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 Model drawing and shading from casts; 
 
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Cornell University 
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 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031238870 
 
MODEL PEAWING 
 
 AND 
 
 it;/, I, \ 
 
 SHADING FKOM CASTS 
 
 A COMPLETE GUIDE TO THE ELEMENTARY AND 
 ADVANCED EXAMINATIONS IN THESE SUBJECTS. 
 
 T. C. BARFIELD, 
 
 ART MASTER, HINCKLEY GKAMMAB SCHOOL. 
 
 WITH ILLUSTRATIONS BY THE AUTHOR. 
 
 LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, ld. 
 
 1896. 
 s 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 In this book I have endeavoured, as far as possible, 
 to avoid mixing up model drawing with geometry or 
 perspective. The few geometrical terms which it 
 has been necessary to use are all explained. These 
 explanations may cause a smile to the average art 
 student ; but I have found that it is always safest to 
 take nothing for granted, and my aim has been to, 
 provide a oomflete guide to the subject for every one, 
 whether they have any previous knowledge of 
 technical terms or not. Although the principles of 
 perspective and model drawing are the same — and a 
 thorough knowledge of perspective is a real help in 
 drawing from objects ; the superficial knowledge of 
 it possessed by the average student of model draw- 
 ing is often rather a hindrance than otherwise, and I 
 have not unfrequently found students, who have 
 obtained their certificate for perspective, quite unable 
 to apply their knowledge to model drawing. I believe 
 this is mainly due to the " Field of vision " not being 
 
 a 3 
 
vi PEEFACE. 
 
 sufficiently explained, and its limitations insisted 
 upon in teaching perspective. For while, as every 
 student of perspective knows, horizontal lines parallel 
 to the picture plane, will be represented by horizontal 
 lines on that plane, no matter where they are with regard 
 to the centre of vision, it is only when within the 
 field of vision that these lines give the true aspect of 
 those which they represent. One of the first facts 
 taught in perspective is that the picture plane is 
 without limit. How often is it pointed out that only 
 a very small portion of the picture plane is, available for 
 pictorial purposes? So that students of perspective 
 are frequently as much at a loss for some means of 
 ascertaining when parallel perspective so called, is 
 possible in model drawing, as those who have no 
 knowledge of the subject. That I am not exaggerating 
 this widespread ignorance will be seen by the follow- 
 ing extract from the report of the examiners — 
 James Clark and Paul F. Maitland — on the works on 
 model drawing, subject 5a, submitted for certificates 
 in 1894. 
 
 " The most serious defects prevalent in the work . 
 submitted on this occasion arise from imperfect or 
 erroneous knowledge of laws of perspective, and the 
 frequency with which identical errors are committed 
 in drawings received from particular schools indicate 
 in such cases that masters, as well as students, are 
 responsible. Of these, one of the most objectionable 
 is, selection for the centre of vision of a point on the 
 
PKEFACE. YU 
 
 liorizontal line at, or even heyond, the limits of the paper, 
 so that the group of models is drawn in what is com- 
 monly termed ' parallel perspective.' " 
 
 These works, it must be remembered, are by persons 
 presumably competent to teach model drawing. 
 
 If the limitation of vision were insisted upon at 
 the beginning of lessons in perspective and model 
 drawing, such a mistake as this would be impossible. 
 To facilitate the understanding of this most important 
 matter, some idea of the laws of vision must be 
 given, so that the students may know what kind of 
 diificulties they have to encounter, and it will be 
 time well spent which is directed to this necessary 
 but apparently little appreciated preparation for the 
 subject. Students must be made to think in all art 
 subjects, but this is most of all necessary in model 
 drawing, and the power of analysis gained in the 
 process will be of the greatest use in future studies. 
 I have invented an apparatus to enable students to 
 realize exactly what the field of vision is, and I 
 venture to think that one of these instruments will 
 clear up many of the initial difficulties, and save a 
 great deal of valuable time in putting students into 
 the proper way of looking at things ; a habit which, 
 once formed, makes future progress only a matter of 
 time. Such an instrument would not, of course, be 
 allowable at an examination, and its use should be 
 dispensed with in most cases after the first half-dozen 
 lessons or so. Mechanical aids of all kinds should be 
 
Vlll PEEFACE. 
 
 gradually discontinued. But the difficulties whicli 
 beset the student and the teacher at the outset are 
 so many and of such a complicated nature that some 
 assistance of this sort is almost indispensable. Although 
 this book is complete in itself, and is amply 
 illustrated, it will be found very useful as a hand- 
 book to my Lessons in Model Drawing, published 
 some years since, for I have seen no reason to alter 
 the lines upon which these charts were designed, 
 but since their publication, owing to new regulations 
 for elementary education, a number of persons are 
 now obliged to teach model drawing whose previous 
 experience is not perhaps quite sufficient to enable 
 them to make use of these sheets, which are primarily 
 designed to save the time of teachers in schools of 
 art. 
 
 In the second part of the book, dealing with light 
 and shade, I have followed the same method, devoting 
 a large proportion of space to the consideration of 
 general principles, because I have found that, speak- 
 ing generally, these are usually neglected. 
 
 If these are understood, and ordinary intelligence 
 is applied to this kind of study, a great deal of time 
 will be saved, and greater interest will be taken in 
 the work, which, for lack of knowledge, is often very 
 dreary and monotonous. 
 
 , It is hoped that this little book will be sufficient to 
 direct the studies of those who are working alone, for 
 whom it is primarily intended, and, combined with 
 
PREFACE. IX 
 
 regular practice, will enable them to pass the 
 elementary and advanced examination in model 
 drawing, and shading from the cast, and that teachers 
 will find in it information so arranged as will make 
 it easier for them to teach this subject in an intelli- 
 gent and interesting manner. 
 
 T. C. B. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 LWBOS FAGH 
 
 Ihtbodbction ... ... ... „, ... 1 
 
 I. The Act op Seeing ... ... ... ... 6 
 
 II. The Field op Vision ... ... ... ... 13 
 
 III. Two Views op a Cube placed on a Drawing-boabd 21 
 
 IV. Inclined Suepaoes ... ... ... ... 29 
 
 V. The Sqitaee Pybamid and Tbiangulab Pbism ... 34 
 
 VI. Fbamed Models ... ... ... ... ...-39 
 
 VII. Eegtjlab Polygonal Models ... ... ... 42 
 
 VIII. CiBcnLAK Models ... ... ... ... ... 50 
 
 IX. Vases 57 
 
 X. Light and Shade ... ... ... ... ... 66 
 
MODEL DRAWING 
 
 AND 
 
 SHADING FEOM OASTS. 
 
 INTEODUCTION. 
 
 Model Drawing is generally admitted to be the 
 most difficult of the art subjects in which instruction 
 has to be given in elementary schools. Most teachers 
 will agree that it is the foundation of all sound art 
 education. 
 
 Whether you are commencing this subject in order 
 to qualify as a teacher, or whether you wish to study 
 art in earnest — the two things are not necessarily 
 distinct — the importance of Model Drawing is 
 evident. 
 
 The explanations and directions here given are the 
 result of many years' experience in teaching this 
 subject. Over and over again I have proved their 
 usefulness in my own classes. If you wish to 
 thoroughly master the subject, it will not be safe to 
 skip any part of the book, for nothing is inserted 
 which is not necessary to this end. 
 
 It is usual to take this subject after having been 
 
2 MODEL DRAWING AND SHADING FROM CASTS. 
 
 through a course of freehand drawing from flat copies. 
 This is by no means necessary ; if you can draw a 
 fairly straight line in any direction, and a good 
 curve, there is no reason why you should not com- 
 mence to draw from objects, but without this much 
 preparation your progress will be hampered. 
 
 The special difficulties of Model DraXving, as you 
 will presently see, are not those of execution ; but in 
 this, as in all kinds of line drawing, the following 
 rules will be very useful : — 
 
 1. Draw deliberately. 
 
 2. Never draw two lines where one will do. 
 
 3. Avoid a sketchy, indefinite manner of worJc. (If 
 you will believe it, it is as easy to put the right line in the 
 right place at once, as to do so after futile scribUings.) 
 
 4. Think before you draw. 
 
 5. Take care that you know exactly what you want 
 to do before you try to do it. 
 
 6. Bo not rely too much on your indiarubber. {Many 
 students use the indiarubber more than the pencil. Try 
 to do without it altogether.) 
 
 7. Bo not draw by a series of dots ; no freedom can be 
 obtained by this method. Where dotted lines are used 
 in the illustrations, it is only to distinguish the con- 
 structive lines. 
 
 No kind of manual dexterity can be attained with- 
 out regular and persevering practice, but in model 
 drawing this practice will be wasted, or all but wasted, 
 if the mind is not at work too. It is necessary to 
 insist very strongly upon this, for there exists a very 
 widespread notion that drawing does not require much 
 brain work. It is possible, too, that much of this 
 practice may be wasted because the kind of difficulty 
 to be overcome is not understood. Bo not suppose from 
 this that you can do without the practice, hut take care 
 that you practise intelligently. 
 
 Before I attempt to explain these difficulties, I 
 
INTRODUCTION. 3 
 
 must make sure that certain technical terms which 
 I shall have to use are thoroughly understood. 
 
 The word straight is used generally in a very loose 
 way. When it is intended to describe an upright line 
 or a horizontal line, to most people the word straight 
 comes most readily to the tongue. Now, although it 
 seems almost a truism, the fact must be stated that 
 a straight line may be in any direction, the word 
 straight simply meaning that the line lies evenly 
 between its extreme points, or, in other words, that 
 it is the shortest between those points. When a 
 straight line is perfectly upright, vertical is the word 
 used to describe its position. It is very important to 
 he able to judge correctly of the uprightness of a vertical 
 line. 
 
 The surface of still water is always level or 
 horizontal. The top of an ordinary table will serve 
 as an illustration of a horizontal surface or plane. 
 It will be seen that any number of lines may be 
 drawn upon this surface, or laid upon it, which will 
 all be horizontal, although each of them may be in 
 a diiferent direction. 
 
 It is most important to realize that — 
 
 Horizontal lines may he in ever so many differe^it 
 directions, without losing their horizontal position. 
 
 If lines are neither vertical nor horizontal, they are 
 called obliqiie or inclined lines. Every straight line 
 must he in one of these positions. 
 
 The uninitiated have often some difficulty in realiz- 
 ing what is meant by an angle. It is simply the 
 inclination of two straight lines which meet in a 
 point, and do not, when united, make a straight line. 
 If we suppose the circumference of a half circle to 
 be divided into 180 equal parts or degrees, the inclina- 
 tion between any two lines which meet in the centre 
 of that half circle can be measured by the number of 
 degrees contained between the two lines where they 
 
4 MODEL DEAWING AND SHADING FROM CASTS. 
 
 reach the circumference ; so that it will be seen that 
 two lines of the same length may contain a large 
 angle or a small one. The length of the lines does not 
 determine the size of the angle ; for instance, the angle 
 at B is much larger than the angle at A. 
 
 When the line from the centre to the circumference 
 divides the semicircle equally, there will be 90° in 
 the angles on either side of it. The angles are then 
 called right angles, and the lines containing them are 
 said to be at right angles to each other or Perpen- 
 dicular to each other. 
 
 It must be understood that Perpendicular is a relative 
 
 ANCLES 
 
 Fig, 1. 
 
 term, and that a line is not necessarily upright be- 
 cause it is perpendicular to another line. Two lines 
 may be perpendicular to each other when both are 
 horizontal. The adjacent edges of a table (which 
 contain a right angle) are an illustration, or they 
 may both be oblique like the two edges of this page 
 of the book when it is held in a sloping position. 
 
 If two or more straight lines are in such a direction 
 that if produced ever so far either way they would 
 never meet, they are said to be Parallel lines. Parallel 
 lines may be curved. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The foregoing are very elementary facts; but I 
 have often found students seriously hindered in their 
 progress by not understanding the meaning of these 
 terms, and sometimes, not liking to acknowledge their 
 ignorance, they fail to understand the teacher's in- 
 structions, to whom the terms are so familiar that the 
 need of explanation never occurs to him. 
 
LESSON I. 
 
 THE ACT OF SEEING. 
 
 It is most important to 
 realize that what we know 
 about an object, although 
 the knowledge may be de- 
 rived entirely from sight, 
 and what we actually see 
 when looking at an object 
 from a fixed point of view, 
 are two distinct and often 
 very different things. 
 
 This will be readily 
 admitted, so readily that 
 perhaps jou will ask, 
 Why state the fact? It 
 happens that most of the 
 phenomena which have to 
 be considered in order to 
 understand the act of see- 
 ing are those with which 
 almost every one is in a 
 general way familiar, and 
 
 on that account there is some danger of their being 
 
 overlooked. The following experiment will be a good 
 
 illustration (Fig. 2). 
 
 Stand on the top of a flight of stairs, looking down 
 
 the stairs. Hold a riiler horizontally in front of you 
 
THE ACT OP SEEING. 7 
 
 SO that it appears to cover the edge of the stair 
 or landing which you are standing upon. Keeping 
 your eye steady, try to place the ruler over the 
 edge of each descending step. You will find that 
 you must raise it for each one, and that the step whioli 
 you know to he the lowest will appear to he the highest. 
 
 This should convince you that in Model Drawing 
 the difficulty is not so much to draw what we see as 
 to see what we have to draw. We have to train our 
 eyes to tell us truly and exactly what we see in one 
 view of any object or group of objects, and this is so 
 contrary to their ordinary work that constant vigilance 
 will be required to keep them to this more restricted 
 action. Experience has far more to do with our power 
 of seeing than is commonly supposed. Previous 
 impressions are stored up in some mysterious way in 
 the brain and can be recalled or revived by the most 
 accidental coincidence, so that the merest suggestion 
 of any part of a previous impression calls up the 
 whole of that impression. The eye is so wonderfully 
 constructed, and so beautifully adapted to its ordinary 
 use, that it conveys impressions to the brain so rapidly 
 and with so little conscious effort, that we may say 
 it acts involuntarily in its function of conveying to 
 the brain as many pictures of the thing looked at as 
 are sufficient to understand its form. When we add 
 the fact that the right and left eye are conveying each 
 its separate and different impression, and that the idea 
 in the mind is formed by a combination of all these 
 different pictures, it will be acknowledged that the act 
 of seeing is very largely a mental process, and that it 
 is a task of some difficulty to analyze any one of these 
 several pictures, which is, nevertheless, what has to be 
 done "before we can know what we have to draw. 
 
