The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924074488226 CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 3 1924 074 488 226 All books are subject to recall after two weeks Olln/Kroch Library DATE DUE MTtTi ' CUUU GAYLORD PRINTED IN U S.A. WAH-KEE-NAH AND HER PEOPLE THE CURIOUS CUSTOMS, TRADITIONS, AND LEGENDS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS JAMES C. STRONG BVT, BRIG.-GEN. VETERAN RESERVE CORPS, U.S.A. G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS NEW YORK LONDON 27 WEST TWENTY-THIRD STREET 24 BEDFORD STREET, STRAND S^t llnitherbotliet '§teM 1893 ^ A. 5 5%%^ "^■^Ack,:^ COPYRIGHT, 1893 BY JAMES C. STRONG Entered at Stationers^ Hall^ London By G. p. Putnam's Sons Electrotyped, Printed and Bound by 'Cbe 1kiticliei-bocl;ev ipress, mew 29orIt G. P, Putnam's Sons PREFACE. WHEN the white man first came to make his home in the New World, that portion of it which now constitutes the United States and its Territories was inhabited by probably up- wards of a million Indians, who, so far as we know, were the aborigines of the country. Their numbers are now reduced to about two hundred and fifty thousand, and none of these can be properly called "Wild Indians," as all of them are now gathered upon reservations, under the charge of agents of the United States, and supplied at certain periods, with food and clothing furnished by the Government. Those in British Columbia are also gathered upon reservations and cared for by the Canadian Govern- ment. I began to live among the Indians upon the Pacific Coast in 1850, learned one of their languages, and for six years travelled with and among them. Like most others who have lived with them and become familiar with their folk-lore, habits, and home life, my sympathies became strongly enlisted in their behalf. The exceptions to this state of feeling I have found chiefly among those who, living with or iv Preface. near them, have coveted their land, and as a rule scrupled at nothing as a means of obtaining it ; and, to ease their conscience, or justify their conduct, have decried and vilified the Indian as a monster in human shape which they were justified in extermi- nating. It does not seem to me that these are as competent to testify to the true character of the Indian as those who have lived among them as friends, with no mo- tive other than that of studying this remarkable but unfortunate primitive race. This book was begun at the solicitation of friends, who desired me to put in writing my experience among the "Wild Indians" of forty years ago, to- gether with the traditions and legends related to me by their aged men and women, whose memories ran back to a time when no white man had made his appearance upon the Pacific Coast, except in Alaska. In doing this, and as I recalled my life among the Indians and remembered that wherever I had found them in their primitive state they were kind and hospitable, always more ready to do a favor than an injury, the question forced itself upon me, Why is it that after a short association with the whites, these people became changed in character? and this ques- tion has led to a review of the treatment received by them at the hands of the white men. In this I have endeavored to look upon the events narrated, from the Indian's point of view^through his eyes, as it were, — and thus to appreciate more clearly the natural effect which such events would be likely to have upon Preface. v the feelings and actions of any other man in his place. I have written of these people as I have found them in my life among them ; have related my per- sonal experience with them ; and have treated of their habits, customs, traditions, and legends as I have seen and heard them. Although not originally written for publication, I have concluded to place these pages before my countrymen and countrywomen, hoping that they may not only entertain the reader, but also serve to lessen the blame attached to the Indian for the acts of retaliation (often savage and brutal, it must be admitted) which the white man's treatment of him has incited ; and with the further hope of inducing those who read, to think upon one of the great ques- tions of the day — how to solve the Indian problem. Much that is herein written has been gathered from original sources and personal experience; but for the brief outlines of Indian history from the time that these people first became known to the white man down to the year 1850, I am indebted to the historians of the American continent — an indebt- edness which I take pleasure in thus generally acknowledging. I have called this book " Wah-kee-nah and Her People," in grateful memory of a beautiful Indian maiden who saved my life at imminent risk of her own, and whose story forms a brief episode herein. J. c. s. Buffalo, N, Y, CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PAGH Introduction — Character of primitive Indians — Interesting incidents — Massacre of tlie Pequots — King Philip's war. . . i CHAPTER II. Incidents continued — Effect upon the Indians — Sources of trouble — Capt. John Smith and Pocahontas — Marriage and death of the Indian princess — Indian chief killed for taking a tin can to make a tobacco-box — The Ho-de-no-sau-nee, Iroquois, or Six Nations — Their "totems" — Wampum belts, how made; their use — Progress in agriculture — Councils — The calumet and its use — Councils for the women — Marriage — Indian's argument in favor of easy divorce. . . . . . . . .13 CHAPTER III. Dances — Ancient war dance — Liberating a live bird as a part of the burial ceremony — Religious belief — A chief's reason for not embracing the white man's religion — Totem or record post — Game of ball with the Eries — Foot-race — Wrestling for life — The vanquished tomahawked by his infuriated chief — Battle be- tween the Eries and the Iroquois — Sa-go-ye-wat-ta — His speech — Tah-gah-jute — His love for the whites — His family butchered —His revenge — His speech 2g vii viii Contents. CHAPTER IV. PAGE Superstitions — Soi-en-ga-rah-ta's dream — How he was out- witted — Joseph Brant, the Mohawk chieftain — How he saved the lives of the white women and children after the battle of Springfield — Indian's dress — How it was made before the whites came — How ornamented — Children — Pappoose board, how carried and how disposed of — Indians west of the Iroquois — Their habits — Simon Kenton — How he stole the Indians' horses — How he was captured — Running the gauntlet — His escape — Western tribes — Their religious belief — Their war dance— Other dances. ........... 4^ CHAPTER V. The Sioux, or Dakotas — Their strength — Weapons — Singular cap — Their reasons for taking scalps — Their reason for not tak- ing them — Their belief in regard to the appearance of persons in the spirit land— Curious manner of insulting the enemy — Lan- guage of feathers — -How they dispose of their dead — The red hand — How the young men wooed their brides — Stealing a bride — Marriage ceremony in high life — Superstitions in regard to the ceremony — Superstitions relating to idiots and insane persons — How Prof. Hayden was benefited by this— Doctors, or medicine men — How made — How called for — The s.icred rattle — How made — How the medicine men heal the sick — The spirit of an animal in the body — How drawn out and forced into a piece of bark — How the spirit is shot and burned — The doctor's troubles. 62 CHAPTER VI. Story of Wi-jun-jon — How he kept count of the white men's houses on his journey to Washington — His disgust — His meta- morphose — The superstition in regard to him on his return to his own country — Had learned to lie like white men — How the evil spirit in him was overcome with the bale of an old iron pot — Stoicism — How children are taught to be stoics — Battle with the hornets — Oratory of the chief "Two Stars" — The Mandans — Contents. ix PACE Their belief that the eyes in a portrait moved — Their curious ideas relating to it — Buffalo hunting — The usual manner of catching and taming the wild horse — The Comanches — Their mode of breaking in wild horses 7g CHAPTER VII. Tlie northern Indians — How they built their houses — Windows made of ice — How they caught deer — The " kaiak" — Their fires — How made — Their unique manner of killing the polar bear — Marriage — The Koniagas — Their ornaments — The " parka," how made — The Aleuts — Tlieir weapons and domestic implements — How they caught the bear — Games — The Thlin- keets — Peculiar hat — Slaves — Stone pipes — Marriage ceremony lasting four weeks -93 CHAPTER VIII. The Tinneh family — Superstitions in regard to dancing — Super- stition in regard to cutting the finger nails of a female child — Hiaquas as money — Efficacy of a chief's teepee, and his clothes — When the doctors must return the fee — Slavery — Widow com- pelled to mount the funeral pyre of her husband, as in India — • When allowed to escape burning to death — How the husband's ashes are disposed of for two years — Pottery, how made — Binding the feet of female infants, as in China — Their reasons for going to war — The Haidahs — How labor is divided — Salt — Hunting the whale — Complexion — Houses high in the air — Singular har- poons — How they make their bows — Pipes carved from stone — Immense canoes, how made — Musical instruments — Blankets, how woven — Peculiar breed of dogs that they sheared like sheep — Superstitions in regard to marriage — Ceremony on the water— How they gambled — The Nootkas — Short hair — Flatten- ing the head — Adornment of the women — When they considered themselves old, and ceased such adornment — Amusements — Love powder and its uses — Puget Sound Indians — How they caught wild fowl lo6 Contents. CHAPTER IX. PAGB The Chinooks — "Aunt Sally" — Exciting occurrence while fastening a whale — Salmon, how caught — Expedition to the Cas- cades for slaves — Attempted suicide of a chief's daughter, rather than become a slave — What she found on arriving at her captor's home — Buying freedom — Story of two slave boys who were to be killed to wait upon their master in the spirit land — Burial of their master — Little slave boy tied to the death post — How rescued — " Must I eat all this ?" — The belief of the Chinooks in spirits — Legend in regard to mountains — Legend of the Cascades — Submerged forests — Mount St. Helen's " got angry." . . I22 CHAPTER X. Indians' fidelity to friends — Wah-kee-nah — Her costume — Shooting her first deer — How she saved the life of my brother's little boy — Her perilous adventure with mountain wolves — Attacked by a panther — Her escape — How she saved my life at the risk of her own — Her lover Le-lim — His persistency rewarded — Wah-kee-nah the bride of the chieftain's son. . . . I37 CHAPTER XI. Yakima war — Quotations from Maj. Genl. Wool's report of that war — Bravery of a white woman and her daughter — How the husband and father was killed — Their house set on fire with fire arrows — How the women killed four Indians — The mother struck with an arrow — Their miraculous escape — A little Indian boy killed by a white man for trying to defend his mother — Story of an Indian who was shot by a white man because he would not trade horses 157 CHAPTER XII. Marriage ceremony among the river Chinooks — How it dif- fered from that in the mountainous country — Exciting race on horseback for a bride — Four suitors in the race — The one who Contents. xl PACK first caught her to have her — Her wedding ceremony — Evil omens — How propitiated — Wedding presents — No credit in connubial matters — How Indians hide their tracks — How they leave signs for friends to follow — An elk hunt — How I found the guides — Gambling — Indian's offer to wager his wife against my canoe upon a game with beaver's teeth — How I won the beaver's teeth — Why Indians gamble 167 CHAPTER XIII. Incident relating to the Indians south of the thirty-third parallel of north latitude — Indians apt scholars in the art of treachery — How taught them — Identity of woman's mind — Wanton cruelty toward the Indians — Woman chief — Her necklace of pearls — What became of it — She taken prisoner and held as a hostage by the whites — Her escape — Burning Indians at the stake by the whites to make them tell where the gold mines were — Cutting both hands off all the chiefs. . . . . . . .183 CHAPTER XIV. The Miccosukies — William Bartrnm — Scenes at a great chief's death-bed — Dr. Henry Perrine — Hiding his family under a wharf — Their experience when the wharf took fire — Dr. Perrine's death — Miraculous escape of the family — Laws of the Seminoles as to marriage — Death for marrying a white person — Singular custom of the Pawnees — How they cut their hair before the in- troduction of knives or shears — Growing the scalp lock — Beauty of their wild horses — Pawnee agriculture — Flattening the head among the Chocktaws and Chickasaws — The Comanches — Re- ports in regard to their primitive character — Reports of their present character. ......... 194 CHAPTER XV. Anahuac, or Maheco — Arrival of Cortes — An unnatural mother — A cazique's daughter made a slave — Rescued by acci- dent — Becomes an interpreter — Indian General Tuetile — Indian xii Contents. Governor Pilpato — Singular salutation — Description of the presents brouglit by the Indian general — His speech on present- ing them — How the whites displayed their power — Indian artists — Indian system of chirography — Gold a cure for disease of the heart — More presents — Description of them — Indian general's speech — Reply — The Indian's anger — Cazique of Cempoala — How to make brave soldiers — Destruction of the Cempoalan's idols — The wonderful legend in regard to Quetzalcoatl — The belief that he or his descendants would return — His return feared by the rulers — Battle between the whites and the Tlascalans — Indian belief that the whites derived their power from the sun — Battle in the night — Cutting off the hands of the Indians by the whites 209 CHAPTER XVI. Peace made with the Tlascalans — Speech of the Tlascalan general — Reply — More presents from the Indian emperor — De- scription of them — Fine agriculture — Stone arched bridge — Description of the Indian reception at Tlascala — Evergreen arches, festoons, etc. — Description of the city — Four hundred Indian maidens given to the white soldiers — Indian advice show- ing true friendship — Six thousand Tlascalan soldiers join the whites — Description of the country between Tlascala and Cho- lula — The entry into the city of Cholula — Description of the Cholulans — Conspiracy to destroy the Spaniards — Their guardian angel — Conspiracy discovered — The slaughter of five thousand Indians — The emperor's fear — Extract from the speech made at his accession to the throne — Description of more of his presents — Agriculture and horticulture in the valley — Description of the valley — The emperor's resolve not to oppose the whites — More presents, and a large bribe 226 CHAPTER XVII. Town over the water — Stone houses — Indians shot down — Cazique of Texcuco — His palanquin — Presentation of pearls — Causeways — Floating gardens — Iztapalapan — Its architecture — Contents. ' xlii I'AGB Beautiful gardens — Garden reservoir and fountain — Cortes met by several hundred Indian chiefs— Drawbridge — Approach of the emperor — His palanquin — Description of the ceremony on meeting — Description of the emperor — The entry into the capital — Description of the Indians in the city — Visit of the emperor — Description of the gifts he brought — Firing the artil- lery — Dismay of the Indians— Visit to the emperor — Manner of approaching him — The emperor's reply to the speech of the whites — Description of the palace — Description of the city — Dishes, how made — Dresses of the women. .... 242 CHAPTER XVIII. Division of the presents among the whites — Their value in dollars, and pounds sterling — Arrest of the emperor — The burn- ing alive of a cazique, his son, and fifteen chiefs, by the Span- iards — Butchery of several hundred Indians while attending a festival — Death of the emperor while a prisoner — The whites driven from the city — They recapture the city, by the aid of caziques who still believe the whites to be descendants of the " God of the Air " — Guatemozin, the ruler after the death of the emperor — Tortured and hanged after being promised protec- tion — Sacrifice of human beings by the whites — Indian records and books burned — Growth of civilization among the Indians — What the United States and Canada are doing for the Indians — Broken promises the cause of Indian wars — Why they should be made citizens — How now situated — Indian judges and juries — Assistant farmers — How one of them planted turnips — Schools for Indian children — Indian agents — White crows — Motive for becoming an Indian agent — Reasons for putting the Indians under the care of the War Department — Agricultural schools — Conclusion. .,,,..;... 258 WAH-KEE-NAH AND HER PEOPLE. CHAPTER I. THE researches and discoveries of the anthropolo- gist prove conclusively that North America has been inhabited by human beings for countless ages. It is, however, outside of my purpose, and of the scope of this volume, to enter into any discussion of the facts upon which that conclusion is based. " Originally, for a savage wilderness, there was here a dense population. Before the advent of Europeans, America counted its aborigines by mil- lions ; among whom might be found every phase of primitive humanity, from the reptile-eating cave- dweller of the Great Basin, to the Aztec and Maya- Guiche civilization of the table-land ; — a civilization characterized by Dr. Draper as one ' that might have instructed Europe, a culture wantonly crushed by Spain, who therein destroyed races more civilized than herself.' " Mr. Bancroft says : " In the study of mankind, everything connected therewith becomes of import- Wah-kee-nak ance. There is not a feature of primitive humanity without significance, nor a custom or characteristic of savage nations, however mean or revolting to us, from which important lessons may not be drawn. It is only from the study of barbarous and partially cultivated nations that we are able to comprehend man as a progressive being, and to recognize the successive stages through which our savage ancestors have passed, on their way to civilization. In our study of humanity, the lower races of men are as essentially important as the higher; our present higher races being but the lower types of genera- tions yet to come. The nations now most civilized were once barbarians. Our ancestors were savages, who, with tangled hair, glaring eyes, and blood- besmeared hands devoured man and beast alike." From this point of view, does not a study of the North American Indians become of great interest to us? The first knowledge we have of America or its inhabitants, outside of the prehistoric, is derived from various visits of the Norsemen, between the years 994 and 1012. The origin of the native In- dians is yet an unsettled question. It is my pur- pose to deal with them only from the beginning of authentic history. For the purpose of accounting for the change in the character of the Indians from " quiet, peaceable people," as they were always at first reported to be, to what they were afterwards termed — savages, — I may be permitted to cite a few facts in history And Her People. regarding the treatment they have received at the hands of the whites from their earliest acquaintance with them. It is well known that when Columbus, upon his first voyage in 1492, discovered land, he supposed he had reached India by a western passage, and, find- ing the land inhabited by a race of people unlike any he had ever seen or heard of, he called them Indians — a name which has since remained the distinguish- ing cognomen of all the native inhabitants of America. He found them a quiet, peaceable people, as is shown by one of his biographers, Andres Bernaldez, an in- timate friend under whose hospitable roof Columbus had often been entertained, both before and after his voyages. He informed Bernaldez that : " These people were all simple, peaceable, liberal, and well-disposed, sharing with each other, making free with whatever they possessed, and giving without stint. Those that came to the ships, after they had recovered from their fears, showed toward our people much love and good-will ; and for whatever was given them they returned many thanks and received it with much gratitude, and gave whatever they had in return. This was not in consequence of their sim- plicity or lack of understanding, for they are a very subtle race, of much acuteness, and they navigate all the neighboring seas, and it is wonderful to hear the account they give of everything, except that they never heard of people wearing clothes, or of such vessels as those of the Spaniards." From this we may see what the native Indians Wah-kee-nah were, as they were found by Columbus, prior to any association witii the " civilization of Europe " ; and if, in our further contemplation of their character and habits, we find them changed, we may be able to fix the responsibility for such change where it rightfully belongs. Upon the second voyage of Columbus, we find that he began treating these simple natives in a manner by no means in accord with the hospitality with which they had received him. His biographer says: "He made incursions into the interior and captured vast numbers of natives ; and the second time that his vessels returned to Spain, he sent five hundred Indian men and women, all in the flower of their age, between twelve years and thirty-five, or thereabouts. They were delivered at Seville to Don Juan de Fonseca, and sold as slaves, but proved of little service, for the greater part of them soon died." We see here the beginning of that inhuman and un-Christian conduct towards the Indian which has so changed his character. In 1497 John Cabot, with his son Sebastian, visited the northern coast. They were more considerate or more modest than Columbus, for they only kid- napped three Indians, whom they took as curiosities to Henry VII. of England. In 1500 Caspar Cortereal, a Portuguese admiral, sailed along the northeastern coast. " He returned," says his historian, " with glowing reports of the fruitfulness of the country in herbage and in trees And Her People. fit for shipbuilding, and with a number of captive Indians, whom he sold as slaves." Numerous voyages were made by Europeans to the New World between the last mentioned date and the permanent settlement of the country. Among these was that of Bartholomew Gosnold, in 1602, who reported in regard to the Indians found by him, that "these people are exceeding courteous, gentle of disposition, and well-conditioned." Another voyage was that of George Waymouth, in 1605. Of the Indians he says: " When we came on shore they most kindly entertained us, taking us by the hand, and brought us to sit down by their fire. They filled their pipes, and gave us of their excellent tobacco as much as we would." One day two canoes, each carrying three Indians, came out to the ship, and three of the visitors were induced to go on board. What then happened is thus related by Waymouth : " Because we could not entice the other three on board, we gave them a can of peas and bread, which they carried to the shore to eat. When our captain was come we considered how to catch the other three at shore, which we performed thus : We manned the light boat with seven or eight men ; the one standing in front carried our box of merchandise, as we were wont to do when we went to traffic with them, and also a platter of peas, which food they loved ; but before we were landed one withdrew himself into the wood. The other two met us on shore to receive the peas, with whom we went up the cliff to their fire and gat down with them, and Wah-kee-nah while we were discussing how to catch the third man who was gone, I opened the box and showed them the trifles to exchange, thinking thereby to have ban- ished fear from the other, and draw him to return ; but when we could not, we used little delay, but suddenly laid hands upon them, and it was as much as five or six of us could do to get them into the boat, for they were strong, and so naked that our best hold was by the long hair on their heads. Thus we shipped five savages and two canoes, with all their bows and arrows." This was the return they made for all the con- fiding kindness and hospitality of these " savages." Savages indeed there were ; but in this case, as in so many others, they were not the red men ! In 1614 one Thomas Hunt, master of a vessel, kidnapped twenty Indians at Plymouth and seven at Cape Cod, whom he carried to Spain and sold as slaves. Thus we see that nearly every expedition visiting their country returned the kindness and hospitality of the Indians by kidnapping some of their nunriber and carrying them away from their kinsmen and native land, to suffer and die among strangers, as prisoners or as slaves. Is it any wonder that their race, proud and unforgetting, should eventually turn upon their wanton persecutors to wreak vengeance for the wrongs they had suffered ? Many attempts had been made to plant colonies in the New World, but the permanent settlement of this part of the country began with the Puritans, And Her People. who arrived off Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, on the eleventh day of November, 1620, and made a landing for permanent settlement on December 22d. They found the Indians a peaceful and well disposed people, willing to aid and succor the new-comers to the extent of their ability, but shy and timid. The Puritans numbered one hundred men, women, and children, out of which number fifty-one died during the first winter. Had the Indians been other- wise than friendly, they could have destroyed the little band of forty-nine very easily. But instead of offering them harm, Massasoit, the chief of the Wampanoags, in whose country the whites had settled, came voluntarily and made a treaty of peace with them, which this tribe kept sacred and inviolate for fifty-four years. It must be remembered that America was in- habited by a great number of different tribes or nations of Indians (since ascertained to have been over four hundred), each tribe having a different name and language, and living entirely distinct and separate from the others, and not infrequently waging war, at the end of which the victors always laid the vanquished tribe under immediate tribute ; so that while one tribe was peaceful, another might be disposed to go on the war-path. The Narragansetts (which, judging from their position on the coast, was the tribe from which Way- mouth had captured his five " savages ") felt un- friendly, and one day their chief sent a bunch of newly made arrows, wrapped in a snake's skin, to 8 Wah-kee-nah the Puritan settlement. This was a notice of declara- tion of war. Although the Puritans had previous to this been reinforced to some extent by the arrival of a ship from England, they could not muster more than forty or fifty fighting men. But to show fear, meant annihilation for the entire settlement ; so they filled the snake's skin with powder and bullets, and returned it to the chief with this message : " If you want war, you may come whenever you like, and get your fill of it." The Indians were very much afraid of the " pooh-guns that smoke," as they called the muskets, and when the Narragansett chief saw that the " pale-faces " were not afraid, but showed fight, his respect for the " pooh-guns " deterred him from beginning the war. In 1633, the whites had begun to enlarge the bounds of their settlements, and some had gone as far south and west as the Connecticut River, a dis- tance of about one hundred miles. Here they found beautiful and exceedingly fertile lands, occupied by the Pequots. They wanted them ; and that seemed sufficient reason for taking any means necessary to get them. In that year, the governor of Plymouth Colony, having heard these reports, sent a committee to ex- amine the Connecticut River and its banks. This committee reported that the land was partially cleared and under cultivation by the Indians ; that the streams abounded in fish, and the forests in game ; that the fox, otter, beaver, wolf, bear, deer, and moose, with many other wild animals, held possession And Her People. of the territory in common with the Indians ; that immense flocks of pigeons tenanted the woods, and innumerable water-fowl the streams. After describ- ing the character of the soil, timber, etc., they say : " Providence led us to that place. It is indeed far away from our plantations, and the Canaanites and the Amalekites dwell in that valley, and if they have any attachment to any spot on earth, must de- light to live there. But the land must be ours. Our people have strong hands and pious hearts, and can overcome all difficulties. Let us go and possess the land, and in a few years you will hear more boast in this colony, that that land is better for flocks and herds than could ever be justly said of the land of Goshen, or any part of the land of Canaan." A short time after the reception of this glowing report, these men with " pious hearts " mustered all their forces, stealthily surrounded a large village of the Pequots, and surprised and completely massacred them in one night. The whites had it all their own way, and, when the morning broke, rejoiced their "pious hearts " in counting six hundred and ninety- five Indian men, women, and children weltering in their own blood. This inhuman butchery so overawed the Indians, who had never known or dreamed of such fearful slaughter, that for many years no one of them dared lift his hand against a white man, no matter what the provocation might be ; and these men, who left the persecutions of the Old World that they might enjoy liberty of conscience^ had no further trouble in settling lo Wah-kee-nah upon the beautiful lands of the Pequots, without money and without price. The Indians were denounced as cruel savages, but Mr. Willard, of Deerfield, Massachusetts, who wrote in 1 790, says : " The Indians committed no offences without provocation, their offences were always in retalia- tion ; and in comparison with the long black cata- logue of crimes committed in Christian nations, but few are found to occur among Indians. Is ingratitude among the number of their sins ? The most eminent and glorious examples of the opposite are on record. Did Indians ever sell wooden nutmegs and cucumber seeds, horn flints, or imitation powder? Did the Indians ever hang a poor Mrs. Richardson, simply because she was a Quaker and differed from them in religious belief? " The Pilgrim fathers were stern and hardy men, upon whose character so many of us delight to dwell, but that character suffers in some respects by a com- parison with that of the sons of the forest, who had only the light of nature to guide them. "Time has shown us that the longer the Indians reside in the vicinity of white men, the more vicious and corrupt they become, and that they were always the objects or subjects of the white man's fraud and imposition, and there can be little doubt that more acts of cruelty have been committed on this conti- nent by the Spanish, French, and English, or by their instigation, than by the natives." It may perhaps be said that the end to be attained justified this wholesale destruction of the Indians; And Her People. 