TheTeacfiing of BiolGgy ■>.•*.•." *•; '.•; •.*■ FvE-Eloyd and M.A.Bigelow ^tat« (llolkge of Agriculture At Qfornell MniwetaitH atljata, W. ?. Hibtaty .3.©tQ,v\v| \>ab.o.Y.o.i;.?5\-i|. _ Cornell University Library QH 315.L79 The teaching of biology in the secondary 3 1924 003 046 673 ™, The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003046673 AMERICAN TEACHERS SERIES EDITED BY I JAMES E. RUSSELL, Ph.D. DEAN OF TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY THE TEACHING OF BIOLOGY IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL FRANCIS E. LLOYD, A.M. AND MAURICE A. BIGELOW, Ph.D. The Teaching of Biology in the Secondary School BY FRANCIS E. LLOYD, A.M. FORMERLY ADJUNCT PROFESSOR OF BIOLOGY, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVEKSITY MACDONALD PROFESSOR OF BOTANY, McGILL UNIVERSITY AND MAURICE A. BIGELOW, Ph.D. PROFESSOR OF BIOLOGY IN TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY NEW EDITION LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO FOURTH AVENUE y 30TH STREET, NEW YORK LONDON, BOMBAY, CALCUTTA AND MADRAS I9I4 Copyright, 190^ By Longmans, Green, and Co. Copyright, 19U By Longmans, Green, and Co. First Edition, August, 1904 Reprinted, July, 1907 Reprinted, September, 1909 ^ Reprinted (with corrections and additions) July, 1914 Contents THE TEACHING OF BOTANY AND OF NATURE STUDY Page Prefatory Note 3 CHAPTER I The Value of Science, and Particularly of Biology, in Edu- cation 7 CHAPTER II Nature Study . 25 CHAPTER III The Value of Botany- in Secondary Education 62 CHAPTER IV Principles Determining the Content of a Botanical Course . 81 CHAPTER V The Various Types of Botanical Courses 99 CHAPTER VI Use of the Method of Thought in Teaching Botany . . . 124 CHAPTER VII General Botanical Principles to be Emphasized in Teaching 135 vi CONTENTS CHAPTER VIII Page Detailed Discussion of the Course in Botany for the High School 142 CHAPTER IX The Laboratory, its Equipment, Materials for Study and for Demonstration 209 CHAPTER X Botanical Literature for the Use of Teachers and Students . 229 INDEX 487 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY, INCLUDING HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY Prefatory Note 239 CHAPTER I The Educational Value of Zoology and the Aims of Zoological Teaching in Secondary Schools 241 The Value of Zoology as Discipline 244 The Value of Zoology as Information 246 CHAPTER II The Subject-Matter of Zoology from the Standpoint of the Secondary School 261 CHAPTER III The Laboratory and the Scientific Method in the Teaching of Zoology in the Secondary School Place of Laboratory Work in Zoological Teaching Scientific Method as Applied in Teaching Zoology The Relation of Laboratory Work and Book Work Minor Problems of Laboratory Work in Zoology . 294 295 299 310 312 CONTENTS VU CHAPTER IV Page Animal Nature-Study and Human Physiology in the Elemen- tary School as Related to Zoology in the Secondary School 320 CHAPTER V The Position and Relations of Zoology in the High-School Curriculum 331 Relation of Botany and Zoology 331 Position of the Biological in Relation to the Other Sciences 337 CHAPTER VI The Beginning Work in Zoology Natural History in Beginning Zoology Introduction to Physiological Study . . Protozoa and Metazoa as Introductory Types Introduction to Zoological Principles . . . 340 340 342 34S 3S2 CHAPTER VII The Selection of Animal Types for a Laboratory Course in Zoology 356 Types for the Introductory Work 356 Other Animals available for Laboratory Study . . . 362 CHAPTER VIII AnOutline for an Elementary Course in Zoology .... 371 Introduction 371 Outline . . 372 Suggested Modifications of the Outline 390 CHAPTER IX Zoological Materials, Methods, and Special Equipment . . 392 Viii CONTENTS CHAPTER X Page Zoological Books 417 General Reference Books 418 Special Lists of Selected Books 440 School Books in Zoology and Human Physiology . . 442 CHAPTER XI The Relation of Zoology in Secondary School and College . 448 Differentiation of Work for School and College . . 448 Zoology for College-Entrance Credit 454 CHAPTER XH The Teaching of Human Physiology in Secondary Schools 456 Relation of Physiology to Other Biological Sciences 457 Teaching the Essentials of " Human Physiology " . . 465 "Scientific Temperance" or "Temperance Instruction " 472 INDEX 487 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY AND OF NATURE STUDY "... respecting the true measure of value [of education] there can be no dispute. Every one in contending for the worth of any particular order of information does so by showing its bearing upon some part of life. ■ . . How to live? — that is the essential question for us. Not how to live in a mere material sense only, but in the widest sense. . . . To prepare us for complete living is the function which education has to discharge." — Spencer, H. Education : Jntellectual, Moral, and Physical. Prefatory Note The advances which botany has made in America during the last twenty-five years have been not alone in the science itself and in its economic phases, but also in the field of education. From being an occasional study, it has become in our best schools a constant element in the curriculum. Instead of the superficial examination of the external structures of flowers — a study supposed to be rather of the nature of an accomplish- ment than a means for wholesome discipline — the good course in botany of the present time presents the important ideas of all the phases of the science, and is based upon the observation and experimentation of living plants. These changes have made necessary the employment of teachers with a special mental equipment for their peculiar task. From being taught incidentally, botany has become the chief concern of a large body of men and women who have received the best training our schools have afforded. The most important criticism which may be made at the present time is that those who enter the profession of teaching in the field of botany, and its allied subject, zoology, do so generally without any special consideration of the problems which they are called upon to face in their work. It is to bring the student face to face with these problems, and to prepare him for their intelligent consideration, that this book has been written. Whether the solutions offered for such problems as have been discussed merit acceptance is of secon- dary moment, if in the use of these pages the student is 4 TEACHING OF BOTANY stimulated to study carefully the subject of botany, not alone from the point of view of the scientist, but also from that of the educator. If the essay excites "to self-activity, which is the best effect of any book," its chief use will be accomplished. With this thought in mind, I have not hesitated to champion my own views on the kind of a course which should be given in the high school. To this end, though not to this end alone, I have presented in so much detail as the space at my disposal would permit, an outline for such a course. Its use- fulness will lie in indicating the more important bearings and correlations of the various topics taken up and the most useful materials for laboratory work. With regard to the value of nature study there may be re- marked a considerable difference of opinion among educators. Many persons are fully persuaded that it constitutes a most important element of the elementary curriculum, and would make it the " centre " of the child's study. Others, on the contrary, basing their judgments upon the more or less satis- factory results which have thus far accrued, look with dis- favor upon the whole movement towards the introduction of nature-study into education. Believing that nature study has both a content and a func- tion of real merit which justify it in the school, we must still admit that they are at present rather ill-defined. And admitting that the results have been in a measure disappointing, we can- not but believe that this is due to causes which are normally to be expected, and which will at length be removed. It has been my object in the early chapters to defend the cause of nature study as a factor in early education, and to discover to the student certain fundamental guiding principles, the fail- ure to fully recognize which has, in my belief, been a chief cause of the failure of the subject. In the preparation of this work I have had the help and PREFATORY NOTE 5 criticism of my teacher, Professor George Macloskie of Princeton University, and of Professor Herbert Maule Rich- ards of Barnard College, both of whom have read and criti- cised the whole of the manuscript. Professor Richards has, in addition, made valuable suggestions in regard to the choice and use of cryptogamic materials, and has read the proof sheets. It is a great pleasure to express here my cordial appreciation of their very great kindness. F. E. LI. Teachers College, March, 1904. The Teaching of Botany and of Nature Study CHAPTER I THE VALUE OF SdElfCE, AITO PAETICUIiARIiY OP BIOLOGY, nr EDUCATION BIBLIOGRAPHY Bessey, C. B. Science and Culture. Proc. N. E. A., p. 939. 1896. Butler, N. M. What Knowledge is of Most Worth ? EDUCATIONAL Review, 10: 105. September, 1895. Butler, KT. M. The Scope and Functions of Secondary Education. Educational Review, 16 : 15-27. 1898. Carhart, H. S. The Humanistic Element in Science. Proc. N. E. A., p. 943. 1896. Coulter, J. M. The Mission of Science in Education. Science, II. 12: 281-293. 24 August, 1900. Fitch, J. G. Lectures on Teaching, Chapter XIV. New York. igoi. Goebel, K. Organography of Plants. (Translation by Balfour.) Oxford. 1900. Henfrey, Arthur. On the Educational Claims of Modern Science : a Lecture delivered before the London Society of Arts. Pp. 89-1 16 of a volume entitled The Culture demanded by Modern Life. New York, D. Appleton & Co. 1887. Huxley, T. H. Science and Education. Collected Essays, Vol. III. D. Appleton & Co. 1898. James, W. Talks to Teachers on Psychology, and to Students on Some of Life's Ideals. New York, H. Holt & Co. 1900. Jordan, D. S. Nature Study and Moral Culture. Proc. N. E. A., p. 130. 1896. Norton, W. H. The Social Service of Science. Science, II., 13 : 644. 26 April, 1901. Pearson, Karl. Grammar of Science. London, A. & C. Black. 1900. Sedgwick, 'Wm. T. Educational Value of the Method of Science. Educational Review, 5 : 243. March, 1893. 8 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY Spencer, H. Education : Intellectual, Moral, and Physical. London, Williams & Norgate. New York, D. Appleton & Co. i860. Spencer, H. Principles of Biology. New York, D. Appleton & Co. 1900. Whitney, Miss M. W. Scientific Study and Work for Women. Education, 3 : 58. September, 1882. That biology is of value in formal education may be de- fended upon general and upon special grounds. Both botany and zoology, as co-ordinate divisions of biology, have educa- tional values which may be similarly defended. It will then be seen that a general argument for science in education will include biology, but we may not therefore conclude, without further investigation into the special merits of the latter, that it must have a place in a scheme of education. Nor, similarly, may a general argument for biology be regarded as applying equally to botany and to zoology. These, in turn, must be justified by their own peculiar merits and advantages. We may for practical considerations hold to the statement that, in order to get along in this world, we must be able and willing to do things. For people who work life is made up, for the most part, of effort added to effort in the attempt to get something and to "get somewhere, which, as property and as ideals, are worth while. To be sure we may have various conceptions of what is worth our effort. With both the direc- tion of impulse and of effort, and with the bettering of ideals, the process called education has to do. The young of animals spend all their waking moments doing something, and are thus prepared for adult life. But we are all sufficiently aware of the fact that these GeneralAim . , , , , of Conscious actions are by no means under any great degree of direction, and they are, therefore, more or less hap- hazard. The better directed these efforts, however, the more definite and beneficial the results. This is true of human kind, both of the mind and of the body. Conscious efforts slowly but in the long run unfailingly react upon the mind to make it a more efficient tool. Gradually these efforts come more and more under control. On the whole, with increasing maturity a THE VALUE OF SCIENCE IN EDUCATION 9 better judgment is developed as to what is worth while to do, and a better directed effort is iriaintained toward getting in the way of doing it. If this conception of the aim of formal education be correct we must conclude that science, and biology as a part of sci- ence, to be of any value as an educational factor. The Task of must accomplish two things. It must supply Science in standards of thought and action, and it must help men and women to prompt and successful endeavor. The desired results may be expected if it can be shown that science has something in common with ordinary life ; and its value will be proportional to the extent to which this is true. Now it has been clearly shown by others that science, in a narrow sense, has nothing which it can claim as peculiar to itself except the materials wifh which it deals. The mental processes by which the generalizations of science have been attained are, however, the normal operations of the human mind, refined and applied with accuracy. Indeed, an impor- tant lesson which we learn from science is the great value of these mental operations when so controlled.^ It must be conceded, therefore, that all the sciences, indeed all studies which use the scientific method of thought, have, by virtue of this fact, certain values in education. To accept this statement, however, without further thought is to rob unjustly all subjects of their special value. No one would for a moment assert that arithmetic and history, chem- istry and literature, have the same educational value. Although the method of thought may be common to them all, certainly each one of these fields of thought has its own peculiar value in education, since each subject has a content, derived from experience, which is of a different sort and which touches life in a different way from the others.^ If, then, we conclude that all sciences have a Hke general value in education, based upon their common use of similar 1 See Pearson, Karl, Grammar of Science, p. 12 ; Carhart, '96. 2 Butler, N. M., "95. lO THE TEACHING OF BOTANY mental operations, and if we further conclude that the special values of each of these may be different, we must set to our- selves the task of examining each branch of science in order to determine what its special value is, if it have any. For the present the subject of biology must be thus examined. I must furthermore take occasion to indicate the impor- tance of science in education by pointing out that it differs Value of the ^^^ ^^^"^ studies in that it has to do with objec- Study of tive realities and our intellectual interpretations Objective Realities. based upon them. Now in life we are constantly dealing with two classes of xtiXi'd^^, feelings ^ and things. I use feelings to include the whole emotional life, — our loves and hates, ideals and ambitions. We all know from every-day ex- perience that these are often at variance with our judgments, and our selfish motives are often opposed to both our best indi- vidual and social interests.^ It is evident that education has to do with the improvement of this condition, which is due to ignorance and to lack of strength to bring our emotions into correspondence with the world about us. We need to know, and we must raise our ideals to the level of our knowl- edge. We seek an uncompromising recognition of the truth and an unwavering determination not to be led astray by sophistries. The study of objective things by means of the scientific method will, we believe, do this, because it not only trains the intellect but enforces the acceptation of ideals, and thus tends to improve human conduct.' We have indicated that science, in so far as its method of thought has a common quality with that of every-day life, is of value in education ; and further, that as science deals directly with objective realities, it constitutes the foundation of knowl- edge, without, however, failing to instil high ideals of thought and action. 1 Huxley, T. H., Science and Education, Collected Essays, Vol. III., New York, 1898. ' Pearson, Karl, Grammar of Science, p. 3. 8 Butler, N. M., '95; Jordan, D.S., '96. THE VALUE OF SCIENCE IN EDUCATION II It is now our purpose to examine the field of biological thought, in order thereby to get some appreciation of its /relation to human life, and at the same time of The Special its educational value. For the present we shall JS^i^^'" discuss three aspects of this relation which indicate Education, the general values of biology in education. We may rightly examine first of all the pleasure value of biology. It is very. generally true that we are led into a study because we take aesthetic pleasure in the things FlcflsuiTC with which it deals, and it is the pleasure that we Value of continually experience, as well as the other good effects which accrue, which keeps us at it, unless, indeed, it becomes for some reason a perfunctory task. In holding a broad view of education, therefore, we may justly claim that it should be made responsible, not only for the preparation of the man to think and to do those things well which duty and necessity put upon him, but also for the culti- vation of that type of mind which is able so to interpret duty and necessity that work shall have a pleasurable quality to it. This quality is characteristic of the resourceful, many- sided mind, one which does not remain unexpanded, but which, by virtue of a considerable degree of familiarity with different sources of pleasurable thought, grows in richness and interest and in power of reflection. Such is the man whose interest may amount even to a hobby, who is constantly and pleasantly occupied, and upon whose hands time does not hang heavily. Not only this. It makes one valuable and interest- ing to his fellow-men. " A man riding his hobby is not the most undesirable member of society. It is rather the indif- ferent member, who has not vigor enough to find a hobby." ^ The value of an avocation lies not alone in the immediate pleasure it brings : it reflects upon the whole life in a health- ful way ; it is the play of the mind which refreshingly prepares it for its work. In contrast that person's condition is pitiable whose atti- 1 Whitney, M. W., '82. 12 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY tude toward pleasure is passive ; who, insufficient in himself, has to depend upon pastimes. It is upon such that pleasure, degraded to amusement, soon palls, and it is then that he finds himself open to an attack of what Red Saunders, in a delightful story by Henry Wallace Phillips, picturesquely calls " measles of the mind," because he has "nothing to do." This fur- nishes the clue to our thought, namely, that during school days, when the mind is plastic and impressionable, there shall be a very earnest endeavor to offer opportunities for children to become acquainted with plants and animals. Later on in hfe this knowledge may serve the useful turn of leading its possessors to engage their spare time in enjoyable pursuits, in the direction of study and observation, which, like that of music, entail no bad effect. It is peculiarly true of biology that its relations to human life are so numerous and intimate that almost all people, young and old, readily find pleasure in pursuit of it, and that , as knowledge and experience are extended the opportunities and capacities for enjoyment are multiplied. This matter, in its effect upon human life, particularly in certain directions, is far more important than on the surface it may appear. We refer to the problem of the betterment of the rural population. The recognition of this need is seen in many directions, as for example, educationally in the cen- tralization of the schools, the special education of the farmer, and otherwise in the improved postal service, the movement for good roads, tree planting, and like things of educational as well as of economic value. But in the direction of the de- velopment of the Besthetic side of their natures the people of the country have almost wholly been neglected. This is, of course, inevitable in a new country, though it is regretfully true in the majority of older ones. But the conditions under which this can longer continue to be true are now no more. As a class, American farmers are more restive under their conditions than in any other country, and one evidence of this is seen in the flow of population from the country into THE VALUE OF SCIENCE IN EDUCATION 1 3 the city. While this is desirable and necessary up to a cer- tain limit, it is nevertheless true that there are many who are driven from the country rather than attracted to the city. One cure for the undesirableness' and uriattractiveness of country life may be found in the broadening of the interest of the people by the development of their sesthetic pleasures, especially those connected with the study of animate nature, as well as by increasing their intellectual grasp of their work. Some work in the right direction has already been done in certain quarters, and the effort cannot be too much com- mended. This has been done by the circulation of sugges- tions and information, through the medium of Nature Study Leaflets, for the planting of trees, the beautifying of school grounds, and the arrangement of gardens. Nothing, perhaps, in the country looks so desolate as the average schoolhouse, which with a little well-directed effort could be made attrac- tive. At the same time the work may be done so as to insti- tute a part of education ; in fact, it must be done in this way if it is to bear permanent results in the lives of the pupils. It is eminently proper also that a very considerable stress should be laid upon the artistic side of garden making, for here in the garden are opportunities in abundance for the normal expres- sion of aesthetic feelings. We believe, therefore, that in ele- mentary education the work in nature study should be directed toward elementary agriculture and horticulture, and that these / should be managed so as to cultivate a desire for the beautiful, and also good taste and intelligence in its gratification. All this is true also for the townspeople, but in a special way. The opportunities in cities are far more restricted, and it becomes a much more serious task to provide for the great numbers of children. The most important step toward meet- ing this need lies in the effort to give to the young mind an intelligent and appreciative attitude toward nature, and this may be done by the worthy teacher through nature study and biology for the child and youth. In the second place, we propose to show that biology has a 14 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY special value in education because of the discipline which it Biology as gives to the mind engaged in its study. We have MettSdof *" already drawn attention to the fact that in biologi- Tbongiit. (-3.1 science we are concerned, not with a different method of thought, but with different materials from those of the other sciences. It follows, therefore, that whatever differ- ences in educational value the various sciences possess these must be due chiefly to the nature of the things with which they deal. And the Hkeness of value by the same token must be referred to the common factor of method. In the paragraphs which now follow we are to ask ourselves in what ways biology is peculiar as to materials, and what these indicate as to its distinctive values in education. As compared with other natural sciences, the materials with which the biologist has to concern himself are more complex. This is, of course, connected with the fact that the phenomena of life are as much more complex and diverse than inorganic phenomena as the " physical basis of life " is more complex structurally than other non-living substances. The structure of the parts of a living body cannot be understood except in the light of the functions which they perform or the work which they do ; and the reverse is equally true, that in order to comprehend the behavior of an organ or body as a whole, attention must be given to its structure. The truth' of this is more apparent when we realize that such distinctions as for the sake of convenience we draw between physiology and morphology are, to adopt the lan- guage of Goebel, artificial and imperfect, and they may be maintained only so long as they do good service. "As a matter of fact, it [/. e. the study of morphology alone] has finally led to one-sidedness, and its outcome has not infre- quently been empty theorizing. In nature the form and func- tion of an organ stand in the most intimate relation to each other; one is caused by the other." * Herbert Spencer'' has 1 Goebel, K., Orf;anography of Plants, p. 4. " Principles of Biology, Vol. II., p. 4. THE VALUE OF SCIENCE IN EDUCATION IS also emphasized the point. " Science can give no true interpre- tation of Nature without keeping the co-operation of structure and function constantly in view." It is inevitable that bodies of which it is true that there is a constant adjustment between each of their parts and the rest, and between each part, together with the whole, and the environment, involving constant change of form and function, should offer difficult and complex materials for study. Again, the difficulty of study of biological materials is not at all decreased by the conditions of our advancing knowl- edge. We know so little and so many things remain to be searched out that we constantly have to stop and proclaim our ignorance. The teacher cannot, therefore, bring to the student a finished product. Many explanations must be made tentatively but not gratuitously, and the appeal to experi- ment and logical tests must be constant. Many apparently sound interpretations, even though they appear in books, must be frankly cast aside. Many teachers feel that it is an unsatis- factory task when " I don't know " must be the more frequent answer. There is, however, no real reason for this feeling. It is precisely in this that biology finds its power as training. It makes us question everything for which we do not find evi- dence, and in leading us to confess our ignorance makes for intellectual honesty. Not only, then, are the materials themselves, if objectively considered, difficult of observation, but the reasoning based upon these observations is correspondingly complex and elu- sive, and the ratio of probability to the number of observations less than in other natural sciences. We shall recur to these points in another part of this work, where we shall, in more detail, show their practical bearings on teaching. For the present we may say that these features of biological study may readily be thought on first consideration to be serious disad- vantages to its use in education, and of course they certainly increase the difficulty of the pedagogics concerned. What, however, educationally considered, seem to be disadvantages, l6 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY are really advantages when we consider the end of education, which in a broad sense is to prepare for living. In life we are called upon to make an immense number of inferences and judgments, upon the correctness of which our well-being and happiness rest. The more complex the circumstances requir- ing judgment, the more delicate and cautious must the latter be, and the more profoundly are our lives affected by the results contingent upon it. Indeed, the practical affairs of life are of such complexity as to call for a delicate, complex, and cautious judgment, and any study which beyond others will develop to any degree whatever such a judgment will have an educational value correlated with the delicacy of reasoning demanded by its materials. In other words, if we regard the study of human affairs as sociology — a very complex study, involving the understanding of the work- ings of the body and of the mind of the individual taken alone and in segregate — that study which most nearly approaches in complexity that of sociology, and is at the same time of practi- cal use in elementary education, must have the definite value above indicated. We may by way of summary present the case in somewhat different form. Life for each individual is a series of sociolog- ical problems of a very practical nature. Each of these has to be examined to determine the facts involved, and some con- clusion must be drawn as to the course of action to be pur- sued. The conclusions arrived at are then examined in the light of former. experience. These operations are not always consciously gone through with ; on the contrary, they are in the very great proportion of cases quite rapid and unconscious, and in the young and the unthinking, for whom the problems are comparatively simple, entirely so. Nevertheless, this pro- cess, which is induction first of all, then deduction, is the logic of real life, with which we are busied from infancy to old age. But, like the -action of the untutored body, the greatest effectiveness of thought comes with its voluntary and intelli- gent control, when the case demands it, aside from habitual THE VALUE OF SCIENCE IN EDUCATION 1 7 thought and action. In addition to the fact that biology, or some phase of it, as a subject of study is especially pleasing to some people, — a matter which in its relation to education we have above discussed, — its value as discipline may be estimated in part by its parallelism in detail to the method of thought in real life ; and we have already shown that this method of thought is rendered like that of real life by virtue of the com- plexity of materials making for caution.^ And this is our con- tention as to the training obtainable in the special field of biology, in the general methods of thought in life. In the third place there attachee to biological study a pecu- liar humanistic value, as measured by its usefulness in the amelioration of human conditions. To recount even the achievements of biology alone, aside from Value in Reia- science as a whole, would take us too far from the main line of the present discussion. We shall, however, point out somewhat definitely the more important sociological factors which the biologist has influenced. We may mention first the matter of disease and its control. The mere determination of one fact, namely, the causal relation between certain organ- isms and disease, lies at the foundation of a vast and efficient method of preventive hygiene so far reaching in its results that among enlightened peoples many diseases which once were the scourge of whole continents are now no longer feared because we know how to control the conditions unde'r which these dis- eases spread. What we now fear is ignorance which begets negligence and indifference to sanitary conditions. The results of efforts in these directions as they become known through the public prints^ constitute, in the shape of information a means of public education ; and while people in general are far from realizing anything Uke a satisfactory con- ception of social and individual cleanliness, to say nothing of 1 Henfrey, '87, p. 99. * One of the triumphs of modern science is seen in the wonderful record made in the control of yellow fever in the city of HavaKa after American occupancy. 1 8 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY practice, nevertheless a new meaning attaches to the word, which will sooner or later be realized in the practical hygiene of daily life. But while the spread of information concerning the results of scientific inquiry and the application of methods of hygiene through the medium of the press, and by the work of boards of health and other forms of public service, is a means of great value in the education of the public at large, we are convinced that the only certain way of doing the same thing with results of permanent value is through the education of the youth, not only by the dissemination of information, but also by training in the method of thought by which prog- ress in Icnowledge of this kind is made. For, we repeat, it is training in exact methods of scientific thought which alone makes constant improvement possible. Upon the ability to appreciate the value of and to use the scientific method rests the faith that the results which accrue to science may and must be received and applied to human life. Again, we may notice the great debt which agriculture owes to biological science. At the present time the agricultural To Food Pro- '^^^'^ ^^ ^^ largest, and it is and will remain the duction. chief of economic forces. The efficiency of the labor of this class depends upon the intelligent use of the soil, which is depleted by the growth of crops. How to get the best results in food value from these crops, and at the same time to maintain the quality of the soil, are questions, there- fore, worthy of the most earnest efforts of the human mind. The justification of this statement may be found in the splen- did discoveries concerning the relation of living organisms to the nitrog en c ontent of the soil. In these discoveries is con- ■ tained the solution of the problem of the renewal of the soil, and to them will be due the preservation of the quality of the soil in spite of the constant seaward drain of the nitrogen compounds from the land by the sewage systems of centres of population. The practical application of our knowledge is as yet not completely worked out, but this is only the matter of a short time and of effort. Even at this moment, however, it THE VALUE OF SCIENCE IN EDUCATION 1 9 may be recorded as one of the great achievements of modern biological science.'^ The investigation of soils is but one line of work. Many other problems of this and of kindred nature are constantly occupying the attention of naturalists. We may cite at ran- dom the conservation of our forests, the selection of better races of stock and of food plants, the diagnosis and control of plant and animal diseases, the discovery, and the exact study of the characters and properties of medicinal plants, the proper manipulation of food products and of raw materials for manufactures, in which the action of bacteria plays so large a role, and other kinds of investigation of far-reaching results in its effect upon the welfare of man.^ Upon such work the government of America spends at present the large but still very inadequate sum of approximately ;?S,oi 3,960 (1903), and no moneys are put to better use. It would appear that the youth of the country should not be ignorant of the function of the State in these matters ; of the nature of the work which is carried on by the public service in the persons of biologists who are devoting their lives to it ; of the chief results which have accrued ; or of their own re- sponsibilities as citizens with intelligent interest in the welfare of their country and of the human family. There is, indeed, no greater nor less reason for this than for the study of the history of their country. As the integrity of our own form of government rests ultimately upon the intelligent exercise of the powers of citizenship, so the work of the government in the conservation of our natural resources may be carried for- ward to a legitimate and successful issue only with the acqui- ' escence and intelligent support of the population. 1 Since writing this, the problem above indicated has been worked out in its practical bearings in a remarkable way by Dr. G. T. Moore, of the United States Department of Agriculture. For an account by him see Bacteria and the Nitrogen Problem, Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture, p. 333. 1902. ^ For a good discussion of the present topic, see Norton, W. H., The Social Service of Science. Science, II., 13: 644. 26 April, 1901. 20 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY To this end the people must be educated in the subject-mat- ter and method of biological thought, and this must be done in such a way as to disseminate the most useful and important information concerning the relation of biology to human prog- ress ; and we assert that to give the study of biology this use- ful trend is not in the least to lower the educational and culture value, but the rather to render more people intelligent and cul- tured in a broad and true sense. Perhaps one of the greatest services to humanity which has ever been rendered by science is that seen in the effect which it has had upon the nature of labor, and the esteem in which the laborer is held.' This is, of course, due to no one cause, and is, indeed, a phenomenon too complex for a mere tyro in economics to attempt to analyze. But cer- tainly one of the factors among many others is found in the development of skilled labor, and this is due to the application of science to agriculture and the industries, and in the recogni- tion of the needs of the people in the building up of technical and scientific schools. By virtue of these things llie dignity of the laborer is in the measure of the intelligence which he brings to his labor. Recurring to the farmer, we know that a few years ago his work was a mere drudgery to which was brought no scientific thought or skill. The idea of equipping special institutions for the education of the rural youth in the best and most scientific methods of farming was not dreamed of.^ Now- adays the farmer ought to be and often is an active scientific observer, working in co-operation with the State in the solution of vast and important problems. Technical education itself, 1 See also Fitch, J. G., Lectures on Teaching, Chapter XIV. 2 There has been a growing criticism of late years that institutions whose aim has been to educate the agricultural classes in their calling have failed to do this. This defect, so far as it is true, is, however, not due to education, but to imperfect education and wrong ideals. It may readily be admitted that some young men have become puffed up with the pride of imperfect knowledge, but this is an argument for making education more efficient in this direction. THE VALUE OF SCIENCE IN EDUCATION 21 so closely connected with labor as it is, owes to the sci- ences its recognition as part of a training in real culture. "... The laboratory sciences . . . have justified the educa- tional value of the methods of the gymnasium and the work- shop." They, "by analogy as well as by physiology, have shown the educational merits of physical culture, manual training, and general handicraft ; . . . have demonstrated for all time that there are efficient instruments in the educa- tional workshop other than the printed page and the voice of the teacher, other convenient and important avenues to the brain than the optic and auditory nerves, along which the teacher may work."-' Biological science, as evidenced by our illustration, is to a great extent responsible for this change. The time when the sniff of superiority of the city- bred per- son at the mention of the " hayseed " will be replaced by a look of thoughtful appreciation of the dignity of the farmer's work will come when biological science, as given to the public schools, will have its proper informational content, and is taught so as to impress the mind with a due appreciation of the real and fundamental character of the intellectual task before the farmer.'' Lastly, we find that biology has before it a great part in the solution of the most profound problems concerning the moral and physical well-being of the race — - that involved in the relation of the sexes. This problem, it has well been said, taxes all the wisdom of the preacher, jurist, and physician, and we may venture to assert that none of these can compass the ends in view without the help of the well-trained and high-souled teacher of biology. It is quite unnecessary to recount in this connection the evils which every intelligent man and woman knows to arise from the moral distortion incident ' to the warping of the sexual nature by artificial and immoral conditions. 1 Sedgwick, '93, p. 245. 2 See Annual Report, United States Department Agriculture, i^oi. 22 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY It is patent to the thinking mind that every stratum of society- is affected by these evils, and it is keeping very far within the limits of truth to say that not only the physical and moral wel- fare of the individual but the very foundations of society and the integrity of nations may be destroyed by a moral pestilence of this kind. If we grant this to be true — as those cognizant of the facts will readily do — what is more evident than that the way to cure the evil is by the demolition of ignorance and by putting truth in its place? In this matter as in others formal educa- tion must be made to supplement home training, and when such is absent — and perhaps far more frequently than not it is — to take its place. We must not be understood to advocate a sort of preaching or morahzing method in which the chief method of promulgat- ing the good is by the description of evil. Education should by this time have seen the futility of attempting to increase morality in this way. Positive ethics have little enough effect on morals ; nothing good can be said of negative ethics. But we do mean to assert unequivocally that the unhealthful condi- tions above referred to can be removed by the bringing to the young mind clean, accurate knowledge of the essential facts of physiology and of reproduction, through the agency of a skilful teacher of biology. Thus right habits of thought will be started at the time when this is easiest, and at least the youth will have begun to tread the right path which leads to purity of life. James's remarks concerning habits are just as pertinent here as elsewhere — " Education is for behavior, and habits are the stuff of which behavior consists."^ This knowledge to be the most useful must come in its natural place in a course in biology, and every appearance of unusual effort to come at or to avoid the subject must be avoided. We desire to lay stress on this point, for if a teacher be^ sus- 1 James, W., Talks to Teachers, p. 66. THE VALUE OF SCIENCE IN EDUCATION 23 pected of unnaturalness, or of any but the most transparently honest of motives, his work is undone. The information re- ceived must be in such form and proportion that it may appear to be what it really is — a part of biological knowledge to be treated as openly as any other part, without offence to good judgment. We shall attempt further on to, show that an introduction to an essential knowledge of generative processes may most appro- priately and effectively be made in a course in botany. Biology, then, has a special humanistic value, by virtue of its content of information, which is necessary to an intelligent, well-balanced, and clean man, capable of appreciating the work of the race and the mutual debt of man to man, and capable also of high moral living. This is the stuff of which good citizenship is made. In the foregoing paragraphs we have endeavored to present in a general form an argument for the use of biol- ogy in education. The points are summarized as follows : In life we are constantly engaged in making efforts to accom- plish ends. These efforts may be undirected and unintelligent, or they may be under direction ; and intelligent formal educa- tion has for its purpose the control and the direction of effort toward ideals which experience has taught us to be worth our effort. With better control of effort comes better judgment, and this reacts on the individual, rendering subsequent action still more direct and efficacious. Our task is to point out that biology may contribute to these ends in education. It is pointed out that the method of thought is common to all science ; therefore, that the special value of biology in educa- tion must be indicated chiefly by the nature of the material with which it deals. The subjects of education are concerned with two classes of realities, — feelings and things, — and use respectively symbols and objects. The study of biology, because it is a study with objective realities, tends to develop the disinterested judgment, 24 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY to teach the individual how to adjust himself to his surroundings, and to raise the ideals of life. Biology has certain special values in education. First, it has been argued that biology has a special value in its usefulness in multiplying the interests of the mind, thus furnishing sources of pleasure which are deep and lasting and which produce no bad effects. They are such as are within the reach of all. We have especially emphasized the importance of the development of the sesthetic side of life as making for contentment and pleasure. Secondly, we have shown that biology has a special value as discipUne. It is a complex and therefore a difficult study, and calls for a large degree of caution in its method of thought. In this it resembles real life more nearly than the other natural sciences, and has an educational value indicated by its similarity thereto. Thirdly, it has a humanistic value, measured by the amount and value of the information it brings. This information con- cerns various phases of human life as they have been affected by the application of biological science. We have cited the knowledge of the nature of many diseases, the field of agricul- ture and of labor, and the profoundly important matter of the relation of the sexes as being matters concerning which biology brings most valuable information, and so makes for a saner and more normal view of life. CHAPTER II WATUEE STTTDY BIBLIOGRAPHY Bailey, Ii. H. Botany : an Elementary Text-Book. Paragraphs for the Teacher. New York, The MacMillan Co. igco. BaUey, L. H. The Nature Study Idea. New York, Doubleday, Page & Co. 1903. Harris, W. T. The Study of Natural Science : its Uses and Dangers. Education, 10: 277. January, i8go. Harris, "W. T. Horace Mann. Educational Review, 12: 104. September, 1896. Hankie, W. D. Proc. N. E. A., p. 59. 1870. Hinsdale, B. A. Horace Mann and the Common School Revival in the United States. New York, Charles Scribner's Sons. 1898. Hodge, O. F. Nature Study and Life. Boston, Ginn & Co. 1902. Huxley, T. H. Science and Education. Collected Essays. Vol. III. New York, D. Appleton & Co. 1898. Huxley, L. Life and Letters of Thomas Henry Huxley. New York, D. Appleton & Co. igoi. Huxley, T. H. Method and Results. Collected Essays. Vol. I. Hyslop, J. H. Elements of Logic : Theoretical and Practical. New York, Charles Scribners' Sons. 1892. _ James, W. Talks to Teachers on Psychology, and to Students on Some of Life's Ideals. New York, H. Holt & Co. igoo. Jordan, D. S. Nature Study and Moral Culture. Proc. N. E. A., p. 130. 1896. Lathrop, Delia A. Object Lessons : their Value and Place in Education. Proc. N. E. A., p. 49. 1870. Lloyd, F. B. Aims of Nature Study. Teachers College Record, I : No. 2. March, 1900. Lloyd, P. E. Plant Ecology fc5r the Elementary School. New York Teachers' Monographs, 4: 81-89. March, 1902. Pearson, Karl. Grammar of Science. London, A. & C. Black. 1900. Sedgwick, Wm. T. Educational Value of the Method of Science. Educational Review; 5 : 243. March, 1893. Soule, C. G. Nature Study in the Schools. Outlook, p. 224. 27 January, 1900. 26 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY de Vries, Hugo. The Origin o£ Species by Mutation. Science, II., 15: 721. 9 May 1902. Weismann, August. On Germinal Selection (1895). Chicago. The Open Court Publishing Co. i8g6. Woodward, C. M. The Change of Front in Education. Science, II., 14: 474. 27 September, igoi. Article, Nature Study. New International Encyclopedia. What is Nature Study? Science, II., 16: 910. 5 December, 1902. We have in the foregoing chapter endeavored to show what we hold to be the general value of science and what the special value of biology in education. It has been necessary in so doing to confine discussion to broad considerations, and we have reserved a more special treatment of certain points for the present chapter and for those dealing with botany and zoology in the secondary schools. We have now before us the task of presenting to the student the problem involved in the rela- tion of science to elementary education, commonly considered under the title of nature study. This is deemed necessary, be- cause, since the advent of nature study into the elementary cur- riculum, the amount and kind of work done in the high school has come to depend in an intimate way upon the quality of the elementary teaching. And the same ideals apply to both schools, — poor work in one makes difficult the attainment of proper standards in the other. The principles, therefore, set forth in the present chapter, while directed especially toward the ele- mentary school, are to be recognized as a part of our general plea for the acceptance of biology in education. It will, I believe, be unnecessary to my purpose to attempt a formal definition of what is meant, or is supposed to be meant, by the name nature study. This h^s been discussed by a number of able students,^ with a more or less satisfactory result. Nor is it worth while for us to object to the name, which undoubtedly, in some minds, connotes a great deal that 1 Bailey, L. H., The Nature Study Idea. What is meant by Nature Study? Science,\\.,\%: ^\o. 5 December, igo2. Soule, C. G., Nature Study in the Schools. NATURE STUDY 2^ savors of the superficial and sentimental, and not without reason. Indeed, we have heard it on good authority that in some quarters, while the value of elementary science is not brought into question, the name "nature study" has been avoided, evidence enough, it would seem, that the failures, of which not a little has been said, are due, not to the matter itself, but to the fad-like whimsicalities of very enthusiastic persons. Enthu- siasm is a good thing ; but if we have to reckon with such economic forces as schoolboards and taxpayers, whose con- servatism is extreme, we must be sure that it does not over- reach our knowledge and efficiency as teachers. Nevertheless, nature study as a name, as surely as what it stands for, or ought to, has come to stay with us, and it embodies a group of ideas which as a whole are distinctly modern. Nor shall we avoid the issue arising from the fact that the subject has fallen into a certain amount of disrepute among educators. That imperfection and some degree of failure should attend the attempt to place a subject so complex in its materials and bearings in a school system so large and various in its development as that of America, is inevitable and to be expected. And that some educator's should, through ignorance, or through conservatism or impatience, be unwilling to give the matter a fair trial is also to be expected. It will serve a good purpose if we point out that the failures are palpably due, not to the inutility of the subject, but to the inferior ability of teacl^ers — who in the majority of cases may be otherwise efficient — to handle a subject which calls for unusual prepargtjon and insight. What has been expected is that teachers who are not only ignorant of nature, but to whom the materials are, for lack of training and of the proper spirit, unwelcome and often obnoxious, should, provided with a meagre outline and a poor text, give a successful course in nature study. The wonder is, not that some have failed, but that any have succeeded. To pass judgment, therefore, upon the results of science in education when it is taught by untrained persons as a temporary expedient or as an experiment, is 28 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY obviously unjust, as Huxley in defence of elementary scientific ' education years ago pointed out.^ In view of this explanation of the partial failure of nature study to meet the expectations of some educators, we are led to present in what follows a discussion of the values of science, especially of the study of organic nature, in elementary educa- tion, believing that a clear understanding of these will lead to an increased demand for and the better preparation of com- petent teachers in this important field of work. That this task is not amiss I hold because I believe that it is educationally a great wrong to fail to supply children during their formal education with opportunities for preserving in themselves their love of nature and their natural desires and powers of observation, and to neglect to train their reasoning faculties. It is of great interest to us that Horace Mann ex- perienced such a deprivation, shared by many others, and that he has recorded his complaint. He tells us " that, as a child, he had never enjoyed the free intercourse with nature that his ardent mind craved. Speaking of himself and of the children with whom he mingled, he says that, although their faculties were growing and receptive, they were taught very little ; on the other hand, much obstruction -was thrown between them and nature's teachings. Their eyes were never trained to dis- tinguish forms and colors." " One of Horace Mann's most pertinent criticisms of the school methods of his time is that " the memory was the only mental faculty especially appealed to ; the most comprehensive generalizations were given to the children, instead of the facts upon which they were based ; all ideas that did not come from the book were contraband."^ And it is instructive to note in connection with these criticisms of school methods that Mann 1 Science and Education, p. 167. ^ Hinsdale, B. A., Horace Mann and the Common School Revival in (he United States, p. 80. ' Hinsdale, loc. cit., p. 78. NATURE STUDY 29 emphatically and continually upheld the doctrine that the most important idea for students to get is that of the causal relation. This was a constant educational idea of his, and it shows that he had a clear insight into the scientific method and its value for education. Perhaps the most important of his educational documents in its spirit and appreciation of the importance of this method in elementary education is the Ninth Report of the Commissioner of Education,^ published in 1845, in which he commends the system of instruction by induction instead of deduction and the importance of substituting investigation for memorizing. The first attempt to remedy the condition of public education criticised by Horace Mann was seen in the " object lesson " movement, a geographical extension in practice of ,^^ object the method of instruction by observation ^ of that i-^sson. German school of education of which Comenips was the founder and Pestalozzi the later world-renowned interpreter and spokesman. It is beyond my intention to attempt a de- tailed historical review of the educational reform movement, but it will serve a useful purpose to examine the " object lesson " as a means of education, since it will help us the better to esti- mate the importance of the more modern development of nature study. What the object lesson was and what educational value it was claimed to possess have been well summarized by Miss Lathrop.' An object lesson, according to Miss Lathrop, is not some- thing w"hich is read or recited by the teacher to her pupils, nor is it a lecture by her. Further, it is not something which is identical with the " objective " or illustrative teaching which was at that time (1870) under discussion nor with oral in- struction. The positive contention is made that, in such a 1 Harris, W. T., Educational Review, S. '96. ^ Anschauungsimterricht. ' Lathrop, Delia A., Object Lessons : Their Value and Place in Education. Proc. N. E. A., 1870, p. 49. 30 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY \ \ lesson an object to be studied must be present, and that it de- mands the use of the child's senses, and the exercise must be conversational and under the guidance of the teacher. Con- cerning the value of the work the claims which were put forth are these: (i) That it is a means for the development of the powers of observation and judgment, and leads the mind of the children into new fields of inquiry and so discovers new aptitudes ; it affords an opportunity for the unification of the child's knowledge ; (2) it prepares for and supplements books ; (3) it cultivates ease and exactness of expression, and (4) it affords variety and so brings rest. Perhaps as much interest attaches to Miss Lathrop's statement of the objections which were directed against the object lesson at the time when she wrote the paper from which I quote, since they have been many times repeated. It was urged by the critics of the object lesson: (i) that there was not time enough in the curriculum for its reception ; (2) that it made too much hard work for the teachers ; (3) that the lessons became mechanical ; (4) that the bright scholars were led out while the duller ones were constantly left farther and farther be- hind ; (5) that the instruction was not systematic, and (6) that teachers were incompetent. It is obvious that no one of these objections is directed against the value of the work itself, and the tacit admission that it has a definite value reduces the objections to criticisms which are to be removed by a study of relative values of various subjects as compared with science, and by planning the curriculum and the mechanism of the school in accordance ; as for the incompetency of teachers, all that may be said is, that if the only way is to have the subject taught by them, the standard of preparation should be raised and incompetency removed. From this brief statement concerning the value of the object lesson we may gather the following conclusions. While the object lesson was very imperfect, both in its method and results, it must be admitted that it contained the central principle of the method of nature study in that it recognized the value of NATURE STUDY . l\ the study of objective realities by the use of the senses. It recognized also the importance of the training obtained thereby in observation, and to some degree at least the ethical value of such study. The imperfection of its method, on the other hand, which stood in the way of any great or permanent degree of use- fulness, lay chiefly in the incompetency of the teacher and his failure to grasp the scientific method, in the consequent indiffer- ence to the conditions of true study on the part of the child in that the provision of materials was scanty, and these were heterogeneous and unrelated, thus throwing object study into striking contrast to the nature study of to-day, which includes in addition to the elements of the biological and physical sci- ences a practical training in the elements of agriculture and horticulture. These, it is reassuring to know, can be made, in spite of their practical worth, the basis for sound elementary scientific education. We may now pass on to consider somewhat fully the aims and values of nature study. I may well take my point of de- parture in a spirited statement of Huxley, since it xheAimof contains, I believe, in a nutshell the whole and true ^''"'^ation. conception of the end of education. " I take it that the whole object of education is, in the first place, to train the faculties of the young in such a manner as to give their possessors the best chance of being happy and useful in their generation ; and, in the second place, to furnish them with the most important por- tions of that immense capitalized experience of the human race which we call knowledge of various kinds; I am using the term knowledge in its widest possible sense ; and the question is, what subjects to select by training and discipline in which the object I have just defined may be best attained." "^ Let us now examine the field of nature study to see in de- tail in what way we may expect that it will con- nature study tribute toward the end of making people " happy "" Education, and useful." In doing this, however, the discussion is of ne- 1 Huxley, T. H., Science and Education. 32 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY cessity confined to biological nature study, but in so doing we shall assume that what is said may be applied, with due modification, to the other natural sciences. The study of nature appeals very strongly to great numbers of people through their normal interests, and its value in this regard is unquestioned. It gives them something Popular in- ^ , . , , ^ , , ,...,, . , terestin to thmk about and to do, and is m itselt so vaneQ Nature. , , . , , , . a resource of observation and pleasure that in many cases it serves as an outlet for interest and energy remaining from the toil of life. How widespread -such interest is may be judged from the numbers of clubs, societies, and the like, among people with mutual interests in nature, and the same thing is shown by the great demand for books about nature which the market does not fail to supply. To be sure, the interest of which we speak is in many instances trivial, and may be in itself little better than the collection of some useless stuff like tobacco tags, but we should go far astray if we supposed that the value of it was indicated by this alone. The important fact is that interest in natural objects takes people away from the artificial and brings them into contact with the great out-of- doors. We quote a passage concerning this interest from Hodge's " Nature Study and Life " which well expresses the value of such interest. Speaking of the selection of topics for a nature-study course, he says : " Will it form or help to form an important, lifelong interest, — an interest not tech- Its Value. J- J o meal or superficial, touching life only on the surface here and there, and at long intervals, but one that lies close to the heart, to the home, and to all that makes life worth living:? The value of such an interest is inestimable. It may add a sparkle to the eye, elasticity to the step, and a glow to every heart-beat, and be the most efficient safeguard against idleness and waste of time, evil and temptadon of every sort." — "To find such an interest in some worthy nature-love is to discover the fountain of youth." '^ 1 Hodge, C. F., Nature Study and Life, p. 24. NATURE STUDY 33 It thus appeals to that subtle bond of sympathy existing between man and nature ; one, however, which may not be reasoned about, but which we know tends to lead us into pleasant paths of thought and action.^ If we might claim for nature study only this, we should have argument enough for its introduction into the curriculum, for this interest has been observed repeatedly to react upon the" whole activity of the child by supplying concrete, observable things to look at, to handle, and to experiment with. It gives the occasion for the use of all the senses and of the reason as well ; it has led to the institution of outdoor work in garden making, the collecting of various objects, and similar pursuits. This has, in a very peculiar sense, appealed to the whole of the child's activity, besides reacting on the school life in a healthful way hygienically. We should, before leaving this matter, lay stress on the gen- eralized, innate character of this interest in nature. It makes little odds to us how we get it, so that we recognize ,.,,,, ^ ;. And its Gen- us existence m children, and make proper use of erailzedChar- it in their education. We know it is a good thing to have, and we know that many people lose it simply because of disuse, because the school did not give them a fair oppor- tunity. Time and again, it is the burden of the complaint of many people that their youthful interest in nature did not receive nurture at the proper time. Similarly, a normal child's body is a veritable whirlwind of activity, not alone in the use of senses and muscles, but in intellectual inquiry about the things about them which they appreciate directly by means of their senses.*" And it is, moreover, a distinct edu- Hone too cational advantage that this bodily and mental '''■<»"•£• activity begins so early that even in the first grade, scientific work, accurate so far as it goes, may be done, and done in 1 For a most valuable discussion of the point here alluded to, see James's Essay, p. 229. igoo. 2 " . . . there is no limit to the intellectual craving of a young child." Huxley, T. H., Collected Essays. Vol. III., p. 123. 3 34 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY such fashion that every bit of it is full of real interest to the children. These two groups of activities — bodily and mental — of the child are in the schoolroom apparently at war with each other, Using the ^"'^ around the idea that this antagonism is neces- ftyrftte**''' ^^'■y ™"'^'^ folderol pedantry has grown up. The ™l*- advent of hygienic conceptions and the introduction of physical exercise is in recognition of the evil and an attempt to educate properly both sides of the child. Nature study makes this possible, because it uses both mental and bodily activities. It not only makes necessary the use of the senses in observation and of the reason, with all that word implies, but in its method it can be used for the exercise of the muscles in an unconscious way, which is the more productive of good because used in connection with the play of mental interests. Nature study, therefore, comes as a subject for the school with this special advantage, shared in part by manual training, and its effect for good upon education is not easily overestimated. We have spoken above of the value of nature study as foster- ing an interest in and sympathy with nature which we regard as Natural In- innate; and we have regarded an interest which pStrfDe- appears trifling when superficially considered to parture. ^^g better than none. But it is the special function of education to use such interest as a point of departure, and to build it up into a more thoughtful, living interest, which will lead the individual to a fuller emotional and rational life. We place the word " emotional " first for a reason which we believe sound, namely, because the emotions or feelings are springs of conduct, and determine in a large measure our attitude toward and our action in the world about us. Even the attitude Emotions and toward the use of the reason which is properly the Reason. regarded as the characteristic of a scientific thinker (by which we mean not alone those dealing with the sciences proper, but all who can and do use the scientific method of thought) is the outcome of an emotional conception of the value of reason. We believe that to think properly is good, to NATURE STUDY 35 think slovenly is bad. The former will lead us aright, the latter will not. There are records of heroism facing failure upon failure, to emerge at last victorious from a fight in which reason was the only weapon and faith the sustaining power, impalpable but real. A phase of this interest in nature to which it is related in a very subtle and complex way is the interpretation of natural objects as beautiful. This in many cases furnishes the primary motive, and it should not be disregarded tion of Mature in education. Extension of knowledge which is thus had will supply a wider and more varied field for the play of the aesthetic sensibilities, and as its result the person should have a keener and fuller appreciation of nature. More knowl- edge and a stronger creative imagination should go hand in hand ; and we must look, at no very distant date it is to be hoped, for a more truly spiritual and at the same time a more virile conception of the meaning of beauty and truth, which shall bring each into harmony with the other.-' I once had an experience which illustrates my meaning. A lady who was wearing a pin in which the stone was a piece of polished " satin spar " from Niagara was under the impression that it was " petrified foam." Upon being told the real nature of the stone, she declared that the object had lost its value and beauty for her, and that she wished she had not been told ! '^ To teach a better interpretation of nature, for which educa- tion as a whole is striving, is one aim of nature study, for it is to science that we look fot the training which shall attain this result. " The scientific interpretation of phenomena, the scien- tific account of the universe, is, therefore, the only one which can permanently satisfy the aesthetic judgment, for it is the only one which can never be entirely contradicted by our observa- tion and experience. It is necessary to strongly emphasize this 1 Pearson, Karl, The Grammar of Science, p. 35. The writings of such authors as Thoreau, White, and Belles, exemplify a legitimate aesthetic interpretation of nature. 2 Read iniHuxley's Life and Letters,'Vo\. II., pp. 143, 144. 36 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY side of science, for we are frequently told that the growth of science is destroying the beauty and poetry of hfe. It is undoubtedly rendering many of the old interpretations of life meaningless, because it demonstrates that they are false to the facts which they profess to describe. It does not follow from this, however, that the aesthetic and scientific judgments are opposed ; the fact is, that with the growth of our scientific knowledge the basis of the aesthetic judgment is changing and must change. There is more real beauty in what science has to tell us of the chemistry of a distant star, or in the life history of a protozoon, than in any cosmogony produced by the creative imagination of a pre-scientific age. By ' more real beauty ' we are to understand that the aesthetic judgment will find more satisfaction, more permanent delight, in the former than in the latter. It is this continual gratification of the aesthetic judg- ment which is one of the chief delights of the pursuit of pure science." '■ To illustrate this contention we may point out that scientific knowledge does not of necessity trammel the esthetic judg- ment, for a well-balanced mind certainly can and does actually divest itself during the enjoyment of aesthetic sensations of the consideration of the machinery which produces them. At the same time I am aware of exceptions in the persons of highly gifted scientific men who have lost their power of enjoying nature, but I believe that these do not indicate any general tendency. On the other hand, I have received testimony to the effect that the enjoyment of nature is not experienced until something of its working is understood, a condition which I believe is far more usual and normal. In the immediately foregoing paragraphs I have taken the ground that the increase of real knowledge must result in a refinement of the emotional life, and I have spoken of the re- lation of the emotions to the reason, and in the interpretation of nature as beautiful. There is still another phase of the emo- 1 Pearson, K., Grammar of Science, p. 35. NATURE STUDY 37 tional attitude which remains to be especially mentioned, in the cultivation of which we may look for the development of the spiritual aspect of life which expresses itself in morality. I attempt to use the word "spiritual" advisedly, but the word means such different things, frequently unessential, to different people that I shall endeavor to make science and clear my meaning. It is often said that education ciiaracter. aims at the formation of character and any system of education, nay, any factor in education which does not have this for its purpose is to that degree useless. The character, then, is that imponderable but real sum total of ideal and action which makes a man recognizable as good or bad, and therefore as a desirable or undesirable member of society. Inasmuch, how- ever, as the ideal or our emotional attitude determines largely the nature of our conscious actions, and, indeed, our uncon- scious actions also, to the extent that the latter grow by habit into the former, it follows that the emotional life, in order that it be for our good, must become more and more refined, and this refinement of emotional life is spiritualization. The ideal then becomes the spiritual when it is good and tends to pro- duce good actions or moral living. Any process in education which, by supplying good ideals of any kind, be it of reason, or beauty, or of ethics, will help to spiritualize. I take issue with Mr. Harris when he says, " While, therefore, we must acknowledge the importance of science study in the elementary schools, we must not ignore its non-spiritualizing tendency due to exaggerating the importance of inventorying external facts. Its enthusiasm for things and events in time and space makes it undervalue facts of introspection which are more fundamental than facts of external observation."