun to develope, will more or less hinder the formation on the inner bearing which this re- quires. If applied exactly after the spring from the left hind-leg, it wiU hinder the completion of the alternate (right) anterior line in the bicompos- ite spine, § 111 (since it is the opposite side of the jaw which must then take an outer bearing), and so check the progression. Its effects, we suppose, may always be calculated for the " working side " ■of the jaw by its coincidence with, or opposition to the movements of the lower jaw, as these coincide with the winding line in progress of development ; And, for the unengaged side, by the effect it thence produces in favoring or hindering the movements of the working side. In double action, drawing on the bit favors all -the anterior winding hues, and hinders all the pos- terior ones, excepting just at the interchange, of condyles on the spring, when hindering the pos- terior winding lines checks the formation of the alternate anterior ones.* * The movement of the jaw, it will be remembered, from its connec- tion with the digastrics and their connection with the lungs, permeates the whole body. 261 § 201. The Spur, and the pressure of the Seat- Ixynea of the rider are so related that they must be discussed together. It is scarcely necessary to premise that we do not intend actual use of the spur when the pressure of the leg suffices. The spur, acting near the rear end of the sternum, brings on the action of the posterior winding line of its own side ; thus the left spur will induce the developement of the left posterior winding line, first in the " reaction " from the secondary section, then, the " proper " secondary section, then in the primary section (the drawing of the cross line end). It thus reduces the working of the opposite pos- terior line. If the left hind-foot have just groimded in the trot, the right posterior line begins to form and put the foot on its inner bearings; drawing the left rein wiU interfere with this, by checking the coinciding movement of the left lower jaw articula- tion on to its inner bearing, (temporal muscle setting); and the left spur will also check it by de- veloping the opposite posterior winding-line; con- sequently the left hind leg, if (as in the right-hand- ed man), it works too much on the inner bearing, will be " bent " or " suppled." , The Seat-bone pressure affects similar results for 12 262 the anterior windiiig line of its side, beginning, however, with the primary section. Thus, if the horse's right hind-foot be raised, the weight of the rider's body, thrown perpendicularly on the right seat-bone, will bring the right hind-foot to the ground on its outer bearing by the primary section of the right anterior line, without fully developing the secondary section. It also reduces the working of the secondary section of the right posterior Une. In (" bending ") or " suppling" a hind leg, the right seat-bone pressure should work with the action of the left rein and left spur, so soon as the horse's left hind-foot has grounded. In this way the formation of the right posterior line is hindered by the left side of the bit, while the left posterior and right anterior lines, by their developement through the left spur and right seat-bone, subtract from the over-done "Ifeft-right counteractions" and tend to equalize the muscles. The spur in the flaah passes along the line on which it may be appHed, froin the posterior end of the sternum to the back, at which point it can be supposed to have a like influence to the seat-bone. Hence it may be that Abd el Kader described a perfect horseman as being able croiser les eperons sur le dos de son chevcd,L e., 263 rowel him from the belly to the back at one sweep, which, no doubt, produces an effectual gathering. §. 202. We have emphasized the word "perpen- dicularly" in speaking of throwing the rider's weight oh to the right (or left) ribs of his horse, because we beheve that few, even of pretty well made men, can do this. In general the weight is not perpendictdar, even on the left side, and the attempt to" pass it to the right side, being nothing more than a hanging over from the left, produces but litttle effect upon the horse. The required movement of the cross-line ends in the rider's body between the upper and lower lung lobes, is much greater when his -seat bones are to inter- change as appui, than what might serve tolera- bly well for the interchange of his feet ; hence the difficulty. The value as an "aid" of this change of the rider's weight from one side to the dther is little appreciated because few can use it. § 203. Pressure of the rein on the side of the neck. In our standard illustration for position — appuis of the horse on left hind and right fore- feet — the left rein, if carried to the right, would press against the left convex of the lower of the neck S, and would force it toward forming a convex to the right. Now, it has been said (§§ 60, 148) 264 that in the regular change of curvatures the convex must pass over the concave ; that is, it must, in the reduction, follow the direction of the line which formed it. This Une was, in the present case, the secondary section of the left anterior hne, whose convex would pass over and to the left. If, in so doii^, it developed the corresponding section of the right anterior line, that convex passing to the right would oppose it. But it will, we think, be appar- ent that the pressure of the rein reduces only the lateral development of the convex, and, so far as the perpendicular development is concerned, has rather the contrary effect. Hence, it wiU be the primary section of the alternate (right) posterior Une which pressure of the left rein on the left cQnv&c of the lower of the neck wiU develope. Again, the S being "formed by the counteractions of two forces, compoimded each of an element of pressure and an element of rotation, it may, we think, be assumed that the pressure elements give the longitudinal thrust, whereas the rotary element in each secondary section gives an outward svdeway movement to theribs,_legs, and other parts dependent on the convexity, whether this last be formed or only forming. Connected with a primary section, the leg is car- 265 ried inward across the body, iox the movement there depends, not on the general course of the \nnding line, but on the direction in which the cross-line end is drawn by the point of application, and whether the leg, in connection with a convexity, is following