 Let us try to understand what happens when we see 
 anything. Make a small circular hole about J- inch 
 in diameter in a piece of card or stout paper ; hold this 
 
8 MODEL DEAWING AND SHADING FKOM CASTS. 
 
 quite close to one eye, closing the other. You will 
 find that through this small hole you can see sTery- 
 thing that you'could see froperly if the card were 
 removed. Now hold the card only a little further from 
 your eye, and you will find that you can see nothing 
 but the card itself. 
 
 This experiment will prove three things. 
 
 First, it proves that the rays of light by which the 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 things looked at become visible must come to one point 
 in the eye of the spectator, and that when your peep- 
 hole was held in its first position, you were including 
 in that little circle the whole bundle of rays needed to 
 form the picture. 
 
 Second, it proves that you cannot possibly draw the 
 models the same size as you see them, and that what 
 
THE ACT OF SEEING. » 
 
 you thought you knew about their size must be the 
 result of past experience. 
 
 Third, it will prove the limitation of vision; for 
 although, when looking in the ordinary way, you may 
 fancy that you see more than you could when looking 
 through the peephole, this is not really the case ; you 
 are conscious of the presence of objects outside this 
 circle, but if you had to describe them accurately you 
 would have to turn your eyes to see them although 
 
 FiQ. 4. „ ,--' 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 you might and probably would do so quite uncon- 
 sciously. But before considering this most important 
 matter — the limitation of vision — we must go back a 
 little to complete the description of the act of 
 seeing. 
 
 Objects become visible by means of rays of light, 
 which, coming in straight lines from every point in 
 the thing looked at to a point in the spectator's eye, 
 there cross each other and produce on the retina (a 
 
10 MODEL DRAWING AND SHADING PEOM CASTS. 
 
 fine network at the back of tlie eye) a tiny inverted 
 picture of the objects seen.* 
 
 Because the rays of light are perfectly straight, it 
 follows that any point in a particular ray will cover 
 every other. As an illustration, hold your pencil so 
 that you can only see the end of it (Fig. 5). You 
 cannot tell whether the pencil is half an inch or half 
 a yard long. The end of the pencil is all that you 
 can see. Make the following experiment. Decide 
 upon some point high above you and in front of you 
 — a corner of the ceiling will do. Hold up your 
 pencil at arm's length so that one end of it appears 
 to touch the point you are looking at. As soon as 
 this happens the point and the end of the pencil are 
 in the particular ray of light by which the point 
 becomes visible. Now draw the pencil nearer to you 
 and at the same time keep it {apparently) on the 
 point ; you will find that you have to keep it in a 
 direct line from the point to your eye. 
 This accounts for five most important facts — 
 
 1. The apparent size of objects is reduced hy distance 
 (Fig. 4). 
 
 2. Horizontal surfaces above the eye will appear to he 
 descending surfaces. 
 
 3. Horizontal surfaces helow the eye will appear to be 
 ascending surfaces. 
 
 4. A horizontal siorface exactly on the same level as the 
 eye will become only a horizontal line. Therefore — 
 
 * Some idea of the minuteness of these pictures will he ohtained hy 
 the following calculations, which are to be found in an early volume 
 of the "Illustrated Exhibitor and Magazine of Art," published in 
 1852 (Cassell and Co.). The figure of a man five feet ten inches high, 
 seen at a distance of forty feet, produces an image on the retina the 
 height of which is about I'j of an inch. The face of such an image 
 is enclosed in a circle whose diameter is about ^ of the height, and 
 is therefore fBj of an inch in diameter, yet within this circle the 
 eyes, nose, and mouth are distinctly seen ; the diameter of the eye is 
 ahout 1^ of the face, and therefore, though distinctly seen, occupies 
 less than j^^m P^'^' °^ * square inch. 
 
THE ACT OF SEEING. 11 
 
 5. At this line, called the horizon or horizontal line, the 
 apparent descent or ascent of horizontal surfaces above or 
 below the eye must cease. 
 
 The practical importance of the position of the 
 horizon will be seen from this diagram, abdc is 
 the drawing paper, ef is the horizon. Imagine ab 
 to be the near edge of a horizontal plane above the 
 eye, and cb to be the near edge of a horizontal 
 plane below "the eye. If these planes were extended 
 indefinitely they would appear to meet in the horizon, 
 and we may also suppose ef to be the near edge of 
 a third horizontal plane exactly 
 opposite to the eye. We can 
 see no more of this plane 
 than its edge which coincides 
 with the horizon. If on the 
 upper plane we want to show 
 lines parallel to ab, but 
 further off, we must draw gh 
 and ij lower down, while on f « 
 
 the lower plane the same dis- " " 
 
 tances are obtained by drawing the lines higher up. 
 Therefore — 
 
 Below the horizon — Fwrther off means higher up ; 
 
 Above the horizon^— Further ^ means lower down. 
 
 It is most important to remember this. 
 
 Whether it would appear upon the paper or not, 
 the position of the horizon with regard to the models 
 must never be lost sight of. 
 
 It will be seen from what has been said that all 
 measurement in drawing from objects must be 
 comparative, and that to measure the proper pro- 
 portion, and the relative size of objects, it is 
 absolutely necessary — 
 
 First, that the pencil, or whatever we measure 
 with, should for each measurement be held at 
 exactly the same distance from the eye, and 
 
 Second, that it should be held in the same vertical 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 liaKiXQH 
 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 
 
 
12 MODEL DEAWING AND SHADING FROM CASTS. 
 
 plane. To insure the first condition, always hold, out 
 your pencil at arm's length. A reference to the 
 illustration on page 9, Fig. 4, will show the necessity 
 of this second condition for the sloping line ed, 
 though really much longer than ab or ce, will only 
 appear the same length as these lines; if, therefore, 
 we fail to keep the pencil in this imaginary vertical 
 plane a false measurement must be the result. 
 
LESSON II. 
 
 THE FIELD OP VISION. 
 
 In the previous lesson passing reference was made 
 to the limitation of Tision. Unless this is taken 
 account of, it is impossible to draw correctly, because 
 it is impossible to determine what has to be drawn, 
 and yet it is very often entirely ignored by teachers, 
 and I believe it is very largely owing to this that 
 many students, who have obtained . certificates in 
 Model Drawing and Perspective, are still unable to 
 apply their knowledge to drawing from nature, especi- 
 ally if their proposed subject includes any buildings. 
 It is not easy to convince people that they do not 
 see all that is in front of them. The eye moves so 
 easily and with so little conscious effort that practi- 
 cally, in the ordinary sense of the word, we can see 
 all that is before us. But we must use the word in 
 its more restricted sense if we are to draw what we 
 see, for if we attempt to show more than one view of 
 an object or group of objects in the same drawing, 
 the difficulties are insurmountable. In this limited 
 sense, it will be found that, looking steadily at a 
 given point, what we can see round this point will be 
 a proportionally very small area. It is usually sup- 
 posed that a person looking in a certain direction 
 sees a circle as large as would be made by a line re- 
 volving round this direction at an angle of 30° (Fig. 1, 
 
14 MODEL DRAWING AND SHADING PEOM CASTS. 
 
 page 4), In other words, the direction in which we are 
 looking is the axis of an imaginary cone formed by rays 
 of light — the section of which through the axis * would 
 be an equilateral triangle. The apex * of this cone is 
 in the eye of the spectator; the base of this cone is 
 the field of yision. That is to say, whatever comes 
 within this circle can be properly seen, while every- 
 thing beyond it will be more or less distorted and 
 indistinct. This distortion is not unfrequently seen 
 in photographs and in perspective diagrams worked by 
 mechanical means, which are made to include more 
 than the field of vision. The only sure way of deter- 
 mining when lines which are really horizontal will 
 appear horizontal in the drawing, is by comparing 
 them with a horizontal line at right angles to the 
 direction in which we are looking. Therefore, this 
 direction must he determined first of all, but this 
 cannot be determined without understanding the field 
 of vision! 
 
 This difficulty is constantly arising. A number of 
 students are sitting in a row at a long desk ; opposite 
 the centre of the desk and a few feet from it is a 
 horizontal board with models upon it. I am not 
 quoting an imaginary case when I say that these 
 students, finding the edge of the board parallel to the 
 desk at which they were sitting, would all draw this 
 edge of the board as a horizontal line. It is possible 
 that three students sitting in the middle might see it 
 as such, but the others could not possibly do so, 
 because those at either end if they looked in a direc- 
 tion at right angles to their desk, which is parallel 
 to the board, could not possibly see the models at 
 all, and if they looked at the models so as to include 
 
 * The axis of a solid is an imaginary line from the centre of the base 
 and at right angles to it, passing through the solid to its point or apex 
 in a cone or pyramid, and to the centre of the other base in prisms. 
 
16 MODEL DEAWING AND SHADING FROM OASTS. 
 
 them in their field of Yision and see them properly, 
 no edge of the board would be horizontal, because no 
 edge of the board would be at right angles to the 
 direction in which they would be loolmig. It is 
 perhaps easier to realize this when the pupils are 
 sitting in a ring, or half ring round the model as 
 shown in the illustration, where the exact view when 
 looking from each position in the direction indicated 
 is shown. 
 
 It will be seen that the Field of vision may be 
 increased or reduced by the distance at which the 
 spectator is placed in front of the things to be drawn ; 
 take care therefore that you do not get too close to 
 the group ; but sit so far from it that all you have 
 to draw comes well within the Field of vision. Some- 
 times it happens that the artist is unable to get far 
 enough from his subject to do this, as in the case of 
 a lofty building which can only be seen from a 
 narrow street or in making a picture of an interior 
 which is too small to allow of a proper distance, and 
 in such circumstances the artist must rely on his 
 knowledge of perspective, of which this is one of the 
 chief uses. Those who pretend that perspective is of 
 no use, have either never experienced the difficulty, or 
 are too ignorant to derive any help from this most 
 useful science, which enables the artist to determine 
 exactly 'what would be the direction of the retiring 
 lines if he were at any sufficient distance from his 
 subject. But at any rate for the present you are not 
 likely to be encountering these difficulties, and we 
 must keep to our lesson. 
 
 I have invented ah apparatus which will, I think, 
 be very useful in enablJ^ beginners to realize how to 
 determine their view of sshat they have to draw. The 
 apparatus is called an Ofsimeter, and is only intended 
 to put the uninitiated in the way of ascertaining what 
 they see. They should have plenty of experience in 
 
THE FIELD OP VISION. 
 
 17 
 
 using it; but sufficient practice with it will form a 
 habit of regarding things artistically, which will put 
 them in a position to dispense with any mechanical 
 assistance. 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 The Opsimeter consists of three circles, one very 
 small to look through, the second and third representing 
 the Field of vision at different distances, but which 
 
 c 
 
18 MODEL DRAWING AND SHADING FROM CASTS. 
 
 from the peep-hole are identical or nearly so. This is 
 fixed in an upright stand, which allows the framework 
 of the imaginary cone to be rotated so as to suit the 
 direction in which the axis is required. Across the 
 centre of the larger circle a horizontal line is iixed to 
 give the position of the horizon, and a second horizontal 
 line is so arranged that it can be raised or lowered to 
 suit the position of the horizontal lines in the group, 
 which it is required to test ; other movable wires are 
 arranged for ascertaining the actual angle made by 
 retiring lines with the horizontal bars in the field of 
 vision. The Opsimeter will also be very useful to show 
 that when we are looking upwards or downwards, 
 vertical lines, ceasing to be at right angles to the line of 
 direction, become oblique or inclined lines, and follow 
 the rules presently to be given for such lines, because 
 the conical framework can be fitted upwards or down- 
 wards quite easily, and the height of it can be adjusted 
 to suit the change of position ; but this use of it will not 
 be wanted at present. After using the Opsimeter a 
 few times it will be easy to realize that any lines 
 which are at right angles to the direction in which 
 we are looking, that is, parallel to the surface of the 
 field of vision, will be drawn as they are ; so that as 
 we usually look in a horizontal direction it may be 
 taken as a rule that vertical lines will always le 
 vertical, and that horizontal lines at right angles to the 
 direction in which we are looking must always he 
 horizontal ; all other horizontal lines excepting such as 
 are immediately opposite to the eye will appear to be 
 more or less inclined. 
 
 Lines which are actually inclined will be treated of 
 in another lesson. 
 
 In speaking of the act of seeing it will have been 
 noticed that one eye only was thought of. The curious 
 fact must be proved that the right and left eye get 
 each its own distinct and slightly differing picture 
 
THE FIELD OP VISION. 19 
 
 of the thing looked at. This may be done in the 
 following manner. Close one eye, and hold up a pencil 
 in a vertical position, so that looking with the other 
 eye only, it seems to exactly cover some vertical line 
 which is seen beyond it, as the edge of a door or 
 window-frame, a gas-pipe, etc. See that you get the 
 two lines exactly indentical ; keep your pencil steady, 
 and change eyes. The fact that each eye conveys a 
 slightly different impression to the brain accounts 
 for the fact that we are hardly ever deceived by 
 a picture, or fancy that we are looking at the things 
 represented, because however true the pictures may 
 be, being on a flat surface there is no corresponding 
 difference in the two impressions conveyed to the 
 brain, and so it is at once discovered to be only a 
 " counterfeit presentment." The stereoscope illustrates 
 this beautifully. Examine carefully a pair of stereo- 
 scopic pictures, you will find that they are not alike, 
 they are just so far different as to cause the eyes to 
 convey to the mind such slightly differing pictures as 
 would be the result of looking, first with one eye, 
 and then with the other, at the actual thing of 
 which these are photographs. Hence the illusion — we 
 seem to be looking at the real thing. Although we 
 draw what we see with both eyes, it is often necessary, 
 if we wish to take an accurate measurement, to do so 
 with one eye closed ; and if this fact is kept in mind, 
 that the small space between the two eyes causes so 
 perceptible a difference in the picture seen, the im- 
 portance of keeping one point of view will be evident ; 
 yet I venture to predict that constant vigilance will 
 be necessary in order to guard against habits, of the 
 greatest use to us in an ordinary way, but fatal to 
 success in model drawing, resulting from the natural 
 instinct to see as much as we can. This is, of course, 
 the merest sketch of the process commonly called 
 seeing, but I think it is enough for our purpose, 
 
20 MODEL DRAWING AND SHADING FROM CASTS. 
 
 and I do not think it is possible to be able to 
 draw what we see without so much explanation of 
 how we see it. Those who wish to pursue the 
 subject further will obtain a great deal of valuable 
 information conveyed in a most interesting manner 
 in a remarkable little book by Professor W. K. 
 Clifford.* 
 
 Having obtained some notion of the kind of 
 difficulties we have to encounter, we will proceed to 
 face them practically by attempting to draw some 
 simple groups. 
 