^ According to Mr. Harris, scientific instruction is justified by its significance as a factor in civilization; but the methods of science study do not have a spiritualizing tendency. If by the " spiritual " Mr. Harris means that realm of the 1 Harris, W. T., i8go, p. 287. 38 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY ideal and mystical which most persons accept as a norm of living without so much as a doubt or question, then, to be sure, we must admit the truth of his statement. Science does lead to doubt and to questioning ; this we at once and gladly admit. But we declare, also, that introspective processes unless carried on in scientific fashion are no more suited to determining what the truth is than the examination of objective things. Science does not recognize the spiritual which either does not or is reluctant to examine for fear of uncomfortable disclosures. The truly spiritual is that man who, knowing, so far as in him lies, the true and the false, sticks to the course ordered by the former, with the sublime faith that right cannot beget wrong, and who can say with the master of Balliol that the great soul of the world is just. A part of this spiritualization is due to the cultivation of intel- lectual honesty, of which we shall try to get a clear conception. Inteuectuai ^^ cannot wholly separate it from what for the Honesty. gake of contrast we may call common honesty, but it sets off against the latter by its quality of extension to the subjective which makes it, par excellence, an honesty for the sake of the right rather than for policy's sake. We should be far from asserting that common honesty is merely a matter of policy, and that its sin is in being found out. What we do say is that a common phenomenon is the mind which, while strictly honest in the practical transactions of life, is distinctly inhonest (to avoid the implication of the ordinary form, dis- honest) in intellectual affairs. This is the style of mind which, rather than looking at evidence squarely in the face, and with the will to act in consonance with knowledge, is ready to follow the leadings of authority without examination of its basis ; which, instead of looking for real content of truth, is easily cheated by " luxuriance of fiction " or, what is still worse, the willingness to indulge in it. There are timid minds who will see a fearsome teaching of doubt in these lines, but we shall have to pass such by with the comment that the fear which prevents people from using their mental powers is a subjective business which is as NATURE STUDY 39 much of a bugaboo as a ghost with a turnip lantern for a head. The fear may be real enough, but its cause needs only to be examined honestly to discover its real character. Since our purpose is to point out the fact of intellectual honesty, and tp urge it as an ideal rather than to analyze it, we cannot do better than to present to the reader some power- ful passages which, in exposing the attitude of master minds to view, serve as inspiriting examples of heroism in the realm of thought. It is to be earnestly recommended to those who are preparing for the profession of teaching that they read and reflect upon the works of the authors who are quoted. Concerning Descartes, Huxley ^ says : " There is a path that leads to truth so surely that any one who will follow it must needs reach the goal, whether his capacity be great or small. And there is one guiding rule by which a man may always find this path, and keep himself from straying when he has found it. This golden rule is — give unqualified assent to no propositions but those the truth of which is so clear and distinct that they cannot be doubted." " Descartes " obeyed " this command deliberately ; and, as a matter of religious duty, stripped off all his beliefs and reduced himself to a state of in- tellectual nakedness, until such time as he could satisfy himself which were fit to be worn. He thought a bare skin healthier than the most respectable and well-cut clothing of what might, possibly, be mere shoddy." ^ He " prepared to go on living while he doubted," "he would not lie to himself — would under no penalties say ' I am sure ' of that of which he was not sure." ' Huxley, in that remarkable letter addressed to Kingsley, further says, " Sit down before fact as a little child, be prepared to give up every preconceived notion, follow humbly wherever and to whatever abysses nature leads, or you shall learn noth- 1 On Descartes's Discourse Touching the Method of Using One's Reason Rightly, and of Seeking Scientific Truth (1870). Coll. Essays. Vol. I. * Loc. cit. ' Loc. cit. 40 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY ing. I have only begun to learn content and peace of mind since I have resolved at all risks to do this." ^ " But for this to be clear we must bear in mind what almost all forget, that the rewards of life are contingent upon obedience to the whole law — physical as well as moral — and that moral obedience will not atone for physical sin, or vice versa." ° Intellectual honesty, therefore, which is an outgrowth of ex- perience with facts, begets faith in the order of nature and in the workings of its laws and the will to order one's life in accord with them. It is in this that we see the relation of the study of nature to the spiritual development of the man. Another side of the character which can, by the proper means in nature study, be reached effectively, is that which _ 4, concerns itself with the welfare of others, and is to Respect for ' Others. be found in respect for the rights and properties of others, and in the willing observance of laws which are made for the protection of public and private health, property, and pleasure. Such laws, while in a measure in themselves educa- tive, as has on a previous page been pointed out, depend for their efficacy upon general recognition of their need and value. By bringing the individual to a knowledge of the facts and relations upon which such laws are based, and by training in the method by which they are obtained, is the only sure way to get the necessary recognition. We may look for real progress in public cleanliness, and the consequent reduction of zymotic disease, when the knowledge of its nature is common knowledge ; for without such knowledge, precept and law are of little avail. The same is true of regu- lations applying to insect pests, noxious weeds, and every kind of troublesome thing inimical to health and comfort. Some real knowledge of the amount of c'are, time, patience, and money, and of the chance for success or failure of raising a shrub or tree will do more in getting a boy to voluntarily respect public ' Huxley, Leonard, Life and Letters of Thomas Henry Huxley. Vol. I., p. 231. 2 Loc. cit., p. 236. NATURE STUDY 41 parks than all the police which a city can afford to place in watch over it ; for the small boy knows no authority but his own pleasure, and respect must be voluntary. If the boys of a neighborhood make the raising of peaches and grapes impos- sible, a better remedy than the jail would be to start them raising peaches and grapes of their own.^ A study of the de- tailed laws for the amelioration of the conditions of the region in which a child lives is just as pertinent to his efficient educa- tion as that of the principles upon which his government is based. In the preceding discussion we have frequently made use of such expressions as "real knowledge," " method of thought,'' " making knowledge a real experience," and the like, and it shall be our aim now to make clear what is meant. Any^cience as an educational factor has two parts, information and method ; or we may put it : ( i ) facts and relations deter- mined with more or less probability to be true : fz) ... , . , .„ , , Method of the processes of acquisition which will enable us to study and discover, arrange, and reason about new facts. It is obviously the business of a teacher of any subject, such as nature study, to determine what there is in the way of ascer- tained knowledge content which students ought to know about; and it is equally the teacher's business to understand the method of its acquisition, and also how these methods have been and are now used. But the teacher has a further task, which is more difficult and also more important. It is to learn how to impart information in such a manner that it shall not take the form of a , . ,. . , , ^ . . . Howtoim- mere multipucation table ; for it is quite certain part Infonna- that when nature study, for example, becomes on its informational side a memory exercise, it will defeat its own ends. It will become slavish, a dry task which will repel the pupil. This is a danger which is attendant upon the use of books, in addition to the tendency which is always present to 1 Hodge, C. F., Nature Study and Life, p. 29. 42 , THE TEACHING OF BOTANY cloud the vision with an unhealthful atmosphere of authority. Ifj then, we regard our inherited information as so much knowl- edge, the teacher's problem is to make it real to each indi- vidual, and this may be done only by giving it a suitable association in the mind. Such associations must originally be pleasurable ; there must be the feehng of doing something and getting something worth while. A simple illustration is this. If it is desired that children should learn that some plant embryos have two seed leaves, this may be done by the copy- book method. The teacher might write down on the black- board, " Plants are divided into two groups," etc., and the poor little folks commanded to write it out ten times. They would then probably have it " graven on the tablets of their memory." Or the children might be asked to collect some flower and vegetable seeds, and an excursion might be planned with this in view. The seeds might then be planted and watched, and the behavior of the seedlings noted. This method would consume more time and energy, but the reader will not have to waste much time in deciding which method of gaining knowledge will make it real to the child. No matter how great our enthusiasm may be, we suppose that even the latter method may fail in some cases, and that some children, especially those who are so unfortunate as to be too much the prisoners of city streets, may be too blas6 to feel that anything of Dependence jo ontheEmo- the kind is worth while. But in education as in tions. , . , everythmg else we must place our reliance upon those principles which have the greatest degree of probability for good results. But another alternative might be introduced into our illustra- tions. The teacher might supply a specimen of each Ijjnd of plant, as to the number of seed leaves, and the children be set to making drawings, and in short doing what is generally called laboratory work. This method would have the advantage of allowing the children actually to see the objects ; they would really observe and record. The criticism which may be made is that the method is good with students old enough to acquire NATURE STUDY ' 43 in a short time z. good number of facts which may be related in the mind ; and with students old enough so that they do not unwillingly compose themselves to the mental effort necessary to see the relations of things. For young folks, whose efforts often lack direction, a single lesson is too likely to lack mental association and will entirely fail of the pleasurable associations that are derived by doing something in the way of planting or of watching for something to happen. There must be "joyous activity " Qames). The laboratory method must therefore be understood in a broad light as meaning all kinds of effort to find out about nature ; otherwise it will be too strait for children in the lower grades. One difficulty which will be seen in the suggestion above given, and which to some minds constitutes a serious objection to an apparently slow and inefficient method of Agio™ presenting information, namely, that there is not Method, time enough in the curriculum to carry it out, even admitting its desirability. And indeed it does look like a big task to take all the intellectual inheritance of even a single subject and transmit it to the children of the elementary schools. But in the first place the term " intellectual inheritance," while useful in expressing what we mean, looks as a matter of fact rather imposing. The amount of actual information neces- sary to be given is small. This is due to the fact that the method of using types enables the student to get a generalized view of a large field of knowledge ; and by a careful use of the methods of acquiring knowledge, he gets a real notion of its validity, because he knows how it has been acquired, and be- cause he knows also that the criteria of knowledge which he is taught to apply have been used. Again, by the method which we would advocate, and as illustrated by the second alternative of our illustration, although the aim of a given piece of work as stated may be quite re- stricted, it is found true that many opportunities are constantly presenting themselves incidentally for observation, and the student is naturally led into new fields of thought. This dis- 44 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY covery of ever-widening channels for investigation is one of the features of the study of nature which makes it an especially invigorating exercise, which is at once as much so to young minds as to old, since problems adaptable to either are abun- dant. It is, then, but a step for a pupil from ignorance to independent thought under the skilful guidance of a good teacher ; and any fact gleaned in such an operation, no matter how imperfect, is usually firmly held in the mind. It appears from the immediately foregoing discussion that, while we admit and urge the claim that in nature study certain information should be given, it will be evident to the student that what we have said concerning the method of doing this is closely connected with the method of acquisition of knowledge, which we shall now pass on to inquire into. We have endeavored to make clear in the first chapter that the scientific method of thought is common to all the sciences Scientlflc proper, but is not peculiar to them, beyond that to ^ought°in them must be referred the lesson of the real impor- Uature study, t^nce and nature of this method of thought. It is therefore clear that although nature study is no one science, yet having for its materials those of nature, and for its aim in part the understanding of natural phenomena, its method of thought is the scientific. It will then be to our purpose to get a clear idea of what that method is, and to this end we shall analyze it, and discuss separately the distinct operations involved. It must, however, constantly be remembered that when the mind is in play the operations are interwoven, so that it is only by reflection that the various operations may be recognized. The conclusions arrived at by reasoning may be vitiated either by the falsity of the methods of the latter, or by failure to base it upon facts. If the reasoning is right and the facts wrong, the process may be instructive as an example of logic, but the inferences drawn may not be relied upon ; and logic for the scientist is a means to an end. It becomes, therefore, of first importance that the determination of the facts be exact; and this may be easy or difficult according to the nature of the NATURE STUDY 45 materials with which one is concerned, calling for ordinary or for special powers of perception. The operation is usually spoken of as observation : and it has been repeated over . Oteervatlon. so many times act nauseam by every writer upon the subject that nature study cultivates the powers of observa- tion, that there appears to be no special reason why we should do more than mention the fact. There are, however, one or two matters of which we must speak. First, the matter of observation, when regarded as the foundation of all reasoning which gives conclusions which are true,' is seen in a light which displays the true dignity, of the operation. Upon it depends the validity of all human knowledge and therefore all human welfare. Those who determine facts lay the foundations for the superstructure of human thought. " It is better to know a little than to know so many things that are not so," is an aphorism with a pertinent lesson in it. Sound education can-' not be had, therefore, when insufficient attention is given to the training of the child in habits of strict observation and of demanding facts of others when they are necessary. The latter, which is the habit of asking first for the facts in a problem, is a generalized habit which grows out of the former. It will be patent, therefore, that the work of the teacher is to aim at establishing an attitude of mind and not simply at developing keenness of sight or of touch or hearing.'' 1 We shall not attempt to qualify our statements with reference to the doctrine of probability. The student will realize that, in dealing with human knowledge, we are dealing with degrees of probability of truth. See Pearson, K., Grammar of Science, Chapter IV. 2 Henkle, W. D. (Proc. N. E. A., 59, 1870), in criticising the claim that object lessons taught observation, said that " study in one direction does not necessarily fit one for study in another." This is in part true and in part false. For example, one may be keen in the observation of flowers and not see the birds around him or hear them. But the point to be taken account of in education is that, first, the observing power of a child is normally keen enough. What he has to learn is to direct it,— that is, to confine the attention to a particular field and observe to some purpose. The second is to realize the necessity and value of observa- tion, and to keep.up the habit. 46 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY It is to the point also to remark that there is no reason why we should distinguish invidiously between one sense and ■With aU the another. One may be more useful than another Senses. jg jjj ^ particular field. It is the conviction of the truth of this that is in part responsible for the development of manual training.^ The more senses there may be employed in any particular exercise of observation, the.greater the impression on the mind and the more healthful and invigorating the process. The botanist or zoologist who is engaged in studying an object is not content with seeing ; he draws, colors, models, does everything and uses every means of observation to reassure himself; and there is a mental exhilaration in finding that one operation verifies another. There is also the effect of creating more far-reaching and useful mental associations, and a cultiva- tion of the visual memory and constructive imagination, the exercise of which is of unquestionable use to the active brain. The school has far too long been engaged in training one kind of memory, the extreme result of which is seen in the Chinese system of education and its products. The same tendency is seen in England where the examination system prevails. Again, exercises in observation, to be effective in the cultiva- tion of a proper attitude of mind, must be of the kind known At First ^s "first hand." The material to be observed Hand. xa\xsm." been described as sentimentalism. A strong case against this error has been made by Thorndike/ the gist of whose arraignment is found in the condemnation of the teach- ing of that indiscriminate love of animals and plants which leads to grave misconception of the relative values of life. Science teaches us that we should value human life, health, and comfort, and human progress, both material and intellectual, more highly than the life of any animal or plant. The sentimentalism, there- fore, which refuses to take the life of a frog or of a plant, in order that a child may get a saner conception of life, is false. But it must also be evident that an absence of reverence, a true and useful sentiment, which leads a teacher to be indiffer- ent to the feelings of others, is to be deplored ; and when the obligation of the teacher to overcome prejudices in students by thoughtful and tactful means is overlooked, this is equally to be inveighed against. The teacher of botany is both at an ad- vantage and a disadvantage, as compared with the teacher of zoology, in this case. The materials of botany naturally call forth expressions of the aesthetic emotions, and the danger of falling into meaningless talk is consequently greater ; while on the other hand, since plants are living things, the evident absence of sentience — so far as we understand it — in them offeis an opportunity to study living things without keen distress for the loss of life. At the same time, the latter fact offers no excuse for a reckless waste of plant life ; and the teacher will do well not to ignore the element of sacrifice and so increase the attitude of reverence toward living things, a quality which is en- tirely lacking in many people of coarse sentiment. 1 Thorndike, E. L.,' Sentimentality in Science Teaching. Educa- tional Review, 17 : 57. January, 1899. THE VALUE OE BOTANY IN EDUCATION 69 But in spite of the danger here recognized we must state un- equivocally that botany must have its part in that education of the future which " will focus on the feelings, sentiments, emo- tions, and try to do something for the heart, out of which are the issues of life." ^ We may also find an argument for the use of a subject in general education in the nature and extent of its informational content. The usefulness, therefore, in a narrower sense, of its materials, the dependence of man ^tentof upon them, and the ways and extent to which they touch upon human welfare, are the indices of its educational force in this regard."" The question to be asked then, is, to what degree and in what way do plants relate themselves to the human family and its welfare, and in the answer to this we may find the argument which we seek. The fundamental necessity of the human race is that of food. Whether we regard the occupations of primitive man or those of the highest type of civilization, the one constant, imperative demand is for food. The earlier methods of food production were solely empirical, a relatively scant population and simple demands necessitating only crude methods. Increase in popu- lation and division of labor have made necessary - The Impor- more and more efficient methods of food produc- tance of Pho- , ■ 1 , tosyntliesis. tion so as to get the greatest quantity and best quality. It has become, therefore, an increasingly severe intel- lectual task to determine what these methods are, and this de- termination depends upon the knowledge of plant physiology and of the relation of plants to the soil. A most fundamental fact of plant physiology which stands in relation to the knowl- edge of food production is the process of photosynthesis, the process by which plants, by means of their green coloring matter, or chlorophyll, are able, in the presence of sunlight, to manufac- ture food, from which energy may be obtained for the remaining 1 Stanley Hall, quoted by Andrews, E. A., False and True Criticism of the Public School. Educational Retina, 22 : 258. 1901. 2 See a very valuable paper by Galloway, B. T. 1902. ^0 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY physiological necessities. Setting aside the possible behavior of certain of the bacteria, the physiology of which is at present but little understood, we may state that at the present time all the energy expended by plants and animals, including man, in the physiological processes of their bodies, comes in the first instance from the sunlight, and is stored up by the help of chlorophyll in the final product of photosynthesis — starch. To have established this fact is an achievement of very great and fundamental importance, both in the realm of pure science and in its relations to the practical questions depending in any way upon the growth of plants. It becomes, therefore, the duty and privilege of the botanical teacher to bring the pupil into the possession of such knowledge. A second discovery of botanical science of scarcely less weight is that it is possible, by the ipanipulation of bacterial organisms, The Source of 'o maintain, or indeed increase the store of nitrogen Nitrogen. ^f jj^g gQjj_ jj j^^g j-q^ many years been realized, and that long before the remedy was worked out, that the repeated growth of food plants so depletes the nitrogen content of the soil that it becomes in a few years impossible to raise a profitable crop. The difficulty has been partially met in an empirical way by methods of crop rotation, clover, or some other suitable leguminous plant, playing the role of a constant factor in the rotation series, and also by adding to the soil ferti- lizers containing nitrogen in some form. The former method was carried on wherever possible for years in ignorance of the exact conditions, and is of course impossible where, as in some soils of wide extent, the suitable legumes will not grow. The latter method has its limitations in the supply of artificial fertilizers, since the sources of these cease sooner or later to be productive. The complete understanding, both theoretical and practical, of the behavior of nitrogenous bacteria offers the only solution of the problem thus presented, and when the time comes, as it will in the near future, that this knowledge is complete, as far as practical demands are concerned, the capacity of the soil for the production of crops may be in- THE VALUE OF BOTANY IN EDUCATION 71 creased beyond our present dreams.^ Furthermore, this is but one puzzle of a large group concerning the relations of plants to the soil, all of which are before the student of plant physiology for solution, and upon which the welfare of man depends. Again, and closely connected with the general problem of food supply is that of the improvement of crops by hybridiza- tion and selection. Here, too, we find that at an early date efforts were made to better the products Hytridiza- of plants, at first unconsciously and later empirically. Since the fuller understanding of the facts of evolution, our knowledge has been increased and clarified ; and within the last five years the activity of students in this direction has increased in a manner unparalleled in the history of botany. Some are going in for the more theoretical sides of the question and some for the practical sides, and it is remarkable that both classes of workers are gradually coming together on common ground. But the problem of crop improvement is not only a general one, but one requiring a special solution in each locality and for each. kind of crop. It is not the question of raising the best wheat, but the best wheat in Minnesota or Dakota. The botanist in one locality cannot necessarily answer the question for one of another, although common knowledge and mutual experiences contribute to the general end. For all these different workers, however, the facts of evolution, and of selec- tion, and of the possible improvements of plant races by hybridization — fimdaraental knowledge however imperfect, — are the basis for study and experiment, and such knowledge is the common inheritance, to be in ignorance of which is a mis- fortune individually and socially considered. It will be observed, however, that the work of the plant improver rests upon exact knowledge of the form Knowledge of and relationships of plants. Indeed, a knowledge ^lant Forms, of classification is fundamental to any broad understanding of 1 See Moore, G. T., Bacteria and the Nitrogen Problem. Yearbook United States Department of Agriculture, pp. 333-342- 1902- 72 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY plant problems and their solution. For a student, therefore, to have any fair conception of these matters, it is not enough to know something of their physiology, but also of their external appearances and relationships, — in short, of the basis of their classification. Such information is not alone useful in the direction above indicated, but also in many other practical matters. For example, there is no question as to the value of a public park in a crowded city, or indeed in a city of any kind. But suppose, in the planting of a large area of valuable park land that in the absence of a large proportion of exact information concerning plant forms the planting was carried out by guess- work. What would be the result in the waste of time and money and in the inferiority of ultimate results is only partially evident, but it would be too great to justify such a course to any but a very slight extent. But such a problem is the same as that which confronts every one who has even so little as a window garden to plan for ; for this much is a considerable task for most people.-' It is not too much, therefore, to say that the value of the information in the direction of knowing what plants to grow and how to care for them justifies in part the use of botany in education. Of course we must believe that much of such information may well have been obtained in the elementary school. When this is not the case, it should not be neglected in the high school ; and in any case the. work here should amplify the knowledge gained earlier by the application of broad principles. Not only is some knowledge of plant relationship valuable and necessary to the understanding to some degree of the importance and significance of the science of botany as related to man, but it is of itself a large and ennobling idea. It is knowledge of the highest type, and the kind which helps the mind to conceptions of nature which are impossible without it. To have information of this kind, coupled with the knowledge 1 Harshberger, J. W., Home and School Window Gardens. Educa- tion, i8: 555. May, i8g8. THE VALUE OF BOTANY IN EDUCATION 7i of the method of thought involved, gives us intellectual enjoy- ment, and in this the informational and eesthetic values of the study overlap. But plants, while all-important in their relation to food supply, and while the understanding of their structure and physiology is the only sure basis for the development of ability to plants are increase their value to us, are vastly important in ^^S^Matral- other directions. In them are the sources of hun- ais than Food, dreds of materials for the manufactures and for the healing of bodily ills. Among the plants, too, are those by whose agency many .of the arts are made possible, such as the preparation of cheese, hemp, and a long list of others ; and among the plants, again, are found the organisms which stand in causal relation to many plant and animal diseases. May we not in all truth say that for a boy or girl to pass out of the high school into life, where the. real struggle begins, without a fair appreciation of these matters is unfortunate ; and may we not believe that such appreciation means the broadening of the outlook and strength- ening of the moral and intellectual fibre ? Without unduly prolonging the presentation of these and similar claims, we may point out that the science of botany is in its informational content, both in extent and kind, second to no other science. It touches >upon human interests funda- mentally at every point, and these are of such a kind that to be ignorant of their relations to botany is to be robbed of that knowledge which throws light upon literature, the arts and the manufactures, and upon the conditions under which alone the human race may prosper. The citizen who is without a fair degree of such knowledge is unable to act intelligently in his relation to public affairs, and the efforts of the more enlight- ened classes toward the amelioration of the conditions of life can find but scanty support in the citizen of this type. A plan of general education, therefore, which neglects botany neglects one of the subjects which Herbert Spencer describes as having "transcendent value." ^ 1 Education : Intellectual, Moral, and Physical, p. 95., 74 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY We have adduced two arguments for the introduction of botany into the high-school course, the one from the aesthetic, the second from the informational aspects of bot- Vaiueoi any. We will now consider a third argument to the same end, — that, naniely, which is based upon its disciplinary value. This may be sought in those peculiarities of botanical science as such which differentiate it from other sciences, and in those characteristics of the subject which render it of special service in the presentation of particular topics, what in other words we may call its pedagogical advantages. It has been shown in the first chapter that those characters of educational import which distinguish a particular branch of science are due to its content of materials, and not to its method of thought, since the latter is common to all sciences and to every-day life.^ To attempt, therefore, to distinguish between zoology and botany in regard to their general values as disci- pline is unnecessary to our purpose. But it is, however, also true that a given science may, be- cause of peculiarities inherent in the materials, be more useful than others in illustrating particular phases of the scientific method. It may for the same reason be of special use for the study of certain parts of our knowledge, and therefore for making this knowledge real to the student. With regard to the first of these considerations it may fairly be claimed that botany lends itself to an especial degree to the Botany Espe- teacher and student for the study of physiology by for'feperi!?^ the experimental method. The materials are on mentation. jj^g v(,}iole easier to obtain and to keep in good con- dition, and illustrate most of the physiological processes of animals and plants equally well. Plants are more easily con- trolled than animals, and experimentation with them does not offend the sensibilities so easily. Furthermore, the photosyn- thetic activity of green plants offers a subject for beautifully simple and conclusive experiments which are capable of 1 Huxley, T. H., Science and Education, p. 45. THE VALUE OF BOTANY IN EDUCATION 75 thorough logical control. To be sure the reactions of plants are not usually sudden, and certain phases of the natural history of animals appear to have advantages in this ; for without doubt the quick responses of animals relieve the pupil of the exercise of patience, which in plant study is rather more neces- sary, while on the other hand the slowness of plant reactions un- doubtedly gives more opportunity for reflection. The work with animals is, however, on the whole of a less fundamental character, while their richness of variety of mechanisms consti- tutes a mass of materials which render them in this respect more attractive for study. This is illustrated in the matter of respiration. The rnechanical side of the operation in plants is reduced to the simplest conditions, while in animals the me- chanics are so varied and complex that to the student's vision the real nature of the operation may frequently become clouded, interesting as the mechanisms are. In plants, however, the anatomical aspect is so simple that the student is thereby brought more directly into contact with the physiological operation. These features of the study of botany are worth mention, not so much to show any absolute advantage over zoology, but rather to emphasize the importance of making the most of those parts of the subject which have special advantages. Again, germinating seeds and young seedlings are most ex- cellently adapted for illustrating various physiological processes bv experimentation. Materials are so cheap that - Usefulness of the cost is a negligible factor. Fundamental facts seedlings for . . ,.,.,. ,. r Experiment about irritability, adaptation, expenditure of energy, need and use of food, and respiration, are susceptible of conclu- sive proof with the minimum of apparatus and most simple conditions. Some teachers of botany have felt, with a degree of justification, that work with seeds appears to students of the high-school age as rather beneath their dignity. And so, in truth, it is in the hands of a teacher that does not know how to get the most out of experimentation, by enforcing a rigid appli- cation of methods of thought as applied thereto. We are in- clined to think that when a subject does not compel the respect 7^ THE TEACHING OF BOTANY of the student it is so because of the teacher's lack of compre- hension rather than the fault of the materials. A bit of bark covered with Pkurococcus in the hands of such a teacher would probably be as meaningless. The relation of plants to water is another topic for simple ex- perimentation which offers a splendid field for developing thought power, and further is capable of experi- Relationol , • , , j j r .u • , Plants to ments which may be graded from the very simple to the very difficult, with or without the use of the microscope. This subject has attracted a good deal of attention of late because of the prominent place it has been given in lead- ing text-books, and some very simple and beautiful experiments have been devised. We shall discuss these more in detail farther on ; our object here is again to emphasize the great im- portance and ease of this phase of botany and its correlated educational advantages. Another subject, as yet generally neglected but full of mean- ing, is that of digestion. It is possible with appropriate plant materials to demonstrate clearly with little cost of time and trouble all the essential features of a pro- cess, the understanding of which illuminates the knowledge of the analogous process in the human body in a remarkable way. Not only do plants serve a very useful turn in making simple experiments in fundamental physiology easily possible, but they offer materials which for the study of homology is Advantages „ j , .., . , . , forMorpho- unsurpassed, if equalled, by zoological materials. , logical Stndy. ^^ .. u\i, ^ i %- t i i u It IS true enough that plant morphology has be- come formal and comparatively meaningless. But in recent years the study has become revivified by the emphasis which has been laid on the study of living plants, and by the removal of subjective notions which have been allowed to grow up. Instead of accepting the dictum that plants have a definite number of elemental organs, of which all others are modifica- tions, a formal view handed down from Goethe,^ we have come 1 The teacher should acquaint himself with modern morphological THE VALUE OF BOTANY IN EDUCATION 77 to understand that these organs are not always present, nor are they the only categories of organs which a plant may have. The distinctions between the older and newer morphology are not, however, absolute, but they certainly stand in contrast when examined,^ and the most striking feature of the contrast is to be found in the more vital, dynamic conception of plants charac- teristic of the newer morphology. The advantages offered by plants in the study of morphology are to be found in the ease with which an experimental study of the uses and activities of homologous parts may be made. From such work it is learned that the physiological values of corresponding parts may vary and that corresponding structural differences exist. These facts serve to illustrate the fundamental biological principle that changes of the functions of organs are accompanied by corre- sponding changes in their form, a conception of the greatest worth in attempting to explain the morphology of organisms. For the purpose of such experimentation no materials are better adapted than, for example, developing seedlings, in which the homologies are few and apparent, and in which it is easy, to find wide variations of habit and function with all pos- sible intermediate conditions. Simple problems of this kind may be followed by others of gradually increasing difficulty, in the solution of which not only are the powers of observation and experiment exercised, but the immediate use of observation in thought is made possible. In the opening chapter occasion was taken to point out that perhaps the most subtle sociological problem which we have to face is that which, complex and elusive as it is, rests „ . , ^ . * Social rroD- in the first instance upon the simple fact of repro- lem Relating ■ r 1 J toSez. duction. The problem is, what may formal educa- tion do toward the raising of the moral tone of the community. It is lamentably true that the matters which concern life in the ideas by reading Goebel's Organography, and Spencer's Principles of Biolo^. 1 See Ganong, W. F., The Cardinal Principles of Morphology. Botanical Gazette, 31 : 426-434. June, 1901. 78 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY most intimate way, which when understood aright may make for human pro"gress and happiness, may and do make for deg- radation and misery incalculable and unthinkable. This is not the place for a disquisition upon the social good and evil related to sex, but it is the place to point out that, although the problem is ethical, psychological, and sociological, and therefore does not fall wholly within the province of biology, it nevertheless has its biological aspect, and that this in prac- tice is mainly educational. The word reform is in no great favor with the biologist, and he looks askance at heal-alls, for experience teaches him that betterment is a very slow process ; and the more complex and hidden the evil the slower its eradication. But he and the educator are one in the opinion that there is no safeguard of the mind and body more potent than knowledge. And while this is contested by many who mistake ignorance for innocence, it is not our province here to disabuse them. The educator must, however, reckon with the facts of prejudice and of the force of custom ; and, doing so, he must determine what course of action to take. In this as in other matters concerning human welfare, we are forced to an issue on the question whether we shall let chil- dren grow up in ignorance of certain facts and relations, and, relying upon the chances that things will take care of themselves largely, depend upon general precept and more or less exem- plary ensamples ; or whether we shall make the knowledge which every one should have the common property of youth, placing our faith in the exact and predetermined method of teaching, rather than shirk this responsibility. It is not for a moment to be doubted that in every so-called practical con- cern of life the second of these alternatives would be adopted. When we prepare a child for bu'siness we give him knowledge of the principles and practices of commerce ; if we wish him to be a good lawyer or physician or a skilful artisan we open to him all the knowledge upon which his succdss depends. What the State needs, however, above all things is good citizen- ship, good fatherhood and motherhood, good men and women, THE VALUE OF BOTANY IN EDUCATION 79 but do we in preparation for these give them even the funda- mental facts of needful knowledge ? What, then, may botany do to meet this demand? It is plainly the business of biology to teach the fundamentals of the whole scope of the study. On the physiological side, the knowledge of reproduction is fundamental and may not be ignored. Yet to do this without offence to prejudice and good feeling is not so easy as to see the duty of doing it. It becomes necessary to bring the essential facts of reproduction to the attention and understanding of high-school pupils so that they shall view them as a normal part of knowledge. Botany espe- Assuming the personal factor in the teacher to be tJ^^e^'*^ all that is desired, the materials found among; plants R?p:J^^*!* °* are especially well adapted to this end. This can be ^'"'■ done in a mixed class with full propriety, and with so much the more normal a result, by approaching the problem through the facts of vegetative reproduction, followed by the sexual method as seen in such a form as Spirogyra in which the gametes are practically equivalent. The next step is to the condition of heterogamy, and the more fundamental of secondary sexual characters are then noted. The absence of highly specialized secondary sexual characters makes it easy to avoid any pointed or suggestive discussion, while the main facts are sufficiently obvious. Let it be understood that it is the biological aspect of the matter alone with which the teacher has to do. His duty may be said to be done when he has made this phase of physiology as clear as he is expected to make other facts. For the rest we place our trust in the belief that right and pure ideas will assert themselves, and that the mind of the pupil will be the more frank and open to the exercise of moral living. We have attempted to show that the value of botany in edu- cation is threefold, corresponding to the aesthetic, in- Summary, formational, and disciplinary aspects of the subject. People are more or less interested in plants and their be- havior, and get pleasure from their contemplation. But 8o THE TEACHING OF BOTANY wider knowledge brings more materials for the mind to work with, and a heightened pleasure. As pure interest and enjoy- ment are the mainspring of human activity in general, as they are of the naturalist in particular, to increase the interest of the people in botany makes for more pleasurable and better living. The danger of " sentimentalisra " is pointed out, as well as the demand that botany shall do its part in the amelioration of human life in the higher sense. It is further shown that the extent to which the welfare of man is dependent upon the activities of plants is the measure of the informational value of botany. Some of the more im- portant relations are pointed out, among which are the depend- ence of man upon the photosynthetic activity of plants, and upon certain plants which become agents for making available the nitrogen of the air. Moreover, in the study of botany there are certain disciplinary values, which are peculiar to it in the extent of their practical apJ)lication. It is especially valuable for the study of funda- mental physiology by virtue of the nature of its materials, and lends itself peculiarly well to experimentation. It has certain advantages, due to the nature of its materials, in the study of simple morphology from a physiological aspect. Especially em- phasized is its usefulness in discovering to the young student the fundamental facts of reproduction in a clear, unhampered way ; as is also the duty of the teacher in doing this. For these three general reasons, it is argued that the value of botany is of definite and peculiar value in education, in addi- tion to the general value which it possesses in common with zoology and other sciences. CHAPTER IV PRINCIPLES DETERMTNING THE COWTENT OF A BOTANICAL COURSE BIBLIOGRAPHY Bessey, C. E. Discussion reported in Proc. N. E. A., p. 953. 1895. Bergen, J. Y. Botany as an Alternative in College Admission Re- quirements. Educational Review, II : 452. 1896. Campbell, D. H. Elementary Botany in the High School and College. School AND College, I ; 211. 1892. Cook, O. F. On Biological Text-Books and Teachers. Science, II., 9 : S4I-S4S- April, 1899. Gauong, "W. F. Advances in Science Teaching. Science, II., 9 : 96-100. 20 January, 1899. Ganong, W. F. Sugge'stions for an Attempt to Secure a Standard College Entrance Option in Botany. Science, II., 13: 6ii-5i6. 19 April, I go I. Ganong, W. F. The Teaching Botanist. New York. The Mac- millan Co. 1899. Ganong, "W. F., Lloyd, F. E. and Cowles, H. C. Fourth Report of a Committee appointed by the Botanical Society of America on the College Entrance Course in Botany. Publ. 35, Botanical Society of America. School Review. 16 : 594-600. November, 1908. Macbride, T. H. Botany : How Much and When. Read before the Iowa State Teachers' Association. December 28, 1898. Macmillan, C. Current Methods in Botanical Instruction. Educa- tion, 12 : 460. April, 1892. von Sachs, Julius. History of Botany. Oxford, 1890. Underwood, L. M. The Study of Botany in High Schools. Jour- nal of Pedagogy, g : No. 2. April, 1898. (Contr. Dept. Bot. Col. Univ. 144.) "Wager, H. The Teaching of Botany in Schools. School World, 3: 422. 1901. Botany for Schools. American Journal of Education, 4: 168- 175. 1829. In the foregoing chapter we have sought for botany a place in secondary education for the broad reasons of its esthetic, informational, and disciplinary values. It becomes our duty, assuming that botany shall have such a place, to determine 6 82 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY the principles underlying the selection of the content of the course. That this content shall be, in detail, the same for all high schools we would hardly claim, although we give adherence to the view that a generally accepted objective standard is desirable for several reasons. Botany must establish its right to a part in secondary edu- cation equally with other branches of study. Those studies which are best established have generally accepted Value of an j,ri ,• j • rTi_ Objective Standards of the quality and quantity of work to be expected. Although the mere acceptance of such a uniform standard does not establish the educational value and position of a study, at least no study which claims for itself such a place can be independent of the necessity of establish- ing a standard. The value of a uniform standard, then, in this regard is to be found in the general agreement thereby estab- lished as to what botany has in it of general educational value. A uniform standard is, in essence, a statement of what general knowledge botany contains which may be regarded as the best intellectual inheritance within its limits, and oflnteUectual what therefore is best for general knowledge and culture. If any subject has a content of this na- ture it ought to be possible to determine what it is, although it is not necessarily an easy task, since the relative newness of a subject and consequent unformed general opinion are obstacles, in some degree, to the solution of the question. Nevertheless, botanists on the one hand and educators in general on the other hand have cause for congratulation that this task has been partially done, and the results have been embodied in a report, now accessible to all interested, upon a college entrance option which represents an aggregate of opinion derived from many and wide sources.^ The contents of this report will receive consideration later. That this result is, in a peculiar sense, of very great value to botany as a science on the one hand and to education in gen- 1 Ganong, Lloyd and Cowles. Fourth Report of a Committee. CONTENT OF A BOTANICAL COURSE 83 eral on the other is evident from the fact that botany has had a very significant history in the annals of education.* Its history is unique in the circumstance that of all the phases of botanical study which are necessary and useful in J ^. , ^ , . J Great need In education, but one has received any great amount Botany of of attention, to the practical exclusion of the rest form Agree- without making good the usurpation by the use of the right scientific methods. We refer to the fact that classi- fication of the higher plants has been until recently the be-all and end-all of botanical study. What the position and value of this part of botany is in education we shall discuss beyond. Here it is sufficient to point out the result for which this singular state of affairs is in large part responsible. This is, that botany is usually thought to be a mere esthetic exercise, suitable only for girls. This idea we can trace back in Amer- ican education as far as 1829, when a contributor to a lead- ing journal of education ^ wrote that botany is peculiarly fitted for girls' schools, and is admirably adapted to the tastes, feelings, and capacities of females, " as is demonstrated by the fact that the majority of our botanists are females." Ludicrous as this idea seems to those whose experience has taught them that as for difficulty there is nothing to choose between botany and zoology, it is nevertheless a real and not imaginary state of affairs that botany to-day is reaping a harvest from the dissemi- nation of this impression. Both such misconception and con- sequent one-sided and perfunctory teaching, if it can be called teaching, have been the cause for the widespread notion that botany is a sort of play, with a quasi-scientific aspect, reserved for those intellectually incompetent persons who with idle time on their hands have nothing better to do than to acquire the simulacra of knowledge. It is this sort of thing that has won the undisguised contempt of people with wits, and we would beseech those who have the issues of sound education at heart to continue the lashings which from time to time they 1 Macmillan, C, '92. ^ American Journal of Ediuation, ^: 168-175. 1829. 84 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY have bestowed upon those who take such a superficial view of botanical education.^ It is frequently acknowledged by disinterested persons that they hold this unfortunate opinion about botany, and it is clear that they got it in their early education when the extent of their efforts at intellectual work based upon plants consisted in pick- ing a few flowers to pieces and groping about for suitable names to attach to them. In view, therefore, of such facts, and facts they are, it is plainly the duty of those who are responsible for the credit of botanical teaching that an end shall be put to this anomalous condition of things. This can be done by insistence upon proper training of teachers, and by presenting to school authorities and to the pubUc at large, a carefully considered, generally accepted form- ulation of what they believe to be the true content of botany for secondary education. The full understanding and recognition of such a formula is the great desideratum of botany at present, but one which, the facts warrant us to believe, will be satisfied in the near future. It will then remain for the teachers through- out the country to live up to the standard. Furthermore, a third reason for the formulation of a standard in botany is seen in the necessity of arranging a graded series of studies in science from the kindergarten to the college.^ The sciences in elementary schools take the form of nature study, and as such should contribute an adequate preparation for the work of the high schools. There should. Need of Graded , ^ , ^ , , ,. . ^ ,. Work in therefore, be no profitless duplication of studies, either in materials or in the nature of their study. If, then, a definite standard of what shall be the botany of the secondary school is generally accepted, and if such a stand- ard gives detailed information as to the scope and nature of the work, the remaining problem is to do those things in elemen- 1 An excellent editorial touching this and similar conceptions ap- pears in the New York Times' Saturday Review of Art and Literature for May 31, 1902. 2 Ganong, W. F., Advances in Science Teaching. CONTENT OF A BOTANICAL COURSE 85 tary education which shall serve at once its aims, and as prepara- tion for the more definite study of the separate sciences in the high school. Thus may the demand for a uniform, graded course of instruction be satisfied, and the practical equivalence of botany and of science with other fields of study be brought up to the now generally acknowledged theoretical equivalence. Another value of formulating a standard of this kind is the means it affords for the mutual information of botanists and teachers as to each other's views. In this way the differences of opinion are argued about, experiences compared and all possible facts bearing upon the subject are brought y^j^g ^^ ^ out. Some differences of opinion are thus re- fwS^g^ moved, while others are justified and remain as a Views, goad to further research into the reasons for them. There is necessarily some compromise, but concessions should not be made for the sake of peace. Differences should be looked at honestly and removed only upon a clear understanding of the problems they represent, and upon the mutual agreement that the problems are fairly solved. Such a standard serves also to hold before intending teachers an index ,_^_ ^ of the amount and quality of their teaching. It tionof will forbid one-sidedness both in method and materials, and what is still more important, it will demand adequate preparation for teaching, without which all attempt at a betterment of botany in secondary education will be of little avail. This sort of service has been done from time to time by thoroughly good text-books for secondary schools. The authors of these books have been men of reputation and authority and with genuine interest in elementary education in botany. Concerning such works we shall have more to say. But such standards as are generally accepted are, because of their formulated character, not without their drawbacks, due largely, however, to a misconception of their uses. There is the tendency toward the making of text- ^^gj^^ books which contain just what the standard calls for, and with it the tendency to use these books in cramming 86 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY for examinations. The work then becomes mechanical. Things are remembered, but no point of view or method of thought is gained. These bad results have been evident for a long time in England, where the examination system has attained a high degree of false importance. The danger in America is not, however, very great, since the standard as such need not be known except to teachers, and since the numbers of those who qualify for entrance to college, while constantly on the increase, will never constitute a very large proportion of those who have to remain content with high-school work. The danger may be further offset by a thoroughgoing effort to shape the questions of examinations in such a way as to make the candidate use his knowledge in answering them, rather than to call for a cate- gorical answer of a number of facts held in the memory. Such boards of examiners as the College Examination Board of the Middle States and Maryland have it in their prerogative and power to do a great deal toward enforcing the right kind of instruction by insisting upon the careful formulation of ques- tions to the end of calling forth the best thought- of Proper effort of the student. This is true also of the work of the teacher. It is of the utmost importance that he shall be skilled in questioning, in doing which he should always keep in mind the principle that, at every turn, the pupil shall be compelled so to arrange his facts that they shall stand in clear logical relation to his generalizations and inferences. This applies to the conducting of laboratory work as well as to the quiz. We shall return again to the form and uses of questions in botanical work. For such a large country as America, again, it is not possible, and if it were, it would be unprofitable to expect the accep- tance of a detailed standard, for the reason that Fosslt)le Sup- preaslonofin- the conditions here and there are widely differ- diyldnallty. , . j , • , , . , . , ent. And obviously a great hindrance is to be found in the wide difference of floras. The teacher should, however, know the flora of his own region, and should use the materials available for study, rather than attempt to use those CONTENT OF A BOTANICAL COURSE ■ 87 forms which may be mentioned in the books. Again, in at- tempting to live closely to standard there would inevitably be some impatience at an artificial hard-and-fast criterion. So long- as teachers, too, are scientists, as it is to be hoped they always will be, so long will there be a large amount of individuality in their teaching. Too many detailed instructions and demands tend to curtail the teacher's freedom of action, and individuality is likely to be lost, a condition which is earnestly to be avoided. While not closing our eyes to the possible disadvantage of such an arrangement, we see in a general standard very definite values which more than compensate for the dangers. These are (i) in the interest of the science itself which " as a study has become low in public opinion, good public opinion," '■ by making it plain to all who have interest in the matter that a good course in botany is possible and what the content of such a course should be. (2) As a means of unifying opinion, and of bringing that degree of uniformity which must obtain in a course from the kindergarten to the college before any study can rightly claim a permanent place in a system of education. Thus, in fact, may botany be shown to be on a par with other studies, behind which it must not fall as a means of training and culture in the widest sense. A standard is necessary, also, in bringing the colleges into closer touch with the high school, and so contributing to the uniformity of education in general. (3) A generally accepted standard is also of great value in edu- cating teachers, and it tends, through them, to bring teaching to a uniformly high standard of excellence in quality and quantity. The formulation of an optimum standard is, however, one thing, and its general acceptance in the fullest , ^x , . ', , • r General Prin- sense another. No one havmg the real mterests of cipies tmder- lyingf Conrae education at heart will either attempt to force the in Botany adoption or will himself adopt a standard without seeking for its rationale. We have held, moreover, that it is only 1 Ganong, W. F., Advances in Science Teaching. 88 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY in a. large way that such may be received in a big country with wide differences in available materials and in the individuality of teachers. What, therefore, is of more fundamental importance is to reach a general agreement upon principles which shall be kept in mind in planning and carrying out a course in botany. If such principles can be formulated and are generally accepted, general agreement on the content of the course will follow nat- urally. What, then, are these principles ? We shall state what appears to be the answer to this question as a series of propo- sitions which in order to clearness and mutual understanding are separated from each other. The first of these is based upon the fact that in a very wide and real sense the high school is the college of the people. Only a very small proportion will ever find further Botany in the ' .. . f , ,. , , High School opportunities for study than it supplies ; and of must he Bot- , , , . / , . / , any for the those who do enjoy further opportunity for educa- TVTflsscs tion, few will continue to pursue the study of bot- any. It follows, then, that whatever is done in botany in the high school must be planned and carried out first of all and principally for the high-school pupil, and only secondarily for the candidate for the college. In the course in botany, there- fore, the pupil must find those elements of the study which will fit him better for his struggle with circumstances than he would be fitted without it. Such a course must, therefore, be regarded not as training in order to make botanists, or to pass an exam- ination, but it must have as its aim the opening of the mind to the realm of botanical fact and thought, so as to equip the average person with those qualities and abilities which will but- tress his character and make him a more intelligent and thoughtful citizen. This is to be compassed by adherence to other principles to be mentioned, of which one is, that the choice of topics and materials shall include those Permanent which will contribute to the present and permanent interest of the student. No good can be accom- plished by a study in which there is not some real, live interest on the part of the pupil, and this is especially true of those CONTENT OF A BOTANICAL COURSE 89 Studies which do not have the inertia derived from long accep- tance and from obvious usefulness. Children may not like to' study arithmetic, but they know that it must be studied an howeveir, be regarded as very weighty ones. The latter could be met in an ideal school by properly grading the work, and there is no doubt that this should be done. The former recognizes a supercilious attitude on the part of the pupil which should be overcome by the skill of the teacher. It would seem, therefore, that a choice between these two methods will usually be determined according to the circum- stances with which a teacher finds himself surrounded, and by his convictions as to what method of approach is the better. I am myself of the opinion that for the high school the method of beginning with the more familiar objects such as fruits or seeds is pedagogically the better of the two, especially if, as often happens, the course in botany extends only over half a year. The ideas. which should grow out of high-school study must be scientific ideas, and these, in spite of some degree of familiarity with the material, are sufficiently unfamiliar to the student to give him vigorous mental work if he is properly led to it and if the right kind of problems are given him to solve. And I have decided on this course in spite of the unhappy experience of finding that students in many cases had the attitude towards work on seeds above mentioned. The method employed was in appearance to ignore the pupil's attitude, and to adjust the recitation so that the ignorance of such persons was laid bare. It is usually not long before they are disabused of their prejudices. 122 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY There have now been examined and criticised all the main Snmmaryand types of botany courses, or courses involving Conclusion. botany, which have at any time had any large amount of recognition. These may, by way of summary, be mentioned as follows : 1. The herbalist type — consisting chiefly of collecting a limited number of the flowering plants and of analyzing and naming them. A small amount of text-book work on physiology was sometimes, though seldom, added. 2. The "type course," consisting of a study of a series of plant and animal forms, or of plant forms alone, selected to illustrate the course of evolution. The order was sometimes reversed, and physiological matters were largely absent. 3. The plant and animal type course — making two forms studied comparatively the basis for a course in elemen- tary biology. 4. The course taking up the great divisions of the science, morphology, physiology, classification, and ecology. Characterized chiefly by lack of co-ordination, and usually by the abeyance of classification. The last three represent a reaction from the first type of course. 5. The synthetic course, an advance upon (4) in that greater emphasis is laid upon the correlation of morphology and physiology. Hence a dynamic point of view is taken and carried out, though this point of view is not neces- sarily absent from (4) or even from the others. In point of fact, however, it usually has been. Viewed historically, these courses stand in the order above given, (i) being the oldest, (4) and (5) being modern ex- pressions of practice and of diiferences of opinion. It is not my purpose to pass final judgment upon the merits of these two as compared with each other. Opinion and experience among secondary teachers, and among those most competent to judge, is clearly in favor of (4) or (5) as better than any of the others for the high school. I therefore conclude that the VARIOUS TYPES OF BOTANICAL COURSES 123 present differences of opinion, and the reasons advanced in their support, should come under searching criticism on the part of the intending teacher. For my own part, I can say only that my own experience and judgment favors the syn- thetic course, beginning with the more familiar materials. CHAPTER VI USB OF THE METHOD OF THOUGHT Hf TEACHINO BOTAJJTY I PROPOSE now to take up for consideration certain points in the method of acquiring botanical knowledge, with a view to their bearing upon the teaching of this science. Belief in the efficacy of the " method of discovery " for the pupil is based upon the assumption that each of us must constantly re-discover for himself what those who have gone before have discovered. That the same method of knowledge acquisition is used by all is true in general ; but as regards the body of knowledge itself, it is certainly false to suppose that it is profitable or possible laboriously, to attempt to repeat the experience of the race in a single life. What is accumulated experience good for ? And how is progress possible unless we can use previously deter- mined results ? It is significant that in teaching we illustrate well-established knowledge rather than discover new truth ; and much of this is necessary before any one of us may be fortunate enough to advance the limits of knowledge. It will therefore be profitable for the teacher to examine the method by which botanical knowledge is gained, in order that he may be guided in his teaching to right pedagogical habits ; thus he may rather be the more truly a leader to his pupils than a setter of tasks. ! The important desideratum in teaching botany, as in other ■ objective sciences, is to make it possible for the pupil to realize ■ the knowledge which is his by right of inheritance. To do this, however, he must, to some degree at least, repeat the experience of his intellectual forebears in the use of the methods by which they obtained their knowledge. This is quite a different doctrine from that of the method of discovery. Practically, it teaches that pupils should gain a thorough METHOD OF THOUGHT IN TEAVHING 125 acquaintance with the method of acquiring botanical knowledge by using it. By learning how botanical knowledge 1, u • J i_ , , • , , , T How Botanl- has been gained, the results which have been ob- cal Knowledge tained in other fields as well will have a proper significance for him. To do this, he must first be taught to observe. " To see a natural object as it is, correctly and com- pletely,"^ is a scientific victory, without which none other can be gained. The immediate end in view is to form a mental image of the thing observed — not to remember statements about it, but the thing itself as having dimensions, a certain form, color, and other qualities. Theoretically, the acquisition of facts is a perfectly simple operation and in an ideal condition of education we ought to be able to assume that pupils coming from the elementary school have pushed their ability in this direction to some con- siderable degree of perfection. The facts, however, do not permit us to assume this. There is repeated testimony that pupils of high-school grade and even beyond are usually com- pletely lost when they are asked to form a clear notion of some simple, natural object." If this is even partly true it is idle, pedagogically considered, to require a beginner in botany to make his earher observa- tions with an instrument. It would seem to be beyond dis- pute that, if a student cannot use' his unassisted senses to good effect, to introduce a system of lenses between the eyes and the object tends to confusion. It certainly does so in the njajority of cases. Even if we pass by the technical difficulties of using the instrument, there is a psychological difficulty in the inability of a beginner to reconstruct, from a series of optical sections, an image of a solid object. This is a very great and real difficulty, unappreciated by the majority of teachers who forget their early difficulties. Thus a yeast cell, according to a beginner's observation, is an oval plane ; Spiro- 1 Ganong's TeachingBotanist. 