1 1 that it is better for the world to have civilization progress, even though it be by the annihilation of uncivilized races. But we must remember that in judging Indian character, and as to whether they were justified in acting as they have acted, we should look at all the events touching them through their eyes — from their point of view, not ours. In 1660 Wamsutta, the successor of Massasoit, the chief of the Wampanoags, came into power, and, while returning to his home after a visit to the whites, and before he had left their settlements, sickened and died. His brother, Metacom, whom the whites called " King Philip," succeeded him as chief. King Philip was of the opinion that his brother had been poisoned, and this, added to the wrongs of the ever-increasing encroachments of the whites upon his lands, made him resolve upon revenge. Knowing the fate of the Pequots, and that his tribe alone could not successfully fight the whites, he prevailed upon some of the surrounding tribes to make common cause with him, and when he thought the confederacy strong enough to annihilate the " pale-faces," he began the conflict known in history as "king Philip's war," on the 24th day of June, 1675. This war resulted in serious loss to the whites, and, as ever, great slaughter to the Indians — not less than a thousand of the Narragansetts being killed on one Sabbath afternoon. At another time, three hundred of the Nipmuck tribe were surprised near the falls of the Connecticut River, and every one killed. In the same year Major Talcott, of Hart- 1 2 Wah-kee-nah. ford, massacred four hundred at one time, near that place. The whites adopted the rule of taking no prisoners, and killed every man, woman, and child that fell into their hands ; King Philip was shot on the I2th day of August, 1676, and "his severed head sent to Plymouth, where it was mounted on a pole and exposed aloft on the village green." This ended the war, and many Indians came in and surrendered themselves. The whites seized a dozen of the chiefs who had thus surrendered, and hanged or shot them in the presence of the populace, and shipped hundreds of other Indians who had sur- rendered with their chiefs to the West Indies to be sold into slavery, among the latter being the wife and little nine-year-old son of King Philip. Professor John Fiske says : " While King Philip's war wrought such damage to the English, it was for the Indians themselves utter destruction. Most of their warriors were slain, and to the survivors the conquerors showed scant mercy. The Puritan, who conned his Bible so earnestly, had taken his hint from the wars of the Jews, and swept his New Eng- land Canaan with a broom that was pitiless and searching. Henceforth the red man figures no more in central or southern New England, and as an ele- ment of disturbance or a power to be reckoned with, he disappears forever." In the South and West, however, the Indians still existed in great numbers. Let us, then, turn our attention in that direction, and see if they were re- ceiving any kindlier treatment at the hands of the white settlers ther?, CHAPTER II. IN 1584 Sir Walter Raleigh fitted out two vessels and sent them to the New World. They landed at the Roanoke River, in Virginia, and after en- gaging in profitable trade with the Indians returned to England, reporting that they " found the native Indians so affable, kind, and good-natured, so inno- cent and ignorant of all manner of politics, tricks, and cunning, and so desirous of the company of the English, that they seem rather to be like soft wax, ready to take an impression, than anyways likely to oppose the settling of the English near them." They did not, however, continue in this condition for any great length of time. One of the most prolific sources of trouble be- tween the Indians and the whites, pertaining to all the settlements to a greater or less degree, was the abuse by the white men of the native women. Be- fore the advent of the whites, an Indian woman could roam the woods day or night with entire safety and freedom from molestation by any man. These women were comely in form and feature, and seemed to be very attractive to the white men ; and they were frequently abused, even to the extent of kid- 13 14 Wah-kee-nah napping and keeping them in the settlements. This led to many murders ; for if an Indian's wife or daughter was thus outraged and in revenge therefor he killed a white man, the whites would in retalia- tion kill one or more Indians, to impress upon the natives the idea that they could never kill a white man without suffering retaliation in kind, regardless of the provocation that caused them to do so. The insults to the Indians were never taken into considera- tion. These acts were followed by their natural consequence— an inveterate hatred on the part of the Indians, leading to murder whenever opportunity offered — so that when a white man fell into the hands of the Indians he seldom escaped death. One notable case of deliverance from death, which has been described in prose and sung in poetry, wherever the history of Virginia has been told, was that of Captain John Smith, one of the leading men of that colony. He was a man of great energy and courage, and possessed a spirit of adventure seldom excelled. Not satisfied with remaining at the settlement, he pushed on into the interior. This alarmed the In- dians, giving them the impression that the whites were seeking to overrun their entire country. "He was attacked and all his men were killed, he alone being taken a prisoner to Powhatan, who was the great head chief of all that section. Powhatan had heard of Captain Smith, and knew he was one of the great chiefs of the " pale-faces," so he was at a loss to know what to do with him, having a fear that if And Her People. 1 5 he put him to death the whites would wreak terrible vengeance upon his nation. He therefore kept hirn a prisoner for six weeks, treating him with great kindness. Finally, however, he determined that the captive must die, and gave his orders to that effect. Two of the warriors bound the prisoner's hands and feet and laid his head upon the rock. At a signal from the chief, two other warriors, each armed with the deadly war-club, stepped forward and stood grim and still at the head of the prostrate victim, awaiting the signal to deal the fatal blow. At this moment a wild scream pierced the air, and Pocahontas, the beautiful daughter of Powhatan, a girl of thirteen years, flew to the captive, threw her- self upon his prostrate form, and, staying the arm of one of the warriors with her own, laid her head upon that of the prisoner, so that if the blow fell it must be upon her own head. Powhatan was dumbfounded. He dearly loved his little daughter ; but he was a great chief, and his orders must be obeyed. After a moment's hesitation he took her by the hand and raised her to her feet, when, with tearful eyes, she implored her chieftain father to spare the captive's life. Her plea was most eloquent, and Powhatan listened in mute astonishment. When it was finished, and while the sobbing girl was clinging to his knee, her streaming eyes fixed on his, the chief gave the order to unbind the captive and return him to his people. Pocahontas always remained a true friend of the " pale-faces," and twice, while yet in her " teens," she 1 6 Wah-kee-nak stealthily informed the whites of attacks contem- plated by the Indians, thus saving many lives. The whites returned these acts of kindness by kid- napping her when she was about eighteen years old, and carrying her a prisoner to the settlement, where they kept her for two years, while they were endeav- oring to make a treaty of peace with her father, thinking he would the more readily yield to their demands if they held his daughter in their power. During this time Pocahontas, who had now be- come a beautiful woman, made the acquaintance of Mr. John Rolfe, an English gentleman of some wealth and position, and became engaged to marry him. Powhatan being informed of these facts vouch- safed his consent, and upon their marriage concluded a peace, although declining to attend the wedding for fear of treachery on the part of the whites. Mr. Rolfe took his Indian bride to England, and Cap- tain Smith, in a letter to Queen Anne, made known the leading events in her life, and the Queen received her at court with all the honor due to the daughter of a king. After remaining for some time she started to return with her husband to her native land, but sickened and died before leaving England, at the early age of twenty-three. The death of Pocahontas was a sad disappoint- ment to the colonists, who had indulged the hope that her marriage with one of their leading men would secure a lasting peace with the Indians. Their disappointment was also accompanied by a fear that the Indians would seek to retaliate upon them for And Her People. 1 7 her death, under the suspicion that she had been poisoned, a suspicion that the Indians always enter- tained when any of their people died suddenly while visiting the whites. But it was of no poison known to the toxicologist that Pocahontas died. This royal daughter of the forest had loved Captain Smith ever since in her girlhood she had laid her head upon his to save him from death. Her engagement and marriage to Rolfe were con- tracted in the belief that the man she loved and by whom she was beloved, was dead, and it was only during her visit to England that she learned that she had been deceived. The poison which ended her young life was that which comes of a broken heart. In the parish register at Gravesend, where she died, may be seen the following entry : " 1616, May 21, Rebecca Wrothe, WyiT of Thomas Wroth gent, a Virginia lady borne, here was buried, in ye chancell." Pocahontas had been baptized and given the name of Rebecca. The selfish fears of the colonists were groundless, however. The Indians kept the faith, and abstained from all hostilities for many years. Several attempts were made to plant colonies in Pennsylvania; one by the Hollanders, or Dutch, in 163 1 ; one by the Swedes in 1638; another by the Dutch in 1645 ; and finally the English succeeded in permanently establishing one in 1664. The Dutch settlement on the Delaware, called by 1 8 Wah-kee-nah them the "Valley of the Swans," was burned by the Indians. The cause of its destruction was peculiar. The arms of Holland painted on a piece of tin had been set up by the colonists. The glitter of this rude escutcheon had attracted the attention of an Indian chief, who, in his ignorance, took it to make a tobacco box. This act the settlers construed as an insult to their native country, and sought out and killed the offending chief. The honor of their country was vindicated, but the vindication proved most costly. The friends of the murdered chief watched for their opportunity and gained possession of the fort by despatching the guard while the settlers were absent at work. Upon the return of the unsuspecting whites in the evening, they were all massacred, and the buildings were burned. When William I'cnn became the leading spirit of the English colony in 1683, he adopted a new policy in dealing with the Indians, which culminated in " the famous treaty that was never sworn to and never broken." By his policy the rights of the Indians were considered and respected, and by reason of his wisdom and honesty the people of Pennsylvania enjoyed unbroken peace for many years. In writing home. Governor Penn said : " We have agreed that in all differences between the colonists and the Indians, six of each side shall end the mat- ter. Do not abuse them, but let them have justice, and you win them." This is the only instance we have on record in which the Indians were treated squarely and hon- And Her People. 1 ^ estly by the colonists ; and it furnishes a practical illustration of what might have been expected of them had they been thus treated in all cases. It is unnecessary to adduce further testimony as to the disposition of the native Indians when the white man first came to settle among them. We have seen how Columbus found them in the West Indies, how the Puritans found them in New England, and how the other English settlers found them in Virginia and Pennsylvania. All concur that they were kind and peaceable, and disposed to be friendly with their visitors. We have seen that in New England it took but a few years of association with the Puritans to change their character entirely; that in Virginia wholesale massacres began after a contact of only twenty-six years ; while in Pennsylvania all troubles ceased entirely after the just policy of Governor Penn was adopted. Is it possible for any doubt to exist as to where the responsibility lies for the change that has taken place in the character of the American Indians, and can we wonder at the change ? In i6o8, which precedes by twelve years the set- tlement in New England of which we have spoken, Henry Hudson discovered the river which bears his name in what is now the State of New York, and sailed up as far as the forty-third parallel of north latitude. He sold this country, or such right as he had acquired in it, to the Hollanders, or Dutch, who in 1614 built a fort on the river, one hundred and fifty-five miles above its mouth, at Albany, and an- 20 Wah-kee-nah other on the island of Manhattan. The latter settle- ment, called by them New Amsterdam, is now the city of New York, the metropolis of the American continent. There was great controversy and some fighting over this country between the Dutch and the English, but it finally came permanently into the possession of the English. They found the country thickly inhabited by In- dians who constituted the Iroquois Confederacy, composed of five distinct nations or tribes. These were the Mohawks, the Oneidas, the Onondagas, the Cayugas, and the Senecas. At first the Indians treated the white settlers with great kindness, but in a few years troubles began between them similar to those which took place between the Puritans and the Indians in New England, and arising from like causes. The Iroquois were very powerful, and were more advanced in civilization, if we may use that term, than the tribes around them. They had almost a perfect form of republican government, and exercised through their confederacy so much power as to hold many of the surrounding nations under tribute. They controlled a vast territory, and much of it was con- sequently at a great distance from their seat of gov- ernment. In 1647 they could muster many thousand warriors, well armed and equipped. I have lived near them many years, and have be- come familiar with and carefully collated and studied their ancient legends ; and in this way I have ac- quainted myself with much relating to their history And Her People. 2 \ and personal life that has not heretofore been written. The confederacy now under consideration was called by the French " The Iroquois." The English knew it as " The Six Nations," the number of tribes having been increased by the coming in of the Tus- caroras, in 17 15. They called themselves Ho-de-no- sau-nee, that is, " People of the Long House," of which the Mohawks guarded the eastern and the Senecas the western door. I have said that their ancient government was re- publican, in form and principle. There was a gen- eral council composed of representatives from the different tribes in the confederacy, the number from each tribe being fixed in accordance with the number of persons therein, counting both men and women. The Mohawks had nine, the Oneidas nine, the Onon- dagas fourteen, the Cayugas ten, and the Seneceis eight, making a council of fifty. The government I am describing was that which existed prior to the Tuscaroras being admitted into the confederacy. These representatives were elected by the viva voce votes of both the men and the women of the tribe that sent them, and were always selected indiscriminately from among the sachems and chiefs of the tribe. The women were entitled to vote upon the election of all officers. This council elected a sachem as presiding officer, who thus became the head sachem of the entire confederacy. The laws made by the general coun- cil constituted the supreme code by which the 2 2 Wah-kee-nah confederacy was governed. In their own tribe, the chiefs chosen as representatives to the general council constituted, with the other chiefs of the tribe, the national or tribal council, and their presid- ing chief was the head chief of the tribe. All the sachems and chiefs held their offices during life or good behavior. There were many other chiefs be- sides those mentioned. Each tribe was divided into eight clans, each clan having two head ofificers, a sachem and a chief, who constituted the medium through which all laws and orders were conveyed to the people, so that each tribe always had eight sachems and eight chiefs. The clans were named alike in every tribe respectively. Wolf, Beaver, Snipe, Hawk, Bear, Turtle, Deer, and Heron, and a picture or other representation of the animal or bird for which it was named was the " totem " of the clan. It was the duty of the sachem to look after all matters pertaining to the state ; while the chief was supreme in time of war. In rare instances, by reason of great merit, both these offices were conferred upon one individual. But if a sachem took the war-path, he must resign his sachemship for the time being. Where, even in these days of advanced civilization, will we find a higher or better type of representative government than that of the ancient Iroquois? Among them there was no periodic scramble for office; no dividing of political spoils among the wire-pullers and " workers " of the successful party. Birth gave an advantage, but merit was the only consideration that secured the chieftaincies. It seems And Her People. 23 to me that some enlightened republics of to-day might well take a lesson in pure government from these untutored " savages." The Iroquois had no written language, but passed their history, etc., from generation to generation by memorized tradition. They had a system of mnemonics to assist them in this. Every great event, in fact everything they thought of sufficient importance to remember, was associated with a belt or string of " wampum," and, strange as it may ap- pear, they could, by looking at such a belt, rehearse with accuracy everything that occurred at the time that belt was first put into use. These wampum belts were made in different widths. Small shells were strung on strings of deer skin or sindw, and the strings woven together. The shells were of various colors, and their shade and position in the belt served to convey to the mind the ideas with which they were associated. These tribes had made some progress in agricul- ture. The journal of De Nonville, who commanded a French expedition against the Iroquois in 1687, speaks of large villages, especially among the Sene- cas. He counted three hundred and twenty-four houses in four villages, and destroyed one million two hundred thousand bushels of corn, besides great quantities of beans, squashes, and other vegetables, in these four villages alone. The Onondagas, being near the centre of the con- federacy, or " Long House," were the council-fire keepers, as well as the custodians of the record belts 24 Wah-kee-nah of wampum. It was in their domain that the general councils were always held. Although the tribes composing the confederacy covered a vast territory, the members of the council could be reached very quickly by means of a system of very fleet " runners," of great endurance. The trails of these runners through the forests were always most direct ; and as the swift messengers were simultaneously despatched in all directions, only a very short time was required to convene a council. The first thing in order at a council was to smoke the " calumet," or pipe of peace. This practice was symbolic among all the tribes upon the continent. It was a sign of friendship, and constituted a mutual pledge of amity. The bowl of the pipe was usually made of stone finely wrought, the stem was two and a half feet in length, made of some strong reed and decorated profusely with feathers and shells. The ceremony was opened by the head sachem, who took a few whiffs and then passed the pipe to the person next to him upon his left, who, after taking a few whiffs, passed it to the next upon his left, and so on around the circle, until it again came to the head sachem, who then quietly placed it upon the ground at his right side. If any one refused the calumet, his action demanded immediate explana- tion. Councils were sometimes held in the special in- terests of the women of the confederacy. The women were the workers, who tilled the soil, dressed And Her People. 2 5 the skins, wove the wampum belts, and did all the household labor, but they were well treated. They had a voice in the choice of sachems and chiefs, and of themselves elected officers who were denomi- nated " Women's Men," and whose duty was to look after and protect the interests of the women. If they desired to have any matter considered, they could call a council of their clan, and, if it was a matter of general interest, then a council of their tribe or nation ; and in case the opinion of the women of the other nations of the confederacy was deemed necessary, a general council was called to attend to their interests, as readily and quite as much as a matter of course as one for the consideration of matters in which the men were specially concerned. The women were never admitted to the councils of the men, but in the councils for the women they were not only admitted, but called upon to represent their grievance, or to speak upon whatever subject the council had been called to consider. The men, however, decided the matter by a vote among them- selves. Marriages among the Iroquois were not always based upon affairs of the heart. There was a law among them inhibiting marriages between members of the same clan. Such were regarded as brothers and sisters, even though no blood relationship sub- sisted between them. The mothers were the " match- makers," and sometimes acted without the slightest regard for the feelings of those most interested, though the maiden was usually consulted. 26 Wah-kee-nah When a young man or maiden wished to marry, or when a mother desired a marriage for her son or daughter, the grandmother, if Uving, or, if not, the mother (or, when there was no grandmother or mother, the eldest female relative upon the mother's side), made the proposition by leaving a present in a basket at the door of the wigwam where the young man or maiden (whichever was to be wooed) resided. This gave notice to all that a marriage was con- templated. The relatives of a maiden could make the proposition to the mother of the desired young man with as much propriety as those of a young man to the mother of the maiden. If the proposi- tion was agreeable, the basket was taken into the wigwam, and if its contents proved acceptable it was returned with a present, which action left the way open for further negotiations. But if the pro- posal was rejected, the basket would be left un- touched, to be carried away by the one who brought it. This was a flat refusal. After the acceptance of the first present, the negotiator took a second of greater value, and entered the lodge herself and con- sulted with the women of the family with whom she sought an alliance. If all were in favor of the mar- riage, each family informed the son or daughter; after which a meeting of the women was arranged at which the young man and maiden would be present, and listen to seriousadviceconcerning the respective duties of husband and wife. The final ceremony of marriage was quite simple. A seat having been prepared in the wigwam of the And Her People. i 7 bridegroom, the friends of the young people joined in a march from the house of the bride to that of the groom, and having arrived there the bride and groom, in presence of all the company, joined hands and seated themselves. This ended the ceremony. In the case of second marriage the parties were at liberty to negotiate for themselves. The fathers had no actual ownership of the chil- dren ; these belonged to the clan and tribe of the mother. If a marriage proved unhappy the parties to it were permitted by custom to separate at will and each was at liberty to marry again, but the mother had the sole right to the disposal of the chil- dren, and kept them all if she chose. She retained control also of whatever property belonged to her at the time of her marriage, and could dispose of it as she pleased without the husband's consent, either while living with him as wife or after separation. As in other Indian tribes, the Iroquois man could have more than one wife if he pleased, but on ac- count of the ease with which any marriage compact could be dissolved, this seldom happened. The In- dian who valued the peace of his household knew better than to jeopardize it by the presence of two or more women standing in the same relation to him, and felt that his chance of comfort and happi- ness was far better with one at a time, in which he doubtless displayed much wisdom. A missionary was once talking to one of these In- dians in regard to the sin of such easy separation, and received from him this sententious reply : " You 28 Wah-kee-nah marry white woman ; she know you have to keep her always, so she scold, scold, scold, and no cook your venison ; I marry squaw ; she know I leave her if she no good, so she no scold, she cook my veni- son, and we live long happy together." It was his way of saying that the chain galls least that binds most lightly. The Indian women were very affectionate — much more so apparently than the men. There is nothing an Iroquois mother would not do for her child, even to the sacrifice of her life ; and when she loved her husband, she would do anything or endure anything for him. CHAPTER III. THE Iroquois were very fond of dancing, always indulging in it as a part of their religious ceremonies, as well as upon festival occasions. Their religious dances were performed with slow and solemn tread, while their festive dances were in light and lively measure. The great dance, however, which called forth all the energy, endurance, and enthusiasm of the per- formers, and threw them, as well as the spectators, into the wildest excitement, was the war dance. Every Indian nation indulged in it, but nearly every tribe had a different manner of executing this highly dramatic performance. That of the Iroquois gave free license to each individual to make himself as frightful in appearance as possible, and to illustrate any act of daring that might be conjured in his ex- cited brain. None but the warriors took part in this dance, and each dressed himself in the most hideous costume (principally /«/«?) that his fancy could de- vise, the leading idea being that his terrible appear- ance in battle would tend to fill his enemy with dismay, and thus make victory more easy. In this we see a close resemblance to those Old- World war- 29 30 Wah-kee-nah riors of not many centuries ago, who covered their armor with the skins of wild beasts, leaving head and ears erect, and open mouths showing savage teeth to terrify the foe. The Indian added to this frightful make-up the blood-curdling war-whoop ; and I will say, having had some experience in the matter, that if there is any sound on earth that will take the color from the white man's cheek quicker or more effectually than the war-whoop of the Indian breaking upon his waking ear, I have yet to hear it. The dance itself was an imitation battle ; arrows flew thick and fast ; the tomahawk was wildly bran- dished on high to imitate its deadly work ; each scalp suggested the death-struggle with its original possessor, and that struggle was all gone through with again in pantomime. By the effect of paint and scalps, the battle-field was covered with the dead and dying enemy. When the warriors had become nearly exhausted, at a signal from the chief the war-whoop was changed to the shout of victory, and all retired to partake of the feast prepared by the women for the mimic victors. The Iroquois disposed of their dead by burial, but not until the body had lain for ten days upon a raised platform. During this time the relatives of the deceased kept a fire burning constantly near by and kept watch over the body. This was done for two reasons : first, that no one should be buried alive ; and second, because these people believed that the spirit of the dead hovered around the body for And Her People, % \ ten days after death, before taking its flight to the happy hunting-grounds, and by this fire and constant watch they expressed their affection. At the expi- ration of the ten days, the body was buried. If it were that of a woman, a plentiful supply of food and all her kettles and cooking utensils were put into the grave ; if that of a hunter, his bow and arrows; and if that of a warrior, his bow and arrows, tomahawk, and scalping-flint. The body was always placed in the grave in a sitting posture, which was the position assumed by the listener at councils or gatherings of any kind ; and as it was believed that the first thing to be done on arrival in the spirit-land was to listen to the counsel of friends who had gone before, the newly buried one would thus be in the proper atti- tude. Just as the body was being lowered into the grave, a live bird was placed upon it and released, to symbolize by its flight that the spirit of the dead then took its flight to the spirit-land ; and, as it was firmly believed that there the good were far more happy than in this life, mourning for the dead ceased with the burial, and the grief manifested thereafter was for the loss the living had sustained in the re- moval of their relative. When a chief died, the burial ceremony was attended with great formality and pomp. The Iroquois firmly believed in a state of future rewards and punishments, and that in the other world the good are separated from the bad. Their experience led them to look upon the whites as bad, and they rejoiced in the hope and faith that they 32 Wah-kee-nah should find there a blessed country which no white man's foot would ever be permitted to profane. That desire was one thing that operated against the missionaries in their efforts to " convert " the Indians. An old chief expressed the deep-seated feeling of his people when, solicited upon his death-bed to accept the Christian religion, he said : " No ; — get white man's religion— then, when die, go where white man go — no want to." Their idea was that there was eternal life beyond the grave, and that friends would recognize each other in the next world the same as in this. They believed in one God, and that He made the earth and everything in it that was good, and they ascribed to Him all good. They also believed in an evil spirit, corresponding to the Biblical devil, who was ever going about doing evil. They attributed to this evil spirit creative powers also; believing that he created all monsters, snakes, and poisonous plants : — reason- ing that a God who was all goodness would never have made anything that would harm His children. There was no religious division among them, and they had no need for priests or ministers ; for they all worshipped the same God, and in the same man- ner. Their worship was a spiritual one ; they had no idols. A post, or totem, set up in the centre of the village and occasionally in other places, and upon which were inscribed many records and hieroglyphics, was sometimes carved in representation of a gro- tesque face, arms, etc. ; and this carving and the And Her People. 