 * " Seeing and Thinking," W. K. Clifford, F.K.S. « Nature Series," 
 Macmillau and Co., 3s. Gd. 
 
LESSON III. 
 
 TWO VIEWS OF A CUBE PLACED ON A DRAWING-BOAED. 
 
 If a number of people are drawing from the same 
 objects, it is evident that each person will have a 
 distinct and different view of them ; any attempt to 
 arrange the models so that they all get nearly the 
 same view is not only so absurd in itself, but so 
 contrary to the essence of proficiency in model draw- 
 ing that I only notice it because I am told that some 
 teachers, in a laudable desire to help their pupils, have 
 attempted to do this so that one drawing on the black- 
 board would serve for the class. I propose to give 
 very careful instructions and illustrations of how to 
 draw this model from two points of view. The reader 
 should place the models in as nearly the same position 
 as the sketches, Fig. 9, as possible, and proceed to 
 draw from the object themselves. The instructions 
 here given are to be followed thoroughly for each 
 succeeding exercise, although they will not be repeated. 
 The drawing-board is about 30 inches by 22 inches ; 
 the cube is about 10 inches each way. 
 
 The board is about 18 inches above the floor ; you 
 are supposed to be sitting on an ordinary chair or 
 bench; the cube is placed exactly in the centre of 
 the board, the corners of the cube are each opposite 
 to the centre of one edge of the board. In the first 
 exercise you are sitting so that your left eye is exactly 
 
22 MODEL DEAWING AND SHADING FEOM CASTS. 
 
 opposite to the edge of the cube ab. Hold your 
 pencil at arm's length and upright, so that one edge 
 of it, when looking with your left * eye, covers the line 
 
 Fiu. 9. 
 
 where point c is also touching the same edge of the 
 pencil ; you have fixed your position and the direction 
 in which you are going to look. Determine next 
 
 * You may, of course, close eithev eye ; but most people can close 
 the right eye more readily than the left. 
 
TWO VIEWS OF A CUBE ON A DEAWING-BOAED. 23 
 
 where your horizon ought to be. If you possess an 
 Opsimeter, referred to at page 17, you can easily do 
 this by the horizontal central bar, the distance from 
 which to the nearest edge of the board must be com- 
 pared with the length of the board. Another way 
 to determine the horizon is to hold your board or 
 book horizontally in front of you until you can only 
 see its edge, then measure the distance as before. 
 (If you are working on a piece of paper fixed on a 
 board, it is very necessary to see that the paper is 
 so pinned down that its edges are parallel to those of 
 the board. Your paper should not be less than 4 
 Imp. (about 15 inches x 11 inches). The drawing 
 should always be large enough to fairly fill your 
 paper. The strips at the side and bottom of the 
 groups are divided into inches ; they will give you 
 some idea of the size of your drawing. Now consider 
 carefully what you have to do. You know that of the 
 lines forming the edges of the board and the cube, five 
 are vertical, and eleven are horizontal in the fii'st view. 
 The two little lines bounding the thickness of the 
 drawing board are upright — this is often overlooked 
 by beginners. Throughout your practice pay great atten- 
 tion to the little lines. 
 
 The three upright edges of the cube and the two 
 upright edges of the thickness of the board are to be 
 vertical lines on your paper, the length of them is 
 what you will have to think about. Of the eleven 
 horizontal lines only three will be horizontal on your 
 paper, hk, ij, and the lower line parallel to u. 
 
 Draw IJ horizontally. You know that the real 
 distance from u to hk is about two-thirds of the 
 length, as shown in the lower figure where ISBJ gives 
 the shape of the board. Remember you have to draw 
 only what you see. Hold your pencil vertically at 
 arm's length in front of you, so that the top of it 
 corresponds to the line hk. Mark upon it with your 
 
24 MODEL DRAWING AND SHADING I'EOM CASTS. 
 
 thumb the distance which you see between hk and 
 IJ. Keep your pencil at the same distance from ;^our 
 eye and try how many times this distance will go into 
 IJ. This is what you see, although you may think 
 it is not nearly enough. Draw the line HK so far 
 above u as this measurement requires. It is evident 
 that the edge of the board hk will appear shorter 
 than the edge u, because it must be further off. 
 Holding your pencil vertically, first at the left corner 
 and then at the right, but keeping your eyes in their 
 original position, try to measure the angle which the 
 retiring edges of the board make with the pencil, and 
 do not be easily satisfied about this. You will find 
 out two things from the completed drawing of the 
 upper surface of the board. 
 
 First, that the distance from u to hk is indicated 
 quite sufficiently by the difference in length of u 
 and HK, and that if you had made the line hk as 
 far above ij as you were at first inclined to do^ you 
 would have been trying to draw a very extensive 
 board indeed. 
 
 Second, that the two edges of the board u and jk 
 which you know are actually parallel are in your 
 drawing converging to a point, and if you drew them 
 as far as the horizon they would meet in that line. 
 This is a most important fact and should be learnt 
 off by heart. 
 
 Parallel lines which retire from the spectator appear to 
 converge or vanish in a point called the vanishing point, 
 and if the retiring parallel lines are horizontal this 
 vanishing point must be somewhere upon the horizon. 
 
 The thickness of the board should now be drawn. 
 Draw the vertical lines from i and j, and draw a 
 horizontal line parallel to u. Do not make the 
 board too thin. 
 
 Now look at the third figure on the left. Compare 
 what you have ascertained to be the appearance of 
 
TWO VIEWS OF A CXJfiE ON A DRAWING-BOAKD. 25 
 
 the board with its actual shape. It is evident that 
 this extensive alteration must aflfect the shape of the 
 base of the cube which you are to draw next. Try 
 very hard to determine the position of a with regard 
 to its distance between u and hk and the direction 
 of AF and AL. It will be useful to notice where af 
 and AL produced would appear to cut the edges of the 
 loard iH, JK. When you have got the direction 
 right, determine the length by comparing af, al, 
 with Ai, AJ. Eemember that if a line which you 
 know to be horizontal appears to be inclined, it must 
 also he foreshortened and that its length will he decreased 
 according to the steepness of its apparent iTwlination. 
 Having fixed the direction and length of these lower 
 edges, draw three perfectly upright lines from A, F, 
 and L. Now look, carefully at the space fg, and see 
 that it is right; also the corresponding line on the 
 right. It will help you to fix the height of these, if 
 in addition to comparing them with af and al, you 
 take note of the direction of the diagonals, ad, bf, 
 and BL and ae. Form a habit of testing the 
 accuracy of your work in as many ways as possible, 
 comparing the angles fab, and lab with those on your 
 paper. This model is a very simple one, but if you 
 take sufficient pains to thoroughly master the method 
 of drawing it, your further progress will be compara- 
 tively easy. 
 
 Do not forget that AF and bd are horizontal 
 parallel lines, therefore the vanishing point will be 
 where af produced would meet the horizon. The 
 vanishing point will not come upon your paper, but 
 keep the fact in mind, it will afford additional help 
 in determining the angle which bd makes with ab, 
 while the relative length of fd and ab will also be 
 a guide. Kepeat this process for the other side. 
 The top of the cube you know to be square, what 
 you see is a lozenge shape. Eemember that DC is 
 
26 MODEL DEAWING AND SHADING FROM CASTS. 
 
 parallel to be and EC to bd, and that they ought 
 to be' drawn so that they would ultimately reach their 
 respective vanishing points. Compare the length cb 
 carefully with bd. A little reflection will convince 
 you that it must be your previous experience which, 
 when you were seeing a shape like dceb made you 
 know that you were looking at a square, pmno, and 
 that caused a shape like ihkj to make you think of a 
 rectangle like isej. Study the actual and apparent 
 shapes of the three sides of the cube and of the 
 drawing-board in both these diagrams, and then try 
 to see the apparent shapes in the model. If you 
 convince yourself of these things it will give you 
 confidence, and you will be ready to encounter fresh 
 difficulties. I would strongly advise you to see that 
 each line that you draw is a good one, as good as 
 you can make it, hefore you leave it; but if you have 
 not quite succeeded in this, you should now complete 
 the drawing by erasing all unnecessary lines and 
 perfecting the others. 
 
 The second group is more difficult because all the 
 horizontal edges appear to be inclined lines. You 
 will have to determine the inclination of the edges 
 of the board by holding your pencil horizontally at 
 arm's length at right angles to the direction in which 
 you are looking, or by using the opsimefer. Endeavour 
 to decide about the shape of each angle before you 
 try to draw it. You may not be able to draw exactly 
 what you want to even then, but what chance have you 
 of success, if you have not made up your mind what 
 you have to do? When you have drawn the edges 
 of the board, criticise your drawing very carefully; 
 small mistakes in the direction of the edges, which 
 may have escaped your notice in taking the lines 
 singly will now be more apparent. If the hoard is not 
 right it is useless to proceed with the objects upon it. Try 
 the direction of a line from corner to corner across 
 
TWO VIEWS OF A CUBE ON A DKAWING-BOAKD. 27 
 
 the board, compare the distance from back to front 
 with the distance across the board as in the last 
 exercise. The instructions given for that should be 
 fully carried out for this, and you should draw the 
 cube and board in several different positions. Then 
 the square prism may be added, and the small cube 
 placed horizontally or vertically upon the board. It 
 is most important to have plenty of practice in draw- 
 ing retiring horizontal lines. 
 
 Always make your drawings as large as your paper will 
 allow. 
 
 Always begin by drawing the lower lines, not forgetting 
 to calculate the relative height and icidth of the group, 
 and to consider the size of your paper. 
 
 It will help you to retain your point of view if you 
 can fix the positions by deciding where some point 
 or line beyond the group comes in apparent contact 
 with some point in the group. 
 
 Do not forget that you alter the height of your 
 horizon if you at one time stoop over your work, and 
 at another sit upright. Tahe all your measurements 
 sitting quite upright. 
 
 The picture on the next page. Fig. 10, is intended 
 to illustrate the rule about parallel retiring lines given 
 on page 24. In the small diagram the lines which are 
 actually parallel are carried out to their proper vanish- 
 ing points, which are, in this case, all upon the horizon, 
 because the retiring lines are all horizontal. It is not 
 often possible to show more than one vanishiug point 
 on the drawing-paper, but it is most helpful to keep 
 them in mind when testing the apparent inclination 
 of retiring lines, and it is easier to judge of the 
 tendency of the converging lines if you draw rather 
 more of them than is actually required for your picture, 
 as suggested in Fig. 10. * 
 
 * It will be found that two adjacent edges of a horizontal rectangle 
 should never ascend or descend in the same direction. If two edges 
 
28 MODEL DRAWING AND SHADING FROM CASTS. 
 
 Notice in this picture how useful the common 
 diagonal of the ends of the three steps is. If you 
 draw the retiring lines at the proper distances apart, 
 this line marks the length of each succeeding step. 
 The diagonals of the end of the square prism also 
 give the centre line for the triangle. In the small 
 diagram the retiring lines are carried out to their 
 respective Tanishing points.. 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 of such a rectangle are horizontal on the paper, one of tlie retiring 
 edges may be upright, and, if so, it is evident that it must be im- 
 mediately opposite to the eye and exactly in the direction in which 
 you are looking, therefore, in this case, two of the edges must be 
 horizontal. When all the edges are apparently inclined, if one pair 
 of lines converge to the right, the other pair mttst converge to the left. 
 
LESSON IV. 
 
 INCLINED SUKFAOES. 
 
 Oblique or inclined surfaces of which the nearest 
 end is the lowest are ascending surfaces. Those 
 which have the nearest end the highest are descend- 
 ing surfaces. The student will have become quite 
 familiar with the apparent reductions which distance 
 makes in the size of objects. If we place a drawing- 
 board in an ascending position, it is evident that the 
 higher edge being further off than the lower one will 
 be apparently smaller, the lines which join the upper 
 and lower edges together will converge to a point 
 which will be above the horizon. Now place the 
 board in a descending position, and the point of con- 
 vergence to which the descending lines are inclined 
 will be below the horizon. Any parallel lines drawn 
 on the surface of the board, would therefore converge 
 to some point, in the first case, above, in the second 
 case helow the horizon. 
 
 Ascending parallel lines converge upwards. 
 
 Descending parallel lines converge downwards. 
 
 In the small sketch at the left of the illustration 
 on the next page, the ascending and descending 
 parallel lines are shown carried out to their vanishing 
 points. It is clear that the steepness of the ascent 
 or descent determines the distance above or below the 
 horizon of the vanishing point, and that the distance 
 of this point determines the difference between the 
 
Ekvttian JtHJPltn of an OcTACOMLf^raM. 
 
 f^rsfsedive ]^ewscfjn£^iLA7E7iAL7/*JANCL£ 
 
 A 
 
 
 X. 
 
 
 y^ 
 
 
 X 
 
 
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 T.C.B.Hfi,M 
 
 Fia. 11. 
 
INCLINED SUEFACES. 31 
 
 length of the near and far edges, the difference 
 increasing as the surfaces become flatter. It is not 
 often that these points can be shown upon the paper, 
 but it will be found most useful to keep them in 
 mind ; and it is also a good plan to draw rather more 
 of the ascending and descending lines than is 
 actually required for the picture. The next illustra- 
 tions show four views of a group consisting of two 
 cubes resting on square prisms, and four views of two 
 square prisms resting on cubes. If the student will 
 draw similar views from, the, actual models in the order 
 shown, the difSculties of ascending and descending 
 surfaces will soon be overcome; if only one of each 
 kind of model is available, make the exercise with 
 one cube and one prism, but the greater number of 
 parallel lines will afford more practice and increase 
 the difSculties. Work exactly in the same way as 
 indicated for the last lesson, and do not leave this 
 exercise until you feel you can draw a cube or a 
 square prism in any position. Notice in the picture 
 how useful the diagonal lines on the surface of the 
 cube are, the position of these will, of course, vary 
 with the slope of the model, but these imaginary lines 
 are of the greatest use in determining the inclinations. 
 Test all the sloping lines by comparing them with 
 the pencil held vertically. In the last four exercises 
 where the edges of the board all retire, be careful to 
 copy the angle — made black in the pictures — which 
 the two near edges of the board make with your 
 pencil held in a horizontal position at right-angles 
 to the direction in which you are looking. 
 