2 Farlow, W. G., Biological Teaching in Colleges. Popular Science Monthly, 28 : 581. March, 1886. 126 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY gyra is a band or ribbon, and not a cylinder.^ The difficulty is increased when the object is too large to be included in the field of the microscope, in which case the student must needs reconstruct in the directions of all the dimensions. In view of the difficulty of forming a notion of a single entire object, we must believe that we have in this a grave hindrance to the exercise of the operations of comparison — of distinguishing likenesses and differences, and of forming a notion of a type. For what we must aim at is not alone Forming: a Notion of the seeing of a single object, but rather the con- struction of a general group of objects. Assum- ing the object to be a seed or a leaf, what we desire is that a student shall study, not one specimen, and know that one-, but that, by the study of several, he shall eliminate by comparison the non-essential differences, get at the constant elements of form, of structure, and the like, so that he shall thus obtain a type notion. This is the more necessary in view of the exigencies of teaching which lie in the possibility, in a short time, of giving the student an opportunity at every point of forming a type notion from his own observations. We must allow time at the beginning of a course for the student to culti- vate the ability to form the notion of a type from his own observations. But we have to use the mental attitude thus gained, in getting knowledge later on more rapidly. For example, in a course commencing with the seed, a good number of seeds of the same plant may be examined with fair speed, and a general idea may thus be formed. But in the later anatomical study of the stem the time is insufficient for the student to do the same thing for, say, monocotyledonous stems. The mere remark that there are exceptions means 1 In training students, who are ready for such work, to get a mental image of three dimensions, one very good way is for them to study a cell of Spirogyra, and then to reconstruct an optical transverse section. Another method is to require students to reconstruct a piece of pine wood in three dimensions, from longitudinal, transverse, and tangential sections. This plan was first used by Professor W. G. Farlow. METHOD OF THOUGHT IN TEACHING 12J nothing unless the exceptions are actually examined, unless some grasp has been gained of the value of comparison, and of the dependence we may place on a type, in point of useful- ness. I should say that the early work of a course may be regarded as successful in this direction, if the pupil should ask to see other stems so as to test the validity of the type ; and further, that it would be good practice for teachers to be provided with drawings, photographs, lantern slides, or demon- stration for several kinds of stems, and to show these to the class, following a careful study of the essential features of the specimens supplied. We desire, then, that pupils shall get the ability to determine correctly the features of an object, to compare this with others of the same kind, and by comparison to get the facts common to a number of objects. In this way is gained the knowledge of a group as expressed in a type. This is, of course, not to be confined to closely similar objects ; the same process applied to objects of greater differences is more difficult and calls for greater mental grasp. Thus we may first study the fruits of one species, then of another species ; still again of a third ; but we must soon institute a comparison of these differ- ent fruits in order to lead the pupil to a somewhat compre- hensive notion of the fruit in general. It is, furthermore, important that the materials shall be such as to offer fair con- ditions for observation. It is not just to ask a student to see things which are difficult for an accomplished observer to see ; as, for example, to compare two objects, unless with a fair amount of diligence, all the points of comparison may be made out, or may be seen to be absent in one or both. The seed of the onion, for instance, is far too difficult for a high-school student to study in comparison with, say, the pea. It is per- tinent, also, to point out that the objections against the use of the microscope early in the course do not hold value of a for the use of a simple lens. It is a common simple Lens, experience that, having once seen some rather minute character with a hand lens, it becomes distinct enough afterward to the 128 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY naked eye. I have found that, distinct as is the micropyle on a lima bean, it will often escape the attention until searched for and found with a lens. It is thereafter readily seen with the naked eye and the same feature will the more readily be found on other kinds of seeds. Such morphological ideas as the above may be gained, as we have shown, by comparing different objects as to the cor- How the Idea respondence or homology of their parts. But meSJ^'"'^ comparison has a further use, for when we apply Gained. jhig method to the same object or organism in different stages of its growth we gain an idea of development. Just as the rapidly passing pictures of a kinetoscopic series give, by the exact and rapid superposition of one on the other, the impression of movement of the elements of the pictures, so the superimposed images of a plant in various stages in its development supply the elements out of which the idea of change in form is obtained. This is most desirable, in order to the end, elsewhere specified, that students should get a dynamic viewpoint. What has been said above in regard to acquiring knowledge of form, that is, of gaining morphological ideas, is equally true with regard to physiological ideas. These also, in General Phys- °, , , • j , ■ loiogicai general form, can be obtamed only by comparison. It would be unscientific after having observed the behavior of a given organ in one plant, to assert that the be- havior of the corresponding organ in another plant is the same. Being familiar with the structure of corresponding physiological parts, we may infer that the functions of similarly constructed parts are the same. But this inference is possible only after the comparative study of function as of structure. For the pupil, however, much comparison is impossible. He must therefore be content with illustration of behavior, or, otherwise stated with a physiological type, chosen with due regard to its value as such. There is, in physiology, a special application of the method of comparison in the control experiment, and it is of the high- METHOD OF THOUGHT IN TEACHING 129 est importance that the teacher appreciates its value both as a means for gaining knowledge, and for efficient teaching. Essentially the method of control is simply the control setting up of an experiment in duplicate, one Experiment condition only being varied. Theoretically it is a comparison of the behavior of a normal plant and one under experiment. If, for example, we desire to know the behavior of a given plant in the absence of carbon dioxid, we must know what it is in its presence in normal quantities. But to determine the former, an apparatus is necessary, which may or may not cause the introduction of other abnormal conditions, such as extreme humidity. To bring this under control, therefore, a similar apparatus in which the normal amount of carbon dioxid is present must be set up, and both experiments must be surrounded by like conditions of light, temperature, etc. If this is properly done but one factor will differ in the experi- ment and control ; and upon this, differences in structure and in behavior will depend. The teacher will readily see the ped- agogical advantage of the control experiment. Since it is only by such means that we can learn the exact truth, so also is it possible to teach scientifically only by the use of the same method. Observation and comparison of their form and behavior are, then, the steps to knowledge of plants. We should not neglect to mention, however, the mental condition ° Amount of under which work of this kind may be accom- Work in a Lesson plished, namely patience. No one learns a lesson in geometry in one step ; ability in use of language cannot be acquired at once. No more can a task in botany be compre- hended at a glance. To be willing to see and acquire knowl- edge of facts as such is part of the scientific attitude. Pupils are very likely to become restive under a task in the labora- tory, and this is due often to the apparent uselessness of the work. But this work of observation is unavoidable. It is, however, most true that we should not, as teachers, insist on the acquisition of a large number of observations without giv- 9 I30 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY ing direction to the mind of the pupil. Making a lot of un- necessary drawings or of detail beyond a certain useful limit is wasteful. Bootless fact-gathering is as bad in one place as another. Patience and willingness to examine things and make them out are begotten of success in using those already attained. Success is the ground for faith that other facts whose meaning is not at once clear will become related and significant sooner or later. The patience of the real naturalist is the expression of belief that, as his efforts to find the rela- tions of facts have succeeded in the past, so further efforts will succeed. But a high-school pupil has little or none of such experience. The teacher must, therefore, make it worth while to him, but without doing his work. The more the pupil finds himself gaining the power of self-direction the more will his work seem to him worth while. The indiscriminate observa- tion of many facts is a far different thing from intelligent, selective observation. That training may be regarded as suc- cessful in proportion as it stimulates the pupil to efficient self- directed effort. While it is highly important that the teacher should not de- mand the observation of too many or of unimportant facts, but should the rather skilfully use the fewer important Sidelights . , , ,, , , .,, ontabora- necessary ones, it does not follow that the pupil's tory Work. ■ , , „ , , , , , , r ... mind shall be completely excluded from the inci- dental consideration of accepted ideas or theoretical expla- nations of some of the more important features. The scientist in the search for truth must be a dispassionate ob- server of facts apart from their meaning, and it is of great educational value, as Ganong has well said, that students should learn this. This is the ideal of which Darwin^ was so com- plete a master. Nevertheless, it is just as true that it is a perfectly normal operation of the mind to search all the while for explanations ; and whether these are ultimately proved to be true or not, they are the product of the scientific imagina- See his autobiography. METHOD OF THOUGHT IN TEACHING 131 tion, and they serve as stimuli to quicken the powers of acqui- sition and to give them direction. Now my contention is that in the school we as teachers should help students to think, and we can do this by indicating in some manner the significance of some of the facts with which they are dealing without disturbing certain definitely outlined problems. The truth of this position is indicated by the fact that interested students are constantly asking for explanations, and a refusal to illuminate their work is justified only when it really vitiates their problems for them. Furthermore, a good teacher can use such opportunities to illustrate, by his own answers, the judicial attitude of the real student of nature. This matter is illustrated by the treatment of the micropyle in the first studies of the seed. Such a constant and familiar structure often elicits inquiry as to its value, to which, in answer, one may say that it is regarded by some as a point for the rapid absorption of water, and it is certainly utilized in very many plants for the access of the pollen tube. The former explanation, the. teacher may point out, is capable of immediate experimental examination. The micropyle may be sealed with soft paraffin, the seed placed in water, and the tissues watched. This should by all means be done. He may expand upon the second statement to indicate the extent of the problem, during which it may be said that, in some plants (^Cannabinacece) the micropyle becomes closed by fusion of the perimicropylar tissues, which single fact will show that it is not a necessary condition, but one which may have been seized upon by the pollen tube as an advantage. Not only, then, must the student, by his own labor observe and think and experiment. The teacher must by skilful guid- ance be an inspiration to his students. Above all things he need not be an encyclopsedia, but rather a living example of skill in the use of the scientific method. This demands on the part of the teacher knowledge and good training. Every course in botany should be a unit in the sense that every new lesson should take for its departure the point already 132 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY reached by previous studies. Each exercise should, there- fore, be made the occasion (i) of acquiring new facts and (2) of leading the student by comparison with previously learned facts to formulate logical conclusions; i. e., should call for the exercise of the method of thought. That the study of plants may not become merely a study of formal morphology or of taxonomy, the ideas of the organism and of its activities should be kept steadily in mind. We shall now take up the problem of the early exercises in botany, and see what materials we may choose and how these shall be managed. The majority of teachers in elementary courses have ad- Eariy Lessons vocated beginning such with the study of the in Botany. seed. A fuller discussion of this point has been given elsewliere. Ganong has especially advocated this pro- cedure. " There is nothing known to me better than large seeds, which have the further advantages of being easy to obtain and in con- dition for study at all seasons, as well as a logical point of begin- ning for the study of the cycle of plant life. The correct sizes and shapes of these seeds, the exact kinds and relative positions of all of the markings on the coats and their relations to the parts of the embryo inside, the number of the coats, the full number of parts in the embryo, and the exact way they are put together, all afford under the skilled teacher fine materials for practice in observation, a failure to succeed in which cannot be laid to inability to use instruments, or ignorance of how to begin work." ^ \i have myself, while agreeing with Ganong in principle, taken a somewhat different position.^ In the passage just quoted the phrase "a logical point" has no par- Beginning . , , ^ . , . , , , wlthtbe ticular force, since it admits that there are other equally logical points for starting the study of botany. One of these is the fruit, which, after some years of experience with the other method, I have found to be 1 The Teaching Botanist, p. 35. ^ The Course of Botany in the Horace Mann School. Teachers College Record, Vol. II. METHOD OF THOUGHT IN TEACHING 1 33 especially useful for the following reason. The largest and only really useful monocotyledonous type for the study of the develapment of the seedling, which is at the . Beginning same time readily accessible, is the "grain" of with the Indian corn {Zea Mays) . Besides being large, it germinates quickly, the parts are readily observable, and it is one of the most important of American food plants. The greatest objection to it is found in the fact that the "grain" is a fruit, the contained seed being devoid of seed-coats which have been lost by absorption, and being closely in- vested by the thin membranous pericarp. This circumstance gives trouble, not alone to students, but to many teachers, and I have often had evidence of this in the note-books of high- school pupils. The amount of success which sometimes attends the efforts to find the micropyle is quite remarkable. Of course it is not there, the seed-coats being absent. Even if the teacher is fully aware of the difficulties, explanations often go for nothing. The student does not have any facts at his disposal which will help him to form his own judgments. I lay particular emphasis upon this point, because it is at the beginning of a course that we must make especial efforts to give the student a chance to get clear ideas. This is entirely avoided if the fruit is made the point of departure, and I have used the pea or bean for this purpose. The treatment in detail will be seen upon examination of the outline in the eighth chapter. A further point which I have been accustomed to emphasize in consonance with the dynamic idea of plants which has been discussed above is that of development. In the compare first few lessons on the seed as generally carried JtaSsrfD^* out no facts are brought out with this aim in view, veiopment. By using two or three stages of development the relative growth of the different regions of the fruit and of the enclosed seeds can be made out, and the exercise has been found ex- tremely useful in later work. There is a difficulty which must be noticed at this point, 134 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY namely, that it is not possible for a beginner to make out in all the forms studied every feature which can be seen in some one fruit and its seeds. For example, the micropyle is seen readily enough in the seed of the lima bean, of the pine. Incomplete ^'^^ '^^1 '^'I'Ca. great acuteness of observation in the Evidence. castor-oil seed, and not at all in Indian corn, as above pointed out. It becomes, therefore, an exercise in judg- ment on the part of the pupil in concluding from incomplete evidence that a given object is a seed in a morphological sense. But on the other hand it has seemed to me that beginners may not be expected to understand the seed-coats at all, a point which is usually insisted upon. Although there are two integuments in the types mentioned above except in the pine they become indistinguishable in the legume by fusion ; they do not separate from each other in Ricinus in their dividing plane (the test is, in fact, only a part of the inner integument) so that it is incorrect to call the inner integument the 'tegmen' or 'endopleura' and the outer the (testa). In Indian corn they have been absorbed, and in the pine only one integument is present, the delicate membrane imme- diately surrounding the endosperm being a remnant of the nucellus. The evidence is, therefore, so scanty and so difficult to get at that it is too severe and confusing a task for the be- ginner, and would therefore best be omitted. In the later years of the high school or for more mature students in gen- eral an account of the behavior of the seed- coats illustrated by charts and microscopic propositions has in my experience proved of interest and instruction. CHAPTER VII GENEBAXi BOTAiriCAIi FBIIfCIFIiBS TO BS EMFHASIZKD IN TBACHmO BIBLIOGRAPHY Agassiz, Ii. Method in the Study of Natural History. Boston, Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 1887. Bailey, L. H. The Survival of the Unlike. New York, The Macmillan Co. 1897. Spencer, H. Principles of Biology. New York, D. Appleton & Co. 1898. Goebel, K. Organography, Part I. Oxford, 1900. The teacher of botany has before him in the choice of material a complex task. The management of these in the class room is also difficult, since they offer so many points of interest and attack. The danger which a teacher is not un- likely to fall into is, therefore, that of touching on a great many facts, and of failing to keep in sight the broad ideas which are derived from the study. What these are I shall now attempt briefly to discuss. According to the outline we shall adopt, the subject-matter of botany is divided into four parts : Morphology and anatomy, physiology, ecology, and classification. These may be ar- ranged in two groups, structural and physiological, in order to see what the general ideas of plants are which these two classes of ideas should endeavor to deal with in the course. We take them in the order given.* I. Anatomy and Morphology, the structure of organisms, in a broad sense. 1 The student should consult Chapter I. of Parts IV. and V. Spencer's Principles of Biology. 136 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY (i) The possibility of the type conception rests upon the observed fact of " uniformity " in plan or conformity to a type. Objective types are non-existent; but for omo ogy. practical purposes they may be chosen as express- ing objectively, with more or less exactness, the subjective idea. The observed fact of " uniformity " in plan is that within limits plants possess similar organs of similar origin similarly placed, the obvious (sense-appreciable) results of similarly responsive reactions to similar stimuli. The idea of type is therefore a generalized notion arrived at by comparison, a point of method discussed above. The determination of similar parts and their similar positions (the criterion of which is largely similarity of origin) is the determination of homology. This explains the prevalence of the use of the words "type" and " typical " in the above outline, and it constitutes also the reason for the wise choice of types. These must be as gen- eralized as possible, free from detail of specialization, i. e., as little aberrant as may be. (2) The fact that the origin of orgarts does not indicate their functions, and therefore {a) that homologous organs may serve widely different uses, and (b') that the same use in the economy of the plant may be subserved by organs of different origin, makes it necessary to determine by observation and experi- ment what the function of a given organ may be. We thus arrive at the idea of analogy in organisms. Ex- amination of analogous organs discovers the fact that though unlike in some structural features they are alike in others, from which the important generalization is derived that the structure of an organ is connected with its function. Structure here means form as well as anatomy. It is a broad inference, but one growing in importance and recognition, that all morphological structures are the expression of function. The study of morphology cannot, then, be separated from the study of physiology. From these considerations we conclude that types' chosen for study shall be such as to illustrate diver- BOTANICAL PRINCIPLES IN TEACHING 137 gence of function in homologous parts. We conclude, also, that in elementary education cognizance should be taken chiefly of the functions and activities of the organism and to a minor degree of the morphological and anatomical considera- tions connected therewith. Therefore, I hold that the intro- duction of experiment is of the greatest importance both for the determination of function and of emphasizing the dynamic phase of plant study. (3) The organism passes through a cycle of change known as its life history or ontogeny. These changes are from a simple undifferentiated to a complex differentiated condition. The study of various stages in the growth and development of individuals supplies the materials for getting a record o! these changes. For this purpose types should be chosen which show some marked ontogenetic changes, which if possible epitomize the phylogeny and which are fairly rapid in their development. In plants, the embryo- logical history is so much curtailed that comparatively few plants serve sufficiently well for elementary work, but among these the LeguminoscB axe. the best. The study of the life cycle connects itself with that of reproduction in the process by which a new similar life cycle is started. A plant begets on the whole its like, from which there results a morphological stability. The fact that more or less aberration from the parent occurs, and that life cycles do not repeat themselves exactly as to individual differences in all instances, if in any, is of great importance from the viewpoint of evolution. (4) Just as there is, in the individual, a series of changes from simple to complex, from the relatively undifferentiated to the differentiated (ontogeny), so, in the history of ' organisms, as a whole, have there been such changes (phylogeny). The descent of each particular organism is, theoretically, traceable through a series of successively more and more specialized forms. The evidence as regards s plant is, however, chiefly obtained from comparative study of existing 138 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY organisms, and to a less degree from fragmentary records of the past found in fossils, and it is not easy to arraign the evidence in elementary work. Nevertheless, the modern doctrine of evolution, which was arrived at first by the study of animals and plants, is a far too important generalization from the point of view of education as well as of science to be neglected in the high school. Furthermore, it is chiefly, if not entirely upon the courses in botany or zoology that the high-school pupil must depend for enlightenment in this direction. It therefore becomes necessary to choose the materials which, in as brief and clear a manner as possible, will serve best as a basis for illustrating the great generalization of modern biological science. The evidence in the study of living plants can be drawn most directly from the study of alternation of genera- tions, and for this purpose beautiful material may be obtained among the Bryophyta (mosses and liverworts) and Pterido- phyta (ferns and fern allies). We can, however, scarcely take the ground that in the high school there can be attempted more than a brief exposition of evolution and a summarizing of the more striking evidences, though it would seem that people should not be wholly ignorant of the facts of variation, mutation, adaptation, the struggle for existence and inheritance, nor inappreciative of the importance of these for the explanation of evolution. Never- theless, the popular acceptance of the theory must rest upon its reasonableness rather than explicit and final proof. The study of the modus operandi of evolution is, I believe, not a subject for the high school. Concerning this, we can boast chiefly of our ignorance. It is theoretical and taxes the inteUigence and the experimental ability of the most astute minds. Difficult, however, as it may be to deal with the subject, the skilful teacher can find abundant opportunity for illustration and exposition. Field work is of especial value in this con- nection because by this means the pupil can be brought into contact with a large amount of material. This may be en- BOTANICAL PRINCIPLES IN TEACHING 139 hanced in its value to him by following up a judicious selection of reading. It is, of course, not assumed that all these ideas shall be mastered by the pupil while studying the materials selected for this part of the course. As is seen from our discussion of these points, they depend upon and assume the work in physiology, ecology, and classification. But the adoption of these ideas as part of the aim of the course is expected to lead the teacher to a certain economy in the selection of materials, and to this we shall pass in the next chapter. We have spoken above of differentiation and of adaptation. Both of these ideas are of prime importance, and we brmg them before the reader agam to em- tionand phasize the importance of the physiological view- point. The differentiation of organic structure is the result of physiological division of labor. A function becomes localized in the organism and at that point a special organ is developed. This differentiation is a response to the sum total of environ- mental conditions, and constitutes adaptation. The problem of adaptation, as also of the division of labor, is a physiological problem, and is to be studied as far as possible experi- mentally. I have elsewhere indicated the importance of this. This is the essence of the method of study in ecology, which is supplanting the method of the guesser, who, assuming design, assumes also that any subjective idea which appears to fit really does so. For this reason ecology is a difficult subject as well as a complex one, to the study of which all kinds of knowledge needs to be brought. There is always doubt about an ecological explanation which has not been subjected to some rigorous test, experimental so far as pos- sible. In elementary education, time and other circumstances do not always allow much more than the emphasis of the view- point and method, unless many other features of interest are sacrificed. It will be clear, it is hoped, that no consideration of mor. I40 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY phological materials is possible, from the point of view of modern science, or profitable educationally, which is not directed from the physiological basis. This has been em- phasized in the discussion of the nature of the synthetic course, especially by Ganong^ and myself." 2. Physiology. The outline of the work, in physiology is sufficiently detailed to be for the most part self-explanatory. There are, however, some matters of general bearing which should receive consideration. Aside from photosynthesis the fundamental physiology of plants and of animals is much the same. The activities in the Correiatloii ^"^^ groups of organisms differ quantitatively. It "dJAY^i '^ °^ fundamental importance educationally that Physiology, tijg study of plant physiology be so managed as to strengthen and broaden the knowledge previously gained in earlier studies of physiology. It is equally important that the most fundamental point of difference — namely, the relation to food — should be studied both from the scientific and human viewpoints. The student should, therefore, be led to as full and complete a knowledge of photosynthesis as possible, since it is chiefly to this act that many of the most important plant adaptations are related. The only degeneracy in plants of fundamental importance is that of the loss of chlorophyl. The wide human interest of the process of photosynthesis has been discussed. That the adaptations of plants are in very large measure correlated with their photosynthetic activity is explicable only as the organism acts as a unit. Its parts do not The Plant as . f , , , . , , a Whole with react independently, but with reference to the Mutual Inter- whole economy of the plant, and physiological activity must be so interpreted. Adaptation is seen, not alone in the form and position of parts, as the results of physiological activity, but in a wider and more exact sense ^ The Teaching Botanist. 2 Botany in the Horace Mann School. Teachers College Record, 2 : No. I, January, 1901. BOTANICAL PRINCIPLES IN TEACHING 141 in the activities themselves. The study of adaptation there- fore commences with the study of irritabihty, of stimulus, and response. We therefore again see the importance of studying adaptation experimentally. We are also led to see the weight attaching to the idea that every complex organism acts as a whole and not as a complex of independent activities. It is educationally not necessary to begin the study of physiology with that of the cell ; a great deal of it can be learned without any knowledge of the cell as such. Not all, however. The study of the leaf as a mechanism is a most important part of anatomical and of physiological study, but is to be understood only by a study of the cell and of the behavior of protoplasm. The conception of the organism as an expression of physio- logical activity, and the localization of special activities as a result of the establishment of special relations to , . r ■ > i . , . Pliyslologlcal the segregation of environmental factors, is of prime Divtslon of . . . . , . , r , ■ labor. necessity in appreciating the idea of evolution. This has been mentioned in connection with the work in morphology. The organism dies, but life is continuous. We cannot say that it will always be so, but for all practical ends it is. Each individual adapts itself to this condition by ^he Contl- providing for a fresh life cycle, and so each gener- nuity of Lif e. ation begets a new one. The study of reproduction is simply the study of how this is accomplished, and its essential features may be studied with ease and very great clearness in plants. We have already discussed educational reasons why this should be done. These four more important general principles are to be kept in view in carrying on the study of physiology. Further speci- fication on other less general points will appropriately be left for consideration in connection with the discussion of the course in detail. CHAPTER VIII lETATLED DISCUSSION OF THE COURSE IN BOTANY FOB THE HIGH SCHOOL [n a previous chapter the view has been adopted that the ithetic course in botany is the best adapted to the use of high school. It is our present purpose to examine such ourse with especial reference to the choice of materials and best treatment of these in the laboratory. For this pur- le we shall assume (i) that the principles laid down in the rd chapter are agreed upon and (2) that the Report^ of Committee on a College Entrknce Option in Botany, of the :iety for Plant Morphology and Physiology in its latest form resents substantially the attitude of the botanists in this mtry in regard to the objective content of the course. We e this to be the case for the following reasons : [. The report "is founded upon the two important reports the National Educational Association, — the Report of sofDis- '■^^ Committee of Ten (Washington, 1903) and '""• the Report of College Entrance Requirements dicago, 1899)," from which circumstance it represents the mination at the present time of the thought of leading :hers of botany upon the subject. It should be added, ), that the report in its latest form embodies so far as pos- e all the important suggestions and criticisms offered ; so t in essence it will be found to express the opinion of a ch larger circle of botanists than that included in the mbership of the society before which it was presented, fton" has examined the opinion of sixteen authorities, Published in its latest form in School Review. November, 1908. Trafton, G. H., A Comparison of Recent Authorities on Methods 'caching Botany. School Review, 10 : 138. 1902. DISCUSSION OF THE COURSE IN BOTANY 143 including as such the reports of committees of leading educa- tional and scientific societies, and he showed that there is a consensus of opinion among these demanding a place in the course in botany for " physiology, ecology, general morphology (study of types), and gross morphology (study of the struc- ture and modifications of organs of seed plants)." The re- port under discussion was one of those examined by Trafton, and we may therefore conclude that the agreement is suffi- ciently strong to warrant our assumption. 2. The report has been adopted by the Examination Board of the Middle States and Maryland, as the basis for its college entrance requirements. It constitutes, therefore, a recognized standard for high-school work which has not been opposed from above, but which is the product of the growth of general experience and opinion. It is assumed that the course in botany is a one-year course of four to five hours a week. The specifications of the report including the fundamental topics of botany are here given with some slight verbal changes as follows : A. In Anatomy and Morphology. The seed. Four types (dicotyledon without and with endo- sperm, a monocotyledon and a gymnosperm) ; structure and homol- ogous parts. Food supply ; experimental determination of its nature and value. Phenomena of germination and growth of embryo into a seedling (including bursting from the seed, assumption of position and unfolding of parts). The Shoot. Gross anatomy of a typical shoot ; including rela- tionship of position of leaf, stem (and root), the arrangement of leaves and buds on the stem, and deviations (through light adjust- ments, etc.) from symmetry. Buds, and the mode of origin of new leaf and stem ; winter buds in particular. Specialized and metamorphosed shoots (stems and leaves). General structure and distribution of the leading tissues of the shoot ; annual growth ; shedding of bark and leaves. The Root. Gross anatomy of a typical root ; position and origin of secondary roots; hair-zone, cap and growing point. 144 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY Specialized and metamorphosed roots. General structure and distribution of the leading tissues of the root. The Flower. Structure of a typical flower, especially of ovule and pollen ; functions of the parts. Comparative morphological study of six or more different marked types, with the construction of transverse and longitudinal diagrams. The Fruit. Structure of a typical fruit especially with reference to the changes from the flower, and from the ovule to seed. Com- parative morphological study of six or more marked types, with diagrams. The Cell. Cytoplasm, nucleus, sap-cavity, wall. Adaptive mod- ifications of walls, formation of tissues. B. In Physiology. R61e of water in the plant; absorption (osmosis), path of transfer, transpiration, turgidity, and its mechanical value, plasmolysis. Photosynthesis ; Dependence of starch formation upon chloro- phyll, light and carbon dioxid ; evolution of oxygen, observation of starch grains. Respiration; necessity for oxygen in growth, excretion of carbon dioxid. Digestion; digestion of starch with diastase, and its r6Ie in translocation of foods. Irritability ; Geotropisra, phototropism, and hydrotropism ; nature of stimulus and response. Growth ; localization in higher plants ; amount in germinating seeds and stems ; relationship to temperature. Fertilization; sexual and vegetative reproduction. C. In Ecology. Modifications (metamorphosis) of parts for special functions. Dissemination. Cross-Pollination. Light relations of green tissues ; leaf mosaics. Plant Societies; Mesophytes, Hydrophytes, Xerophytes; Climb- ers, Epiphytes, Parasites (and Saprophytes), Insectivora. Plant Associations, and zonal distribution. • D. In Classification. A list of recommended types from which, or their equivalents, selection may be made : DISCUSSION OF THE COURSE IN BOTANY 1 45 A. Algae. Pleurococcus, Sphasrella, Spirogyra, Vaucheria, Fucus, Nemalion (or Batrachospermum or Polysiphonia or Coleochaete).^ B. Eungi. Bacteria, Rhizopus, Yeast, a rust (Puccinia) (or a Powdery Mildew), Mushroom. * Bacteria and yeast have obvious disadvantages in such a course, but their great economic prominence may justify their introduction. C. Lichens. Physcia (or Parmelia). D. Bryophytes. In Hepaticae, Radula (or Porella or Mar- chantia). In Musci, Mnium (or Funaria or Polytrichum). E. Pteridophytes. In Filicineas, Aspidium, or equivalent, in- cluding, of course, the prothallus. In Equisetineae, Equisetum. In Lycopodineae, Lycopodium, and Selaginella (or Isoetes). F. Gymnosperms. Pinus or equivalent. G. Angiosperms. A monocotyledon and dicotyledon, to be studied with reference to the homologies of their parts with those in the above groups ; together with the representative plants of the leading subdivisions and principal families of Angiosperms. I have already advanced reasons on page 123 for adopting the plan of commencing an elementary course with a study of the fruit and seed. This plan has given such satisfactory results that I shall give in detail the outline for laboratory study which I have elaborated." The only disadvantage which is apparent is the difficulty of getting them in northern localities, where the castor-oil plant does not thrive suffi- ciently well to bear well-seeded fruits. Collecting bureaus would probably supply them. They may be kept in formalin and serve well the purpose in that condition.' 1 The wording of the report is here reproduced. Differences in recommendation will be noted below. * Those who are preparing themselves for teaching should study comparatively the outlines for study of the seed given in the various text-books, especially those of Bergen, Atkinson, Ganong, Stevens, Setchell, Spalding, and others. See Chapter X. for full titles. * For further information concerning material, see Appendix B. 146 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY The field of study based upon fruits and seeds falls into three parts, morphology, with a small amount of anatomy, physiology and ecology. I believe it is of the greatest im- portance to carry out this part of the course very thoroughly and logically so as to lay the foundation for the rest of the work, which will be colored by the character of that of the first few weeks. The following outlines are given as examples of how the laboratory exercises may be worded. Morphology and Anatomy of the Fruit and Seed. Answers to questions are given in foot-notes and should not appear in students' outlines. The Bean. Materials. — Very young and maturing but still green pods of lima bean (string or wax bean) and of pea. The pupil should examine two types comparatively. Outline of Laboratory Study. — Examine an unopened pod. Is it divided into two similar halves, /. e., is it bilaterally sym- metrical? At one end may be found the stalk which supports the pod on the plant. This stalk (pedicel) is expanded at the point where the pod (fruit) is attached to form the recep- tacle. On its edge may usually be found the withered traces of the parts of the flower. This receptacle is a platform which supports the organs of the flower, of which the pod is one, enlarged and developed much beyond its original size. At the other end the pod tapers suddenly into the style which ends in a withered tip. The larger part of the pod is the enlarged ovary, containing the seeds, which make the sides of the pod bulge here and there. Compare the parts of the ripened fruit with those in the very young condition. Make drawings (side views) of the forms supplied, in the same relative position to the same scale. Label the corresponding parts. At the upper and lower edges of the pods are two tracts along which the food, which is necessary for the growth of the pod and seeds, passes to these from the plant. The tracts are DISCUSSION OF THE COURSE IN BOTANY 147 made up, for the most part, of special vessels through which passes the food in solution. The pod is covered by a toughish membrane with striations. What is the direction of the striation ? This fact is connected with the way in which the pod opens suddenly under oblique tension and forcibly ejects the seeds to a distance.^ With the scalpel cut the pod transversely through the middle of one of the seeds. The knife should pass through a seed. Is its attachment exactly in the middle plane of the pod?" We may now distinguish between the two va/ves forming the sides of the pod. Open a pod and decide by examination whether the seeds are all attached to one valve or the other. Verify in the transverse section. The stalk (funicle) of the seed expands at its point of attachment to the seed ; from this point there spreads out, so as to envelop the plantlet (embryo) within, the /esi or seed-coat, which serves to pro- tect the embryo after the seeds are scattered, and before germination. The two masses within each seed are the cotyledons or seed leaves. Make a good-sized drawing of the transverse section in the same relative position as the drawing of the pod. Open a pod by splitting it along the sutures. Notice that each seed has a translucent lump near the stalk. What is the position of this lump with reference to the stalk?' Make a sketch to show the seeds and the pod, which shows clearly this relation. Remove one of the seeds. Does the stalk come off with the seed?* The scar left by the breaking of the stalk is called the hilum. A seed of the lima bean may best be used for this point, as it is larger. On the same margin of the seed ^ The relation should be determined by examining ripe pods during and after seed expulsion. Wild species must generally be used. 2 The attachment of the seeds is alternately on one valve and the other, and not in the middle plane. ^ On the side toward the receptacle. Loose seeds can be placed in their proper relative position in the pod if this point is determined. * It is left attached to the pod. 148 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY as the translucent lump is a minute opening, the tnicropyle. The micropyle is of use in many plants as a way for the pollen tube to enter the young seed. Now remove the seed- coat, being careful to notice the relative position of its outer markings and the inside structures of the embryo. The mass within separates easily into three pieces, two big halves, the cotyledons,^ seen above in the transverse section of the pod, and the young primary shoot. How are the cotyledons and the stem united ? ^ Draw. The upper part of the shoot ends in a primary bud, the plumule. The lower part (hypocotyl) of the stem ends in the rootlet or radicle? The cotyledons are joined to the stem at a point between the radicle and plumule. That part of the stem above the insertion of the cotyledons, /. e., between these and the plumule, is the epi- cotyl. The part below the cotyledons is the hypocotyl. Make a drawing of these parts. Passing a scalpel between the cotyledons, split another seed exactly into halves. The knife should pass through the middle of the shoot and divide it lengthwise. You can see in the shoot some translucent lines. Follow them out as far as you can. They are the vascular tissue, along which the water, with substances in solution, is transferred from one part of the plantlet to the other. Notice also a translucent tip of the radicle, the root-cap, a thimble- shaped mass of tissue which grows from within out, and so. protects the root from injury as it bores its way down into the ground. Draw the exposed surface, showing the seed-coat and all the parts as they lie within, including the vascular tissue and root-cap. ' Certain recent views as to the homology of the cotyledons are not sufficiently substantiated yet to warrant discussion before elementary students. 2 By the stalks of the cotyledons. The narrow portion should show clearly in the drawing made. ^ There is likely to be some difficulty in determining the lower limit of the hypocotyl, but this can be made clear with the use of a solution of permanganate of potash, which does not readily stain the cuticularized hypocotyl, while the root on the other hand is deeply stained. DISCUSSION OF THE COURSE IN BOTANY 1 49 Indian Corn. Materials. — Mature sweet corn on the cob. Grains of field corn (flint corn preferably) and pop-corn ("rice " variety) ; very young grains of any kind of corn, with " silk " undisturbed.^ Outline of Laboratory Study. — i. Compare several dry grains of " field " corn or " sweet " corn and note the variation inform. In what do fresh grains differ from dry ones? " The rough point is the place of attachment of the grain to the " cob " or stalk. At or near the end of the light, oval patch, away from the pedicel, one may find a small tubercle, the base of the withered style. Compare this ripe grain with a young one, taken when the corn is silking out. Make drawings of a young and of an old grain in the same relative position, to show the comparison.' Label all the parts. Compare with a grain of " rice " pop-corn and notice that the base of the style is hollow. Draw carefully a grain of pop-corn. The whole bean, pod and seeds, is termed fruit. What is a corn grain ? * 2. The oval patch above referred to indicates the position of the embryo. From a soaked grain of" field" corn and of " pop " corn dissect off the outer tough membrane. To what does this correspond in the bean ? ^ Now carefully dissect the embryo out of the hard yellow mass, which is a food tissue (here the endosperm). Draw the embryo from two points of view, to show all the external features. On the flat side, notice that a small cylindrical structure lies buried in a fold of a larger mass, the cotyledon. Dissect the embryo so as to fix in mind the relations of these two parts. That end of the 1 See True, R. H., On the Development of the Caryopsis (Botanical Gazette, 18: 212-226, 1893) for description of the integuments and their fate. ■^ They differ according to the relative amount of water; e.g., sweet corn is shrunken when dry. * Lateral views are necessary. The teacher should insist upon the importance of having the sketches in the same relative position. * Inasmuch as the style is distinguishable, the grain evidently corre- sponds to the bean pod and included seeds, and is therefore also a fruit. » To the pod. ISO THE TEACHING OF BOTANY cylindrical structure which is directed toward the style is the plumule. Where is the stem ? ^ Take three other grains ; cut two in halves longitudinally, one to be cut parallel to the broad face, the other to the edge, and the third transversely, through the middle point of the embryo. Study the exposed surface in each case. Draw and label the parts. The endosperm and embryo together with a very thin membrane, difficult to recog- nize, are the seed. What main points of difference are there between the fruit of the Indian corn and that of the bean plant?" Which is the more similar to the bean fruit, the " field " corn or the " pop " corn grain, and in what way ? ' Castor- Oil Plant. Materials. — Young ovaries and fairly mature fruits. Seeds (variety Zanzibarensis) well soaked. Outline of Laboratory Study. — i. Examine the features of a well-developed fruit. Identify the parts which you have learned in connection with the other materials. Compare the young and old condition of a fruit. How does this differ as to the number and arrangement of parts with the bean fruit? Examine a fruit cut through the middle transversely. Can you now see the partitions which separate seed cavities of fruit? How many? How many seeds do you find? Is there any unoccupied space in the seed cavities? Is it more like corn or bean in this respect ? Do you find any sutures here as in the bean? Examine a section of a fruit cut through the middle of a seed longitudinally. Where is a seed attached to the wall? Recall the relative position of the hilum and the micropyle in the bean, and find the micropyle in the castor- oil seed. Draw to show the above points. 2. Study the mature seed of the castor-oil plant. The shape, color, and markings have been suggested as protective, through 1 It extends from the plumule, between the folds of the cotyledon, to the root (radicle). 2 The pod encloses one seed tightly in corn; in the bean the pod encloses several seeds loosely. ' The hollow at the base of the style in the rice pop-corn grain makes the comparison with the bean pod closer than in the case of the field corn grain, where no unoccupied space is to be found. DISCUSSION OF THE COURSE IN BOTANY 151 their mimicry of a beetle.* From the hilum along one side of the seed runs a low ridge (the raphe) ending at the other end of the seed, in the chalaza. Is this point in the same relative position as in the bean? Note that the micropyle is surrounded by a mass of soft, spongy tissue, which may be of use, though of what use is problematical. Crack open the hard shell or test. Notice at the point beneath the chalaza a reddish-colored area, from which run veins in all directions. These have served for carrying food to the developing embryo and endosperm. Examin the diagram which will help you to understand these points. Split open the kernel in its largest plane. The embryo will thus be discovered lying in a large mass of endosperm. The conical hypocotyl and radicle are at once seen. Are the cotyledons more or less leaf-like than in the bean? State your reasons.* Carefully remove an embryo from the endosperm, injuring it as little as possible. Is the nature of the food suggested to you ? Make drawings which will show clearly the embryo and endosperm. Pine. Materials. — Ripe cones of fir,* preferably ; or of ■ pine ; young cones of same kind ; large pine seeds.^ Outline of Laboratory Study. — i. Examine first a cone of the pine or fir tree. Study a scale which has been removed. Look for a thin bract or leaf-like structure on the under side of the scale. Notice the two seeds and their wings attached 1 A good chance is offered the teacher to scrutinize the value of this explanation. ^ A diagram of longitudinal section through the micropyle and chalaza I find almost a necessity. This seed is quite difficult enough in any case. It is better for the student to be helped to get a clear idea of the seed than through lack of judicious help to get a meagre one. The structure of the test and tegmen may thus be made clear if the instructor goes into the matter. At any rate, it is very seldom that students can make out the micropyle satisfactorily, though they often think that they do. The diagram should therefore show this clearly, and should also show the chalaza pores. * Thin, leaf-like venation evident. * Fir is the best, since the scales fall away readily. ' Large kinds may be purchased from seedsmen. 152 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY to the upper side of the scale. How does this arrangement differ from those in the three forms you have studied?* 2. Compare a young scale with an old one; find all the parts, and draw by measure so as to show the old and young scales comparatively. Which parts develop most as the scale grows ? 3. Study a pine-seed and wing. How is a seed attached to a wing ? Is the wing a part of the seed or of the scale ? Notice that the oval seed shows no external characters like those found in other seeds you have studied, save the micro- pyle which may be seen at the narrow end. Split open the seed according to instructions " which will be given you, and you will then be able to make out the thickness of the hard seed covering, which, however, thins out toward the micropyle. Make a drawing to show the characters. By carefully dissecting the kernel find the embryo buried in the endosperm. How many cotyledons does the pine seed have ? ' If you split a kernel longitudinally you will be better able to make out the very big root-cap which covers the end of the root. Draw. Notes. — The above detailed outline of study calls for a fair amount of original work by the pupil. It avowedly follows to some degree the verification method, without, it is hoped, free- ing the pupil from the necessity of using his own abilities. The question method is used to an extent sufficient to the purpose of leading him to do this. The sequence of types which makes the Indian corn the second form studied is of advantage in instituting comparison, since but a single locule is present in the ovary of the first two types studied. As to classification, no confusion appears to result, since the question is not taken up at the beginning. 1 The seed is not enclosed within a pod, but lies on the upper surface of the structure which bears it. 2 Whittle off a little from the edge of the seed, when a dark line — a suture — will be seen. Carefully insert a knife point, resting the thumb on the seed, and pry open. • According to the species. Pinus Coulteri about fifteen. DISCUSSION OF THE COURSE IN BOTANY 153 The student should be guided to see essential things and to pass over non-essentials. For example, the protuberances on the Ricinus ovary are of no moment in this work, and time may be lost in trying to draw them. On the other hand, it may be contended that it is worth while to draw attention to such a prominent structure as the caruncle on the Ricinus seed, since every plant or part of a plant may have something more or less different from every other. There is a danger in studying types of forming an expectation that all plants will conform wholly to the types studied. This expectation is often too strong. The knowledge gained by following the above outline is sufficient for a basis for some thoroughly good work in physiology and ecology. The experiments in these subjects may be carried on by the instructor and students while the laboratory work is being followed, and some observations and simple experiments may be done as home work. The follow- ing is a statement of these parts of the study. Ecology. The study of the outlihe above will give the pupil training in observation and comparison, and will also put him in pos- session of facts and a terminology for doing a good deal of interesting and valuable work in ecology and physiology. For convenience in discussion we give an outline of work in ecology first, but in practice it may be done, in part at least parallel to the work given above. Physiology and ecology — at least if the latter is taken in its modern and proper meaning — merge into each other, so that it is practically difficult to separate them. The materials used for the studies here given are chiefly those already used above with some others indicated below. I. Conditions under which germination takes place. Sug- gestions for experiments on this topic (air, water) are given in Bergen's Foundations, p. 10. This work may usually be carried on in the higher grades, or by pupils as home work. 154 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY 2. Localization of absorption of water. The presence of an opening in seeds, as prominent as in the bean, is generally seized upon as an instance of adaptation for the entrance of water, and has been so interpreted in some cases. It is, how- ever, capable of experimental investigation. (a) Take bean seeds with unbroken tests. By applying a thin coat of soft paraffin with a wa^m needle, and placing in water, the failure of the test to expand whenever so protected from the water shows that paraffin prevents absorption. (b) Seal the micropyles of a dozen ^eeds, place in water to examine at frequent intervals. The buckling of the test shows where the water is most quickly absorbed. Each pupil should record when and where the buckling first takes place, by using a diagram. (c) The hilum and strophiole may be investigated simi- larly. (d) The method of weighing at different times may also be carried out, but is on the whole no more instructive. The ultimate question is, Is germination delayed by such experi- mentation? This may be tried by planting seeds variously treated, in moist sphagnum or sawdust without previous soaking. (e) Similar experiments may be tried on other seeds, e.g. castor oil : seal the chalazal pore, micropyle, caruncle. (f) How does the test behave in some other seeds ? {e. g. radish, flax).'' In discussion a beautiful case which is worth speaking of is the American mistletoe, though here, of course, the adhesive coat is derived from the pericarp.^ 3. The rupture of the seed-coats (or pericarp in certain forms). The embryo is enclosed within a resistant test, and 1 Rapidly absorbs water, and becomes mucilaginous. * Von Schrenk, H., Notes on Arceuthobium pusillum, Rhodora, 2:2-5, pl- 12, January, 1900. MacDougal, D. T., Seed Dissemination and Distribution of Razoumofskya robusta, Minnesota Botanical Studies, 2:169-173, pis. 15, 16. 22 February, 1899. DISCUSSION OF THE COURSE IN BOTANY 155 so must do work in breaking it and thus emerging. Is this process constant in any particular form ? This question may be answered intelligently by the pupil by careful examination of the earliest evidences of the rupture of the test, where it has taken place. The pea is a good one for such observation. The question is often put forward by a pupil in raising the point that the micropyle, being opposite the radicle, serves for a place for emergence of the radicle, and indeed is so ex- plained in some books. 4 (a) Examine a dozen peas which are commencing to germi- nate. Does the rupture always occur in the same place ? If so, where? How caused? Is the growth of the embryo localized ?■"■ (b) Is the micropyle useful in the pine seed ? After soaking well, wrap the micropylar end of the seed with fine wire and plant. (c) What is the behavior of the pericarp in the Indian com grain? Look for cases in which the behavior is not normal and describe results observed.'^ (d) In the castor-oil seed, are the cracks in the test (which is very hard) constant in any particular ? Is there any weak point in the test which throws light on the distribution of cracks ? * Is there any localized growth in embryo or endosperm which stands in causal relation to the cracking- of the test. Careful observation and experimentation as above outlined lays a good foundation for the appreciation of such special forms as the squash. (e) Place squash seeds in various positions, and allow to germinate. Does the position in which the seed is placed have any relation to the position in which the " peg " occurs ? * (Correlate with the experiments in physiology on geotropism.) 1 In the axis. 2 Sometimes the pericarp does not split properly, and the coleoptile is quite hampered thereby. ' At the micropyle. * Lloyd, F. E., The " Peg," or " Heel," in Seedlings of the Cucurbi- taceae. Torreya,\: 120. October, igoi. 156 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY (f) There may profitably be discussed the special adaptation, in the date (which may be grown readily in the laboratory) and cocoanut. In these forms there is a locally specialized area connected with the pushing out of the radicle. In some plants (date and many palms) a definite " plug " is formed. The common Tradescantia is a very good example of the same thing, and may easily be grown. Correlate these — using the date and cocoanut as special examples. 4. The behavior of seedlings in breaking their way up- ward through the soil. This may be made a good test for the morphological lessons learned, as well as one of adaptive behavior. Is the way in which the soil is bored through the same in all seedlings? In those in which the action is the same, are the same morphological parts involved in the same way? (a) Indian corn. What part grows upward through the soil? (Straight plumule.) Get a good idea of the mechanism by determinating the rate of growth in the epicotyl and coleoptile (sheath leaf of plumule). Is the length of the first determined by the depth of the soil covering the grain? Plant at different depths; or, after the tips of the plumule appear, cover with cards (previously paraffined to prevent warping) with small holes for the shoot to grow through. Raise the card to different heights above the soil surface, excluding light from the sides. Is soil or light or moisture the determining factor? Mechanical advantage of this behavior, as indicated by the positions in which roots ap- pear? (b) What part of the pea embryo makes its way through the soil ? Of the common bean ? Of the squash ? Is this be- havior correlated with form and function of the cotyledons ? Compare these with the castor-oil seedling (in which the cotyledons are thin, but are in contact with a bulky endo- sperm). (c) Onion seedlings. Study carefully the germination and growth of some onion seedUngs until a second leaf appears. DISCUSSION OF THE COURSE IN BOTANY 157 In what respect is this plant like others studied (pea, squash) in the way it comes through the soil? What is the function of the cotyledon in the onion and castor oil? Compare behavior of cotyledon in these with Indian corn, date, and cocoanut.^ The facts here brought out supply the starting-point for a study of digestion and food absorption, under physiology. Plant onion seeds in sawdust and pretty firm soil at the depth of two cm. Does the curve which first appears look alike under the two conditions? The result may be inter- preted as a form response to the mechanical conditions in the substratum. The cotyledon of the onion is a good example of an organ serving three functions, haustorial action, pro- pulsion, and photosynthesis. (d) Pine seedlings should be studied, and by comparing with the above types, it should be decided whether they con- form to any or are different, and if the latter, in what regard ? ' 5. Compensatory growth after injuries. One of the most constant dangers to a young seedling is from predatory animals. How far a seedling may overcome such injury may be determined by the experiment of removing one or another part. E.g., remove the plumule of the pea and similarly remove subsequently formed shoots. Remove the hypocotyl. Obtain * In the castor-oil seed the cotyledons remain for some time in con- nection with the endosperm, and absorb food from it. They afterwards become exposed to air and light, functioning as foliage leaves. In the onion the cotyledon lengthens very considerably, curving, after the manner of the epicotyl in the pea and the hypocotyl in the bean, and, like these, breaking upwards through the soil. The portion of the curved cotyledon thus exposed to air and light then becomes photo- synthetic, while the distal end still remains in contact with the endo- sperm, drawing food from it. In corn the sheath leaf (coleoptile), the homology of which is not agreed upon, grows straight upwards, pushing through the soil, but does not become photosynthetic, except, perhaps, to a very slight degree. In the date the first foliage leaf (the first leaf above the cotyledon) grows in the same manner, but becomes a func- tional leaf. In the cocoanut the first leaf has to bore through the husk, the cotyledon acting as a haustorium. 2 The curve is in the hypocotyl, passing often into the cotyledons. 158 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY acorns and separate one of the cotyledons from the stem at the base of the petiole/ after the plumule is visible. Field Work. It is distinctly profitable to carry out some field work to enlarge the scope of the pupils' observations. Some useful suggestions for such exercises have been published by Robi- son.* It is well to have definite problems in mind, based upon the pupils' work. The following topics are suggested : What general difference of behavior is there between many- seeded and one-seeded fruits when fully mature? Does de- hiscence take place in dead and dried ovaries only? (The behavior in Impatiens should be carefully observed and re- called later under the subject of turgor.) Observe particularly the movements of the valves of pea or bean fruits. What is the condition under which these take place ? What does the direction of the striations (or grain) of the valves indicate in this connection ? Look for other fruits (e.g., castor oil) in which you find the same striation in the walls of the fruit, and compare the movements of dehiscence throughout. ' Study other mechanisms from the point of view here gained. Distinguish between active and passive methods of dissem- ination, and determine the relative effectiveness. Examine the peduncles of young and old flowers and fruit of various plants, and observe the (carpotropic) movements which they undergo. Do the movements supplement in any way the other organs in the dissemination of the seeds ? Look for fruits with awns, e.g., Erodium, SHpa. See how the awns behave under varying degrees of moisture. These suggestions may not all be followed, but are given to show the direction which may be profitably given to field work. Pupils may be encouraged to collect materials and study ' Lloyd, F. E., Teratological Notes. Bulletin Torrey Club, 2a : 396, pi. 247. September, 1895. ' Outlines for Field Studies of Some Common Plants, pp. 31-35. DISCUSSION OF THE COURSE IN BOTANY 159 them. As careful records should be kept of field observations as of other work. Physiology. The teacher must distinguish between experiments which teach special things about seeds, and those which illustrate general physiological truths. The work in physiology for high- school students may be for the most part taken during the first half of the course, which should constitute an introduction to the remainder. It will be unnecessary to outline experiments which are else- where described, it being our purpose to indicate what may properly and profitably be done in connection with the above outlines on the morphology and ecology of the fruit and seed. Expenditure of Energy by the Living Plant. — Aside from energy whose expenditure is not visibly demonstrative, that, namely, expended in metabolism, a large amount may be measured, which the plant uses directly in adjusting itself to its environment. Growth is of course merely a form of movements in general involving the expenditure of energy. It offers a distinct pedagogical advantage to commence physiology by demon- strating that a living plant does expend energy. Growing seedlings may be used with great clearness of results. 1. Expenditure of energy by growth, (a) Show that the upward growth of the hypocotyl or other organ through the soil, involves lifting and pushing aside of the soil. Direct observation will furnish data. (b) The pushing downward through the soil of a root is clearly another example. 2. Show that there are other (metabolic) processes going on which result in the expenditure of energy, e.g. heat. This may be done by registering the temperature of growing seeds. In discussing the phenomenon of heat evolution, reference may be made to the heat produced in decaying compost and how it may be utilized, e.g., in making beds in forcing-frames. l6o THE TEACHING OF BOTANY The determination of the fact of the expenditure of energy serves as a motive for tracing the source of energy for the growing seedling. To do this one may proceed as follows : (a) Remove the cotyledons from a young pea seedling, (i) Does it grow? (2) Does it therefore expend energy? (b) Remove the endosperm from some young Indian corn seedlings. Plant some of these and affix to the cotyledon of each of several others a little mass of stiff cornstarch paste. Do these grow equally well and why? The general conclusion arrived at will be that to grow, to do work, food is necessary. It is therefore the source of energy for the growing seedling. The parent plant as the source of food may be alluded to, but its activities in this connection are taken up later. The ecology of storage organs in the seed should also be brought up as well as the resulting value of seeds as food for man. The question of physiological importance now is, by what means is food manipulated in the plant so as to make its energy available, i. e,, to accomplish its release. This topic involves the matters of oxygenation, oxidation, and excretion of carbon dioxid and of the chemical and physical nature of foods. Perhaps the best way, certainly a very good way, is to take up iirst the gas exchange in growing seedlings. 1. Show that a gas exchange does take place when seeds are growing. Make the result more general by using also the petals of flowers (rose petals which are taken from large expanding buds), fungi (toadstools, mushroom, etc.).^ 2. Determine what this exchange is by determining the resultant gaseous bodies. (a) Shake up in a given volume of air some barytajvater (barium hydroxid solution) and note degree of milkiness. (b) Treat a like volume of air in which a taper has burned ' See MacDougal's Elementary Plant Physiology, Fig. 75. DISCUSSION OF THE COURSE IN BOTANY l6l a few minutes, to show that barium hydrate is an indicator, that after burning, a gas which causes the milkiness is present now in greater proportion. The information must be given that the gas is COj (carbon dioxid) indicating how this is determined. (c) Pass the breath through baryta water to show that COj gas passes off from the body. (d) Show in the same way that plants excrete CO^.^ It may be inferred that an oxidation goes on in living organisms and that a plant produces heat by oxidation, and by analogy, other forms of energy. Show this to be so as follows : (e) Seedlings will not grow unless they have oxygen.