33 veneration in which the posts were held led some of the early historians to believe that they were idols. But those who became acquainted with the language found them to be merely totems, or record posts. The Iroquois being a powerful and warlike people, the nations of the Confederacy had many warriors who, like the standing armies of to-day, were idle, with no chance to win laurels unless engaged irt hostilities. The result was, that idleness bred rest- lessness, for (except the war dance) they had nothing of even the small relief afforded the soldier of the present day by drills and manoeuvres ; whence they were almost continuously engaged in war. Their traditions tell us that their Confederacy was formed a number of years prior to the settlement of the white man on this continent. They also inform us that the first contest of the Confederacy, in which the warriors of the whole five nations joined forces and fought side by side, was with the Eries, a large and powerful tribe residing on the south shore and at the lower end of the great lake that still bears their name, their principal village being located near what is now the city of Buffalo. The Eries had learned of the formation of the Confederacy and were greatly troubled thereby. So, in order to find out whether the five nations would really act together, they sent a challenge to them to select one hundred of their most athletic young men to meet a like number chosen from the Eries, in a friendly game of ball for a wager. Upon receiving this challenge, the Iroquois called the council to- 34 Wah-kee-nah gether, and after some debate it was decided not to accept it, and a message to that effect was sent to the Eries. The challenge was sent a second time, and again declined. A third challenge was sent, and by this time the young men had become so excited that the older ones could not restrain them, and it was finally decided to accept the challenge. A hundred of the best players in the five tribes were selected, and under the leadership of an experienced chief and without arms, they went to meet the Eries, carrying with them a large quantity of costly wampum belts, beautifully ornamented moccasins, rich beaver robes, and other articles of great value in the eyes of the Indian, and which the Iroquois chief caused to be deposited in a pile on the field where the game was to be played. These were all carefully matched, piece by piece, by the chief of the Eries. The game was played with great vigor on both sides, but it became evident, almost from the start, that the Eries were over-matched, not only in skill but in the strength, swiftness, and endurance of the players, and the Iroquois triumphantly bore off the prize. This ended the first day. On the following morning the Iroquois prepared for departure ; but the Erie chief said that although they had been fairly beaten in the ball game, their young men would not be satisfied unless they could have a foot-race, and he proposed to match ten of 'cheir number against an equal number whom the Iroquois chief should pick from his party. This was finally acceded to, the runners were selected, the race And Her People. 35 was run amid much excitement, and the Iroquois were again the winners. This ended the second day. Early on the morning of the third, the Iroquois started for home. But the chief of the Eries, not conceahng his dissatisfaction with the result of the two contests, stopped them, and proposed as a final trial of skill, strength, and prowess, to select ten of his men to be matched against an equal number of picked men of the Iroquois in a wrestling match, and that the victor should dispatch his adversary on the spot with the tomahawk, and bear off his scalp as a trophy. This proposition was flatly refused by the Iroquois chief ; but upon its being repeated, with taunts as to their lack of courage, the Iroquois de- cided to accept the sanguinary challenge, but deter- mined in their own council that should they come off victorious they would not perform the last act called for by the proposition. A lithe, handsome Iroquois of the Seneca tribe first stepped forward, and, after a short but fierce struggle, laid his com- petitor upon his back. The chief of the Eries at once presented the victor with a tomahawk with which to brain his adversary, who lay prostrate at his feet. This he refused to do ; but quick as thought, and with flaming eyes, the chief seized the tomahawk and buried it in the skull of his own war- rior. The quivering body was quickly dragged aside, and another champion of the Eries presented himself. He was a fine specimen of athletic manhood in the flower of youthful vigor, and in his dark eyes shone the baleful light of desperate determination ; for he 36 Wah-kee-nah knew that his only chance of Ufo was to dash down his adversary. The well-knit Iroquois who met him quickly realized that it was no woman's arm that was thrown around him in that embrace for life or death. The Erie champion seemed to put his utmost strength into his first effort to bear his antagonist at one dash and by sheer force to the earth. The Iroquois, ap- parently not fully prepared for the sudden fierceness of the attack, was forced quickly backward, even while rigidly maintaining the firm arch of his power- ful back. But he was still borne backward, despite of all his strength, and seemed unable to recover him- self. Hope revived in the faces of the Eries, while those of the Iroquois party remained stolid and im- movable, only their chief looked troubled. At this point the Erie wrestler made a quick attempt to get his right foot behind the heel of his backward-moving adversary, and, by thus tripping him, end the strug- gle. Fatal attempt ! The wiry Iroquois seemed waiting for this; for, gathering himself with a su- preme effort as the Erie's foot left the ground he swayed his own powerful body quick as a flash to the right, and with a slight backward movement laid the Erie first upon his side and then flat upon his back. Again the deadly tomahawk did its bloody work in the hands of the infuriated chief, and the second victim was dragged aside. A third champion of the Eries stepped forward. He seemed to have little confidence of success, and looked like a man doomed to death. His athletic antagonist quickly and easily twisted him to the And Her People. 3 7 earth. Then the chief of the Iroquois sprang for- ward to intercede for the Hfe of the vanquished war- rior, but he was too late ; the Erie chief had killed his third champion. Then the Iroquois chief said there should be no more wrestling, and gave the signal for his warriors to retire ; and without further parley the victorious band turned their faces home- ward. But on their dark faces a shadow rested — the shadow of life wantonly sacrificed. The events of these three days convinced the Eries that it would be futile for them to cope with the aggregated strength of the confederated Iroquois, and fearing that they might soon be attacked by them, and knowing that their only hope was to de- stroy the tribes separately, they determined at once to raise a powerful war party and by a vigorous and sudden movement to surprise and destroy the Sene- cas, who were the nearest to them of the confederated nations. There was living at this time among the Eries a Seneca woman who had been taken prisoner by them in her girlhood, and who, being adopted into the tribe, had married an Erie warrior who soon after died, leaving her without children. Seeing the ex- tensive preparations for a bloody onslaught upon her own people, this brave and loyal woman deter- mined to apprise the Senecas of their danger. Await- ing her opportunity, she stole away on a dark night and went down the Niagara River to the great Falls, and from there to Lake Ontario. Here she was so fortunate as to find u canoe drawn up on the beach, 38 Wah-kee-nah and launching it she coasted along the shore until she came to the mouth of a river, near which was a large village of her own people. Landing here, she made her way, footsore and weary, to the abode of the head chief, to whom she quickly made known the object of her visit. Runners were dispatched at once to all the tribes, summoning their chiefs to meet in immediate coun- cil. When convened, the Seneca chief informed them of the intended invasion of the Eries, and all agreed that preparations must be made with all possible speed to meet the foe. A body of five thousand warriors was quickly got together, with a reserve of one thousand young men who had never been in battle. The head war-chief of the Confeder- acy took command, and spies were sent out ahead to look for the enemy. The main body of warriors had scarcely passed the last settlement of the Sene- cas when the spies returned, bringing word that the Eries were coming in great force, less than two days' march ahead. The Eries had not the least suspicion of the approach of the Iroquois forces. They were relying upon the secrecy and celerity of their own move- ments to surprise and destroy the Senecas almost without resistance. The Iroquois formed in ambush, but were discovered, and the opposing forces met on the banks of a small stream. The Erics were greatly surprised at meeting the enemy under such circum- stances, but nothing could daunt their courage or exceed their impetuosity. They rushed across the And Her People. 39 stream and fell upon the Iroquois with tremendous fury. The battle raged fearfully. No quarter was asked or given on either side. The Eries were proud, and had been victorious hitherto over all their enemies. They knew how to conquer, but not how to yield. On the other hand, the united forces of the weaker nations, now made strong by union and brought together for the first time as allies in battle, fought with a spirit of emulation, excited to the highest degree among the warriors of the differ- ent tribes. Though staggered by the first furious onslaught of the Eries, they quickly rallied and made a determined stand. Then the battle raged with the utmost fury. The war-club, the tomahawk, and the scalping-flint, wielded by powerful dusky arms, each did its terrible work of death. Seven times had the Eries been driven back across the stream, and as many times had they regained their ground. During the hottest of the fight the head chief of the Iroquois executed a brilliant strategic movement. The reserve of a thousand young men, who had not yet shown themselves in the conflict, were, under cover of the underbrush, massed on the other side of the stream, in the rear of the Eries ; and when the latter were driven back for the eighth time, this fresh reserve, at a signal from their leader, rushed with a tremendous yell upon the now almost exhausted Eries, and quickly decided the fortunes of the bloody day. The victors gave their enemies no rest, but pursued them in their flight until they were almost entirely annihilated. Only a few swift runners and 40 Wah-kee-nah stragglers of the vanquished Eries escaped to carry the news of their terrible defeat to the women and children and the old men who remained at home. After thus conquering the Eries, the confederated nations took possession of their territory, which brought them in contact with the Hurons. Having learned their power, they from this time forward in- augurated a campaign of conquest, and did not rest until they had subdued many of the nations as far west as the Mississippi River. On the south they extended their conquests to the Gulf of Mexico ; on the north to Hudson Bay ; and on the east to the Atlantic Ocean. This left them the masters of an immense territory — the finest on the continent. This was the condition of the Iroquois when the whites first settled here ; and it so remained until they took sides in the wars between the French and English, and later between the English and Ameri- can colonies. The tribes they had conquered merely paid them tribute in corn and skins, which added to their wealth and ease of living, but not to their strength. The steady and rapid encroachments of the white men soon took from them the greater portion of the soil which was their natural heritage, and penned them up on reservations. As has been forcibly and truly said of them : " The infectious air of civili- zation penetrated to the remotest corner of their solitudes. Their ignorant and credulous nature, unable to cope with a superior race, absorbed only its worst features, yielding up their own simplicity And Her People. 41 and nobleness for the white men's vices, diseases, and death." They are now reduced to about seven thousand, and are much scattered, Uving on various reservations in the United States and Canada. There were but two roads to distinction among the Iroquois — one war, the other oratory. They held their oratorical sachems in great honor. The one best known and most celebrated among the whites was Sa-go-ye-wat-ta, meaning " He keeps them awake." He was known among the whites as " Red Jacket," having received that name from the fact that an English officer had once given him a red coat, which Red Jacket always wore on great occasions and of which he was very proud. He was a man of great ability and remarkable powers of oratory. He was born in 1750, and was on the stage of action during the trouble between England and the colonics. He always opposed the Indians' taking up the hatchet on either side. He foresaw the destruction of his people, and thought the tak- ing up of arms upon behalf of the white man's quarrel would hasten that destruction. He had noted how they were being surrounded by civili- zation, and wasting away, and in one of his speeches, alluding to this condition, he said : " We stand upon a small island in the bosom of the great waters. We are encircled — we are encom- passed. The Evil Spirit rides upon the blast, and the waters are disturbed. They rise, they press upon us ; and the waves once settled over us, we disappear forever. Who then lives to mourn for us? 42 Wah kfe-nah. None. What marks our extermination ? Nothing. We shall be mingled with the common elements." On another occasion, addressing an assemblage of whites, he said : " Your forefathers crossed the great water and landed upon this continent. Their numbers were small. They found friends, and not enemies. They told us they had fled from their own country on account of wicked men, and had come here to enjoy their religion. They asked for a small seat. We took pity on them and granted their re- quest, and they sat down among us. We gave them corn and meat ; they gave us ' fire water ' in return." Red Jacket died in 1830, and was buried in the Indian burial-ground near the city of Buffalo, New York. In 1884 — the city having spread beyond this little patch of ground, sacred only to the Indians — the owners of the adjacent property bought the land and had all the bodies removed. Some citizens, thinking that Red Jacket deserved more than an un- known grave, had his remains reinterred in the beau- tiful cemetery known as " Forest Lawn," and a fine bronze monument erected to his memory, at a cost of ten thousand dollars. Another of their orators was Tah-gali-jute, called " Logan " by the whites. He had always advised his nation not to join either side in the war between the whites. His wigwam was known far and near as the abode of hospitality, friendship, and kindness. Although a Cayuga, he married a Shawnee woman. And Her People. 43 and went to live with her tribe in the west. His wigwam was upon the bank of the Ohio River, near where the city of Wheeling, West Virginia, now stands, and there also he became a great favorite with the white settlers. He had always declared he would never lift his tomahawk against the white man. It happened, however, that in the spring of 1774 a diffi- culty arose between the whites and Indians in that section of country. It was called " Cresap's war." Logan remained quietly at home joining neither side. Colonel Cresap with a company of armed settlers, while on their way to join other forces that were gathering to fight the Indians, camped for the night not far from Logan's home. Some of the party wanted to do an act of daring to show their courage and immortalize their names, and therefore they set out during the night for Logan's wigwam. It did not matter to them whose it was ; it was enough to know that it was an Indian's. Logan was not at home, and they in cold blood murdered his two younger brothers, his wife, and all his little ones, and left them weltering in their blood upon the floor of his cabin. Logan returned in the morning to find his home tenanted only by the dead ; and then at once, for the first time, thirst for vengeance filled his soul, and from that moment he became the settlers' deadly foe. He immediately joined the Indians and fought for revenge, not only in the " Cresap war," but also during the early part of the long and bloody war between England and the colonies (called the Revolutionary war), filling the land with mourning. 44 Wah-kce-nah When the war ended and the Indians were con- quered, Logan was the last chief to sign the treaty of peace, and he signed then only upon the earnest solicitation of all the other chiefs. While before the commission on this occasion he rose slowly from his seat, and, with unspeakable sadness depicted upon his countenance, spoke the following words : " I appeal to any white man to say if ever he entered Logan's cabin hungry, and he gave him no meat ; if ever he came cold or naked and he clothed him not. During the course of the long and bloody war between the whites, Logan joined neither side, but remained in his cabin, an advocate of peace. Such was my love for the whites, that my country- men pointed as they passed, and said Logan is the friend of the white man. Colonel Cresap, in cold blood and unprovoked, murdered all the relations of Logan, not even sparing my wife and children. There runs not a drop of my blood in the veins of any living being. This called on me for revenge. I have sought it. I have killed many. I have fully glutted my vengeance. For my country I rejoice at the beams of peace. But do not harbor a thought that mine is the joy of fear. Logan never felt fear. He would not turn on his heel to save his life. Who is there now to mourn for Logan ? Not one." When he had finished this pathetic address he sank down upon his seat, a picture of despair; and, cover- ing his face with his hands, wept bitter, scalding tears. Then, recovering his composure, he arose majestically, signed the treaty, and strode from the place, And Her People. 45 There are several conflicting accounts as to when, where, and under what circumstances Logan made this speech, but all agree that it was made by him. Up to the time of the slaughter of his family, Lo- gan could not be induced to taste spirituous liquor; but after signing this treaty he sought relief from sorrow in the mind- and soul-destroying cup, and the great orator and noble-hearted man became a wreck. He died in 1780, and a fine monument is erected to his memory near Sandusky, Ohio. I have dwelt thus at length upon the Iroquois, be- cause (excepting, perhaps, the Aztecs, in Mexico) their history is better known than that of any other nation upon the continent, because they exercised sovereignty over a vast territory, and because they are in many respects a type of most of the other Indians north of the thirty-third parallel of north latitude. CHAPTER IV. LIKE all unenlightened people, the Iroquois had many superstitions. One of the strongest of these was the significant importance which they attached to dreams. So great was this, that if any one had a clearly defined dream it was believed that it must be realized if possible, or dire calamity would follow. One illustration of the strength of this superstition will suffice : Sir William Johnson, an English baronet, had set- tled among the Mohawks, and held wonderful sway over the Iroquois. He had a fine coat, highly orna- mented and decorated, to impress the Indians with his greatness. This he wore on all state occasions. One day the head chief of the Mohawks, Soi-en-ga- rah-tah, who, on account of his great power and influence, was called by the whites " King Hen- dricks," came to Sir William and told him he had dreamed that Sir William gave him that coat. Sir William, having lived long among them and well knowing that to obstruct the realization of the chief's dream would greatly weaken his influence among the Indians, immediately gave him the coat. Not long afterwards Sir William sent for the chief 46 Wah-kee-nah and Her People. 47 and informed him that he had just had a remarkably vivid dream to the effect that the chief had given him such and such lands, naming a valuable tract containing some three thousand acres. The chief saw at once that he was beaten at his own game, and for a moment hung his head. Then, slowly raising his eyes, which had in them a little twinkle, he said : " Well, Sir William, I will give you the land ; but don't dream again ! " This chief joined the English in the war with the French, and was killed in battle in 1755, when he was about seventy years of age. After the death of " King Hendricks," Joseph Brant, whose Indian name was Tha-ycn-dah-na-gea, was, although not in the direct line of succession, made by universal consent the head chief of the Mohawks. He was born in 1742, and while a young boy was taken in charge by Sir William Johnson. At the age of thirteen he took part in the battle of Lake George, where the French under Baron Dieskau were defeated by the English forces under command of Sir William Johnson. Brant also accompanied Sir William in many expeditions against the French during this war. He was placed in school by Sir William at Lebanon, Connecticut, where he received an English education. Later he took part in the war with Pontiac and the Ottawas, and for many years after this led a quiet life, as secretary to Sir William and also to Sir Guy Johnson, who succeeded to the agency after Sir William's death. When the war broke out between the American 48 \^ ah-kee-nah colonies and Great Britain, Brant adhered to his patron, Sir Guy Johnson, and, with as many Mo- hawks as he could induce to go with him, joined the British. In the fall of 1775 he was commissioned a captain in the British army, and went to' England for a personal interview with the officers of the home government. He was there an object of much in- terest and at times attracted great attention by appearing in full native costume, elegantly made, and decorated in the height of Indian fashion. On his return to America, he entered actively into the war, fully espousing the British cause, and urging upon his people the ill-treatment the Iroquois had received at the hands of the colonists. The latter used every endeavor to induce Brant to join them, as did the English to retain him. He was told by the colonists that the king would surely be beaten, as he had to bring all his soldiers across the great water ; and that when the British were driven out, as they were sure to be, the colonists would drive him and his people from the country, in case he adhered to the cause of Great Britain. On the other hand he was told by Sir Guy John- son that the king was rich and powerful, both in money and subjects ; that his rum was as plentiful as the water in Lake Ontario, and his men as numer- ous as the sands upon its shore ; that if he and his people would persist in their friendship for the king till the war was over, they would never want for goods or money. The bargain was struck with the British, and each warrior was presented with a suit And Her People. 49 of clothes, a brass kettle, an iron tomahawk, a scalp- ing-knife, and a small sum of money. Brant at once became the chief commander of the Indian forces of the British in the east, and terrible indeed was the work done by him. When personally present, he was humane to prisoners. At the battle of Springfield, near Otsego Lake, in the State of New York, after capturing the town and killing or taking prisoners all the men, he collected all the women and children in one house and left them un- harmed, while he caused all the other buildings to be burned. There are many conflicting reports and opinions as to the humanity or cruelty of this great chief. As the leader of the Indians upon the side of the British, he was of course blamed for all the massacres that took place, whether he had any personal knowl- edge of them or not ; and in many instances it is im- possible to determine whether he was present or not. It is equally impossible to decide upon the truth or falsity of many of the stories that have been told, because of the excitement and prejudice that existed at the time. It is, however, beyond contradiction that in many instances the lives of women and chil- dren were spared by his efforts ; and it is fair to pre- sume that he thus acted in all cases where he was personally present. He was unquestionably a man of great courage and ability. After the close of the war of the Revolution, he left the United States and went into Canada with his followers, settling upon lands given them by the 56 Wah-kee-nah British Government, and died there in 1807. A fine monument has been erected to liis memory in the city of Bradford, in the province of Ontario. The dress of the Indian, prior to the advent of the whites, was made entirely of the skins of animals, tanned with the hair or fur on or off, as best pleased the wearer. Some of their garments consisted merely of the tanned skin of some animal, wrapped around the body ; while others were regularly cut out and sewed together in the shape and style desired. The needles used for this purpose were fishes' bones, and the thread, when fine, was from the inner bark or roots of some tree, and when coarse, was cut from deer or elk skins or made from the animal's sinew. Some of these garments were quite pretty. They had an unique way of ornamenting them with bright- colored porcupine quills and shells, sometimes inter- mingled with colored grasses and feathers. They understood to a considerable extent the art of dye- ing in brilliant colors, principally the various shades of red, green, and yellow. Red was their prime favorite. They also showed considerable skill and taste in blending and harmonizing the colors which they used. They were well skilled in the art of tanning, and spent much time in the process of scraping and rub- bing the skin over round sticks and between the hands, thus making it as soft and pliable as cloth. All work of this sort was done by the women. This mode of dressing and ornamenting skins was com- mon to all the Indians upon the continent, showing And Her People. 5 1 that with them, as with other races of men, necessity was the mother of invention, and that among all races similar circumstances suggest similar action. Since the coming of the whites, and more particu- larly in sections where game has become scarce, the clothing of the Indian has been in great measure changed to cloths, blankets, and flannels. Beads of all colors have taken the place of porcupine quills, shells, etc., for ornamentation. The women had entire charge of the children from birth to marriage, and they were kindly cared for. They had nothing to do but amuse themselves, until they became of sufficient age — the boys to accom- pany their fathers in the chase, and the girls to help their mothers. When a young man arrived at the age of twenty, he might marry, provided he had secured by his own efforts — or his father would provide him with — suffi- cient skins, bows and arrows, canoes, or other property for acceptable wedding presents to the family of the bride. Girls were marriageable from about fourteen years of age ; and as it cost the young man nothing to furnish meat by hunting — a source of pleasure and amusement to him, — and his wife would raise all the corn and vegetables, besides dress- ing the skins and making the clothing, it was a very easy matter for the young man to support a family ; whence nearly all married at an early age. The pappoose-board, or cradle, was made in various ways, the most common being a straight board about two and a half feet long, fifteen inches wide at the 52 Wah-kee-nak top and nine inches at the bottom, made from cedar or some other wood that would split straight and easy. It was worked down with stone scrapers and ornamented with paint to suit the more or less artistic taste of the mother. Over the top was a hoop, under which the infant's head was placed. The little one was wrapped in furs and skins like a mummy, its tiny arms bound close to its body with the wrappings. Then this baby bundle was laid upon its back on the board and fastened by lashings passed through holes near the edges of the board and firmly laced. The hoop over the top was to protect the head of the child from bruises, in case the cradle should fall. The cradle with its baby load was carried by the mother upon her back, a strap made of woven bark or tanned skin passing across her forehead and having the ends fastened to the board. When the mother was at work at home she would stand the cradle up against the side of the wigwam ; but when working in the field it was hung on a convenient bough of a tree, out of reach of the wolves. This was an easy matter for her, for all Indians could climb like squirrels, and the infant being upon her back, held only by the strap about her own head, did not interfere in the least with her climbing. I have seen from one to half a dozen or more speci- mens of this kind of fruit hanging upon a single tree, while the mothers were picking berries. Strange as it may seem, these children seldom cry, neither are they easily frightened. Should you approach one of them he would fasten his keen black eyes on yours And Her People. 53 for an instant and then turn to his mother, if she were near, keeping his eyes vibrating between his mother and the stranger, but showing no signs of fear. If the mother was not present, the child would keep his little eyes continually fixed on yours with a gaze of intense interest. The child is kept upon the board for several months, or until his legs are strong enough to walk. Possibly it is this treatment that gives the Indian so erect a figure — a characteristic so universal as to justify the familiar phrase " straight as an Indian." The country west of that occupied or overrun by the Iroquois was occupied by numerous tribes of Indians and quite thickly peopled to the Rocky Mountains, which formed a dividing line between these Indians and the tribes of the Pacific Coast. The settlement of the white men among these In- dians was attended with atrocities similar to those which characterized their advent among the Indians in the East, and to such an extent that murder be- came the seeming pastime of both races ; and to go into the details of it would be but to repeat, with slight change of circumstances, what has already been narrated concerning the Atlantic Coast. I shall therefore confine myself to the character, habits, beliefs, etc., of these tribes. We learn from their traditions that before the white settlers came there were at different times among these Indians confederations similar to the great con- federation of the Iroquois. Some of these were in fact still in existence when the whites first appeared. 