 The octagonal prism is rather too difScult to be 
 attempted yet, it is not now included in the syllabus 
 for the examinations, but some hints on the method 
 of drawing it will be found in the lesson on polygonal 
 models. It is given here as a good illustration of the 
 convergence of ascending and descending lines. 
 
LESSON V. 
 
 THE SQUARE PYBAMID AND TEIANGULAE PKISM. 
 
 The square pyramid and the triangular prism have 
 already been shown in a number of varying horizontal 
 positions in the illustration on page 15. The accom- 
 panying picture shows the method of drawing these 
 important models. A common mistake in drawing 
 the square pyramid is to make the apex vertically 
 over the centre of the near side. Remember that 
 the apex is over the centre of the square base, and 
 that the axis of the model is at right angles to 
 the base ; therefore, draw the iase first and find the 
 centre of it hy the diagonals. In the first figure on the 
 top row the pyramid lies point towards us on one of 
 the triangular faces, in that case the base is a 
 descending surface; in the figure immediately under 
 this, the base is an ascending surface — remember to 
 apply the rules for such. When the axis of the 
 model is upright, it is generally sufficient to draw 
 the two visible sides of the base, and to draw the 
 diagonal joining the extreme points, the centre of 
 which is the centre of the base. The lines which are 
 dotted in these pictures should be drawn lightly as 
 continuous lines; they are only dotted to distinguish 
 them from the lines which are to remain, liever draw 
 with a dotted line. The triangular prism when standing 
 vertically presents no special difficulties, but in every 
 
Fig. 14, 
 
36 MODEL DBA WING AND SHADING FROM CASTS. 
 
 other position the triangular ends will require a great 
 deal of care; if the model is horizontal, the centre 
 line of the triangle must always he quite vertical. Be 
 careful to show the perspective difference in the two 
 halves of the base of the triangle. If the model is 
 inclined, this centre line must also be inclined, so as 
 to represent a line perpendicula^ to this inclination. 
 All those lines should be most carefully tested by 
 the pencil held verticallj ; the slope is often quite 
 in the opposite direction to that which you would 
 imagine it to be. . ^ 
 
 At the bottom of the page are two sketches, to show 
 how the practice in drawing the models already 
 described may be applied to drawing buildings. You 
 will find that the habit of thinking how you would 
 set about drawmg any buildings, or, in fact, any 
 object with which you are familiar, will help to 
 train your eyes, and at the same time make your 
 practice more interesting. The drawings given on 
 the next page illustrate the method of drawing a 
 very useful model called the double cross, not included 
 in the syllabus for the examination, but affording 
 capital practice in the drawing of ascending and 
 descending surfaces, and showing how useful the 
 diagonals are in fixing the various points. A line 
 should first be drawn through A and H in the first 
 figure, and from these two points, A and H, vertical 
 lines should be set up, A, b, h, k. These should be 
 divided into four equal parts. A, B at c, D, and B, and 
 H, K at J, I, and f, and lines converging with the line 
 through AH should be drawn through these points. 
 Next draw am, and through m draw a vertical line, 
 which, crossing CJ, will give point L. Join lb. It 
 is an ascending line, therefore draw it upwards a little 
 beyond b, and draw mk. See that these two lines 
 have the right amount of convergence. Draw a line 
 from B to the point where MK cuts CJ, and produce 
 

 
 Pio. 15. 
 
38 MODEL DRAWING AND SHADING PKOM CASTS. 
 
 it downwards. This should pass through point i, and 
 will give point G on line ef. Join GH, and draw a 
 vertical line through G to reach ej. Join this last 
 point to K. Now draw from L to H, and draw from A 
 through I to meet the line CJ. One face of the cross 
 is now complete. Lines should now be drawn from k 
 and M towards the left, and points s and N marked 
 upon them. A line must be drawn from n to s, con- 
 verging upwards with mk. A line is next drawn 
 from D and from the top corner of the inner square, 
 converging with, KS and mn. We have now three 
 squares in perspective on the side of the cross skmn. 
 In the upper square draw the diagonal from K, and 
 produce it to meet the line drawn through D. This 
 will give point 5, and if the other diagonal be drawn 
 through s, point 6 will be obtained. From 5 and 6, 
 ascending lines converging with mk should be drawn 
 (that from 5 will only show a very little; take care 
 that this small hit is in the right direction) ; that from 
 6, meeting the upper line of the second square pro- 
 duced, will give the top corner of the arm of the 
 cross projecting towards us. From 6 draw a descend- 
 ing line converging with lh, and upon this point 
 w will afterwards be found, when this process has 
 been repeated on the surface eluh from w an ascending 
 line will complete the nearest square, and the last 
 diagram will show how to finish the exercises. 
 
LESSON VI. 
 
 FRAMED MODELS. 
 
 With the exception of the hollow cube and the 
 ring, there are no "frame" models included in the 
 syllabus for examination issued by the Science and Art 
 Department ; but these models afford capital practice, 
 and should not be neglected. Illustrations are given in 
 Fig. 16 of a square and an equilateral triangular frame, 
 and on page 45 will be found the method to be em- 
 ployed in drawing a pentagonal, or five-sided frame. 
 The chief thing to be noticed is that the mitres— the 
 joints, that is, of the frame — must always be in a 
 straight line to the centre of the figure, and that the 
 inner edges of the model are parallel to the outer 
 edges. The little squares which are hatched in the 
 picture indicate the ends of the rails, and by means 
 of these the lines showing the thickness of the rails 
 will be readily obtained. In drawing the square frame 
 in an upright position, the width of the horizontal 
 rails can be marked off on the near vertical edge in 
 their proper proportion. Lines should then be drawn 
 converging with the upper and lower edges, from 
 these points and these lines crossing the diagonals 
 will indicate the width of the upright rails showing 
 their proper reduction by perspective. This model 
 will be a good preparation for drawing the hollow 
 
40 MODEL DRAWING AND SHADING FKOM CASTS. 
 
 cube, which is on any other method a very troublesome 
 model to draw. These pictures (Fig. 17) show how to 
 set about it. Draw it as a solid cube first. Draw the 
 
 diagonals on each of the visible surfaces. Mark the 
 width of the horizontal edges on the near upright 
 
fitAMED MODELS. 
 
 41 
 
 edge, draw converging lines to right and left from 
 these points, and obtain the width of the upright 
 rails. Then carry converging lines over the top sur- 
 face, obtaining the inner square, and the little squares 
 
 Fig. 17. 
 
 which represent the tops of the rails. These squares, 
 with those already obtained on the upright surfaces, 
 will enable you to complete the model. 
 
LESSON VII. 
 
 EEGULAR POLYGONAL MODELS. 
 
 The hexagonal or six-sided prism is the only poly- 
 gonal model which is likely to be set for examination, 
 and in some respects it is the easiest of this kind of 
 solids, but it will require a great deal of practice 
 before you can draw it quickly and correctly. On 
 the opposite page you will notice on the left a regular 
 hexagon, with its sides elongated. This is to em- 
 phasize the fact that two of the sides are in each 
 case parallel to one of the diagonals,- that the diagonals 
 divide the hexagon into six equilateral triangles of 
 the same size, and that the horizontal diagonal is 
 divided by the vertical lines and the oblique diagonals 
 into four exactly equal parts. These facts should be 
 made use of in drawing the model. After carefully 
 determining the edges of the board ab and Ao, 
 decide upon point e, and draw the line upon which 
 you will afterwards mark off ee and gh. Try to get 
 these spaces exactly right ; test the position of e oy 
 a vertical line through A, and consider carefully the 
 relative distance from e to p, p to G, G to h, and from 
 H to the end of the board. Having satisfied yourself 
 that these points are in their right places, draw Ei, 
 being careful to notice that ic must converge with 
 AB. Next draw vertical lines from i, e, p, g, and h. 
 It will be best now to complete the horizontal model ; 
 
44 MODEL DRAWING AND SHADING FROM OASTS. 
 
 the little diagram on the right of that already referred 
 to will show how to do this. Points 1 and 3 corre- 
 spond to E and F. On the vertical line from f mark 
 point 2, noting the relative length of 2 1 and 1 3 ; 
 draw the line 2 3, and test the direction of this 
 line. Next draw a line from 2, converging with 1 3, 
 which will cut the vertical line on f in point 4 ; draw 
 the diagonal 4 1, obtaining 5 where the diagonals 
 intersect. A line should be drawn through 5, con- 
 verging with the upper and lower edges ; and if this 
 is correctly drawn, points 6 and 7 will be exactly in 
 the middle of 2 1 and 4 3. See that these points 
 are right. The sides which are parallel to 1 4 will 
 be ascending lines, and their point of convergence 
 will therefore be above the horizon; but in such a 
 view as we have here, it is practically sufficient to 
 draw the sides parallel to the diagonals, and these 
 lines, where they cross the line 6 7, will determine 
 the outer angles of the front of the model. See that 
 the four divisions on line 6 7 represent equal spaces, 
 the nearest being a little the largest, and so on. Now 
 draw three lines converging with Ei; that from 2, 
 crossing the vertical drawn from 1, will give another 
 point in the model. Notice that these points must 
 always he vertically over the corresponding lower corners 
 when the model is in a horizontal position; one line 
 drawn from this, converging with 2 4, will complete 
 top of the model, and a second line from the same 
 point, converging with the diagonal 4 1 (upwards), 
 will give the last point, a line drawn from which to 
 1 should converge with the diagonal 2 3 (downwards). 
 In drawing the upright prism, it will be well to 
 begin with point J, which marks where the left upright 
 edge of the model appears to touch the model already 
 completed. Then notice where the next upright comes 
 with regard to the right outer corner of the hexagon. 
 Test the relative width of these three upright surfaces. 
 
REGULAR POLYGONAL MODELS. 
 
 45 
 
 and draw the retiring line from g, being careful about 
 the angle made by it with ge. A very small portion 
 only of the next edge will be visible. Be careful to 
 draw this in the proper direction. The diagram 
 
 FiQ. 19. 
 
 explains how to apply the same method as has already 
 been used for the vertical hexagon to one that is 
 horizontal. Be careful not to exaggerate the distance 
 
46 MODEL DEAWING AND SHADING FEOM CASTS. 
 
 from back to front, and to see that the upper and 
 lower edges, which are parallel, converge to the same 
 points. In finishing the board, see that point D comes in 
 its right place with regard to the vertical line on h. 
 
 In Fig. 19 (page 45) the model is shown in an 
 inclined position, and the pencil is placed where it is 
 
 to show the necessity of 
 testing the apparent di- 
 rection of the edges of the 
 model, which are usually- 
 very deceptive, and often 
 quite the reverse of what 
 you would expect them 
 to be. The rows of hexa- 
 gons and pentagons will 
 explain themselves. Ee- 
 member that any figure, 
 whatever its actual shape, 
 may appear to he a straight 
 line, hut that it would he 
 impossible for hath ends of 
 a prism to he seen as a 
 straight line at once. 
 
 The sketch of pen- 
 tagonal and hexagonal 
 prisms and pyramids in 
 Fig. 20, besides affording 
 an additional illustration 
 of the methods of drawing 
 T'^o these solids, is intended 
 to remind the student 
 that, when drawing several 
 models in a group so that only a portion of one of 
 the models is seen, it is very necessary to draw the 
 whole of the base of the nearer model, to avoid the 
 very common error of not leaving room upon the 
 board for this to be completed without interfering 
 
 Pia. 20. 
 
REGULAE POLYGONAL MODELS. 47 
 
 with the model behind. As a general principle, you 
 should copy exactly what you see, and only that. Of 
 course, neither of the bases of these prisms would be 
 seen, only two edges of the pentagon, and one edge 
 and a very little bit of another of the hexagon; but 
 you will observe how easy it would have been, had 
 not the lower pentagon been drawn, to have brought 
 the base of the hexagon a little too low down without 
 noticing it. Of course the point where the little bit" 
 of the base of the hexagon cuts the upright edge of 
 the pentagonal prism would not then have been in its 
 right place, but this would easily have escaped notice. 
 In this and similar cases it is quite worth the trouble 
 of drawing lines which you can't see, and which will 
 have 'to be erased before your drawing is finished, at 
 any rate in the earlier stages of your study. The 
 necessity of giving special attention to this matter is 
 proved by the following extract from the report of the 
 examiners on the works in Model Drawing — advanced 
 — submitted in 1894 for certificates. These drawings 
 are presumably executed by persons competent to teach 
 the subject, and desiring a certificate to enable them 
 to earn grants by doing so. 
 
 "Of faults of drawing, the worst, perhaps, is the 
 representation of models in impossible relation with 
 one another and with the board on which they rest : 
 as, for instance, when the more distant object is drawn 
 touching the ground nearer the spectator than the 
 other, or when a solid object is shown cutting into a 
 second one." 
 
 The regular octagon, which means a polygon with 
 eight equal sides, does not allow of such a convenient 
 method as that given for drawing the six-sided figure ; 
 for although the sides are all equal, it will be seen, 
 on referring to the drawing of this figure on page 30, 
 that the figure is divided into a square (of the same 
 length as the sides) — four right-angled isosceles 
 
48 MODEL DRAWING AND SHADING FEOM CASTS. 
 
 triangles — of which the hypothenuse * forms in each 
 case a side of the octagon, and four oblongs, of which 
 the long edges are the same length as the sides of the 
 octagon. The vertical and horizontal lines used to 
 dissect the figure are therefore divided into three 
 portions, of which the centre one is larger than the 
 two outside pieces, which are equal to each other. 
 A very common error in drawing the octagon is to 
 divide these lines into three equal parts, with the 
 result that four of the sides which are parallel to the 
 diagonals of the centre square are much longer than 
 the other four. If we suppose the larger of the three 
 divisions to be divided into ten equal parts, the 
 shorter divisions would be equal to seven of these parts ; 
 but we cannot measure accurately enough in freehand 
 work to be able to make much use of this fact, only 
 the knowledge of it may save you from the mistake 
 already referred to. The following method, I think, 
 will be found useful in drawing the octagon, when, 
 because the surface is at right angles to the direction 
 in which you are looking, the true shape of it is seen. 
 
 Draw the horizontal line AB. Let o be one corner 
 of the octagon. Draw a vertical line CQ of indefinite 
 length. 
 