* They cannot therefore do any work. (Do movements occur in absence of oxygen ? See if a root will bend in an atmosphere of hydrogen.) (f) When they do grow, they produce a volume of CO^ equal to the volume of oxygen used.' (g) Some seeds will produce CO2 when no free oxygen is present, e.g., peas (intramolecular respiration). If two or three peas are placed, after soaking, in a small test-tube which has first been filled with mercury, and inverted so as to stand in a small vessel ' the amount of COj set free in a night will displace a good deal of the mercury. Introduce a particle of caustic potash. Note the rapidity with which the COj is absorbed, the mercuryagain filling the test-tube, or nearly so. While it is probably not necessary to discuss the process of intramolecular respiration, the teacher should be fully cognizant of it. Having shown that food is the source of energy for the plant, and that the energy may be obtained therefrom by oxi- 1 See MacDougal's Elementary Plant Physiology, pp. lOO-iil, for an excellent brief presentation of respiration in its modern aspect. 2 For further suitable experiments see Ganong's Plant Physiology, pp. 96, 97. Straight test-tubes will do if the seeds are supported by wire gauze. ' Use a test-tube just a little larger in diameter than the seeds used. II l62 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY dation, a convenient opportunity is thus afforded to take up the study of the foods which occur in seeds. The object of such study is to determine the kinds of foods and their physi- cal characters which have important physiological bearings. There is also the lesson which may be touched upon at this time of the great economic importance of seeds as sources of food of all kinds for man, not to mention other uses. Of course, the chemical nature of these foods is a matter which is too difficult for the high-school student, and such informa- tion as may be made use of later must be given. The method of study here advocated is as follows : i. Ex- amine the various foods occurring in seeds by the method of extraction — the method of the physiological chemist — one which has been found to be very practicable both on account of the conclusive character of the results and on account of the removal of all but the simplest of the microchemical tests, which are generally not at all adapted to young beginners.^ The tests should be made first on the substance, a well-known food, to be used as a criterion, and then upon the extracts. 2. Test the solubility and the diffusibility of some foods. It is not profitable to take up all of them, since starch, cane sugar, and grape sugar serve to illustrate well the principle involved. 3. Recall the anatomical conditions which are found in, e.g., the corn grain, in which the starch occurs in the endo- sperm, while the expenditure of energy is in the roots and shoots, together with the facts that (a) although the starch is removed from the endosperm it does not appear as starch in the root and shoot, and (b) that the haustorium (cotyledon, scutellum) is non-perforate, its surface being smooth and continuous. 4. Test the diffusibility of the product of starch and diastase and show it to be grape sugar, thus making clear the value of digestion. ^ Lloyd, F. E., Botany in the Horace Mann School. Teachers College Record, 2: 1-4, 30-59. January, 1901. DISCUSSIOIV OF THE COURSE IN BOTANY 1 63 The outline for this work presented somewhat in detail is as follows : Foods. — The kinds of foods and methods of determining their occurrence/ especially in seeds. (a) Proteids. Demonstration of the reactions of an ac- knowledged proteid by applying the following tests to a weak solution of egg albumin in water : Coagulation by heat. Test the coagulum with nitric acid and ammonia. Boil a little of the albumin in nitric acid, cool and add slowly ammonia. Determine whether proteids occur in the seeds which have been studied, or in other seeds. Grind up as finely as possible in a coffee-mill about twenty- five grams of dry seeds. Make extracts as follows : (i) With water (100 cc), allowing to stand for twenty- four hours. Test the extract obtained with the above tests, and compare the results with those obtained above with egg- albumin. Note the similarity of animal and plant albumin. (2) Taking the same material, extract it with a 10 per cent solution of common salt. A second proteid, insoluble in pure water, will thus be thrown down. Obtain this in dry form by dialysing and drying. This may then be examined and tested as above. (3) A third proteid may be obtained from wheat by taking the flour, making a dough, and then washing the dough in a cloth under the tap. The sticky substance — gluten — is a proteid which is insoluble in water, and should be tested with nitric acid and ammonia. (4) Does gluten occur in peas? The question should be answered by applying the method in (3). It is, on the whole, preferable for this series of experiments to be done by the instructor. (b) Starch. 1 For a more detailed account of these methods, see MacDougal's Text-Book of Plant Physiology, Chapter IX. l64 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY Demonstrate the color reaction (blue) of starch with iodine by adding the latter (a very weak solution) to some very thin starch paste. Examination by pupils of starch grains in the cells of the potato tuber, mounting the sections in very weak iodine solu- tion. Let one or two cells with contained starch grains be drawn.^ Application by the students of the iodine test to determine the presence or absence of starch in the seeds studied. (c) Sugar. Determine the color reaction of Fehling's solution and grape sugar, or glucose, by boiling them together and obtaining a red precipitate. Ordinary sugar of commerce may be used, but has the disadvantage of being chiefly cane sugar, which, however, may be inverted by means of dilute sulphuric acid. Test extracts of seeds for the presence of sugar. If a nega- tive result is obtained with Fehling's solution, add a little acid to a small volume of the extract, after which repeat the grape sugar test. (d) Cellulose (reserve cellulose). It should be pointed out that this food substance does not occur in marked quantities in any of the seeds heretofore studied. In this instance we must resort to the micro-chemical test. It is not wholly necessary to introduce cellulose, but is worth while because of the in- structive behavior of the date seedling. Demonstrate the hard white reserve cellulose as it occurs in the date or persimmon seed. Using a well-soaked seed, make a thin section with a sharp knife, place the section on a piece of glass in small drop of chlor-zinc-iodine. The color reaction is characteristic. (e) Oils. Demonstrate the solubility of an oil (e. g., cottonseed or olive oil) in ether. Naphtha or benzine may be used, but are not so volatile and therefore rather less effective. 1 To make good preparations of potato, cut freehand some thinnish sections ; rinse well in water, and mount in iodine-eosin. DISCUSSION OF THE COURSE IN BOTANY 165 Grind up some of each of the kinds of seeds studied, and extract them with ether. Place the extracts in glass vessels, and examine after the ether has passed off. The oil is easily recognized as such by its behavior on paper, or on a glass surface by its smear. Digestion. — (i) Demonstrate insolubility of starch in cold water.'' Test a very weak starch paste for grape sugar. Add a little diastase in solution and repeat the test in five to ten minutes. (2) Demonstrate the indiffusibility of starch, by placing a little of the thin paste in a dialyser. Test the inner and outer fluid for starch. Add a little diastase to the starch mixture, and after an interval test the outer fluid for grape sugar. In making these grape-sugar tests, it is very necessary not to allow the deep color of the Fehling to mask the precipitate if slight. Obviously, the instructor must learn to manipulate his opera- tions so as to detect small quantities, if he is working rapidly. It is well worth while to show that these changes are rapid. (3) The fact that starch occurs in minute granules may throw open to some doubt its inability to move in the plant. In the absence of full anatomical demonstration of the con- tinuity of the epidermis enclosing the starch, the objection may be met by showing that cellulose, also a food, occurs in the form of a continuous mass. In this way the date seed is especially good for making very clear the necessity of digestion. These seeds will germinate and produce, in about two months, good-sized seedlings. The gradual growth of the haustorium (the end of the cotyledon) and surround- ing it, the zone of translucent endosperm where the action of the ferment (cytase) is taking place, are splendid evidences. For demonstration, a partly germinated cocoanut is very useful on account of the fine, large haustorium. The wide significance of digestion is better appreciated ' The possible slight solubility of starch is a negligible matter, as will be seen by testing its non-diffusibility. I66 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY when some knowledge of the anatomical structure of plants is obtained from the study of the root and leaf.^ Irritability. — That plants expend energy, and that food is the source of this energy, furnish one aspect of physiology — the causal. That the structure and movements resulting from these are, on the whole, those which enable the plant to cope with the conditions in which it finds itself, furnish the teleo- logical aspect. We have shown elsewhere that there is a good deal of danger that this phase of botany may be treated in an insufficient or even thoroughly unscientific manner, and we have tried to emphasize the principle that teleological inter- pretations should be, as far as possible, tested. Adaptation in plants is possible only because of the adaptive responses of plants to stimuli, and is seen most clearly when the responses of a given organ are different under different condi- tions. The ability of a plant to perceive stimuli and to respond to them is called irritability. The behavior of seedlings towards various environmental factors illustrates this quality, and the results of the behavior give us the data for scientific tele- ological interpretation. Experiments on some of the various tropisms may be done with seedlings, and serve well for the purpose of study in adaptive response. The method of exper- iment need not here be given, as directions will be found in the references appended. The tropisms which may be studied are the following : Geotropism of roots (primary and secondary), of the shoot and of leaves. (See below under Etiolation.) Phototropism of root and shoot. Hydrotropism of roots. Chemotropism of roots. Separate a battery jar into two chambers with a piece of tin, with a good number of holes punched in it. Fill one chamber with finely chopped sphag- num well washed with water and rinsed with distilled water, and the other with sphagnum well dipped in nutrient solution. 1 The subject of digestion is admirably treated in Green's Physiology of Plants. DISC[/SSION OF THE COURSE IN BOTANY 167 All the sphagnum should be well squeezed out so that there will be no free water. Plant seeds upon the moss near the partition, and keep covered. When the roots are well devel- oped note their distribution. It is highly important that the general notion that the sum total of reactions such as these are expressed in the form of the plant as a whole. This point is generally neglected both in the books and by the teachers, but, after all, there is no signifi- cance in the different responses of the different organs except when these are viewed as parts of the whole. Thus the differ- ent kinds and degrees of geotropism of the members of the root system account largely for its configuration and for the advantageous arrangement of its elements. When other factors are unequally distributed in the substratum, advantageous modifications of this configuration result. Further, this may be applied to the parts above ground. The axis is frequently epigeotropic, the leaves diageotropic. This may be shown clearly by growing plants in the dark. The sweet potato is very good for this. Any change in the position of the axis results in a rearrangement of the leaf blades so as to keep them in a horizontal plane. After bringing the plant into a condition of one-sided illumination, the phototropic responses mask the geotropic response, but it must be con- cluded that the positions of these organs is the resultant of responses to two stimuli acting in different directions. Gen- eralizing, we conclude that the whole organism is the result of responses to the stimuli of all environmental factors (both inner and outer) applied in various directions. Etiolation. The subject of etiolation in large. part in ele- mentary work is, like that of irritability, useful in directing the attention to the teleological aspect of plant physiology. But it is very useful also in getting a point of view for the later study of photosynthesis. We have already indicated above the value of studying the plant in the dark for determining geotropic responses. Other points to be noticed are : (i) The relative development of parts. In a particular l68 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY plant, what parts grow more, and what parts less than they would in the light. In some cases these facts may be inter- preted as adaptive, as, for example, the behavior of the shoot of a seedling which is, in the dark, such as it would be if making its way through the soil, where it is, of course, also in the dark."^ The frequent persistence of Sachs' curve, or its analogy as, e. g., in the cotyledon of onion illustrates this. (2) The color reactions. Most plants fail to produce chlorophyll in the dark. The exceptions are to be found chiefly in plants attuned to weak lights, as some forest-floor plants, viz. : ferns. Red color is usually produced, e. g., in the beet, which, by the way, is a most beautiful plant for these experiments. The important relation of chlorophyll to light is thereby indicated. What this relation is may be treated in connection with the study of the leaf. The outline suggested above should furnish the basis for work which when thoroughly presented may serve as an ade- quate introduction to botany. It should be well understood by the teacher that the bias of the whole course will be deter- mined in the first few weeks, and it is therefore necessary that the right method of study shall be closely adhered to, even though it may seem that the pupils work rather slowly. Mak- ing haste at first will do no good ; if the student learns to work properly he will learn to work rapidly. At some convenient point, either in connection with the study of each type of fruit and seed, or after the completion of the work up to this time, the early stage of germination should be studied to determine in addition to the points called for under "Ecology" (p. 153), the fate of the parts of the embryo. For this purpose it is advisable to have in addi- tion to the material to be distributed, a lot of growing plants in pots or boxes, for observation from time to time in the liv- ing condition. This could well be made a part of the home 1 The most exhaustive study of etiolation, one with which teachers should be acquainted, is by MacDougal, D. T. Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden, Vol. II. 1903. DISCUSSION OF THE COURSE IN BOTANY 169 work, for which the pupil might be supplied with seeds and be held accountable for their growth and study. The follow- ing points should be worked out : (i) What is the mode and direction of growth of the various parts of the embryo ? What are their ultimate posi- tions? These questions may be answered by a series of sketches. What is the color of the parts underground and of those exposed to light? Keep a record of all movements which may be noted in any parts. The development of the root and shoot from the embryonic parts opens up a new field of study of the more intimate details of the organs of the plant. The most important general fact for the teacher to keep in mind in leading the pupil to the proper interpretation of the ecology of the highly differentiated plant is the stratification, so to speak, of the environments into two parts, with opposite characters as to the water content. The full appreciation of this will give the teacher a good viewpoint, and will give the chief point of con- trast in the functions of root and shoot, and the grasp of this by students is a good thing to work for. The Root. It is convenient and logical to study first the root and work upwards, although, of course, this is not the only way. As a matter of fact, the plant as a whole must be kept in mind at all times, while in practice we have to study it in some orderly fashion. The points which are generally understood to be of im- portance are so well worked out in the text-books that we need do no more than mention them, save to point out that in the study of the root-cap and of root-hairs there is a very good opportunity of getting a knowledge of the general struc- ture of the cell. For this purpose I know no better material than the roots of the Wandering Jew {Zebrina), which are readily obtained in numbers by placing short cuttings of the plant in water, most conveniently in a shallow dish. The 170 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY outer cells of the root-cap become exfoliated and retain their normal appearance, although separated from the plant. In this condition they show most beautifully the typical plant-cell structure. If the class is made up of third or fourth year ~ students, they may, with profit, study the behavior of the cell during plasmolysis, for which good directions will be found in Atkinson's Elementary Botany. This topic is of fundamental importance in the understanding of the mechanical signifi- cance of turgor in the plant, and well repays the effort spent upon it, if the student is sufficiently advanced. The outUne for laboratory work should embrace the follow- ing points : (i) A typical root system. — External features. Taproot,' root hairs, root cap. For the root cap, the roots of oats or of some small grass are very good, being small and transparent. The root cap in Lemna or Spirodela should also be used, and although somewhat unusual in their general character, help very materially in getting a good notion of the structure. Secondary roots. — Their position, best studied by means of a root cage. Note how curvature in the tap-roots affects the distribution of secondary roots, and the ecological significance of this. Anatomy. — Plan of structure of a tap-root — chosen on account of its convenience as to size — including cortex, stele : wood, cambium, and bast. Later, when studying the stem, attention should be called to the difference in the mechanical relations in the root and stem, this point affording a good point for comparison. The endogenous origin, and the arrangement in orthostichies of new roots. The former can be made out by careful external examination, especially on larger roots. Sections, of course, help to make the matter clear and are necessary for the latter point, and these are easily rnade by hand through the first node of an Indian corn seedling, in which the endogenous 1 As indicated, potassium permaDganate may be used for delimiting; the root from tlie liypocotyl. DISCUSSION OF THE COURSE IN BOTANY 171 origin is clearly shown. If the instructor has the requisite skill, hand sections of the tap root, which are necessary to show the structural relations, may be made after it has been hardened in alcohol. The large broad bean is very good for this purpose ; the pea, although small, may be used. Other- wise microtome sections may be resorted to. In working on the anatomy of organs, the student always finds a good deal of difficulty in deciding what to draw. Generally he will start to put in a lot of detail, and, finding it a long and usually useless job, he will make a lot of meaning- less little circles for cell walls. It is much better for him to be told just what to do, namely, to make out the groups of tissues, representing these by a diagram, making no attempt at finer representation. If, however, the time and ability of the student warrant it, a careful representation of a few cells for each kind of tissue, as seen with strong magnification, will be best. There is, however, a difficulty connected with the study of transverse sections with which the student meets readily over- looked by the teacher, that, namely, of getting an idea of the total form of the cell, a matter of great importance in understanding the movements of water and foods. It is neces- sary to study longitudinal views before this can be done. But it is not difficult to get these in a small root, by crushing it slightly, or teasing it. If, however, for lack of time, this- point is allowed to pass with a word of explanatibn, depending on the experimental work to help clear the matter up, the whole subject may be understood later when the structure of the stem is studied. The root hairs, as above indicated, may be studied care- fully for the sake of getting a good notion of the protoplasm. It is important for the purpose that the roots bearing the root hairs, which are to be microscopically examined, should be free from air, and the best way to do this is to grow them in water as above indicated. The seeds of lettuce, radish, or • any quickly germinating seed will produce great numbers of 172 THE TEACHING OF BOTANY root hairs when grown on moist blotting paper, and each student may easily have good material to study. Physiology. — The function of water absorption by the roots ; wilting following injury or drying of the roots ; bleeding from a stem cut near the soil ; tracing out the path of water (and of contained materials) in the root, through root hair, cortex, and vascular tissue. Show that the work of raising water in a plant may, in part at least, be accomplished by the root by osmotic pressure (root pressure experiment) } The study of the irritability of the root has been planned for above. The secretion of acid by roots. A very simple and pretty demonstration may be had by planting some Indian corn grains which have just started to germinate so that the roots may he in contact with blue litmus paper. This may be done by lining a plain glass tumbler with the paper and filling in with moist sawdust, which, of course, must be neutral. Put the corn grains near the top between the glass and paper. As the roots develop, the reaction will be obtained. The ecological significance of the secretion of acid by roots is suggested in the experiment of arranging a growing seedling so that the roots may etch a piece of polished marble. What materials besides water are absorbed by roots? The answer to this can be had by controlling the materials supplied to the roots, which may be done by means of water cultures. Elaborate cultures are generally difficult to carry out, and of no particular profit to an elementary class, since the whole problem of the functions of mineral salts is an abstruse one. The point of chief educational weight is the fact that such substances as starch, sugars, proteids appear in the plant, but not in the air or water of the culture. This conclusion, together with the physiological work on the seed, prepares the way for the work on photosynthesis. Ecology. — I . The mechanical r&le of roots : The ramifying 1 For which the rubber-plant is very good. DISCUSSION OF THE COURSE IN BOTANY 1 73 root system ; guy roots in corn. Organs of attachment in climbing plants : English ivy, trumpet creeper, poison ivy. 2. The modifications in the shapes of roots resulting from the storage of food materials. It must be remembered that in many cases, e. g., radish, the hypocotyl takes part in the storage and therefore constitutes part of the enlargement. The result of artificial selection in producing useful food plants. 3. Haustorial roots of parasitic plants, Value of Zooi- (2) its value as information : and finally at the end ogy as Disci- . , . , . .„ , , , , pUneandas 01 this chapter it will be attempted to deduce from the educational contents of zoology the leading aims which should govern the teaching of the science in the secondary school. I. The Value of Zoology as Discipline.! The disciplinary value of the study of zoology,. as indeed of any other science, is found in that it may contribute to the Discipline development of a scientific attitude of mind, by sdence**'*' directing various mental processes, such as those study. involved in scientific observing, classifying facts, reasoning on the basis of demonstrated facts, exercising judg- ^ On the value of sciences in general as intellectual discipline, see Karl Pearson's Grammar of Science (revised) ; Spencer's Education, pp. 73-79; Huxley's Essays on Science and Education, especially those on Science and Culture and on Value of Natural History; and the essays , by Bessey, Geikie, Sedgwick, and Payne. With direct reference to zoology see the references to Harvey and Cramer in Chapter III. THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ZOOLOGY 245 ment and discrimination, and learning' to appreciate demon- strated knowledge. I do not propose to review here the well-known discussion of the value of the mental training to be derived from the above processes in science study. For our present purposes it is sufficient to indicate the general bearing of the disciplinary aspect of zoological teaching. It is evident that the discipline in scientific method is not to be advocated as peculiar to zoology. It is now well recognized that all the sciences furnish materials for developing scientific the chief elements of a general scientific attitude of zJiS^^ot* mind. In the teaching of every science in a second- '^^'ii'i*'^' ary school no occasion should be neglected for giving training in scientific observing and scientific thinking. Many educators now regard such training as far more important in liberal edu- cation than the knowledge of the facts of any science. " Science should hold its place in the schools," says President Jordan, " by virtue of its power as an agent in mental training, not be- cause of the special usefulness of scientific facts, nor because knowledge of things has a higher market value than the knowl- edge of 'words." And along the same line Huxley has said : " You must not be solicitous to fill him [the pupil] with infor- mation, but you must be careful that what he learns he knows of his own knowledge. . . . Pursue this discipline carefully and conscientiously, and you will make sure that, however scanty may be the measure of information which you have pounded into the boy's mind, you have created an intellectual habit of priceless value in practical life." ^ Professor S. A. Forbes, of the University of Illinois, sees value in the study of zoology both for discipline and for information : "The pursuit of this science may tax to its utmost, zoology for it seems to me, every power of mind, and the ^'^^^u^* knowledge of the life it leads to has a great and *^''"' primary value and interest to us all. It will not do, conse- quently, to look on it as an apparatus for mental gymnastics 1 From essay on Scientific Education. 246 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY only, and neither will it do to look at it, for our purposes, as a body of valuable knowledge and nothing else. We must see both what it contains that our pupils ought to know, and what the pursuit of it requires that they ought to learn to do." In all this I agree with Professor Forbes ; for I believe there is no serious conflict between discipline and information, and aiming at one does not necessarily exclude the other, as many people seem to think. It is not necessary in teaching a science with scientific training as one leading aim that its essential facts should be at all neglected, for the training depends primarily upon the method of teaching rather than upon the subject- matter. The best of discipline may be given along with infor- mation concerning the essential facts and principles of zoology which have value along the lines discussed in the following pages. To accomplish this the method of teaching must be the general method of modern science — the laboratory method ; but the quality of the training depends entirely upon the way in which the laboratory work is directed. If the disciplinary aim of zoological teaching is to meet with the greatest possible realization, it must be kept prominently in mind while planning a laboratory course in zoology, for very much depends upon the manner in which problems for solution are presented to the minds of the pupils. A consideration of the fundamental prin- ciples of the laboratory method and its special application to zoological teaching need not here involve our discussion, but it will be referred to in Chapter III. II. The Value of Zoology as Information. Aside from the training in mental processes which the study of zoology, like all science studies, may give the pupils, there is the important phase in which zoology stands upon its own merits as a science with a peculiar subject-matter, some knowl- edge of which is believed to form a valuable part of a liberal education. In this aspect of its educational value, zoology is quite distinct from the physical sciences ; but it is often impos- THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ZOOLOGY 247 sible to draw any sharp line between zoology and the sister- science botany, which in fundamentals stands upon the same basis. For the purposes of later application we may consider the in- formation side of zoology from the following points of view : (a) The direct utilitarian value of zoological knowledge, zoological or zoology as applied science ; Q?) the intellectual frSJJ'^v^oas value of zoology considered as pure science ; {c) viewpoints, the aesthetic value of zoology ; and (d) the moral value. ^ a. Utilitarian' or Practical Value of Zoological Knowledge. The utilitarian value of knowledge of zoology, that is, zoology as applied science, will be made evident by a general review of the lines in which zoological knowledge is of direct practical use in human life.^ Beyond question the most important of these is the physio- logical side in which zoology touches directly upon human life and health. In anticipation of the chapter on hu- _ , , . , ^ '^ Physiological man physiology, it may be said that this subject is at Aspect of basis closely related to general zoology, and its study is best pursued from the viewpoint of the science of animal life. In the physiological phase of zoology and its bearings upon human health the science of zoology has strong justification in support of its place in general education, and in so far as the science has such a practical relation to human life it should be an essen- tial part of the education of every individual. A second argument for the utilitarian value of zoology is found 1 I find that this division, which was suggested to me by Huxley's essays, corresponds with Professor Forbes's classification of zoological knowledge, " according to its industrial, its emotional, its ethical, and its intellectual values." 2 This practical value of zoological knowledge is touched upon by Huxley in essays on Educational Value of Natural History, On the Study of Biology, and in various other incidental references in his Science and Education Essays. See also Forbes, loc. cit. Especially important are the essays by Horace Mann, Huxley, Herbert Spencer, and Paget, on the importance of human physiology in general education. 248 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY in the relations of animals to man along economic lines. We Economics of i^^ed only mention some of these relations in order Zoology. jQ suggest the great practical importance of some economic aspects of animal life. Most important of these is the value of animals in the food- supply of man. Of course this value does not argue directly in Animals and f^vo"" °f ^^ study of animals in general education. Food-Supply, i^he value of animals in the food-supply is not di- rectly affected by widespread knowledge of zoological science, fo"r at most such knowledge would be of direct practical value only to the relatively few who are able to apply it in the supply- ing of animals for food. But the problems of the food-supply are of such importance that we must believe that there is general interest in them and especially in the attempts to increase the supply by the application of scientific principles gained from the study of animals. A knowledge of the general facts of zoology will do much towards making the average citizen appreciative of the work in this line, especially that of governmental depart- ments such as the United States Department of Agriculture, the United States Fish Commission, and the various State agricul- tural stations and iish commissions. Besides the value of animals in the human food-supply, there Domesticated "^^y t>e mentioned the useful domesticated ani- Anlmaisand j^j^ls and the animal products other than food.^ Products. These are aspects of animal economics which should arouse at least an intelligent interest on the part of educated citizens. Then there are the numerous animals which are directly op- injurious posed to the interests of man. The economic im- ■*""°^" portance of this aspect of zoological knowledge is evident when one inquires into the monetary value of crops and 1 As summaries of these aspects of economic zoology, Simmond's Animal Products, Shaler's Domesticated Animals, and Wood's Dominion of Man are suggested. See full biographical references under " Econ- omic Zoology" in chapter on "Zoological Books." THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ZOOLOGY 249 domesticated animals which are annually destroyed by such animals as insects, rodents, and parasites.'' Thus in the broader outlines we see that the economic rela- tions between man and animals are manifold and of great utilitarian significance : and we cannot but believe „ ° ' General In- that such knowledge concernmg animals is of gen- terest in , ^ ... ° . Economic era! interest because of economic relations. It is Relations oi -Animals, true that the great majority of citizens may make little direct practical application of knowledge of the economic relations of animals, but indirectly aU are concerned ; and on the ground of intelligent interest alone this would argue for the study of animals in' general education. This is to my mind exactly the same line of argument which we have long accepted as the chief justification for the study of the commercial aspect of the geography of foreign countries. Very few persons have opportunities for making direct practical application of the facts in this line which are commonly taught in our schools, but the general interest in the economics of commerce is regarded as sufiicient justification. Likewise, zoological knowledge has great utilitarian value from the standpoint of human life in general, but for the masses of individuals it is of importance, not on account of direct application, but because of interest in animals as they may affect man. We have seen that from the practical standpoint a strong case can be made out in favor of zoology in education. But while this utilitarian view is in harmony with the materialistic tendencies of our commercial age, it is vaine not not to my mind the strongest argument for this or Argument for for any other science in general education. In fact, we have seen that the utilitarian arguments, with the exception of the unquestioned value of " physiology," apply specifically 1 For accounts of injurious animals, see Harris's Insects Injurious to Vegetation, Smith's Economic Entomology, Miall's Injurious Insects, Sanderson's Injurious Insects (references in chapter on "Zoological Books "). Also numerous reports and bulletins of the United States Department of Agriculture. 250 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY only to the special education of the few who may practise certain phases of " applied zoology." Hence, aside from the question of general interest of most citizens in the zoology of commerce in its widest sense, the practical value of knowledge of the science cannot be held to justify its place in general education. In reality this applies only to technical education, especially in its agricultural phase. Clearly the science of zoology requires some more general justification than that of its industrial application, and this we Cultural Value ^^^^ ^^ ''^ cultural value, which includes all which I of Zoology. j^g^yg jjj {].,jg essay discussed under " disciplinary," "intellectual," "moral," and "aesthetic" values. It is for this aspect of zoology, as indeed for science in general, that we must stand. This opinion has been expressed by many writers from Huxley to the present time. Especially to the point are the addresses by Sir Archibald Geikie and by Professor C. E. Bessey, who strongly protest against the mere utilitarian views as to the value of science and argue for its cultural value. In Professor Bessey's words, " that culture is best which so pre- pares a man that whatever fact presents itself to him, he will be able to arrange it accurately with reference to others. This ability to classify facts is of far more importance than mere acquaintance with facts, however extended the latter may be." b. Intellectual Value of Zoological Knowledge. The intellectual value depends upon the relation of zoological knowledge as pure science to that of other sciences and to still other phases of knowledge. With regard to the relation of zoology to other sciences, we must note first that its greatest generalizations are intricately Relation of bound up with those of botany in the fundamental Zoology to principles of the general science of life — biology. Sciences. Hence to a large extent we cannot discuss the intellectual value of zoology entirely apart from that of botany. Considering, then, the relation of biology to other sciences, it has been pointed out by Huxley, Spencer, and others that the sub- THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ZOOLOGY 251 ject-matter of the biological sciences stands midway between the physical sciences concerned with matter and energy and those dealing with the mind and society.^ We recognize four orders of facts in science and four groups of sciences, namely, .physical sciences dealing with matter and energy, biology with life phenomena, psychology with mind, and sociology with society. " Each of these depends upon its predecessor. The student of organisms requires help from the student of chemistry and physics ; mind cannot be discussed apart from body ; nor can society be studied apart from the minds of its component members. Each order of realities we may regard as a subtle synthesis of those which we call simpler. Life is a secret synthesis of matter and energy ; mind is a subtle form of life ; society is a unit of minds." ^ In essentials this is the idea of the central relation of facts of biology to other sciences which has been expressed by many writers. It is clear, then, that knowledge of the biological principles must be especially important as a foundation for studies of the more complex sciences dealing with mind and society. Owing to its central position among the sciences, biology has exerted a great influence upon many important problems which came forward during the last half of the nineteenth Relation of century. Cosmic philosophy, theology, ethics, and f^olopMc sociology especially have undergone radical changes ProWems. in the light of the theory of organic evolution as it was set forth by Darwin's epoch-making Origin of Species, and Spencer's Synthetic Philosophy? 1 See Huxley, On Educational Value of Natural History; Spencer, Relations of Biology, Sociology, and Psychology — Popular Science Monthly, Vol. L., p. 163 (1896) ; J. A. Thomson, Study of Animal Life, third edition, pp. 348-350. ^Thomson, loc, cit., p. 349. ' The influence of the theory of evolution upon modern thought along the above-mentioned lines is evident to the reader of such works as Fiske's Cosmic Philosophy and the later series beginning with his Destiny of Man, Le Conte's Evolution and Religious Thought, and Huxley's Evolution and Ethics. (See full bibliographical references in chapter on " Zoological Books.") 252 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY Now, while the theory of evolution is broadly biological, de- riving its support from both plants and animals, it is the animal Evoiutioii side which makes the strongest appeal to general l^atira'to students of biology. Man's relation to animals has •*''^™*^* made the great law of evolution seem overwhelm- ingly full of philosophical significance, and it is therefore but natural that general interest should be appealed to by the zoo- logical evidences of evolution, especially by those which appear to throw light upon the relation of man to nature. This is why the evidences of evolution among vertebrates are so interesting to general students who are led to consider the facts pointing to the place of man in the back-boned series. It was the sug- gestion of man's descent in the Origin of Species, afterwards expanded into the Descent of Man, that first brought the theory of evolution prominently to the attention of scholars in general. It is this same natural interest in man's relations which is sure to continue to be of absorbing interest to each succeeding gen- eration of beginning students. Even without regard to inter- preting facts of animal structure and function in terms of evolution, interest in the science of biology, and especially in zoology, is profoundly influenced by the similarity of structure and vital phenomena of man and other organisms. This simi- larity has always affected, perhaps sometimes unfortunately, all phases of biology ; and on the animal side there has been a de- cided tendency towards interpreting structure, functions, and especially nervous phenomena from the human standpoint. We find, then, one great difference between the animal and plant phases of biology, namely, that the evidences of evolution and many general principles of biology are for the general student more interesting and more convincing on the animal side because of man's relation to the animal kingdom. It fol- lows that any arguments for the value of biology which are based on the relations of its greatest generalizations to other phases of knowledge, apply with special force to the zoological side of the general science of life. From these outlines of the relation of zoology to other phases THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ZOOLOGY 253 of human knowledge, it is clear that the intellectual value of the science must be regarded as a strong argument favoring its place in general education. The relation of the theory of evo- lution to modern thought in general alone offers a sufficient argument for general knowledge of the science which most clearly and convincingly illustrates the principles of organic development. With regard to application of the above discussion to second- ary education, it must be admitted that pupils of the high-school age do not have the mental development which Intellectual will enable them to grapple with the great general- Vaine as Ap- izations to which reference has been made. Never- Secondary theless, high-school pupils are able to appreciate a large number of the underlying facts, and it seems reasonable to suppose that even an elementary course of biology in the high school may give the pupil an appreciation of the relations of facts and a viewpoint which in later years may be important in giving the proper perspective to philosophic studies, which are commonly of interest to liberally educated men. But of course the biological work in the secondary school should not digress in order to attempt pointing out the bearing of biology upon other fields of knowledge. This must come from future devel- opment ; but I believe that the foundation may be laid even as early as the secondary school. We may therefore conclude that the arguments for the intellectual value of zoological knowl- edge are applicable to the secondary phase of general education. c. The Esthetic Value of Zoological Knowledge .1 " In all animals there is something to admire because in all there is the natural and the beautiful." —Aristotle, " Father of Natural History." We now pass from considerations of the value of zoological information viewed as facts and principles of natural science to '^ The aesthetic value of zoology is referred to by Huxley, Thomson, Geikie, Forbes, Wilson, and Bessey, in essays already cited. Also see Pearson's Grammar of Science, pp. 34-36. 2S4 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY that of its relation to aesthetics — the science of the beautiful. Huxley, the master to whom we frequently turn for ideas on science in education, has thus advocated the importance of the bearing of biology on our appreciation of the beautiful : " There is yet another way in which natural history [biology] may, I <;m convinced, take a profound hold upon practical life, and that Huxley's is, by its influence over our finer feelings, as the great- View, est of all sources of that pleasure derivable from beauty. I do not pretend that natural history knowledge, as such, can increase our sense of the beautiful in natural objects. . . . But I advocate natural history knowledge from this point of view, because it would lead us to seek the beauties of natural objects instead of trusting to chance to force them on our attention." * That there is educational value in cultivating an appreciation of the beautiful in natural objects we may accept as demon- strated by the students of esthetics and by our own personal experiences. However, this has often been neglected in weigh- ing the value of science in education, because its field has no direct relation to that of pure natural science. The sesthetical appreciation of natural objects has little significance from the standpoint of pure science which the emotional must not be allowed to influence, nor from that of applied science with its formal demand for material results, but it is full of meaning when our outlook upon life and nature is that of Sir John Lub- bock in his Beauties of Nature; of John Van Dyke in his Nature for its Own Sake; of Gilbert White in his Natural History of Selborne ; of Ruskin; of our American nature-lovers, Henry Thoreau and John Burroughs ; and of many others who have helped us to appreciate beauty in nature. With direct reference to the animal side of biology, the strongest reason for advocating on aesthetic grounds the study of animal life is found in that the appreciation of the beautiful in animal form, colors, and movements has in all times and 1 Huxley, On the Educational Value of Natural History, p. 63, in Science and Education Essays. ,THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ZOOLOGY 255 countries been the chief source of a general interest in animal life. " To many animal life is impressive, not so much because of its amazing variety and numerical greatness, nor xhe BeantUnl because of its intellectual suggestiveness and practi- tte^Ue?"' cal utility, but chiefly on account of its beauty. |^5^ij,_ This is to be seen and felt, rather than described *«"»*• and talked about. "^ This is the explanation of the popular interest in birds, insects, shells of mollusks — all forms with splendid coloration and other attributes which appeal strongly to the' aesthetic sense. The same is true of the very many animals which have long been under the care of man primarily because of their beauty, — for example, gold fishes in Japan, numerous birds and other so-called ornamental animals. On the other hand, there has never been general interest in such animals as are commonly considered repulsive ; but to the man of science some of these despised forms are of great interest and from the study of some of them much light has been thrown upon important principles of zoology. It therefore seems clear that popular interest in animals is in no small measure determined by aesthetic rather than by strictly scientific considerations. We find further evidence of the existence of a general tend- ency towards interest in the beautiful in animals if we examine books on animal natural history which have been xhe iEsthetlc popular with general readers. These books have ^^^*h^. not aimed to present the cold scientific facts which '""^ History, mean most from the standpoint of pure science, so much as they have emphasized those things which appeal to the aesthetic sense. This is especially true in the recent illustrated books which have 'had unparalleled popularity. The secret of the great wave of interest in these is not, I believe, to be found in their descriptions of animals — in many cases these are not to be compared in literary charm with many older books ; but modern methods of illustration have made it possible for the first time 1 Thomson's Study of Animal Life, p. 15. 2S6 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY to represent, with considerable approximation to the natural, the beautiful in animal form and color. Heretofore the beauti- ful in animals has been expressed only in words, but now their almost perfect hkenesses are given a setting which appeals strongly to the aesthetic sense. This, I feel sure, is the chief reason for the widespread interest in our modern nature books as contrasted with earlier works, and the popularity of repre- sentations of the beautiful in animals is only another proof of a general tendency towards interest in animals because of their appeal to the aesthetic sense. Still further evidence of the appeal to interest by the beautiful in animals may be obtained by studying the attitude Interest of °^ young pupils, and even many college students, tatheBeau^ toward such animals as butterflies as compared of Animals, ^jfj^ jgss beautiful specimens, such as earthworms. Or in some great museum notice the interest of visitors in the beautiful animals, and this alone convinces one that great in- terest in animals, especially that of young people, is in no small degree influenced by beauty. I have emphasized the general interest in the beautiful in animals for two reasons. First, because it suggests the impor- tance of cultivating an appreciation of animal beauty Importance of.. ,tii t -i Empiiasison for its own sake, and second, because I see in the general interest in the aesthetic side of animal life an opportunity for enlisting and developing interest in the study of animals from the standpoint of pure science.^ For these two reasons I would urge that assthetical considerations should be rec- ognized by teachers as offering important arguments for the study of animals and plants in general education, and as suggesting the nature of studies aiming to cultivate the aesthetic appreciation of animal life. The aesthetic value is, I believe, not secondary in its importance in education, but equal to those which I have grouped under " practical " and " intellectual." 1 See Wilson, loc. cit., p. 22. THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ZOOLOGY 257 d. Moral Value of Zoological Knowledge.^ As evidence of the moral value of the knowledge of animals, many writers have been fond of pointing out that various inter-relations of animals — e. s., in social life, . 1 r J , ■ 1 Relation of parasitism, struggle for existence, and mutual aid Biology to , ... Etliics. — have a suggestive bearing upon human life and conduct. Without here questioning the soundness of such direct comparison between man and animals, there can be no doubt that in their broad application certain facts and generalizations of biology do affect htiman ethics. For ex- ample, we need only mention the biological laws of evolution and heredity which in the hands of Herbert Spencer and other ethical writers of the evolutionary school have led to the interpretation of the science of conduct from an entirely new point of view. However, the philosophical deductions of students of ethics from biological facts really belong to the intellectual value of zoology. Here I wish to limit the discussion to the influence of knowledge of animals upon of sympa- human conduct directly through sympathetic ac- gnaintance quaintance, rather than by way of any formulated "^ ethical principles. It is in developing sympathetic appreciation of animals that the chief moral value of the study of zoology in general education is to be found. " The peculiar ethical effects of zoological study," says Professor Forbes, " are to be drawn chiefly from that side of it which deals with the lower animals as alive ; from a knowledge of them as sentient, often intelligent, and sometimes thoughtful beings, which tends to greatly broaden and enrich the pupil's sympathetic interest" These results, like those on the aesthetic side, are not measurable by examinations, but I believe they may be ^ Special references : H. Spencer on the Moral Discipline of Science, in Education, p. 79. A. B. Buckley's Moral Teachings of Science (Hum- boldt Library of Science) is suggestive, but her comparisons between human and animal life often seem extreme. 17 2S8 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY made a very real and important addition to the educational value of zoology. Certain critics of the modern method of zoological study, which oftentimes necessarily involves the killing of animals, Moral Effect would have us believe that the courses of zoology stndTSig "' as now commonly conducted tend to lessen rather ^"'"""^ - than increase the sympathy of pupils for living animals. Perhaps this criticism is often justified as applied to particular cases, but for these individual teachers are responsi- ble. With the laboratory work properly conducted by a teacher who has the true scientific spirit, along with interest in living animals, there seems to be no reason why pupils should learn to value animal life lightly, even if for the sake of science study some few individuals must be sacrificed. But unfortunately some amateurs in science teaching have the false impression that to be ruthless and careless in taking animal life is proof of scientific attainments ; and as a result the zoological labora- tory is sometimes turned into a veritable slaughter-house. There is no justification for the wanton waste of material which is sometimes the outgrowth of the teacher's lack of appreciation of living animals. The effect upon the pupil is bound to be bad, both morally and in scientific training. As opposed to such reckless practices, I would urge that it is the duty of the teacher to discourage by example and by words the ruthless and unnecessary sacrifice of animal life ; and pupils should be led to get the greatest possible results from a minimum of materials. Especially is this important in the case of the higher animals with which our sympathetic relations are most direct. But in addition to such indirect work against possible loss of appreciation, I would urge the importance of direct effort towards increasing sympathy with living animals. DirectEffort _ . , , , , ,,.•■, to Develop Ihe attitude and the example and the mcidental Sympathy. . , . - suggestions of the teacher have the greatest influ- ence ; and besides the reading of certain books which deal with animals as living should be encouraged, especially books on THE EDUCATIONAL VALU^ OF ZOOLOGY 259 birds and mammals.* Special mention should be made of Shaler's Domesticated Animals, especially the introduction and the chapter on Rights of Animals ; Kropotkin's Mutual Aid among Animals; also his articles in Nineteenth Century, Vol. XXyill., pp. 337, 699, 1890 ; Thomson's Study of Animal Life, Part I. ; Sharp's Wild Life near Home, and the selections from this in A Watcher in the Woods (Century Company). Aside from the question of scientific accuracy, the animal books by Kipling, Thompson-Seton, Long, London, and other imaginative writers, are certainly to be commended as stimulating the interest and the sympathy of readers. With the explanation that they are stories, I can see no possible harm, but much good, in the moral effect which may come from putting such books into the hands of pupils old enough to read them. However, such books should not be erroneously classed under natural history. We have seen that from several points of view the study of zoology has value in general education. Further, it has been indicated that in all those aspects wherein the Aiialwve science is important in liberal education it is ap- ^MetosSbMis plicable to schools below the grade of college. iwiowCoUege. Clearly, it is desirable for such schools because the masses of citizens never have opportunity for studying the subject in college. From the educational contents of zoology we may formulate two aims which should govern the teaching in the secondary school. First, the aim to t each zoolog y so that it ^imsfQ, ^ will afford good scientific discipline should be the ^^^^^^ very foundation of zoological teaching. Second, it School, should be aimed to present the information — practical, intel- lectual, aesthetic, or moral in its bearing — which seems most v.aluable-< j(ar liberal secondary education. Equal emphasis should be given these two aims which, as already suggested, are in no sense necessarily conflicting, for the one stands for methods and the other for materials. These two general aims 1 See list of books on " Animal Natural History " in Chapter X. 26o THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY include the minor aims which various authors have suggested, and into these they will later be analyzed. A consideration of the disciplinary aim in its relation to the laboratory method can best be made after some selection of the materials which are demanded by the second aim, and with such selection the next chapter deals. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE. In the decade since this chapter was written there is a decided tend- ency towards emphasizing information rather than discipline as the chief educational value of zoology, and indeed of natural sciences in general. The psychological investigations concerning formal discipline have indi- cated that probably there is no peculiar mental discipline in the method of study of a given science. This emphasis on information is prominent in most of the educational articles on botany and zoology that have been published in recent years in the two leading American magazines for science teachers, School Science and Mathematics and the Nature-Study Review, and in all the text-books and laboratory guides which have won favor in the secondary schools. It seems a safe conclusion that hence- forth we must defend the place of biological sciences in education on the ground that they have a subject-matter content that is invaluable in everyday life. CHAPTER II THE SUBJECT-MATTER OP ZOOLOGrY FROM THE STAMD- POIHT OP THE SECOMDAKT SCHOOL 1 " The main object of teaching biology as part of a liberal education is to familiarize the student not so much vith the facts as with the ideas of the suence." — ^T. Jeffrey Parker. BIBLIOGRAPHY Porbes, S. A. Pedagogical Contents of Zoology. In Educational Papers by Illinois Science Teachers (Peoria, 111., 1891), pp. 38-48. Also in Educational Review, Vol. I., pp. 328-336. 1891. Bigelow, M. A. Introduction to Outline of a Course of Zoology in Horace Mann High School. Teachers College Record, Vol. II., No. I, pp. 4-15. January, 1901. Also in School Science, Vol. I., Nos. 2 and 3, pp. 68-72, 131-138. April, May, 1901. Davenport, C. B. Zoology as a Condition for Admission to College. High School Bulletin, No. 2, University of State of New York, Albany. 1899. (Followed by discussion.) Report of Committee on Zoology. Proceedings of National Educa- tional Association, 1899, pp. 805-808. Report of Committee of New York State Science Teachers' Associa- tion, on Secondary School Course in Zoology. High School Bulletin, No. 7, University of State of New York, pp. 528-548, 743-777. April, 1900. (Obtainable from secretary of the University, Albany, N. Y. Price 35 cents.) Prefaces to text-books by Needham, Davenport, Jordan and Kellogg, Harvey, KeUogg, and Colton. See list in Chapter X. In selecting the subject-matter for an elementary course in zoology for secondary schools, the field of zoological knowledge should be viewed from the standpoint of liberal ,. . . , , , . , , ■ Zoologyfrom education, as distinguished from special or techni- the stand- cal education. The field is wide, and at best only Liberal Edncatlon. a gumpse of animal structure and life can be given in a single course. Bearing in mind that the great majority ' The leading views expressed in this chapter may be regarded as essentially the development of some suggestions in Teachers College Record, Vol. II., No. i. January, 1901. 262 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY of secondary pupils can never follow more than one course of instruction in the subject, the problem is to fill that one course with those zoological facts and ideas which have the closest relation to the every-day life of a liberally educated man. In the future it must be recognized more clearly than it has been in the past that many phases of the science of zoology which are of interest and of importance to the specialist may have no definite meaning to a man in other walks of life. Many teachers of zoology in secondary schools do not seem to have examined the subject in this light, and as a result elementary zoology has been too often taught as if it was the aim to train the pupils for professional work in zoology or in some of its direct applications, such as medicine. This special or tech- nical training is the proper work of colleges, and has no more place in the secondary school than have higher applied math- ematics. In the college system the student may be expected to acquire much technical information while he is getting a general view of the field of zoology. In the secondary school the technical matter is undesirable, but the general view is of great importance. These wide differences between the aims which govern the zoological teaching in colleges Alms In and those which should underlie the work in the Secondary secondary school need to be strongly emphasized, for already there have been too many attempts to transfer college courses and books into the secondary school. The problem of high-school teaching is not a question of how near an approach can be made to the college technical courses in zoology, but a question of the value of such work in liberal secondary education. Is it the most valuable which can be selected from the wide field of zoology? This is the really vital question which apparently has been overlooked by many who have prepared outlines of study for elementary zoology in secondary schools, but upon the answer will depend whether in the future zoology justifies its right to a place in the second- ary curriculum. To a discussion of this problem of the es- sentials of zoology this chapter will be devoted. SECONDARY SCHOOL STANDPOINT 263 The field of zoological knowledge is so wide that, as a matter of convenience, naturalists recognize the subdivision of the general science into special sub-sciences or phases, Diyisions of each dealing with a peculiar aspect of animal Zoology, structure or life, and all necessarily involved in any wide and comprehensive view of the general field of zoology. Among these sub-sciences we must consider the following : anatomy (including histology), dealing with animal form and structure ; palaeontology, treating of animal fossils ; systematic zoology or classification ; physiology, dealing with functions of organs ; and the science of animal environmental relations, ecology. The first four are based on structure and hence are commonly regarded as sub-divisions of morphology in the strict use of that term, although we sometimes find it used quite synonymously with anatomy. Physiology and ecology, the first referring to functional relations within the organism, the second to relations between organisms and its environment, are to be looked upon as aspects of general physiology, which with morphology con- stitute the science of zoology.^ Before considering the educa- tional contents of these sub-divisions of the strict science of zoology, we must examine the so-called " natural history," which during the past few years has aroused so much interest in connection with the high-school study of animals, and point out its general relations to zoology as a science. The hmits of the field of animal natural history as now under- stood cannot be defined sharply, since its materials may be drawn from several of the sub-sciences involved in Relations of zoology. In fact, it may be said to be a general ^ry^aJi?" superficial survey of animals, especially from the Zoology, standpoints of their external structures and adaptations, general 1 The relations of these sub-sciences are well presented in the intro- ductory chapters of Sedgwick and Wilson's General Biology (Holt, New York ), and in Hertwig's General Principles of Zoology^ : translation by Field (Holt). The relation of physiology to ecology is clearly pointed out in the first chapter of Semper's Animal Life (Appleton), in which " physiology of organisms " (ecology) is compared with " physiology of organs" (physiology as commonly understood). 264 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY classification, life-histories, habits, and economic relations to man. As now apphed to elementary study of animals, natural history has the same relation to zoology which the two had to each other in the historical .development of our knowledge of animals. In the time preceding the eighteenth century, there was accumulated a vast mass of facts about animals, especially concerning their external structure, classification, and life-his- tories. In all this mass of material there was little order because facts stood more or less isolated, and to all this the term "natural history" was literally applicable.'^ But with the laying of the foundation of modern comparative zoology in the latter half of the eighteenth century, the accumulated facts from twenty-five centuries began to take their places in the science of zoology ; and fewj. indeed, were the facts of the old natural history which had not some definite relation to the science as it was organized long before another century had passed. Such was the transition from the natural history (" records of researches ") of animals to the modern science of zoology. It was the result not alone of the rapid accumula- tion of new facts or of the nature of these, but rather of the classification and organization of facts on the basis of the generalizations which constitute the foundation of zoology as we know the science to-day. The established principles are the distinguishing features of modern zoology as compared with the old natural history of animals. The same difference obtains between natural history as we now apply that term to certain elementary studies of animals and zoology in the strict sense. By the first we mean now, as historically, a general survey of animals for the sake of acquaintance with the facts, and with little or no organization of these facts on the basis of 1 The phrase "natural history," as applied to animals, appears to have originated from the Latin translation of the title of Aristotle's work, which in the original Greek m,eant " records of investigations on animals." The natural history of animals, before its development into modern zoology, was chiefly a mass of " records," without organization into science. SECONDARY SCHOOL STANDPOINT 265 generalizations. Zoology, on the contrary, in education as in the pure science, involves as an essential the idea of com- parisons leading to generalizations upon which to classify the facts. Such I conceive to be the difference between natural history and zoology considered historically, and so they should be understood as applied to education at the present time. In this volume the term natural history will be used in its historical sense to refer to mere accumulations of facts about animals — chiefly the more obvious facts observable in the living animals — while the term zoology will be applied to the study of animals from the standpoint of the modern science, with the principles, comparisons, and generaKzations which make it organized. With this understanding of the relations of nat- ural history and zoology, we may consider the place of the former in education. We can best understand the present natural history in secondary schools after briefly reviewing the history of formal instruction concerning animals. From the earliest , . . , , , , Hatnralffls- records of such teachmg m the last part of the tory in Edu- cation, eighteenth century until sometime in the eighties of the nineteenth century, the common instruction was along the lines of the old natural history, consisting chiefly of descrip- tions of external form, life-histories, classification, and relations of animals to man. Such instruction was designed simply to give the pupils acquaintance with the most interesting facts about animals, and involved no aim for scientific discipline.' But all this was changed by the advances in the instruction in colleges along the lines laid down by Huxley.^ Between 1885 and 1895 the laboratory method became extensively applied to the teaching of zoology in our high schools. Practical studies ^ For a more complete account of this early instruction, see History of the Teaching of Zoology in the Secondary Schools of the United States, by Marion R. Brown, in School Science, Vol. II. October and November, 1902. 2 Especially in Huxley & Martin's Practical Biology (1875), ^"d i" essay On Study of Biology (1876). 266 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY came to constitute the chief part of the work ; and, as an op- posite extreme from the study of the old natural history, books were neglected. In the very nature of things structure of animals was best adapted to such exclusive laboratory studies, and the work became almost entirely anatomical, involving much dissection and use of the compound microscope. As will appear later, there are many serious objections to such exclusive limitation of studies of animals to the anatomical work, and the criticisms which have been made Present Posi- tion of Matu- against such study have within the past five years ral History. , *", ■,...-, , , led to a reaction and a decided tendency towards abandoning many of the characteristic features of the anatomical course and returning towards the former natural-history course. This reaction is best expressed by the Davenports in the Introduction to Zoology,^ which was planned as " an attempt to restore the old-time instruction in natural history." Such a course as presented by these authors has nothing to do with the study of internal structures of animals which is a prominent feature of all courses in zoology. Obviously there can be no scientific consideration of the fundamental physiological pro- cesses, and there is no attempt to present the general principles of zoology as a science. Emphasis is placed on the study of ex- ternal form, classification, movements, habits, and life-histories of animals. In short, this and other recent courses in the natural history of animals are in essentials modern restorations of the old-time instruction, and in subject-matter are very similar to text-books which were used fifty years ago. The chief differ- ence between the old and the new teaching in natural history is not essentially one of facts but rather one of methods ; for it is now proposed to subordinate the recitation to personal ob- servation by the pupil who will learn some facts from the natural objects instead of exclusively depending upon books, as formerly. ^ This text-book may be regarded as the full development of an Out- line of Entrance Requirements in Zoology, Lawrence Scientific School, Harvard University. i8g8. SECONDARY SCHOOL STANDPOINT 267 With regard to the value of natural history, suffice it to say here that such a general survey of animals is generally regarded as very interesting to those who cannot go deep into vaineof Hatu- the science of zoology.