the reduction movement of the old cross- line end, or, in connection with a concavity, the establishment of the new one, the direction is alike across the central line of the body. The reactions wiU hold good for all the " spines" (§ 118), and thus the fobe-legs 7nay receive lateral as weD as other motion from two sources, the body or the neck, and be differently moved accordingly as they are in the trotting or the pacing connection. § 204. Since the spur (§ 199) developes the pri- mary section of that posterior winding line, whose point of appUcation hes on its own side — i. e., the left spur the primary section of the left posterior line, and so on — its application on a convexity would cause (§ 203) the correspondiiig hind-leg to move across the body with the reducing posterior cross-line end. When the left rein pressed upon the left convex of the lower C of the neck, at the same time that the right bit, drawing the lower jaw of that side on to its outer bearing, checks the formation of the 266 (alternate) left posterior line, the longitadinal thrust is suppressed, and, if the horse be kept steady, the lateral effect only has place. This would pass the left fore-foot in the neck connection across the body to the left, following the reduction of the old poste- rior cross-line end iu the neck. "Were the left fore- leg, in its body connection — i. e., on the anterior concave — the primary section of the formir^ right anterior hne would move it in the same direction. § 205. The cavesson having its action on the nasal bone, of course moves the upper jaw downward, and with a rein to each side from the projecting ring, the head joint may be iixfluenced by closing it in front on either side, or using both reins on both sides at once. This closing of the joint in front is normally the result of the action of the posterior winding lines, and we should thus have an "aid" which would directly* act in favoring these lines as the bit does in favoring the anterior hues. Possibly the rider, with a left cavesson and a left snaffle rein, and a right cavesson and right snaffle rein, crossed in either hand, might find the cavesson an additional aid in suppling his horse. * The lower jaw moTement for the posterior lines is one of closing— i. e., the inner bearing— for the anterior lines of opening— i. e., the outer bearing. Now, as the bit only opens the month, the posterior lines can onlybefaTored one at a time with the bit, by the indirect action of causing one side of the jaw to close by opening the other. 267 § 206. We subjoin two tables, the one giving the mode of action of the several aids, the other the lateral movements of the legs : 268 Aids. Direct. Left Brr favours secondary section left anterior line, impedes primary sec- tion riglit posterior line. Cayesson. Bight traction favours primary sec- tion right posterior, impedes secondary section left anterior line. Eight %EV^ favours second- ary section right poste- rior Une, impedes primary sec- tion left anterior line. Left Seat-bone . favours primary section left an- terior line, impedes secondary section left posterior line. Bein. Pressure of right rein on lower 0, left convex. Brings on left posterior line for neck S, and influences anal- ogous convexes in the same way. Indirect. Bight Bit favours primary section of the right pos- terior line. 269 IiATEEAL MOTEMENTS OF LeGS, Jutward from central line. &e/< fore-leg. Body move- ment. Secondary sec- tion of left posterior line. Neck move- ment. Secondary sec- tion of left anterior line. Right fore-leg. Body move- ment. Secondary sec- tion of right posterior line. Neck move- ment. Secondary sec- tion of right anterior Une. Left hind-leg. Body move- ment. Secondary seo- tion left anterior line. Bight hind-leg. Body move- ment. Secondary sec- tion right anterior line. Inward, across central line. Left fore-leg. Body move- ment. Primary sec- tion of right anterior line. Neck movement.* Primary section of left posterior line. Sight fore-leg. Body move- ment. Primary section of left anterior line. Neck movement* Pri- majy section of right posterior line. Left hind - leg.* Body movement. Primary section left posterior line. Right hind - leg.* Body movement. Primary section right posterior Une. * AU these follow the direction of the old cross-line end, as it is rednced by the new one, b. g., the left hind-leg, that of the end belonging to the right posterior line, as the left spur developes the left posterior line. We have, for convenience, connected the motion with its primary rather than its proximate cause. 12* 270 § 207. No rider who cannot feel the manner in which his horse's feet are plaoedoan accurately ap- ply the aids. This is one of the decisive argu- ments for a close seat, without which such feeling is out of the question. A good seat once obtained, nothing is easier than to foUow the advice of a German teacher, Seeger, and, knowing the sequence of the feet in the trot, to watch the fore-legs, and try to recognize by feeling what one knows to be the accompanying position of the hind-feet. CHANGES OP ACTION. § 208. There are, of course, various ways in which the same changes of action may be accom- plished. We shall endeavor to select for our ex- planations that one in which the horse would ac- compHsh it under the influence of the rider, and, although we may occasionally differ from Von Oeynhausen, we must again repeat our acknowl- edgements to him for the " succession " of the legs in many, though not all, of the cases, without, however, at all charging -him with our theories in regard to them. Trot to walk. Supposing that in the trot the horse has just put down the diagonal right fore and left hind-feet. The left anterior hue is not com- 271 pleted (§§ 130, 142, 142), that is, a» and a", which turn the raised left fore-foot on its outer beaming and thrust it forward, are not yet carried out. With this completion, the left articulation of the lower jaw must come on its outer bearing. This the rider hinders by drawing the right rein. In the same moment, with the left spur, he tempora- rily and partially hinders the development of the right posterior line by commencing the formation of the left one. This hindrance to the completion •of the left anterior line, and check in the formation of the right posterior, wiU induce the horse to change the working head condyle from left to right directly, i. e., without the intermediate moye- ments, and in connection with the neck only. The right head