 On this, mark off CE — which must be the height of 
 the next angle above C — and on ab, mark off CP 
 equal to CB. Draw a straight line from F through E 
 indefinitely. Now mark off ch on AB-^keeping in 
 mind the proportion of seven and ten between these two 
 spaces — and draw a vertical line from h, which cross- 
 ing the line ek will give the opposite comer to e 
 of the inner square. Through this point and through 
 E draw horizontal lines. From each corner of the 
 square on these lines and on the vertical lines above 
 mark off a distance equal to ce, and so obtain the 
 
 * The hypothenuse of a right-angled triangle is the side opposite 
 to the right angle. 
 
REGULAR POLYGONAL' MODELS. 49 
 
 points of the octagon. Of course it is not intended 
 that you should use any mechanical means to measure 
 these various distances, but only that you should 
 mark the points as well as you can before you try 
 to draw the lines. 
 
 If the octagon is in perspective, it will be best to 
 begin with the line ab, taking care to give it the 
 proper amount of inclination, and then to draw the 
 two uprights, marking off the three spaces on the nearer 
 one, and drawing converging lines from each point. 
 Then you will have obtained the square in the middle, 
 and the diagonals of that will indicate the direction 
 of the inclined sides of the octagon — two upwards 
 and two downwards. The lines forming the edges of 
 the rectangular faces of the prism are horizontal, and 
 follow the rules given for retiring parallel lines con- 
 verging to some point on the horizon. The point 
 cannot be seen in the diagram, and it will seldom be 
 possible to show it upon your drawing ; but keep the 
 fact in mind that the lines which are actually parallel 
 should vanish in the same point. If you turn the 
 picture about, the diagram on the right at the bottom 
 of the page will show you how to draw horizontal 
 octagons in perspective when, of course, the rect- 
 angular faces will be upright. 
 
 The same method should be applied, if you have 
 to draw the model in a sloping position. In this 
 case, be very careful to get the end nearest to you 
 qidte correctly drawn, testing the direction of the 
 lines in every possible way and comparing the height 
 with the width, before attempting the long edges and 
 the other end. 
 
LESSON VIII. 
 
 CIECULAR MODELS. 
 
 The cone, the 
 cylinder, the 
 ring, and 
 the sphere are 
 the four cir- 
 cular models 
 included in the 
 syllabus of the 
 Science and 
 Art Depart- 
 ment for the 
 examination in model draw- 
 ing ; but the instructions 
 giyen for drawing these solids 
 can be applied to all objects 
 which are circular. There 
 Fig. 21. ' are only two possible shapes 
 
 which a circle may assume 
 besides the perfect circle. It will only show its true 
 circular shape when it is well within the field of 
 vision, and at right angles to the direction in which 
 the spectator is looking, in which position it wUl be 
 remembered that all figures retain their true shape, the 
 only change being in size. If the circle is edgeways in 
 
CIRCULAR MODELS. 
 
 51 
 
 a direct line from the eye, a perfectly straight line is 
 all that can be seen. In any other position a circle 
 will appear to be an ellipse. This figure will be 
 familiar to students who have been through a course 
 of geometry. 
 
 The three figures here given will show that ellipses 
 may be of very varied proportions, but that in each 
 case the curve is perfectly smooth and continuous. 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 In drawing circles which are foreshortened this 
 characteristic of the ellipse must be constantly kept 
 in mind, for however much a circle may be reduced 
 in width by perspective, the curve must always be 
 quite continuous, and anything like a corner at the 
 extremities must be most carefully avoided. It will 
 be very good practice to draw a number of ellipses 
 of different proportions and in varying positions. 
 Generally it is necessary to draw the two diameters, 
 which should always be at right angles to each other. 
 A line passing through a solid model from the centre 
 of one end to the centre of the other, or in the case 
 of the cone from the centre of the base to the apex 
 or point, is called the axis. In drawing circular 
 models, first ascertain the direction of the aods, and, 
 always draw the long diameter of the ellipse which repre- 
 sents the circle at right angles to the axis. If the model 
 
52 MODEL DRAWING AND SHADING PROM CASTS. 
 
 is standing vertically on the board or on another 
 model, the axis will be upright, and therefore the long 
 diameter on which the ellipse must be drawn will be 
 horizontal, no matter what the direction of the retiring 
 edges of the board or model may be (providing 
 always that the model is within the field of vision). 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 In the annexed figure this principle is applied to a 
 cylinder lying upon the board so that its circular 
 faces are upright. It will easily be understood that 
 in this position the near half of the circle would 
 appear larger than the far half, therefore it is evident 
 that the centre of the ellipse is not the centre of the 
 circle. It will also be seen that if a vertical line be 
 drawn through the actual centre of the circle it will 
 not divide the figure which represents the circle in 
 perspective at all equally, therefore for practical p\ir- 
 poses such a line is of no use, for it will not help us 
 to draw the ellipse symmetrically, while a line at 
 right angles to the axis will divide the ellipse so 
 nearly into two equal parts that, for the purpose of 
 model drawing, we may assume that it is exact. The 
 small diagram, Fig. 12, in the picture at the end of 
 
CIRCULAR MODELS. 53 
 
 the lesson shows what is very likely to be the result 
 of drawing the ellipse on an upright diameter. This 
 illustration shows the same method applied to the 
 semi-cyclindrical model, included in the syllabus for 
 drawing in elementary schools. 
 
 The fact that the long diameter of the ellipse is 
 not a diameter of the circle , 
 
 will not cause any difS- /"^^P^Tn. 
 
 culty in drawing the / / \ i\ 
 
 cylinder or the cone; but -~^ / / 1/ \ 
 
 in drawing the ring and jT^r-- ; ^— r"""^ 
 
 any figures in which con- ^ / ^-.--^^T'^^^' 
 
 centric circles occur it must / 
 
 be taken account of, and 
 
 if the drawing is on a ^ '°' ^*" 
 
 large scale it will be necessary to draw a new diameter 
 
 for each ellipse that is required. 
 
 It has been pointed out that a circle seen edgeways 
 exactly opposite to the eye appears to be a straight 
 line, whether it is 
 placed vertically, hori- 
 zontally, or obliquely. 
 If you will hold a 
 thin circular disc of 
 card, or a penny, in 
 each of these several 
 positions and gradu- 
 ally remove it, higher j,^^^ gs. 
 up, lower down, or 
 
 further to the right or left hand, you will find that 
 the further it is removed from the eye the rounder 
 it will appear. Then if we suppose a cylinder, a few 
 inches below your eye, it is evident that the lower 
 circular surface is further from your eye than the top 
 one, so it will be rounder, and the same result will 
 be obtained if we suppose the cylinder raised so that 
 the bottom of it is above the horizon, only now it 
 
54 MODEL DRAWING AND SHADING FROM CASTS. 
 
 is the top curve wMch is further off and consequently 
 the roundest. Make the experiment with the cylinder 
 placed horizontally but obliquely, and you will find 
 that although the farther end of the model is relatively 
 smaller, it is also proportionately rounder, hence we may- 
 say, that the hidden curve of all circular figures is 
 rounder than that of which the whole ellipse is seen. 
 This does not, of course, apply to circles which show 
 their true shape. 
 
 In drawing circular models, it is always safest to 
 draw the whole of the ellipse which is partially hidden 
 to avoid the risk of the error illustrated in this draw- 
 ing of a cone, where it will be seen that if the curve 
 BC were reversed, a corner would occur at b and c. 
 The dotted line shows the com- 
 A A pleted ellipse of which bo is a 
 
 /\ part, and consequently abc is 
 
 / \ really a drawing of a section of 
 
 / \ the cone. When the circular 
 
 / \ end of a model appears as a 
 
 / \ straight line, then, and then only, 
 
 I \ can the side lines make angles 
 
 / \ with it. In every other case the 
 
 (/" "V straight lines must be tangential 
 
 a^"-^ ..^r. to the curve. If the distance BC 
 
 is the proper width for the base 
 
 Fig. 26. of the cone, then a different 
 
 curve must be drawn, for the 
 
 existing one could only be properly completed by 
 
 the dotted line shown. It is not easy, especially for 
 
 the beginner, to realize this rather subtle but most 
 
 important difference unless the whole ellipse is drawn, 
 
 and if it is lightly drawn, that part of it can be quite 
 
 easily erased, which is not seen. Two additional 
 
 views of the ring are given here to show how the 
 
 surface of the ring must be foreshortened. The 
 
 smaller the space between the near and far edge. 
 
CIKCULAR MODELS. 
 
 55 
 
 the greater the difference will be between the width 
 of this surface at the ends and in the middle, for the 
 diameters of the circle are in reality the same length, 
 so if one of them is foreshortened, any measurement 
 on that line must also be foreshortened in the same 
 ratio. 
 
 The heading of this lesson shows how this method 
 of representing the circle 
 by an ellipse may be 
 adapted to the drawing 
 of semicircular arches, or 
 as a means of testing the 
 accuracy of such. Students' 
 who have not been through 
 a course of freehand draw- 
 ing will need a great deal 
 of practice with these 
 curves; but by this time 
 the difficulty should be 
 entirely one of execution, 
 because the eye should 
 now have acquired the 
 power of accurate judg- 
 ment of space and size and 
 proportion. The sphere 
 is chiefly used as an exercise in shading; it will, 
 therefore, be described in a future lesson. 
 
 Fig. 28, page 56, shows at a glance all the chief 
 facts about circular models. Figs. 3, 8, and 10 are edge 
 views. Fig. 1 shows the shape to be most carefully 
 avoided, and Fig. 12 shows what is very likely to 
 happen if we attempt to draw the perspective view of 
 a circular model using an upright diameter, the 
 drawing suggesting that the side view of the model 
 represented would not be rectangular as it should be, 
 but like the shape shown above it, technically called 
 a rhomboid. 
 
 FiQ. 27. 
 
LESSON IX. 
 
 VASES. 
 
 The three examples of vase forms selected for ex- 
 amination purposes present almost all the difSculties 
 which the student is likely to encounter in drawing 
 this kind of model. A careful consideration of these 
 typical forms will enable him to successfully copy 
 more complicated shapes. Proficiency in freehand 
 drawing will, of course, be necessary ; but, although 
 the facilities gained by practice from flat examples 
 will be very useful, combined with an intelligent under- 
 standing of the lessons already given, there are very 
 serious errors which those who can draw very well 
 from flat copies are liable to fall into unless the 
 previous lessons on circular objects are understood. 
 And this is certainly a point in favour of commencing 
 with model drawing ; for the scope of freehand, 
 technically so-called, is very limited, unless vases 
 or similar forms are included, and it is hardly 
 possible for these to be well drawn except by the 
 experience gained in drawing from the real things. 
 The differences are so slight between a good render- 
 ing and a bad one as to be quite overlooked by the 
 uninitiated, and yet to the eye which has once been 
 taught to see correctly, they are most offensive blots 
 bn an otherwise good drawing. 
 
58 MODEL DKAWING AND SHADING FROM CASTS. 
 
 In drawing vase forms in outline there are three 
 chief difficulties : 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 
 (ft) The proper appreciation of the contour or profile 
 of the vase, 
 
VASES. 59 
 
 (b) The balancing exactly of the two sides. 
 
 (c) The perspective changes in the circular forms. 
 To overcome the first two difficulties it will be 
 
 necessary to draw a centre line, and to consider each 
 part of the outline in regard to this line, but it will 
 be very helpful to suppose another line parallel to the 
 centre line, which touches that part of the contour 
 which is furthest from it, and to regard the shape 
 contained between the profile of the vase and this 
 line, which may be represented by the pencil placed 
 in the proper position — in the illustration this space 
 is blackened. This method gives you two chances 
 of discovering errors in the outline. A change in 
 the way of looking at things is always an advantage, 
 for the eye soon becomes tired, and this unexpected 
 change in the mental effort acts as a gentle stimulus, 
 and doing its work in consequence more efficiently, 
 the eye detects errors which would otherwise have 
 escaped detection. For the same reason it is a very 
 good plan to look at your drawing and the model in 
 a looking-glass, as the whole thing being reversed, a 
 new set of facts are presented, to which the eye has 
 not got accustomed. Find out everything you can 
 about the vase you have to draw, the proportion, 
 length as compared with the width, where the widest 
 part occurs in relation to its height, etc. 
 
 In the first diagram of Fig. 30, the long-necked 
 vase is carefully analyzed, and this analysis of the 
 form should be mentally gone through for each vase 
 or jar you may have to draw. When the actual shape 
 of the vase has been understood, and can be readily 
 drawn in profile or elevation, the perspective difficulties 
 have to be considered. If you reflect that any 
 horizontal line drawn on the profile of the vase 
 becomes an ellipse in any ordinary view of the jar, 
 you will easily understand that the contour of the 
 jar which you see in the ordinary way does not 
 
60 MODEL DRAWING AND SHADING FEOM OASTS. 
 
 correspond to the shape as you know it to be in 
 reality. Here we are coming back to the initial 
 di£Sculty in model drawing ; but in the case of a 
 
 Fig. 30, 
 
 curved form, although it is useful to keep in mind 
 the cause of the change, you must rely chiefly on 
 
■^ASfiS. 
 
 61 
 
 the outline as you see it, as the drawing of ellipses for 
 any horizontal lines which might be chosen would 
 
 FiQ. 31. 
 
 make the work almost too mechanical, besides in- 
 volving a great amount of unnecessary drawing which 
 
62 MODEL DRAWING AND SHADING FROM CASTS. 
 
 would afterwards have to be erased ; but in -drawing the 
 pedestal part of the vases, where there are actually 
 lines showing, it is quite worth while to draw the 
 complete ellipses for them. And in drawing the red 
 terra cotta vase, or similar forms, it is also advisable to 
 draw the whole of the ellipses for these lines near the 
 shoulder of the jar, when the top of it is below 
 the eye, because the outline must include a view of the 
 top of the shoulder. If this is necessary when the 
 vases are in an upright position, it is infinitely 
 more so if they are in a horizontal or an inclined 
 position, but it will be best to gain as much facility 
 as you can in drawing them in a vertical position, 
 before you attempt the horizontal or inclined, when 
 you can dispense with all construction lines, except 
 the centre line, and perhaps a diameter at the top 
 and another at the bottom, for it must not be forgotten 
 that your object should be to draw with as few lines 
 as possible, and that these construction lines are only 
 intended as a sort of go-cart until you are able to 
 go alone. When you can do this the further difficulties 
 which, after all, are no new difficulties, but only an 
 exaggeration of those previously encountered, will 
 not be insurmountable. A few examples are given 
 of vases in various inclined positions. We have now 
 come to the end of the single models, and the chief 
 difficulty now for the elementary stage of the subject 
 is the drawing of them in groups, preserving the 
 proper proportion between the separate models, and 
 between the models and the board. Careful practice 
 is necessary to secure this, but it is practice on the 
 same lines as those already laid down. 
 