54 Wah-kee-nah They had some vahant leaders. Among those known to history were Tecumseh, Black Hawk, and Keokuk. In person, the men who inhabited this section of the country were of large frame, compactly built, and very muscular. The women, too, were large and well formed, as befitted the consorts of such men. As far as can be ascertained, these people prior to the advent of the whites were humane in their treatment of prisoners of war, some being adopted into the tribe and others held as slaves. The oldest man could remember of but one prisoner who was burned at the stake, and that was said to have been in retaliation for a like treatment of one of their warriors taken prisoner by the whites down in the southern country. It is exceedingly difficult to locate the various tribes as they were in the olden times. Some, who were very powerful at one time in certain regions, were overpowered and driven from their lands, to settle in some distant section, there to become strong again, and perhaps make conquest of neighboring tribes. Owing to this uncertainty of location, it will be more satisfactory to treat of these Indians in the main collectively, although in some points the tribes differed widely from each other. The Shawnees with other tribes at one time occu- pied what is now the State of Ohio. It was among this tribe that Simon Kenton, a celebrated scout, had a remarkable series of adventures. Kenton, at the age of seventeen, fled from Vir- ginia to Kentucky, the then " Far West," to escape And Her People. 5 5 punishment for killing his rival in the affections of a country belle. During the war of the Revolution he was employed as a scout, and performed some very daring deeds. At one time he was sent into the country of the Shawnees to ascertain their position and numbers. This he accomplished by going to their villages under pretence of being a friend, smok- ing the pipe of peace, and receiving their hospitali- ties. After thus obtaining all the information that was required, he started to return with his report. He had with him two friends who were bold and adventurous spirits, ready for anything that might come up. On their route they fell in with a few Shawnees who were keeping guard over quite a large herd of horses. Kenton suggested that they capture the entire herd and drive them home as a rich prize. This was readily agreed to, and the In- dians, entirely unsuspecting, were quickly disposed of. Some of the horses were then caught as leaders, and Kenton's comrades started off at good speed, while he drove up the laggards from the rear. They made directly for the Ohio River, dashing forward during the entire night without a halt. In the morning they stopped on a fine prairie where there was plenty of grass, to let the horses graze and rest a little. Setting out again, they travelled all that day and the following night, reaching the river far in advance of any pursuit. But the wind was blow- ing almost a hurricane, and they found the water so rough that with their utmost efforts they could not 56 Wah-kee-nah force the horses to swim the river. Hoping that their pursuers would not reach them before the waters subsided, they lay down on the bank to wait. But during the twenty-four hours of this enforced halt, the Indians in swift pursuit were covering the ground the whites had traversed the day before, and came upon them in the early morning. Kenton's gun missed fire, and he took to the woods. He was hotly pursued, however, and soon made prisoner. One of his friends was killed, but the other succeeded in making his escape. The Indians fastened Kenton to a tree, calling him a thief, a horse-stealer, and a rascal ; and he knew their language well enough to comprehend the force of these choice epithets. In the morning the party started on their home- ward march. For their amusement the Indians bound Kenton upon the back of an unbroken colt in real Mazeppa style, while at night he took his rest lashed to a tree as before. It took three days to reach their first village, where they bound him to a stake to be burned. They danced around him till midnight, whooping, yelling, and striking him with their hands and with switches ; but for some reason unknown to him they did not apply the torch. The next morning they unbound the captive, and, stripping him entirely naked, made him " run the gauntlet " between two rows of men and boys armed with switches, clubs, tomahawks, and other con- venient implements of torture. At the end of the double row of Indians, which was about a quarter of And Her People. 5 7 a mile in length, stood the council-house, while at its entrance was an Indian beating a rude drum ; and it was understood that if the prisoner could escape the weapons and get into the house he was to be safe for the time being. This Kenton succeeded in doing, greatly to the astonishment of his captors. But his troubles were by no means ended. His offence had been too great to warrant his receiving any mercy. He had killed three or four of the Shawnees, and, what was nearly as bad, had stolen their horses, after smoking with them the pipe of peace and par- taking of their hospitality. On that day the Indians held a council to vote upon the question whether they should burn the prisoner at the stake there and then, or take him around and exhibit him in the other villages. The chiefs and warriors seated themselves in a ring and passed a war-club from one to another. Those in favor of enjoying the fireworks immediately were to strike the ground with the club before passing it, while those whose generosity inclined them to give the other villages the benefit of the exhibition were to pass the club in silence. Never was a candidate so interested in the vote of any club as was Kenton in the progress of this one. He watched it with eager eyes, and breathed freer when he counted a majority in favor of putting him on exhibition. It was not a cheerful prospect at best, but he knew this would give him at least a few more days — per- haps weeks — of life. They put a rope around his neck, and led him thus 58 Wah-kee-nah from village to village, the time occupied being nearly a month. At each village he was obliged to run the gauntlet for the entertainment of the people, and was vigorously switched on each occasion. In fact, during that month it may be said that running the gauntlet was his chief occupation. He did not find it nearly so pleasant as killing a rival lover, shooting Indians, or stealing horses. Even scouting would have pleased him better. While sitting in the council-house of one of the villages, after having had his usual daily " run," and in expectation that the next thing would be to bind him to the post for burning, a white man came in with some prisoners and scalps. This proved to be the famous outlaw, Girty, who had deserted the whites and joined the Indians, and who excelled the latter in brutality and savagery. But he knew Kenton. In former years he had been a spy with him, had shared the same dangers and slept under the same blanket with him. That was enough ; and Girty, brute and traitor as he was, began at once to plead for the life of his friend. In this he succeeded so far as to get him a respite of three weeks, during which time Kenton lived with him. At the end of the three weeks, and on the arrival of some other Indians from another branch of the tribe, another council was held, and even Girty 's pleadings were in vain. It was deter- mined to take the prisoner to Sandusky, and there burn him. On arriving at the place of execution, however, an English Indian agent interceded in Kenton's behalf, — simply for the purpose, as he And Her People. 59 alleged, of getting information from him for the British commandant at Detroit, and promising to return the prisoner as soon as he had accomplished that object. The Indians finally, with great reluctance, gave Kenton into the agent's charge, who sent him imme- diately to Detroit. From there, by aid of an Indian woman, the wife of an English trader, he escaped ; and by travelling by night and lying quiet during the day he reached his home in Louisville, Ken- tucky, in thirty days. Kenton lived to be eighty- two years old and to see the country over which he was dragged a prisoner covered with the farms and dotted with the towns and cities of the white man. Among the tribes in this section were, besides the Shawnees, the Hurons, Algonquins, Assiniboins, Sioux, Apaches, Ojibways, Pawnees, Cheyennes, and Arapahoes. These tribes differed considerably from the Iroquois in their religious beliefs and in their dances. Some of them believed that after death the spirit had to cross a deep and rapid river to reach the happy hunting-grounds ; and that over this stream, as the only means of crossing, the Great Spirit had placed a very long pole, which the current kept in rapid and irregular motion. Those who had led good lives on earth were enabled to walk across in safety ; while those who had been wicked would be shaken off and carried down the surging stream and over a high precipice extending between the hunting- grounds of the good and those of the wicked, and 6o Wah-kee-nah separating them for ever. The place reserved for the good was provided with every conceivable thing that could conduce to joy and happiness ; while the wicked were condemned to live for all time in dis- comfort and misery. They did not, like the Iroquois, ascribe creative powers to the Evil Spirit, although they believed that he exercised great power over their destinies and every-day life. But in their belief everything had a spirit — the corn, the apple-tree, the cave, the water, the wind, the thunder, the lightning — all were possessed of their especial spirit ; and the Indians burned incense or made sacrifices to appease or pro- pitiate each one, as circumstances dictated. They prayed only to the Evil Spirit ; believing that the Good God would always befriend them without being asked or even thanked. Their war dance differed materially from that of the Iroquois. Instead of imitating a battle, they set up a great post, and the warriors formed in a circle around it. Then one of them, painted as for war, would rush to the post, strike it with his whip or coup-stick, and in a loud voice relate his individual experience, exhibit the scalps he had taken, and in pantomime go through the struggle with each victim precisely as it had originally occurred. If in any part of the ceremony the performer should exagger- ate, or lie, any one present who knew he was doing so was at liberty to step forward and throw dirt in his face, thus symbolizing that he ought to hide his face in shame for being guilty of such an offence. And Her People. 6 1 This custom had the effect of keeping enthusiastic young warriors generally within bounds in the rela- tion of their deeds of daring. On the other hand, if any warrior had achieved so many victories and had so many scalps that, to relate all his adventures would take too much time, the chief who had been selected to act as master of ceremonies would go to the post and place his hand over the mouth of the warrior, who would then at once retire. Such an act on the part of the chief was esteemed a great honor, for it bore eloquent though silent testimony that the warrior had performed so many valiant deeds that to recount them all would not only consume too long a time, but also tend to abash the younger war- riors, whose showing would appear so meagre in comparison with his. The exhibition of scalps was an evidence of prowess that could not be disputed. The ceremonies of the dance were always followed by a great feast. The tribes of this section indulged in a great variety of dances, some of them having different names for the same dance. Among them were the Scalp Dance, Medicine Dance, Green-corn Dance, Sun Dance, Begging Dance, Sign Dance, Eating Dance, Kissing Dance, and many other social dances. The social dances were attended with great merri- ment. CHAPTER V. THE Sioux, or Dakotas, as they sometimes called themselves, occupied the northwestern part of the country last described. They were numer- ous and powerful. Their numerical strength was, in 1846 (as stated by General Pike), 21,675, of whom thirty-eight hundred were warriors ; and it is claimed by them that they were formerly very much more numerous. It is the opinion of some writers that the Sioux belong to a race distinct from any other upon the continent ; this view being based upon the evident difference in their physiognomy and language from those of all other known tribes ; as well as upon their supplications and sacrifices to the " Unknown God," their meat- and burnt-offerings, and their preparation and burning of incense. I merely make this statement, without any intention of discussing it ; my purpose being simply to give an account of the Indians as I found them. Wild horses were plenty in this section of the country, and most of the tribes were expert horsemen and generally fought on horseback. This accounts for their custom of striking the post with their whips in 62 Wah-kee-nah and Her People. d^^ the war dance, indicating the insult to an enemy, which will be spoken of hereafter. Instead of the tomahawk, these warriors used a lance as their prin- cipal weapon, keeping the tomahawk at their belts to be used in case the lance should be broken or when they came into close quarters. The dress of all the tribes in this section was quite similar to that of the Iroquois, except that the men of rank wore a singular cap made of soft deer skin, fitting the head quite closely and having a pendant or tail extending down the back to the heels. This pendant was made in two pieces, and between these were fastened feathers, long ones at the head and others of gradually decreasing length to the heel. Fighting as they did on horseback, such an appen- dage was not burdensome, and this peculiar head- dress was often worn in battle when the rest of the body was covered only with paint. It was a matter of rejoicing if one of these caps was taken with a scalp, for it indicated that the wearer had been a man of importance. To the Indian warrior an enemy's scalp, taken in battle, was what a captured flag is to the soldier of " civilized warfare," — a proud trophy of his valor. Before scalping-knives were furnished them by the white traders, the Indians cut the scalp from the head of a vanquished enemy with a sharp flint. It was a feat requiring great prowess, for the victorious warrior during the time he was removing it remained exposed to onslaughts of the enemy, — it being one of the sacred tenets of all tribes never to let the body 64 Wah-kee-nah of a slain warrior fall into the hands of the enemy if they could prevent it. Whenever one of their num- ber was seen to fall, others rushed immediately upon the victor to prevent his getting the scalp, whence the taking of it required great dexterity as well as courage, — both of which qualities were held in the highest estimation by all Indians. It is by no means strange, then, that the best evidence of a warrior's prowess was the number of these ghastly trophies in his possession. With some of the tribes, however, there was a further reason for scalping an enemy. This was the belief that the loss of the scalp destroyed the im- mortal part, and secured the eternal annihilation of him from whom it was taken ; and thus by scalping their enemies here, they would have just so many the less in the other world. Another belief prevailing to some extent among them was that the dead entered the other world exactly as they left this, and for that reason they wished to be dressed in their finest clothes when they died. It was thought also that every one who died would bear his wounds or deformities into the other world ; and this was why they sometimes re- frained from scalping a slain white man, filling his body with arrows instead ; in the belief that, not being scalped, he would go into the other world, where he would be eternally tormented by the wounds the arrows had caused. This we would regard as a reckless waste of ammunition, but to them it appeared a wise provision for the future life. And Her People. 65 Another curious custom, for the following of which the warrior would be highly honored, was that of striking the dead body of an enemy with the coup-stick or whip. This was regarded as a taunt and an insult, and the most strenuous exertions were made to prevent it. For this reason it was that in battle each side endeavored always to get the bodies of their slain beyond the reach of the enemy. One of the most dreaded calamities which could befall a tribe was the necessity that would compel them to leave any of their dead in the hands of theirhated foes. Feathers plucked from the wings of the war eagle were worn by all warriors in their caps or hair. They also tied them in the foretop and tail of their horses. Those worn upon the head were painted or cut in such a manner as to signify certain events, so that much of a warrior's record could be read upon his head. For example, the number of feathers with a spot of black paint upon them indicated the number of enemies he had slain ; those with a V-shaped notch cut in the long side of the feather, the number of scalps he had taken ; those split through the centre, how many times he had been wounded ; those with three notches cut in the top, how many times he had insulted the enemy by striking the dead bodies of their warriors ; while others, cut in various ways, indicated other daring exploits. The marked feathers occupied the most conspicuous place, while plain ones were used to fill out this fantastic head- dress, according to the taste of the wearer. Possibly it is this ancient custom of the Indian that originated 66 Wah-kee-nah the familiar expression : " That puts another feather in your cap." The tribes in this section disposed of their dead by placing the body on a raised platform, and hanging around it the utensils or arms used by the deceased while living. All these articles were spoiled for earthly use, that they might not tempt the cupidity of any one. Holes were made in all the kettles and dishes, the bows and arrows were broken, and the skins cut. They believed that the spirit would need all these things in the other world, and that a spirit touch would make them whole. Tliey venerated their dead, and their greatest sorrow was to be driven from the spot made sacred by the bones of their forefathers and friends. If a warrior was killed in battle or in a private feud, liis eldest son took it upon liimsclf to avenge his father's death. If he succeeded, and hung the scalp so taken upon the father's grave, he was en- titled to paint a red hand upon his clothing, which was a very high honor. Generally, marriage among the people of these tribes was an affair of the heart ; although it occa- sionally happened that a rich suitor, unable to win the maid's affections, but determined to have her, would induce the parents, by valuable presents, to compel her to marry him. But such cases were not numerous; and the young man had usually to win the girl's affections. The girls were not allowed to have their grandmothers make proposals to the young men in their behalf, as were the Iroquois And Her People. 67 maidens, but relied upon their personal charms to win a lover ; and " the old, old story which is ever new " was told to them much in the same way as among the civilized peoples of the world. The young men wooed very much in the same way as young men have done and arc likely to continue to do through all time. They made themselves as at- tractive as possible, took walks by moonlight with the girl of their choice, and serenaded her on nights when they could not walk with her. They had a sort of flute, made from a hollow reed, and upon this the lover, in the still hours of the night, would play outside the wigwam of the maiden he loved. If his suit prospered they would take long daylight rambles in the grand old native woods, where he would pour into her willing ear his protestations of love ; tell her of his many exploits in tracking the wary game, or cause her cheek to blanch with the story of his more daring and dangerous adventures upon the war-path. He would fill her trusting soul with sweet promises of the future, until at last she yielded the consent he sought. Returning hand in hand to the village both families would be told of the engagement, and it would very soon be known to all the village. On the morrow, if the young man was unable to make a suitable present to the girl's parents, he would endeavor to obtain their consent without the customary gifts. Should he fail in this, however, he would arrange to steal his sweetheart ; and she, with a charming willingness to be stolen, would lend him every assistance. 68 Wah-kee-nah When everything was made ready — and it is scarcely necessary to say that no time was wasted in the process — the young man wrapped his buffalo robe around him, thus concealing his bow and arrows, tomahawk, and flint knife, and strode away into the woods as naturally as if nothing was going to happen. The maiden also, when the way was clear for her, wrapped herself in her buffalo robe, under which she concealed a kettle and the wooden dish in which the food was placed, and stole away to the place agreed upon for meeting her lover. From there they proceeded to the nearest village in which the young warrior had relatives, and with them they remained as husband and wife until they saw fit to return to their own village. There they would be received by the parents with open arms ; for it was the custom among these people, where a couple thus ran away and became husband and wife, that all opposition to their union should end. In fact the " stealing " of the bride was little more than a fiction, the carrying out of which no one made, as a rule, any serious effort to prevent. A formal marriage in Indian " high life " was, however, quite a different affair. After the young man had wooed and won the maiden of his love, the engagement was at once announced ; and the next day (for there were no dangerously long engage- ments) the expectant bridegroom loaded a horse with presents, and led it in person to the door of the wigwam of the bride's parents. Here, without entering or saying a word, he proceeded to unload And Her People. 69 the presents, leaving them near the door. If it was near nightfall, or there seemed to be any probability of a storm, the gifts were taken in and cared for. Then a consultation was held among the relatives of the maiden, which etiquette demanded should continue for at least three days, even though the decision was made at once. If this decision were adverse, the young man was informed that he might take away his goods ; but if it were favorable, he was advised of the acceptance of his gifts, and a time was fixed when he should receive his bride. When this time arrived, which was usually the same day on which the favorable answer was communicated, the relatives formed a procession headed by the parents of the bride, and she, dressed in her best attire, followed immediately behind them. In silence they marched to within a short distance of the bride- groorri's wigwam, and there halted. In a minute or two a warrior, selected by the groom, and whom we might call his " best man," came out to meet them, and placing himself directly in front of the parents, turned his back to them and faced the wigwam of the groom. Then the parents stepped aside and the bride sprang upon the warrior's back, holding herself there by clinging to his neck ; and he, with slow and measured tread, moved toward the wigwam of the groom and upon reaching it the door was promptly thrown open by a relative of the groom. The bride's feet were not permitted to touch the ground until she had crossed the threshold, nor must he who car- 70 Wah-kee-nah ried her assist her in any manner to hold herself on. On alighting inside, she rushes to her lover and seats herself beside him on the bench where he has sat during the entire time the procession has been coming, with a countenance as stolid and immovable as if he had not the slightest interest in the proceed- ings. Not until the bride had thus seated herself and placed her hand in that of her lover was the ceremony complete. As soon as they had joined hands they became husband and wife, and at once the tongues of the relatives and friends were unloosed. The hilarity of the occasion began, and it ended with a feast prepared by the relatives of the groom. The riding of the bride into the groom's wigwam upon the back of his representative, or best man, was intended to symbolize the entire dependence of the wife upon her husband ; that where he goes, she must go ; that she could do nothing without his consent ; as, being upon his back, she became a part of liim and subject to his will. Her action in springing upon his back and clinging there was to show her entire willingness to become part of him, and that thenceforth, his will should be her will. It was the Indian way of promising to " love, honor, and obey." The Indian abounds in superstitions. Had any unpropitious thing happened — had a white dog howled or an owl hooted while the wedding proces- sion was marching, the procession would have turned back to the wigwam of the bride, and the ceremony would have been delayed until the following day. And Her People. 7 1 Thus we cast a shower of rice or a worn slipper after the departing bride and groom, that they may have happiness and good fortune. Is there so very mucli difference in the superstitions ? One of the superstitions of the Indians promoted humanity. They had but few cases of idiocy or in- sanity among them ; but they believed that if they injured or maltreated one thus afflicted the Great Spirit would be angry and visit dire calamity upon them. For this reason persons thus afflicted were always very kindly cared for. This superstition was once of very great service to Professor Hayden, of the United States Geological Survey. One day while engaged in gathering speci- mens in this section of country, after filling his saddle- bags and pockets with pieces of various kinds of rock, he found he had wandered far from his party, and started to search for them. Seeing some men on horseback, and supposing they were his friends, he rode toward them, but, to his horror, discovered that they were Indians. Knowing that he was in the country of hostiles, he turned his horse and attempted to escape. But his saddle-bags and every pocket were full to overflowing, as was also the tin box con- taining bugs and insects which hung at his side, and thus handicapped he made but poor headway. The Indians soon overtook him and in sign language ordered him to dismount. They proceeded at once to make an inspection of his possessions. He had nothing with which to defend himself, his outfit be- ing a pocket-knife, hammer, chisel, and watch. These 72 Wah-kee-nah they took, and then began to plunge their hands into his pockets, bringing them out filled with the rock specimens. Again and again they did this, until pockets, pouch, and saddle-bags were all empty ; and as the pile of stones increased upon the ground be- side him they burst into loud laughter. Finally they opened the tin box, and when they saw nothing in that but bugs and other insects they quickly closed it, and, looking at each other and then very closely at him, touched their foreheads with the forefinger and made the sign signifying crazy (mind gone). Then they gave back ail his things, even picking up the speci- mens and replacing them carefully in his pockets, pouch, and saddle-bags, and in the sign language told him to mount his horse and go on, which he did with a feeling of thankfulness which can readily be imagined. Their strongest superstitions were connected with their doctors, or " medicine men," as they called them. They believed them to be supernaturally en- dowed, and to possess the power of communicating with and exorcising the spirits which caused sickness. They also believed them able to cast a spell over any one at will, thus causing the subject to fall ill or to have bad luck. Great consideration and respect were therefore shown them, not from any love or real regard, but entirely through fear. Not every one could become a medicine man. In order to reach that distinction the candidate had to be taken in charge by the older medicine men, and pass through a most trying ordeal. He was taken And Her People. 73 into the deep forest, and there subjected to a fast which brought him to the verge of starvation ; and also subjected to self-inflicted cuttings and tortures of various kinds, to the satisfaction of the old prac- titioners, until he had dreams of spirits and received communications from them. If in this preparatory process he fainted, or if he failed in any respect, he could never attain the goal of his ambition. What the spirits communicated to him in dreams he was required, if possible, to carry out. After passing successfully through all the minutiae of this terrible ordeal, the old medicine men communicated to him the mysteries of the profession, and he returned to the village a mere skeleton. But he was then a full- fledged " medicine man," and as such was allowed to begin his practice. Taking advantage of the fear they inspired, the medicine men were usually great rogues, and made the most selfish use of their extraordinary opportu- nities. When they became ill the Indians ordinarily used decoctions of various herbs, roots, barks, and berries, which were prepared and administered by the women relatives of the sick. The medicine man was not called until the usual remedies had been tried and failed to bring relief, and the case came to be regarded as beyond their control. Then he was sent for in great haste. The runner who acted as messenger carried with him a pipe filled with Klin-a-can-ic (the preparation ysed as smoking-tobacco), and the fee, which might 74 Wah-kee-nah consist of a bow and quiver of arrows, a buffalo robe, beaver skins, or any other articles of value in keeping with the financial circumstances of the sick person. On entering the wigwam of the medicine man the runner at once handed him the pipe, which taking, he at once began to smoke. As soon as the pipe was finished the messenger presented the fee and in- formed the medicine man as to who was in need of his services. If that functionary did not think the fee offered was of sufficient value, he refused to at- tend the patient until it was made satisfactory ; and the runner then returned for more goods. If, how- ever, the fee sent was acceptable, the medicine man at once took his sacred rattle, the only thing need- ful, and repaired to the wigwam of the sick person. As this enchanted rattle was the one potent instru- ment of the medicine man, it is entitled to a descrip- tion in detail. It was usually about five or six inches in diameter, and was made in various ways. Some- times it consisted of two pieces of wood hollowed like a gourd, the rattles being placed in the hollow and the pieces fastened together ; and sometimes of a turtle shell. But the rattles most esteemed were of raw elk or buflalo hide, wet and stretched over a ball of clay. When the skin had become dry and hard, the clay was dug out at the place where strips of skin had been left for the purpose of fastening upon a handle. Before the handle was attached, the skin, which now firmly retained its ball-shape, was filled with the sacred and enchanted articles to which the virtues of the rattle were attributed. These And Her People. 