^ "What the ordinary citi- raiBistoiy. zen needs," says Professor Davenport, " is an acquaintance with common animals." It is not to be denied that giving such acquaintance should hold a place in the zoological instruction in schools below the grade of college, but just what is its proper place in such schools is a question which we shall consider in Chapter IV. In the present connection it is only necessary to say that it may well be doubted whether a course devoted ex- clusively to natural history is altogether the best for J , T. • „ • T r „ Critldsmof secondary work. Especially m the omission of all Hatnral , r , . , History, reference to the general facts of internal structure in all animals the reaction from the purely anatomical course has been too extreme. In a succeeding section of this chapter there will be discussed the value of physiological study, and from this it will appear that many general facts of internal structure of some animals are from the physiqlogical standpoint essential in an elementary course in zoology. Hence, in n6t presenting internal structure the strictly natural-history course is inadequate. It gives a view of animal life which is almost as Umited, even though more interesting, as the anatomical work which it is proposed to supplant. We must not lose sight of our aim to present the important general facts and principles of zoology ; and .we must conclude that while a general ac- quaintance with animals is needed by the average citizen, exclu- sive attention to such popular and somewhat desultory studies leads to the omission of facts of morphology and physiology which are of great importance in secondary education. Enough has been said to indicate that natural history does not in itself give that view of the principles of the science of zoology which are demanded for general education. It is undoubtedly well 1 See Davenport, loc. cit. (1899), p. 463. Also preface to the Intro- duction to Zoology. 268 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY adapted for giving the general acquaintance with animals which is desirable as preliminary to the study of zoology as a science, but such preliminary study should have limitations which will be pointed out in the introduction to the chapter on " Beginning Work in Zoology." Rejecting natural history as in itself inadequate for general secondary education, we may now consider the educational Educational contents of the general science of zoology with a General*"* view to selecting the subject-matter valuable for Zoology. secondary education. It will be most convenient to regard it as separated into its various phases or sub-sciences, although in actual practice in elementary study no such division lines can be drawn ; and we shall discuss in succession : anat- omy, physiology, ecology, classification, embryology, palaeon- tology, philosophical zoology (evolution), economic zoology, and the history of zoology. It is from these phases of zoology considered as an organized science that we must draw the facts and principles for a general course. To a great extent our selection of facts must be guided by the principles which they illustrate ; for " the main object of teaching biology as part of a liberal education is to familiarize the student not so much with the facts as with the ideas of the science." ^ Anatomy. The study of anatomy, gross and microscopical, is obviously the foundation for that of all other phases of zoology ; forclassi- Anatomy fication, physiology, embryology, and ecology rest fundamental, upon a basis of Structure. It follows, therefore, that anatomy is an absolutely essential part of any elementary course in the science of zoology, and there is no other way of begin- ning except by giving considerable attention to structural facts as the basis for classifying, determining functions, studying life- histories, or interpreting environmental relations. Anatomy, then, is the foundation of zoological study. It is in the very na 1 Parker's Elementary Biology, preface. SECONDARY SCHOOL STANDPOINT 269 ture of things the beginning, but should it be also the end in a course in elementary zoology ? This is essentially the question concerning the teaching of zoology in secondary schools which in recent years has aroused much discussion. As has been incidentally stated, the course in elementary zo- ology which from about 1885 to 1898 was followed in the ma- iority of the more prominent secondary schools con- Hlgh-Scliool sisted largely of the detailed comparative study of the Anatomical structure of a series of animals. This was a very close imitation of a common introductory course in comparative anat- omy for college students, which was introduced in 1875 by the well-known Practical Biology by Huxley and Martin. The in- troduction of this line of work into high schools was undoubt- edly an attempt on the part of the teachers to transfer into the secondary schools the course of study and the methods in which they had been trained at college. In fact, this tendency towards duplicating the first college course in the high school led to the use in some schools of such laboratory manuals as Huxley and Martin's Practical Biology, and Marshall and Hurst's Practical Zoology} Even Boyer's Biology, which was especially prepared for high-school work and for many years extensively used, erred in the same direction and was scarcely less technical and as completely anatomical as the common manuals for college work in comparative anatomy. With college courses in zoology we are not here directly con- cerned, for the secondary school offers quite independent prob- lems. However, it will be of interest to turn aside college Ana- long enough to note that the introductory college as^^^^c'^^* course in zoology from the anatomical standpoint *'"''*•'' ^'*^''^* leads to other courses in which other phases of zoology are con- sidered, and in the end some few students may gain a broad view of the field of zoology, and learn to think of animals in the 1 Even as late as 1901, at least two prominent colleges mentioned these books in their catalogues as the basis of high-school work leading to their college-entrance examinations. 270 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY various aspects of their structural and functional relations. Clearly, even the colleges need a general introductory course offering a broader view for the great mass of students who can- not spend more than one year on a single science. Such a course seems to be gaining favor, and especially is there being manifested a decided tendency to study morphology and phy- siology in their natural relations. This is the reason for the growing popularity of books such as Parker's Elementary Biol- ogy, Sedgwick and Wilson's General Biology, and Parker and Parker's Practical Zoology. Within the past five years the value of the study of animal structure as presented in many high-school courses has been very much questioned;^ and it has frequently Anatomical been criticised because very much of the subject- matter is so technical as to be of very doubtful value to a liberally educated man who has no special reason for being learned in the details of anatomy. Moreover, when such exclusive attention is given to structure there is no time for the pupil to learn anything about the other phases of zoology; and since the practical work in anatomy is usually conducted with preserved specimens, it is far from being inspi- ration to the study of animal life. This objection to the narrow view offered by anatomy has been well stated by Professor Needham, of Lake Forest University : " It has been a popular delusion that a term of dissections constitutes a proper elemen- tary course. Such a course was an improvement on former methods ; the study of dead animals is far better than no con- tact with animals at all. But to study animals with nature and life left out is to omit a phase of the subject of deepest scien- tific interest, of highest educational importance, and of greatest pedagogical utility." ^ It is evident that an anatomical course will give pupils who follow it an extremely narrow view of the animal kingdom in its varied aspects. 1 See High School Bulletin, No. 2, University of State of New York (1899), pp. 459-476; Proceedings N. E. A., 1899, pp. 806-808. * From preface to Needham's Lessons in Zoology. SECONDARY SCHOOL STANDPOINT 2/1 Still another objection to the anatomical course of the high schools is that it involves too much dissection, the extensive practice of which in such schools no one has sue- objection to ceeded in justifying. This work is more or less J^J^^ctioii. distasteful to many young pupils, it is very time consuming, the skill acquired is of technical value only — these are the chief objections which have been urged against dissection. The prac- tice is surely growing in disfavor so far as the secondary schools are concerned ; in fact, there have been indications of the coming of the other extreme in which internal structure of all animals is to be excluded from elementary courses on animals. In defence of the course in anatomy it is often urged that the working out of details of structure tends to give valuable scien- tific training. This is certainly true; but much a Defence of of this is purely special training, and the facts of -^"^tomy. detail are only of technical value. There is a growing belief among naturalist teachers that much of the anatomical study in secondary courses can be replaced with more important subject-matter, and this with no loss so far as efficiency in developing scientific observing and thinking is concerned. Summarizing, the foregoing considerations lead to the con- clusion that in so far as anatomical study deals with the great facts of structure, both internal and external, in several typical common animals, it has many good features which commend it for secondary education ; but in so far as stress is placed upon details and comparisons of number, minute structure, exact extent and position of organs in some dozen types of animals all requiring dissection or sectioning, the study must be regarded not only as of minor importance in liberal secondary education but also as using time which should be devoted to other important phases of zoological study. But since the study of general anatomical structure, internal as well as external, of some animals is important as giving a basis for other phases of zoological study, especially physiology, therefore it is necessary that this much of the anatomical work should be retained in an elementary course in the secondary school. 272 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY Physiology. It is now generally recognized by naturalists that the study of animal structure and that of function are closely Helatlons of -' Structure and inter-related. In the words of Professor Whitman, Fnnctioii. of the University of Chicago: " Morphology and physiology are two quite distinct sides of biology, each with definite and constant peculiarities of method and aim ; but these two sides are only the statical and dynamical aspect of one and the same thing ; one presents the features, the other the expression. It is only as a matter of convenience that these two aspects are dealt with separately ; they are complemental, and have their full meauing only when united. " The history of morphology and physiology is one continuous illustration of their interdependence. When the famous Harvey was asked what led him to think of the circulation of the blood, he at once referred the original suggestion to one of the morphological features of the vascular apparatus — the valves and their arrange- ment. The hint furnished by structure was then followed up and tested by experiment, and the result was a discovery that brought the position of valves, pulsation of the heart, effects of ligatures, and other facts, into rational relation to one another." It is true that Professor Whitman had especial reference to the relation of morphology and physiology as applied to the Correlatioii of studies of advanced students and particularly to andPtosP original investigations. But the work of the begin- oiogy. jjjjjg pupil in biology is more a difference of degree than of kind ; and, even in the most elementary nature-study of animals, structure and function should be, and naturally are, considered together. The pupil in the elementary and second- ary school is intensely interested in finding that the structure of the grasshopper's leg is connected with the power of jumping, but the pure morphology of the insect leg would to the child be unattractive and valueless. The structure of a dead frog's leg would be the basis of an unimportant lesson for the young pupil 1 Fifth Report of Director of Marine Biological Laboratory (Boston, 1892). Also in American Naturalist (1892). SECONDARY SCHOOL STANDPOINT 273 who is not led to consider the organ as in action. Still another illustration is the case of the structure of the blood-system and the circulation of the blood ; as Professor Whitman pointed out, morphology and physiology were closely related in the original discovery, and they should likewise be related in the re-discov- eries of pupils who study these organs in the laboratory ; other- wise the experience of the pupils may largely repeat that of those students who preceded Harvey. This is one example of numerous opportunities for combining anatomical and physi- ological study in their natural relations. In advocating the introduction of physiology into elementary zoology for high schools, it is here intended to include the essential processes in the general metabolism of , ■ , , 1 J .... , , Physiology in the animal body, and not to limit the study to the High-School observation of movements and responses to stimuli, which is the chief characteristic of the " physiological " study referred to in outlines of several elementary courses that in recent years have been prominent. The value of the study of movements and responses to stimuli must be recognized in that this is a very practical way of giving the pupils some idea con- cerning the methods of strictly physiological experimentation. On the other hand, study of fundamental physiological processes obviously admits of very little practical work in a direct line, and the essential facts must be presented by text-book and teacher. But the morphological and experimental basis for such study can be strictly practical, and a logical presentation should lead the pupils from observed facts to conclusions, so that the discussions of the subject of general physiology of animals may be of far greater value as discipline and as informa- tion than a mere didactic exercise. The usual objection to physiological work in secondary schools is that the subject, unlike morphology, cannot be pre- sented by a strictly laboratory method. But how Objection to much knowledge of the fundamentals of the physi- Physioiogyfor * High Schools, ology of general nutrition does the college student get directly from his own laboratory studies as compared with 18 274 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY what he accepts on the authority of teacher and books? In how many colleges is the laboratory method strictly and ex- clusively applied even in morphological teaching? Certainly the college methods do not support any objection to physiologi- cal teaching which has a basis in practical work, even though it is not possible for pupils to depend exclusively upon their results in the laboratory. The importance of interpreting the activities of the human body from the comparative standpoint seems sufficient reason for advocating the consideration of the fundamental Human . . . . Physiology principles of physiological action in connection Comparative with the Study of elementary zoology. No other standpoint. , ^ ... . , , ° phase of zoological study arouses a deeper interest and appreciation or is more spontaneously applied by the pupils in connection with the study of their own life-activities. It is scarcely necessary to offer a stronger reason for including physiological study in an elementary course of zoology.^ In combining physiology with morphological work of the course in zoology, it is important that the two phases of study MorpiioiogT be closely related throughout the course. The Sgy sionid ^^^ text-books and teachers' outlines which merely reiatM^ suggest the tendency towards a union of these two Teaching. phases of zoological study seem to show that in general the attempt is to teach physiological ideas in the form of abstract generalizations with little of concrete application to particular animals which are studied morphologically. Some- times these generalized principles of physiology are introduced before the pupils have progressed far in the practical study of animal structure, but more often after the completion of a purely morphological course. An example of the latter is the text-book and manual of elementary zoology by Kingsley, in the last chapter of which there is an excellent statement of the principles of comparative physiology ; but there is no specific 1 This will be further developed in discussing the teaching of human physiology in Chapter XII. SECONDARY SCHOOL STANDPOINT 275 concrete application of those principles. Such a method of presenting the principles apart from concrete application is open to serious objection. In the light of experience it may well be doubted whether such presentation gives pupils a clear conception of general life-activities. A physiological principle may be formulated in a generalized way, and as such may be memorized by the pupils ; but that they do not grasp the ideas involved is shown by the fact that they usually fail in applica- tion when concrete cases are placed before them. Every zoologist knows in personal experience how indefinite and unsatisfactory are the- ideas gained from reading generalizations if he cannot easily recall and connect them with the specific underlying facts ; and in order to appreciate the attitude of the elementary pupil, it is only necessary to recognize the fact that even at the close of a year's course the pupil has not the definite remembrance of the details of structure which are necessary for concrete illustration and application of the prin- ciples of physiology. In order to give the clearest possible conception of physiological principles it is essential that struc- tures and functions should be studied in their natural relations. •The principles of physiology should be introduced with the first animal which is studied morphologically, and each principle as introduced should receive concrete application. The study can easily and quickly be made comparative as successive types of animals are taken up ; and finally such specific and com- parative studies may be made to lead to a direct application of the principles of comparative physiology to the activities of the human body. Animal Ecolog^.l Still another important phase of zoloogical study which has recently become prominent in education is that of animal 1 Ecology, ethology, bionomics, and natural history have been used within recent years quite synonymously. Natural history has been used in so many senses (see Huxley's essay On Study of Biology) that to apply it to a special phase of zoology would lead to endless confusion ; 2^6 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY ecology — the science dealing with the relation of animals to their environment. Although an attempt to classify definitely Rise of ^^^ explain in terms of physiology and psychology Ecology. tj^g facts of animal relation to environment marks a quite recent stage of the development of zoological science, and hence animal ecology is popularly regarded as a new- science, the truth is that a vast mass of information in this line has long been in existence as a prominent part of the so- called " natural history." In fact, long before there was any exact science of zoology ecological facts were being accumu- lated by patient observers of animal life in its familiar forms ; and many a popular old-time book bearing the title Natural History owed its charm largely to the accounts of animals as living creatures with interesting habits of life and life-histories adapting them to their environmental conditions. It is true that such books also contained much information concerning structure, especially external ; but this, too, largely derived its interest from ecological considerations. The psychological phase of the study of animal life, dealing with nervous activity, instincts, and intelligence, is obviously closely associated with problems of ecology ; in Relation of ^ ■' , , ^ . Psychology fact, these nervous phenomena constitute to a great extent the fundamental basis for relation between animals and their environment. It is this psychical aspect which makes animal ecology so much more intricately complex than plant ecology. A " plant society " may be analyzed from the standpoint of its chemical and physical relations to the environment, but the ecology of social animals is vastly more complicated by the added nervous or psychical and there is now general agreement that it should be applied only to general accounts of animals, as defined in the earlier part of this chapter. At present there is no agreement as to choice between ecology, bio- nomics, and ethology. In favor of animal ecology is that the phrase corresponds to plant ecology just as plant physiology to animal phy- siology; but in opposition it has been urged that the problems of the animal side are not parallel to those offered by plants. See article by W. M. Wheeler, in Science, N. s., Vol. XV., No. 390, pp. 971-976. 1902. SECONDARY SCHOOL STANDPOINT 277 factors which at times seem to refuse to be governed by the chemical and physical environment. The principles under- lying these phenomena associated with the internal working of the nervous mechanisms are for the advanced student most conveniently considered under psychology, independently of ecological applications. But, aside from the questions of the relations between the psychic life of lower animals and man, it is in the application to animal ecology — to the behavior of animals under natural environmental conditions — that the ad- vanced student finds intensely interesting applications of the principles presented in psychological works such as those named in the chapter on "Zoological Books." Ecology is so closely related to other phases of zoology that so far as elementary instruction is concerned it is often im- practicable to draw any sharp division line. The ,, ,. , , , , ,. . Relationto problems of ecology are centred around the hvmg other Phases animal m relation to its surroundings, but obviously even the elementary considerations of the activity of any part of an animal necessarily involves at least the external structure of the organ. For illustration, let us take the characteristic adaptive structures and movements of the legs of the grass- hopper. The internal structure, with its mechanism of muscles and the hidden activities involved in the production of the movements expressed externally, furnishes problems "which belong to the domains of morphology and physiology. With these internal phenomena ecology is not as directly concerned as it is, with the external structure which visibly stands in direct correlation with the characteristic adaptive movements ; but it is evident that ecological problems are closely related to the facts of internal structure and physiology in which in the ulti- mate analysis explanations are to be sought. These intimate re- lations between ecology and other phases of zoology lead to some suggestions regarding the study of living animals, for animal ecology is characteristically the study of animals alive under natural conditions, and as such in decided contrast to the anatomical and physiological phases of zoology. 278 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY In conducting ecological study external structure must be considered as a basis for the ecological interpretation. Meas- Strnctnre the "ring the distance over which a grasshopper can |^^*°f jump or observing other activities of animals is an Ecology. exercise of scientific value only when correlated with knowledge concerning the general external structure of the animal so that the adaptations will be evident. Logically, then, some knowledge of a structure should precede inquiry into its function or adaptation ; but in elementary teaching the principle of interest may demand a reversal of this order. Probably most young pupils will be more interested in a grass- hopper's leg after they have witnessed its activity. However, observations on the adaptive structure and function should be carefully correlated. Unless they can be studied hand in hand, as when living animals are available for use in the laboratory, it seems better to precede the ecological study with some an- atomical work. The best preparation for the appreciation of study of any animal in the field is a preliminary examination of external structure and activities so far as these can be deter- mined from living and preserved materials in the laboratory. Such preparation will add greatly to the scientific significance of a study of animals in their native haunts ; and there is evi- dence that it intensifies rather than lessens interest. As to the value of the study of living animals in their ecological relations, we might defend it on the ground of economic importance of the knowledge obtained, study of notably in the case of insects ; and also in that the facts of environmental relationships aid the advanced student in interpreting some great problems of zoology, and especially are they full of significance in relation to the questions of organic evolution. With reference to the value of animal ecology for the general student of animals, the preface to Jordan and Kellogg's well-known Animal Life is fespecially to the point when it is stated that : " The beginning student should know that the whole life of ani- mals, that all the variety of animal form and habit, is an expression SECONDARY SCHOOL STANDPOINT 279 of the fitness of animals to the varied circumstances and conditions of their living, and that this adapting and fitting of their life to the conditions of living come about inevitably and naturally, and that it can be readily studied and largely understood. The ways and course of this fitting are the greatest facts of life excepting the fact of life itself. In this kind of study of animals every observation of fact in animal structure or behavior leads to a search for the significance, or meaning in the life of the animal, of this fact. The veriest beginner can be, and ought to be, an independent ob- server and thinker. It is this phase of the study of zoology which appeals most strongly to the beginning student, the phase which treats of the why and how of animal form and habit." But aside from any practical value of ecological knowledge and the relation of its facts to those of other phases of zoology, its place as an important part of elementary zoolog- General in- ical instruction may be justified on the ground that ^loli^al it is undoubtedly the most interesting part of all ^acts. zoology not only for young pupils but also for the majority of citizens of liberal education. As has been said, it is the eco- logical phase which constitutes the essence and the charm of the popular books on natural history, and the widespread interest in these is sufficient proof of the general demand for information about animal life. Of all the phases of zoological study, it is the ecological which is directly concerned in the aesthetical and moral values discussed in the preceding chapter ; and from these alone we may derive sufficient justification for emphasizing in all elementary courses the ecological phase which brings the pupils so directly into contact with animals as living creatures. Teachers will find valuable suggestions for practical work in this line in the following books : Needham's Lessons in Zool- ogy and Outdoor Studies (A. B. Co.) ; Suggestions suggestions to Teachers, accompanying Jordan and Kellogg's ^""^ teachers. Animal Life (Appleton) ; Comstock's Insect Life ( Appleton) ; Gas.^raax^% Bird Life, Popular Edition, 1901 (Appleton) ; Chap- ters XXXI. to XXXIII. in Kellogg's Elementary Zoologv (Holt) ; French's Animal Activities (Longmans) ; and Colton's new Practical Zoology (Heath). 28o THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY The methods and point of view of teachers of plant ecology are often suggestive to the teachers of the animal side. The ecological materials in Coulter's Plant Relations (Appleton), and Bergen's Foundations of Botany (Ginn), and their accom- panying handbooks for teachers, should be familiar to all teachers of animal ecology. For pupils' supplementary reading in the line of animal ecol- ogy Thomson's Study of Animal Life, Part I., and Jordan and Reading for Kellogg's Animal Life are unsurpassed. Many PupUs. other books named in the lists on natural history and ecology in the chapter on " Zoological Books " are valuable for both teachers and pupils. Classification. For many years the study of classification of animals has not been fashionable in most colleges and consequently in most high schools. The term has unfortunately become popularly associated with the memorizing of polysyllabic scientific names of animals. On this side of classification I have comparatively little to recommend for praictice in secondary schools ; but I wish to call attention to another aspect which has been gener- ally overlooked by teachers. I shall quote the exact words of Professor S. A. Forbes of the University of Illinois. " That a study of the classification of animals is not only possi- ble, as every one admits, but may be made highly profitable to the Forties's common school pupil, if properly conducted, I have View. long been perfectly sure. We must beware, however, of confusing two quite distinct and very different things : the mere learning of a correct classification based on all the facts of morphology as interpreted by the highest zoological authorities ; and the effort to classify made by the pupil himself, as a practice in generalization. I have yet to learn where in the common school course this training in generalization, this practice in the forming of large and complicated concepts out of concrete materials, in tracing from point to point the threads of the web of relation by which unlike things are unified and made into larger wholes again capable of being compared among themselves, and so built up into higher and higher concepts, — I have yet to learn where this in- SECONDARY SCHOOL STANDPOINT 28 1 valuable part of .a sound education is now commonly provided for. The doing of this first on things and then on ideas, is a most profitable exercise, and the habit of doing it spontaneously is a large part of the education of the thinking man." An objection to the study of classification recorded in the report ^ of a committee of the National Educational Objectloii to A ■ ,.• J ... .• StudyofClas- Association deserves attention : stficatloii. " The systematic method involves the detailed study of a group or groups in the most careful manner from the taxonomic stand- point. This plan has the advantage of bringing the pupil in con- tact with the objects studied, and trains powers of discrimination and ainalysis, but it gives the student an exaggerated idea of the importance of certain structural parts and of limited animal groups, and fails to develop general biological ideas.'' With regard to this objection it may be urged that it applies particularly to exclusive and excessive dependence upon the syste- matic method — a common tendency among the teachers who make any attempt at teaching classification. But that there is great value in classification studied in the way suggested by Pro- fessor Forbes no one will deny, and limitations of the work to certain of the more favorable groups {e. g., insects, decapods, crustaceans) will avoid the dangers which have been supposed to lurk in the study of systematic zoology. There are some taxonomic names which are so commonly used in general literature that they deserve to be emphasized in teaching zoology. The names of' all phyla except gome Impor- the modern sub-divisions of the " worms " ; the **"* "™^^- names of prominent classes of arthropods, molhisks, and verte- brates, but not those of "worms," protozoans, and I feel very doubtful about echinoderms and coelenterates ; the names of some familiar orders, especially of insects and vertebrate classes — these are about all the names in general classification which should be especially emphasized in high-school work. But I would make the pupils famihar with the general classification of 1 Proceedings N. E. A., 1899, p. 806. 282 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY animals as illustrated by the arrangement of systematic treatises like Parker and Haswell's Text-book of Zoology, and this in order to teach pupils how to use zoological books of reference. In order to familiarize pupils with names of species and genera and larger groups I should use both the technical and common names of every animal studied, but I see no reason for insisting upon memorizing them. For the basis of practical studies of classification, as suggested by the above quotation from Forbes, I should use decapods, Practical starting with the crayfish as suggested in Huxley's Studies. Crayfish ; or vertebrates, starting with the frog and following the thought of the last chapter in Part I. of Parker and Yz-x^s-t"^^ Practical Zoology ; or representatives of insect orders. Using the actual animals from one of these groups, I should lead the pupils to compare and group the animals on the basis of resemblances, thus laying their own foundation for ideas of classification. Embryology. The study of animal development has rarely been emphasized in elementary courses in zoology for secondary schools. Ordi- narily that phase of life-history which deals with the Emliiyology , ,■ , . ,.,..,,.,. commonly development of the egg mto the mdividual animal is neglected. , , ., , ■ r passed over hastily ; and, in fact, it is no uncommon thing to find that high-school teachers carefully avoid reference to sex and reproduction of animals. As an example, a well-known laboratory manual prepared for use in secondary schools omits all reference to reproductive organs in animals above Hydra — even in describing an earthworm with dorsal body-wall re- moved. This was probably an intentional — not accidental — omission ; for in an accompanying handbook for teachers there is this explanation : " The question of sex has been left largely to the tact of the teacher. We do not believe in presenting the play of Hamlet with Hamlet left out, but there are serious objections to giving this question adequate place in a manual prepared for mixed classes of young people. The studies have SECONDARY SCHOOL STANDPOINT 283 been arranged in such a way that it is hoped no one's false modesty will be shocked, and it has been left for the individual teacher to make any desired additions rather than to be obUged to pass over in silence some parts of the text." The teacher of biology in high schools must recognize the widespread existence of a so-called "false modesty" whose dictates, if obeyed, would force avoidance of dis- „ ' -' ' Essential cussion of the subject of animal reproduction. Of Facts shonid .... . ie taught, course, there are no such limitations in the science of biology, but pupils are not specialists in science. Even at the high-school age they have acquired something of the " false modesty " which the teacher must avoid " shocking." How- ever, I regard the above quotation as expressing an extreme attitude. " False modesty " is an outgrowth of human life, and in the minds of young pupils has little real existence with reference to lower forms of hfe. I have seen many classes of "mixed" pupils studying and reciting about essential facts of reproduction in Hydra, earthworm, crayfish, and frog, and rarely have I seen any indication that any pupil regarded these facts as any more " forbidden " than knowledge of other organs and processes. It is true that some few individuals show some evidence of embarrassment at the first mention of sex or reproduction, but all soon learn to have respect for such facts as an essential part of the science which they are study- ing — a result which is certainly valuable. A sincere and seri- ous teacher who delicately but firmly handles the essential truths about the reproduction of animals, and who shows the same scientific spirit which is manifested in dealing with the other systems of organs will impress upon the pupils the fact in the realm of biological science all facts are important and worthy of serious consideration. On the other hand, any. attempt to avoid all reference to the facts of animal reproduction is sure to give pupils the false impression that even in scientific study there is something " indelicate " about even the lower forms of animal life. The reproductive process is necessarily prominent in zoology and cannot be entirely overlooked by the pupils. 284 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY Here is an opportunity for science study to work against the very common misunderstanding of a subject about which every liberally educated citizen should have some scientific knowl- edge ; and I would urge that the essential facts of the repro- duction of animals, as illustrated by selected types, should constitute an integral part of any course in zoology which aims to give the information most valuable for general education. With regard to the function of text-books in teaching this subject, I cannot agree with the authors quoted above. If . . there is any difficulty in presenting the subject, Attitude of . ' ' ° / the Text- surely a prmted account is better than the explana- bOOJE. tions of teachers who may be amateurs in science teaching. At any rate the attitude of the text-book may well prepare the way for the " tact " of the teacher. Considering in detail the facts to be taught, all teachers will agree that the secondary course is not the place for the detailed The Facts to examination of cleavage, germ-layers, etc., which betanght. characterizes the embryological work in colleges. However there are many important and interesting facts of animal development which may be profitably presented in an elementary course in high school. Such facts as those relating to spontaneous generation ; asexual reproduction in lower forms ; the general principles of sexual reproduction, involving the leading facts about development from a one-celled egg ; the na- ture and effect of fertilization ; parthenogenesis among arthro- pods ; cell-division in development ; the heredity of general resemblances, — these are examples of topics about which some knowledge is at least as useful to liberally cultured citi- zens as that from any other phase of zoology. All these and more may be presented in a form elementary enough for the high-school pupil, notwithstanding that this is the approach to some of the profoundest problems of zoology. I would recom- mend that some of the great general principles of embryology be introduced early in the course, preferably in connection with the study of some invertebrate. These general principles should be briefly applied to each animal studied. The general SECONDARY SCHOOL STANDPOINT 285 features of the embryology and life-history of crayfish, earth- worm, Hydra, fish, frog, bird, and finally viviparous salaman- ders, snakes, and lizards will lead up to the internal development of the mammals. In mixed classes it is best to stop here ; but the tactful and thoughtful teacher will have no difficulty in briefly but clearly indicating that the mammals offer no exception to the great general principles which apply to the development of the individual animals of the lower forms previously studied. All this study of animal development, likewise all other ele- mentary zoological study, should be conducted to the end that the great facts may come to have in the pupils' jjfe-History mind a profound significance in relation to the sum- °* ^*™* mit of the animal series — man. And concerning the bearing of zoological study upon the great facts which relate to the beginning of the individual human life, I find my views in complete agreement with those of Professor W. S. Hall,^ of Northwestern University : " Questions of life history, reproduction, whence, how and whither would better not be discussed. The courses in botany and zoology have sharpened the senses and incited the thoughtful questioning of the pupil. When he comes to the study of man, leave him alone with his thoughts in these deeper and more delicate questions, and he will arrive at the truth." Palaeontology. The palseontological phase of zoology has rarely been referred to in connection with elementary courses for secondary schools. The limitations of time make it impossible to under- „ . , '^ Some Impor- take any scientific study of fossil animals; but I tant Facts of wish to emphasize the importance of mcludmg in a zoological course some simple general facts. It requires very little extra time to call attention to the methods by which the animal remains were preserved, the fact that probably few in- dividuals were fossilized, and some general facts about the different ages represented by animal fossils." After such an ' In School Science, Vol. I., p. 61. April, 1901. 2 Part III. of Brigham's Text-Book of Geology (Appleton) is valuable 286 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY introduction to the general principles it is easy to turn aside for a few minutes occasionally in order to call attention to the forerunners of existing animals, illustrating whenever possible by means of fossils, models, or pictures. Philosophical Zoology — Evolution. The question whether the doctrine of evolution should be generally taught in schools first attracted widespread attention owing to some criticisms by Rudolph Virchow, of lution in Berlin, in an address on " Freedom of Science in the Modern State " delivered at the fiftieth meeting of the German Naturalists and Physicians, in 1877. While Vir- chow did not then directly repudiate the theory, he distinctly stated that it was not proven and therefore should not be taught authoritatively to young people. In a prefatory note to the English translation of Ernst Haeckel's famous reply, " Freedom in Science and Teaching " (1878), Huxley expressed the follow- ing opinion : " Far be it from me to suggest that it is desirable that tjie incul- cation of the doctrine of evolution should be made a prominent Huxley's feature of general education. I agree with Professor Opinion. Virchow so far, but for very different reasons. It is not that I think the evidence of that doctrine insufficient, but that I doubt whether it is the business of a teacher to plunge the young mind into difficult problems concerning the origin of the existing condition of things. I am disposed to think that the brief period of school-life would be better spent in obtaining an acquaintance with nature as it is ; in fact, in laying a firm foundation for further knowledge which is needed for the critical examination of the dogmas, whether scientific or anti-scientific, which are presented to the adult mind. At present education proceeds in the reverse way ; the teacher makes the most confident assertions on precisely those subjects of which he knows least ; while the habit of weighing evi- dence is discouraged, and the means of forming a sound judgment are carefully withheld from the pupil." for reference and supplementary reading by pupils, and is an excellent introduction to palseontological facts which deserve a place in a course of elementary zoology. SECONDARY SCHOOL STANDPOINT 287 Within recent years there has been a growing tendency to advocate that some of the leading points of the general doctrine of organic evolution should be taught in our second- wiiat may be ary schools. Nevertheless, most American zoolo- ^rnSgEvo- gists will, I think, agree with Huxley that it should '"**""• not be made a prominent feature because the problems are too difficult for the young mind. It is to be noted that this objec- tion refers simply to evolution as a formal doctrine, and does not necessarily apply to the evidences, some of which may be suggested even by very elementary study. We may urge the importance of marshalling the materials so that pupils must be led to see resemblances between animals. As an explanation of such similarity, we may point to blood relationship by which in our every-day life we naturally explain resemblances between human individuals. But I seriously doubt whether it is advis- able in secondary work to carry the interpretation beyond the authoritative statement that naturalists now regard such evidence as pointing towards common descent of animals. I know that it is a subject which often arouses the thoughtful questioning of some of the brighter pupils, but these often lead teachers far into discussion of many highly theoretical problems which are certain to be confusing to young minds ; and it seems to me far better to adhere firmly to study of actual conditions where some facts may simply point in the direction of evolution. This will lay the best foundation for later studies of theories of evolution, which, as we have already seen in Chapter I., are of general interest. Considering more specifically what should and should not be taught concerning evolution, we note first that the decapods, insects, and vertebrates are certainly best for com- Anatomical parison intended to bring out the anatomical re- Kesemblances. semblances between allied animals.^ The pupils should be led to see the homologies in the external structure, particularly ^ I shall later (p. 346) refer to the value of such study of a limited group as compared with that of a series of phyletic types. 288 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY in the appendages of decapods and insects and in the skele- tons of vertebrates. For such studies of affinities the lobster, crayfish, prawn, and various species of crab form one good series ; the grasshopper, cricket, and cockroach a second ; these compared with insects of other orders form a third ; and skeletons of frogs, lizards, birds, bat, dog or cat, and man a fourth series. These anatomical comparisons suggesting relationship may be reinforced by reference to the similarities of embryos. The long abdomen of the young crab, the bifurcated Embryologi- ° . . cai Resem- walking-legs of the young lobster, the gill-slits and Wances. , . ., . . , . , general similarity of external structure m vertebrate embryos of all classes — these are simple embryological facts suggestive of evolution which are intensely interesting and may be comprehended in a general way by pupils in the secondary school. Occasional facts on the palaeontological side may be brought incidentally to the attention of pupils in order to indicate the Palffiontoiogi- progressive development of animals in the past cai Evidences, history of the earth ; but time and the age of pupils will not permit more than general suggestions. More than these suggestions of evidences of evolution is not, I believe, profitable in the secondary school. Limitatioiis. _,._.., , Obviously It IS useless to attempt to demonstrate relationships between the various phyla ; and it is no more than the truth to point out that great differences of structure exist. For high-school pupils there is a great gap between vertebrates and lower forms ; and let it remain so rather than attempt to bridge the chasm with the debatable hypotheses which are comprehensible only by advanced students. In short, I do not believe that high-school work in zoology should attempt demonstration of evidences of evolution except within the boundaries of a few limited groups where the leading facts can be discovered by the pupils themselves. On the side of the factors of evolution the subject is clearly beyond high-school pupils. Evidences of the struggle for exist- SECONDARY SCHOOL STANDPOINT 289 ence and consequent survival of the fittest, adaptation to environ- ment in relation to this struggle and survival, variations of in- dividuals, and the influence of man's selection in Factors of domesticated races — these are the leading points ^^"^"^011. concerned with the factors which it may be profitable to notice in a secondary school ; but little more than suggestions in these lines are possible. " Does evolution mean that man came from mon- Descent of keys?" This is always asked when the subject ''*^' of evolution is touched. Here is uncertain ground for the teacher, for any discussion of the evolution of man is likely to lead into most intricate problems. If the subject is brought forward by the pupils, I believe that it should be dismissed with the single statement that the undoubted structural resemblances between man and apes suggest descent from a common ances- tor, but that mentally there are vast differences which are not yet understood. Finally, I believe that it is undesirable that the teacher should appear to stand in the position of an advocate attempting to convince pupils of the truth of evolution. Whether , ., , , ... Teachernot or not the pupils accept the theory on authority is an Advocate _ .... , , of Evolution. 01 no consequence, but it is important that they get a glimpse of the lines of evidences which may lead them later to a broader view of nature and natural processes. For further suggestions regarding facts of evolution which may be presented in a secondary school see Chapter XXX. in Kellogg's Elementary Zoology ; page 264 in Need- References for ham's Lessons in Zoology ; Chapter XVI. in Jordan Teaciers. and Kellogg's Animal Life ; Romanes's Scientific Evidences of Organic Evolution and his Darwin and after Darwin, Vol. I. The illustrations in the latter volume are especially instructive. Other books for general readers are named in the chapter on "Zoological Books." Economic Zoology. The importance of the economic phase of zoology in general education has been discussed in a general way in the preceding 19 290 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY chapter, and here we shall consider specifically the nature of the work in this line which may be profitably undertaken in a high school. The chief general topics in economic zoology are : useful domesticated animals (such as mammals, birds, honey-bee, and Important silkworm, considered as sources of food and cloth- Topics, ing and as pets and beasts of burden) ; useful animals not domesticated (chiefly for food and clothing) ; injurious animals (such as insects, parasites, rodents, poisonous and carnivorous species) ; animals beneficial because destroying those which are injurious (for examples, insectivorous animals, predaceous insects and arachnids, amphibians, reptiles, some mammals). Considerations of animals along any of these lines are full of interest to the average pupil, and I am inclined to believe that emphasis upon these relations of animals to the interests of man is bound to lead to deeper interest in zoology in general. With regard to the methods of conducting studies in economic lines, field work should be supplemented with reading and lectures. The field work will be naturally associ- Methodsof , . , , , • , j. •, • j conducting ated with the ecological studies ; and insects and Studies. , . , , . , , birds are the most important groups for observa- tions in this line. However, within the limits of time for zoology in the secondary school it is not possible to go far into the practical side of the economic work ; in fact much of this is better conducted in the elementary school as part of the nature- study. Probably supplementary reading is the most feasible way of giving in connection with the high-school zoology a general view of this phase of the science. A commendable plan is to have brief reports prepared by the pupils basing these upon books and especially the governmental publications which are referred to under " Economic Zoology " in the chapter on " Zoological Books." For other suggestions on economic zoology see the follow- ing: Proceedings National Educational Association, 1901, p. 584 ; Barrows in School Science, Vol. III., May and June, SECONDARY SCHOOL STANDPOINT 291 1903 ; Gage on Study of Domestic Animals, in Science, Vol. X., p. 305 ; and references under "Utilitarian Value of Zool- ogy," in the preceding chapter. History of Zoology, and Biography. Although not essentially a part of the subject-matter of the pure science of zoology, pertinent historical and biographical facts should, I feel sure, have a place in an ele- History of mentary course. The history of the development ^""'"sy- of a science throws a flood of light upon the present state of the science, but probably of greater significance from the standpoint of the high-school pupil is the interest derived from historical facts. In elementary work historical references would often prove confusing if carried far into fields where the devel- opment of knowledge has passed through radical changes ; and it is only to the epoch-making stages in the history of the science that it seems profitable to call the attention of beginning stu- dents. Such noteworthy achievements as the discovery of the circulation of the blood, the announcement of the cell-theory, the publication of the Origin of Species, the development of the germ-theory of disease, and other important landmarks of zoo- logical history deserve mention in any general course which pretends to give a survey of the science of animal life. Nor should the important contributions to zoological knowl- edge be divorced from the great names associated with them. It is unfortunate that in the elementary teaching of ... ,. , . , , , Biography, zoology so little attention has been given to the personal aspect. The student of elementary physics and chem- istry becomes acquainted with names such as Newton, Priestley, Lavoisier, Helmholtz, Galvani, and Tyndal. These are com- monly associated with great principles treated in even elemen- tary text-books. As a decided contrast, few indeed are the elementary books of zoology which give prominence to even such names as Darwin, Agassiz, Pasteur, and Huxley. This should not be so. " A body of correlated scientific truth can hardly be studied apart from the personality of the names in- 292 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY separably linked with it." ^ Zoology will take a deeper hold on the student if it is presented with due attention to the biograph- ical aspect. With regard to the teaching in this line, the historical and biographical points will naturally be supplemental to the regular zoological work. Notes by the teacher, brief biographical sketches prepared by pupils, exhibition of books and photo- graphs, reading of selections from original works, lists of im- portant discoveries and books with dates — these topics suggest ways of supplementing the work in pure zoology with intensely interesting historical and biographical material. For sources of such materials the great encyclopedias are always useful, but better are the special books and papers named under " His- torical " and " Biography " in the chapter on " Zoological Books." Summary. We have seen that in each sub-science of zoology there are facts and principles contributing to the general view of animals Esse ti 1 which seems most desirable for liberal secondary Facts in each education. From this we conclude that the ele- Fbase of Zoology. mentary course, which for the vast majority of high- school pupils will be the only instruction they will ever receive in zoology, should be planned to presentthe fundamental facts and principles of each of the sub-divisions of the science. It may be objected that such a wide survey of the science of zool- ogy, however desirable, involves an amount of work which is impossible for an elementary course ; but it must be understood that this has reference to only the general facts and ideas of the various divisions ; and as indicated on preceding pages, it is not intended that along any line the study should go far into details. It is obviously impossible to include all important points in one course, and it rests with the teacher to teach those which seem to have the greatest general importance from the point of view of liberal education. 1 Carhart, The Humanistic Element in Science. Proceedings N.E. A., 1896, p. 946. SECONDARY SCHOOL STANDPOINT 293 A second conclusion growing out of our examination of the subject-matter of zoology is that as far as practicable the various phases of zoology should be studied in their study of natural relations. A strictly pedagogical arrange- Natural" ment according to the scientific divisions — raor- delations, phology, physiology, ecology, etc. — is at once impossible and undesirable. In the preceding discussions it has many times been noted that the various divisions of zoology are so closely inter-related that one depends upon another. It follows that elementary presentation of the science develops most naturally when the study of the various phases go hand in hand. The outline of a course in zoology given in Chapter VIII. is based upon the views expressed in this chapter, and it will con- cretely illustrate many points which have necessarily been dis- cussed here in a very general way. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE. When this chapter was written ten years ago there was a real need of propagandic work for general zoology in high schools, for then many teachers and the colleges favored limitation of high-school zoology to the " natural history " aspects of the animals. All this has been changed, and both colleges and high schools now accept the proposition that sec- ondary education needs a general survey of facts drawn from the wide range of zoological science. Among the text-books of recent years which present general zoology for high schools are the following : Linville and Kelly, Text-book of Zoology (Ginn, 1906) ; Hunter, Essentials of Biology (American Book Company, 1911) ; Peabody and Hunt, Animal Biology (Macmillan, 1912) ; Bigelow, Applied Biology (Macmillan, 1912); Bigelow, Introduction to Biology (Macmillan, 1913) ; Galloway, Elementary Zoology (Blakiston, 1910). Perhaps the most striking evidence of a decided change in favor of general zoology for high schools is the fact that Davenport's Introduction to Zoology, which from 1900 to about 1905 had great influence on the side of natural history, has since 191 1 been supplanted by Davenport's ^/ir- ments of Zoology, which is a general survey of the science. CHAPTER III THE LABORATORY AND THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD US THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL " True Science-teaching consists in bringing the pupil's mind into direct contact with facts, in getting him to investigate, discover, and invent for himself.'*' — Joseph Paynb (1872). " In order to get the fullest benefit from a scientific education, the teacher should en- deavour to bring his pupil face to face with the great problems of Nature as though he were the first discoverer. He should, in fact, teach his pupil to face the great pro blems o Nature as if they had never been solved before." * — Kemsheaz>. BIBLIOGRAPHY Most of the references in Chapter I., especially the writings by Huxley, Forbes, Payne, Pearson, Sedgwick, and Mivart, bear more or less directly upon the subject of this chapter. In addition, the following are of interest : Armstrong, H. E. The Teaching of the Scientific Method and other Papers on Education. London, Macmillan. 1903. Pp. 476. (Received too late for use in this chapter, but mentioned here for sake of greater completeness of the bibliography.) Cramer, F. The Method of Darwin, A Study of Scientific Methods. Chicago, McClurg. 1896. Cramer, F. Logical Method in Biology. Popular Science Monthly, Vol. XLIV., p. 372. 1894. Forbes, S. A. The Scientific Method in High School and College. School Science, Vol. III., pp. 53-67. May, 1903. Harvey, N. A. The Pedagogical Content of Zoology. Proceedings of National Educational Association, 1899, pp. 1106-1112. Harvey, N. A. Classification as an Element in Education. School Science, Vol. I., pp. 451-455. February, 1902. Murbach, L. Method in Science Teaching. School Science, Vol. II., pp. 12-18. March, 1902. Saunders, S. J. Value of Research in Education. School Science, Vol. II. March, 1902. ^ Quoted by Payne in essay on True Foundations of Science Teach- ing. THE LABORATORY METHOD 295 Saunders, S. J. Value of Research in the Training of the Science Teacher. Read before New York State Science Teachers' Association. In High School Bulletin, No. 17, Univ. of State of New York, Regent's Reports, 1902. "Welch, "W. H. Evolution of Modern Scientific Laboratories. Smithsonian Report, 1895. The Annual Discussions of the American Society of Naturalists in 1898 and 1899 contain much of interest in this connection. The subject in the year first named was " Advances in Methods of Teaching " (ab- stracts in Science, Jan. 20, 1899). The papers of the second year dis- cussed " Universities and Investigation." Science, Vol. XI., pp. 51-66. January 12, 1900. I. The Place of Laboratory Work in Zoological Teaching. Necessarily much of the discussion which is here directed specifically to zoological teaching would apply to the teaching of any other science by the laboratory method. However, for our present purpose it seems best to keep the discussion closely limited to zoology, although a broader application will often be obvious. The extensive application of the laboratory method to the teaching of classes in zoology was first made by Huxley be- tween i860 and 1870, the Practical Biology Historyof (1875) being the result of his experience. The j^aoa*S^ influence of this volume was widespread, and its Zoology, careful directions for a course of practical study prepared the way for general adoption of the laboratory method for zoology in colleges. However, it should be added that the way had already been prepared for the acceptance of Huxley's method by the practice of Louis Agassiz in this country 'and other biologists in Europe ; but it should be noted that these men were aiming to educate specialists, while Huxley's work related to the general student seeking liberal education rather than special training for the naturalist's career. It is to Huxley, then, that we trace directly our now almost universal practical method of teaching the fundamental principles of biology as part of general education. But the foundation of the practical method of science teaching was laid lon^ before 296 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY Huxley's time, and he simply worked out for use in general educational practice certain methods which had been de- veloping for over two hundred years. In fact, as long ago as 1657 The Great Didactic of Comenius urged the teaching of science by " actual perception of things themselves." ^ This, of course, was but the logical application to scientific teaching of the method of scientific research which Francis Bacon so successfully presented in his Novum Organum, in 1620. It is now so generally accepted that the laboratory method is all Principles of essential in the teaching of zoology that analysis Sifcttod'are °^ ^'^ educational value may seera unnecessary. important. Nevertheless, inquiry into the underlying princi- ples of laboratory study is of great importance to the teacher who seeks guidance in the management of laboratory work, and we shall therefore consider it particularly with reference to the two general aims of zoological teaching which have been discussed in Chapter I., namely, the study of zoology as (i) information, (2) as discipline. With regard to the acquisition of zoological information, it has often been urged against the laboratory method that it is very time consuming. This will be admitted by Laboratory ,,,,,, , , . -i ■ Method and all who had been students or teachers in a zoologi- cal laboratory. Many more facts can be obtained from an hour of reading than from ,many hours of laboratory study j and so far as the quantity of the information is con- cerned the study of books about animals is more profitable than laboratory study of the actual animals. But vyhat of the value of the facts gleaned exclusively from books ? Harvey's dictum as quoted by Huxley ^ furnishes an answer : " Those who read without acquiring distinct images of the things about which they read, by the help of their senses, gather no real knowledge, but conceive mere phantoms and idola." Huxley 1 See Monroe's Comenius, p. 98 (New York, Scribners, 1900). Also Keatinge's translation of The Great Didactic of Comenius. (London, Black. 1896.) Chapter on "The Method of the Sciences, Specifically." 2 Tke Crayfish, p. 5. THE LABORATORY METHOD 297 himself urged the value of information acquired by practical study : "Nobody will ever know anything about Biology except in a dilettante ' paper-philosopher ' way, who contents himself with reading books on botany, zoology, and the like ; and the reason of this is simple and easy, to understand. It is that all language is merely symbolical of things of which it treats; the more complicated the thing, the more bare is the symbol, and the more its verbal definition requires to be supple- mented by the information derived directly from the handling and the seeing and the touching of the thing symbolized : — that is really what is at the bottom of the whole matter." " You may read any quantity ot books, and you may be almost ■ as ignorant as you were at starting, if you don't have at the back of your minds the change for words in definite images which can only be acquired through the operation of your observing faculties on the phenomena of nature." ^ The above quotations express the views now generally held by scientific men that for the learner " the true foundation of physical science lies in the knowledge of physical facts gained at first hand by observation and experiment to be made by the learner himself." ^ But it is not to be understood that the student must get all his scientific facts from his own studies in the laboratory. To advocate this would be absurd. Such a limitation 1 ■ ■-,■<. 1111 Inf ormatioii to the time-consummg laboratory work would make not Exdu- it impossible for the average student to acquire theLahora- anything like a general view of the science. Some fundamental facts having been acquired by personal observa- tion, such original knowledge may be the basis on which to build facts a.cquired from other persons through the media of art and language. With this supplementary work we shall deal in the following section, "On Relation of Laboratory Work to Book Work." In the present connection it is suffi- ^ Science and Education Essays, p. 282. ^ Payne, Essays on Education. 298 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY cient to have emphasized that scientific knowledge at first hand is essential as a basis for facts received from others, and that while scientific facts may be crammed from text-books and dictations by teachers, even considering science study as a source of useful information, the teaching is vastly more efficient when based upon the pupils' personal knowledge gained by direct study of natural phenomena. So far we have considered the laboratory method in its relation to information only, but a more important aspect of the laboratory method is in its relation to scien- Laboratoty ..,..,. ^^ , Method and tific discipline. Now there is no question among scientific men of to-day that the laboratory method of science study is the one sure way of giving training in those mental observations which are essential to the scientific method. " There is very little profit," says President Eliot, of Harvard, " in studying natural science in a book, as if it were grammar or history ; for nothing of the peculiar discipline which the proper study of science supplies can be obtained in that way, although some information on scientific subjects may be so acquired." ^ We may safely follow the now universally accepted opinion expressed in this quotation. But from the active teacher's Analysis standpoint there is little satisfaction in being told Me?^T**^*' dogmatically by the great authorities in science Heeded. teaching that laboratory study of zoology, or of any other science, gives a peculiar discipline. More than this the teacher should understand just what is involved in this discipline which is called " scientific " and how it may be best advanced by proper management of the laboratory study. To make such an analysis of the scientific discipline as involved in the study of zoological materials is the purpose of the next section. It is well worth while as teachers to stop to analyze the scientific method as it is related to the materials of zoology, for as Professor Forbes has well said : 1 From essay on " What is a Liberal Education," in Educational Re- form (Century Company). Also in Century Magazine. June, 1884. THE LABORATORY METHOD 299 " Our science teaching may be materially strengthened and be made practically more valuable if we will give much more attention and thought than hitherto to the rational action of the mind in science work, especially in the matter of inductive inference ; if we will bestow as much care, ingenuity, and skill upon the selection, adaptation, and arrangement of materials for the training of the mind in the processes of logical reflection on the products of experience as we have heretofore used in equipping laboratories, and in teaching our students how to see, to manipulate, and to describe." ^ 2. The Scientific Method as Applied in Teaching Zoology. What do we understand as involved in the general scien- tific method ? In answer to this Huxley has said that " the great peculiarity of scientific training, that in vir- tue of which it cannot be replaced by any other Scientuic discipline whatsoever, is this bringing of the mind directly into contact with fact, and practising the intellect in the completest form of induction ; that is to say, in drawing conclusions from particular facts made known by immediate observation of Nature." ^ In brief, then, the fundamental basis of the" general method of science is observation of particular facts and drawing con- clusions from them. This is induction as a pro- _ , . , . . . . , Induction in cess of logic j and its prominence in science has the scientific led to the use of the term " inductive " method as synonymous with " scientific " method. But in this liberal use of the term inductive there is, unfortunately, a liability to mis- understand ing, for the scientific method involves in addition to the logical process of induction those of deduction and veri- fication. In fact, in the development of our greatest generali- zations of biology, deduction has played an important part, but induction directly from observed facts has been the foundation. The relation of these processes — observation, in- duction, deduction, verification — has been illustrated by 1 From School Science, Vol. III., p. 66. * From Science and Education Essays, p. 126. 300 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY Huxley, in his essay On Educational Value of Natural His- tory, by reference to the circulation of the blood. Every teacher of science should be familiar with this essay, but for our present purposes the following points will suffice : Ob- servation and experiment give the facts which lead to the con- clusion by induction that the blood circulates in the particular animals studied. If it is wished to apply this to a new animal, it might be deductively reasoned from general similarity that there is circulation of the blood. But this deduction would not be secure until confirmed by verification, which would con- sist in making on the new animal all the observations and experiments involved in the original induction. Even then it would not be scientifically sure to conclude deductively that other animals which are structurally similar have a circulation, for as Huxley has pointed out, even those deductions which seem founded on the widest and safest inductions need verification. This brief analysis of the scientific method as applied to a case in zoology gives us, for the purposes of the teacher. Scientific sufficient insight into the principles involved. It GrMtGen- would be interesting to trace the steps in the eraiizations. development of some great generalizations of biol- ogy through the stages of accumulation of facts by observation and experiment, then induction to hypothesis, then deductive application of the hypothesis to other particular cases, and finally attempts at verification ; ^ but this would be of little value so far as it might throw light on our practice in teaching in elementary courses. The greatest generalizations of science are the outcome of such a complicated interplay of observa- tion, induction, deduction, and verification, that it is clearly impracticable that they should be presented to the pupils by the strictly scientific method, repeating ' that applied in the original formulation of the generalization. ^ For such extended analysis of the scientific method see the refer- ences to Cramer, Forbes, Huxley, Pearson, and others, at the beginning of this chapter. Cramer's Method of Darwin is especially interesting to the biologist. THE LABORATORY METHOD 30I This leads us to recognize the distinction between two orders of reasoning : first, that followed in the original discovery of a truth ; and second, that followed by way of proof .