 Only one hour is allowed for the examination in the 
 elementary stage, and generally there are three models 
 to be drawn, with the board on which they are placed. 
 Usually one of the models is a vase, one of those here 
 illustrated ; but there is generally a choice of groups 
 
VASES. 63 
 
 allowed, and this year one of the groups consisted of 
 the square prism resting on the board ; on the top of 
 this was the square pyramid, and the ring was placed 
 on the pyramid at an angle of 30°. The board ought 
 to be eighteen inches above the floor. It is evident 
 that speed must be cultivated if you are to pass the 
 examination ; there will not be much time for altera- 
 tions, and probably none at all for lining in. If 
 you have profited by the direction here given, 
 very little of either will be needed. If you have 
 not much time to devote to the subject, it will, of 
 course, be best to keep entirely to practice from 
 the models which have been described, from which the 
 examination group will be selected, and to have the 
 models placed about eighteen inches from the floor. 
 But if you can spare more time, get as much ex- 
 perience as you can in drawing these models in other 
 positions, placing them sometimes above the horizon, 
 and also in drawing other objects than those included 
 in the syllabus — a window, and what you can see 
 through it, an open door, a chair, a table, fireplace, 
 the corner of a room, a pair of common house steps, 
 a wheelbarrow — and many other things which will 
 suggest themselves. This wider range of subjects 
 will probably give increased interest to your work, 
 and will certainly increase your facility in drawing, 
 and lead up to sketching from nature. 
 
 The following extracts from the Science and Art 
 Directory will be useful to those who are preparing for 
 examination in model drawing. 
 
 MODEL DRAWING. 
 Elementary Stage (Subject 3a).* 
 (1 hour is allowed for this Examination). 
 Candidates are required to malce an outline drawing in pencil 
 
 * These examinations nearly correspond with the foimer 2nd Grade 
 Examinations in these subjects, 
 
64 MODEL DRAWING AND SHADING FROM CASTS. 
 
 only from a group of three or more of the geometrical models and 
 simple vases shown in Fig. 32. 
 
 The di-awing must fairly fill the quarter imperial sheet of drawing, 
 paper supplied to the candidate sitting for examination. 
 
VASES. 
 
 65 
 
 Advanced Stage (Subject 5a). 
 (2| hours are allowed for this Examination.) 
 
 Candidates are required to make a shaded drawing from a group 
 of three or more of the geometrical models and simple vases shown 
 in Figs. 32 and 33. 
 
 The drawing must be made on a scale so that it shall fairly fill 
 a half-sheet of imperial paper. 
 
 Elementary and Advanced Stages. 
 (StJBjECTS 3a and 5a.) . 
 
 In both stages each candidate is required to di-aw the objects 
 placed before him, including the drawing board on which they 
 stand, as they appear from the point of view in which he may be 
 seated, and his drawing is expected to show a knowledge of the 
 effect of perspective in modifying the appearance of the models. 
 
 No ruling, measuring, or use of instruments is allowed ; but the 
 pencil may be held between the eye and the objects for the purpose 
 of estimating their apparent relative size. 
 
 N.B. — Models and vases must be of the sizes indicated in the 
 accompanying figures (32 and 33). 
 
LESSON X. 
 
 LIGHT AND SHADE. 
 
 Although it is almost uniyersal for every one to 
 commence learning to draw by working in outline, 
 and although there is very much to be said in favour 
 of the practice, it is evident that it is a very con- 
 ventional way of representing solid objects, since the 
 lines which we draw to indicate the forms do not 
 exist, and are used as boundaries of the various patches 
 of different colours by which the impression of those 
 forms is conveyed to the mind. Scientists tell us that 
 colour has no separate existence, that it is merely 
 caused by light acting upon the different textures of 
 the various objects illuminated, which absorb varying 
 quantities of the rays of light. These parts of an 
 object which are not illuminated would therefore be 
 colourless, black, if it were not for the atmosphere 
 and for light reflected from other surfaces. 
 
 In the same way that our art studies commence 
 with one conventionality — outline — it is usual to 
 employ a second conventionality before attempting to 
 represent the things as they are visible to us in their 
 various colours. We agree to leave out colour, and 
 to represent whatever we draw in one colour, using 
 various tones of this to represent the values of the 
 different colours actually seen; to do, in fact, what 
 
LIGHT AND SHADE. 67 
 
 the camera does for us mechanically. And this is 
 generally known as light and shade, or monochrome 
 work, a most important stage in art education. 
 
 By many people, shading is considered a sort of 
 fancy amusement. Drawing in outline is the real 
 work, they imagine, success in which marks progress 
 and improvement, but shading is hardly taken seriously. 
 This is probably owing to the kind of work which 
 used to be so largely carried on a few years ago in 
 schools — copying lithographs in soft crayons, very 
 often on toned paper, which allowed the lights to be 
 afterwards erased — the pleasure of doing which and 
 of having it admired by one's friends when done was 
 certainly greater than the amount of art knowledge 
 obtained in the process. This prejudice is no doubt 
 giving way as schools of art increase, and the proper 
 way of studying art becomes popularized ; but as this 
 book is intended to be of use to those who are study- 
 ing art under difficulties, it is perhaps as well to point 
 out how foolish such a notion is. A little reflection 
 will convince any one of the great importance of 
 light and shade in explaining form and position. To 
 illustrate this, a number of pictures are given in which 
 the same outline is made to represent different ideas 
 by means of the shadow. Nos. 1, 2, 5, and 6 are 
 exactly the same size and shape. By means of the 
 shadows we see that No. 1 is a rectangular projecting 
 surface. No. 2 a rectangular recess, No. 5 is a semi- 
 circular projection and No. 6 a semicircular recess. 
 
 Nos. 7 and 8 illustrate the way in which the shadow 
 indicates the position of an object ; the two circles 
 are exactly the same size, their centres are in the 
 same horizontal line, but it is evident that No. 7 is 
 resting upon the ground, while No. 8 is above it. In 
 No. 10 the fact that we are looking at a ring is made 
 out by the shadow on the ground and by the shading 
 on the almost rectangular surface — of which the right 
 
Fig. 3 J. 
 
LIGHT AND SHADE. 69 
 
 edge is absolutely straight — which gives the outline 
 of the ring. In No. 11 the slight difference between 
 the horizontal edge of the top of the leaning prism 
 and its near edge is the only indication which the 
 outline gives of its inclined position, yet with the 
 shadow and the shading, no one can have any doubt 
 as to what is intended. These diagrams should 
 be carefully studied ; they are much too small to be 
 copied, but are intended to point out what is to be 
 looked for. It will be evident that the shading has 
 a very important part to play in expressing the facts 
 which we have to show. 
 
 There is a reason for the shape and colour of every 
 shadow. They must, therefore, be most carefully 
 copied, and it will be easier to do this if the reason 
 is understood. What is called shadow is simply 
 absence of light. It has been explained in the first 
 part of this book that the rays of light are perfectly 
 straight. The sun being at such an immense distance 
 from the earth, the rays of light from the sun are 
 regarded as parallel; but in dealing with artificial 
 light, it must be remembered that the rays diverge 
 from the source of light in all directions. 
 
 This makes a very great difference between daylight 
 studies and studies made by artificial light, while 
 there is another difference between studies made out 
 of doors and those made in a room where usually 
 the daylight comes through a comparatively smdU 
 opening. 
 
 In the first row of figures in the illustration, Fig. 35, 
 we see three square pieces of cardboard in sunlight, 
 the sun at an altitude of 45° and in a direction at right 
 angles to the surface of the cards. It is evident that 
 the cards being opaque will prevent the rays of light 
 from reaching a portion of the horizontal surface on 
 which they are standing. In the first figure, mghn is 
 the shadow, and the rays bh and AG explain how it is 
 
70 MODEL DEAWING AND SHADING FKOM CASTS. 
 
 determined. We may say that GH is the shadow of 
 AB. The dotted continuations of ab and gh show 
 that they would meet in the same vanishing point. 
 Therefore rememher that if the line casting the shadow 
 (or obstructing the light) is parallel to the surface on 
 which the shadow falls (or from which the light is 
 
 Fig. 35. 
 
 excluded) the shadow will he parallel to the line. We 
 may further say that MG is the shadow of am. Notice 
 that the shadow of a vertical line will ahcays tell us the 
 direction and altitude of the sun. The shadow of vertical 
 lines will therefore always he parallel to each other if the 
 surface on which they fall is level. Parallel retiring 
 
LIGHT AND SHADE. 71 
 
 shadows will of course follow the rule given for parallel 
 retiring lines. This will be seen in the second row 
 of figures when the rays meet the cards obliquely. 
 It follows then that any deviation from this direction 
 will indicate some change in the position of the line, 
 or some undulations in the surface on which the 
 shadow falls. This is illustrated in the third figure 
 on the top row, when the shape of the shadow tells 
 us that the line PR is the edge of a surface sloping 
 upwards. The surface abnm is said to be in shade, 
 while the shape mnhg is called the cast shadow. 
 When the rays of light come in contact with a surface, 
 light is reflected, thus indirectly illuminating the 
 surrounding space. Some surfaces have much greater 
 reflecting powers than others, as the mischievous 
 schoolboy with his little mirror has long ago discovered ; 
 but, as a rule, reflected light is never so brilliant as 
 direct light. But we must remember that a cast 
 shadow presupposes a surface for it to fall upon, 
 which is more or less of a reflector, therefore we may 
 safely say that the cast shadow will usually he darker 
 than the shade. Now we must consider a little the 
 question of darks which are usually represented with 
 black chalk. It will be well to realize that as soon 
 as we attempt to represent objects in light and shade, 
 every touch of the crayon or stump must be considered 
 as a dark and ought to be helping on the general 
 effect. We have done with outline as such. Never 
 give way to the suggestion, when your work doesn't 
 seem to be coming right, that you can make it more 
 real or cause it to look more finished by outlining 
 the parts you are in a difiiculty with. Of course you 
 will have to sketch the outline before you begin to 
 shade ; but, once you have secured this, remember that 
 a dark line may only be used in these places, when, 
 after careful consideration, you are quite sure you can 
 see such a line in the thing you are copying. 
 
72 MODEL DRAWING AND SHADING FEOM CASTS. 
 
 At the bottom of page 68, Kg. 34, there is a gradu- 
 ated strip shaded from white to black. It will be a 
 very good plan to provide yourself with such a strip, for 
 your eyes will want a good deal of careful training to 
 make them tell you what amount of dark is necessary 
 to represent any particular shade or shadow, and this 
 " tone scale " held up against your copy will help you. 
 At first you will probably have a tendency to make 
 your drawings too dark. A few experiments will 
 prepare you for the kind of deception you are to 
 guard against. 
 
 You have probably noticed how dark the shadows 
 are which in sunlight the houses throw across a street. 
 If there are some gaps in the row of houses, the 
 shadows will seem still darker in contrast with the 
 strong sunlight on the illuminated portions. The sun , 
 is momentarily obscured by a cloud, the surface of 
 the street is now all one colour, or nearly so ! What 
 is it that has happened? Have the shadows got 
 lighter? The whole street is now the colour which 
 the shadows were, but the strong sunlight being with- 
 drawn we have a different scale of comparison, and 
 the normal colour of the street seems lighter. This 
 is the reason that most of the photographs of out-of- 
 door subjects are so much darker than we think they 
 ought to be. They, of course, register mechanically 
 the different degrees of light, and if the paper is 
 many degrees darker than the brightest part of the 
 picture ought to be, it follows naturally that every- 
 thing which is darker than that will be proportion- 
 ately too dark. We must recognize that we have 
 nothing white enough for these brilliant effects of 
 light. If we analyze and carefully copy the colour of the 
 shadow we shall get as nearly the true effect as it is 
 possible to obtain. 
 
 Working on this method, it is not often that you 
 will find it necessary to use the full depth of which 
 
LIGHT AND SHADE. 73 
 
 your chalk is capable. But do not forget that the 
 first marks that you put upon your paper will appear 
 much blacker than they really are, in contrast with 
 the whiteness of the paper. It is a safe rule to begin 
 iy putting down first the darkest tiling in your study as 
 nearly as you can of exactly the right colour. You have 
 then got the light and dark extremes of your scale, 
 and you will be able to compare the succeeding darks 
 (which should be put on in the order of their impor- 
 tance — i.e. of their depth of colour) — with the strongest 
 darks, while all shades on the light half of the scale 
 should be compared with the paper, as the highest 
 light must be of that colour. In dealing with shadows, 
 and especially with reflections, it must be remembered 
 that the eye has the power of adapting itself to what 
 is required of it, that is to say, that the more intently 
 you regard a shadow, the more reflected light you 
 will be able to see in it. If you go suddenly into a 
 dark cellar, you find that, while at first you seem 
 only conscious of the darkness, the longer you remain 
 in it, the more clearly you will be able to make out 
 its contents. And this is what happens when you are 
 trying very hard to see the detail in a shadow. The 
 best way to correct this is to periodically put your 
 drawing by the side of the group or cast you are 
 copying, and regard both from a distance or with 
 your eyes partly closed. On page 19 it has been 
 shown why a drawing or painting can neyer seem 
 exactly like the real thing ^\'hen looked at in the 
 ordinary way with both eyes, but if you look at your 
 work and the copy steadily with one eye closed, the 
 other eye should give you exactly the same impression 
 from both, except, perhaps, that your lights will not 
 be quite so bright. If it doesn't, there is something 
 wrong. Try to find out what is the fault. Remember 
 that mere smoothness of surface is not finish. When 
 you have expressed all the facts you can see, it is 
 
74 MODEL DRAWING AND SHADING FEOM CASTS. 
 
 time to leave that study and commence another. A 
 lot of time is often wasted in endeavonring to acquire 
 finish. That finish which is real completeness can 
 only be obtained by experience. It is, of course, 
 quite worth while to get proficient in handling your 
 tools before you begin to copy from a cast ; but, Earing 
 done that, if you make a real effort to carry each 
 study a little further than the last, you will soon 
 acquire the power of completing your work. 
 