condyle wiU then raise the left iore-foot in its neck connection and put it down, whereupon the ophidian cycle, only suspended in its action, wiU resume the trotting movement for the hind-legs, the right hind-foot wiU be put down, and the walk inaugurated, § 145. CrcMop to Walk. In the preceding change of gait, " Trot to walk," the ophidian gathering for the trot step with the hind-leg was only re- strained, but the fore-leg gathering was altered to the pacing action by changing the working head 272 condyle. Supposing a horse in the " gallop to the right " to be halted for an instant as he lands from a spring. His feet are in position to step oflf with the left fore, followed by the right hind-foot, if the worMng condyle he changed. The horse, of course, could easily accomplish this, and possibly, the rider passing the bridle hand to the right, so as to de- velope the left posterior line in the neck by press- ing out the conyex, at the same time assisting this by a very slight action of the left spur, anid imme- diately foDowing the change of condyle by passing the weight to the right seat-bone, in order to put down the horse's right hind-foot, might teach him to do it. Von Oeynhausen* remarks, " to change UteraUy, at once, from the gallop to the walk, demands such precision on the part of the rider, in giying the aids, and such patient waiting for, and ready an- swering to them on the part of the horse, that it is hardly ever reoEy done. In almost all cases, in common Hfe, the horse takes a few short trotting steps, and then first begufe actually to walk." In these steps the horse gradually eliminates a' a'* and b» b" from the action (§ 145). GcMcyp to Trot. — The horse being in gallop * " GaTig des Pferdes und Sttz des Setters " plate 44 text. 273 to the right, it mil be necessaiy to carry out the left right counteraction entirely through the neck- root joint, instead of allowing the right-left counteraction to join and form the double action. For this purpose, as the horse lands from a spring, the rider would we^ht strongly his left seat-bone in order to driye forward the left anterior line, use the right spur to strengthen the right posterior line, and, at the same time, give the horse his head sufficiently to allow him to respond by carrying through the trot, on the right fore and left hind- leg, landing on the left fore and right hind-feet. Trot to GdRop. — ^For gallop to the right, the gathering for the left right counteraction having been made predominant, the right left counter- action must be introduced befobe ihe ccmvj^lAon of one of the steps on the left hind and right fore-feet so as to bring on the double action (§ 156). The rider shortens the right (iaside) rein, carry- ing his hand to the left, which give a preponder- ance in working to the left head condyle ; he also throws his weight on the left seat bone and uses the right spur ; these aids develop preponderating- ly the left right winding line. As the horse lands on the right fore and left hind-feet, he gives a suffi- cient amoimt of pressure to the right seat-bone, 274 and suflficiently uses the left spur to introduce the right left winding line in subordinate connection with the left right, and thus forms the double ac- tion. Eaising the bridle hand, he opens the mouth by the movement of the upper jaw, and by the necessarily following movement of the head con- dyles, which initiates the alternate anterior lines, and consequently the discharge of the spring. § 209. HaUmg from the Gallop. — Holding the reins steady as the horse lands, so as to check the motion, but not to change the head condyles by iheir movement, pressure with the right seat-bone brings out the right anterior line, and the left spur the left posterior. The development of those, the sub- ordinate lines of counteraction restrains the left an- terior and right posterior hnes, and the head con- djlea not being allowed to change by their own movement, the four lines are equalized throughout the body, and the condyles conform to the new distribution of tractions. § 210. Bearing and Kicking — May be explained entirely by the " double trot actions." Bearing. — In this the horse developes the ante- rior winding lines to an undue degree at the ex- pense of the posterior lines. The hind-feet thus come extravagantly upon their outer bearings and 275 the whole body is drawn back upon them as appnis. Under the rider, a bit which prevents the horse from completing the primary section of the poste- rior Knes when he is urged forward, may induce rearing. The lower jaw, checked in the attempt to come on its iimer bearings, throws back the trac- tions to those which belong to the jaw on its outer bearings, i. e., the anterior hues in their secondary sections. If, when up, the horse thrust forward the front legs on the inner bearing by introducing the posterior line in tiie anterior G 0, we have the full converse of kicking, which begins with the action of both lines in the posterior C 0, and ends with the single action of the posterior lines in the an- terior C C. If now, the horse rear with a perfect equality of the sides, the constantly increasing action of the anterior lines will finally eventuate in " setting-up" by double action on these lines (§ 180), and he will come down perfectly gathered. But most horses, and — ^if they wish to resist their rider — all horses rear with a preponderating action of one leg, and if the rearing then be carried too far, they may fall over. As a remedy for rearing, determined spurring. 276 by forcing the posterior winding lines to form, may bring the horse down from any position short of the loss of balance, but, as horses generally use a favorite hind-leg, the development of the counteracting lines for the other pair of diagonal legs will generally answer the purpose, if applied early enough in the moveiment. Thus, if a horse stiflfen the left Mnd-leg, the rider should, by throw- ing his weight on the right seat-bone, bring the horse's appui more on the right hind-leg ; at the same time (if necessary) lift the left hind-foot with the left spur.