75 articles consisted in part of tiie finger-bones and toe-bones of some slain enemy (the more of these, the more efficacious the rattle) ; teeth of the beaver and porcupine ; tip-ends of the horns of the buffalo, deer, and elk ; claws and teeth of the bear ; shells, agates, and other stones of various shapes and colors, es- pecially such as had holes through them. This rattle was priceless ; no amount of property would induce the medicine man to part with it. Hung in his wigwam, it protected him from all harm, and was the medium through which he communicated with friendly spirits, and the charm that kept away all that were unfriendly. Armed with this rattle, then, the medicine man proceeded with slow and solemn tread towards the wigwam of the patient. Now and again he would take long strides sidewise and backwards, peering here and there, making frightful faces, and occasion- ally making woful howls. Sometimes he wore a hideous mask and a dress of skins, made to appear most frightful. This was done in order that, should any of the spirits afflicting the sick person happen to be passing that way, they would see what dis- astrous fate they might expect should they venture to return ; and also (and chiefly) that the people of the village might be impressed with the mighty power and Importance of the great medicine man. On entering the wigwam the medicine man divested himself of his superfluous clothing, took a seat as far as possible from the patient, and began shaking his sacred rattle, first faintly, but with rapid- 76 Wah-kee-nak ly increasing vigor. He also sung his sacred chants, in order to charm the evil spirit that had possession of the patient. He kept this up till he was tired, and then stopped and smoked awhile, returning with renewed energy to his rattling and singing. This was repeated several times, after which, if the sufferer did not feel better, the medicine man tried his more vigorous measures. He rushed at the victim and with violent contortions sucked with his lips the part affected. This operation was sometimes per- formed with such violence as to draw blood. The medicine man then arose, groaning and writh- ing and throwing himself into all sorts of postures, as if suffering intense agony. Finally he plunged his head into a bowl of water and was relieved by the passing of the spirit sucked from the sick person into the water. I must not omit to mention that the water had been previously prepared for this purpose by being colored with red clay, in order that the by- standers might not see the spirit as it came from his mouth ; for no human eye could safely look upon it. If the patient did not find himself improved by this proceeding, the medicine man concluded that some animal must have possession of the sick one, and then had recourse to his great and final remedy. After once more resting and smoking, he procured a piece of bark and marked upon it with red clay a picture of the animal whose spirit was troubling his patient. He next dug a hole in the ground outside the wigwam, filled the hole with water colored with red clay, and in^mersed the piece of bark therein, and And Her People. yj then returned to the wigwam. After many horrible contortions, accompanied with howls and a vigorous shaking of the sacred rattle, he plunged at the patient with a deafening yell, and slapped, pounded, and rubbed him violently from head to foot. During this rather vigorous massage treatment he continued his howls, contortions, and grimaces until nearly ex- hausted ; then seizing some part of the patient's body with his teeth, he shook his head like a dog killing a rat, and pretended to tear out a piece of the flesh. This done, he put his hands to the ground and ran " on all fours" out of the wigwam. There he thrust his head into the water in which he had placed the bark, taking care to thoroughly stir up the red clay, so that no one should see the animal's spirit enter the picture he had made of it on the bark. When he arose the bark floated upon the surface of the water, and he ordered some warrior relative of the patient to shoot the spirit, which was done by sending an arrow through the bark. The bark was burned, and the medicine man took his departure. If the patient recovered, the medicine man received the credit, and was exalted accordingly ; if he died, the medicine man admitted that he had made a wrong diagnosis ; had failed to hit upon the right animal ; that whereas he had taken the spirit possessing the patient to be that of a beaver, it must have been that of a porcupine, and as he did not treat the patient for porcupine, he had died. Was it a vision of the bacilli of modern science that the aboriginal medicine man had in his mind ? 78 Wah-kee-nak. Usually none but the relatives of the patient are permitted to be present during the visit of the medi- cine man ; but by dint of much persuasion and a present of a five-point blanket to the practitioner, I once obtained the privilege of seeing a man doctored for a severe cold attended with high fever. It was an obstinate case, and all the remedies were em- ployed. The animal in that patient was an otter, and, strange to say, the treatment was efficacious ; the patient recovered, and the medicine man often boasted to me afterwards of his wonderful power. He certainly earned his fee, if bodily exertion and fatigue are to be paid for. But life is not altogether rose-colored, even for the medicine man. It would sometimes happen that he lost more patients than he cured ; and then the superstitions of his tribe worked against him. In such cases they thought he had not only lost his power, but that evil spirits had overcome and taken possession of him, and that thereafter his sacred rattle would frighten away the good spirits instead of the evil. When this opinion became prevalent, the medicine man was doomed ; for it was then law- ful for relatives of any of the patients he had lost to kill him on sight and burn his rattle, and in most cases some of them did it. Among some tribes the medicine man was the highest power ; his word was law. Among others he had the women do the howling and some young man do the rattling or else pound on the tom-tom, contenting himself with merely chanting incanta- tions over the sick. CHAPTER VI. THE superstitions of the Indians extended to other matters besides those I have heretofore mentioned. Mr. George Catlin is my au- thority for the following story of Wi-jun-jon, whose portrait he painted. Wi-jun-jon was the son of the highest chief of the Assiniboins, a brave warrior, young, proud, hand- some, and graceful. He had fought many battles ; many laurels were his, and he had a just claim to the highest honors his nation could bestow. He was selected by Major Sanford, Indian Agent, to repre- sent his tribe in a delegation which' visited the city of Washington in 1832. He had promised his people that he would count all the white men's houses he saw ; and in accordance with this promise as he came to them on his journey he began registering their number by cutting a notch on the stem of his pipe for each house. At first the cabins were few and far between and gave him no trouble ; but they increased in number as he descended the Missouri River. Soon his pipe stem was covered with notches and he began to notch his war club. This was soon filled also, and when the boat stopped again Wi-jun-jon cut a long 79 8o Wah-kee-nah stick, peeled the bark from it, and when the boat started on its way, began notching the stick. But this filled up rapidly with notches, and every time the boat made a landing he would go ashore and get more sticks, until at length the accumulation of notched sticks began to trouble him. When at last the boat arrived at St. Louis, then a town of about fifteen thousand inhabitants, Wi-jun-jon was com- pletely dumbfounded, and looked upon the great number of buildings in mute astonishment. After gazing awhile and evidently realizing the impossi- bility of keeping up his notch record any longer, he bundled up his sticks, and with an " Ough! " of dis- gust pitched them all overboard. After his visit to Washington, Mr. Catlin accom- panied him to his native country. Wi-jun-jon when he returned to his people was a very different-look- ing person from the handsome young Indian Wi-jun- jon as he appeared on setting out to visit the city of the "Great Father." He had exchanged his beauti- ful Indian costume for a full-dress military suit trimmed with gold lace and further adorned with two immense epaulettes, a shining black stock as stiff as a board, a pair of high-heeled boots, a bright red sash, a heavy sword dangling at his side, white kid gloves upon his hands, and his whole gorgeous make-up surmounted by a tall beaver hat with a broad silver-lace band, and a long red feather in its front. Added to all this magnificence was a blue-cot- ton umbrella and a large gaudily painted fan. He had also learned to love the fire-water of the white man. And Her People. 8 1 All this change was brought on Wi-jun-jon by his brief contact with civilization. Of course the meta- morphosis in his dress was the work of some white man who desired to possess his handsome Indian costume. On reaching home in this fantastic garb he was looked at by the people of his tribe in perfect amazement. After the first salutations were over he began telling them of what he had seen. At first they listened respectfully and in wide-eyed wonder; but it was too much for them. They began calling him a liar, and said he had been among the white men, who were all great liars, and had become like them. He sank rapidly into disgrace, and all his prospects of advancement vanished. He was looked upon as a great liar, a character utterly despicable among the Indians. They called him the greatest liar in the nation, and every one shunned and despised him. After a time he began also to be feared, for they thought he must have received some wonderful power from the Evil Spirit, to be able to invent such stories of novelty and wonder. Their awe, dread, and terror of him became so great that they began to conspire to rid the world of a monster whose superhuman talents must be cut off in order to avert dire calamity to the nation. They held many con- sultations, for they were at loss to know how they might kill him. Believing that an evil spirit had possessed him, they thought he would be proof against any ordinary arrow, lance, or bullet. Finally 82 Wah-kee-nah one of the young warriors volunteered to undertake his execution. After weeks of hesitation, he had a dream which solved all his difficulties. He dreamed that he must procure by stealth the handle of an old iron pot from the store in the white man's fort, and that that implement would possess the power to overcome the evil spirit. He loitered about the fort for many days, trying to secure the coveted pot- handle. It would not do to ask for it or buy it ; to be efficacious it must be stolen. At last he was suc- cessful, and, going into the woods, he spent a whole day straightening and filing the handle so that it would fit into the barrel of his gun. Then with his weapon thus loaded he stealthily approached his victim from behind, placed the muzzle of the gun close to the back of his head, and pulled the trigger. The explosion which followed was like that of a can- non, and it is needless to say that the iron pot-handle overcame the evil spirit, while the recoil nearly killed the gunner as well. Thus miserably perished poor Wi-jun-jon, a victim to the superstition of his people. Too much knowl- edge — too high a civilization — had been his undoing. The stories told by him of the sights he had seen were not exaggerations, and it is probable that had he returned to his tribe in his native costume they would in time have come to believe what he said, but the stories and the marvellous dress he wore were utterly beyond their acceptance. The bearing of pain, even when most intense, with- out making the slightest sign, was one of the proud And Her People. 83 characteristics of all Indian men. They were taught this from childhood, and some of the tribes had peculiar methods of cultivating stoicism in their children. A warrior who found a hornets' nest in the woods would inform the villagers. Then all the boys from seven to sixteen years of age would meet and select a leader. Each boy gathered a supply of sticks and stones, and on the next rainy day (hornets are " at home " on rainy days) the boys, divested of all their clothing, even to their moccasins, followed the hunter guide and marched forth to battle with the hornets. Many of the older villagers accompanied them to see the sport, but kept at a respectful distance when the battle began. When they arrived at the spot, the leader placed his young warriors in the most advan- tageous position for the attack. When all was ready he gave the signal, and the air was soon filled with sticks and stones. It does not take long for hornets to ascertain whence such missiles come, whether thrown by Indians or white boys (as I well know), and they at once began the defence of their castle. The naked bodies of the boys afforded the hornets a fine opportunity for attack, and they improved it with a vigor known only to hornets. It was con- sidered ignominious for any boy to retreat until the nest was entirely demolished. When that had been done the leader gave the signal to his victorious army, and all returned to the village. In case any boy had been stung about the eyes so as to blind him, he was led home by his companions. If a boy cried or ^4 Wah-kee-nah showed other sign of pain (and a hornet's sting is much more painful than that of a bee), his compan- ions and the older warriors would cry: "Shame, shame ; you are a baby ; you are a girl ; you will never make a warrior" — which, as we can readily understand, had a powerful influence in making him apparently indifferent to pain. The boys went quickly to their wigwams, where their hurts were dressed by their mothers, and they soon recovered from the effects of the campaign. Oratory seems to have received less attention among these tribes than among the Iroquois. It is certain that there was little occasion for its practice in their intercourse with the whites, for the latter had become so numerous and powerful by the time they reached this section of the country that scant ceremony was employed in taking the Indians' lands. There was, however, among the Sioux, a chief named " Two Stars," whose fiery speech is worthy of notice. The occasion was a negotiation of a treaty between his nation and the whites. In opposition to the consummation of this treaty, " Two Stars " addressed his fellow chiefs in the following terms: " I have lived near the whites and have never been their pensioner. I have suffered from cold in the winter, and never asked clothing ; from hunger, and have never asked food. I will live and die on the lands of my forefathers, without asking a favor of an enemy. They call themselves the friends of the Sioux. They are our friends when they want our lands or our fur.s. They are our worst enemies. And Her People. 85 They have trampled us under foot. We do not chase the deer on the prairies as eagerly as they have hunted us down. They steal from us our hunting- grounds, and then win us over by fair words and promises. They furnish us with " fire-water," telling us it is good. They lie. They do this that they may steal our senses and make us fools, so that they may get our lands and furs for nothing. Had not our warriors become women, and learned to fear them, I would gladly raise the war-cry and shout it in their ears. The Great Spirit has indeed forsaken his children, when their warriors and wise men talk of yielding to their foes. I hate them." One of the tribes inhabiting this section was so un- like all the others, that it seems proper to give some account of the peculiarities of its members. This tribe, known as the Mandans, numbered only about eighteen hundred, and lived in two villages about three miles apart on the bank of the Missouri River. In the matter of complexion as well as in the color and texture of the hair the Mandans were unique among all the Indians of the continent. There is that in their traditions and language which leads to the belief that they were descended from the Welsh voyager, Prince Madoc, and his followers, who sailed from their native country in 1170, and were never afterwards heard from. It is supposed that they sailed up the Mississippi River, and that their vessels be- coming disabled or unseaworthy, they intermingled with the natives and finally formed a new tribe. The evidence in support of this supposition is the 86 Wah-kee-nah hair and complexion, already spoken of, the fre- quency of blue eyes among them, and the close re- semblance of many words in their language to the Welsh. A list of these words was made by Mr. Catlin, and when compared with words in Welsh having the same meaning the resemblance was so apparent that, as he informs us, " almost any theory would be more credible than that such affinity was the result of accident." The Mandan villages were strongly fortified, being surrounded from the precipitous bank of the river by a strong stockade of heavy logs, having a deep ditch in front of it. Their houses were partly sunk in the ground, and were built upon strong posts from six to eight feet high, across the tops of which were laid the beams which supported the roof. This roof was covered with clay and soil to such a depth as to shed rain perfectly and also to render the structure absolutely proof against the fire-arrows of an enemy. It was also so strong as to afford a favorite lounging place for the occupants of the dwelling. Mr. Catlin says : " One is surprised when he enters these houses to see the neatness, comfort, and spacious dimensions of the earth-covered dwellings. They all have a circular form, and are from forty to sixty feet in di- ameter. An excavation in the centre is used as a fire- place, with a hole in the roof over it for the escape of smoke. The furniture consists of rude bedsteads, with sacking of buffalo skins, and with an ornamental buffalo robe hung in front for a curtain. Between And Her People. 87 the beds are posts with pegs, upon which the clothing, as well as the arms and accoutrements of the war- riors were hung. This arrangement of beds, clothing of different colors, furs and trinkets of various kinds, together with the happy, story-telling groups smok- ing their pipes, wooing their sweethearts, and cm- bracing their little ones, about the peaceful firesides surrounded with earthen pots and kettles of their own manufacture, presented one of the most pic- turesque scenes imaginable." In the centre of each of the villages was a large common in which they exercised and trained their horses, trained and played with their dogs, ran foot- races, and indulged in other out-of-door sports. Their costumes were brilliant and fanciful, orna- mented with plumes and colored porcupine quills. Those of the wealthy were exceedingly rich. They were made entirely of skins; a coat of buck-skin, leggins and moccasins of the same, all beautifully fringed and embroidered, and an outer garment of a young buffalo's skin. The head-gear was very elabo- rate and highly ornamental, being made of ermine skins and the feathers of the war eagle. Some of the chiefs had attained a renown which entitled them to add to their head-dress a pair of buffalo horns, reduced in size and weight, and arranged as they grew upon the animal. The buffalo horns thus worn symbolized courage and power. Mr. Catlin, who was an artist, wished to paint the portraits of some of their chiefs and warriors. At first he had much difificulty in inducing them to sit 88 Wah-kce-nah. for him, as Indians were naturally afraid of new tilings. Having, however, overcome these fears so far as to get the portrait of one of the chiefs, they were all greatly delighted until they chanced to dis- cover that the eyes of the chief upon the canvas fol- lowed them wherever they went. This frightened them exceedingly. They could see it was only a piece of cloth, yet they declared it had life or it could not thus move its eyes. They concluded that some portion of the life of the person represented must have been extracted by the painter, and that consequently the life of that one would be shortened just that much. They also thought that inasmuch as the picture would continue in existence after the death of the original, the quiet of his grave might be disturbed. But the artist finally succeeded in allay- ing these suspicious fancies, and secured all the sitters he wanted. The Mandans were cleanly in person, and there were no drunkards or beggars among them. The tribe is now entirely extinct. The smallpox was introduced among them by some white traders, and swept the whole tribe from the face of the earth. Other tribes suffered from the disease at the same time. Major Pilcher, who was then the Indian Superintendent at St. Louis, estimated that no less than twenty-five thousand Indians perished in that section of the country in the course of four or five months. It can readily be imagined that their medicine men would have little power to stay the ravages of such a disease. And Her People. 89 This section of country, as well as that to the southward, was inhabited by vast herds of buffalo and wild horses. The Indians tamed great numbers of these horses and became expert horsemen. In order to kill a buffalo with bow and arrows or lance, the hunter had to be within a few feet of him, and as both hands were required to handle the bow, the horses were trained to guide by pressure of the knee or an inclination of the body. They soon became accustomed to this, so that the rider had no difficulty in thus completely commanding their movements. Buffalo hunting was very exciting, not only on account of the size of the game, but also from the danger involved. The speed of the horse excelled that of the buffalo, but in order to keep his horse fresh the hunter approached the herd as stealthily as possible, and when discovered, dashed after the game at break-neck speed. The buffalo seemed to realize that it was a race for life, and exerted himself to the utmost ; the Indians used only their fleetest and most enduring horses for this work, for the chase was usually a long and trying one. When near enough for the purpose, the hunter aimed an arrow at the heart of his game. The bows used for this purpose were of tremendous power, and such was the force with which the arrow was driven, that, although the full-grown buffalo is as large as the tame ox, the arrow frequently passed completely through the body. But the buffalo, sometimes before and sometimes after being wounded, would turn with the quickness go Wah-kee-nah of thought upon the hunter and try to impale him with his horns. Against such an attack the hunter had to trust entirely to the sagacity and swift move- ments of his horse. The quickness with which the horse would discern the slightest motion on the part of the bui?alo to turn upon his pursuer was wonder- ful. Although going at full speed, he would always be ready to dodge. The hunter must be very expert and agile to avoid being thrown by a sudden and unexpected side-spring of his horse ; for if unhorsed he would be gored and trampled to death in a mo- ment by the infuriated buffalo. The Indians some- times covered themselves with wolf skins and crept within shooting distance of the buffalo on their hands and knees. The catching of wild horses furnished these Indi- ans with fine sport. They used a lasso, or lariat, about fifty feet long, sometimes made of hair, but usually of braided rawhide, rubbed until it was as soft and pliable as rope. This they could throw with great precision. The men and boys, and sometimes the more courageous of the girls, had great sport breaking in these wild horses to ride. They fastened a rope made of rawhide around the lower jaw of the horse with a " clove hitch," and then blindfolded him. They next fastened another rope around his body, leaving it just loose enough for the rider to put his knees under it. It is a singular fact that a wild horse would not stir while he was blindfolded. When the rider was mounted and ready, the blind was removed ; the And Her People. g i rider applied the whip or quirt, and away went the frightened horse, bounding over the prairie like a startled deer. The rider could not be thrown, because the rope over his knees held him fast, yet, if the horse should fall, he could easily free himself. The horse was guided by striking him on either side of the head with the whip, and when he was nearly exhausted his rider would make him return to the starting-point. After a few such experiences the horse would be thoroughly broken. It sometimes happened that when the rider was mounted and the blind removed, the horse, instead of starting off on a run, would stand and jump, coming down with his legs as stiff as rails. This was called " bucking," and was great sport for the spectators, but not for the unfortunate rider. The terrible jolting soon gave him such a pain in the side that he was glad to jump or roll off, and his evolu- tions in the air and scrambling on the ground to get out of the way of the horse afforded much amuse- ment to his companions. The Comanche was a daring horseman. In battle he would hang at the side of his horse leaving noth- ing except his foot visible on the other side, and at the same time fire his arrows at the foe from under his horse's neck while running at full speed. He was enabled to do this by having a short piece of lasso passed around the neck of his horse and each end firmly braided into the mane at the withers, thus forming a loop into which he could slip his elbow to sustain the weight of his body while balancing 92 Wah-kee-nah and Her People. himself by means of one foot thrown over the horse's back. This also enabled him at any time to regain his position. By the use of these tactics he was pro- tected by the body of his horse from the arrows of the foe. In order to kill him the enemy must first disable his horse, and while they were doing that the Comanche could get in a good deal of bloody work. The Comanches had a different method from that already described for breaking in the wild horses. Having caught one with the lasso, they drew the noose tight around the captive's throat, choking him until he fell. Then dismounting, they blindfolded him and tied his front feet together. After doing this they patted him and handled . him all over, breathed in his nostrils, and worked kindly with him until the horse became accustomed to the treat- ment ; and, strange as it m'ay seem, in an hour or two they would loosen his feet, and one of the party would mount and ride him home. CHAPTER VII. THAT portion of North America west of the Rocky Mountains and north of the thirty- third parallel was also inhabited by numerous tribes or nations of Indians, alike in general aspect, but differing widely in certain particulars. Those in the extreme north were called Esquimo. Indeed, this same race, each tribe varying but little from the others, occupied the entire northern portion of the continent, from Greenland to Behring Sea. They were short of stature, slovenly, and untidy. Not so warlike as the Indians to the south of them, they were very suspicious of strangers, but kind and hospitable after becoming acquainted. Brownell says: " The Esquimo received little better treatment at the hands of the early European discoverers than did their brethren farther south. It is strange to read of the coolness with which those adventurers speak of the emormities not unfrequently committed against the unoffending and ignorant natives. The meeting of several ' wild men ' (as the adventurers called them) and the killing of one of them to make the rest tractable, is mentioned as a passing and ordinary event." 93 94 WaJt-kee-nah The dwellings of the Esquimo were of two kinds. Those used in summer were movable, and built of poles and skins, similar to those of the southern Indians ; while their winter habitations were con- structed of blocks of ice, cut and shaped with astonishing precision. They were familiar with the principle of the arch, and made use of it with the key-stone shaped in blocks of ice. These dwellings were almost hermetically tight, as all the interstices between the layers of ice, and the small holes here and there, were filled with snow, and water was dashed upon these until the whole became one mass of solid ice. They were thus made quite warm, and but for the filthy habits of the people, they would have been comfortable, notwithstanding the in- tensely cold weather. Thin, and nearly transparent cakes of ice were inserted here and there in the roof for the admission of light. The Esquimo lived on oil and blubber obtained from the whale, walrus, and seal, together with the meat of the reindeer, musk-ox, and water-fowl, besides fish. The only vegetable foods they had were a species of willow which they ground in a mortar, the leaves of the sorrel, a few berries, and some roots which they also pounded up. The lean meat of the whale, seal, and such other as they obtained, was dried, smoked, and pounded up with some fat into a dry mixture called " pemmican," which would keep for use during their long, dark winter. They built large canoes in which to carry the family and goods, and exhibited great dexterity in And Her People. 95 the manufacture and management of the style of canoe called by them " kaiak." This would cany but one person. It was a light, frail structure, hav- ing small pieces of wood for the frame, and covered top and bottom, with small seal-skins so neatly and strongly sewed together as to be perfectly water- tight above and below. The structure was usually twenty to twenty-five feet long, two feet wide, and about a foot deep. In the centre a hole was cut through the skin just large enough for a man to get in and have his body completely fill it. lie used a paddle with a blade at each end. In this frail craft the Esquimo would go long distances out to sea and attack the seal with a harpoon having a buoy of seal- skin fastened to the end of the line to prevent the seal from sinking when killed. In case of a capsize, which seldom happened, the boatman could easily right himself with his paddle. The kaiak was a safe boat with an Esquimo, but woe to any white man who attempted its use. The Esquimo used dogs as their beasts of burden, and did all travelling with them after the water had frozen so that they could not go in boats. The run- ners of their sleds were made of pieces of wood, or sometimes of the jawbones of the whale, fastened together at a distance of about two feet apart, with cross-pieces and thongs upon which a skin was stretched and the load deposited. The dogs were attached to separate tethers of different lengths, the leader being sometimes as far as twenty feet from the sledge. How they managed to drive them in 96 Wah-kee-nah this way without getting them entangled is a mys- tery to white men. They used a whip with a short stock and a lash long enough to reach the leader, and would make sixty miles a day with a load averaging one hundred pounds for each dog. They made the sledge run easy by turning it up and pouring water upon the runners and letting it freeze, thus forming shoes of ice. Great distances were often travelled over the frozen waters, and great loads transported. Snow-shoes were also used to some extent in travelling. The clothing of the Esquimo consisted wholly of furs. The inner garments were worn with the fur next the body, and the outer garments with fur out- side. These garments were neatly and strongly sewn together, and made quite ornamental by tastefully mixing different colored furs ; teeth of animals were hung in the borders, and foxes' noses sewed on like buttons. They all wore high waterproof boots made of sealskin. The women wore the same kind of underclothing as the men, while their outer dress consisted of a moderately close-fitting waist or jacket, together with a short skirt and trousers. They prac- tised tattooing, which was done by drawing a thread saturated with oil and soot under the skin. The only fires used by the Esquimo for warmth or cooking were made by suspending a piece of blubber over a shallow stone dish, around the edge of which twisted moss was so placed as to form a wick. The heat extracted the oil from the blubber, and as it dripped into the dish a continual supply of fuel was And Her People. 