^^^ orders or argument after the investigation has reached an ^ Reasoning, established conclusion. It is really this second order which we are forced to adopt in most biological teaching in which we attempt to lead the pupil to see the grouped evidence so that he will be convinced by the proof. This is essentially the or- der of most of our biological text-books, and few indeed are those which give the student even a glimpse of the steps which must have been passed over in the original investigation. For example, the circulation of the blood is usually stated as if it were axiomatic, and in the absence of the proofs the student may well wonder where there was anything remarkable in the original discovery. So far as high-school laboratory work in zoology is con- cerned, only the simplest problems could be worked out by pupils following more or less closely the order of Order of Dis- covery in discovery; but no opportunity for making the pupil Teaching. the- discoverer of even the minutest point in the historical or- der should be neglected. " The teacher should endeavor to bring his pupils face to face with the great problems of nature, as though he were the first discoverer." This is the key-note to the most efficient science teaching, for it is this attitude of the teacher which tends to direct pupils' minds in the order of discovery, involving in logical' series observation, induction, deduction, and verification. But although only the simplest problems are feasible for high-school practice in applying the complete scientific method in the order of discovery, students may get prac- orjer of tice in some of the fundamental processes of the ^"*'*- scientific method even from the order of proof. To illustrate : The individual pupil could not as a re-discoverer repeat all the steps in the development of a great principle like the cell- theory ; but it is perfectly possible for him to follow the order of discovery in many steps. First, through his own first obser- 302 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY vations of the microscopic structure of some simple tissue he will discover cells. Later he will discover cells in the other tissues, and will arrive at the conclusion that in the body of the animal studied there are cells in all tissues. This may be deductively applied to other animals, but without verification by further observation the deduction would not be scientifically secure. A limited amount of such verification may be made ; but of course no individual could repeat the vast number of verifications which have been made by investigators since Schleiden and Schwann announced the theory in 1 838-1 839, and in our teaching there comes a point where the established generalization must be given to the pupils. Thus, in a very con- densed way the teacher might lead the pupil through some of the foundation steps in the re-discovery of the cell-theory. It is clear, then, that even in the cases of some of the widest generalizations, such as the cell-theory and the principle of evolution, the pupil's own experience with the underlying facts may be the foundation for the statement and illustration of these generalizations ; and certainly such first-hand acquaint- ance with facts leads to a proper appreciation of the history of the original discovery and to confidence in the truth of the principle. The main point in this discussion which I wish to empha- size particularly is that in order to make the study of zoology most valuable as discipline in the scientific method, the essential processes and their relations must be kept constantly in mind by the teacher who directs the practical studies ; and it should be the constant aim of the teacher to lead the pupils to apply as far as possible the principles of the scientific method in discovering truth for themselves. To be sure all this is time consuming, and there is the ever-present vision of examinations and requirements of subject-matter ; but the emphasis upon scientific discipline is well worth more than one-half the time of a course. Perhaps some day those responsible for the requirements in knowledge of subject- matter, particularly those who set college-admission require- THE LABORATORY METHOD 3O3 ments, will come to take account, not simply of what facts a pupil holds in memory, but also of what scientific training has been received while getting the facts. With the foregoing understanding of the general principles of the scientific method as applied to the study of zoology, it will be useful to examine the current teaching with s„we5t. regard to the actual application of the principles, S^CTtiflc'* especially in the relation between selected subject- Method, matter and the use of the scientific method. The morphological aspect as it must be presented in an ele- mentary course is most valuable for training in observation, and this is the training to be derived from the great mass of the laboratory work in zoology as it is commonly taught.^ Now observation, the very foundation of the scientific method, is valuable ; but we can lead to this through nature-study in the elementary school, and for the high school we need more of the scientific method. It is to the physiological and ecological phases of biology that we must turn for material most suitable for training in scientific reasoning; and the recent introduction pjvysioipgy of these into biological courses in the secondary and Ecology, school must be regarded as not only valuable for the wider view of the facts of the science, but also for the more com- plete training in the scientific method. As an example of such training afforded by simple experimental problems in physi- ology,. we may mention the well-known experiments to deter- mine some conditions of growth of yeast and bacteria. The following experiment with yeast is a fair sample of the possi- bilities in this line. Take four test-tubes and fill one-half full of the following : No. i, distilled water ; No. 2, 10 per cent solution of sugar in water ; No. 3, Pasteur solution witliout sugar; No. 4, Pasteur AnExperi- solution with sugar. Add to each tube a drop of "^1?^'^°'' water containing living yeast, keep under conditions Pliysiology. favorable for growth. Examine twice daily for several days and 1 See article by Forbes in School Science, III., p. 59. 304 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY compare as to turbidity (indicating growth), effervescence and odors (indicating fermentation). Write careful notes (i) de- scribing the experiments, (2) on observation of changes which occur, (3) conclusion which you draw concerning the materials necessary (a) for growth of yeast and (J)) for fermentation. From this simple experiment, which should be repeated until sure of constant' results, pupils may be expected by strict Its Scientific application of the scientific method involving ob- Resuits. servation, experiment, and induction, to arrive at the following facts and conclusions : Facts: — Tube i, No growth or fermentation in distilled water. No.' 2, Some growth and fermentation in sugar solution. No. 3, More growth in Pasteur solution without sugar than in pure sugar solution. No fermentation. No. 4, Mostgrowth and fermentation in Pasteur solution with sugar. Inductions from these facts : No. I, Distilled water lacks some- thing necessary for growth of yeast. No. 2, Sugar is one sub- stance which supplies the necessary materials for growth and fermentation. No. 3, Pasteur's without sugar contains other sub- stances which are sufficient for growth ; but evidently without the sugar this solution is not sufficient for fermentation. No. 4, Pasteur solution with sugar contains substances for growth, but there is more growth than in tubes 2 and 3, and therefore the combination of the other substances and sugar is most favorable for growth. Also comparing 3 and 4 it is evident that sugar, not the other substances, undergoes fermentation. As an example of simple deduction we might reason that since certain other plants — the moulds and bacteria — are ^ , , in many ways similar to yeast, therefore the above Deduction. . ,.,,•' ' conclusions derived from yeast are applicable to them. To make this sure would require the repeating the above experiments (verification) with the plants to which the conclusions are deductively applied. Even if time be not taken for deduction and verification the steps of such reason- ing are worth pointing out to the pupils. It is evident that such an experiment as that above offers opportunities for training in scientific reasoning which few of the usual morphological problems can furnish. It is true that THE LABORATORY METHOD 305 this experiment is rather exceptional for the discipline which its careful solution may give, but in numerous small problems of physiology and ecology pupils may be led along similar lines of the scientific method. Another illustration of the application of the scientific method is in the use of chemical tests for starch, proteids, and sugars. The common practice is essentially as follows : The pupil is directed to apply iodine niustrationof to various samples of starch, and a definite color sc&ntuic appears. From this single observation the scien- tific conclusion is, of course, that starch is changed in color by the action of iodine. But this is not the point where the pupil's reasoning is stopped, for he is directly set to test for starch in unknown substances — a process involving (for the pupil) the unverified deduction that iodine produces the par- ticular reaction in starch and in no other substance. Now the individual pupil could not verify this which has been established by the experience of thousands of chemists work- ing with many thousands of different substances, but for the sake of practice in the first steps in the scientific method the pupil should follow his test of starch by tests of other sub- stances — such as sugar, fats, and proteids — with iodine. Then make clear to him that the results of his own limited experiments are in line with the results of thousands of such experiments. The same tendency of science teaching to take the short cut from facts to generalization is exhibited in numerous cases in which negative results are entirely ignored. As an example, the experiments on the digestion of Results foods, as given in most published books, are nothing more than verifications of the positive statements in the book. Experiments are made to show that pepsin and acid together digest proteid, but few authors suggest that it be tested whether pepsin alone or acid alone produces the same effect, or whether pepsin will digest foods other than proteids. From the stand- point of the scientific method these negative aspects are as 306 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY important as the positive. The really scientific presentation of gastric digestion in the laboratory would not be by an experi- ment "to show that gastric juice digests proteid," but rather by a series of experiments to determine the part which gastric juice plays in digestion of the various kinds of foods. In this particular case I know by experience that the more scientific method takes much longer for the experiments on digestion, but the time cannot be spent more profitably. This last illustration of the scientific method brings to our attention two distinct methods of directing laboratory work in Two Methods biology. The first is the mere verification of what LabOTatray' '^^ book says, the second involves the setting of Study. problems to be worked out. These two ways of directing the laboratory studies of students of biology are asso- ciated historically with the teaching of two famous naturalists, Agassiz and Huxley. The method of Agassiz consisted essen- tially in placing the materials before the student and leaving him with the minimum of direction and suggestion which will lead him to discover facts for himself. This we may call the "investigation" method, or since the suggestion of a problem would often take the form of a question, it has been called the " interrogation " method. The other method was character- ized by the teaching of Huxley and is well illustrated by Huxley and Martin's Practical Biology. In this we find de- scriptions so complete that there is nothing for the student to do except to verify the printed statements. This we may call the " verification " method. Obviously, it has an advantage in that the students can rapidly gain a personal acquaintance with the facts, and hence, so far as zoology teaching is viewed from the side of information, this method is the best. But from the standpoint of scientific discipline, the " investigation" method has great advantages. For the sake of a close comparison of the two methods of laboratory direction, I give here two outlines Comparison , . , , . ,. , , of the two which cover the same pomts regarding the external Methods. r t i structure of the earthworm. THE LABORATORY METHOD 307 1. (Directions for " Verification.'") " Notice that the body is cylindrical along the greater part of its length, flattened in its hinder part. It is pointed in front and Munt behind, and is thick- est about one-third of its length from the anterior end. The gen- eral color of the animal is darker on dorsal and paler on ventral surface of the body." 2. {Directions for " Investigation") " Notice living worm as it moves and determine anterior, posterior, dorsal, ventral. What is the general form of the body? Describe, illustrating with sketches, the form of both ends of the body. Compare the color on the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the body.'' Now, comparing these two forms of laboratory directions, planned to lead the student to the same results in informa- tion, we note that in the first outline the pupil is given a complete description. This might be verified on a preserved specimen, and so far as the pupil is concerned there would be no evidence except authority that it is true, for the pupil can- not really know that the pointed end is anterior and that the paler surface is ventral until he has studied the movements of the living worm. On the other hand, the second method sets a problem for the pupil and gives the minimum of direc- tions which will point in the direction of the correct answer, thus avoiding the wasting of time. Determination of the four points of orientation (anterior, etc.) in this case are easy problems for a pupil who has learned the meaning of the terms as applied to a crayfish, an insect, or a frog. Moreover, the second method requires the pupil to use his own language in describing the form of the earthworm, whereas the first method requires only reading and verification which may be so hasty as to be of little significance. So far as information gained is concerned there can be in practice little essential 'difference between these two methods. As regards time re- quired, the second will take longer. But from the point of view of scientific training there can be no question about the superiority of the second ("investigation") method, for one of the simplest possible exercises is here presented in a form 308 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY to give practice in true scientific investigation. Suggestions and questions start the pupil on the road, and he is left to pro- ceed independently on 'the way to the discovery and testing of truth concerning the points in question. It is to be noted that application of the " investigation " method is not always so easy as in the above example. To illustrate : the term cylindrical will be quickly ap- "Investiga- plied to the body of the earthworm in answer to the question about its shape, but trials with several classes showed that few pupils would spontaneously apply the term " triangular," which is used in several books in describing the shape of the head of the frog. This is a case where the descriptive term should be given for verification ; and such cases are very common in zoology. Again, many questions and directions apparently attempt to avoid the verification of descriptions, and yet without explanation for guidance they are generally meaningless to the pupils. " Identify the liver," " Observe the arrangement of the blood vessels," " Do you find the kidneys?" "Locate the green gland," — these are common examples. Such directions apparently set problems for solution, but they do not help in the cultivation of scien- tific habits of study. Most of the problems as briefly stated are impossible, of solution by a beginner, and are likely to lead to indefinite and uncertain results, and hence such directions are not to be commended for scientific study. Many such directions not uncommon in books lead to guessing and nothing more. It is clear that these are cases where the " verification " method has advantages ; it will at least give good results in the line of information, whereas the " investi- gation " method will fail both in discipline and in information. Summarizing, we must conclude that there are advantages in both the "verification" and the "investigation" methods of laboratory study in zoology. The first is best Snmmaiy. . , . from the standpomt of acquiring information about the science ; the second unquestionably affords the best train- ing in the method of scientific study. Since the aims of THE LABORATORY METHOD 309 zoological teaching are in this volume taken as both discipli- nary and for information, it follows that neither method should be adhered to exclusively. Whenever possible the laboratory outlines should take the form of definite statements of simple problems which it is reasonable to suppose can be solved under the existing conditions of time, material, and advance- ment of the pupils. Note the conditions. They have been too often overlooked by authors who have attempted strict adherence to the " investigation " method. If these condi- tions are unfavorable to the "investigation" method in the study of any topic, which in the majority of cases is true, let the " veriiication " plan be adopted. Acceptance of this sug- gestion will lead to a combination of the two methods; for much of the usual laboratory study for beginners is best ac- complished by the " verification " method, but there are hundreds of little problems which may be set for investigation by the pupils. But whether the special method of teaching the details takes the form of " verification " or " investigation," the general attitude of the teacher at all times should tend to inspire the pupils to independent and original work — to lead them as far as possible " to face the great problems of Nature as though they had never been solved before." It will be of interest to append to the above discussion of method of laboratory study a hst of the manuals which illus- trate each. Among manuals for college work, _ ^ ^„ Books foUow- Huxley and Martin's Practical 'Biology, Marshall tag the Two , J^ . ^ . , ^ , -r, , , ^ .. Methods, and Hurst s Practical Zoology, Parker's Zootomy, Parker and Parker's Practical Zoology, Brooks's Handbook of Invertebrate Zoology, — all adhere closely to the " verification " method, that is, these books are simply descriptions arranged in a form for convenient verification in the laboratory. The "investigation" method has received extreme application in Dodge's Biology and Walter, Whitney, and Lucas's Studies of Animal Life. Good examples of reasonable combination of the two methods of study are Kingsley's Elements of Com- parative Zoology and Needham's Lessons in Zoology. 310 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY 3. The Relation of Laboratory Work and Book Work. When the great advantages of the laboratory method both as a basis for scientific information and in mental training began to be generally recognized some years ago Historical. ^.^ , ° J . J .. 1- •.. /u . t there was developed a tendency to limit the teach- ing of zoology' in secondary schools almost exclusively to prac- tical work. This was partly the result of enthusiasm over the results obtained from the method then new to secondary edu- cation and partly due to the fact that laboratory guides long preceded suitable modern text-books of zoology for secondary schools. But in recent years there has been a gradual read- justment, and now both laboratory work and book work are generally recognized as having important places in zoological instruction. From the conclusion in the preceding section of this chapter that knowledge obtained through personal investigation is the proper foundation for zoological study, it follows Study the that definitely planned laboratory exercises should be the basis of a course in elementary zoology. If we reverse this order and make the text-book the basis, then the laboratory work becomes largely verification of the text-book. From the combined standpoints of discipline and information laboratory work should be the basis and book work should be closely correlated so as to supplement, explain, and verify the very limited information which the pupil gets from his own studies of the actual objects. At present such correlation between laboratory work and book work rests en- tirely with the teacher, for a book which satisfactorily combines laboratory directions and supplemental reading for an entire course is not in existence. In fact, it may be doubted whether such a book is a desideratum, for several recent books furnish excellent material for collateral reading and it is simply neces- sary for teachers to select the appropriate topics. A difSculty which arises here is the impossibility, owing to cost, of pupils purchasing more than one book. Clearly this one book should THE LABORATORY METHOD 311 ■». be a good reference book which pupils will care to keep after the course is finished ; and if laboratory manuals are to be used for directing the practical work they should be owned by the school. A set of twenty would be sufficient for one lab- oratory and with protective covers would last for years. The recent revival of book work in teaching zoology in high schools is not without its dangers. The temptation to neglect the laboratory in order to give, time to the recita- Dangers of tion is strong in those teachers who feel the im- Book Work, portance of amount of information, overlooking the at least equally important disciplinary aspect of zoological teaching. Especially are such teachers likely to err in the use of books such as the excellent volumes, Animal Life and Animal Forms, by Jordan, Kellogg, and Heath ; for in the text of these there are no definite suggestions for close correlation with laboratory work. In fact, it is not at all clear to the present writer how these particular books, like all other books which deal with zoology in the form of a systematic treatise on the science, could be read continuously in close correlation with a series of elementary laboratory exercises. To attempt the use of such books as a basis of the course of study is sure to lead towards too exclusive dependence upon the text-book. Already there has been manifested in the use of Animal Life in some high schools a tendency to drift back to the old-time recitation method. Against such extreme use of this or any other text- book protest must be made. Again I wish to emphasize the statement that if the most valuable results, both in discipline and information, are to be obtained from the study of zoology, the laboratorv ' The Proper exercise must be the basis and the book work must Relation of , , , , Laboratory be correlated as supplementary, not as anticipatory, and Book material. A properly organized course in zoology must be primarily and fundamentally a series of laboratory exercises around which centre lectures, recitations, reading, and other supplementary work as sources of information. 312 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY 4. Minor Problems of Laboratory Work in Zoology. Space here will not permit more than a general discussion of principles underlying the practical working of the laboratory ; Somxes of ^lut many valuable details will be found in the fol- Suggestlons. lowing: Various school text-books (see list in Chapter X.) ; the laboratory manuals in morphology and physi- ology (see chapter on "Zoological Books") ; Suggestions to Teachers accompanying Jordan and Kellogg's Animal Life (Appleton) ; Teachers' Book of Suggestions accompanying Walter, Whitney, and \mc.z.%'^ Studies of Animal Life (Heath) ; and Report of Committee on Zoology to New York State Sci- ence Teachers' Association, High School Bulletin, No. 7 (1900), pp. 528, TA2rm> obtainable from Secretary of University of State of New York, Albany ; price, 35 cents, a. Form of Directions to Pupils. Chief among the minor problems of the laboratory confront- ing the zoology teacher are those relating to giving directions to the pupils. These, of course, may be oral or Oral and , ■ , ■ j rr,, j Written written, each with certain advantages. The ad- vantages of the first are that the personality of the teacher comes into full play ; and also, it is possible to push the class rapidly over a given piece of work. Its disadvan- tages are that all pupils do not work with the same rapidity, and the rapid ones set the pace with the result that a large per- centage of the pupils are continually leaving tasks incomplete. This is such a serious objection, tending as it does to interfere with the individual work which is fundamental, that the method is of little value except for isolated demonstrations. On the other hand, the value of written directions is just on this point, namely, that they encourage independent and individual work. If properly prepared, written directions economize time and keep the pupils continuously at work on definite problems. The teacher is left free to use his time for helping individuals over difficulties. It should be recommended, then, that THE LABORATORY METHOD 313 written directions be used for all continuous work, reserving the general oral directions to classes for special points, which may come up unexpectedly, and for occasional isolated exercises. With regard to the form of written directions, mimeo- graphed ^ sheets are undoubtedly best because they can be adapted by the teacher to local conditions of outline of course, time, and available materials. In this respect most printed directions in books are inferior, for some flexibility is absolutely essential. In the absence of printed books and sheets, directions on the blackboard must be used. With large classes it is often difificult to arrange this so that all pupils can see ; and necessarily the directions are very abbreviated, which is often undesirable. b. Distribution of Apparatus and Materials for Study. The aim should be to distribute material so as to save time for pupils and not unnecessarily burden the teacher. This is a problem not unworthy of serious planning by the gayjjg teacher. The writer has seen some laboratories ^PUs' Time, where less than five minutes in an hour sufficed for the orderly distribution and collection of materials and appa- ratus, while in other schools much time was wasted because of obvious lack of system. The detail of this must be worked out to fit local conditions. Only some general suggestions may be useful here. First, the same apparatus — microscopes, dissecting tools, etc. — must in most schools be used by pupils of several classes, and in order to place responsibility for systemHeces- care some system is necessary. The following ^^^y* scheme has been found Satisfactory in several schools. All 1 In the absence of a mimeograph or similar copying apparatus re- quiring a stencil, the simple method of printing from a pad of gelatine is not expensive and requires no special skill in manipulation. One of the best of these duplicators is the Hektograph made at 42 Murray St., New York, by the Hektograph Co. It will make forty or fifty good dupli- cates from a single copy made with pen or typewriter, using special inks. 314 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY large instruments, such as microscopes, are numbered and assigned certain places in lockers and on tables and to cer- tain pupils. Smaller instruments in regular use which belong to the laboratory are kept in boxes or drawers, also numbered to correspond with the microscopes. Each pupil upon enter- ing and leaving the laboratory must examine apparatus assigned to him and report any damage or loss. Thus pupils are easily held responsible for the proper use of the property of the laboratory, and aside from protecting the property of the school, the system is worth more than it costs in trouble to the teacher in giving pupils training in methodical habits. With regard to distribution and collection of apparatus, it should be so systematically placed in lockers, drawers, or closets that pupils, moving in definite order, can ""* ■ obtain and return their own apparatus. The ap- pointment of one or two pupils for the distribution of apparatus to each table will often save confusion in large classes. Some- times when the same apparatus is to be used by a class immediately following, time may be saved by leaving it in place on the tables. Materials to be studied should be distributed systematically, as in the case of apparatus. In large, roomy laboratories it is Materials for ^^^'^ *^° hz-v^ supply-tables convenient to the work- Study, tables on which materials, properly labelled, may be placed by the teacher. As an almost ideal plan, I know of one laboratory with eight tables, each for six students, in which there are four supply- tables, with sinks and running water and closets for dissecting pans and other dishes, so arranged that no student is over fifteen feet from a supply- table. Some such arrangement saves time and energy for both teacher and pupil. However, in the absence of such conveniences, it is no great task to make systematic arrange- ments, so that pupils can do a large part of the work involved in distributing and collecting their own materials for study. THE LABORATORY METHOD 315 c. Amount of Time for Laboratory Work. Five periods (from forty to fifty-five minutes) per week are usually assigned to zoology, as is the rule in other sciences. The division of this time between recitation and ximefor laboratory work varies with different teachers, but J^J'^dS three periods for laboratory work and two periods **•"• for recitation or lecture seems to be the most common arrange- ment. Personally I have found the most satisfactory division of time to be four periods for laboratory work and one period for recitation or lecture, using in addition the closing minutes of many of the laboratory periods for recitation or lecture in order to clinch the essential points in the practical lesson. With regard to the credit for laboratory work, most colleges regard two periods of laboratory work as equal to one period of recitation, the laboratory work not requiring the time for preparation which is demanded for the Laboratory recitation period. This is impractical in most high schools, for the reason that the hours of attendance at school are usually so limited that all recitation hours must be credited. In a few academies and private secondary schools four periods of laboratory work and two periods of recitation work are credited as four periods, and four periods of labora- tory work and one period of recitation as three periods. How- ever, the most practicable plan for most secondary schools is five periods credit for an equal number of periods in recitation or laboratory work, and the assignment of supplementary read- ing and outside work so as to make the laboratory work require the same amount of preparation as does the recitation period. In this way a five-period course in biology may be made equivalent to one of equal time in other subjects, such as the languages or mathematics. Double periods (ninety to one hundred and ten minutes) are preferable for laboratory work for the reason that the ordinary forty-five minutes' session is too short for performing many experiments, making of drawings, etc. Two double 3l6 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY periods and one single period is an excellent arrangement for a five-period course. Unfortunately the double period is diffi- cult to articulate with the regular school program, so that daily single periods are usually necessary in public high schools. d. Drawings and Notes. The ideal record of laboratory work in zoology should con- sist of both drawings and notes. Excessive attention to the morphological aspect of zoology has tended in Record of both schools and colleges to over-emphasis upon drawings, which as a rule are certainly best for recording results derived from study of structure. I have already (p. 303) pointed out that morphology alone gives little opportunity for scientific training in induction, for the study is primarily observational ; and that for materials for training in induction we must draw upon other phases of zoology, par- ticularly experimental physiology. Now, drawings like the structures which they represent lend themselves chiefly to the training in observation. For sound training in induction we must have notes — not simply the usual notes describing drawings and with the same disciplinary value, but clearly written, logical accounts of observations, experiments, and conclusions. The experiments already referred to on yeast (p. 303) as an example of a laboratory exercise affording more than training in observation are also good examples of work whose results cannot be expressed adequately by draw- ings alone. In such cases involving experiments the notes should clearly state : (i) The problem or what the experi- ment is designated to test. (2) Description of apparatus (with sketches) and of the experiment. (3) Results of the experiment. (4) Conclusion drawn. Aside from notes for the sake of biological training in logical reasoning, descriptions of things observed and even of structures represented also by drawings give valu- Vaiue of able training, not only in a literary way, but es- Hotes. . ,, . ^ .•' f , pecially in accuracy in use of language — an in- valuable part of the training which science study may give. THE LABORATORY METHOD 317 It is generally agreed that simple outline drawings only should be encouraged in regular laboratory work in zoology. Most pupils are not able to make more elaborate -g^j.^^ drawings, and the majority of those who have Drawings, artistic talent tend strongly to an impressionistic style which is not at all adapted to scientific work. In 'order to show beginners in the laboratory just what is meant by outline drawings, I know of no better way than to exhibit the illus- trations in Morse's First Book in Zoology, which are ideal outline drawings of great simplicity and will give pupils valuable suggestions about representation of animal structure. In fact, I think that there is truth in Professor Morse's ad- vice that beginning pupils should practise copying the drawings from the book. But this copying should supple- ment, and not supplant, drawings from nature. Copied drawings from any source should be placed beside original ones in the note-book, and the source labelled upon them in order to distinguish them from the pupil's original work. In laboratory note-books there is always a chance for some pupils to trespass upon their intellectual honesty, and the teacher must attempt to impress upon them the difference between original work and that which is derived from other sources ; and the note-book should be so labelled that any one who may examine it can tell at a glance just what is original. Against this recommendation that some drawings may be copied, some writers have advised that all books with drawings be kept out of pupils' hands, at least until after copied animals are studied and drawings made. I cannot Drawings, agree to this because experience teaches that pupils do not give critical attention to figures in books after they have com- pleted their own sketches. It is much better to allow them to examine drawings freely while studying materials and thus get the benefit of suggestions for their own sketches. In order to avoid direct copying while drawing from the actual object studied, reference books may be kept on special tables where they may be consulted from time to time. 3l8 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY Note-books. There are in common use several good methods of keeping drawings and notes on biological work: (i) A note- book of Forms of good firm paper (ordinary paper for ink is not Bote-imoks. satisfactory for drawings) in which alternate sheets (or pages) are left unruled for drawings. The disadvantages are that often more paper for notes is needed, substitutions or rearrangement cannot be made, and the inconvenience of drawing in a book is great. (2) An ordinary note- book is used for notes ; sheets of firm paper (linen-ledger or Bristol board) for drawings which are kept, dated and numbered in order of making, in manila envelopes. The advantages are economy in drawing paper and greater convenience in drawing on a loose sheet, but the objection arising from keeping notes and drawings separated is a very serious one. (3) Loose- leaf note-books with both ordinary paper for notes and special paper for drawings. These can be arranged as the relative proportion of drawings and notes demand. Obviously this has the advantages of the other methods combined. The chief objection to loose leaves for both notes and drawings is that pupils may substitute copied drawings or notes for those made in the laboratory. This is easily prevented by the teacher requiring that all drawings and notes made during a session be dated, numbered, and left on the teacher's desk. Before the next session they should be stamped or marked so that a substitution is rendered impossible, and it may then be allowable for pupils to make additions or corrections as the teacher may suggest. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE. In line with the emphasis on the value of information, the tendency of recent years has been to reduce the amount of laboratory work required of the individual student. Many teachers favor extensive use of demon- stration in place of individual work. See on this point Bigelow's Teachers' Manual of Biology , pages 7 and 8, and the laboratory exercises marked (ZJ) in the Applied Biology and in the Introduction to Biology. THE LABORATORY METHOD 319 There is a general feeling that the place of the laboratory is to illustrate the facts selected for the students and also to give a method for con- tinued acquisition of information in the same line. Such discipline is obviously independent of formal discipline referred to in the note at the end of Chapter I in this book. If zoological facts are valuable, then a method for getting them is worth while, even if it has no use in other lines. Note-books. Loose-leaf note-books are now universally used for biological work. Good covers are sold by the Cambridge Botanical Supply Company, Cambridge, Mass. ; National Blank Book Company, Holyoke, Mass. ; A. G. Seiler, 1226 Amsterdam Avenue, New York City; Atkinson, Mentzer and Grover, Chicago; E. Pennock, Philadel- phia; Ginn & Co., Boston, and dealers in general laboratory equip- ment (see pages 415-416). Concerning drawings ana notes, see Bigelow's Teachers' Manual of Biology, Appendix I. CHAPTER IV ANIMAI. NATUEE-STtTDY AND HUMAN' PHYSIOLOGT IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL AS RELATED TO ZOOLOGY IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL BIBLIOGRAPHY The following books and articles have proved most helpful to teach- ers of nature-study in elementary schools, and may therefore be referred to as representing the kind and scope of studies of animals which are practicable below the high school. Bailey, L. H. The Nature-Study Idea. New York, Doubleday. 1903. Pp.159. $1.00. (A collection of essays dealing with nature-study as a phase of education. Full of practical suggestions for teachers. Indispensable.) Hodge, C. F. Nature Study and Life. Boston, Ginn. 1902. Pp. 514, figs. 196. $1.50. (Deals chiefly with the materials for nature-study, with special reference to animals. No other book so well presents the animal aspect. Full of inspiration and practical suggestions.) Hodge, C. H. Foundations of Nature Study. Article in Pedagog- ical Seminary, Vols. VI. and VII. Scott, C. B. Nature Study and the Child. Boston, Heath. 1900. (Primarily a discussion of aims and principles of nature-study. Also has practical suggestions for lessons.) Lange, D. Handbook of Nature Study. New York, Macmillan. 1899. Pp. 329. Jenkiiis, O. P., and Kellogg, V. L. Lessons in Nature Study. San Francisco, Whittaker & Ray. 1900. Pp. 191. (A collection of lesson plans, many of them on animals.) Nature-Study Leaflets, published by Cornell University. Jaokman, "W. S. Nature Study for Grammar Grades. New York, Macmillan. 1899. Pp. 407. (Several books with similar titles are by the same author, but this one gives a fair view of the nature-study for which he stands.) ■Wilson, Mrs. L. L. Nature Study in the Elementary Schools. Teachers' Manual. New York, Macmillan. 1899. (A series of practical suggestions for lessons in nature-study.) Howe, E. G. Systematic Science Teaching. New York, Apple- ton. 1894. Pp. 326. ^1.50. (Suggestions for a. series of progressive NATURE-STUDY AND HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY 321 lessons in nature-study, involving the biological, geographical, and physico-chemical aspects.) HaH, W. S. School Science, Vol. I., p. 60. (Refers to nature- study as preparatory to high-school biology.) Discussion on nature-study by Professors Beal, Packard, Coulter, Gillette, W. M. Davis, Verrill, Jordan, and Macbride. Science, n. s.. Vol. XVI., pp. 910-913. December 5, 1902. I. The Relation of Nature-Study to High-School ZoSlogy. Starting at the very foundation of nature-study for elemen- tary schools, we note that the most fully developed type of nature-study stands for the following aims, which Aims of we here apply directly to the animal aspect of the Mature-Study, subject : ( i ) To give the pupils acquaintance and sympathy with common animals ; (2) To lay the foundation of scientific education by leading the pupils to gain some knowledge through their own observations on animals, and to appreciate the knowl- edge so gained; (3) To give the pupils useful knowledge about animals, especially in their relation to man.* Assuming that these aims meet in practice with a fair degree of realization — and the writer is convinced that this is true — it is clear that animal nature-study must be important in general education. That the aim tancetakdn- for acquaintance with animals stands for something full of interest for intelligent people need not be argued in these days when there is such a great popular demand for books purporting to help in identification of animals. The aim for sympathy finds its support in the arguments on moral and aesthetic lines. The second aim, standing as it does for scientific seeing and thinking, requires here no special defence ; for such training is now universally accepted as valuable in all education, and the tendency of recent years has been to em- 1 This order of statement is not intended to indicate the order of importance. On this point authors disagree ; but the writer's personal view is that all are important and should receive attention, for there is really no conflict. Bailey {loc. cit.) emphasizes the first aim, Hodge lays stress on the third, and all authors insist that nature-study must be taught on a basis of observation (the second aim). 21 322 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY phasize the necessity for special training in observation.^ The third aim is for information which is useful and interesting for its own sake and which may later come into relation with advanced studies. With this view of the relation of nature-study to general education, we may now discuss the first of the special problems Hature-Study °f ^^^ chapter, namely, the relation of the animal tatiw'mrt' nature-study of the elementary school to the study Scbooi. of zoology in the high school. For this purpose we must first consider the relation of nature-study to the so- called " natural history " of animals which has been referred to as constituting a very prominent part of many high-school courses in zoology.^ Our inquiry must now be whether this is the proper place for this work ; and in considering this ques- tion I shall attempt to show that much of the natural history properly belongs in the elementary schools as part of the nature-study. Examining the contents of the natural history which is now common in secondary schools, we find that the work consists largely of observations on the external structures, Natural ms- , f. ,.^ , . . toryinHigh habits, life-histories, and economic relations of common animals. The aims of such work may be well expressed by quotations from Professor Davenport, whose leadership has inspired and guided the return to the old-time instruction in natural history. He wrote in the preface to the Introduction to Zoology : " What an ordinary citizen needs is an acquaintance with the common animals that may be the companions of his country walks, and that may even stray into Wall Street, Dearborn Street, or Commonwealth Avenue. He wants to know where else over the world the common animals of his State are to be found and, as a legislator or as a taxpayer, he wants to know how animals afEect man. It is more important for him to know these matters than to 1 See especially Eliot's Educational Reform, p. 112. ^ Natural history in the high-school course is discussed in Chapter II., and its relation to the college work in zoology in Chapter XI. NATURE-STUDY AND HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY 323 know the location of the pedal ganglion of the snail, or to be able to recite the various ingenious hypotheses of the ancestry of echino- derms. Our conviction is, we feel sure, the comtaon conviction of college teachers of zoology, who have often occasion to deplore the ignorance that their students show about common animals. It is the conviction of many other thoughtful men also who have recog- nized that an interest in nature is a powerful agent in making men more moral, more capable of appreciating the world they live in, and of finding satisfaction in living." It is to be noted that emphasis is placed upon acquaintance with common animals, their economic rolation to man and interest in nature. Such a statement of the aims and nature of the subject-matter suggests great similarity between the natural history of common animals in the high school and the nature-study of the elementary school. But general state- ments may mislead, and a more specific examination of natural history is. necessary. The common animals which have been introduced into the natural-history work of the secondary school are : grasshopper, butterfly, beetle, fly, crayfish, myriapod, spider, scope of Hat- earthworm, slug, clam, fish, newt, frog, lizard, bird, ^hi^***"^ and mouse. As to the scope of natural-history Schools, studies of these animals, reference must be made to the out- lines in published guides for practical work. Davenport's Introduction io Zoology (pp. 341-367) gives for most of the above animals directions for observations on the living animals. Likewise, Needham's Lessons in Zoology gives numerous sug- gestions for observations on common animals, especially in the field ; and still other books for secondary schools which emphasize natural history are French's Animal Activities and Colton's new text-book and guide. In all these books a large percentage of the suggested studies of living animals are so simple that they are well within the capabilities of pupils in elementary grades. In jfatoraiHis- fact, many of the simple experiments and observa- ^enta^'^^^' tions suggested in these books have already been schools, successfully introduced into elementary work as part of the 324 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY nature-studies. There is no reason inherent in the nature of the materials and methods why a considerable part of the simple observations on common living animals along the line of natural history should not be done in the elementary school. In fact, I am inclined to believe that the pupil who has passed through a well-organized system of nature-study in the ele- mentary school has that general acquaintance with common animals which is regarded as desirable for entrance upon the elementary zoological work of colleges. But at any rate all will agree that so much of the natural history as can be well done in the nature-study should be placed there, instead of in the high school. From the point of view of zoology in the secondary school it would be a decided advance if the simple natural-history work could be transferred to the nature-study of High-Scliool the elementary school. There would be a gain (i) in that the high-school pupils would be pre- pared to begin the serious study of the science of zoology without any preliminary work designed for training in observa- tion, stimulating interest, and giving acquaintance with common animals,'' and (2) in tiiat the nature of much of the work makes it better adapted to elementary than to high- school pupils. The first point will be granted without discussion, but the second requires explanation and defence. It is the experience of many teachers that secondary pupils do not undertake certain studies of living animals with the enthusiasm and earnestness which characterize HatnralHis- ,. toryweu nature-studies m the elementary school, and to adapted to . , ., ,. „ ,. . Elementary the average secondary pupil studies of living ani- mals are not part of serious science work. In fact, since the advent of the purely natural-history courses in high schools there are many indications that the pupils who study physical as well as biological sciences, tend to regard 1 See discussion on natural history as a preparation for high-school zoology in the chapter on " Beginning Work in Zoology." NATURE-STUDY AND HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY 325 biology, and especially zoology, as an " easy " subject which has scarcely the dignity of the other sciences, like chemistry and physics. I am inclined to agree with the pupils on this point. I doubt whether it is possible to present a high-school course dealing exclusively or even largely with natural history which will lead pupils to the serious attitude demanded by all the other sciences. This is the result of the very nature of the materials. A trained naturalist may see problems of pro- found significance in the wriggling of a worm or the jump of an insect, but to a beginner in zoology there can be little more to gain than some isolated facts, which may be interesting, but with little apparent significance, for in such studies the ac- cumulated facts of a series of observations on living animals do not seem to the pupil to lead in any definite direction to a principle or generalization. In short, the facts of natural his- tory are largely unorganized and unorganizable by high-school pupils, and for this reason they do not appeal as seriously to pupils as do the usual studies of other sciences, or even of other phases of zoological study. These objections do not obtain in the elementary schools. Experience shows that the young pupils become seriously interested in many little prob- lems of natural history which the average high-school pupils regard as not worth their while. This is because the younger pupils are still in the stage where they are content to take each little fact for its own sake without reference to its broader relations. In fact, the simplest problems, and often those with little significance, are usually very interesting to the pupils of the elementary schools, and these are often the most valuable from the standpoint of the leading aims of nature- study. Thus, the movements of an animal are entrancing for most children in the lower grades, and off"er a great opportunity for developing interest and giving training in accuracy of observ- ing; but on the other hand such a fact as cross- fertilization of flowers, which is full of biological significance, means nothing very interesting to the pupils in the elementary school. These conditions are just reversed in the secondary school. The 3.26 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY pupil who has come to grapple with the problems of mathe- matics beyond arithmetic, with those of physics and chemistry ,and with the intricacies of the syntax of classical languages, is not likely to see much else than recreation and entertainment in the study of grasshopper's jumps and similar animal activ- ities. Of course there is great significance in these, but the specialist in zoology who sees this must not deceive himself into believing that the high-school pupil agrees with him in taking such studies seriously. The fact is that the pupil de- mands something which directly appeals to him as significant and worthy of serious attention. This is offered. him in most of the studies of the high school, and the time has come when zoology too must be taught on the same basis. It is no longer justifiable to teach zoology in the high school simply for the sake of interest in animal fife, for this can be done and far better done in the nature-study of the elementary schools. In the secondary school zoology must be presented for the sake of the principles which, like those of physics and chemis- try, will appeal to pupils because of their value as knowledge ; and for the teaching of the more or less isolated facts of natural history for the sake of interest and general acquaint- ance with animals we must look to the nature-study of the elementary schools. In opposition to the position here taken, it will probably be pointed out that as yet few elementary schools have developed An Opposing nature-study so as to be able to do the kind of Argument. natural history which we have been considering, and that here is an argument for including this in the general course in zoology for high schools. It is true that this fact must largely govern our present practice ; but with nature- study for the elementary school already in a state of rapid development we must begin to look forward to the time when a large part of the natural history now commonly assigned to the high school will be finally placed in the elementary school. Summarizing the foregoing considerations, it is urged that teachers of biological science in high schools should recognize NA TURE-STUDY AND HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY 327 the importance of the natural- history studies of common animals in the elementary school, for the reasons that (i) the results to be expected from such studies are more satisfactorily obtained with the younger pupils than in the high school, and (2) the secondary-school work in zoology should be relieved of much of this kind of work which when made prominent interferes with the serious .study of zoology as a science. Upon all teachers interested in zoology for the high school there is the duty of aiding in every possible way the development of the animal nature-study in the ele- mentary school, thereby making a freer field for the high-school course in serious zoology and at the same time gaining an im- portant preliminary to the high-school studies. Finally, to guard against any possible misunderstanding, let it be repeated that we must regard the present prominence of natural history in the high school as a temporary necessity, but with the coming development of nature-study in the lower schools natural history in high-school study will deserve a place as incidental and supplemental to the study of the elementary principles of zoology — a position which it often has even in college courses. 2. The Relation of " Human Physiology " to Nature-Study and , Zoology.i Probably it will not be disputed as a general principle that the biological work of the public schools should be a continu- ous devek)pment from the nature- study of the _ tmnitvin earliest grades of the elementary school through- Biological out the courses in botany and zoology in the high school. In discussing the relation of the elementary nature- study to the zoological courses of the secondary school, we have already seen that the elementary study may contribute to 1 In the first pages of Chapter XII. it is pointed out that "physiology'' taught in our schools is more than the science of functions referred to in Chapter II. The quotation marks in this section will avoid possible confusion. 328 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY this result by preparing both in discipline and in knowledge for the more advanced science work, especially the biological. From the same point of view let us now consider the relation of the " physiology " of the last year * of the elementary school which in the ordinary curriculum stands between nature-study of the lower grades and the science work of the high school. In disciplinary value " physiology " as usually taught differs radically from all other biological science work in the schools, Contijiuity is fo"^ both nature-Study and the courses in botany Disdpiiiie. ^jjjj zoology in the high school are commonly based upon the pupil's own observations and experiments, rather than upon a text-book. The common method of teaching "elementary physiology" from a text-book makes a serious break in the continuity of the scientific discipline to which all science study should contribute. With regard to the general relation of the subject-matter of " physiology " to that of nature-study on the one hand and high-school biology on the other, " physiology " Subject- as presented in most text-books is characteristi- cally subjective, whereas the nature-study of the elementary school and the biological courses of the high school are decidedly objective. " Physiology " is centred around an introspective study of the human body viewed as quite independent of external nature. From this extreme difference in point of view there results a breach of continuity in the development of the subject-matter, and so we find nature- study and " physiology " commonly regarded by educators as two distinct and quite independent phases of elementary science. Such a division may have its use in a schedule of 1 This is not the place for discussing the relation of physiology to the curriculum of the elementary school, and in explanation of this reference to the " last year " I may say in brief that for many reasons I decidedly favor not attempting physiology before the last year of the elementary school. For earlier years I regard simple lessons in hygiene — not as separate lessons, but in close connection with nature-studies — most satisfactory. NATURE-STUDY AND HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY 329 the school program, but in the outlines of courses there should be no such sudden transition from the nature-study to " phy- siology," and from this back again to external „ _, . ' Fliyslology as nature as presented in the biological work of the the Out- high school. On the contrary, I believe that much Hatnre- advantage would result from making the introduc- tion to the study of the human body a natural outgrowth of the nature-studies of the earlier years. The suggestion referred to in the last footnote, that all references to the hygiene of the human body during the first six or seven years of the elemen- tary-school course should be in the line of correlations growing out of the nature- studies, is an important step in the direction of giving to the study of the human body an outlook upon the relations of man to external nature. And this should continue to be the viewpoint in the " physiology " which in the last year of the grammar school leads the pupils into the study of the internal life-activities of the human body. The introduction to this course in " physiology " should be made as a gradual transi- tion from the earlier nature-study, by showing first the relations of man to the objective world, both the living and the lifeless, and to the end of the course these relations should be a leading thought worthy of all possible emphasis and illustration. To put the above ideas into practice is not to attempt teaching by formulated statements that there are certain rela- tions between man and the external world, or that the study of man is one link in a chain of sciences dealing with nature of which man is a part. Such word formulas would, of course, be valueless; but a well-organized course of study with a basis of observation and experiment on animals and plants may bring pupils to some definite realization of physiology many essential facts concerning the relation of man ^"^^i^ „( to nature by showing that the study of the human Biology, body makes direct application of many of the earlier nature- study lessons and derives many of its facts from studies of living and lifeless things in the objective world. All the earlier nature-study should have led the way to this, for it will 330 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY already have given the child some idea of his relation to nature. The study of the human body is then a culmination of nature-study. Along these lines, I believe we should look for the continuous and logical development of biological study from the work of the lower grades through the study of " human physiology " to the more rigidly scientific study of the biological sciences in the secondary school. This involves nothing more in essentials than teaching " physiology " from the viewpoint of the science of biology which emphasizes the relationships of organisms to each other and to the lifeless world. With this as a guiding principle, it is not difficult to teach " human physiology " as biological science, for even the most elementary study offers abundant opportunities for point- ing to the relationships between man's structure and functions and those of the living and lifeless things in his objective world. Especially is all this readily accomplished when the basis of the teaching is in practical study of other living and lifeless things which help us to interpret man's structure, life- activities, and relations. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE. The relation of nature-study to high-school zoology has become much more definite since the publication of this book in 1904, but still there are many high schools, particularly in the large cities, where it seems important to include a large amount of nature-study in the elementary biology. Owing to this close relation to nature-study, it is now generally recognized that the high-school teacher of biology should be familiar .with the aims, methods, and curriculum of nature-study in the elementary schools. The bibliography of this chapter should be supplemented by the fol- lowing titles: Bailey, The Nature-Study Idea. New efiition. (Macmil- lan) ; Holtz, Nature-Study (Scribners) ; Schmucker, Study of Nature (Lippincott) ; Cummings, Nature-study series of three books (American Book Co.) ; Coulter and Patterson, Practical Nature-Study aud Elemen- tary Agriculture (Appleton) ; Comstock, Handbook of Nature-Study (Comstock Publishing Co.). The Nature-Study Review has been pub- lished continuously since 1905, under the editorship of M. A. Bigelow for five years, of F. L. Charles for two years, and of E. R. Downing since 1912. It is the official organ of the American Nature-Study Society. CHAPTER V THE POSmON AJTO EELiTIOlTS OF ZOOLOGY Hf THE HIGH-SCHOOL CUEKICTTL0M BIBLIOGRAPHY Ward, H. B. Zoology in the High School. Proceedings N. E. A., ■ 1897. PP- 953-958- Report of Committee on Zoology. Proceedings N. E. A., 1899. Papers on Sequence of Sciences in the Secondary-School Curriculum, read before the New York State Science Teachers' Association. 1899. In High School Bulletin, No. 7, Univ. of State of New York, Regents' Reports, 1900. I. Relation of Botany and Zoology. The question of the position of zoology in the secondary- school curriculum is so closfely involved with that of its relation to botany that we must first consider whether these two as- pects of biology are to be regarded as independent sciences, each requiring a year's course, or whether a single continuous course should combine the study of animals and plants. An answer to these questions depends largely upon our under- standing of the relation of all the sciences to the general curriculum. It is first to be noted that three other sciences — physics, chemistry, and geography with geology — are commonly taught in high schools. It will be admitted beyond dis- sciences in pute, I think, that each of these offers training and ^l^^cnr- information which are of importance from the ri<™i'u>»- point of view of liberal education. Moreover, it will probably be generally admitted that it is quite impossible to decide between the importance of these and the two biological sciences, for all have their strong points and all touch some- where upon every-day human life, which insures that the elements of each are bound to be of interest to the average 332 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY cultivated citizen. The ideal science curriculum, then, would appear to be one which gives a place to each of the five sciences, and in which these are so arranged that all pupils may have oifered them the opportunity to get a general survey of the field of each science. This, then, is the situation : There are four years of the secondary school in which the pupil may learn the elements Four Tears '^'^^ S^* ^ glimpse of the field covered by the of Sciences. sciences. It is generally admitted that the presen- tation of a science course requires at least a year of four or five hours weekly. This means that four courses in science will use over one-fourth of the total time of the secondary school, and the remainder of the time must be distributed between the languages, literature, history, mathematics — all of undoubted importance in liberal education. A larger pro- portion of science would certainly result in narrowness no less open to criticism than the extreme specialization in languages which formerly prevailed, and our conclusion is that four courses in. science is the maximum allowable for liberal secondary education. Now biology, uniting zoology and botany, is only one of the four sciences under consideration. Does it deserve more than one-fourth of the time allotted to the sciences ? In One or Two . „ . , . . . Tears for support of an afnrmative answer to this question it is sometimes urged that since biology presents the two phases, botany and zoology, the science should have two years of the four in the secondary school. This, of course, necessitates either the omitting of one other science or else overreaching the limits of four years of science work by the very unsatisfactory arrangement of two courses of science work in one of the school years. In answer to the argument for two years of biology it may be urged that the ground for this division of biology seems not Biology a Uni- *° ^^ ^^^ taken, for it is a unified science and the fled Science, division of subject-matter into botany and zoology is largely arbitrary. " The study of living bodies," says Huxley, IN THE HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULUM HI " is in reality one discipline, which is divided into botany and zoology simply as a matter of convenience." ^ Essentially there is no wider gap between the methods of study and the subject-matter of botany and zoology than between the so- called organic and inorganic aspects of chemistry, or between the various phases of physics. So far as any sharp demarka- tion of subject-matter and methods of study are concerned there is, then, no sufficient reason for regarding zoology and botany as two distinct sciences, each claiming a place in the secondary curriculum. A more reasonable argument favoring the subdivision of biology into two separate courses of zoology and botany arises from the impossibility of covering the field of biol- pjeia „{ ogy in one year of five hours per week. But it j^^l?.^^" is likewise impossible to " complete " chemistry, ggi^jn physics, or geography in a single year. At best necessary, high-school science courses are simply an introduction to the general methods and principles of the sciences, and anything approaching mastery of even limited phases of the subject- matter is impossible. The fact, then, that both the animal and plant phases of biology cannot be completely presented in a single year offers no convincing argument for departure from the ideal plan of offering in secondary schools four years of science of which biology counts as one. If the subject-matter as presented by specialists in either botany or zoology is too extensive for such time limitation, a concentration of attention upon essential principles and selection of the most important material is surely needed.'' The teacher of chemistry does not attempt to instruct a high-school class about the chemistry 1 Preface to Practical Biology, by Huxley and Martin. ^ " Zoology is still an arduous and extensive study, which must be re- duced by selection, until even whole classes, not to speak of Natural Orders, Genera, and Species, are left unrepresented in a tolerably ex- tended course. Still the groundwork may be laid for following out the subject, which is all that teaching can do, or should attempt, for many of the most fruitful regions of knowledge." — Alexander Bain, Educa- tion as a Science. 1878. Appleton's Edition, p. 302. 