- § 211. Kicking. — This is the converse of rearing; the horse developes the posterior winding Hnes to an undue degree at the expense of the anterior lines ; the hind-fed) rise on their inner bearings with a forward movement, and are next thrust out to the rear by a backing movement, as the fore-feet come on to their outer bearings, by reason of the unmixed action of the secondary section of the posterior lines in the anterior C. In kicking, as in rearing, most horses have a iavorite leg ; supposing this to be the left hind-leg, appuied on the right fore, then the left spur, fol- lowed by the weight on the right seat-bone, which tvould introduce the alternate right-left coimter- 277 action, sHotild equalize the lines and reduce the un- manageableness of the kick. § 212. BucMng. — This niight, we think, be ex- plained as a jump wpward in the double pace movement, while refusing the cross-line action of the spine. The thrust in the spine for an upward jump is both ways from the cross-lines as a centre. § 213i Turning. The common turns in- the trot we should describe as being brought about in the following manner : The drawing of the rein on the side toward which the turn is to be made can be done under two conditions, which give origin ta two very different steps. First. — ^When, for example, the right fore and left hind-feet have just landed. The neck portion (a° a'*) of the left anterior liae — completing the bicomposite spine — is about to form, followed instantly (or possibly somewhat preceded) by the right posterior hue. Now, since the formation of the left anterior, followed by that of the right pos- terior line, will bring the left articulation of the lower jaw on its inner bearing, (i. e., the left tem- poral muscle drawing) the pressure from the rigM side of the bit, by drawing the bight rein favors this ; but, at the same time, it hinders the thrusting element of the two lines, and, so far as 278 ihis goes, the primary section of the right posterior ' line crosses the right (free) hind-leg to the left. The right hind-foot being put down, the alternate light-left line forms and the primary section of the right anterior line passes the left fore-foot across to the right.* The whole movement may be strengthened by the right spur, increasii^ the working of the right posterior line. If the horse be in progressive motion, the right hind-leg will, we think, be found the first to reach the ground ; if he be stationary, he will back some- what on the right hind-foot, thus holding that part -of the left-right counteracting lines undischarged, while the alternate right anterior moves the fore- foot, and, as it developes, discharges the old hue i(§ 171), which last crosses the right hind-leg. Second. — ^When the right fore and left hind- feet having just landed, the left rein is drawn. As in the previous paragraph, a' and a" are about forming in the bioomposite spine, but pressure of the bit on the left side of the jaw will hinder the * These crossings are thus both body movements, the left fore-leg being forced back under the influence of the front C of the ribs. The 'distinction between this, which is a trotting movement, and the cross- ing of the foreT-leg in " passage" (§211), which is a pacing movement, will Ibe noticed. 279 formation of the light posterior line, and the draw- ing on the head suppress a" a" by causing the horse to change the working condyle ;* consequent- ly, the thrusting element being suppressed, the left fore-leg will be darted to the left by the rotary ele- ment of the secondary section of the right anterior line in the neck, and the right hind-leg will follow with an outward step caused by the rotary element of the secondary section of the right anterior line in the body. These two stages will exhibit the working of the bit for two or more steps in the same change of direction ; for, when turning to the right, the second action of the bit occurs for the left fore and right hind-legs as appuis, the Jirst for the right fore and left hind. Thus, at one step, the horse crosses the free legs, at the next, he throws them outward from his body. There is still another way of changing direction, the discussion of which must be reserved for " cir- cUng on the haunches" (§ 217), of which the move- ment is. simply modified by progression being more or less continued as it proceeds. * It Bhoold be remembered, that in tbe horse the head follows the lower jaw only when tbe latter Is closed ; when open tbe lateral move- ment disengages it. 280 § 214. Passage. — So-called in the United States and in the English Cavalry Tactics — (French, Ap- pwi — German, SchUessen, Half and FuU Travers).* Taking from the tables §§ 206, 207, the rules that the rotary elements of the anterior lines in each of the three " spines" act by their secondary sections in connection with the lower jaw on its outer bearings, to throw the limbs outward from the central line of the body ; while the posterior lines act with the lower jaw on its inner bearing by their primary sections, to throw them inward across the central line, we should explain the "Passage " in the following way : The horse is placed as if for progressive move- ment on a pair of diagonal appuis — say on the right fore and left hind-legs, the head is then confined by drawing the right rein, so that the (working) left head condyle cannot actually dis- charge. The left spur, in the next place, bringing into action the left posterior line, raises the left hind-foot and forces down its right fellow. " The formation of this line would be a part of movement forward on the right hind-foot, which its comple- ment the right anterior line not being formed, the • The " Passage " proper is not the same, but a sort of " Mark-time " in the trot. 281 horse might shirk by backing on this foot — but the lider by bringing down his right seat-bone and partly inducing the right anterior line prevents it. Now, the action of the left spur fonmng the left posterior hne up to its primary section, shoidd, in connection with the pressure of the right side of the bit which checks its thmst, carry the left hind- foot to the right, across the central hne of the body. The pressure of the left rein carried against the neck convex, while tending to produce the alter- nate curve in its left, posterior hne component, should, by the primary section of this line, carry the left fore-foot, related to the neck as the left hind-foot is to the body, in the same direction, viz., to the right — and this pressiire on the neck affect- ing the whole length of the spine, forces the horse, if he have resisted, to yield to the foregoing action of the left spin:. Under the actions of the left spur, left rein and right seat-bone, the alternate winding lines have nearly suppressed the left-right counteraction, but the head condyles have not been allowed to change. This counteraction is now restored, and beings still held in check, as to its forward thrust, by the left side of the bit, the rotary elements of the secondary section of the anterior line, on the light- 282 eniiig of the right seat-bone pressure, carry the right fore-leg with the neck restoration, and the right hind-leg with that of the body sideways to the right, by reaction from what woiild have been the movement of the two left feet had they been free. The neck action, in this movement connects it with the pace on both sides of the body.