97 kept up. They kept the temperature of their houses a little below freezing, for if it rose higher the roof would be melted. Always accustomed to this tem- perature indoors, they could endure intense cold while moving about outside. Their weapons were bows and arrows, lances, and harpoons, all of which were quite ingeniously made. As regards religion, Mr. Parry says : " They do not appear to have any idea of the existence of one Supreme Being, nor, indeed, can they be said to entertain any notions on this subject which may be dignified with the name of religion." They had quite a number of dances ; and they were not warlike, but quite domestic in their habits and tastes, very contented, and, in their way, happy. In complexion the Esquimo are fair, almost white. They are of medium stature, good proportion, mus- cular, and active, while their feet and hands were small and of fine shape. They seldom mingled or associated with any of the tribes to the south, and therefore have remained almost without change from generation to generation. They differed from the Esquimo upon the eastern coast in disposition and in their treatment of children. This was perhaps due to the fact that they had not so severe a struggle for existence as did their eastern brethren, and hence had more time for leisure and amusement. They had three months of winter, during which time they did not see the sun ; three months of continuous day during which the sun never set ; and three months of twilight at the end of these seasons. 98 Wah-kee-nah They displayed considerable ingenuity in catching game. For taking the reindeer they made corrals of turf, rubbish, or drift-wood, and also made piles of turf to represent men, standing them a short distance apart in two rows diverging from the mouth of the corral, sometimes to the distance of two miles. They then drove the deer into the broad opening between these two rows, and followed them up to the corral. The deer, taking the piles of turf for men, would not attempt to pass out between them, and were thus driven into the corral, where it was impossible for them to escape the arrows of the hunters. But their manner of hunting and killing the polar bear was unique. Knowing the bear to be fond of blubber, they took a piece of it as large as a man's fist, and after letting it freeze hollowed out the cen- tre sufficiently to admit a strip of whalebone coiled into a spring. This was covered with more blubber and the whole again frozen. Dressing themselves to look like seals (the bear's favorite food) the hunters took several of these frozen balls and started out. When a bear was discovered they approached near enough for him to see them. As he began to creep stealthily toward them they slowly retreated, drop- ping a number of the balls in such a way that the bear in following them must surely come upon the balls. Bruin seeing these delicate morsels swallowed them whole and continued his stealthy chase of the sup- posed seals. But he did not progress far before the blubber melted and released the whalebone springs. These new " works " in his internal economy soon And Her People. 99 put him in sucli agony that he rolled and tumbled upon the ice, and became an easy victim to the weapons of the hunters. The young Esquimo who desired to marry had first to obtain the consent of the mother of the girl he wished to woo, after which he was at liberty to present her with furs for a suit of clothes. If she accepted the gift the act constituted a formal en- gagement ; and when she made up the furs and put them on she became, without further ceremony or formality, his wife. The Koniagas lived to the southward of the Es- quimo. They were much larger in stature than the Esquimo, and their skin was much whiter than that of the Indians farther south. They were also well formed, and would have been fine-looking but for the horrible fashion they had of deforming their ears, nose, and under lip with what they considered ornaments. The dress of the poorer class among the Koniagas was made of skins somewhat after the manner of the Esquimo; but some who were in better circum- stances wore a garment called a " parka." This was a cloak, made of bird skins neatly sewed together. It required as many as a hundred skins to make a parka. As needles they used certain bones from fish, and it was surprising to see what fine work they did with only bits of sinew for thread. The parka was fringed and ornamented at top and bottom, but the elaborate work was upon the girdle about the waist. This was beautifully embroidered. Only the lOO Wah-kee-nah rich could afford this kind of garment. If caught out in bad weather in this their gala dress they pro- tected the feathers with a waterproof cloak made from the intestines of the walrus and seal, tanned, rubbed pliable, and sewed together so neatly as to be impervious to water, even at the seams. They also made high boots of the skin from the neck of the seal, and soled them with the thick skin of the whale. These boots were also waterproof and very strong. They had no marriage ceremony. Marriage was a simple agreement between the parties, and as soon as it was approved by the father of the maiden the lovers became husband and wife. The Aleuts inhabited the Aleutian Archipelago, and numbered twenty-two different clans, or divi- sions, nearly every island having its own clan. Our earliest knowledge of them comes from the Russian explorer, Novodsikoff, who visited the archipelago in 1745. As soon as he returned to his native land and published the story of the wonderful number and variety of fur-bearing animals he found there, the waters in that region became alive with Russian adventurers. They swarmed upon the islands, laid tribute upon the Indians, and treated them so cruelly and wickedly that their numbers were quickly reduced from ten thousand to barely a thousand. In appearance the Aleuts resembled the Koniagas. Their features were strongly marked, and those who saw them as they originally appeared were impressed with the intelligent and benevolent expression of And Her People. loi their faces. A missionary who lived ten years among them says that during all that time there was not a single fight among the natives. This is evidence of the quiet and peaceful disposition which rendered them an easy prey to the Russian invaders. Their dress was similar to that of the Koniagas, with the addition of a high peaked hat, made of wood or leather. This hat had a long brim in front to pro- tect the eyes of the wearer from the glare of the sun upon the water and snow, and was ornamented at the back by hanging upon it the beards of sea-lions. The front was usually carved to represent some ani- mal. They lived during the long winter in permanent houses, but in the summer a canoe turned bottom upward formed their only shelter. They built their canoes of skins in the same way as the Esquimo. Good planks and boards were made by them by splitting cedar logs and working the slabs down straight and smooth with the aid of fire, stone axes, and stone scrapers. They made much use of this kind of lumber in building their winter houses, and in constructing traps for bears. To make a bear-trap they took a plank about two feet square and drove firmly into it many sharp bones, upon the projecting ends of which a barb had been cut. They then buried the plank thus prepared under leaves and other light rubbish in the track of the bear. When the unsus- pecting animal stepped upon it, his great weight drove the barbed bones deep into his foot ; the pain at once caused hiqi to yse the other foot to relieve I02 Wah-kee-nah the first, and that soon became fastened also. Next the hind feet came to relieve those already impris- oned, and it was not long until he was a prisoner with all four feet pinned to the plank, and an easy prey to the hunters who had been watching the trap. The Aleuts had some religious ceremonies, the women taking the most active part in them. In the winter they were accustomed to amuse themselves by a variety of games. Among these, one of the greatest favorites was an imitation of the chase, in which one party of young men and maidens acted the part of hunters, and another party that of game. By some historians the Esquimo, Koniagas, and Aleuts are all called Esquimo. I do not, however, concur in so classing them. It is true that there are many points of resemblance ; but they differed very materially in stature, in features, and in language ; many of their customs were different ; they did not associate or intermarry with each other ; and they were occasionally at war. The next large family, or tribe, to the southward were the Thlinkeets ; and whatever may be the pre- vailing opinion in regard to the three tribes just mentioned, the Thlinkeets were so different from any of the three that they cannot with any propriety be classed as Esquimo. The Thlinkeets inhabited a vast territory of which the climate as a whole was temperate, or not subject to any great extremes either of heat or cold. These conditions led to more extended wanderings and a And Her People. 103 greater amount of physical exercise, and tended to expand the mind and develop the body. The skin of the Thlinkeets was much whiter than that of the Indians who lived farther south ; and if they had not distorted their features by piercing their ears, nose, and lips, and filling them with bones and shells, they would have been quite comely, for nature had done much to make them so. But this hideousness was called beautiful by them ; and the Thlinkeet girl who aspired to be a belle must wear as many of these "decorations" as i)ossiblc, and the larger the lip ornament the more beautiful she was esteemed. Slave women and their children were not allowed the privilege of having their ears, nose, or lips pierced, and some of them were really handsome. The Thlinkeets made their canoes of wood, usually of the white cedar, which grows plentifully and of large size all over the northwestern portion of the conti- nent. They were skilled in the manufacture of war implements, bows and arrows, lances, shields, flint knives, etc. Their arrows and lances were tipped with flint, or, sometimes with copper, as that metal was found in their country and they knew how to work it to some extent. In case a point was lost from an arrow or a lance, and they had not the op- portunity to replace it, they would harden the end by putting it into the fire, and then scrape it to a point. They also showed much ingenuity in the manufacture of domestic implements from stone, wood, and grasses. They made baskets so thick and closely plaited that they would hold water. In such 1 04 Wah-kee-nah a basket they cooked their food, making the water boil by putting in heated stones. From black slate they made bowls, pipes, and other utensils. The carving on their pipes was unique and beautiful. I have seen some of these as much as fifteen or eigh- teen inches in length, three or four inches broad, and three quarters of an inch in thickness, which were one continuous mass of carvings of animals, birds, and men, the whole held together by the ingenious intertwining of the arms, legs, and bodies of the dif- ferent figures. Frequently the heads of the men and animals were carved in ivory and cemented into the neck of the stone figure cut in the pipe. Their marriage was by agreement, and presents were exchanged. The ceremony consisted of a gen- eral assembling of the friends of the contracting par- ties at a grand feast. Presents were distributed, and when the feast was over the bride and groom joined hands and seated themselves upon one bench. They were then married ; but this was only the beginning of their troubles. Custom required them to fast two days ; then, after taking a little food, to fast two days more, after which they associated together only in the same way as they had done prior to their mar- riage. This they were obliged to endure for four weeks, at the end of which they could begin living together as husband and wife. The Thlinkeets were fond of music, and indulged in much dancing in the winter. They burned their dead, placing their ashes in a box on platforms ele- vated upon poles. They also showed them great And Her People. 105 reverence, and made grand feasts a part of the funeral ceremony. They were cruel to prisoners and slaves, and were inveterate gamblers ; but they were brave, intelligent, and industrious, and very respectful to the aged imd to women. CHAPTER VIII. THE Tinneh family comprised thirty-four dif- ferent tribes, some large and powerful, and some small. They inhabited a large section of the country to the eastward of that occupied by the tribes last mentioned. Their lands did not reach the Arctic Ocean, and barely touched the Pacific at Cook's Inlet. They differed but slightly from the Thlinkeets. Among the tribes of the Tinneh family marriages were unaccompanied by any ceremony, and were made either by agreement between the parties or by purchase of the maiden. If made by purchase, the girl had nothing whatever to say about the matter, but must go with the purchaser, no matter what her feelings toward him might be. Many a Tinneh girl has taken her own life rather than become a wife to the man who bought her. These tribes had all their dances at night as there prevailed among them a strong superstition against dancing in the sunlight. They were an indolent people, but hospitable and amusement-loving. The iinger nails of their female children were never cut until they had reached the age of four years, lest they should grow up to be lazy women. Lazy io6 Wah-kee-nah and Her People. 107 women were not tolerated in Indian society. The case was somewhat different with the men. The " hiaqua " — a shell shaped like an elephant's tusk, but only about one eighth of an inch in thick- ness at the base, and from one to two and a half inches long — constituted their currency, as it did also that of the Indians of the coast. Every one ob- tained as many as possible of these shells the same as white people accumulate dollars. One hundred and fifty to two hundred hiaquas would buy as fine a girl as there was in the tribe for a wife ; from fifty to seventy-five would buy a female slave, and an addition of twenty-five hiaquas would make a sum sufficient to buy a man slave. A person who had killed another, either by acci- dent or design, was safe from the vengeance of the relatives of the murdered one if he could get into the wigwam of a chief, provided the chief would allow him to remain there ; and if he was permitted to wear some part of the chief's clothing, he was safe so long as he had that on, regardless of where he was. This gave him time usually to negotiate with the relatives of the person he had killed, and, by a payment of goods or hiaquas, to save himself harmless. This custom had a great tendency to strengthen the power of the chief; as every one desired to have his good-will, so that should he or one of his relatives under any circumstances kill any person, the chief, recognizing his friendship, would not turn him from the asylum of his wigwam, should he flee to it for protection. ,io8 Wah-kee-nah The Tinneh tribes, like the Thlinkeets, were in- veterate gamblers, frequently staking all they pos- sessed — even their wives. Their principal game was played with marked beaver teeth. These were thrown into the air, and those that fell with the marks up counted. They had other games for gam- bling, one of which was hiding sticks. Among these tribes, if the medicine man did not heal the sick one, he was obliged to return the fee which had been paid him. Slavery existed in its worst forms. Upon the death of a slave-owner, one or more of his slaves were killed to accompany him and wait upon him in the spirit land. In the case of a chief, two at least were sacrificed. They burned their dead, and, strangely, they had a custom similar to that which formerly prevailed in India in regard to the widow. She was compelled to mount the burning pile upon which lay her hus- band's body and throw herself upon him ; but she was allowed to escape after her hair had been burned off. After escaping from the funeral pyre she was obliged, regardless of pain, to tend and keep it burn- ing. After the body was consumed the ashes were gathered and placed in a bag which was carried con- stantly by the widow for two years. During all this time she must dress in rags and mourn her loss. When the period of her mourning had expired, the bag of ashes was buried, the people of her village made a feast for her, and thenceforth she was free to marry again if she desired. These Indians possessed many good quaUties, And Her People. 109 They were brave, frank, and candid, and were also strong and fine-looking. Considerable attention was given by them to personal cleanliness. Most of the men were above six feet in height, and the women were comely. The Chinese custom of bandaging the feet of the female infants to make them small pre- vailed among them to some extent. The women outlived the men by an average of fifteen years. They made pottery from cla)', moulding it by hand, drying it in the sun, and afterwards baking it in the fire. They made a good quality of glue from the feet of the elk and deer. Their canoes were made of strips of bark sewed together with fine roots pounded to fibre, and the seams were made tight by means of pitch from fir and spruce trees. The men of these tribes, by means of their size and strength, were famous warriors. In long marches and hand-to-hand contests these qualities were of great advantage to them. Like most Indians, they had three general reasons for going to war ; first, re- venge for some real or fancied injury ; second, avarice, which impelled them to capture slaves to use or sell ; and, third, to weaken their enemies by destroying their resources. This last was their reason for killing the women and children of their foemen, when they could not make them prisoners ; for, they argued, the women, if left alive, would bear children, and the male children would eventually become warriors, whom they would some time have to fight. We must admit the soundness of their logic, however much we may question the system of ethics on which it was based. no PVa/i -kee- nah Returning to the coast, the next nation of note south of the ThUnkeets was that of the Haidahs, whose principal tribes inhabited Queen Charlotte's Island and the adjacent coast of the mainland. They numbered some thirty different tribes in their family, and occupied a country about three hundred miles long by one hundred miles wide. Their country was divided from that of the eastern Indians by the Cas- cade Mountains, which range extends north and south through British America, down to and into California, at a distance of one hundred to one hun- dred and fifty miles from the Pacific Ocean. The climate differed materially on the east and west sides of this mountain range, and this fact had a marked effect upon the Indians inhabiting the two sections. On the west, from the foothills to the coast, the temperature, owing to the warm currents of the ocean, never reached extremes of either heat or cold. In this equable climate there was little to incite the people to any great exertion. Hence it was that, although the country was finely wooded and abounded in game, the Haidahs hunted but little — just enough to furnish skins for clothing and bed- ding. Fish were abundant in the ocean and the rivers, and as it was quite in accord with the indo- lent habits of these people to subsist on that which was obtained with least exertion, their food con- sisted principally of fish, berries, and roots. The women and female slaves gathered and dried the berries for winter use, while the men and male slaves caught the fish and turned them over to the women to And Her People. 1 1 1 be cared for. The heads and tails of the sahnon and haUbut were cut off and eaten during the summer, while their bodies were split in two and hung up in the sun and smoked to cure for winter use. They knew nothing of salt until the whites came, and even then preferred fish dried without it. The climate was so mild that they did not need to feed their bodily furnaces with the fat of blubber, as did the Esquimo ; so this was only used for fire and light. They hunted the whale, because its blubber, oil, and bone were available in traffic with their northern neighbors. With these they could purchase slaves and skins. They were the most expert whale fishers upon the coast. This showed them to be as cour- ageous and enterprising as the inland tribes who lived by hunting ; for it required no less skill and daring to capture the whale in his native element than to kill the bear, panther, and elk in the forest. Both occupations seemed to have an elevating effect upon the faculties of the Indians who pursued them ; for they were certainly superior, mentally as well as physically, to those Indians who lived solely by fishing in inland waters. The Haidahs were tall and well formed, the peers in personal appearance of any Indians on the coast. They were quite light of complexion, some of them being almost as fair as Europeans, with hair of a light brown instead of the usual black of other tribes. They frequently wore the hair short, to save the labor of taking care of it. Poole says of them that "some of the women have exceedingly handsome 112 Wah-kee-nah faces and symmetrical figures," and that he was " impressed by the manly beauty and bodily propor- tions of the Queen Charlotte Islanders." Vancouver says : " The prominence of their countenances and the regularity of their features resembled the north- ern Europeans." Dunn says that he saw " a chief of gigantic proportions, stately air, manly bearing, and all the external characteristics of dignity, with a symmetrical figure and a perfect order of European contour." I have seen some of these Indians whose race would not be suspected in a company of whites by reason of any difference in color or in contour of features, and whom it would require close inspection to recognize as Indians, if dressed in the garb of the white man. Some of their houses were built on the tops of posts, twenty-five or thirty feet high. Access was gained to such houses by means of a ladder formed of a log or small tree, in which deep notches were cut. The posts were often carved to represent gro- tesque human figures, beasts, or birds. Such posts have been mistaken for idols by early discoverers, but it is now certain that no form of idolatry ever existed among these Indians. Vancouver saw one of their houses that was built on a platform thirty feet from the ground. The house was forty-five feet wide and one hundred and five feet long, with a nearly flat roof raised ten or twelve feet above the platform. This was made of planks split from cedar trees. They did not, however, build all their houses in the air. Many of them were much smaller, and And Her People. 113 built on the ground. This was the method of build- ing in many of their villages, when the dwellings stood in rows similar to those in a city street. They had also other styles of architecture. Poole mentions a house fifty feet square and fifty in height, ten feet of which was under ground. The houses builf upon elevated platforms were supposed to be for refuge in case of an attack. The weapons of the Haidahs were well made, and were of much the same style as those of others that have been described. The harpoon with which they captured the whale or seal was ingeniously contrived. A thong was tied around the centre of the barb and extended to the handle, some four or five feet from its lower end ; and when the point had penetrated the skin of the animal, a sharp pull on the thong served to turn the barb sidewise in the flesh, and prevented its tearing out. The spears used for taking salmon and halibut were much smaller, but supplied with the same device. These people had at the time the whites first came among them a few harpoons, spears, and arrow-heads tipped with iron, and it has been a matter of much speculation where they obtained the metal for this purpose. The oldest men among them could not tell where it came from ; but simply said they had always had it. It is sup- posed that it came from Russia or from wrecks along the coast. The Haidahs made bows from the wood of the yew tree, gluing strips of sinew over the back to give additional strength and elasticity. I have in my possession one of these bows with which I have 114 Wah-kee-nah seen an Indian throw an arrow nearly a thousand feet. They made strong serviceable fishing-nets from wild hemp and the fibre of cedar bark. Their household utensils, which were quite numerous, were made of wood, bone, stone, and horn. Like the Thlinkeets, they carved beautiful pipes from stone and ivory, excelling in this art all other tribes. They used both ivoiy and pearl for inlaying these pipes. The thing for which these Indians were most noted however, was the size and beauty of their canoes. It ■was really surprising to see what they could do in this line, with their rude tools. Having selected such a tree as they wanted to use for the canoe, they felled it by burning, and cut off the trunk to the proper length, again utilizing fire for the purpose. If the canoe was to be a comparatively small one, they would, before proceeding further, split the log through the centre, using wooden or elk-horn wedges for the purpose. But if they were building a large canoe, they would, without splitting the log, build fires in several places on the upper side of it as it lay on the ground, allowing the burning to go on until enough of the wood was charred to begin the process of cutting out with stone axes, chisels, and scrapers. This burning, digging, and scraping was continued, both inside and out, until the canoe was fashioned to their liking. The skill and ingenuity displayed in the whole process was remarkable. Not only would the canoe be most graceful in shape, but of a perfectly even thickness, not exceeding one inch at the sides and two inches at the bottom, and the And Her People, 1 1 5 whole so nicely balanced that it would of itself ride the water on a perfectly even keel. In the case of extra large canoes, the prow and stern were made of separate pieces, extending much above the sides and strongly fastened with dowel pins and bark or sinew lacings. Usually the prow and stern were artisti- cally carved, after some animal, fish, or bird, the prow representing the head and the stern the tail. These carvings were sometimes very elaborate, especially on the largest war canoes, and when painted in their fantastic style presented an appearance both for- midable and grotesque. They were propelled with single-bladed paddles, each oarsman having one. They had canoes from a size only sufficient to carry one man, up to a size that would carry seventy-five to a hundred. I once counted si.xty-eight men and several women and children in one of their larger canoes, and there was not the slightest suggestion of its being overloaded. They did not hesitate at all about going out upon the ocean in these boats, and they navigated the coast for long distances. They had no knowledge of sails and their use, until taught by the whites. In the matter of musical instruments they had a drum similar to that used by other Indians; a tam- bourine, made by stretching a wet skin over hoops of different sizes and thus letting it dry ; and a flute made from slate stone. They drilled a hole through the entire length of the stone, by means of a piece of sharp flint secured to the end of a reed or rounded stick. The slate used by them was quite soft when n6 Wah-kee-nah first taken from its bed, and yielded easily to the drill. Poole says he " saw a flute, two of the keys repre- senting frogs in a sitting posture, the carving of which would have done credit to an European modeller." Simpson says that he found " very accu- rate charts of the adjacent Pacific coasts made by this tribe." Hale says they had "very fine cups, plates, pipes, little images, and various ornaments, wrought with surprising elegance and taste." This artistic skill and knowledge of practical drawing show that these people were capable of making very material advances in civilization. There was in their country a peculiar breed of white dogs with very long hair. These dogs the Indians sheared each year, like sheep, and the hair thus obtained, when mixed with the fibre of wild hemp and cedar roots, was woven into blankets and robes of very good quality. The fibre spoken of was made by first boiling the hemp or cedar roots and then pounding between flat stones. The woody part thus separated, was carefully picked out, after which the fibre was twisted into fine or coarse threads as desired. Their method of weaving closely resembled that of the old Egyptians. Among the Haidahs the chieftaincies were, as in many other tribes, mostly hereditary; from which it sometimes happened that a woman became a chief. A superstition prevailed among them that all well- starred marriages must be celebrated upon the water. After gifts are presented and accepted, as among other tribes, the friends build a platform on canoes And Her People. 1 1 7 at a moderate distance from the shore. After the completion of this work the bride and her friends, dressed in their best attire, proceed in canoes to the floating platform ; while the groom and his friends, also dressed in gala attire, approach it from an oppo- site direction. Meeting upon the platform, more presents are given, and the groom passes from his side of the platform to the side of the bride, takes her hand, and leads her over to his side. Then follows a dance in which all but the bride and groom take part ; and while this is progressing the groom places his bride in his own canoe, and paddling to the shore, takes her to his wigwam. The dancing ended, the bride's party return to the land, putting the presents in the place occupied by the bride on the outward trip. The Haidahs, like all Indians, were great gamblers. Their principal game was a very simple one of " odd and even." Each player had from forty to fifty round sticks, and each in turn would hide as many as he chose under a mat or blanket, the others simply guessing " odd " or " even." It was purely a game of chance. He who guessed right took as many sticks as were hidden ; if he guessed wrong he was obliged to give his opponent the same number. The game was ended when one had won all his adversary's sticks. They would sometimes stake all they had in the world on this simple game. They had no intoxicating drinks prior to the coming of the whites, and personal quarrels between members of the same tribe were almost unknown. 