 In shading circular forms, the careful gradation of 
 the colour is very important. It will have been 
 noticed that the rays of light will most brilliantly 
 illuminate those surfaces to which they are perpen- 
 dicular. Whatever direction the rays of light may be 
 in, if we are copying a sphere or ball, we may suppose 
 that one ray of light would be in a right line to the 
 centre of the sphere. The surface near the point where 
 this ray meets it will be the brightest. In ordinary 
 light a number of these rays would, as far as the eye 
 can distinguish, be equally bright ; but gradually, as 
 the surface presents less of a right angle to the rays, it 
 must be less brilliantly illuminated, until we arrive 
 at the part where the rays are tangential to the 
 curve. Beyond this there can be no direct light, and 
 here the shadow begins; but because of its circular 
 form, it will receive a certain amount of reflection, so 
 that the darkest part of a circular onodel is never at the 
 edge. 
 
 In shading a sphere it is best to suppose a number 
 of concentric circles, struck on the surface of the 
 sphere from the point where the light is brightest, 
 gradually getting darker as they increase in size. In 
 most cases these rings will appear as ellipses. This 
 sketch will illustrate the idea. Try to get the proper 
 tone for these rings, and their edges will easily be 
 softened together, as seen in No. 7, page 68. No. 8, 
 on the same picture, shows a sphere of a smoother 
 
LIGHT AND SHADE. 
 
 75 
 
 surface. It will always be found that a glazed or 
 polished surface has the light concentrated, generally 
 an exact reflection of the source of light. Notice the 
 same effect on the 
 apple, Fig. 34, which • 
 suggests the smooth- 
 ness and shininess of 
 the skin. Observe the 
 same effect on metal, 
 glass, glazed earthen- 
 ware, etc. The two 
 jars in the frontis- 
 piece afford a good 
 illustration of this 
 difference in the way 
 the light is diffused. 
 Notice the reflected _ j 
 
 light on the board 
 round the edge of ^i**- ^6. 
 
 the glazed jar, which helps very much to show that 
 the jar is glazed. 
 
 This shaded drawing of a cylinder shows how the 
 same idea is to be carried out in shading other 
 circular models. The bright line along the cylinder 
 shows where rays of light in a straight line to the 
 axis would touch the surface, and the darkest part 
 shows where the rays become tangential to the curve. 
 Notice how the shape of the shadow is determined by 
 the shape of the model and the direction in which 
 the light meets it. The board in this drawing is 
 quite sufficiently finished, but the model itself is 
 purposely left rather rough, so that the process of 
 finishing may be better explained. A careful exa- 
 mination of the picture will show that while the 
 various tones are in their right places, there is a want of 
 subtle gradation ; this would, of course, be more apparent 
 in a larger drawing. A good deal of time is often 
 
76 MODEL DEAWllfG AJfD SHADWG FEOM OASTS. 
 
 wasted in aimlessly going OTer a drawing which is felt 
 to be unsatisfactory. Spend more time in trying to 
 find out what is wrong, and so save this useless labour. 
 If you can carefully fill in a little patch of just the 
 right colour and just the right shape, whenever there 
 is an unintentional or unnecessary space _ of lighter 
 colour, and carefully remove these bits which are too 
 dark, your work will soon be complete ; but this 
 
 Fig. 37. 
 
 requires care. Practice enables one to do it very 
 quickly, so much so, that I fancy students sometimes 
 think, when the teacher is showing them how to finish, 
 that his work is quite haphazard, and they wonder 
 how it is that they cannot get the same effect. 
 
 The method of shading requires a little explanation. 
 Twenty years ago, in almost all schools of art in this 
 country, the shading was done with a pointed crayon, 
 and in the manner here indicated — a number of regular 
 
LIGHT AND SHADE. 77 
 
 strokes crossing each other in different directions, and 
 the small spaces between them filled in by little dots. 
 Very beautiful drawings could be made in this way, 
 but too much time had to be spent upon them, and 
 there was also the danger of thinking too much of the 
 manner of work, some students even going so far as 
 to pride themselves on making their strokes so regu- 
 larly as to produce geometrical patterns. This, of 
 course, had no compensating advantage in their 
 future studies ; in fact, if they were in water-colour, 
 
 Fig. 38. 
 
 facility in this kind of work was rather a drawback, 
 while probably they had not gained so much know- 
 ledge of light and shadow, and of how to express form 
 by its means, as a broader and bolder method would 
 have given them. The pointed crayons are now very 
 little used; the chalk is prepared in a fine powder, 
 and applied to the paper with leather or paper stumps. 
 Paper of a slightly rough surface, like Whatman's 
 "Not" surface, is perhaps the best, but several other 
 makers have produced very good substitutes for this. 
 Boxes filled with all requisites for shading, and having 
 a washleather palette fitted in the lid, are prepared 
 by most artists' colourmen, and are fairly convenient ; 
 but the great drawback to most of them is, that when 
 
78 MODEL DKAWING AND SHADING FEOM CASTS. 
 
 the box is shut, the stumping-chalk is apt to get over 
 the contents of the box, making everything very dirty. 
 I think the best and most economical arrangement is 
 to glue a piece of washleather on to the bottom of 
 a small cardboard box, such as pen-nibs are sold in. 
 A drawing-pin stuck through this will keep it on the 
 drawing-board, and the dust will not scatter over the 
 drawing. Of course, keep the lid on when not in use. 
 Unless you are careful, you will probably get quite 
 as much stumping-chalk on your clothes and on those 
 parts of the paper where you don't want it, as in its 
 proper place. 
 
 The large paper stumps are not of much use ; nice 
 soft washleather ones are best for big work, and the 
 small paper ones for finishing. Some amount of 
 practice will be necessary before you can manage 
 these tools properly. Take care not to bear too heavily 
 upon the stumps, as this will soon spoil the surface 
 of the paper as well as the stump itself. The powder 
 should be free from lumps, and sometimes it is 
 necessary to grind it a little if it is clogged together. 
 The stump with which you put in the darks should 
 be well filled with perfectly smooth powder and 
 applied to the paper with just enough pressure to 
 make the chalk adhere to the surface. It will be well 
 to have several stumps of each size so that you may 
 keep one for the very dark, one for the half dark, and 
 so on, keeping also a clean stump in reserve for soften- 
 ing down edges. Decision and definite form are of 
 more value than softness, but the latter is also 
 necessary. In shading from models a sharpened Contd 
 crayon is sometimes useful for drawing the lines 
 which the edges of the objects make when they come 
 in contact with the board or with other models, but 
 even for this purpose it should be used sparingly. 
 Distinctness without hardness must be your watch- 
 word. It will be a good plan to divide a sheet 
 
LIGHT AND SHADE. 79 
 
 of paper into spaces of about three inches square, and 
 try to fill these with colours of different degrees of 
 blackness as evenly as possible ; you will probably find 
 it much harder to keep the lighter shades even, than 
 the darker ones. 
 
 When you can be sure of putting on, quite evenly, 
 just the colour you want, it will be time to begin 
 to work from the models. Begin with the cube. 
 Although, in preparing your drawing for shading, it 
 is advisable to draw in outline the shape of every 
 shadow, and in shading from a vase or cast even to 
 hatch lightly lines over the spaces which are after- 
 wards to be shaded, remember that once you have 
 commenced to shade your work, however difficult it 
 may be to get the edges of the shadows to make out 
 the form, you must in no case draw a line unless you 
 are quite sure that you can see one in the copy. The 
 triangular prism should be taken first. In shading 
 these two models, all the difficulties which the straight 
 line models present will be encountered, and the 
 circular models may be attempted by way of a change, 
 the cone first, then the cylinder, and last of all the 
 sphere; in the cone it will be found that the high 
 light is triangular in form, in other respects it is 
 similar to the cylinder, which has been already illus- 
 trated as has also the sphere. The vases will require 
 special attention and practice. The three vases are 
 illustrated on page 80. You will notice how the 
 actual colour — technically called the local colour — 
 and texture of each jar modifies the light and shade. 
 
 In order to make your drawing of a group of 
 models as true as possible, you must take advantage 
 of everything which will help the illusion. A sharp 
 contrast of black and white naturally arrests the 
 attention. When objects are illuminated by artificial 
 light, these parts will be the brightest which are 
 nearest to the source of light and the shadows will 
 
LIGHT AND SHADE. 81 
 
 appear darker by contrast. Allowance of course has 
 to be made for difference of texture. The lights of 
 those which are further off being less brilliant, the 
 contrast of light and dark will be less yiolent. (It 
 is taken for granted that your study is lighted by 
 only one light.) Here, then, is one means of giving 
 their relative position to objects almost as important 
 as the perspective changes in size. The same kind of 
 effect will be observed if you are working indoors by 
 daylight, when of course the light should be from 
 one window only; but out-of-doors the effect of 
 distance is rendered rather by an alteration in the 
 colour of the shadow, for in comparison with the 
 immense distance of all objects from the sun, they 
 may be considered as all equally near to it. In this, 
 as in the elementary stage of the subject, the great 
 thing is to see correctly, and these rules will help 
 you to do so, but if you find something in your 
 study which does not fit in with the rules, try to 
 ascertain the reason of it ; sometimes a false light is 
 accidentally interfering with your subject, or it may 
 be that the object is discoloured or dusty. If you 
 cannot find out any solution to the difficulty, copy 
 what you see. This will be especially necessary in 
 working from the cast, for the changes in form 
 together with the whiteness of the plaster often cause 
 quite unexpected effects of light and shade, which 
 can, of course, be accounted for when all the cir- 
 cumstances are taken account of; but this accounting 
 for them presupposes more knowledge and experience 
 on the part of the student than it is reasonable to 
 expect at this stage of his or her progress. For 
 instance, one would imagine that the projecting parts 
 of a cast would certainly be the brightest, because 
 they are nearest to the light; yet it will often be 
 found that they are not so bright as the hollows 
 which are not only directly illuminated, but also 
 
 G 
 
82 MODEL DRAWING AND SHADIiTG FROM OASTS. 
 
 receive reflected light from the surrounding white 
 surfaces which are also in direct light. At the same 
 time, it should be remembered that the projecting 
 surfaces are the soonest discoloured by dust and 
 exposure, and a feather brush will often remove 
 a puzzling half tone. 
 
 The three drawings here given. Figs. 40 and 41, 
 show three stages in the progress of a copy of the cast 
 set this year for the elementary examination in shading 
 
 I'lS. 40. 
 
 from the cast. It is hoped that these drawings, with 
 what has been said, will sufficiently illustrate the 
 method of work. Three hours are allowed for this 
 examination. An illustration is also given, Fig. 42, of 
 the cast set for the advanced examination, together with 
 a small diagram of construction, Fig. 43. The outer 
 circle has first to be divided into ten equal parts. 
 Observe that one of the centre lines of the quatre-foil in 
 the middle is part of one of the diameters which divide 
 
FiQ. 41. 
 
84 MODEL DRAWING AND SHADING FHOM CASTS. 
 
 the circle into five parts, and that the other centre 
 line is at right angles to it. Both of these casts 
 would- have to be drawn on a much larger scale for 
 the examination. One of the instructions to the 
 candidates in both these examinations is that the 
 drawings are to be lightly shaded, and when your 
 
 Fig. 42. 
 
 drawing is finished it should suggest a white cast. 
 If there is time for it, the toning of the rest of the 
 paper, as suggested in the three ^lustrations, will 
 greatly assist this effect ; but at an examination — for 
 in the adyanced stage four hours is the limit— there 
 
LIGHT AND SHADE. 85 
 
 is not often time for this, although, with a little 
 practice, a tone can be quickly laid on with a piece 
 of washleather. Two pieces of pointed india-rubber, 
 one as hard as ink-eraser, will be required for removing 
 the chalk ; these will effect the purpose quite as well 
 as stale bread, and are much more convenient. The 
 above instructions are for working on white paper. 
 
 Fig. 43. 
 
 but it is very good practice to work on grey paper, 
 making use of the colour of the paper for the halt 
 tone or middle tint, and rubbing out the high lights 
 with the india-rubber. The paper* can be obtained 
 ready tinted, and will be found very usetui tor 
 advanced students ; but beginners will have to do too 
 much rubbing out before their outline is complete, 
 * Oopnall'a paper. 
 
86 MODEL DRAWING AND SHADING FEOM CASTS. 
 
 which will of course disturb the colour, to make the 
 prepared paper quite suitable for them. It will be 
 better to complete the drawing on white paper, and 
 then, having made the lines rather firmer than would 
 otherwise be advisable, cover the whole surface as 
 evenly as possible with a light tone of chalk rubbed 
 in with washleather, or with a stump specially pre- 
 pared for laying on flat tones.* Working alternately 
 with your stump and your indidi-rubber, you will find 
 you can obtain very good effects very rapidly. 
 Another method is to work on ordinary brown paper 
 or on French grey paper, and put on the lights with 
 white chalk or with Chinese white applied with a 
 brush, but the processes are rather more complicated, 
 and unless very carefully applied the lights are likely 
 to appear detached. All drawings executed in chalk 
 are very easily smeared and spoilt. As soon as 
 completed they should be fixed with fixative or milk 
 applied with a spray diffuser. 
 
 The last picture, Fig. 44, shows a reduced copy of a 
 drawing, accepted for the art teacher's certificate, which 
 is, of course, expected to be more completely finished, 
 than the personal examination allows time for. For this 
 purpose some cast in bold relief should be selected, 
 not necessarily this particular cast, but one of about 
 the same size and difficulty. If your drawing is sub- 
 mitted through a school of art or art class, the master 
 of the class will give you all particulars about it; 
 but if you send it direct to South Kensington yourself 
 it must be mounted on an imperial sheet of cardboard 
 and have upon the mount a label stating that it is 
 submitted for the art class teacher's certificate, which 
 can be obtained on application to the Secretary, 
 Science and Art Department. Works are received 
 up to and including April 1st in each year. 
 
 The following extracts from the Science and Art 
 * {larding's stumps, 
 
Fig. 44, 
 
88 MODEL DKAWING AND SHADING FEOM CASTS. 
 
 Directory, 1895, will be useful to those who are 
 desirous of qualifying as teachers. They will be 
 found on page 67. 
 