* The horse resists the "passage" from a halt by backing, and, when ia progression, by striking a pace with the (right) " inside 'i" feet.t The former is checked by the pressure of the (right) "inner" seat-bone of the rider, and for the latter, the inside rein must be drawn sufficiently to prevent the change of condyle. The " passage " is one of the best exercises for supphng, particularly when the horse has a "favor- ite " side of the mouth for resisting the bit, and it is also the best remedy for shying. For the latter, the horse should be made to passage toward the object which he avoids. In resisting this, he wiU very possibly strike a pace which, we think, cor- * The diagonal legs in the turn (§213 second) were thrown outward by similar but not the same movements, for there thej occurred on two different lines of counteraction, these on one and the same, as in the pace. t Would be such if on the circle and passaging toward the centre. 283 roborates the view we have taken of the nature of the action. § 215. Girding on the Fore^Jiand, and Girding ortr the Haunches.* — These movements, including, of course, the pirouette renversee, and the pirouette,, seem to be both contained in the actions of the "passage." Circling on the fore-hand being the haunch movement, with the neck movement re- duced to a minimum, and circling on the haunches the neck movement, with the haunch movement, reduced to a Tnim'TmiTn . Girding on the Fc/re-hand, with the head turned inwards. The horse is put in position with the appui, say, on the left hind and right fore-feet.. The rider lifts the left hind-foot with the left spur, presses down the right hind-foot with his right seat-bone, and continues the action of the left spur until the formation of the primq;ry section of the left posterior line ; the thrusting element held in check, carries the left hind-leg across the body t» the right. No pressure being made with the left rein, as is done in the "passage," the weight is. thrown upon the left fore-foot without moving 'it. * These moTementB are well shown in the plates accompanying the late General Kenner Garrard's Annotations on Nolan, Baucher and Earey. 284 and when, the pressure of the right seat-bone being lightened, the restoration of the- left anterior line occurs, this, while in the body connection it passes the right hind-foot well to the right, in the neck connection only moves the right fore-foot suffici- ently around its left feUow to readjust the posi- tion. In the pirouette renyersee, we should suppose that the addition made to the above movement was, that the horse somewhat increases the neck gathering, and retains it until the arc is completed.- He raises and passes across the left hind-foot, and springs from the right hind-ioot by the right ante- rior, left posterior lines maintaining, however, the left-right reaction by keeping the left head condyle in place as the working one. This last condition enables him with the right fore-foot to bear off the weight on to the left fore-foot. He finally descends on the left hind-foot, and then plants the right hind and right fore. § 216. Oirclmg on the Haunches. — The horse is put in position, say with appui on the right fore and left hind-leg. The right rein is well drawn, so as to fully develop the lower C of the neck S, con- vex to the left. Then, with the rider's right seat- bone developing somewhat the right anterior wind- 285 iag line, the left rein is pressed against the neck by carrying the bridle hand to the right, and the left fore-leg forced across to the right. The left spur is used just sufficiently to stkrt the move- ment to keep the tight hind-foot a little on its inner bearing, and to insure the small required movement of the left hind-foot as it moves around its right fellow for a pivot, and then sustains the extended adjusting movement of the right fore-leg. The sideway movement of the right hind-leg to the right is represented only by its adjustment. For the pirouette the right spur, resisted by the left side of the bit, develops the secondary sec- tion of the left anterior line, and the horse rises on the left hind-leg (§ 210). Then the pressure of the rider's right seat-bone, the pressure of the left rein, and, if required, the left spur, cause the horse, in the effort to carry the left fore-leg across, to face about on the r^ht hind-foot as a pivot. The right spur keeps the horse from discharging the left head condyle, and, with the left bit, keeps him up. The rein pressure forces him around, and the left spur brings him sufficiently on the inner bear- ing of the right hind-foot. The seat-bone pressure must be deUcately adjusted, as after raising him with that of the left, the right gives proper outer 13 286 bearing to tiie right hind-foot, which may be said to be continually ayrrected by the inner bearing. § 217. Changing direction on the inner hind-foot hy pressing the outer rein we should consider as circling on the haunches combined with progres- sion. § 218. We have only to add, in conclusion to this part, that as the snake's motion has been taken as a clue in tracing wp the mechanism of lo-^ comotion in the higher animals, so the horseman caimot, we think, do better than to reverse the process, and take the working of analogical parts of his own body as a clue for guiding his observa- tions and conclusions as to the actions which take place in the body of his horse, and as to the best means of controlling them. 287 APPENDIX I. LOCOMOTION OF BIBDS AND OP FISHES. We have little to say concermng the locomotion of these classes of animals. It would seem to us that, although the fina of a fish are added, appar- ently somewhat in the manner of limbs, yet the fundamental locomotive action of a true fish comes from the taU, f oUowii^ the ophidian motions of the back bone, and acting on the water as the blade of a single oar does when worked at the stem of a small boat in the motion called " sculling." Birds, we should say, fly by alternately raising and pressing down the front edges of their wings. The flrst motion presents the wing as a plane in- clined upward to the air in the front-rear direc- tion. This is the outer hearing, and on this plane they rise after the second motion, which is a down- ward stroke of the anterior edge, answering to the inner hearing. If the action of flying come fully under our theory of locomotion, the second motion should collect the feathers in a spring before its discharge. 