1 1 8 Wah-kee-nah The next nation to the southward was that of the Nootkas. This family was composed of thirty-seven tribes. They were somewhat smaller than the Hai- dahs, and a shade darker. They all wore their hair long, and it was a disgrace for a man or woman to have short hair — the mark of a slave. The women took great care of their hair, braiding it neatly, arranging it in many curious ways, and decorating it with shells and various ivory ornaments. The singular custom of flattening the head obtained among these Indians, though not to the same extent as with the Chinooks, of whom an account will be given in the next chapter. When the child was four days old it was bound upon the pappoosc-board (iden- tical in style with that of the Iroquois, heretofore described), and underwent the flattening process. In a few months the head of the child would not be more than two inches thick from front to back at the crown, but would be spread sidewise to a great extent. As the child grew older, the head would resume something of its natural shape, and by the time it was full grown, the head was much more rounded ; but the effect of the flattening process always remained unmistakably visible. This custom was not universal among the Nootkas ; but, unques- tionable deformity as it was, it was among them a mark of nobility. No person born a slave ever had the honor of having the head flattened. In warm weather these Indians dressed chiefly in paint, the men much more elaborately than the women. After the age of twenty-five the women And Her People. 1 19 ceased to adorn themselves with paint. They no longer considered themselves young, and therefore yielded the palm of beauty to the more youthful maidens. In cold weather the dress was a square blanket, with a hole in the middle, through which the head of the wearer was thrust. The garment thus rested upon the shoulders, and was sometimes held in at the waist by a belt. The blankets of the rich were bordered with fine fur, and quite richly decorated, but those of the poor were of coarse ma- terial, without any decoration. The head was usually left uncovered. The principal sustenance of the Nootkas was fish, which they caught with net, spear, and hook. They had an ingenious plan of covering the bottom of the streams in certain places with white stones, so that they could more clearly see and readily spear the fish as they crossed. They used wooden canoes, similar to those of the Haidahs, but were not so skilful in building them. Slavery obtained among them, and the slave-trade formed the principal part of their dealings with other tribes. War and stealing, or kidnapping, were the principal sources of supply. The amusement of the Nootkas consisted mainly of feasting, dancing, and gambling. They had athletic games, among which were hooking their little fingers together and pulling, as a test of strength, jumping, wrestling, running and swimming races on a wager. They were strong believers in dreams, witchcraft, and evil spirits; and through this belief their medicine men, who practised all 1 2 o Wak - kee- nak kinds of sorcery, obtained great power. They claimed that all sickness was caused by the anger of the evil spirits, and their treatment was directed to appeasing such spirits. Very poor persons and slaves were allowed to die quietly, as they had nothing with which to pay a fee to the doctor. This tribe had some superstitions similar to those which have found a place among white races in dif- ferent ages of the world. One of these was that love could be incited by certain potions or powders. A love-lorn Nootka maiden would seek an oppor- tunity to stealthily sprinkle her love powder into the food of the young brave of her choice, and if success- ful was very happy, and would spend much of the day in dressing her luxuriant hair and adorning her- self with paint. When the sun went down and the soft, cool evening came, she stationed herself where she thought her wished-for lover would see her, and, — singing low and sweet her song of love, awaited his coming. If she was fortunate, and he made his ap- pearance, her happiness was complete. If he failed to come that way, she thought some evil spirit had overcome her love-potion, and as its spell lasted but one day she would have to try again. Still journeying southward, we come to Puget Sound, an inlet of the ocean many miles in extent, quite broad, and filled with islands and long prom- ontories. Around this sound were many tribes of Indians, but they differed so slightly from the Noot- kas that I shall have but Uttle to say about them. And Her People. 1 2 1 They made use of the torch to catch game — a de- vice entirely unknown among the more northern Indians. They hunted elk and deer at night, at- tracting them within bow-shot by the bright lights. At certain points on the coast where great flocks of water-fowl flew from point to point, they erected tall poles and on them stretched nets made of cords manufactured from wild hemp and cedar roots. Get- ting behind these at night, they would raise their torches, and it was astonishing to see what numbers of birds would fly against the nets and drop to the ground, stunned by the force of the collision and thus rendered powerless to escape the hunters. In all other matters these tribes so closely resembled the Nootkas that no further description of them is necessary. CHAPTER IX. WHEN, upwards of forty years ago, I first became acquainted with the Indians in- habiting California and Oregon, they were all much alike and no one tribe was dominant. There were many large and some small tribes having their homes in the country west of the Rocky and Sierra Nevada Mountains and north of the thirty-third parallel of north latitude. Inasmuch, however, as their habits and customs did not vary sufficiently among themselves or from other Indians to make a separate account necessary, I shall confine myself to a description of the Chinooks, upon the Columbia River, in Oregon, as a representative tribe of this whole section. The Chinooks then occupied the banks of the Columbia near its mouth, and were probably the best representatives of the Indians inhabiting the section of country mentioned in the preceding para- graph. All these tribes were more or less related by trade, manners, customs, and dialect. Just prior to the advent of the whites upon the western coast of North America, as near as can be ascertained from the traditions of the Indians, the Chinooks were the Wah-kee-nah and Her People. 123 dominant nation throughout all this section of the country. In 1850 they were on the decHne, the smallpox having a few years before almost swept them away. Some of those then living were very old, and from them I obtained much of the history of the tribe and of the others that surrounded them. My knowledge of their language, which I could speak fluently, enabled me to learn during my sojourn among them many of their traditions, and much, not only of their own earlier life, but also of that of the other tribes composing the Chinook family. An old woman, called by the whites " Aunt Sally," and who was the wife of the head chief of the Chinooks when Lewis and Clark made their first visit to that country in 1806, and is mentioned by them, well remembered their coming. I have spent many hours in conversation with her about the old times, listening with intense interest to her stories of " her people," as she always called the Chinook nation. She thought herself over a hundred years old, and perhaps she was right, but if so, she was a wonderful woman, for her mind was as clear and her memory as bright as those of two score less win- ters than those numbered by her. There were also old warriors in the other tribes, particularly among the Chehalis, Cowlitz, Klikatats, and Yakimas, who corroborated many of the stories and traditions told me by Aunt Sally. The Chinook family consisted of many tribes, most of whom subsisted principally upon fish, the exceptions being those who occupied the mountain- 1 24 Wah-kee-nah ous country back from the Columbia River. The tribe living at the mouth of the river and along its banks to the distance of some fifty miles was known as the Chinooks, while the other tribes of the family had each a different name. The Cathlamets and Wahkiacums also lived in this section, but they were of the same general family. Previous to the coming of the whites, the Chi- nooks were in the habit of going out to sea in their large canoes to capture whales, crossing the bar at the mouth of the river, a thing which in after years the best white navigators feared to do. After kill- ing a whale with harpoons, they would tow it to Clatsop Beach, a long, wide, beautiful stretch of sand, just south of the river, taking advantage of the incoming tide to land it well up. Here they would make fast the harpoon lines to stakes driven in the sand, so that the ebbing tide might not carry their catch out to sea. As soon as the tide receded, all went to work at cutting up the prize, and when the water rose again there would be nothing left of the whale to be carried out. The process of fastening the whale on the beach was accompanied with no small amount of danger to life and limb. The coast proper was a ledge of perpendicular rocks, varying from twenty to forty feet in height, and if, while they were landing a whale, a tide came in somewhat higher than usual, it would sweep whale, Indians, and everything against these rocks, and as there were only a few crevices through which the Indians could climb to the top, it was a hazardous under- A nd Her People. \ 2 5 taking, especially if the wind blew fresh when the tide was running high. Aunt Sally recounted to me that many Indians had lost their lives there ; and that at one particular time, many years ago, she went to the beach to see her people land a whale. There were evidences of a storm, and every available man and canoe had gone out to help draw the whale to the beach. The shore was crowded with women and children watch- ing the operation. The hunters had towed the whale in so that it touched bottom, and were wait- ing as usual for the tide to rise sufficiently to enable them to pull it up and secure it where it would lie high and dry when the tide went out. Every time the whale floated they would tow it up a little farther, until they had it almost where they wanted to stake it ; when suddenly and without warning the wind changed to a terrific gale, and a tremendous wave swept in with such terrible force that it hurled the whale, the canoes, and the Indians helplessly against the ledge of rocks. The wave " poured over its own top," she said, capsizing and swamping the canoes, and dashing the occupants to their death against the jagged rocks. The water came over the top of the ledge in many places, and upwards of fifty of the men were drowned before the horrified eyes of their wives and children. She said nothing like it had ever been known before or since. When the tide went out the whale went with it ; but about a week afterwards they found it washed ashore some twenty miles down the coast. 1 26 Wah-kee-nak The canoes of the Chinooks were of the same kind as those of the Haidahs, but after their numbers became so much reduced by disease the Chinooks ceased to make the larger sizes. They were made by burning and scraping, after the manner hereto- fore described. It took a man about three months to make a canoe that would carry three persons. Their weapons and fishing tackle were similar to those of the Haidahs. It was a very easy matter for them to live, as the Columbia River was filled with fish of all kinds, salmon and sturgeon being the largest varieties. With little labor they could catch enough salmon during their season to give them an ample supply through the longest winter. It was their custom to catch and dry not only enough for their own use, but also a vast quantity for the purpose of trade with the inland and moun- tain tribes. Every fall they loaded their canoes with dried salmon and sturgeon, and quantities of hiaquas and went to the Cascades (the rapids of the Columbia River, about one hundred and fifty miles from its mouth), where they met the Indians from the mountains and plains and bartered their dried fish and hiaquas for slaves and for the skins and meat of the buffalo. They used the buffalo skins for making their summer wigwams, and their winter clothing and beds. The gray seal, beaver, and otter were abundant in and about the mouth of the Columbia and its tributaries ; and bear, panther, elk, and deer roamed the forests at will, but the Chinooks were fishermen, not hunters, and killed only enough A nd Her People. 127 of the land game to partially supply them with meat and skins. The salmon is a fine fish, weighing all the way from ten to seventy pounds. The usual weight is from twenty to thirty pounds each. The Indians caught them with spear and net, as they cannot be taken with hook and line after reaching fresh water. Whenever we wanted to catch salmon with the hook, we were obliged to go outside the bar and a short distance into the ocean. There they would bite, and we rarely returned without a satisfactory catch. In the olden times theChinooks dealt very largely in slaves. Trading as they did with the inland Indians — who were much of the time at war with each other and, making slaves of their prisoners, desired a market that would take these slaves as far as possible from their native country, — theChinooks had a fine opportunity to purchase and bring these slaves to the coast. There they sold them to the tribes both north and south, realizing a handsome profit, and becoming the wealthiest nation in all that part of the country. Aunt Sally told me that when she was quite a little girl she accompanied her father, one of the chiefs of the nation, to the Cascades, on one of these trading expeditions. He purchased there a coji- siderable number of slaves, among whom was a handsome woman about twenty years old. On the return trip this woman made two attempts to end her life by drowning ; and after that the chief gave orders to have her bound every night to a tree, to 128 Wah-kee-nak prevent the accomplishment of her purpose. She was proud and high-spirited, and fully determined that she would not live to become a slave. It had happened that two years earlier this chief had brought home a young man who spoke an entirely dififerent language from that of the Chinooks and one that Aunt Sally as a child had never before heard. This young man was retained by the chief for his own use, and so it came about that the chief's bright little daughter saw much of the fine-looking young captive, and partially learned his, to her, peculiar language. When upon this first trading trip of Aunt Sally's she heard that one of the slave women had jumped into the river and been bound to a tree to prevent her doing it again, her girlish curiosity was aroused and she determined to go and see this strange woman. As she drew near she dis- covered that the captive was crying and talking to herself. Some of the words seemed familiar to the child, and to her great surprise she soon recognized them as words she had learned from the young slave of her father at home. As soon as she found that the young woman saw her, she began repeating some of the other words she had learned from the young man. The prisoner instantly stopped crying and gazed at her visitor in astonishment. She knew by the little girl's flat head that she was not of her tribe or any tribe she had ever been acquainted with. But the chief's daughter, by means of the words she had learned and by the use of the sign language which all understand, made known to the woman And Her People. 129 that there was a young man of her tribe at her father's home. The captive at once dried her tears, and afterwards made no further attempt at suicide, but sought by every means in her power to aid in accelerating the journey. On arriving home, Aunt Sally found the young man and brought him to see the new slaves. The young woman hesitated not a moment when she saw him, but with a little scream of joy bounded into his arms. It was her own husband, whom she had believed to have been killed in battle, two years before. Sometimes slaves were permitted to buy their freedom ; and through the persuasion of his little daughter, the old chief consented to give this young man the privilege of thus freeing himself and wife. Most gladly did he avail himself of this gracious offer, and with the love of his high-spirited wife to inspire him they were soon free. They were adopted into the Chinook tribe ; for it was deemed by all an impossibility for them ever to reach their native country, on " the rising-sun side of the big moun- tains." The young man was the eldest son of the head chief of his tribe, and upon his father's death would have taken his place. Nevertheless he would always have remained a slave but for the kindness of that little girl who, when she told me the story, was a white-haired woman who numbered perhaps a hundred years. Like all Indian nations who held slaves, the Chinooks treated them with harshness, even cruelty. Their services, their person, their lives even, were 9 130 Wah-kee-nah the absolute property of their owners, and subject to their caprice. An owner might take the hfe of his slave without the slightest liability to punishment or question. Upon the death of one who owned slaves it was the usual custom to put at least one of them to death, to wait upon the master in the spirit land. One day, while looking out upon the Columbia River, my attention was attracted by two Indian boys, who landed on the beach and drew their canoe up into the woods, whence they returned with boughs and tried to erase all their tracks in the sand. This proceeding excited my curiosity, and I determined to ascertain what it meant. I followed the boys into the woods, and after a long search found them hidden in the hollow of a tree. They were croucliing down in a place scarcely large enough to hold one of them. Upon inducing them to talk, which I did with difficulty, I learned that they were slaves. Their master had recently died, and they were to be killed to serve him in the other world ; so, to save their lives, they had run away. I took them to the house, put them up-stairs, and again seated myself at the window, to watch and await results. It was not long before I saw four Indians coming up the river in a canoe. They kept close to the shore, which they were apparently scrutinizing very carefully. When they reached the place where the boys had hauled up their canoe, the Indians landed, just as confidently as if they had seen the boys when they made their landing. What they saw to Indicate the place I could not under- And Her People. 1 3 1 stand, as every vestige of the boys' visit had appar- ently been wiped out. They went immediately into the woods, and a short time afterwards I heard a rap at the door of the house. Opening it, I saw the four Indians, who told me of the escape of the slaves, and that they had traced them to my door. There was not the slightest use in denying this, for I well knew that Indians could track slaves like bloodhounds; so I said that the two boys had come to me, and that if they were slaves I wanted to buy them. They said they would not sell them ; that they were the property of a chief who had died, and who was a brother of one of the four ; that they wanted the boys, and would have them. After much discussion, and firm refusal of their demands upon my part, they became very angry, drew their knives, and threatened to kill me if I did not surrender the boys at once. In the meantime I had stepped out of the house a short distance and planted my back against a tree, to prevent their getting behind me, and when they drew their knives I drew my revolver, telling them to put up their weapons or I would shoot. They knew what a revolver was, and quickly put their knives back into their belts. I then began bargain- ing for the boys, telling the Indians that under no circumstances would they be given up, but that I would pay them all they were worth in blankets ; and finally offering ten blankets for each boy. I told them that was a high price for boys of that age, and that with such a number of blankets the dead chief 132 Wah-kee-nah could certainly buy two boys in the spirit land. My argument, backed as it was by a formidable-looking six-shooter, finally prevailed, and they accepted my terms. I gave them an order on a store not far away, where they went and obtained the blankets. The chief was to be buried the next day ; and as it was only about thirty miles from where I lived, I went to see the burial. They cut five of the blankets into strips and wound them around the body of the dead chief, covering them by wrapping several mats over them. They then placed the body in a canoe the bottom of which was perforated with holes, and lashed another canoe, similarly perforated, over it. The whole was then conveyed to a platform which had been erected in the woods at some distance from the village, and which stood ten or twelve feet from the ground. After the body in its canoe-casket had been placed upon the platform, a fire was built near the place, and the remainder of the blankets together with many other things which had belonged to the chief were thrown, one by one, upon the fire, until all were consumed. Their belief was that the smoke would waft all the burned things to the dead chief in the spirit land. The two boys were now safe, for they belonged to me, and no one had any right to touch them without my i)crmission. My brother was once travelling in the country qf the Nootkas, and stopped overnight at a village where the people were mourning for the young son of the head chief who had died that day. He found And Her People. 1 33 a slave boy about ten years old fastened to a stake and awaiting the ceremonies which were to precede his being put to death, to accompany his master's little son to the spirit land. My brother succeeded in purchasing this boy for five blankets and an orna- ment which he wore upon his watch chain. At the burial they broke the ornament and placed the frag- ments upon the breast of the little chief, and burned the blankets. My brother brought the slave boy home with him to the Columbia River. It was the custom among all Indians to throw food to their slaves, just as we do to dogs. If they failed to eat all that was given the master would say : " If you don't eat what I give you, it will be a long time before you get any more." And so it would ; for often he would not give them another mouthful for two or three days. My brother arrived home with his purchase, on the occasion mentioned above, just before supper, and after the family had finished their meal, the little fellow was seated at a table and helped bountifully. My brother's wife, coming into the room, saw that his plate was empty and had it refilled. This occurred three or four times. The last time, the boy said something to her which she could not understand ; and calling to me she said : " Do come here, and see what this boy wants ; I am afraid he will kill himself eating." As soon as I made my appearance he looked at me most beseech- ingly. " Mammook nika muckamuck conaway okook?" "Must I eat all this?" he asked in a plaintive voice ; and when I told him he need not ?at 1 34 Wah-kee-nah any more than he wished now and should have all he wanted the next day, whether he ate this or not, he was greatly relieved and seenned very happy. This boy lived with my brother until he was eighteen years old when he died. He was a good and faith- ful boy ; and he died a firm believer in the white man's God, and a true and devoted Christian. The Chinooks believed in a good and an evil spirit of nearly equal power. These spirits had many contests as to which should control the destinies of the Indian, and therefore the Chinook was always striving to propitiate the one and appease the other. Hence, the attendance of good or bad fortune in his transactions determined in his mind which spirit was, for the time at least, most powerful. Like many other tribes they believed that every- thing had its own spirit — the wind, the water, the thunder, the lightning, the trees, — all, according to their notion, had a spirit that governed them, as the spirit which occupies a man's body controls his actions. They could not understand how anything which has life or motion, as a tree that grows, water or wind that moves, or thunder that roars, can fail of having some inner life, or spirit, to cause the activities which they daily saw and heard. They also believed that great immovable objects, such as mountains, caves, etc., were possessed of a presiding genius. As to the formation of mountains, rivers, etc., they believed that, in the long ago, the surface of the earth was quite smooth and level; that after And Her People. 1 35 dwelling long in harmony the different spirits quar- relled, and the water spirits were strong enough to sink portions of the surface for the rivers to run in, and larger portions for the lakes and seas to lie in ; that the spirits of the levels had power to hold their own in the contest; while the mountain spirits were vanquished and pushed up out of the way, and there obliged forever to remain. In the early spring of 1854 I was spending some time in hunting in the Yakima country, and there became acquainted with an old Yakima from whom I learned many things regarding Indian life and be- liefs in that section. He told me that when he was a child, his grandfather, then an old man, told him that he remembered perfectly well when the Colum- bia River at the Cascades ran under the land, and there were no rapids. In other words, there was a natural bridge across the river at that point. Mount Hood, an extinct volcano, 11,226 feet high, lies to the southward of the Cascades, and but a few miles distant. Mount Saint Helen's is also a vol- canic mountain, 9750 feet above the level of the sea, lying but a few miles northwesterly, and even yet occasionally emitting volumes of smoke. A legend told by the old Yakima was that the spirits of these two great mountains used to cross the river by this natural bridge to visit each other, until one day St. Helen's, in anger, shook it down. The face of nature at and around the Cascades has not preserved any of the footprints of the spirits, but it has every other indication necessary to estab- 136 Wah-kee-nah and Her People. lish the truth of the story of the old Yakima. The banks on each side of the river at that point look as if they had been broken down, instead of being formed like the others along that portion of the stream. Just above the Cascades and for a distance of twenty or thirty miles may be seen acres of what was once bottom land covered with trees, now sub- merged to the depth of ten to twenty feet. The trees still stand there under the water just as they once stood in the primeval forest, except that their tops have been cut off to a level with the water by the ice. This submerged land with its standing trees proves beyond question that, in the not distant past, the river was suddenly dammed at what is now the Cas- cades, and the water backed up over these lands. No one examining the place with care can arrive at any other conclusion than that at some time in the earth's history, and probably not much more than a century ago, there was a natural bridge there, and that it was probably thrown down by a volcanic eruption of one or both mountains, accompanied by an earthquake. The Indian's tradition, that Mount St. Helen's "got angry," indicates forcibly that the eruption took place in that mountain. ""T^^^B^O ■Jgyi^^j^l^ ^^^^^^^^ S" V^ tk ""^^^^5^ SS^^^^ -^ ^ |S^^^J5?F^^pT^ ^^H m^m ^^S ^g!» i^^M M ^^n CHAPTER X. IT has been charged that the Indians are a treach- erous race. In the matter of warfare, or in transactions with one whom they beUeve would deceive or take unfair advantage of them, I think the charge can be sustained. They believe in the old adage that " All is fair in love and war." They have no scruples about making promises of good behavior for the purpose of drawing an enemy into an ambush or into some condition or situation where he would be at a disadvantage ; but they will never betray a friend. I have known many instances where they have undergone hardships and defied danger to warn and protect their friends. One such instance related to myself. And this brings me to the story of Walt-kee-nah — Wah-kee-nah the beautiful; Wah-kee-nah the fear- less ; Wah-kee-nah the true-hearted ! From 1850 to 1855 it was difficult in Oregon to get house servants, even at one hundred dollars a month, which was sometimes paid. During a trip into the Yakima country in 1850, my brother, of whom I have heretofore spoken, saw a bright, pretty Yakima girl— a daughter of one of the chiefs— of 137 1 38 Wah-kee-nah some fifteen or sixteen years. She appeared so un- usually intelligent and so perfectly neat withal, that it occurred to him that his wife might teach her to be very helpful about the house. So after getting her consent to go and live with him at his home on the Columbia River, sixty miles from her own country, he gave her parents the same amount in presents as if he was buying her for a wife, which was much more than he would have had to pay for a slave girl, and took her home with him. This was Wah-kee-nah (signifying " most beautiful "), and never was an Indian maiden more fitly named. In face, form, and lissome grace she was peerless among her race. We were all charmed with her. She was apt in learning the duties of the household and of great assistance to my brother's wife. I lived with my brother at the time, and took great satisfaction in teaching her English, while she was of valuable assistance to me in learning her language. She lived in the family for many years. When Wah-kee-nah came to us she presented a striking picture. She was dressed in the usual sum- mer costume of the mountain Indian girl of that section — a costume which disclosed rather than con- cealed her beautiful figure. About her waist was a girdle some two and a half inches in width, and into this were skilfully woven four rows of cords, made from the fibre of bark and roots, which hung down nearly to her knees and constituted her skirt. Her only covering from the waist up was her very luxu- riant black hair, which not only grew very thick, but And Her People. 