 11. The requirements for the Elementary Dkawing Certificate 
 (First Class) are a First Class in the Elementary Stage of: — 
 
 (a.) Freehand Drawing (Subject 25) ; 
 (J.) Model Drawing (Subject 3a) ; 
 
 (c.) Drawing in Light and Shade from a Cast {Subject 
 5b) ; and 
 
 (d.) A Pass in the Elementary Stage of Science Subject I. 
 Candidates who before the 1st January, 1893, have obtained — 
 (i.) A pass in Geometrical Drawing, Section 1, Science Subject 
 I., or a pass in 2nd Grade Geometry, and also a 1st Class 
 in 2nd Grade Examination in Linear Perspective ; or 
 (ii.) A pass in Geometrical Drawing, Section 1, Science Subject 
 I., or a pass in the 2nd Grade Examination in Geometry, 
 and now take a 2nd Class in the Elementary Stage of the 
 new Examination in Perspective ; or 
 (iii.) A 1st Class in the 2nd Grade Examination in Perspective, 
 and now take a pass in Geometrical Drawing {Art), 
 will not be required to pass in the Elementary Stage of Science 
 Subject I. to obtain the new Blementarj' Drawing Certificate. 
 
 (iv.) A pass in Model Drawing with chalk on the blackboard 
 taken before 1st January, 1893, will count for the new 
 Elementary Drawing Certificate instead of a 1st Class in 
 the Elementary Stage of Model Drawing (Subject 3a). 
 (v.) A pass taken before 1st" January in Light and Shade will 
 count for the new Elementary Drawing Certificate instead 
 of a 1st Class in the Elementary Stage of Shading from 
 Casts (Subject 5b). 
 (vi.) A 1st Class taken before 1st January, 1893, in the 2nd 
 Grade Examination in Freehand will count for the ne\7 
 Elementary Drawing Certificate instead of a 1st Class in the 
 Elementary Stage of Freehand Drawing of Ornament 
 (Subject 2b). 
 (vii.) A 1st Class taken before 1st January, 1893, in the 2nd 
 Grade Examination in Model Di'avring will count for the 
 new Elementary Drawing Certificate instead of a 1st Class 
 in the Elementary Stage of Model Drawing (Subject 3a). 
 
 12. The requu-ements for the Elementary Drawing Certificate 
 (Second Class) are — 
 
 (a) a pass in the Elementary Stage of Science Subject I. ; 
 
 (b) a 2nd Class in the 2nd Grade Examination in, or the 
 
 Elementary Stage of. Model Drawing (Subject 3a ; and 
 
LIGHT AND SHADE. 89 
 
 (c.) a 2nd Class in the 2nd Grade Examination in, or the 
 Elementary Stage of, Freehand Drawing (Subject 26). 
 
 13. Eor the Aet Class Teachee's Certificate : 
 The satisfactory execution of the following works : — * 
 
 (a.) Subject la. Six or eight geometrical problems worked 
 in ink with instruments ; the problems being stated in 
 writing. (On an imperial sheet.) 
 
 (6.) Subject 36. An outline in pencil of ornament in low 
 relief from the cast from the Madeleine or Louis XII. 
 pilasters, or any large ornamental scroll. (On an 
 imperial sheet.) Drawings from casts in relief of the 
 same size as the originals may not be submitted for 
 examination. 
 
 (c.) Subject 5a. A drawing from a group of models which 
 should include vases such as those produced by 
 Wedgwood or Minton, or similar objects placed upon 
 a drawing board, drawn without background, and 
 shaded in chalk or pencil, f (On an imperial sheet.) 
 Enough of the board must be drawn to show that 
 the Perspective is accurate. The horizon must be 
 kept within the sheet of paper on which the models 
 are drawn. 
 
 {d.) Subject 56. A shaded drawing in chalk or pencil 
 from a piece of ornament in high relief, or from casts 
 of fruit. (On an imperial sheet.) Drawings from 
 casts in relief of the same size as the originals may 
 not be submitted for examination, 
 and a Eirst Class in the : — 
 
 (e.) Elementary Stage of Perspective (Subject Ic). 
 
 (/.) Advanced Stage of Drawing in Outline from the Cast 
 (Subject 3b). 
 
 (jr.) Advanced stage of Shading from Models (Subject 5a). 
 
 (A.) " " Drawing in Light and Shade 
 
 from a Cast (Subject 56), and 
 
 («'.) A Pass in the Elementary Stage of Science Subject I % 
 
 14. For the Art Master's Certificates : 
 
 These Certificates are only issued to Candidates who have 
 
 * See Supplement to Directory for illustrations of the character of 
 these works. 
 
 t Instead of work in chalk or pencil, drawing in sepia may be 
 submitted and will be accepted for the certificate, the marks being 
 awarded for correct drawing only and not for merit in water-colour 
 washing. 
 
 X Privileges (i) to (iii) in par. 11, p. 67, are applicable to candidates 
 who have obtained successes towards the Art Class Teacher's 
 Certificate. 
 
90 MODEL DRAWING AND SHADING FROM CASTS. 
 
 obtained the Ai't Class Teacher's Certificate. The requirements 
 for the Certificate, Group 1. — (Elementary Drawing, Colouring, 
 and Design) are — 
 
 The satisfactory execution of the following works : — * 
 
 (a.) Subject Ic. One Perspective problem stated in words and 
 clearly worked in ink to fill an imperial sheet. 
 
 (b.) Subject Id. A sheet of the classic orders of architecture 
 carefully inked in, and not less than three mouldings 
 shaded in Indian ink or sepia. The orders must be named 
 and the authority for each drawing given with a reference 
 to the building from which it is derived. (On an imperial 
 sheet.) 
 
 (c.) Subject 2b. A sheet of diagrams derived fi-om Dyce's 
 Drawing Book, Albertolli's Ornament, Jacobsthal's Gram- 
 matik der Ornamente, and instruction in the School, 
 showing the application of the principles on which Foliated 
 Design is constnicted. Under each diagram must be 
 stated the principle it illustrates. Copies of examples 
 merely blocked in are not suflScient. (On an imperial sheet.) 
 
 (d.) Subject 8a. An outline of the Figure from the cast. (On 
 an imperial sheet.) The drawing should be a careful and 
 accurate rendering of the contour of the figure and of such 
 of the forms within the contour as can be rendered, or in 
 some measure expressed, by a hne. Shaded drawings 
 ■without hack- grounds, if sufficiently accurate in form, 
 will be accepted from candidates who prefer to work in 
 that manner. 
 
 (e.) Subject 10a. A sheet of Foliage di-awn in outline from a 
 freely growing plant. (On an imperial sheet.) 
 
 (/.) Subjects 14 and 22. A study, in colour, of a gi-owing plant 
 from nature, not pictoriaDy represented [i.e. with accidents 
 of light and shade), but simply and directly di'awn, with 
 detaUs (separately if required) selected by tie student as 
 being characteristic of its grovrth and suggestive ot 
 ornament, together with three designs based upon the 
 plant. These designs must occupy, in a decorative way, 
 a square, a cu-cle, and an oblong. One of them must be 
 in monochrome, one in two colours, and one in polychrome. 
 In each case the plant must be, not merely composed 
 into the given space, but treated in accordance with 
 decorative" conditions. (On an imperial sheet.) 
 
 {g.) Subject 226. A design in outline embodying the principles 
 
 * See Art Supplement to Directory (price 2s. 6cJ.) for illustrations 
 of the character of these works, 
 
LIGHT AND SHADE. 91 
 
 leamt in Subject 26. (On an imperial sheet.) It is 
 necessary that the groimd he tinted with a wash of colour. 
 The outline, which should be part of the design, must be 
 executed with a broad pen or a brush, 
 and a First Class in — 
 {h.) Architecture; and 
 
 (*'.) Principles of Ornament (Elementary Stage). 
 
 Female Candidates are not required to submit a work in 
 
 Subject Id!, nor to sit for the Examination in Architectm'e. 
 
 15. Certificates for the other Groups (11. to VI.) of subjects of 
 
 Art instruction are also granted on passing the Examinations, the 
 
 details of which are given at page 287. 
 
 DEAWING IN LIGHT AND SHADE FROM A CAST. 
 
 ELEMENTARY AND ADVANCED STAGES. 
 
 (Subject 5b.) 
 
 Element^uiy Stage. 
 
 (3 liours are allowed for the Examination in this stage.) 
 
 Candidates are required to make a shaded drawing from a cast 
 of ornament similar to those shown below {see Figs. 1 to 5). But 
 the Department will supply the examples for use at the Examination. 
 The drawing must faii-ly fill a quarter imperial sheet of paper and 
 must be slightly larger in size than the cast. 
 
 Advanced Stage. 
 
 (4 hours are allowed for the Examination in this stage, Fig. 42.) 
 
 Candidates are required to make a shaded drawing, which must 
 be slightly enlarged, from a cast of fruit or foliage, or from a rosette, 
 centre of a scroll, or other cast of ornament in high relief, similar 
 to those shown below (see Figs. 6 to 8). But the Department will 
 supply the examples for use at the examination. The di'awing 
 must fairly fill a half imperial sheet of drawing paper. 
 
 N.B. — In respect of both stages the casts selected for use should 
 be hung before the candidates in such a way that each of them is 
 lighted by only one light. The size of the casts should be in fair 
 proportion to tlie size of the drawing paper upon which the candidate 
 is required to do his work. 
 
 I bring my task to an end with these particulars 
 
92 MODEL DBAWING AND SHADING FKOM CASTS. 
 
 of the examination in light and shade taken from the 
 Science and Art directory, page 264 and following, 
 which with the details of the certificate already given 
 will, it is hoped, render the book a complete guide 
 to model drawing and shading from casts. 
 
 a«^sgaiag^a.~,r? ^»%.-^-ji-^ 'mrfm ^Jt^vn ^i- om 
 
 Fig. 45. 
 
 PRINTED BY WILtlAM CLOWES A.\D SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BECCLES, 
 
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 BLACK AND WHITE WORK. 
 
 COPNALL'S 
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 (patent applied for.) 
 
 This paper is prepared in four shades of grey, and it is made to 
 obviate the use of white paint or chalk, as an ink-eraser immediately 
 removes the surface, leaving the clear white paper beneath. The 
 drawing and shading may be done in the usual way with Crayon, 
 Water-colour, &c. 
 
 Imperial Sheets, 30 by 22 inches is. each. 
 
 Half-imperial, 22 „ 15 „ 6d. „ 
 
 4to Imperial, 15 ,, 11 ,, Zd. „ 
 
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CHARTS FOR MODEL DRAWING, 
 
 By T. C. BARFIELD. 
 
 lo Imperial Sheets, 8y. Mounted on rollers, varnished, \%s. ; 
 on linen only, I'js. 
 
 Sheets i and 2 are occupied with illustrations of some 
 of the principles necessary to be understood in order to 
 draw intelligently. With notes upon them for the teacher's 
 use. Several important rules are also given. 
 
 No. 3 is a group of models to show the convergence of 
 all horizontal lines in the Horizon; a small perspective 
 diagram of the same group shows all the retiring lines 
 actually carried out to their respective vanishing points. 
 
 In No. 4, the convergence of inclined lines is demonstrated 
 by the same method. 
 
 Special methods for drawing several models are given in 
 Lessons 5, 6, and 7, with notes of the perspective of pen- 
 tagons and hexagons. 
 
 No. 8 is an important lesson, illustrating the perspective 
 of circles in various positions, and the method of drawing 
 them. 
 
 In No. 9, the actual shape of several vases is carefully 
 compared with their usual appearance by means of separate 
 diagrams. The concluding lesson shows the plan of a 
 simple group of models, with the positions of nine separate 
 points of view, and the picture obtained from each place is 
 shown. 
 
 These lessons are the outcome of many years' practical 
 experience, and will prove a safe guide to this interesting 
 subject. They will be found specially adapted for prepar- 
 ing students for the Second Grade Examination. 
 
NEWAPPAI(ATDSFOpODELDI{AIING. 
 
 "THE OPSIMETER." 
 
 Designed by T. C. BARFIELD, Author of 
 "Charts for Model Drawing." 
 
 Price 2^s. net. 
 
 A special feature both of the Charts for Model Drawing 
 and of this newer work is the importance given to " The 
 Field of Vision." The reports of both examiners and in- 
 spectors point to the very general neglect of this important 
 matter. 
 
 The Opsimeter is a wire framework representing the 
 cone of rays, the apex being removed for the spectator to 
 look through. The circle at the base represents the Field 
 of Vision, and is of the size generally agreed upon as repre- 
 senting the normal limitation of sight ; it can be very easily 
 rotated, so as to make the field of vision include what is 
 required to be drawn. The axis of the cone corresponds 
 to the direction in which the spectator is looking, and thus 
 affords a concrete illustration of that most important but 
 apparently little regarded line ; and as the Field of Vision 
 Infixed at right angles to this, the horizontal wires upon this 
 outer circle give a safe means of comparing the direction 
 of lines which are known to be horizontal in reality. The 
 models cannot be seen at all until they are in such a position 
 as it is possible to represent properly, and by the use of this 
 apparatus the initial difficulties of model drawing may be 
 overcome without once naming the Picture Plane, which is 
 very often a source of great difficulty in this subject, alike 
 to those who understand Perspective and to those who do 
 not. The Opsimeter can also be directed upwards or 
 downwards, thus facilitating experiments proving the con- 
 vergence of vertical lines under these conditions. 
 
SYliLflBUS Of flHT EXfllVIlHflTIOI^S. 
 
 Minute by Science and Art Department. 
 
 MODEL DRAWING, 
 
 ELEMENTARY AND ADVANCED STAGES, 
 
 Models and Vase& prescribed by the Science and Art; 
 Department for use at the above Art Examinations. These 
 Models and Vases have been duly approved by the autho- 
 rities, and are specially manufactured for Chapman & Hall, 
 Limited. 
 
 The Entire Collection consists of : — 
 
 (i) VASE— Bottle. 
 
 (2) VA5E— Majolica Vase. 
 
 (3) VASE — Large Earthenware Vase. 
 
 (4) CUBE— Large. 
 
 (5) CUBE— Small. 
 
 (6) CONE. 
 
 (7) CYLINDER. 
 
 (8) HEXAGONAL PRISM. 
 
 (9) TRIANGULAR PRISM. 
 
 (10) SQUARE PRISM. 
 
 (11) SQUARE PYRAMID. 
 C12) SKELETON CUBE. 
 
 (13) SPHERE. 
 
 (14) RING. 
 
 Price in Box. Complete, £4 net. 
 
 Set for Elementary Stage (Subject 3A), ;£2 i6j. net. 
 Set for Advanced Stage (Subject 3A), ^x i^s. net. 
 
 LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, LD., 
 
 II, Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, 
 Agents to the Science and Art Department.