288 Birds, as is commonly known, have no effective movement in the vertebrae of the body whilst the numerous vertebrae of the neck are very moveable. We should explain the S S actions of the neck in the following manner:' Supposing the body ver- tebrae of a man to be thus solidified, there would be one of the motive connections of the arms, viz., that With the body, unprovided with a diagonal counteracting basis. This basis, as it exists, brings the legs and arms into connection, and both are then brought into a central line by the neck S. Possibly the extra S in the neck of birds (one or more above the number in quadrupeds and man) (§ 85) supplies this loss, and there is still the same double action on a bird's wing as on the arms of a man. A bird cannot, we think, keep its head steady when walking on the ground, without stretching the neck. May it be that, the body, being then confined to one plane, and the lower S of the neck having no means of adjusting the excentric move- ments of the neck-root, these movements must be communicated to the head. If the neck be stretch- ed, the action of this S is reduced as much as possible. The spring collected in the wing and the double 289 action above alluded to, being absent in artificial wings, may have somethii^ to do with the poor success attending all attempts to adapt them to the human frame. Possibly the reversed positions of the head and sockets of the rib articulations in the snake to those in the higher animals, may be accounted for by the discharge in the S S, being successive, for the former, but combined for the latter. 290 APPEITDIX II. We will attempt a concise general outline of Setting-up for the right hand deformity, bringuig in a portion of the. movement which has not been made sufficiently prominent in the previous de- scriptions. First. — The (alternate) left posterior line leading. The head being continuously raised forward, the right upper ribs at the neck-root joiat are pressed to the left and somewhat forward. This latter action, which begins a reduction of the right upper limg lobe in the ophidian S, on the course of the alternate posterior hne leading, extends to the neck and to the left anterior part of the head-joint, when there the socket begins to draw away from the condyle. Presently the left upper lung lobe begins to fill and to cross the secondary section of the (alternate) left posterior line with the corresponding portion of the (old) right posterior liue. This crossing passes from the ophidian to the neck S, and causes 291 lihe anterior part of the right head joint soctet to rise against the corresponding part of the right Tiead, condyle. A repetition of the foregoing moTements soon causes the right lower lung lobe to commence fill- ing, not on the secondary sections of the right an- terior line, but — and this is the point which we wish to make prominent — on the r^lected actum for the (alternate) left posterior hne. This is continued until the left lower lung lobe is equalized by exhausting it on the reflected action of the (old) right posterior hne, carrying the move- ment through the left hip joint. Next the resumption of the direct action on the (alternate) left posterior line completely fills the left upper lung lobe and fully reduces the right lobe, ending by the proper adjustment of theleft anterior part of the head joint socket and the drawing on the right shoulder-blade from above. A slight continuation of the movement will next bring on, by induction, the full filling of the right lower lung lobe on the (alternate) right anterior line, the consequent reduction of the left lower lung lobe, and, finally, the additional reduction of the right upper lung lobe and filling of the left upper, which all depend on the equalization of the two 292 anterior lines. The whole ends with a drawing on the left shoulder-blade from below. Eeferring the two fillings of the lower lobe, i. e., one from the reflected action of the secondary sec- tion of the posterior line, and the other from the secondary section of the anterior line, to double' setting-up, it may be seen that 'the former causes no tightening of the muscles from the lower end of the sternum to the pubis bones, while the latter does. Hence, whenever beginning on one or both posterior hues, and, of course, in Mons. Morquin's method, this drawing is to be avoided until the end- ing of the movement. It may be easUy seen, we think, in what manner the formations on the anterior lines joining with those of the posterior complete the double twist of the ribs, etc., and thus join the filling of the lung lobes into one. Second. — The (aUernate) right anterior line lead- ing. Here the head is carried up and forward, but, not drawing on the left stemo-mastoid muscle, passes with the neck somewhat to the right. It may need a slight pressure of the left shoulder blade forward and to the right in order to initiate the movement on the (alternate) right anterior line by which the right lower lung lobe commences to 293 fill. This filling begun, the movement extends through neck and to the right head condyle, which begins to press on its socket. The reduction of the left lower lung lobe next begins on the (old) left anterior hne, and the action extends to the neck, causing a marked movement in reducing the left convex of its lower C, and then in reduction of the left head condyle ; both equalizing the (old) left anterior line with the (alternate) right anterior, crossing them at their cuttit^ points in the three spines, and, from the left shoulder-blade throwing the tractions forward on to the whole right side line of the sternum and on to the right articulation of the lower jaw, and at the same time giving such equalization to the upper lung lobes as belongs to the anterior lines. Finally, thrown back from the left articulation of the lower jaw, begins the filling of the left upper lung lobe in the direct, and of the right lower in the reflected course of the (alternate) left posterior line