139 hung almost to her knees. If to the above be added the daintily embroidered moccasins which shod her feet, we have the entire costume — in which we first saw her. But she had that simple native modesty which saw no impropriety in such a dress. She had worn such a one as long as she could remember, and had never seen an Indian girl dressed in any other in the summer ; and it never had occurred to her unsophisticated mind that any girl could wear any- thing better or more becoming. My brother's wife immediately fixed up one of her own dresses for the young savage, and though she had considerable diffi- culty in persuading Wah-kee-nah to put on a " white woman's dress," she finally succeeded, and after that some new dresses were made for her, and Wah-kee- nah appeared no more about the house in the start- ling costume in which she came. When, however, she went to visit her own people she resumed her native costume, saying that all her friends would laugh at her if she wore the dress of the pale-face. Moreover, she continued to wear her own summer costume under her new style of dress for a long time and until she had learned to read and write. Then she began to take pride in being like white people, and adopted more fully the white girl's dress. She looked very jaunty and handsome in her na- tive winter costume. This consisted of a pair of leggins, made of buckskin, beautifully worked with beads and porcupine quills, and fastened around the waist. Over these she wore a skirt, also of buckskin and very elaborately embroidered, which reached a 1 40 Wah-kee-nak little below the knee and in shape was not unlike those worn by white girls. This skirt was also heavily fringed around the bottom. The costume was com- pleted by a jacket, or waist, of embroidered buckskin, which in cut and shape was almost identical with the " surplice waist " of our own fashionable ladies in this present year of 1893. It was a very sensible and pretty costume. Wah-kee-nah was a well-grown girl when she first came to us, but in her new life her tall, lithe figure rapidly rounded into superb womanhood. Her hands and feet were small and elegantly shaped, and her eyes, larger than is usual with her race, were very dark and lustrous. She was fleet-footed as a deer, and, while retaining all the quickness and alertness of the Indian, she soon added to these the grace of a queenly woman. She was an expert in the use of the bow and arrow when she came to us, but knew little of the use of fire-arms. In those early days in Oregon it was quite necessary that a woman, no less than a man, should know how to use the rifle and the revolver, and the ladies frequently joined in the sport of shooting at a mark with both these weapons. Wah-kee-nah often participated in the sport, and her keen eye and steady nerve soon made her an expert shot. My brother's duties as Judge of the United States Court did not occupy the whole of his time, and he had taken up a claim of 640 acres on the north side of the Columbia River, and, after building his house upon it, had begun clearing up the land, And Her People. 141 One day he accompanied the men who were cutting timber upon a distant part of the claim, teUing his wife to send Wah-kee-nah with dinner for all hands about twelve o'clock. Wah-kee-nah was duly de- spatched upon this errand, but she soon returned to the house, saying that the Judge had told her to hurry right back and fetch him a rifle, as they had just seen a fine deer pass through the clearing. The girl was panting from rapid running and excite- ment, and all her Indian blood was alive at the pros- pect of the chase, while her eyes were fairly blazing with joyous expectancy. Her excitement was in- fectious. I caught it at once, and, giving Wah-kee- nah one of the rifles, I took another, and we started for the clearing. I was a pretty good walker in those days, but it gave me about all I wanted to do to keep up with this swift-footed and enthusiastic young huntress. When we reached the clearing my brother told us that the deer had gone into the woods on the side towards the river, but he thought by careful pursuit he might yet get a shot at him. Wah-kee-nah begged my brother to let her go after the deer, as she had never yet had a shot at one. She was so anxious about it that I seconded her request, saying that if anybody could get him Wah-kee-nah was sure to do it. The Judge readily consented, and the girl started with a quick yet noiseless step into the woods. It was not very long before we heard the crack of her rifle. We started at once in the direction from which the report had come, but we could not find any traces 142 Wah-kee-nah of Wah-kee-nah. We called to her, but received no reply save the echo of her name. Concluding that if she had wounded the deer he would make for the river, we bent our steps in that direction, calling from time to time as we proceeded. After a time we heard her answering shout, and found her at the river's bank. She told us she had wounded the deer and had tracked him to that place, and that he must have swum over to the island. We could see for ourselves where he had gone into the water, for his tracks were plainly visible in the mud. Wah-kee-nah was a splendid swimmer, and she at once proposed to swim over to the island after him. We tried to dissuade her from this idea, and induce her to wait until I could go to the house and get a boat ; but she was so fearful that he would leave the island and swim to the mainland on the other side of the river; was so confident that she had wounded him ; and pleaded so earnestly withal, that my brother finally consented to let her go. She did not waste any time. Divesting herself of her outer dress — thus leaving her attired in her Indian summer costume only — she tied her powder-horn upon the top of her head with the braids of her luxuriant hair. Then she put some bullets into her mouth, took the rifle in her left hand, and went quickly into the river. It was a stirring sight to see this fearless daughter of the forest buffeting with her superb dusky limbs the placid waters of the Columbia, while she held safely aloft her rifle with an arm that might well have served as a model for a sculptor. Not And Her People. 1 43 Leander, eager to meet his beautiful Hero on the other side of the Hellespont, ever cleft the waters with stronger or more efficient strokes than did this Indian Diana swimming after her more humble prize. Steadily and quite rapidly she made her way to the island, and after walking a short distance along the bank she signalled to us that she had found the trail, and with her rifle ready for a shot began cautiously creeping into the underbrush, and soon disappeared from view. We waited quite a long time before we heard again the ring of her rifle, and then in a few minutes she appeared upon the bank with a glad shout and told us that she had killed the deer. I told her to wait there until I could get the boat and bring her home, and she seated herself contentedly on the bank to await my coming. It was a proud girl that met me and pulled the prow of my boat a little way up on the shore. Her eyes were fairly dancing with pleasure. " What do you think of Wah-kee-nah now ? " she said. " Wah-kee-nah is a brave hunter," I said, approv- ingly ; " but are you sure you have killed the deer? " " Come and see for yourself," she answered with a laugh ; and leading the way inland, rifle in hand (she had reloaded it immediately after shooting), she soon brought me to the place where lay her game. On the way she told me that her first shot had struck his shoulder and only lamed him ; but the second shot had hit him in the head and finished 1 44 Wah-kee-na h him at once. This proved to be the case. Her second shot had entered just below and forward of the left ear, and he could scarcely have made a move afterwards. Together we dragged him to the boat, and I brought Wah-kee-nah and her first deer in triumph to the house. My brother's wife was warm in her praises of the girl's prowess, and Wah-kee-nah had a very happy afternoon. But it was not very long after this episode that my brother's wife had occasion to compliment Wah- kee-nah again on her skill and daring; and this time for an act that forever endeared the girl to the heart of her mistress, and to all of us. My brother's house was built upon a bluff, or rocky cliff, on the bank of the river, some ten or fifteen feet above the water at low tide. He had built a picket fence around his yard and garden, to secure the safety of the children. One day, how- ever, his three-year-old boy found a loose picket in the fence along the edge of the bluff, and crawling through, tumbled over into the river. Fortunately — or was it providentially ? — Wah-kee-nah happened, a moment afterwards, to come out of the house. She did not see the little fellow fall over the bank, but she did see the opening in the fence, and, being no less prudent than she was brave, went at once to fix it. As soon as she reached the fence she saw the baby in the water. He was clinging spasmodically to a piece of drift-wood, and being whirled round and round in an eddy formed by some projecting rocks. Wah-kee-nah grasped the situation instantly. And Her People. 145 She did not faint witli fear ; she did not scream ; she did not even run off for assistance. What she did was to tear off two more of the pickets with one sweep of her strong arms, and bound through the opening to the edge of tlie banit. Even as she reached it she saw the child lose his hold and sink beneath the whirling waters. But Wah-kee-nah never hesitated for a single in- stant. Marking with quick eye the spot where she wanted to strike the water, she made a " cut-water" of her two hands and plunged headlong into the river. The impetus of her falling weight carried her to the very bottom ; but she did not find the boy. For one instant, her brave heart sank within her, as she thought that she had made a miscalculation. But it was only for an instant. The eddy had not per- mitted the boy to sink to the bottom, and as she looked up she saw him in the water almost directly above her head. Wah-kee-nah came to the surface with the child in her arms. He was partly strangled ; but Wah-kee-nah, sustaining herself upon a projec- tion of one of the rocks which was partly submerged, held him up in safety. The water came out of his mouth, the air revived him, and in a moment he was all right, and did not seem to be a bit frightened. Then she drew him around so that he rested on her back with his arms clinging tightly to her neck, and, swimming around the point of rocks to the little dock where the boats were kept, she brought the child all dripping to his mother, before she had even missed him. 146 Wah-kee-nah The boy was not disturbed in the slightest degree by his perilous adventure. Wah-kee-nah had often given him his bath in the bathing-tub, where he would splash around in great glee. After his wet clothing had been removed and his mother had cried and laughed over him, and kissed and embraced him and Wah-kee-nah by turns, the little fellow started to run out-of-doors. When Wah-kee-nah intercepted him, he looked up at her, with his little, chubby face all aglow, and said : " Tub — Wah-tee, Kee-nah, tub — Wah-tee. Tome!" He wanted another bath in the great Columbia River, thinking it far more jolly than his tub. This act of Wah-kee-nah's made a strong impres- sion upon all of us. We fully realized that but for her bravery and alertness our little household would have been in mourning. Everyone had been pleased with her before ; but henceforth she was a member of the family. Wah-kee-nah was always ready for any emergency, and her courage was unbounded ; indeed, it may be truthfully said of her that she was entirely without fear. About the same time that my brother took up his claim, three or four other families also took up claims some three miles back from the Columbia River and in the valley of the E-lo-Jia-min, a small river that emptied into the Columbia near my brother's house. They had cut a road following the bank of the river through the woods to their settlement ; but by going through the woods across the small spur of And Her People. i \ 7 a mountain, a person could save about half a mile of the distance. One of these farmers had an Indian girl to help his wife, and she and Wah-kee-nah frequently ex- changed visits. On one occasion Wah-kee-nah went to spend the afternoon with her friend and failed to return at the usual time. We felt somewhat anxious about her as the time passed, but finally concluded that she must for some reason have decided to re- main overnight, although she had never before done so without asking permission. She came home quite early on the following morn- ing, and we then learned the cause of her detention, and the story of her thrilling all-night experience. She had started early enough to reach home before dark, but stopped at the foot of the spur to pick berries. The time flew so fast that she did not real- ize how late it was, until suddenly she noticed that it was quite dark. Then she started in haste for home, but had gone only a little way when she heard the howling of wolves in the woods. As they seemed to be coming in her direction she hurriedly climbed a tree and seated herself upon a limb. It was but a little while before seven large mountain wolves made their appearance under the tree. None of us ever went into the woods in those days without a revolver, and Wah-kee-nah had not forgotten hers. She made prompt use of it, and shot the wolf that seemed to be the leader of the pack ; but this did not frighten the others away. They were hungry and they kept prowling around the foot of the tree until it 148 Wah-kee-nah became so dark that Wah-kee-nah did not dare to comedown and continue her journey. She had looked in the chamber of her revolver after she shot the wolf and found that there were but two shots left, and she wisely concluded that she had better keep those for use in case a panther or a bear should come upon the scene and attempt to climb the tree. There was nothing for her to do then but fix herself to spend the night in the tree. So she climbed farther up among the branches until she found a safe and com- fortable seat, and there settled herself for the night, with naught but the hungry wolves and the dismal screech-owls to keep her company. She heard the baffled wolves many times during the night, some- times at a distance and sometimes under the tree, scenting their dead leader. And thus this lion- hearted girl of eighteen spent the summer night. At daybreak, while stretching her tired limbs into a more comfortable position, she caught sight of another visitor creeping through the underbrush towards her tree. The wolves had not been heard for quite a long time, and it took but one quick glance to assure the girl that it was a sleek and sinuous panther that was approaching for this early morning call. Wah-kee-nah glanced at her revolver and saw that it was secure in her belt. Then she prepared to give her unbidden guest a warm recep- tion. With but two shots at her command she could not afford to risk the chance of wasting even one of them upon the panther while he was upon the ground. There was no other tree near enough And Her People. 149 for him to climb and thus spring upon her. He would have to climb her tree, and she must wait until he did it. But she had no notion of letting her unwelcome visitor select their place of meeting. She well knew that if he obtained a foothold upon a limb of the tree he could then spring upon her, whereas, while climbing the body of the tree he could make no spring. Lightly and very quickly she swung herself down to the lowest limb, and planting herself securely thereon with her head close to the body of the tree, pistol in hand, she waited his coming. She had not long to wait, for the pan- ther wasted no time. As soon as he reached the tree, he, cat-like, began slowly and cautiously climb- ing it, while Wah-kee-nah's dark head hung over toward the side on which he came, as if to meet him half-way. Their eyes met — the panther's were eager, burning, fascinating, — but Wah-kee-nah's dark orbs were not disturbed. On came the panther, steadily, cautiously, but confidently. He had already covered half the distance between her and the ground, but Wah-kee-nah held her fire. As the brute came still closer and when she could almost have reached down and touched his paw, the girl glanced along her pistol-barrel. Her aim was at one of those burning eyes that had not left her own. A shot rang out on the still morning air, and an instant later the panther lay kicking feebly on the ground, while Wah-kee-nah still had one shot left ! But there was no need for a second shot. The aim had been true, and the panther soon ceased his 1 50 Wah-kee-nah struggles. Wah-kee-nah remained in the tree until after sunrise, to make sure that there were no more panthers or wolves about ; then she came down, and soon reached home without further adventure. We had the animals skinned. Both were large and fine specimens of their species. I come now to that story of Wah-kee-nah which is most intimately connected with my own life. Just prior to the breaking out of the Yakima war, in 1856, I was hunting in the Yakima country, and knew nothing of the troubles that were bringing on a war. One night while lying wrapped in my blanket under a wide-spreading cedar and not yet asleep, I saw indistinctly some one approaching me. I felt rather nervous and apprehensive, for I had noticed for two or three days that the Indians had gathered in groups and engaged in earnest conversa- tion, and that some of them seemed to look at me in an unusual — not to say uncomfortable — way. This had given me the impression that something was wrong, but I could not find out what it was. On asking them what made them talk so much and look so disturbed, they had told me that panthers were very numerous in the woods that year, and had killed a young chief of another village, and that they were worried on that account. I had overheard something during the day that had caused me to discredit the panther story and to feel so disturbed that I could not sleep. So when I saw this nocturnal visitor approaching so noiselessly, I grasped and cocked my revolver. When the Indian A nd Her People. 151 had approached to within a few feet of me, I heard my name softly spoken in a voice that I recognized at once. My unexpected visitor was Wah-kee-nah. I greeted her warmly and started to rise, but kneeling quickly beside me, and pushing me gently back, she put a hand softly over my mouth and told me to keep perfectly quiet. I obeyed her injunc- tion, and she, remaining in such position as to have the appearance of a stump, to any one who might happen to be passing, told me in low tones of what had happened during my absence, and which she said had determined her people to take the war-path. The outbreak she said was very near at hand ; in fact the Yakimas were only awaiting the return of the head war-chief, who had gone on a mission to some of the neighboring tribes to get them to join in the war, and that they would begin killing the whites as soon as he came back ; and that if I remained there I would probably be the first victim. I felt that Wah- kee-nah was right. I knew that the sagacious girl was reliable in her information — indeed it was fully cor- roborated by my own observations. I was a good deal excited, and saying I would go at once with her, started to rise. But once more she placed her hand firmly upon my shoulder and said " No." She explained that it would not do at all for us to go away together ; and that we would be almost certain to be discovered, in which case the lives of both would be forfeited. Even should we be able to travel unseen for the remainder of the night, my ab- sence, she said, was sure to be noticed early in the 152 Wah-kee- nak morning, and pursuit and death would certainly follow. " We could kill some," she said ; " but there would be too many for us ; and besides," she added, " I don't like to shoot my own people." I saw the full force of what she said, and could not doubt that her views were correct. " But what is to be done?" I asked. Then this simple child of the mountain forest unfolded to me a plan so simple and yet so feasible for my getting away, that when I heard it I wondered why I had not thought of it at once. She said I must be sick in the morning, not so sick that I could not ride, but sick enough to demand the care of my white doctor, and must tell the Indians that I would have to go to him at once, but would return in a few days and finish the hunt. I must not, she said, on any account remain in the village another day. Even while Wah-kee-nah was telling me this, I had outlined in my own mind just how I could carry out her plan, and I felt no little exulta- tion in the thought that my safety was assured, unless the war-chief should return before I got away, which was not probable, as Wah-kee-nah said they did not expect him under two days. Then it occurred to me that Wah-kee-nah herself was in great danger ; for should her tribe learn what she had done they would surely kill her. I told her this, and that I could not let her go alone. But she promptly reminded me that these were her own people, whom she was in the habit of visiting quite frequently, and added quite naively that her only danger was in being seen with me. And Her People. 1 5 3 " That is true," I said ; " I will do what you say ; and now you must go quickly." " Yes," she replied ; " I shall see you at home day after to-morrow." Then with a noiseless tread she stealthily vanished from my sight in the thick wood. I watched her lithe, retreating figure as with swift, noiseless footsteps she disappeared in the thick dark- ness of the wood. Then, for the first time, I fully realized what she had done, — how much she had risked for me, — and my heart was very full. It is nearly forty years since that February night when I lay looking up at the stars whose coy glances twinkled through the cedar branches, and the blood does not course as swiftly through my veins as in those earlier years. But I have not forgotten that on that night I wiped away a silent tear as in my inmost soul I breathed a fervent prayer that the good God who created all races of men would watch over and protect the savage maid whose form had just mingled with the shadows. The hours seemed long before morning came, for I was ill at ease, and sleep but dallied with my eye- lids. I think I never felt better physically, however, in my life, but I soon grew desperately sick. And in order that I might look it as well as act it, I took the precaution to swallow some tobacco ; and any of my masculine readers who remember their ex- perience in learning to " chew," will realize that I not only looked sick, but felt so. The Indians see- ing how very pale I looked, began asking me what was the matter. I told them I had been taken very 1 54 Wah-kee-nah ill in the night and must go to a doctor. They at once offered to siimmon their medicine man, but I said I knew what was the matter, as I had been troubled with such attacks before, and the white doctor always brought me out all right. So, I said, I would go to him, and his medicine would fix me all right in two or three days, when I would return and finish the hunt. I saw them holding a long council, lasting until into the afternoon before any one went to bring me a horse ; but finally they brought one, and it is needless to say that I made good use of him until I reached the river. There I took a canoe and arrived home in safety on the following morning, where I was welcomed with great rejoicing. It is perhaps unnecessary to add that I did not return to finish the hunt in the Yakima country. It was only after my return that I learned the de- tails of Wah-kee-nah's coming to me in the woods. She undertook to rescue me from my imminent though unconscious danger entirely upon her own motion ; and when she had made her plans she con- fided her intention to my brother and his wife, and received from both their hearty approval. This noble girl paddled a canoe up the river thirty miles, and then travelled about twenty-five miles through the dense forest, on foot and alone, to save my life. This incident, though it is more than usually striking by reason of its principal actor being a girl, is but a typical illustration of the depth and sincerity of Indian friendship, of which, as I have said before, I have known numerous instances. It is upon such A nd Her People. 1 5 5 acts that I found my belief that there does not exist upon the face of the earth a race that is less treach- erous or more true to a friend than the Indian. My readers will naturally want to know what be- came of the beautiful Indian girl of whose life I have sketched some of the leading incidents, as I knew them. A little while before the breaking out of the Yakima war, — from being possibly the first victim of which Wah-kee-nah so heroically rescued me, — the eldest son of the head chief of the Yakimas, a fine-looking young Indian, named Le-lim, came several times to see Wah-kee-nah. He courted her assiduously, but she always refused his offer of mar- riage. I asked her one day why she did this. Her dusky cheek flushed a little richer red as she replied : " I do not want to leave my pleasant home. I am happy here. I like the whites better than the Indians, and if I ever marry I want to marry a white man." When the war broke out all friendly communica- tion between the Yakimas and the whites was naturally broken off, and I saw no more of the hand- some young chief. I left Oregon immediately after the war ; but I learned that Le-lim soon after re- newed his visits to Wah-kee-nah. He was a persist- ent lover, and evidently one who believed that " Faint heart never won fair lady" — or Indian maid. His unremitting and earnest wooing finally brought its great reward. He won for his bride the peerless beauty of his tribe, and Wah-kee-nah returned to her own people the wife of the chieftain's son. 156 Wah-kee-nah and Her People. I know not whether now she be hving or dead ; but I do know that never a whiter soul, never a braver heart, were incarnated than the heart and soul which dwelt in the beautiful body of Wah-kee-nah. When this little volume leaves the press I shall try to have it find her if she be living, or find her de- scendants if she shall have gone to the spirit land ; for I would like to have her know, and have them know, that years have not dimmed the memory or blunted the gratitude of the friend for whom she risked her life ; and that he pays her this sincere and loving tribute. CHAPTER XL WITHIN a day or two after my return from the Yakima country, as narrated in the fore- going chapter, the Indians began murder- ing the white settlers, thus inaugurating the Indian war which took place in Oregon and Washington territories in 1856, and was known as the Yakima war. It was brought on by causes similar to those which have occasioned every other war between the Indians and whites that I have ever known or heard of. But it has been said that the Indians themselves began this war — that they struck the first blow, and were therefore clearly the aggressors. Yes, without doubt — the immediate aggressors; but only after they had submitted to outrages and villainies on the part of the whites, until patience ceased to be a virtue and further endurance was impossible. Major-General John E. Wool, who commanded the forces of the United States in this war, says in his official report to the War Department : " If one half the money appropriated for the Indians in California had been properly and judi- ciously expended, it appears to me we would have had no trouble with them." 157 158 Wah-kee-nah Speaking of the hanging of an Indian by a party of whites, he uses this strong language : " The sub- Indian agent ought to have been arrested and con- fined for permitting or sanctioning so great an outrage." Referring to a certain settlement of white men, he remarks : " The Indians living near there are con- tinually exposed to the brutal assaults of drunken and lawless white men ; their women are assaulted ; and if the assault is resented, the Indians are beaten and often shot. So great is their dread that, upon the approach of the whites, the women run to the mountains and hide until the whites have left. A great many cases of ill-treatment might be mentioned and they are so common here as scarcely to excite comment. If there had been the same desire to do justice to the Indians and to maintain peace, that there was to make war and plunder the Indians of their lands, horses, and cattle, we should have been relieved of all trouble, and the United States of a very large expenditure of money." In regard to a case in which the Indians had killed a white man, he says : " I will simply remark that the death of Sub-Agent Wright was caused by an old grudge against him for attempting, before he was appointed Agent, to poison a whole band of Indians." Noticing further the causes which had led the Indians to take up arms, he says : " Another source is the outrages which are com- mitted on the persons of friendly Indians, from re- And Her People. 1 5 9 venge or mere wantonness. A few days since, an old Indian was most wantonly shot in the town of Steilacoom. . . . Not long since, two Indians who had been arrested and were in chains, were shot down in Olympia. These several murders have caused great excitement among the Indians. . . . Three friendly Sno-qual-a-mie Indians were atro- ciously murdered near Seattle, and one at Mound I'rairie." The extracts quoted are all from the General's report to the Secretary of War. I personally know of some most inhuman and outrageous murders. In one case, a father and mother were shot down while defending their daughter from the assaults of two white men. These disgraceful and inhuman atrocities make a bad showing for the settlers of those territories. There were as good people residing there, however, as ever inhabited any part of the globe ; but it must be remembered that the gold excitement of 1849-50 had drawn to the Pacific Coast a vast number of ad- venturous and lawless men, — a horde which the better element was totally unable to control during the first few years ; and when these outrages were committed, the law-abiding citizens were absolutely powerless to arrest and punish the perpetrators. These lawless men had no settled home, and when they committed a crime, if they saw the smallest probability of punishment they would mount their ponies and go to some mining camp or other place where they could not be found. t6o Wah-kee-nah By the Indians the whites are all regarded as brothers. We are all as one great tribe to them. Hence if a white man killed an Indian, the Indians considered it perfectly proper and just to retaliate by killing any white man who fell into their power, without regard to his having had any direct connec- tion with the crime against them. This of course could not be tolerated by the white settlers. They could not be disinterested spectators to the murder of some innocent citizen in retaliation for the act of a lawless, wanton scoundrel. Had the Indians con- fined themselves to seeking out and killing the miserable villains who had injured them, there would have been no war. But looking at the matter from the Indians' point of view, can we fail to see that, according to their lights, they were fully justified in making war ? The whites suffered heavily in this war ; but it resulted, as all Indian wars have re- sulted, in greater disaster to the Indians themselves. First and last, they have always been the greatest sufferers. Indian wars have always been fraught with ter- rible calamity to the white settlers in their vicinity; for, when on the war-path, Indians are cruel and without mercy, and death is much to be preferred to falling alive into their hands. Many heroic deeds and hair-breadth escapes oc- curred among the settlers during the Yakima war. One which I will relate illustrates the fortitude and courage of woman in the face of deadly peril. A man who was living on a ranch some six miles And Her People. 1 6 1 distant from the nearest village, in order to secure the safety of his wife and daughter, started to go to the village to make arrangements for moving them there before the war should reach his section. He had been gone from the ranch but