and the corresponding reduction of the left lower and right upper lobes, ending with a draw- ing along the right side of the sternum concentrat- ed at its right upper comer. It will be noticed that in beginning with the posterior line the final movement was the straight- 13* 294 eniug of the spine to the right ; as in the ophidian S, the drawing on the posterior cross-hne end of the (alternate) left posterior liae was established ; while in beginning with the anterior line the final movement was the straightening the tractions of the breast bone, also to the right, as the drawing, likewise in the ophidian spine, on the anterior cross-hne end of the (alternate) right anterior line was confirmed. It was said that a theory would be proposed as to the course of the optic nerves ; but in copying the last manuscript from the older one this was omitted. It amounted simply to this : The optic nerves, after leaving the back of either eye, run together at about a right angle. Some of the fibres cross each other, and some of them, it is supposed, continue on their own side. May it not be that the crossing ones go with the anterior winding-Hne of their respective nerves, and those which do not cross with its counteracting posterior line? Thus the crossing fibres of the right optic nerve would go with the anterior left winding-line, and those which keep their side with the posterior right winding-line, in all the spines. I]SJ-DEX. PAGE. aa' In snake's movement 46-55 aa' Eesume' 61 Abd el Kader—Ule, definition of a liorseman 262 Aclion, clianges of in horse 270 Aids— Table of their action 268 " Thefour 239 Ait—In forming voice 239 " Passes coUaterally ., 117 " In chest assists gathering and discharge 59 AUemaU lines 186 Appui, how secured at one end instead of centre 33 " additional in front 35 Artifldal graumd • 126-128 " " 188 ibb' Insnake 47-55 hb' Resume of action 63 Ball and Socket Action at four points 120 " " " where 127 Bevefs on ground ends of snake's ribs 50-51 Bearers- A division of the ribs '. 58 Beortngia— When given off point recovers in opposite di- rection 191 Bicomposit^ Spine— Its bracing collateral 95, Bicomposite Spine , 84 Birdsi' Locomotion of 287 Bi«— Its action 259 Bits 258 Body— Only attachment to head in Aront of head joint is by the digastrics 126 Bucking 277 C Half a torsion curve 2:3 C Sear the flrst discharged by alternate anterior line 48 C C Posterior part the longest .' 56 Canter 172 " Its analogies with the walk 174 " How it becomes a run 177 Cavesson 260 INDEX. FAOB. Centre of force between lung-lobes > 136-188 CAes*, Varying elasticity of different parts of 89 Chin, must not be allowed to interfere by dropping CftaTiges 0/ ocfaon in horse 270 Circling— O'a the fore hand 283 " On the haunches 284 Card A. May be twisted bo as to resemble locomotive lines ofthesnake •■•■ 2* Convex in discharge passes over concave 5T Convexes are the normal sides of appui 51 Collateral tractions. Become such when 71-120 Collar bone in man 99' Coniexities fused into two when spines are combined (note) 169' Composite spine consists of 79 " " 83 " " Its bracing diagonal 9& Condyles, Head 88 CoTCcat'es— Their extension into and reversal of one another 190 Cross-lines 26-27 " " All plane sections between changes of curva- ture may be considered as such 39 Cross-line end. Lower Displacement of 34 Cro8s-Zfne— Directions In which its ends are moved 31 Cross-lines— Their seats for the different spines 188- Cwrvature, Gradations of 30 Deformed movement, Cause of 78 Deformity— Ihe right hand gives a sort of canter to step. . 181 Displacement of lower cross-line end 34- Discharge of spring caused by cross cutting of winding I lines 63 " for posterior CO ascends, and for anterior 00 de- scends 55- " ofspring '. 153-154 Digits — Hownumbered 101 Dishing of fore-feet in horse 106' Diaphragm 108- Direct action of secondary section in posterior lines 117 Disunited gailop 17S Digastrics 112 " Their analogy with the diaphragm, etc 121 " Their attachments 124 " Their working 126 " Correspondence with ball and socket action 138 Diagonal cLction " 127 Doubleaction 167 INDEZ. Ul PAGB.. Double pace {taO. mn) 171 " trot 177 Dropping from a height 246 Eight,¥igaie of, Shape 56- Elements ot toTBion, Two 24 " of motion projected on base of skuU 78 Epiglottis 116 " Retains compressed air in lungs 117 Equalizations ma; begin at any point 185 " See setting-up Eyes lead locomotion 73 " How steadied 73 " Pulley muscle of 74-112-128- " Respectively pivots of diagonal rear appui 77 " The foot^ends of all locomotion 14^ " In the trot 142 Eye-mvscles— How affected by anterior lines 183 Exercises given by Mens. Morqnin 245 French— A French system of setting-up 239-238-24* Feeling the movements of horse 270 Filling of Invg lobes and lung tips 131-132 Final action in equalizing, the same as the commencing one 184 Fish, Locomotion of 287 ' J'injfcrs Represent ribs V^... loa Flying, Reasons against artiflcial 289 Forcing the winding lines without discharging them 68 Fore-foot of horse— Why it remains presenting for inner bearing after the lift 13& Fore-leg— When substituted for digastric in connection with diagonal hind leg 139 Focus of force the centre between lung lobes 188 Foot of horse — A theory of Its analogies 105 Foot — How the whole foot is kept on ground while CC suc- ceed each other in action 103 " How constituted in man, horse, dog, etc 104 " Ealsedhind— When only it can be fairly put down 137-138 C?aitsof horse, Difference between 143 Gallop Change to walk 271 " ' " " trot 272 Giraife— Movement of lower jaw 156 Oround, Artificial or real, What for each spine 188 ^anc2— Heel of palm should always strike first. 246 SitJi, the (see Equalization Setting-up) 165 Malting, three ways of / 166 " Final action same as commencing one ., 184 INDEX. PAGE. Salting, From the gallop 274 " How differing from locomotion , ; — 72 Bead joint in snake— Its action ■ 37 " ■" Eelations of its different parts to the winding lines 91 " " How altered in the higher animals 87 Headr-lo he Kept always raised up 250 Higher animals 76 fTorse— Muscles answering to sterno-niastoids and a clue to action of the latter, 86note 96 IHusirations for diagonal movements ; always suppose left anterior and right posterior winding lines to com- mence the action 25 •Jo»n< Virtual, atroof of neck 89 JCieking 276 Lateral pressures at head joint 92-93 Larynx 116 iondinflr/romsprins— Order in which snake's ribs should come to ground 58 ieffs Pi-ee— How moved In discharge 121 " Diagonal— Their movement more synchronous in re- trogression 165 •' Table of their lateral movements 269 JArnbs, Fore and hind. Difference between 97 " Fore— How guided by tnmk, and how by neck 133 lAnes, Winding 28 " Alternate may lead in equalizing 186 JAne of general pressure, Where oblique requires rounding of condyles 91 Lobes of lungs 112 Locomotiori of man and of the horse 130 Loops of windpipe, When they allow lower jaw to close... 125 Lower jaw— Vs articulations 125-129 " " Artificial ground for bicomposile spine 127 " " Yields in retrogression ." 165 " " Goes especially with posterior CO.. ' 212 " " Analogues to its motion 97 Lamgs in the higher animals 107 " Cells and tubes of 116 " Exercises founded on their action 182 " In the snake ^ 74 " Their centre the focus of force and centre of set- iine-up 136-188 iMng lobes 112 " " Their peculiar shape 114 IKSEX. T FAGB. iMng lobet, Manner of filling 111-131-132 " " How their filling and exhansting accompanies the different lines of torsion 117 " " Filling of each brings its O forward 190 " ii Filled through collateral nostrils 238 " " Ball and socket action between them the pivot of all movement 247 iMngtips 112 ■" " Manner of filling 115-131-132 " " Analogous action in lower lobes 115 " " Theiraotion, 238 Morquin, Mans — His account of himself 239 " His method of setting-up 238-240 JVccft— Snake must use two or three vertehrse as such 60 " Its connection with the fore limbs 98 iVccfc-roo*— Its virtual ball and socket joint 89-90-128 Neck-root joint— On it the fore limbs change &om their body to theirneck connection 98 iVbstriZs— Normal filling of limgs has place through them. . 238 " Why sometimes difBcult to breathe entirely through them 244 Oe^nhausen, von Colonel 161-172-179-272 Ophidian^ 83 Orleans, Duke o/— His judgment on Baucher's system 258 Faxsage 280 Pace 154-155-156-167 " Details of 158-159-160 Felvis 78 " Muscular connection with breast bone 87 " Acts with both ec 142 Perpendicular plane, Movement in 58 PilUvri of diaphragm 110 Pirouette and pironette renvers^e. . . . , 284 Foints of application 25 Posterior, winding line—Its working not completed until at partial discharge of spring. 137 " point of application— Its direct drawing almost at last moment in equalization 192 Posterior vnnding lines — Keflex and direct^ction of their secondary sections 117 Prima/ry secliom of winding lines 29 Fresau/re of socket against condyle on one side depends on its separation on the other 39 " Lateral at head joint 92-93 Fropellers—A division of the ribs 58 INDEZ. PAGE. JVojrression— Prom the position of ready to diecliarge 65 iVoffr^siw locomotion, how secured 184 Paocs muscles Ill Pubis bones— A continuation of the breast bone 79 Baabe, Oapt.— His theory of the walk in man (note) lOS Seflected action of secondary section of posterior lines 117 BetrogresHon 45-65-163-164: Meswme' of snake's movement 61 " of chief points in locomotion and halting 182 Besrults which may ensue on position of readiness to dis- charge 64 Bein, Pressure of on side of neck 263-286 Rearing 274 Mib collects spring 44 Bibs of snake 42 " " How double twisted 43 Bibs Slip at articulations 45 " Howcorrespond with movemements of head joint. 7. 46 " How affected as to their bearings by the winding lines ^ 51-52-53 " Respective r&les of those on the anterior and pos- terior part of a convex 56 " On concaves do not change facings until the spinal curves change 37 " Proportion of In higher animals 76 " Trueandfalse 80 " Proportion of false to true in several animals 81 " How assigned to the CO 82 JJidinsr— How different from personal locomotion 252 " Why rider leaves his horse 251 " J?i(7ft* shoufefe'/orward," in riding agrees with 256 8 Least number of vertebrae which can constitute... 84 Deflnition of. 23 SSS Nomenclature 83 ' ' Why three are required in higher animals 82 Sacrum 79 Saddles 257 BcuUb of snake— Their action .• go Sections of winding lines, primary and secondary 29 Seeger, Herr 279 Seat of rider over lungs of horse 252 Seat bone pressure— Its action 261 SetUng-up 182 " " Tables of on the ophidian action 194 " "Remarks 206 PAGE. Setting up Facing movement , 211 " " On horse-back 253 " " Following a continued raising of the head 248-290 " " Appendix H 290 " "On the alternate lines, ophidian movement 214-217 I " "On the alternate lines, pacing movement 220-221 " " Practical Ophidian movement 222-223-224 " " " Pacing movement 225-226 " " " Alternate lines 227-228-229 " "By double action Anterior lines 231 " " " " " Posterior lines 235. Shoulder blades. Act with. 142 " " Their connection with the neck 98 " " Straightening of the figure concentrated ' between them 188 " "Go in connection with the trunk with an- terior CO 212 " " Their effect on the winding lines when they are pressed directly on the base of the neck 230 " " Should work directly on each other aa appuis 247 Snake— ■'Why possibly its manner of rib articulation is re- versed in the higher animals 289 " Anatomy of. 36 " Its movement 40-61 " Probably incapable of locomotion by " double ac- tion" 49 iS!pin«— Its mode of action 22 " Of snake, its anatomy 41 " Composite consists of 79 " Bicomposite 84 Spines— How the three combine. 189 flptw— Its action 261-262 Stemo-mastoid muscles 85 Sternum — Intermediate appui when action of the neck leads 99 " Its movements 140 Staining a hone by forcing bit upward (note) 258 SuperimpoHiion of tvHsts, Definition of. 67 Symbols need in explanations 144-168 Tables for equalization of the four tractions 194 Table for action of the aids .,268 " for lateral movements of the legs 269 Temporal muscles 125. Torsions, Counter, reverse each other or themselves 31 1'A.aE. Torsion may be resolved into two elements 24 Toes Represent ribs 100 Toe, Great, Should spread inward 102 IVoTis/orwMrfiono/actton of posterior lines 39 2Vo^General description 130 " DetailsofA 145-148 " " ofB ; 14S-153 " Changetowalk 270 " " togallop 273 Turning 277 3tosfa— Discussion of theory 25 " Superimposition of Definition 67 Vocal chords 239 Veriebraela the higher animals 76 TTfrifc in the horse 161-162-163 Winding lines 28 " " Anterior and posterior traced for composite spine 161 " How posterior becomes alternate anterior. . 179-180 " How they affect the rib bearings 183 " Their general course in the bicomposite spine 186 " Their sections 92 " Nomenclature 30 Windpipe — Artificial fn:oun d for neck action 126 " How suspended 121 " Torsion and counter torsion in 123 :/ ^■xVl/. ^©^^:-^i^:^]