334 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY of all the elements ; on the contrary, there is selection of the most common ones and these are used to illustrate the general principles of the science. But in the teaching of elementary biology we have yet to learn concentration of attention upon important and fundamental principles, and to spend less time upon the details of which organisms present unlimited variety. In biology, as in the physical sciences, we must come to select a limited number of common types as a basis for general principles ; and other forms of animals and plants will be presented to the pupils simply for the sake of acquaintance. Viewed from this standpoint there seems to be no good reason why the important facts of animal and plant life may not be incorporated into a year's course in biology, which shall have a place in the curriculum equal with that held by the other three sciences, chemistry, physics, and geography. It is prob- able that the advantages of such a course would be generally recognized at once were it clearly worked out in some text- book and laboratory guide ; but unfortunately high-school biology yet awaits the coming of an author who will be able to develop a course of general principles adapted to that grade of work as well as Parker's Elementary Biology and Sedgwick and Wilson's General Biology solve the problem of one general course for college students who cannot take more than one general course in biological sciences. But sooner or later such a book dealing with the essentials of the science will be written, and when it comes we shall see clearly that our present special books in botany and zoology deal with vast masses of details which are unessential to the general view of the great ideas of the science of life. So far no reference has been made to possible specialization in any science at the choice of the pupil, for some individuals will prefer a certain science and will choose to pur- Advanced . , , . , , , o,, ,1 , Elective sue It to the exclusion of the others. Shall ad- vanced elective courses be provided for such as these ? I believe that as a rule such provision for specialization should be discouraged in all science departments in the average IN THE HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULUM 335 secondary schools. Of course there are exceptional cases, as in special high schools which emphasize certain applied sciences. At any rate, the question of encouraging specializa- tion by offering elective courses in any or all of the sciences is one which concerns only a limited number of individuals and schools, and this can be provided for independently of a general scheme which applies to the great majority of pupils. For the masses of pupils and in most high schools the general introductory courses in each science alone are needed, and the question of advanced electives should not be allowed to influence the general arrangement or scope of the science courses in the regular curriculum. It is sometimes urged that if a year of biology is to be ranked with equally extensive courses in each of the other sciences, that year should not be divided between animals and plants, giving each phase one-half Courses corn- year, but that pupils should be allowed a choice between a year of botany and a year of zoology. The argu- ment for this is that a half-year is insufficient for either botany or zoology and that a year in biology is equivalent to two distinct half-year courses with a serious break at the middle of the year when the transition from the study of animals to that of plants, or vice versa, is made. In answer to the first part of this argument, it has already been pointed out that so far as the essential facts and principles are concerned the ordinary courses in botany and zoology are capable of great condensation ; and with regard to sudden transition, there is no great difference in subject-matter and methods. It is possible to correlate the zoology and botany work of the two half-years, so that the result is a general course in biology in- volving a wide survey of animal and plant life. Moreover, there is a strong argument against the proposition of allowing a choice between a year of botany and one of zoology and in favor of one in biology. It is this : either of the separate courses fail to give the well-rounded view of life phenomena which is desirable in liberal education ; and since compara- 336 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY lively few pupils can take both courses without omitting one of the other important sciences, we are again led to decide in favor of an introductory course which includes a summary of zoology and botany in a continuous year's course. Along these lines we may then defend the course consisting of two half-year courses in zoology and botany which, in the absence of suitable guides for close unification, teachers are now forced to follow ; but in doing so we must emphasize the importance of continuity and correlation between the two half-year courses. All this, however, is merely suggesting a temporary compromise looking forward to the time when a unified course in biology will make it unnecessary and quite undesirable to draw any line between botany and zoology, as the present arrangement of separate text-books and guides now practically require in most high schools. Another objection to a year's course in biology for the high school is that most colleges which accept botany and zoology for admission require full-year courses in CoUegeAd- . , , .., • i i , r mission either botany or zoology in the last years of high school. However, the fact that this applies to comparatively few pupils should prevent it from having any weight in the consideration of a general scheme of courses. Furthermore, there are signs that the college demand for separate courses in botany and zoology is weakening, and several important steps have been taken towards recognizing for college admission a course involving both plants and animals. As a compromise with the present college requirements, advanced elective courses in zoology and in botany in the fourth year will provide for those y^w pupils who Course as a wish to offer these sciences for college admission. mpro . rpp^jg arrangement will provide, also, for those whose interest may lead them to more study of the life-sciences than was given in the general introductory course. A plan similar to this has recently been adopted for the public high schools of Greater New York ; a course in biology (botany, zoology, IN THE HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULUM 337 and human physiology) in the first year for all pupils may in the fourth year be supplemented by an elective course presenting botany and zoology as separate subjects. The conclusion of our inquiry concerning the amount of time which should be assigned to biological science is (i) that it should be one in four years of science courses in biology, geography, physics, and chem- "™™*'^' istry, and (2) that both the animal and plant phases should have representation in this course. Again it should be em- phasized that these conclusions apply to the general condi- tions in secondary schools, and that such an arrangement suited to the great majority of pupils is not at all opposed to advanced elective courses in botany and zoology as separate subjects. These may be taken after the general introductory course in biology, if it is desired to allow more than four sciences, or encourage specialization in one science at the price of omission of others. 2. Position of the Biological in Relation to other Sciences. Reviewing the leading views and most common practice, we find that there is a wide difference of opinion as to whether biology should come early or late in the high- Biology in school curriculum; or in other words, whether it fl^of^** should precede or follow the other sciences. In Curricnium. favor of one of the two earlier years is the present practice in a large number of high schools and the recommendation of several important committees, particularly at the 1899 meet- ing of the National Educational Association. On the other hand, there is much in the nature of the subject-matter which makes it desirable for the pupils of the later years of the high school. It has often been advocated that the physical sciences should precede the biological for the reason that the latter, especially in the physiological phase, deal considerably with principles of chemistry and physics; but in discussing the position of human physiology in the high school (Chapter XII.) it is pointed out that so far as secondary work is con- 338 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY cerned only the simplest principles of the physical sciences are needed and that these can be taught in connection with the biological course. It follows that the sequence of the biologi- cal and physiological sciences in the secondary school cannot be determined upon the basis of considerations regarding correlations of subject-matter. The chief argument which has been advanced for zoology in the earlier years of the high-school course is the claim that the younger pupils have more interest in the study of Pupils in animals. This, I am convinced, involves a question of the kind of work. We must remember that the argument for this position of zoology has come forward in these later years when natural history has become a prominent part of the high-school work. That interest in this line comes early is the main thesis in Chapter IV. ; and there is no doubt about the, advisability of placing a course consisting largely of natural history in the first year of the high school rather than in a late year. But in discussions in Chapters II. and IV. we see reasons for regarding natural history as inadequate in itself for high-school Third or Study of animals. The essential question, then, is forZ^ioCT" concerning the position of a course in the general as a Science, science of zoology which is defended in Chapter II. It is reasonable to expect that interest in principles will be greater on the part of pupils of the later years, and cer- tainly the work leading to the principles is difficult enough to demand all the attention of the older pupils. For these reasons the writer favors the third or fourth years for a course in the science of zoology, or for a course in the principles of biology such as is advocated in the preceding section of this chapter. But if local conditions make it impossible to place zoology, or biology, in one of the last two years of the high school, then First Year ^ should Still advocate the same kind of a course if Necessary, fgj. gygjj ^jjg fjjgt; year. Of course, it would neces- sarily be modified in the direction of greater simplicity, but I IN THE HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULUM 339 should aim to teach essentially the same general ideas of the science. The line of work covered in the outline given in Chapter VIII. is in my opinion best adapted to third or fourth year pupils, but in its essentials the writer has in actual experi- ence found it more satisfactory for average first year pupils than work limited to natural history. By way of summary of statements made in this and inciden- tally in earlier chapters, I wish to say that from my present point of view the most satisfactory arrangement of biology in schools below colleere would include {\) rangement of . , , . . ^ ' Biological nature-study, presenting natural history of common sciences Se- animals, in the elementary school; (2) a year's course in physiology — drawing materials from animals and plants and with special application to the human body — in the eighth grade when some simple laboratory facilities are available, otherwise in the first year of the high school; and (3) finally a year course in the principles of general biology in the third or fourth year of the high school. This, in brief, is the gen- eral scope and arrangement of the biological work which I consider adapted to the needs of the majority of schools and pupils. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE. On the question of the union of botany and zoology in a course of biology, we are as far as ever from uniform opinion and practice. In the eastern and far western states a large number of high schools have adopted the one-year course in biology, but in the states between the Alleghenies and the Rockies, the long-established popularity of the text- books by Pessey, Coulter, and Bergen, and the personal influence of the first two authors, have availed to keep the separate courses of botany. In fact, numerous high schools in those States offer botany, but no zoology. The arguments for and against a course of biology have been pub- lished in Appendix IV of Bigelow's Teachers' Manual of Biology (^3.11- millan, 1912) and by several authors in School Science and Mathematics (1908-n). The following text-books have been prepared to meet the growing demand for a year of biology : Hunter, Rssentials of Biology (American Book Co.) ; Peabody and Hunt, Biology (Macmillan) ; Bigelow, Applied Biology and the Introduction to Biology (Macmillan). CHAPTER VI THE BEGIHIflNG WORK US ZOOLOGY In a previous discussion of the aims of zoological teaching in secondary schools, emphasis has been given those relating , . to scientific disciphne and to knowledge of the Importance ^ ° otjheBe^- great principles of the science of zoology. Satis- factory fulfilment of these aims depends, I believe, in no small measure upon the start which pupils are given in their zoological studies. This opinion leads me to give prom- inence to a discussion of the beginning work ; and in this chapter it will be considered under the following topics : (i) The place of natural history in beginning work, (2) the introduction to physiological study, (3) unicellular and mul- ticellular animals as introductory types, and (4) introduction to zoological principles by the study of one animal from the points of view of general zoology. 1. Natural History in beginning Zoology.^ " The study of natural history [/. e., zoology] should begin, as it does naturally begin, in childhood, and as it began long before there was any exact zoology, with the ob- ITatural In- . terestinAni- servation of animal life in its familiar forms." In these words the author of the charming Study of Animal Life, Professor J. Arthur Thomson, of Edinburgh, has expressed a general opinion of naturalist teachers. Few, indeed, are they who deny that the first study of animal life should be a study of living animals along the lines of natural history. It has been stated that the ecological aspect, the 1 Here, as elsewhere, the phrase natural history is used, in the ab- sence of a more precise term, to indicate a general superficial survey o£ animals for the sake of interest and acquaintance. BEGINNING WORK IN ZOOLOGY 341 central feature of natural history, is to the young mind the most interesting side of animal life. Children have much interest in haunts and habits and life-histories and activities, but very little in structure except as it evidently relates to the life of animals. Recognition of this has led teachers to the view that the study of the science of zoology should begin along these lines of natural interest, for " a circuitous course of study, followed with natural eagerness, will lead to better results than the most logical of programmes if that take no root in the life of the student." ^ The general recognition that natural history interests the average young pupil has within recent years brought about the prominence of the study of living animals in secondary schools. But without reference to the movement towards limiting all high-school zoology to the natural history (which is discussed in Chapter II.), we must here note that the latter has an important relation to beginning work. Recommendations to begin the study of zoology with this aspect of animals are now common in text-books and reports of committees; and I believe it is true that in the great majority of high schools the beginning work in zoology is at present natural history. Under the existing conditions beginning the high-school work with natural history meets the needs of the pupils, for the reason that in the as yet incomplete state of Reiatioii to development of nature-study in the elementary natnie- schools a large proportion of the pupils entering high school are ignorant concerning the natural history and even the very existence of many common animals. So long as this situation remains unchanged it seems advisable that the first weeks in every elementary course of zoology in secondary schools should be devoted to the study of common living animals in the natural-history aspect. However, when nature- study becomes more firmly established in the elementary school, it will then be profitable to proceed directly in the high school with the study of zoology as a science, incidentally 1 From Thomson's Study of Animal Life, 3d edition, p. 361. 342 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY introducing natural history when opportunity offers. The present recognition of natural history in the beginning of the high-school course may, then, be regarded as a temporary compromise which will become unnecessary, because the in- troduction to animals will come to be made through the nature-studies of the elementary school. In Chapter II. it has been urged that there are important facts and principles in each phase of the science which should Beginning be presented in their natural relations, and that Scienceof ' ^'^^ representation of the general field constitutes Zoology. ^ course in the science of zoology in the strict sense. It is with the beginning work of such a course that we are primarily concerned here, and to a consideration of the problems involved in introducing the principles of the various phases of the science we may now turn. 2. Introduction to Physiological Study. The first problem which demands attention is that of com- bining work in morphology and physiology. It has been Correlation Stated in a general way that morphology and phys- phoio^Md'' iol°gy should be closely related throughout the Piiysioiogy. course of zoology, introducing the principles of physiology with the first animal which is studied morphologi- cally and later applying the principles to other animals so as to make the study comparative. It will now be of interest to consider in some detail the nature of the physiological facts to be taught in the introductory work and the methods of presentation. Every text-book of zoology for secondary schools which has touched upon physiological principles has failed to begin at Physiological ^^ t)asis of physiology. Many of the authors ap- TeS-books'of P^^' *-° '^^^^ assumed that pupils intuitively under- Zooiogy. stand such processes as digestion, respiration, ex- cretion, etc. ; and without definition these terms are used freely. Thus, without explanation one book informs the be- ginner that "the kidneys are the excretory organs of the BEGINNING WORK IN ZOOLOGY 343 toad," and similar examples may easily be found. Now the truth is that even the majority of pupils who have studied "human physiology" in four or five years in elementary schools have no scientific conception of the essential mean- ing of even such a process as digestion, not to mention the more difficult excretion, respiration, and assimilation. The majority of pupils entering high school would define digestion as a process of preparing food "for nourishing the body," which is quite true, but hardly a strictly accurate scientific definition. It is necessary, then, that the essential principles of physiology should be clearly presented at the beginning of the high-school zoology; and we may not assume that the pupils have brought from the elementary school any accurate knowledge of physiological principles and processes. In teaching principles of physiology in connection with zoology, teachers should guard against the loose expressions which unfortunately have been allowed to creep into many elementary books on " human physi- pressioDs ology." We are all familiar with unscientific ex- pbysioiogicai planations, such as, " Food and blood are needed ^""™s. to keep the body alive." There are many such phrases which even some authors of recent elementary text-books of zoology for high schools have been guilty of using ; for example : "The lungs purify the blood"; "Digestion prepares the food to nourish the body" ; "The veins carry impure blood " ; " The kidneys remove the waste." These are not uncommon state- ments which are apt to be misleading — at any rate, they are scientifically inaccurate. In my opinion, the terms " purify," "pure," and "impure" should not be used even in elemen- tary physiology. There can be no such thing as " pure " blood in the sense in which it is applied to blood returning from the lungs, for the " purification " in external respiration is at best only a change in the relative proportions of carbon dioxide and oxygen. According to recent treatises venous blood contains forty-six volumes of carbon dioxide in one hundred of blood, and arterial blood contains forty — only six 344 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY lost in the circulation through the lungs. Similarly, arterial blood contains about twenty of oxygen, and venous blood from eight to twelve. Clearly the terms " pure," " impure," and " purify " are very misleading as applied to the gaseous con- tents of the blood. Moreover, blood which is relatively " pure " with reference to oxygen and carbon dioxide may be very " im- pure " with reference to nitrogenous wastes. It is evident that such terms would better be avoided altogether. Animal phys- iology in the high school should be expressed in accurate terms, as has long been the practice in elementary mor- phology. And now with regard to beginning at the basis of physiology, I would refer the teacher to the chapters on " Why we eat and breathe," " Nutrition," and " Foods " CChapters Introduction v f to Essentials VIII., IX., and X., revised edition, 1898) in Mar- tin's Human Body, Briefer Course} It has been my practice to introduce my secondary-school class in zoology to the essentials of animal physiology by applying to the first animal studied morphologically the logical development of physiological principles which in Martin's text-book refer specifically to the physiology of man. The outline of a course in zoology in Chapter VIII. of this volume suggests the intro- duction to general principles of physiology as illustrated by the crayfish or frog. The same topics developed in con- nection with the morphological study of any other animal •would give the same conception of the fundamental physi- ological processes involved in the animal machine. The first formal consideration of animal physiology neces- sarily comes after a general summary of the structure, as indi- Study of cated in the outline of a course in zoology in F^ctiSr""* Chapter VIII. However, the study of function Correlated. ^nd structure should be kept closely correlated, as suggested in the discussion of the value of physiology as a phase of zoology (in Chapter II.). 1 The contents of these chapters are essentially similar in the older editions. BEGINNING WORK IN ZOOLOGY 345 3. Protozoa and Metazoa as Introductory Types. One of the most fundamental questions concerning the be- ginning work in elementary zoology relates to the selection of the animal type for the introductory study, for ^ Ftrndamen- upon whether a protozoan or a metazoan be tai Question, chosen depends the nature of the entire course. It will therefore be of interest in this connection to examine' the evi- dence on both sides of this much discussed question regarding the value of unicellular versus multicellular animals as types for the introductory study of zoology. Shall a course in elemen- tary zoology be synthetical, beginning with unicellular animals and then progressing towards the more and more complex forms, or shall the study be analytical, and beginning with a complex multicellular animal, lead down the scale of structural and functional complexity to the simplest forms ? In a purely natural-history course this is a relatively unimportant problem, which may well be neglected altogether ; but it has great sig- nificance in its relation to the teaching of the fundamental principles of morphology and physiology. The arguments in favor of beginning with the Protozoa are based chiefly on the position of these animals in systematic and synthetic morphology and physiology. The development of the cell-theory has led both mor- synthetic phologists and physiologists to centre their work °^' in the cell as the synthetic basis, and we find in all recent treatises that the cell is regarded as the starting-point for all discussions of morphological and physiological problems. This applies not only to considerations of structure, functions, or development of higher forms, but the one-celled animals have come to hold a prominent place as the foundation for synthetic studies of animals in general ; and from studies of these simple forms we pass to the more and more complex types. It has been frequently stated that the order from simple to complex in the development of structural complexity in the 346 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY animal series — the so-called " logical order " — should be fol- lowed in teaching elementary zoology, for the reason that " it logical Order is best for teaching evolution" and "gives the and Evolution, principal data for the classification of animals." This, in the opinion of the writer, is a decidedly fallacious assumption. The stages in increasing complexity from the protozoans to the vertebrates do not necessarily teach relation- ship between the animals in that series. In the case of the usual series of types with isolated representatives of the great groups, the advance of structural complexity in Amoeba, Hydra, earthworm, crayfish, etc., gives no criterion of relationships or line of derivation in this series, for their differences are so great that to a beginner in zoology they necessarily stand as absolutely independent types of animal forms. This has been exactly the experience of naturalists in the development of the evolution idea. Cuvier and many other early zoologists were certainly familiar with types of all the great groups and must have recognized the ascending series in structural com- plexity, and yet the facts were not interpreted by them as meaning relationship and evolution. Likewise, Darwin was doubtless familiar with the structure of the phyletic types from Amoeba to man long before studies of limited groups of closely related higher forms gave him the first suggestions of his evo- lution theories.^ Again, all the great books which deal with the question of the truth of organic evolution, as distinguished from the factors, place little weight upon the supposed rela- tionships of the various phyla, for the reason that the affinities in most cases are still more or less debatable and obscure. But within any given phylum the similarities of structure and therefore the suggestion of relationship are abundant and convincing, and these are the facts with which evolutionists support the theory. Comparative anatomy, the great support of the evolution theory, does not derive its most convincing 1 See accounts of Darwin's observations on animals (chiefly verte- brates) of Galapagos Islands in his Origin of Species, Journal of Re- searches, and biographical works cited in chapter on " Zoological Books." BEGINNING WORK IN ZOOLOGY 347 facts from comparisons of isolated types of different phyla. Who can point out to a young beginner in zoology convincing evidences of relationship between Amoeba and Hydra, or Hydra and earthworm, or even earthworm and crayfish, not to men- tion the great chasm of structural difference which separates the existing vertebrates from all known types of invertebrates? On the other hand, the study of the comparative anatomy of a half-dozen selected arthropods or vertebrates leads one irre- sistibly to the idea of relationships and evolution. Clearly, the logical and synthetic order is not the best, or even a good one, for teaching the evolution idea. Comparison of a half- dozen insects, or decapods, or skeletons of vertebrates, will convey more and better evolutionary ideas than any study of a series of types of phyla can possibly do. We must, therefore, reject the view that the " logical order " of study from Protozoa to vertebrates is necessary, or even very useful, for teaching the principles of evolution. A serious objection to a protozoan as an introductory type upon which the fundamental principles of morphology and physiology are to be based arises from the great difficulties which confront the beginner with the with Micro- SCODC compound microscope. By the use of the micro- scope I refer not merely to the mechanical manipulations in which very many pupils do not soon become expert enough for satisfactory work, but especially to accurate interpretation — a far more difficult thing for almost all beginners. As a direct result of the difficulties arising from the use of the microscope at the outset, it usually happens that very few pupils in a large class get any adequate conception of the first animals studied if they are exclusively microscopic. The writer has seen a class of forty pupils reciting about an Amoeba which, owing to the difficulties of the beginning microscopic work, very few members of the class had been able to study as long as thirty minutes in a preceding two-hour session in the laboratory. Yet upon such unsatisfactory practical work it was attempted to base a discussion of the cell, protoplasm. 348 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY processes of nutrition, and similar fundamental principles. Every college teacher knows that this is not an uncommon case, for dozens of pupils come to college with certificates of having completed high-school courses in zoology in which the Amoeba remained unseen except in pictures and prepared slides. The absurdity of the situation is evident to every one who values careful and thorough laboratory study as a basis for all general considerations. Contrast the results in training in scientific method and in the information value of such intro- ductory work on a protozoan with those from work on any larger animal which does not require the constant use of the microscope and from which any pupil in a large class may, with proper directions from the teacher, get definite and accu- rate results upon which considerations of general principles are later to be based. But in defence of beginning with the microscope, it is often urged that " the pupil must learn to use the instrument some time and this might as well be done at the beginning." This sounds reasonable in theory, but the writer ventures to think that the elusive Amoeba or an agile Paramoecium are not the best objects for practice. On the contrary, both the mechani- cal manipulation and the more difficult interpretations of the microscopic image are facilitated by learning to use the instru- ment through occasional practice while studying the gross structure of a multicellular animal of considerable size. More- over, as already, suggested, such an introduction to zoological principles and methods obviates the waste of time, discourage- ment, and bad training in methods of scientific study which a large percentage of pupils inevitably receive when the beginning depends entirely upon work with the compound microscope. The advantages of beginning the study of structure with an animal about which the pupil knows something, or at least can Huxley's Ex- learn vyith the aid of no more uncommon appara- pexience. ^.yg xJossl the eyes, were well stated by Huxley many years ago, after he had learned by experience the great BEGINNING WORK IN ZOOLOGY 349 disadvantages connected with beginning zoological study with a microscopic animal. In the first edition of the Practical Biology by Huxley and Martin the first lesson was on a one- celled animal and the last on the frog. The revised edition published many years later reversed this order, and in the preface Huxley stated that experience had taught him that the higher animals are really less difficult for beginners in zoology. Many teachers in colleges have since expressed agreement with this opinion of Huxley, and there appears to be a marked tendency towards widespread adoption of this order of study. Among elementary guides for college work Huxley and Martin's Practical Biology (revised edition), Sedgwick and Wilson's General Biology (1886, 1895), Parker and Parker's Practical Zoology (1900), Pratt's Invertebrate Zoology (1901) are ex- amples of those which introduce the zoological study by means of higher animals. With reference to elementary zoology in the secondary school where the pupils are undeveloped, the arguments ad- vanced by Huxley and his followers are of greater „ _, , •' ■' ° Beginning weight than when applied to college work. Pupils withaCom- , . ,.^ , . . , plex Animal encounter few serious difficulties in an introductory in High ^ , . ■ r School, study of the important points of structure in a com- plex animal. The general relations and the essential structure of organs are in the very beginning readily determined and comprehended by very young pupils. The supposed difficul- ties arise largely when detailed study is attempted. The same arguments hold good from the physiological point of view. Every pupil knows something about the functions of his own body, and it is easy to grasp the fundamental principles of physiology when directly applied to organs of an animal in which there is considerable physiological division of labor. It is evident that this must be a decided gain compared with beginning physiology with an unicellular animal where all functions must be thought of abstractly in connection with a single cell. Beginning with the physiology of a multicellular animal, and considering a series of simpler forms which lead 3 so THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY down the scale in the division of labor, the pupil can under- stand every step of the way, and in the end will have a clearer idea of the functions of both one- and many-celled forms in their relation to the great principles of physiological division of labor. Both the morphological and the physiological arguments in favor of the multicellular animal are often based upon the Pupils' pupils' supposed knowledge of at least the human ^^^jg^^ body as a familiar type of higher animal. Against Forms. this it has often been urged that ordinary pupils are not in reality familiar in a scientific sense with any higher form ; but this is far from true in these days when the vast majority of children in the elementary schools are taught " human physiology " and an increasingly large number are working at nature-study. Even some authors who have stated that high-school pupils are unfamiliar with higher forms have allowed inconsistency in their practice to support the opposing view, for in introductory lessons on Protozoa we find these questions: "Has the Amoeba a stomach?" and "Is there evidence that Paramcecium can breathe?" Obviously such questions are of significance only on the assumption that pupils are more than ordinarily familiar with higher forms, for only some knowledge of the essentials of the physiological processes of respiration would give the pupil light on the question of breathing in the Paramcecium. Again, another author has defended the "logical sequence" of his book by the statement '^ that " every one is more familiar — by sight, at least — with the frog than with the Amoeba. The structure of the former resembles that of the human body far more than does that of the latter. But how many students have even the most general knowledge of human anatomy? They know, to be sure, that the body contains a heart, lungs, stomach, etc., but in the great majority of cases would fail to locate or, if shown them, even to recognize these organs. 1 Preface to Dodge's Practical Biology. BEGINNING WORK IN ZOOLOGY 35 1 Again, how many students, if called upon to do so, could tell more about the frog than that it usually lives in water, is greenish in color, has four legs, a mouth, etc., and can jump and swim? Whether or not the frog has a tail is usually a question for discussion. As a matter of fact, beginning students have no more real knowledge of the higher than of the lower forms." But in the light of this statement of the author's viewpoint we find difficulty in understanding the questions in x!ae. first lesson, which is on some Protozoa. Here are typical examples : " Can you find any organ corresponding to a heart ? Stomach ? Lungs or gills ? Brain ? Are nerves visible ? How do they digest their food ? Breathe?" We may comment by asking. How can any of the above questions be of signifi- cance to a beginner if pupils " fail to locate, or, if shown them, to recognize these organs " in a frog or other higher form ? What can any such questions mean to one who has " no real knowledge of higher forms " ? Obviously such inconsistency in practice offers no support for the contention that young pupils are unfamiliar with the higher animals. The conclusion of our inquiry must be that so far as the work of secondary schools is concerned there is very little in favor of introducing the course in elementary The More zoology by the study of a unicellular animal, while S^'gta^t there is much in favor of beginning with the for Begiimers. study of the multicellular form. The simplest animals appear to be, after all, both morphologically and physiologically the most complex from the young beginner's standpoint. More than this, almost everything which is supposed to argue for a logical and synthetical order of study depends upon generalizations which are not appreciated by the average high-school pupil. The experience of large numbers of teachers seems to sup- port strongly such conclusions, and recent books for secondary schools are decidedly in favor of this position. Recent Text- Thus Kingsley's Comparative Zoology, Harvey's . '"*°'^" Introduction to Zoology, French's Animal Activities and Col- ton's new Zoology all begin with the study of arthropods or 352 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY vertebrates. The only exceptions since the publication of Needham's Elements of Zoology in 1895 is that of the labora- tory manual Studies of Animal Life by Walter, Whitney, and Lucas (1900) and that by Weed and Grossman (1902) both of which follow the so-called logical series from Amoeba to mammals. 4. Introduction to Zoological Principles. The final proposition which I wish to discuss with reference to the beginning work is that the principles of all the various Huxley's phases of zoology should be introduced early in Method. ^[^g course with the study of some animal type from the point of view of general zoology. This is the method which Huxley so successfully employed in his now classical The Crayfish as an Introduction to the Study of Zoology (1879), in the preface of which occurs this statement of the aim of the book : — " I have desired, in fact, to show how the careful study of one of the commonest and most insignificant of animals, leads us, step by step, from every-day knowledge to the widest generalizations and the most difficult problems of zoology ; and, indeed, of biological science in general." The success of this method of Huxley is sufficient defence of its value. Sedgwick and Wilson in their General Biology have followed the same plan applied to the earth- Other AppU- . , . ^.., . , . . , cations of the worm as an mtroduction to zoological principles and methods of study; and recently T. Jeffrey Parker and W. N. Parker, pupils of Huxley, have done the same in their Elementary Course of Practical Zoology, using the frog as their introductory type. These books have been favorably received in college work; but they are far too advanced and technical for elementary pupils in a secondary school. Directly applying the method of Huxley,^ the central idea of 1 I follow here almost the exact words which I used in explaining the point of view of the Outline of the Course in Zoology in Horace Mann BEGINNING WORK IN ZOOLOGY 3 S3 the course in elementary zoology which is outlined in this book (Chapter VIII.), is that of an introductory study of a complex animal examined from the several viewpoints of zoology. Such a study includes important facts of anatomy, histology, embryology, classification in connection with the near allies of the introductory type, distribution, general fundamental principles of physiology and ecology touching upon habits of life and life-history. It may be necessary to remind the reader that this is not to be misunderstood as meaning that any one of these phases of study should go far into details. The question, What is essential for liberal education? should be strictly applied in eliminating all that has no good reason for inclusion in the course. The writer's interpretation of what may be considered valuable in this connection will be best represented by the detailed outline of such an introductory study of one animal which is given in Chapter VIII. Such introductory study as has been suggested can be completed within the first five or six weeks of a half-year course, leaving ten or eleven weeks in which to Relation of examine types of various groups of the animal ^t^^'**"" kingdom. This will be criticised on the ground study, that it gives too much attention to a single animal; but it will appear in the outline in Chapter VIII. that most of this time is devoted to zoological principles capable of wide ap- plication, and which are illustrated by the careful study of a single animal. After pupils once grasp these principles, application to any animals which are studied later is easily and quickly made. In other words, this method of introduc- ing the study is designed to give pupils general ideas of the structure and activities of one animal which will aid in appre- ciating and interpreting any other animal. It is also intended to give intensive study of the fundamental principles of anat- omy and physiology, and training in the methods of biological High School, in Teachers College Record, Vol. II. January, igoi. Pp. 14, 15. 23 3 54 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY study, and thus lay a foundation for later study of other animals representing important groups. In short, the general aim is to lay a foundation which will make later study of animals, from whatever standpoint, more interesting and more intel- ligible, because there is included in the foundation work those great principles of animal structure and function which are of wide interest and application. The writer is convinced that the broad view of a single animal and of some of the principles of zoology, gained from the introductory study along the lines suggested on Viewpoint above, exerts a marked influence on all subsequent study of animals. Pupils with such preliminary training may be required later to study some animals from a limited point of view, for example, ecology or morphology, but their general ideas of one animal from the various points of view lead them to think of all animals as presenting illus- trations of the various aspects of zoology. They will have that wide outlook upon animal life which has been called " zoological perspective." Experience has demonstrated that interest is not lost by such extended introductory work. On the contrary, the pupils, as a rule, are eager to study every animal brought into the course as thoroughly as the introduc- tory type was studied — that is, from the various aspects of zoology. Although time will obviously not allow such exten- sive study of more than one form, there is certainly great value in such an attitude of mind with its broad outlook and interest in the various phases of animal life. In conclusion, it is claimed that upon a broad introductory study of one multicellular animal it is possible to base a course which combines the most valuable features of the Conclusion. „ . . , various courses usually presented m secondary schools, and that it is possible at the same time to give as good training in scientific observing and thinking as can be done with any other plan. Moreover, such a course gives a view of animals and animal life which is broader and more valuable from the standpoint of liberal education than that BEGINNING WORK IN ZOOLOGY 355 given by the ordinary courses which are limited to the view- points of either natural history or morphology, for it includes the fundamental principles of physiology in the natural re- lations with morphology and ecology, the importance of which relation has been discussed elsewhere. It is not to be claimed that pupils who follow such a course will know much about the details of comparative anatomy in a series of animals, or understand the intricacies of physiological processes, or that they store up a not the ' mass of facts from natural history ; but from the standpoint of liberal secondary education stores of zoological facts are not needed so much as broad general ideas, and an acquaintance with and interest in animals and their life. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE. Emphasis on natural history in beginning zoology prevails in many high schools, especially in those which have biological study in the first year. However, the need for this is decreasing as nature-study is de- veloped in the elementary schools. Introduction to physiological study of animals has improved greatly in the past decade, for it is now generally recognized among the best teachers that the most elementary principles of animal functions must be considered in the high school, and that this is the best pathway to human physiology. The following text-books published within recent years emphasize physiology: Hunter, Essentials of Biology; Peabody and Hunt, Biology; Bigelow, Applied Biology and Introduction to Biology. So far most text-books limited to zoology have not treated adequately the introduction to study of animal functions ; for they seem to assume that the pupils understand digestion, excretion, respiration, etc., before beginning the study of zoology. Galloway's Elementary Zoology and Linville and Kelly's Zoology have general accounts of animal functions. The arguments on pages 345 to 352 against the use of one-celled ani- mals as introductory types is now of historical value only, for the leading text-books and teachers of high-school zoology give the protozoa a late and rather insignificant place in courses. There has been a great decrease in the use of the compound microscope in high schools. Introduction to zoological principles by study of one type of animal is exemplified by the study of the frog in Bigelow's Applied Biology (for third or fourth years) and by the Introduction to Biology (for early years). CHAPTER VII THE SELECTION OF AOTMAXi TYPES FOE A IiABOKA- TOKY COTJKSE IN ZOOLOGY There seems to be no question that an elementary course in zoology in a secondary school should be based upon and con- vaine of ^i^* largely of the study of a series of types or "^yvea. examples representing the most important groups of animals.^ No other plan is adaptable to the modern labora- tory method of teaching the principles of the science ; and concentration of attention upon a limited number of forms un- doubtedly results in the most satisfactory training in the method of scientific study. Even from the standpoint of the acquisi- tion of information the type method has great advantages over the alternative plan of dealing in generalized comparative terms with characteristics of a group of animals with most of which the students must be entirely unfamiliar. I. Types for the Introductory Work. The problems relating to the selection of types upon which to base the course in zoology are closely involved with ques- tions concerning the order in which the examples are to be presented ; hence it will be most convenient to give some at- tention first to the order of study. In recent years there has been among teachers of zoology much discussion concerning the order of study of the animal types representing the great phyla. It was but Order of the Animal natural that there should have been until recently an almost universal tendency to follow the order — Protozoa, Ccelenterata, worms, Arthropoda, MoUuska, Ver- tebrata, for that is the one given in the modern systematic 1 Special references : Huxley, essay On the Study of Biology, Science and Education Essays, p. 285 ; Harvey, ffigh School Bulletin, No. 17, Uni- ANIMAL TYPES FOR LABORATORY 35/ treatises on zoology. But experience in teaching has called attention to various pedagogical and practical considerations which are now leading to wide departure from the systematic order from simplest to most complex. Accepting the conclu- sion in the preceding chapter that multicellular animals have advantages as types for introductory study, it remains to select the multicellular types which will best serve for the introduc- tion to the general principles of the various phases of zoology according to the method of Huxley, as advocated in the last section of the preceding chapter. It is not easy to decide between representatives of a half- dozen metazoan phyla. If we reject the protozoan as an in- troductory type, there is no good zoological reason r . . . , Selection of for passmg to the opposite extreme to a complex introductory Type vertebrate and then passing backward along the series followed by the zoological treatises. A student will ap- preciate the relative complexity, the similarities and differences of an earthworm, a crayfish, or a frog without regard to the order of first study. Moreover, the order of study has no necessary significance in relation to developing ideas of the evolution of the metazoan phyla for the reason that to a begin- ning student the differences are so. great that the phyla seem to stand isolated. Even granting that affinities between phyla can be demonstrated to the young beginner, then the worm, the arthropod, the mollusk, and the vertebrate are to be treated as diverging branches of the same tree, not as steps in a ladder ; and until all four types are known, relationships cannot be clearly understood. What matters, then, whether the order of study be worm, arthropod, vertebrate ; or vertebrate, arth- ropod, worm ; or even arthropod, worm, vertebrate ? Clearly it is not possible upon the basis of zoological facts alone to reach any decision as to the order of study of metazoan animals. Practical and pedagogical rather than zoological considerations must influence the selection of an introductory varsity of State of New York; Parker and Haswell, Text-book of Zoology, Preface to Vol. I. 35 8 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY type, and from this point of view we shall examine several animals which have claims to favor. The Crayfish. — In the outline of a course in zoology which is presented in the following chapter the crayfish is treated as an introductory type. This selection was made after a con- sideration of the merits of six animals, — namely, mammal, frog, fish, crayfish, grasshopper, and earthworm, — which appear available and desirable for introducing a course which is to include the general principles of zoology. After starting sec- ondary-school classes with four of these forms, the writer has come to beheve that the crayfish has some decided advantages as a type with which to begin the practical study of animals and upon which to base many important general principles. First, beginning pupils have less aversion to handling the crayfish than in the case of any of the other forms, except Its Favor- '^^ insect. Teachers will recognize that this is an able Points, important point, for the first impressions often in- fluence the pupil's attitude, toward a subject. Second, the external structure of the crayfish and its allies is very favor- able for teaching principles of homology, classification, and adaptation to functions. In these respects it is not possible to begin with a better animal. There is still another great advantage in that the crayfish can be readily obtained in most places outside of New England, and is found in the markets of the cities. Moreover, the lobster may be substi- tuted without modification of the outline. Finally, with regard to internal structure, the crayfish is easier to dissect than any of the other forms mentioned above, and the general plan of the organs is easily understood even by very young pupils. The internal organs are comparatively simple,' and yet there is well-developed physiological division of labor. On this point the complexity of the crustacean not being so great ' as in the case of any vertebrate, it is easier for the pupil to gain a clear idea of the essential nature of the workings of organs as related to the life of the body as a whole ; and hence the crayfish is especially favorable as affording ANIMAL TYPES FOR LABORATORY 359 a basis for introduction to the essential principles of animal physiology. The Mammal. — There is a small minority of teachers who advocate some common mammal — such as rat, gijnuai. ^o rabbit, or cat — as an introductory type, for the Human Body, reason that in structure and function it so closely resembles the human body. But there are weighty reasons against this. So far as some classes of boys are concerned, the pupils have little or no aversion to dissection of mammals ; but the teaching of zoology is not limited to the teaching of boys who take kindly to dissections of mam- sion^o Dis^**^" mals, and the natural repulsion of the majority of ^*^°"' beginning students makes it imperative that the dissection of a mammal be omitted in spite of its claims to favor because of its similarity to the human body. There are many profes- sional zoologists who will sympathize with the position here taken, because in their own experience they have found mammalian dissection a disagreeable task'. Aside from the foregoing objections to a study of a mammal in the beginning work of the laboratory, the great complexity of its anatomy and correspondingly extreme phys- complexity iological division of labor are certainly serious and^S^ reasons which should militate against beginning *^""^" the study of zoology with such a difficult type. Certainly from such an introduction the average beginner will not get a clear conception of the essential physiological processes. With regard to the argument that the mammal admits of direct comparisons with the human body, it may be said that many teachers find a great gain in beginning study with some animal not very like the human body, with Human and this for the reason that most pupils have de- rived many great misconceptions from the so-called " phys- iology " taught in the grammar school. It is far better to take a fresh start with such an animal as the crayfish which does not recall anything except essential general facts about the human body. For example, the respiration of the cray- 36o THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY fish will recall only the essentials of that process in the human body, and the relatively less important details of the mechan- ism of respiration being so dissimilar will not invite com- parisons. Hence the attention will be concentrated upon essential facts. The Frog. — The objections to the mammals do not in the experience of many teachers apply to the frog, which resem- Frogmore ^'^^ ^^ mammalian body closely enough for the ttmMam- illustration of the general principles of structure ™"i' and function which should be involved in high- school work. Beginning pupils under the control of a tactful teacher will not be averse to a study of the frog, provided -that the material is in good condition. Availability of material, or the possibility of closer comparisons with the human body, may lead many teachers to prefer the frog to the crayfish as an introductory type, and provision has been made for this in the outline following this chapter. While I prefer the crayfish for the beginning study, and the frog for the last laboratory work of the course, experience has convinced me that quite as good general results have been obtained in classes which began with the frog. In case it is decided not to study the internal structure of more than one animal, then it is beyond question that the frog is the most favorable type. The Earthworm. — This animal has been made the basis of the introduction to zoology in Sedgwick and Wilson's Hot a Favor- General Biology, and well serves this purpose in aUeiype. college work. But experience has taught that it is not well adapted to high-school zoology. Beginners are not uncommonly averse to working with a " worm," and it is not easy to dissect so as to bring out clearly the chief organs. Except in favorable localities, there is difficulty in getting specimens large enough for satisfactory dissection, and unlike the frog and crayfish it is not to be obtained from provision markets. All these are objections to its selection for intro- ductory work upon which a course is to be based, and in the ANIMAL TYPES FOR LABORATORY 361 absence of any important points of merit we must reject the earthworm as not well adapted to our purposes in the begin- ning work in zoology. The Insect. — For introductory work which is to illustrate the general principles of zoology the insects are unsatisfactory for the reason that they are extremely specialized. Also, their small size makes a satisfactory study of the internal anatomy impossible for young beginners. But the insects are especially valuable for introductory studies in natural history, which, as suggested in the chapter on the " Beginning Work," should at times precede the study of general principles of zoology. When- insects m ever it is desirable to begin the high-school zoology ^ ''"'^^' with natural history of' some common animals, the wealth and variety of insect life at the beginning of the school year in September makes these animals the most desir- able for such study. Two or three weeks of natural history, including field work, will prepare for the introduction to the general principles of zoology as illustrated by a careful study of some more favorable type, such as the crayfish (or frog). It is clear from the foregoing considerations that the cray- fish (or as a second choice the frog) appears best adapted to purposes of beginning work in the principles of ... ,. , . ,. , ,„. Summary, zoology, as outlmed ni precedmg chapters. The Crayfish or one feature of the outline (Chapter VIII.) for introductory introductory work which I wish to emphasize as ^^'' important is that whatever multicellular animal be chosen as the first type it should be studied in such a way as to make the work an introduction both to the general methods of zoological study and to the essential principles of animal structure, function, and relations. It is admitted that by efficient teachers such results might be obtained from the study of any one of many common animals ; but, as has been indicated above, certain types are especially favorable for the beginning work of secondary-school classes. 362 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY We must now make a survey of the various phyla in order Supplemental ^° select representatives which are to be studied "^^T)^- after the introductory type, thus broadening the pupils' acquaintance with animals and extending the applica- tion of principles learned from the first animals studied. 2. Other Animals available for Laboratory Study. Improved methods for preservation of animals for study in the laboratory and the establishment of numerous dealers in Use of Pre- zoological materials have rendered available for eign AMmais ^^'s-ss Study many animals which are obtainable - Lm!^*Lmng only in limited localities. This method of obtain- Forms. jjjg jnaterial has great advantages from the stand- point of college work in morphology, but it has great dangers for secondary schools. In the first place, material from dealers is usually preserved and therefore of value only for morpho- logical work ; and, as we have seen, such special one-sided study is not to be recommended for the secondary school. A second danger arises from the fact that the ease of purchas- ing materials tends towards the introduction of numerous foreign forms to the exclusion of common local types with which the secondary-school course should be primarily con- cerned. To a certain extent purchase of materials is neces- sary, for it is obviously impossible that the teacher should even supervise the collection of all materials required for a high school in a great city ; and it is not against such use of supply stations that a protest is here made, but rather against the purchasing of preserved material when living and fresh specimens of common forms are locally obtainable. Particularly is this directed against excessive use of preserved marine materials, the trade in which has become enormous, largely because of the patronage of high schools. Marine fishes in formaldehyde have been shipped to cities on the lakes and rivers where minnows, perch, and other fishes are abundant. The sandworm Nereis is commonly substituted for the ubiquitous earthworm, marine clams for the common ANIMAL TYPES FOR LABORATORY 363 fresh-water mussels, marine gastropods for pond-snails and land-snails, hydroids and sea-anemone for Hydra; and in addition starfishes, sea-urchins, sea- cucumbers, squids, and other marine forms are given time which would be more profitably spent on common land and fresh-water animals. The excessive use of marine materials tends to give pupils the impression that common animals are not worthy of zoological study ; and such a result is greatly to be deplored. Certainly the best elementary course in zoology is that which makes the most efficient use of and arouses interest in com- mon animals; and the use of foreign animal forms in an elementary course in a high school should be largely limited to that of exhibition merely for the sake of more extended acquaintance with animals. One can scarcely imagine any locality where a high school is located which is so zoologi- cally impoverished that abundant material for class study throughout a first course is not obtainable. It is with the selection of the common materials for a course in zoology that we are here concerned, and we may now make a gen- eral survey of the great groups in search of familiar types which will illustrate the fundamental principles of the science of zoology. Protozoa. — The Amoeba^ and Paramoecium are beyond question the most important of the unicellular animals which are easily obtained in most localities. Upon these the labora- tory work concerning protozoans should be based, and other available forms maybe exhibited for the purpose of giving pupils a wider acquaintance with the world of microscopic animal life. Coilenterates. — If only one ccelenterate can be studied in the laboratory, Hydra should be selected as the type of the group. The sea-anemone is often substituted. Hydra, even in schools so far from the sea-shore that pre- served specimens must be used exclusively; but the sea- 1 The chapter on " Materials and Methods " contains notes on col- lecting and keeping animals mentioned in this chapter as types desirable for laboratory study. 364 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY anemone does not illustrate the fundamental plan of the coelenterate body as well as does the simple Hydra. The teacher who carefully examines the chapter in Parker's Ele- mentary Biology will be convinced that this animal is an excellent type of a coelenterate, and that it also illustrates many important principles of animal morphology and physi- ology. The fact that it is common in fresh water and may be studied living is a great advantage, for as a living animal it always arouses interest and enthusiasm in high-school students. An objection often urged is ^hat it is not always easily obtain- able when wanted for class study, but this difficulty may usu- ally be overcome by attention to directions for collecting and keeping the animals (see chapter on " Materials and Methods ") ; at any rate, when preserved and permanently mounted entire and in sections they are superior to preserved sea-anemones. Another objection is that the Hydra is very small ; but this is not serious, for high powers of the micro- scope are not necessary. Among marine coelenterates with which the pupils should have some acquaintance, the following are certainly the most Marine important : sea-anemone, coral polyp, hydroid Forms. colonies, hydromedusa, a scyphomedusa, and a ctenophore. Even for schools near the sea-shore most of these are not obtainable living during the regular school-year, and materials in formaldehyde must be used for demonstra- tions of their structure sufficient to give pupils acquaintance with these animals. " Worms." — Adequate representation of this heterogeneous assemblage would require at least a half-dozen types, but ex- SomeCom- amples of the three or four most common phyla mon Forms, ^re sufficient for the most extensive high-school course. The common earthworm will always be selected as a type of segmented worms, and acquaintance should be made also with the leech and perhaps the sandworm (Nereis). Among the flat worms, the common planarians found under stones in brooks are important. The tape-worm and the ANIMAL TYPES FOR LABORATORY 365 liver-fluke, which well illustrate the complex life- histories of parasitic flat worms, are unfortunately rarely available in high schools, even for demonstrations. As examples of the round worms, the common vinegar eel is always obtainable in living condition, and parasitic species are usually to be found in lungs and bladder of frogs. Echinoderms. — There has long been a widespread delusion that a proper course in elementary zoology in a secondary school should include a detailed study of at least Tlicir Flflcc a starfish as an example of echinoderms. But inHigii-sciiool aside from giving a general acquaintance with these °^' animals, for which very brief study is sufficient, the echino- derms must be regarded as the least important animals from the standpoint of elementary zoology which is to present the most essential facts and principles of the science.^ In sup- port of this statement we may call attention to the- fact that it is not possible in elementary work to study them compar- atively along the lines usually followed in the case of animals of many other phyla. Aside from the apparent radiality, there are only a few minor points in which a high-school pupil can make comparisons between the starfish and sea-urchin, and a profitable comparison between these animals and a holothur- ian cannot be made on the basis of the pupil's own observa- tions. It is clear that as a training in general morphological principles, laboratory study of echinoderms must be distinc- tively inferior to such study as that of representatives of arthropods and vertebrates in which many comparisons lead- ing to general principles are easily made out by the pupils. It follows that studies of the. external structure of echinoderms becomes largely a study of details for their own sake. The writer has seen a large class in a high school in a great city 1 This is the position of most teachers in colleges, in which echino- derms are rarely included in a beginning course in general zoology. An echinoderm type is not planned for in any of the following well-known introductory courses for colleges : Marshall and Hurst's Practical Zool- ogy, Parker and Parker's Practical Zoology, and Huxley and Martin's Practical Biology, 366 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY spend a two-hour period in examining and drawing with great care the aboral surfaces of dried and distorted specimens of star- fish. The only points of the exercise which were really of general importance should have been seen in two minutes. Such de- tailed anatomical study of echinoderms must be regarded as relatively unimportant in high-school work, and only a very superficial study of representative echinoderms is justifiable in a secondary school when an abundance of common animals of other groups is at hand to illustrate better the great principles of zoology. In accordance with the views stated above, the brief outline on page 386 is designed (i) to call attention to the fact that the echinoderms are animals; (2) to give ac- work on quaintance with the general form, habitat, and chief types ; and (3) to give them place in the general scheme of animal classification. The examination of structural features is designed to be limited to the broad characteristics underlying the classification within the group. Of course, the possible relations of this to other phyla must remain entirely in the dark in high-school work, for the embryological evidence of such affinities is certainly out of place in an elementary course. Mollusks. — The snails and clam are for the high-school work the most useful representatives of this phylum. Pond- Common snails of several genera and land-snails of the Gastropods. genus Helix are easily obtained in most localities. These native species should not be neglected. In addition, the European edible snail (Helix pomatia) is valuable because of its large size. Then there are the common garden-slugs of the genus Limax. These types will be sufficient for the study of gastropods ; and there is no excuse for purchasing marine gastropods, such as the whelks, preserved in formalin. As representatives of the lamellibranchs, the river mussels of the genera Unio and Anodonta are obtainable from almost any stream in the Mississippi system, and are very Bivalves. "' , , t,, ■ u- 1 common elsewhere. The common marme bivalves, such as the soft-shelled clam (Mya), the quahog (Venus), and ANIMAL TYPES FOR LABORATORY 3^7 the oyster, are easily obtainable, in the sea-coast cities, and may be substituted for the fresh-water forms. The little fresh-water Cyclas is another common bivalve of interest to pupils who are getting acquainted with local forms. Finally, with regard to the cephalopods, it is not possible in secondary-school work to demonstrate clearly the mollus- can characteristics of these extremely specialized piaceof forms. Practically the pupil must accept these Cephalopods. animals as moUusks on the authority of books and the teacher. I doubt whether in a secondary school these forms deserve more attention than is necessary in order that the pupils may gain an acquaintance with them. Certainly an attempt at the dissection of the squid, as suggested in certain elementary laboratory guides, is difficult to justify. Especially is it necessary to deprecate the presentation of theoretical modi- fications of other mollusks which might be supposed to con- vert them into the cephalopod plan of structure. As an example, one outline of a high-school course advises : " One day's morphological study of the squid, to show what can be done with the moUuscan plan if the shell is discarded, supple- ments the clam study." Such speculation is more than mis- leading for beginners in zoology; and especially so in this case, for the comparison suggests a close relationship and definite line of derivation, whereas the origin of the' cephalo- pods is still a mystery. Vertebrates. — As a preliminary to discussing the selection of vertebrate types for study in the laboratory, it is necessary to consider the general nature of the study to be made on repre- sentatives of this group. First, I wish to urge that the general natural history of higher vertebrates deserves more attention than is now com- monly given in courses of elementary zoology, value of Time was in the days of the old natural history £^^f ™^ •when text-books, following the example of Cuvier's vertebrates. Animal Kingdom, first presented mammals, and then in turn birds, lower vertebrates, and finally invertebrates; and, ex- 368 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY cepting the ever-popular insects, the backboned animals then received more attention than those of all other phyla together. But all this was changed with the substitution of zoology as a science for the natural history which prevailed in schools before 1875. The study of vertebrates became narrowed down to that of a few or even a single type, such as fish or frog ; and high-school zoology became primarily invertebrate zoology. This change in the selection of the animals to be studied was directly the result of the change from the text- book to the laboratory method of teaching, associated with which were necessary changes in the nature of the subject- matter. The former books on natural history placed the emphasis upon external characteristics, habits of life, life- histories, classification, and economic relations — all of which aspects of zoology of vertebrates are certainly very important in general education ; and there was practically nothing of the anatomy of internal organs. In contrast with this, the elementary teaching concerning vertebrates tended later to become almost exclusively morphological because this phase is so well adapted to the laboratory method as applied in secondary schools. As a result, general information regarding vertebrate animals came to be rarely presented to pupils. Instead they learned the general classification of the inverte- brate groups, to classify and describe even the details of structure of gastropods, rhizopods, and echinoderms ; but not to distinguish between whales and fishes, bats and birds, sala- manders and lizards. They learned to recognize at sight such names as Balanoglossus, Paramoecium, and Lumbricus ; but with such names as rodents, carnivora, ungulates, and marsupials there was little acquaintance. And as an extreme case, students with a fair knowledge of invertebrate types have failed in college-entrance examinations to distinguish between the terms mammalia and amphibia. All these results are not surprising in the light of the fact that an elementary course in zoology which omitted even the simple classification of vertebrates has not been a rarity in our high schools. ANIMAL TYPES FOR LARORATORY 369 The recent return to natural history has been working against this lack of general knowledge of the vertebrates. Current books for secondary schools, for example, those by Davenport, Kellogg, Kingsley, Jordan and Heath, Tendencies and Colton, aim to give much of the desirable in- Natural , formation. But the use of these books must be '"^' carefully considered, for their subject-matter in the lines under discussion is essentially similar to that of the old natural histories which were displaced by the adoption of the practical method of teaching. The objection which is often urged against natural-history study of vertebrates is the undoubted fact that it is not easily managed as practical work; and consequently it is usually studied, if at all, as mere reading lessons which are supplemental to the actual examination of only one or two vertebrates and these chiefly from the morphological point of view. It must be admitted that there are great difficulties in the way of placing the teaching of natural history of vertebrates upon a laboratory basis, even when numerous and large collections of living animals are accessible, of Practical However, if we turn aside to name vertebrates which are everywhere common, or specimens of which are easily kept alive in aquaria or vivaria, it will be evident that practical study of the natural history of representative verte- brates is possible without zoological gardens or museums. For example, we may name many different species of fishes, several species of frogs, the common toads, newts, salamanders, snakes, the lizards, several species of turtles, alligators, birds, rat or mouse, horse, dog, cat, and man. A comparative sur- vey of the ge'neral external characteristics and life-histories of even this limited list would certainly give the students a good view of the great group of the vertebrates ; and for supple- mentary material illustrating the less common forms preserved museum specimens and even good pictures are not to be over- looked as unimportant and unscientific. So far we have considered vertebrates simply for the sake 24 370 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY of general acquaintance with the general natural history of the _. _ group. But in a well-regulated course in general asl^dsol zoology we must present the fundamental principles Morpholep of vertebrate morphology and physiology. Rarely oiogy. in a high- school course could more than one vertebrate type be studied as a basis for this and the type par excellence is the common frog. A few teachers would prefer a mammal or fish, but in considering introductory types we have seen that the frog has so much in its favor that evidently a study of the structure and functions and general development of this animal forms an excellent foundation for a general survey of the natural history of vertebrates advo- cated above. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE. The author's present view as to the selection and arrangement of animal types for laboratory study Is shown in the zoological part of the Applied Biology (Macmillan, igii), and of the Introduction to Biology (1913)- CHAPTER VIII AN OUTIiIirE FOE AU EliEMBNTAET COUBSE IN ZOOLOGY • Introduction The outline here presented is in spirit and general form essentially similar to that which was published in Teachers College Record, Vol. II., No. i, January, 1901. From it can be selected a series of lessons adapted to varying combinations of local school conditions. Suggestions regarding such selec- tion and combination into courses for various time-limits are given at the end of the outline (see p. 390) . The principles which were the guiding factors in the devel- opment of this outline have been discussed in the preceding chapters. In essentials they may be here summarized as fol- lows : The aim is to give pupils the best ' possible scientific training along with information regarding the essential facts and ideas of zoology. Accordingly, the materials are chosen to illustrate the leading principles of the various phases of the science. The introduction (Division A) aims directly at some important general principles, both of fundamental facts and of the scientific method of studying animals ; in short, it aims to give a viewpoint and acquaintance with methods of study which will lay a foundation for all later zoological study by the pupil. Then following the introduction with its em- phasis upon general principles, a study of animal types (Division B) serves to extend the illustration and application of the general principles, at the same time giving acquaintance with different forms of animal life. The outline is intended simply to be suggestive to teachers, and obviously is not in suitable form for pupils' use. It is not intended to stand for a stereotyped course of study — such 372 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY would be undesirable in any science, and absolute uniformity is intolerable in that it stifles the originality of the teacher. Far from attempting to dictate a plan which is to be followed literally and constantly, this outline, on the contrary, looks towards great flexibility at the option of the teacher. In short, the outline is intended simply to suggest one mode of presentation of the most important zoological topics, at the same time indicating those which seem to the writer most im- portant for secondary education ; and the chief reason for its insertion in this volume is that it illustrates concretely many points which have been discussed in the preceding chapters dealing with the general principles of zoological teaching. Those discussions are all essentially prefatory to this outline and explanatory of its point of view. In the introductory study (Division A) a multicellular animal with well-marked physiological division of labor is studied from various viewpoints, such as external structure, internal structure, classification, principles of physiology, etc. In elaborating these subjects it has been the aim, not so much to include those points which are of significance only as re- gards animals closely allied to the one being studied, but rather to bring to the attention of the pupils those facts and principles which are widely applicable throughout the animal kingdom. The minor points cannot be left out entirely, but it rests with the teacher to emphasize those which are of primary importance. Division A. General Principles of ZoSlogy. /. A Study of the Crayfish as an Introduction to the Study of Animals?- I. General External Structure of the Crayfish. — (All topics preceded by an asterisk * are suitable for supplementary lec- 1 As suggested under the heading " The Insect as an Introductory Type " in the preceding chapter, this study of the crayfish from the Standpoint of the general principles of zoology may be preceded by two OUTLINE FOR ELEMENTARY COURSE 373 tures, readings, and recitations, which should be held in close correlation with the corresponding laboratory work.) 1. General form of animal, head-thorax, abdomen, appen- dages. Definitions and identification of anterior, posterior, dorsal, ventral, longitudinal, and transverse. Bilateral sym- metry of this and other familiar animals, such as domesticated animals and man. Segments of the abdomen. Skeleton. *Moulting. Outline drawings ^ (natural size) from dorsal, ven- tral, and lateral views, labelling the chief structures represented. 2. Examination of the gills. Structure of a lobster gill. Diagram showing position of gills. Currents of water through gill-chamber of living animal as shown by the movement of powdered carmine or gamboge placed near the posterior end of gill-chamber. 3. Examination of appendages and comparisons of appen- dages VI. to XIII. and the abdominal appendages (drawings) . Arrangement of appendages with reference to the segments of the abdomen — a pair of appendages represents each segment. How many segments in the abdomen? How many in the head-thorax? *The principle of homology.^ * Automatic amputation of appendages and regeneration. Illustrate, if possible, by specimens found regenerating. 4. Examine and compare in a general way lobster, prawn, crab, and crayfish. In tabular form and with sketches record resemblances and differences in general form of body, number and form of appendages, and number of segments. Summarize the general characteristics of decapod Crustacea as seen in or three weeks of natural-history studies of the insects, following sug- gestions for such work as given in Division B of this outline. This order of study is recommended whenever a majority of the pupils have not had the benefit of nature-study in the elementary school. The study of the crayfish is planned for twenty-five hours in recitation and labo- ratory work. The reasons for selecting the crayfish are given in the dis- cussions of some animals as introductory types in the preceding chapter. 1 For suggestions regarding outline drawings and laboratory notes, see the preceding chapter. * The homologies of the first five pairs of appendages are meaning- less to the young beginner. 374 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY types examined. *Principles of classification as illustrated by^ crayfish and its allies. *Scientific names of animals — nomen- clature. *Species, genera, orders, illustrated by decapod Crustacea. (Last three topics are well discussed in Huxley's Crayfish.^ 5. Study of the living crayfish in aquarium — movements, feeding, habits of life, senses,* uses of the appendages, adaptations. 6. *Natural history. Economic importance. Distribution shown by colored map.'^ Fossil crayfishes. References on External Structure and Natural History : [Note.] Full bibliographical references to books mentioned in con- nection with this outline will be found in Chapter X. The references below and on later pages may be supplemented from Chapter X., espe- cially in the line of supplementary reading from books on natural history and those designed primarily for school use. The school-books by Davenport, Kellogg, Jordan and Kellogg, Jordan and Heath, Colton, Kingsley, Needham, Morse, and Tenney, are excellent for such supple- mentary materials, and should be examined by the teacher in selecting readings for the pupils in connection with the study of each group of animals. For this reason I shall, as a rule, not mention them in the following lists of books, but simply refer to other important books. 1 Within the limits of this outline it is impossible to specify in detail concerning the studies of the living crayfish and other animals. It should be mentioned that those experiments which give uncertain re- sults are avoided, or at least great care is taken to guard against wrong conclusions. Illustration will make this clear ; for example, in the com- mon experiment to test for a sense of hearing in the crayfish the possi- bility of the reaction being produced by ordinary vibrations aside from sound waves should be explained to the pupils. (See paper by Prentiss in the Bulletin Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard College, 1901.) Similarly in experiments on taste and smell it is necessary to criticise severely results obtained by the use of irritants, such as ammonia, clove oil, and other like substances, which authors of certain laboratory guides recommend. ^ The blank outline maps of the continents and of the world which are used by teachers of geography are extremely useful for teaching geographical distribution of animals. The areas where a particular animal is said to occur should be shaded with a colored crayon, and by using several colors the distribution of several forms, e. g., lobster and crayfish, can be compared. See map in Huxley's The Crayfish. OUTLINE FOR ELEMENTARY COURSE 375 For Pupils' Reading : Morgan's Animal Sketches, Chapter XX. ; Huxley's Crayfish, first chapters. For Teachers : Huxley's Crayfish, Marshall and Hurst's Practical Zoology, Parker and Parker's Practical Zoology, Kingsley's Comparative Zoology, Pratt's Invertebrate Zoology, Herrick's The American Lobster (Report of the United States Fish Commission), Thomson's Outlines of Zoology, Parker and Haswell's Text-book of Zoology. II. General Internal Structure of Crayfish. — 7. Study of a series of stages ^ in dissections by pupils, and of preparations showing general , arrangement of the internal organs — diges- tive, circulatory, respiratory, excretory, muscular, nervous, and reproductive. III. Introductory Microscopic Work and Elementary His- tology. [Note.] In this connection the pupils are introduced to the com- pound microscope. (See discussion of microscope and multicellular animals in Chapter VI.) The instrument itself is studied during one hour, the pupils being guided by oral, printed, or typewritten direc- tions involving a description of the microscope, accompanied with a diagram on which the parts are all labelled. Pictures cut from cata- logues of dealers in compound microscopes and pasted on cardboard are useful for this purpose. Printed letters pasted on glass slides, cotton fibres and hairs mounted in water under a cover-slip are useful objects for practice with the instrument. Most of the preparations mentioned below, which require high powers, are arranged by the instructor ; and, after explanation by diagrams, the preparations are examined by the pupils, and drawings are made. 8. Examination of preparations from various organs — liver, gill, intestine, muscle. (The aim here is to give some general ideas of tissues and cells in the structure of the animal body; nothing in line of formal histology is intended. It is therefore not absolutely necessary that preparations of the '^ The series of most important stages and drawings suggested in Teachers College Record, Vol. II., No. i, p. 17. 376 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY crayfish should be used to illustrate the facts of cellular struc- ture, and preparations from frog or other animals may be substituted in this connection.) References for Teachers : Parker's Biology, Lesson 6. Parker and Parker's Practical Zoology, Chapter VII. IV. Elementary Embryological Study. — 9. Demonstra- tions of preparations of the ovary and spermary of crayfish or other animal, illustrating the cellular nature of the germ-cells (egg-cells and sperm-cells). Demonstration of preparations showing male and female pronuclei approaching and uniting in fertilization.^ Preparations showing phases of mitosis in first and second cleavages in any favorable egg. *Cell-divi- sion. *Cells in development and growth of animals. *A11 life from life and spontaneous generation. (See Parker's Biology, Lesson 9.) 10. Examine a crayfish, lobster, or prawn, with eggs at- tached to the appendages. Examine stages in the develop- ment of the crayfish or lobster. References for Teachers : Huxley's Crayfish. V. * General Principles of Animal Physiology as Illustrated by the Crayfish. — 11. Movements and the muscular work of the body. Source of the energy thus manifested. Statement of the law of conservation of energy, and familiar applications. Oxidation in liberation of energy and illustrations. Foods as sources of energy. The need of oxygen. Waste, repair, and growth of the body. 1 Fertilization and cell-division are better illustrated by preparations from animals other than the crayfish. At various times such material as the starfish, sea-urchin, barnacle, and mollusk eggs have been used in this connection and found satisfactory. In the descriptions of cytological structures and processes all details involving the intricacies of centrosomes and chromosomes should be avoided. OUTLINE FOR ELEMENTARY COURSE 2)77 12. The stages of nutrition and the essential processes in- volved in each — digestion, absorption, circulation, assimila- tion, respiration, dissimilation, excretion. Special attention should be given to the idea that physiological processes are ultimately referable to the component cells of the organs ; and also emphasis should be placed on the consideration of each process as related to the life of the body as a whole, that is, to general nutrition. Finally, the nervous system should be considered as a regulating and coordinating mechanism, and as a medium of communication with the world external to the body. 13. Physiological division of labor in the crayfish. Illus- trations of the principle as shown by specialization in human social organizations. Relation of crayfish to its environment — Ecology. Animals in their relation to plants in the ultimate food supply. Reading for Pupils : Kellogg's Zoology, Chapter III. Martin's Human Body, Briefer (bourse. Chapters II., VII., VIII., IX. References for Teachers: The general trend of the elaboration of the topics in physiology is planned to follow that of Chapters VIII., IX., and X. in Martin's The Human Body, Briefer Course (1898 edition). In earlier editions the chapters are numbered differently, but bear the same headings : " Why We Eat and Breathe," "Nutrition," and " Foods." These chapters are so general that they can easily be adapted to apply to any animal. Many suggestions concerning the presentation of the general principles of physiology in connection with the study of the lower animals are to be found in The Crayfish as an Introduction to the Study of Zoology, by Huxley, and in the account of the earthworm in Sedgwick and Wilson's General Biology. VI. Summary of the Introductory Study, — The teacher should call attention to the study of the crayfish as illustrat- ing the various standpoints from which any animal may be studied, namely, external structures with homologies and 378 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY adaptations, internal structure and functions, gross and minute anatomy, classification based upon resemblance of structures, distribution in space and time, development of the individual, relation to environmental conditions, life-histories, and habits — these phases of zoology are all illustrated by the study of the crayfish.^ Definitions of biology, zoology, botany, morphology, phys- iology, anatomy, histology, embryology, and ecology. All of these phases of zoological science are involved in the study of the crayfish, and reference should be made to exercises in v/hich work in anatomy, physiology, etc., was introduced. A Study of the Frog as an Introduction to the Study of Animals. For reasons already stated (p. 360), the frog may be taken as the introductory type instead of the crayfish. If the frog is selected, it is urged that the study should follow the general lines of the preceding outlines for the study of the crayfish, including external and internal structures, introductory microscopic work and elementary histology, elementary embryology, and general principles of animal physiology — in all of these respects the frog should be treated as illustrating and introducing the general principles of zoology. Other suggestions for elaborating such lesson plans for the study of the frog are given in the final part of this outline of a course. Parker and Parker's Practical Zoology will be indispensable for the teacher who adopts the plan of beginning with the frog, for the book well presents the animal from the combined standpoints of its structure, functions, and relations, as an introduction to the essentials of morphology, physi- ology, and other phases of zoological study. If the teacher wishes to contrast a vertebrate and an invertebrate, an excellent plan is to study both frog and crayfish as introductory types, as suggested in Kellogg's Elementary Zoology. However, I prefer to leave the vertebrates until the end of the course and then make the study lead directly into application to the morphology and physiology of the human body. 1 Throughout the course it should be continually impressed upon the pupils that no part of the present study is exhaustive, and sug- gestions for work beyond this-course should be frequently made in order to stimulate the pupils to a wider interest. Pupils should never be allowed to get the impressions that they have xeaWy finished any topic. OUTLINE FOR ELEMENTARY COURSE S79 II. A Study of a One-Celled Animal. The crayfish (or frog) having served for introduction to some general principles of zoology and general methods of laboratory work, a protozoan should now be examined in order that in its structure and function it may be compared with the multi- cellular animal. Such comparisons will help to an under- standing of many of the most important general principles of zoology which have been presented in the introductory study. After four or five weeks' work with the crayfish (or frog) the pupils are in a position to understand the study of a one- celled animal, for the study of a higher animal will have pre- pared them against many difficulties which always arise when a protozoan is used as the introductory type. (See discussion in chapter on " The Beginning Work.") The average pupil will probably grasp the meaning of a one-celled animal as well now as later in the course, for at this stage the pupils will have in mind the general structure and function of at least one higher animal. It is not to be expected that at any stage of an elementary course the average pupil will grasp the full significance of the unicellular type in its synthetic relations to the cellular structure and functions of multicellular animals ; but many of the important points will be understood by all except the dullest pupils and interest in zoological study will be stimulated. a. Paramoecium. Laboratory study: movements, form of body, apparatus for securing food, mechanism of locomotion — cilia, general appearance of body-substance, nucleus in stained preparations, food in body, contractile vacuoles, divi- sion in living and stained specimens. [Note.] In elementary work it is best not to confuse by calling at- tention to the micro-, and mega-nuclei. Calling attention to the simple fact that there is a specially differentiated nuclear substance is sufficient for establishing general ideas of the cellular nature of a protozoan, a mass of protoplasm with a nucleus. b. Amoeba. Habitat of Amoeba, form of body, method of 38o THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY locomotion, appearance of body-substance (protoplasm), food, nucleus, and contractile vacuole. [Note.] Unless material is very abundant, this animal will need to be demonstrated by the instructor. Some of the structures mentioned below are difficult to demonstrate, and many pupils will fail to see them. It is not probable that amoebas will often be found favorable for the observation of all such processes as division and reception of food, which most laboratory manuals direct pupils to " observe." c. *Physiology of a one-celled animal : movement and energy, application of the law of conservation of energy as in case of crayfish, food as source of energy, intra- cellular diges- tion, assimilation, dissimilation (oxidation), and demand for oxygen, respiration, removal of products of dissimilation — excretion of CO2 and nitrogenous waste. No need of special system of circulation for communication between exterior and innermost part of body. Irritability and nervous functions of Paramoecium. Growth as result of repair by assimilation ex- ceeding waste by dissimilation. Division as a simple method of reproduction. Compare functions of Paramcecium with those of crayfish, and the physiological division of labor in the two animals. Differentiation of cells in the many-celled animals. d. Various forms of Protozoa may be demonstrated in order that the pupils may gain some idea of the great variety of unicellular animal life. Stentor, Stylonichia, Vorticella, Spirostomum, and Euglena, are common forms which are easily demonstrated with low power of the compound micro- scope. References for Teachers : Parker's Elementary Biology, or Parker and Parker's Practical Zool- ogy, chapters on Amoeba, Paramoecium, and other protozoa ; Calkins's The Protozoa. Division B. Studies of Animal Types. The crayfish (or frog) and a protozoan having served as a basis for the introduction to some of the most important OUTLINE FOR ELEMENTARY COURSE 38 1 general principles of animal structure, functions, and relations, less extensive studies of representatives of the important groups of invertebrate animals may follow. This in turn may be followed by a study of common vertebrates at the close of the course. In these studies of invertebrate animal types the aim is to give acquaintance with common animals and to extend the application of the principles of morphology and physiology which are first introduced by the study of the crayfish (or frog). Unless otherwise specified, the laboratory study is planned from the standpoint of external structure, especial attention being given to those characteristics which underlie general classification and adaptation to environment. It is urged that, with the exception of a few instances indicated in the outline, classification should not be carried below the orders. Pupils should always see the forms classified and understand the resemblances of structure upon which the grouping is based. In short, the study of classification should give pupils that training already discussed under this topic in Chapter II. The uses of parts should be determined by ex- periment whenever possible, and stress placed upon the study of habits, life-histories, and ecological relations. Coelenterates.i a. Hydra. General structure as illustrated by a living ani- mal and transverse and longitudinal sections, form of body, ten- tacles, mouth, base, two cellular layers of body-wall, digestive cavity, stinging organs. Reproduction by budding (asexual) and by eggs and sperms (sexual). Movements, responses to stimuli, feeding. * Life-history. * Radial symmetry. * Physi- ology of the hydra as compared with that of the crayfish. Regeneration of hydra (demonstrations). References : Parker's Elementary Biology, Parker and Parker's Practical Zool- ogy- 1 As a preface to this outline the reader should consult the notes on " Coelenterates " in the preceding chapter. 382 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY b. Hydroid colony (Pennaria, Obelia, Campanularia) . Structure of a colony and of the individual zooids. Compare a zooid with a hydra. Formation of medusae. General structure of a hydromedusa (Gonionemus) . * Life-history and alternation of generations in hydroids. c. Corals. Sea-anemone (Metridum or Sagartia). External structure and transverse and longitudinal sections. Skeletons of corals with and without zooids in position. * Corals — life-history, distribution, formation of skeletons, island formation. References: ^ Dana's Corals and Coral Islands, Parker and Haswell's Text-Book of Zoology. Sponges. Structure of Grantia. Fresh-water sponges^ (Spongilla). Commercial sponges. Glass sponges. Life-history, and forma- tion of the skeletons. Worms. [Note.] For the purpose of this outline it seems best not to use the modern subdivisions of this heterogeneous group. The various phyla into which the old sub-kingdom Vermes is now divided are not dis- tinguished by characteristics which can be appreciated by a beginner, and for the purposes of a limited elementary course in - be injected into mouth and anus, and also into an opening made in the carapace. It is also advisable to insert the needle of a hypodermic syringe and inject alcohol beneath the 406 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY posterior edge of the carapace and also through the soft ab- dominal sterna into the ventral blood-sinus. Formaldehyde does not preserve well unless the organs are well exposed by cutting away parts of the exoskeleton. It also has the dis- advantage of decalcifying the calcareous structures. It is recommended that crayfish be kept alive until wanted for study when they may be chloroformed and the dissection begun on the fresh material. One per cent commercial formaldehyde in water will preserve the partially dissected animals for several weeks if they are immersed in the solution during the intervals between laboratory periods. The European Edible Snail. The European edible snails (Helix pomatia) are now regu- larly imported from France and Germany, and may be found in the provision markets of the large cities during the cooler months, i. e., from about October 15 to April i. In New York they may be ordered from C. Perceval, dealer in table delicacies and fine provisions, 100 Sixth Avenue. They usually cost about ^1.50 per hundred. The Brooklyn Biological Supply Co., 333 Halsey Street, Brooklyn, supplies them in small quantities. Less than two dozen in a package may be sent by mail. These snails are brought from Europe in the dormant or winter condition, the aperture of the shell being sealed by the temporary plate (epiphragm) of calcified mucus. In this condition they may be packed, shipped, and stored for months in dry sawdust or " excelsior." The snails may be purchased in autumn and the stock kept in some cool, dry place until they are wanted for class study, perhaps in late spring. When active snails are needed, it is only necessary to put them in a warm, wet place on grassy sod, moss, sand, or sawdust ; under the influence of the moisture the epiphragm soon softens and the head and foot emerge from the shell. The emergence may be hastened by first removing the epiphragm. The active snails may be kept so for months in a simple ZOOLOGICAL MATERIALS AND METHODS 407 vivarium, which consists of a shallow box or bucket covered with coarse wire netting and having the bottom covered with grassy sod or coarse sand. I prefer the sand, because it may be washed in running water occasionally, which is desirable in case the vivarium is kept in the schoolroom. The snails may be fed with lettuce, cabbage, and other vegetables. Perhaps the most convenient way to handle the living snail in the class room is to allow it to crawl on a plate of glass to which the foot soon firmly adheres. All external parts and movements are then easily seen from any desired point of •view. Lettuce leaves may be placed near the mouth and the process of feeding observed through the glass-; and in the same way the remarkable muscular movements of the foot may be seen. If the snails are sluggish when wanted for class study, stimulate them by repeated dipping into lukewarm water. (From note in School Science, January, 1903:) Insects. There are so many good directions for collecting and rear- ing insects that I shall simply refer to some of the best sources of information. Needham's Elements of Zoology, Comstock's Insect Life, Colton's Zoology (new ^^^^^^^s'- edition), all give good directions for insect work. In fact, almost every book dealing with insects (see list in Chapter X.) gives notes on collecting, preserving, mounting, and rearing larvze. In addition a bulletin of the National Museum by Riley is very valuable (Part F, Bull. 39, U. S. Nat. Mus.) Some insects may be preserved in commercial formalin two parts and water ninety-eight parts. Grain or ethyl alcohol is best for others. Grasshoppers preserve well in preserving wood or methyl alcohol. Various mixtures are '^^^• recommended by Riley in the bulletin cited above. In gen- eral, the formalin is best for museum specimens such as are wanted in high schools. In some cases the addition of a small quantity of baking soda to the formalin tends to better preserva- tion of colors. 408 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY Vertebrates. In general, all vertebrates intended for museum purposes or dissection are best preserved in a solution of commercial formalin four or five parts in one hundred parts of Preservation. ^^^^^.^ jj^g body-cavity should be opened to allow rapid penetration of the preservative. This should also be injected into mouth and anus (using a large rubber-bulbed pipette). Formalin causes swelling in some cases {e.g., ovi- ducts of frog) , and then alcohol may be more desirable. All vertebrate tissue require special methods for microscopi- cal work (see books named on the first pages of * Tissues. ... , .^ - this chapter) . The preparation of dry museum specimens of vertebrates is Musemn '^€A. treated in Rowley's Art of Taxidermy (Ap- Specimens. pletons, $2), and in the practical part of Colton's new Zoology. Formaldehyde is an excellent permanent preservative for eggs and embryos which are to be used for study without Amphibian sectioning. The segmenting eggs or early embryos ^sgs. surrounded by the jelly should be placed directly in a mixture of commercial formalin four or five parts in one hundred parts of water, and require no further attention. It is well not to attempt preservation of large masses of eggs, such as those of the frog and the spotted amblystoma, for the preservative does not readily penetrate through the jelly to the innermost eggs. In such cases, small pieces of the jelly containing not more than ten eggs insures good preservation. The eggs of the common toad are well preserved by simply dropping the egg-strings into the diluted formaldehyde. Eggs and embryos preserved as directed above may be examined with low powers (a dissecting microscope with lenses magnifying twelve to twenty times) without preparation other than isolating the eggs from the mass of jelly (using needles). A thin coat of the jelly usually adheres to the egg, but it is so transparent that the surface of the egg is clearly visible. ZOOLOGICAL MATERIALS AND METHbDS 409 3. Some Special Xiaboratory Equipment for Zoological Work. Various forms of fancy glass aquaria are to be found de- scribed in the catalogues of dealers, but most of these are not valuable for school purposes. For aquaria holding less than five gallons of water, plam glass cylin- drical vessels are best. The solid glass aquaria which have square corners are extremely liable to crack, and this serious defect overbalances the favor accorded to their neat appear- ance. For most purposes the cylindrical aquaria of sizes smaller than eight by nine inches are recommended, because it is best not to attempt to keep too many kinds of material in one large aquarium in which the entire stock of specimens may be destroyed by one accident. Instead of the regular aquarium of the smaller sizes, white glass battery-jars may be used with great economy. Jars six by eight inches, "shop furniture " style,- cost (Whitall, Tatum & Co., New York) about ^4.25 per dozen; and four by four inches cost about $\.\o. The six by eight inch size in the "iron mould " style cost $2.15 per dozen. The "iron mould" jar? are more liable to crack, particularly if wet jars be allowed to dry by evaporation, but if care be taken to wipe them dry immedi- ately after washing few such breakages will occur. Various forms of cheap glass vessels, such as fruit-jars, tumblers, etc., are convenient for small aquaria. An excellent plan for aqua- ria made of plates of glass cemented together in a metal frame is given in Hodge's Nature Study and Life. Others are de- scribed in special books on aquaria named in the first part of this chapter. If many jars are used as aquaria it may be desirable to have in the laboratory a set of shelves for holding them. The best form consists of a frame made of right-angled iron ignaria about one-fourth inch thick and two inches wide Ra<*»- riveted together so as to form supports for shelves made of wood or thick glass plates such as are used for skylights. If an iron frame is used it should be enamelled. 4IO THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY Cheap aquaria or vivaria for animals, such as frogs, sala- manders, and crayfish, may be made of galvanized sheet-iron. Metal Aquaria which for the sake of appearance may be painted and Vivaria, q^ enamelled on the outside. Convenient sizes are sixteen by twenty-four by six inches, and twelve by sixteen by six inches. The edges should be rolled over a one-fourth inch iron frame in order to stiffen the pan. To prevent crowd- ing, or to separate different kinds of animals, it is sometimes necessary to divide the space of the pan temporarily into sec- tions, and for this purpose a movable partition can be made of the galvanized sheet-iron. A sheet five inches wide and four inches longer than the width of the pan is bent at right angles two inches from each end. By slightly bending the strip in the middle while adjusting it may be set in to any desired position, and will hold itself in place. Of course, a less permanent partition could be made of any convenient wood. Shallow pans should have movable covers of galvan- ized netting of about one-half inch mesh. This should be soldered to a frame made of L-shaped galvanized iron, or ordinary iron which may be painted or enamelled. This frame should be slightly larger than the outside dimensions of the pan in order that the downwardly projecting edge of the L-shaped frame may serve to hold the cover in place. The pans may have drain cocks soldered into one side near the bottom, or a metal tube with plug on the inside may be used, as in an ordinary wash-basin. Various forms of enamelled and galvanized iron pans, small wash-tubs, etc., are now on the market, and these when fitted with covers are excellent for aquaria and vivaria. Being regular market commodities they are less expensive than any made to order. (In New York City the fourteen by eighteen by six inch size with cover de- scribed above costs about ^2.50.) Water-tight wooden boxes are easily constructed and in some laboratories serve as cheap substitutes for galvanized iron pans ; but if the labor must be paid for at the usual prices the metal vessels will be cheaper in the enJ, ZOOLOGICAL MATERIALS AND METHODS 41I A convenient size of pan for general dissection is about six by nine inches at the top, five and one-half by eight and one- half inches at the bottom and two and one-half Dijgjcyjig inches deep. Such pans can be purchased from 'f"™* dealers in general laboratory supplies, but it is usually cheaper to get them from a dealer in tinware. Pans of approximately this size made of tin and enamelled ware are now a regular market commodity at prices ranging from a dollar and a half to three dollars per dozen, depending upon quality. Pans made of zinc are the most durable, but the first cost is some- what greater. They are not regularly on the market, but may be made by any tinsmith. In order that pins may be used in fastening specimens, the bottom is usually lined with paraffin, colored with lampblack and held in place by metal projections soldered into the corners of the pan, or the wax is weighted with pieces of lead which are placed in the pan while the wax is in a molten condition. Sometimes instead of wax a thin board of soft wood is fitted to the bottom. The ordinary cork-carpet is excellent for this purpose. Wood or cork pinning boards should be kept from floating when the pans are filled with water either by means of metal projec- tions soldered in the corners, by weighting with pieces of lead, or by small wedges of wood inserted at the corners of the pan. Another dissecting dish is made from an enamelled baking- pan, six by eight by two inches, comers rounded, with wide rim, white inside and outside ; costs about twenty-five cents each in department stores. This may be fitted with cork-carpet or wooden bottom, held in place by wire clips which clamp under the wide rim on the outside, and thus equipped it may be used as a dissecting pan, or after removal of pinning board it is useful for table use in the study of living animals, such as water insects, tadpoles, fishes, frogs' eggs, snails, slugs, earthworms, etc. The Riker mount, a cardboard box filled with sheet cotton 412 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY on which specimens are placed and then held in place with a Specimen g^^^s cover. The five by six inch size costs t^.'^Q *^"^- per dozen ; eight by twelve inch costs ;^6.oo per dozen. Kny-Scheerer Co., New York, and other dealers. A new patent mount for insects, by Denton Brothers, Wellesley, Mass., allows unobstructed view of both sides of the specimens and requires no pin. Price from five to twenty-three cents each. The smallest size is about one by one and one-half inches. A plaster tablet mount is made by the Denton Brothers. Large boxes suitable for life-histories of insects are made by American Entomological Co., Brooklyn ; and by Kny-Scheerer Co., New York. For systematic collections of insects the Comstock cases described in the Cornell Nature Study Leaflets and in appen- dix to Comstock's Insect Life are most convenient. I have used for four years a case, seven by nine inches with glass on each side, specimens pinned to corks or placed in glass tubes which are glued to one glass. The frame of this case is made of whitewood, one-half inch thick by one inch wide. This frame is grooved on either side to receive the glass which is held in place by small brads and a strip of lantern-slide or passe-partout paper which is glued over the edges of glass and frame, thus keeping out dust and insect pests. An expensive improvement consists in the addition of a tongue and groove uniting the top and bottom halves of the frame so that it can be easily opened for changing specimens. This case in several sizes is now being made by the " Home Made " Scientific Apparatus Co., Mechanicsburg, O. Simple cages made of mosquito netting and wooden boxes Insect Breed- ^'^^ described in Comstock's Insect Life, by Riley, Jng Cages. j^ p^^t F, Bulletin 39, U. S. Nat. Mus., 1892, and in many popular books on insects. A simple cage which I consider most useful consists of a cylinder of ordinary wire-screen such as is used for doors, closed at one end with a disk of the same netting. The net- ZOOLOGICAL MATERIALS AND METHODS 413 ting is easily fastened together by riveting with staples of copper wire made in the shape of two pointed carpet tacks, or by sewing with fine wire. This cage may be set over plants in pots, boxes containing soil, etc. A convenient size is eight inches in diameter by fourteen inches long. Folding cages made of galvanized netting are made by the Kny-Scheerer Co., New York. One twelve by twelve by fourteen inches costs about ti.t^o. Other styles are made by American Entomological Co., Brooklyi), N. Y. Cheapest of all are, of bourse, the various forms of fruit-jars, best of which are the patented jars with glass covers. The Mason jars and others with metal covers are useless with ,,.„.,. Musemnjars. formalm. But for choice specimens neater jars are wanted. " Salt mouth " bottles used by druggists are the cheapest glass-stopped bottles which are useful for the school museum. Whitall, Tatum & Co., New York, make many styles smaller than " twenty ounce," which are as useful as much more expensive museum jars made by the same firm. Rec- tangular jars of various sizes are imported by the Kny-Scheerer Co., New York. The method of mounting on glass plates set in museum jars is well known to preparateurs, but deserves review here. Cut the glass — transparent, opalescent, or black — so that it fits inside of a jar when cover is on. Clean Specimens la _, . . , , , , . Museumjars. It thoroughly. Specimens previously hardened in alcohol or formalin should be soaked for an hour in water. Ordinary gelatine soaked in water and then melted should be dropped on the glass where the specimens are to be fixed. Then put specimens in position, and if they are heavy, sup- port by a thread around the glass. When the gelatine has hardened, gently flood the glass plate with formalin (five parts of commercial formalin to one hundred parts of water) and after a few minutes the plate may be lowered into the jar filled with formalin of the same strength. This method is especially useful for life-histories of insects and for series of embryos of vertebrates, such as the chick. 414 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY The preceding pages have been limited chiefly to special equipment which deserves to be better known by teachers of zoology. For general equipment, useful also for "tier , °' ° ,fj, J- Laboratory botany, see the catalogues of dealers named in pmen. following list. The completed (December, 1903) volumes of the Journal of Applied Microscopy and Labora- tory Methods are especially valuable for suggestions on plan- ning and equipping biological laboratories. See also Mell's Biological Laboratory Methods (Macmillan, New York) . Dealers in Zoological Materials and Museum Specimens. American Entomological Co., 1040 DeKalb Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. (Mounted insects, type collections, living pupae of lepidoptera, mimicry sets, insects identified at two cents each, breeding boxes, cab- inets, nets. Catalogue for sale.) Biological Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y. (Preserved materials, chiefly marine. Price-list issued.) Booth & Co., State and Lake Streets, Chicago, 111. (Fish market. Crayfish in September.) Brimley, H. H., and C. S., Raleigh, N. C. (Land, fresh-water, and marine animals, living and preserved. Catalogue issued.) Brooklyn Biological Supply Co. (Land, fresh-water, and marine animals, living and preserved ; also microscopical preparations. Cata- logue.) Denton Bros., Wellesley, Mass. (Insects, mimicry sets, mounting cases. Circulars.) FiCKLiN, W. H., 2640 E. 8th St., Kansas City, Mo. (Materials for laboratory study.) Hopkins Seaside Laboratory, Stanford University, Cal. (Pre- served marine animals. Circular.) Knoll & Son, Washington Market, New York City. (Living cray- fish, prawns, crabs, lobsters, marine clams.) Kny-Scheerer Co., New York. (Great variety of zoological materials for museum specimens. Catalogues.) > Marine Biological Laboratory, Supply Department, Woods Hole, Mass. (Living and preserved materials, chiefly marine. Cata- logue.) Maynard, C. J., Newton, Mass. (A great variety of preserved and living animals. Circular.) McCurdy & Co., 618 E. 71 St., Chicago, 111. (Living frogs, turtles, clams, and crayfish.) NiELSON, Alex, Venice, Erie Co., Ohio. (Necturus, turtles.) Perceval, C, dealer in delicatessen, 100 Sixth Ave., New York. ZOOLOGICAL MATERIALS AND METHODS 4IS (Importer of European edible snail [Helix pomatia], September to March. About JiSi.50 per 100.) Sprung, A. A. North Judson, Ind. (Living frogs, turtles, snakes, fresh-water clams, and crayfish.) Tufts College Biological Laboratory, South Harpswell, Me. Address in college year is Tufts College, Mass. (Preserved marine material. Circular.) Ward's Natural Science Establishment, Rochester, N. Y. (Skeletons, taxidermic materials, and museum specimens in great variety. Catalogues for sale.) C. H. Ward, Rochester, N. Y. (Anatomical preparations.) Webster Co., Hyde Park, Mass. (Birds' skins and taxidermists' supplies.) Dealers in General Laboratory Apparatus and Supplies. Bausch & LoMB Optical Co., Rochester, N. Y., New York City, Chicago, and Boston. Cambridge Botanical Supply Co., Cambridge, Mass. Central School Supply Co., Chicago, 111. C. H. Stoelting Co., Successors to Chicago Scale and Laboratory Supply Co., Chicago, III. Eberbach & Son, Ann Arbor, Mich. EiMER & Amend, New York. Emil Greiner, New York. " Home-Made " Scientific Apparatus Co., Mechanicsburg, O. (Makers of specimen cases and simple apparatus.) Knott Scientific Apparatus Co., Boston. Kny-Scheerer Co., 17 Park PL, New York. Leitz & Co., of Wetzlar, Germany. American agency at 411 W. S9th St., New York. W. Krafft, Mgr. Lentz & Sons, Philadelphia, Penn. Pennock, Edward, 3609 Woodland Ave., Philadelphia, Penn. Queen & Co., Philadelphia and New York. Sargent & Co., Chicago, 111. Spencer Lens Co., Buffalo, N. Y. Whitall, Tatum & Co., Philadelphia, New York, and Boston. (Makers of glassware.) Williams, Brown & Earle, Philadelphia. Microscopes are made or imported direct by Bausch & Lomb, Eimer & Amend, Kny-Scheerer Co., Leitz & Co., Spencer Lens Co., Williams, Brown & Earle, and Queen & Co. Lantern Slides on zoological subjects are made by R. P. Wood- ford, Pullman, 111. ; A. T. Thompson & Co., Boston ; Kny-Scheerer Co., New York; N. F. Davis, Bucknell College, Lewiston, Pa. Charts. Leuckart's zoological charts, a series of 100, mounted on cloth and rolled, about jSi.70 each when imported duty free. Less than 4l6 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY one-third of these charts are useful for high-school work. Descriptive catalogues and the charts may be obtained from the Kny-Scheerer Co., and other firms dealing in laboratory supplies. Jung's zoological charts, series of 30, 30 by 39 inches, cloth, $1.50 each are published by J. L. Hammett & Co., New York and Boston. Portraits of Biologists. Excellent platinotypes of Darwin and Huxley, from Collier's paintings, are sold by A. D. Batson, AUston, Mass., at JS3.50 each. A number of biologists are represented in Mac- millan's series of Nature Portraits. India proofs at ^1.50 each. The Open Court Co., Chicago, publishes photogravures, 1 1 by 14, of Herbert Spencer, Lloyd Morgan, Romanes, Darwin, and Haeckel. Models. Ziegler's wax models of frog development are most useful. Imported by Kny-Scheerer Co. Set of twenty-five cost, duty free, about 528. Various anatomical models in papier-mache, plaster, and wax are imported by the same firm. Hoelemann's anatomical plates of the human body are sold by Rand, McNally & Co., Chicago. Series of five plates, 26 by 37, I4.00 each. These and other charts are obtainable through the Kny-Scheerer Co., New York. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE. To the list of dealers in biological specimens there should be added F. J. Burns, Water Street, Chicago (frogs) ; F. Z. Lewis, Boys' High School, Brooklyn, (microscopic preparations) ; H. M. Stevens, Western Biological Supply Company, Lincoln, Neb. (microscopic preparations and specie) Carlisle, Pa., (preserved marine specimens). There are now numerous local dealers whose names may usually be learned by writing to the Department of Biology in the nearest college or large high school. A short list of local dealers is given in Bigelow's Teachers' Manual of Biology, page 104. The following dealers in general laboratory equip- ment have come to the author's attention in recent years : Max Meyer, New York; Central Scientific Company, Chicago; E. Leitz, i8th Street, New York. The Kewaunee Manufacturing Company, Kewaunee, Wis., makes a specialty of laboratory furniture. Much information on materials and methods to this chapter are given In Bigelow's Teachers' Manual of Biology (Macmillan, 1913). CHAPTER X ZObliOaiCAI. BOOKS The books of the following lists have been selected with special reference to their usefulness to teachers and students of zoology in schools below the grade of college. ^jj„j gliding The list for the teacher includes not only books ^^ Seiecane. for use in direct connection with teaching, but also many zoological masterpieces with which every beginner in zoologi- cal teaching should aim to become acquainted as soon as possible. It has seemed best to select books of a general nature rather than to compile an extensive bibliography in- cluding many special works which would be rarely, if ever, used in connection with the work or study of the average teacher in a secondary school. In justification of many omis- sions of great works familiar to working zoologists it may be said that teachers in secondary schools who would obtain and make efficient use of these works are generally those who are specially trained by years of graduate study in zoology and these may be supposed to be familiar with the existence and general contents of the important zoological literature. But tte great majority of teachers of zoology in high schools are those who have had the advantages of only a limited undergraduate training in the scienqe, and these therefore need references to some of the most useful general works rather than to the special treatises, memoirs, and monographs, which have special interest for the professional zoologist. Obviously, to extend the list by adding many special works would be to introduce confusion, instead of aiding in the selection of books. 27 41 8 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY Teachers who need more books or special works more technical than those here listed will find many additional References to references in Parker and Haswell's Text-book of fratoe"*' Zoolosy^ Vol. II., pp. 628-655; and in ap- pendices to Thompson's Outlines of Zoology and to his Study of Animal Life. References to important special literature is given in many of the general text-books; for example, in McMurrich's Lnvertebrate Morphology, Wilson's Cell, and Schafer's Physiology. An appendix to Davenport's Introduction to Zoology includes many special works relating to ecological and systematic zoology of American animals. To the teacher and student of zoology whose unfamiliarity with the general literature of the science leads them to seek An Important suggestions regarding the selection of books I Boobs on would recommend especially the reading of the Zoology. appendix in Thomson's Study of Animal Life. The question of obtaining even the absolutely necessary general reference books is often a serious problem for the School libra- teacher in some localities, but the rapid growth of ^^- public and school libraries is solving this problem. Most of the reference books named on the following pages while directly valuable to the teacher are also useful to the pupils in that selected pages, and especially the illustrations, often make interesting additions to the elementary books. A good selection of such books should be a part of the equipment of the biological laboratory of the school. It is a reasonable expenditure of school funds. I. General Reference Books for Teachers of Zoology. I. General Zoology, Advanced Text-books and Reference Works. The most useful work for general reference by advanced student or teacher is Parker and Haswell's Text-book of Zoology. Claus and Sedgwick's Text-book of Zoology has long had such distinction, but the last edition bears the date 1884, and some parts of it are now out of line with later investiga- tions. However, it is still very useful. Probably the most ZOOLOGICAL BOOKS 419 popular single volume covering the general field of zoology is Thomson's Outlines, but the text-books by Shipley and Mac- Bride, Hertwig, Packard, and the abridgment of Parker and Haswell's Text-book have many good points in their favor. As text-books aiming to present the elements of the general principles of zoology rather than a systematic account of the animal kingdom, there are at least five which are excellent : Huxley's Study of Zoology {^Crayfish), Parker's Elementary Biology, Sedgwick and Wilson's General Biology, Parker and Parker's Practical Zoology, and Morgan's Animal Biology. All of these are limited to descriptions of comparatively few animals, but for elementary presentation of general principles of zoology they are unquestionably the best. More advanced than these, and valuable for the special student and teacher is Hertwig's General Principles. Parker, T. J., and Haswell. Text-book of Zoology. London, Mac- millan.i 1897. 2 vols., pp. 779, 683 ; figs., 663, 509. Vol. I., Inverte- brates; Vol. II., Chordates (not sold separately). $9.00. Clans, C. Text-book of Zoology. Translated by A. Sedgwick. London, Macmillan. 1884, 1885. 2 vols., pp. 615, 352, figs., 491, 2:5. Vol. I., Protozoa to Insects ; Vol. II., MoUusks to Mammals. Thomson, J. A. Outlines of Zoology. London, Pentland. New York, Appleton. Third edition, 1899. Pp. 819, figs. 332. $3.50. Hertwig, E. Manual of Zoology. Translated by J. S. Kingsley. New York, Holt. London, Bell. igo2. Pp. 704, figs. 672. JS3.00. 1 In the following list the names of well-known publishing houses have been abbreviated by using the leading part of the name. Thus Macmillan stands for Macmillan & Co., of London, and The Macmillan Co., of New York; Longmans for Longmans, Green & Co., of London and New York ; Doubleday for Doubleday, Page & Co., of New York. In regard to place of publication and publisher, it is intended to give the place of original publication first, followed by name and address of the foreign agents or reprinters. In case of such well-known houses as those of Longmans and Macmillan, with branches both here and abroad, simply the place of original publication is given, usually London for English authors and New York for American. In several cases, at least, the publishers of certain books named have remaining in their possession few copies, but copies may usually be obtained from general dealers. 420 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY Parker and Haswell. Manual of Zoology. New York, Macmillan. American edition, 1900. Pp. 563, figs. 327. |i.6o. (An abridgment of the text-book by the same authors.) Packard, A. S. Zoology (advanced). New Vork, Holt. Seventh edition, 1886. Pp. 721, ill. 545. %i.i,o. Shipley, A. E., and MaeBride, B. W. Zoology — An Elementary Text-book. New York, Macmillan. 1901. Pp. 632, ill. 349. iS3.oo. Huxley, T. H. An Introduction to the Study of Zoology, illustrated by the Crayfish. London, Kegan Paul. New York, Appleton. 1879. Pp. 371, figs. 82. $1.75. (A zoological classic. Deals with crayfish from the viewpoints of all phases of zoological study.) Morgan, O. L. Animal Biology. London and New York, Long- mans. 1889. Pp. 388. (Part I. deals with internal anatomy and em- bryology as illustrated by frog, bird, rabbit. Part II. presents some invertebrate types.) Parker, T. J. Elementary Biology. London, Macmillan. Third edition, 1897. Pp. 503, figs. 127. iS2.6o. (The chief animal types con- sidered are Amoeba, Paramcecium, Vorticella, Hydra, Polygordius, star- fish, crayfish, mussel, dogfish. Beyond question this is the best intro- duction to general biology of animals and plants.) Parker, T. J., and Parker, 'W. W. An Elementary Course of Practi- cal Zoology. London, Macmillan. 1900. Pp. 608, figs. 156. $2.60. (Part I. is an introduction to general principles of zoology. It treats of anatomy, histology, embryology, and physiology of frog. Part II. deals with the animals included in Parker's Elementary Biology and in addition several vertebrates.) Sedgwick, 'W. T., and Wilson, E. B. General Biology. New York, Holt. Revised edition, 1895. PP' 231, figs. 105. $1.75. (The zoological part is based upon a study of morphology and physiology of earth- worm.) Hertwig, K. General principles of Zoology. Translated by G. W. Field. New York, Holt. London, Bell. 1896. Pp. 226, figs. no. $1.60. (This is part I. of the Manual of Zoology by the same author, see above.) 2. Special Morphology. The books named below are more or less special works limited to certain groups of animals or to certain aspects of the science. In all of them the morphological predominates, strictly physiological literature being reserved for a later section. Calkins, G. N. The Protozoa. New York, Macmillan. 1901. Pp. 347, figs. 152. I3.00. (Important for the general student of zoology.) ZOOLOGICAL BOOKS 421 Dean, R Fishes, Living and Fossil. New York, Macmillan. 1895. Pp. 300, figs. 344. $2.50. (A concise account for general students. Covers anatomy, embryology, and palzeontology.) Foster, M., and Balfour, F. M.. Elements of Embryology. New edition by A. Sedgwick and W. Heape. London, Macmillan. 1883. Pp. 486, illus. 141. $2.60. (General account of embryology of chick and rabbit, with directions for practical study.) Huxley, T. H. Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals. Anatomy of In- vertebrated Animals. 1877. New York, Appleton. (These famous text-books are still useful for reference.) Kingsley, J. S. Text-book of Vertebrate Zoology. New York, Holt. 1899. Pp. 439, figs. 378. 53.00. Lang, A. Comparative Anatomy. Translated by H. M. and M. Bernard. London, Macmillan. 1891, 1895. ^ vols. $5.50. (Excellent for reference.) Marshall, A. M. Vertebrate Embryology. London, Smith, Elder. New York, Putnam. 1893. Pp. 640, figs. 240. JS6.00. (Excellent. Deals with development of Amphioxus, frog, chick, rabbit, and human.) MoMurrieh, J. P. Invertebrate Morphology. New York, Holt 1894. Pp. 661, figs.' 291. $3.00. Wiedersheim, E. Elements of Comparative Anatomy of Verte- brates. Translated by W. N. Parker. London, Macmillan. Revised edition, 1897. Pp. 345, figs. 270. JS3.25. "Wilson, E. B. The Cell in Development and in Inheritance. New York, Macmillan. Revised edition, 1901. Pp. 371, figs. 142. ^3.00. (For the cellular side of zoology, indeed of biology in general, this is indispensable.) Zoological Articles in Encyclopedia Britannica by Lankester and othersi 3. Animal Physiology. Verwom's General Physiology gives the broadest analysis of general vital activities. There are several excellent text-books dealing with vertebrate physiology with special reference to the human body. Those by Huxley, Martin, and Halliburton (Kirkes) are more general than those which follow them in the list below; in addition to physiology, these present the essentials of anatomy and histology. Stewart's Manual has been recommended by some prominent physiologists as the best recent volume devoted strictly to physiological problems for the general student. The last two, by Howell and Shafer, are more extensive treatises primarily of interest to those who have 422 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY been specially trained in physiology, but also valuable reference works for the teacher of general zoology and physiology. Verwom, M. General Physiology. Translated by F. S. Lee. New York, Macmillan. 1898. Pp. 599, figs. 285. JS4.00. Huxley, T. H. Lessons in Elementary Physiology. New York, Macmillan. American revised edition by F. S. Lee. 1900. Pp. 577 figs. 179. jSi.io. Martin, H. N. The Human Body, Advanced Course. New York, Holt. London, Bell. Fifth edition, 1898. Pp. 408, figs. 152. JS2.50. Halliburton, "W. D. Kirkes' Handbook of Physiology. Seven- teenth edition, 1901. London, Murray. Philadelphia, Blakiston. Pp, 888, illus. 681. {3.00. (An unauthorized reprint of an earlier edition is on the market, and it is necessary to name the above publishers in orders for the book.) Stewart, G. M". Manual of Physiology. Philadelphia and Lon- don, Saunders. Fourth edition, revised, 1900. Pp. 894, figs. 336. $3.75. Howell, W. H. Editor. American Text-Book of Physiology. Philadelphia, Saunders. Second edition, revised, 1901. 2 volumes, 1,200 pages. $6.00. Sohafer, E. A. Editor. Text-Book of Physiology. London, Mac- millan. 1898. 2 volumes, pp. 1036, 1365. Vol. I., JS8.00; Vol. IL, JSio.oo. (Contributed by prominent physiologists. Full and precise information and references to original authorities.) 4. Bacteriology and Hygiene. Books on these subjects are closely associated with human physiology, and hence properly belong in a list of zoological books. ' The books by Conn, Mrs. Frankland, and Prudden are excellent brief introductions to the bacteria. As more ex- tensive general accounts, the larger volumes by Newman and Frankland are excellent. With special reference to the path- ogenic bacteria Muir and Ritchie's Manual is well recom- mended as one of the latest books on the subject. Teachers who wish to introduce study of bacteria into their courses will find excellent practical directions for beginners in the hand- books by Gorham and Moore. The general field of sanitary science is well presented by Sedgwick's Principles ; and as a general survey of personal hygiene, Pyle's book has the advantage of having been written by a number of workers in special lines of this subject which is usually treated more or less arbitrarily. ZOOLOGICAL BOOKS 423 Conn, H. W. Story of Germ Life. New York, Appleton. 1897. Pp- '97- 35 cents. Frudden, T. M. Story of the Bacteria. Dust and its Dangers. Water and Ice. New York, Putnam. Each, 75 cents. Newman, G. The Bacteria. London, Murray. New York, Put- nam. 1899. Pp. 348. $2.00. (A non-technical account of the general relations of bacteria.) Franklin, P. Our Secret Friends and Foes. London, Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. Third edition, 1897. (Excellent for general readers.) Frankland, F., Mrs. Bacteria in Daily Life. London, Longmans. 1903. Pp. 206. MuiT, B., and Kitctaie, J. Manual of Bacteriology. Edinburg and London, Pentland. New York, Macmillan. Second edition, 1899. Pp. 550, figs. 126. There is also a larger American edition. New York, Macmillan. 1903. $3.75. (Good on methods. Deals only with patho- genic bacteria affecting man.) Gorham, F. F. Laboratory Course in Bacteriology. Philadelphia and London, Saunders. 1901. Pp. 192, figs. 97. |i.2S. Moore, V. A. Laboratory Directions for Beginners in Bacteriology. Boston, Ginn. Second edition, 1900. Pp. 141. jSi.oo. Sedgwick, "W. T. Principles of Sanitary Science and the Public Health. New York, Macmillan. 1902. Pp. 388. S3.00. Pyle, "W. Ii. Editor. Personal Hygiene. Philadelphia and London, Saunders. 1900. Pp. 344. jSi-SO. 5. Laboratory Manuals, chiefly Morphohgical. A set of the best guides for laboratory work is almost indis- pensable for the teacher's reference while planning laboratory work for classes, and for direction and suggestion in personal studies. Those named below are all too technical for use as laboratory guides by pupils in the high school. Guides adapted for school use are mentioned in this chapter on page 442. The first five books named below are most generally useful. Marshall, A. M., and Hvirst, C. H. Practical Zoology. London^ Smith, Elder. New York, Putnam. Fifth edition, 1898. Pp. 486, figs. 73. $3.50. (The fourth edition (1895) is still useful. Laboratory directions for Amoeba, Vorticella, Paramoecium, Hydra, liver-fluke, leech, earthworm, crayfish, cockroach, mussel, snail, Amphioxus, dogfish, pigeon, rabbit.) Htudey, T. H., and Martin, H. N. Course of Practical Instruc- tion in Elementary Biology. London, Macmillan. Revised edition by 424 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY G. B. Howes and D. H. Scott. 1888. Pp. 279. $2.60. The zoological part has descriptions and laboratory directions for Amoeba, Vorticella, Paramoecium, Opalina, Hydra, earthworm, crayfish, mussel, snail, frog. Parker and Parker. Practical Zoology. (See under "general zool- ogy.") This combines laboratory directions and descriptions of frog, Amoeba, Haeraatococcus, Euglena, Paramoecium and Vorticella, Hydra and hydroids, earthworm, crayfish, mussel, amphioxus, dogfish, rabbit. Pratt, H. S. Invertebrate Zoology. Boston, Ginn. 1902. Pp. 210. $1.25. (A laboratory guide dealing with about thirty common represen- tatives of invertebrate groups.) Brooks, W. K. Handbook of Invertebrate Zoology. Boston. 1882. Pp. 392, figs. 202. For sale by Knight & Millet, Boston. (Revision is needed in some parts.) Bumpus, H. C. Invertebrate Zoology. New York, Holt. Second edition, 1892. Pp. 157. jSi.oo. Parker, T. J. Zootomy. London, Macmillan. Second edition, 1884. Pp. 397, figs. 74. $1.25. (Dissection of lamprey, skate, cod, lizard, pigeon, rabbit.) 1 Marshall, A. M. The Frog — An Introduction to Anatomy, Histol- ogy, and Embryology. London, Macmillan. Sixth edition, 1896. Pp, 163, figs. 35. jSi.io. Howes," Or. B. Atlas of Practical Elementary Biology. London, Macmillan. Second edition, 1902. )f3.5o. (Excellent illustrations to accompany Huxley and Martin's Practical Biology. Now out of print, but zoological part is issued with title " Atlas of Practical Elementary Zootomy." JS3.50. 6. Laboratory Guides, Physiology and Histology. HaU, "W. S. A Laboratory Guide in Physiology. Chicago, Chicago. Medical Book Co. 1897. Pp. 359, illus. 60. Stirling, 'W. Outlines of Practical Physiology. London, Lewis. Philadelphia, Blakiston. Third edition, 1895. $2.00. Stirling, "W. Outlines of Practical Histology. London, Lewis. Philadelphia, Blakiston. Revised edition, 1898. Pp. 419, illus. 368- $2.00. (Indispensable for those who need practical directions for pre- paring tissues for microscopic study.) 7. Systematic Work. General text-books of zoology, especially those by Glaus and Sedgwick, Parker and Haswell, and Thomson, often suffice for finding the approximate zoological position of an unknown animal, but for the determination of genera and species other literature is frequently necessary. For the identification of ZOOLOGICAL BOOKS 425 common American animals the works named below will in general prove most useful. More special literature primarily of interest to the taxonomist is mentioned in an appendix to Davenport's Zoology. This is the most useful small volume for general identification, containing keys and descriptions of the most common forms, both vertebrate and invertebrate. Jordan's Manual is the only single volume covering the group of the vertebrates. This and Chapman's Birds of Eastern North America, or in Western States, Bailey's Handbook, are sufficient for the general student. In fact, such popular books as Chapman's Bird Life, Jordan and Evermanh's Food and Game Fishes, Stone and Cram's American Animals, and others which are mentioned in the list of books on natural history (p. 438), will identify the most common forms with sufficient accuracy for general purposes. Likewise in the case of insects and spiders the popular books will often be sufficient ; but, if possible, Comstock's Manual should be at , hand for reference. The American Naturalist has, since 1899, pub- lished from time to time synopses by well-known specialists on certain North American groups of animals. Finally, the Riverside Natural History, edited by Kingsley, should be mentioned as excellent for general classification of American animals. Davenport, O. B., and G-. C. Introduction to Zoology. New York, Macmillan. 1899. Jordan, D. S. Manual of Vertebrate Animals of Northern United States. Chicago, McClurg. Fifth edition, 1888. Pp. 375. $2.50. Chapman, F. M. Handbook of Birds of Eastern North America. New York, Appleton. 1895. Pp- 43°> ^S^- 'S°- f3-oo- Bailey, F. Merriam. Handbook of Birds of Western United States. New York, Houghton. 1902. $3.50. Comstock, J. H., and A. B. Manual for the Study of Insects. Ithaca, N. Y., Comstock Pub. Co. Second edition, 1895. ^P- 7°i> ^I'^s. 797- American Naturalist. A monthly journal published by Ginn & Co., Boston. $4.00 per year. Emgsley, J. S., Editor. Riverside (formerly Standard) Natural History. Boston, Houghton. 6 volumes. 426 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY 8. Animal Ecology. Animal ecology as the phase of zoology dealing with rela- tions of animals to environment constitutes a prominent part of most works on " natural history " named under that heading (P- 435)- But there are some works which are limited more closely to ecological considerations, and the leading ones of these are named below. The first two are admirable elemen- tary accounts, treating broadly the relations of animals to en- vironments from the standpoint of adaptations in structure and habit. Thomson, J. A. The Study of Animal Life. London, Murray. New York, Scribner. Tiiird edition, 1896. jSi.50. Jordan, D. S., and Kellogg, V. L. Animal Life. New Yorlc, Apple- ton. 1900. Pp. 329, figs. 180. jSi.20. Semper, K. Animal Life as affected by the natural conditions of existence. ' London, Kegan Paul. New York, Appleton. 1880. Pp. 472, figs. 106. $2.00. Beddard, F. B. Animal Coloration. London, Sonnenschein. New York, Macmillan. Second edition, 1895. Pp. 288, figs. 36, 4 colored plates. Poulton, E. B. The Colors of Animals. London, Kegan Paul. New York, Appleton. 1889. Pp. 360, figs. 67. $1.75. (Special attention to insects.) iDarwin, C. Fertilization of Orchids. Insectivorous Plants. Vege- table Mould and Earthworms. New York, Appleton. 9. Zoogeography {Distributioti). For the general student of zoology any one of the first three books will be satisfactory after reading the chapters on this sub- ject in general text-books, — for example, in Parker and Has- well's Zoology. Those more specially interested will also read Wallace's great works on this subject. Beddard, F. E. Text-Book of Zoogeography. Cambridge, Uni- versity Press. New York, Macmillan. 1894. Pp. 246. jSi-SO. Heilprin, A. Geographical and Geological Distribution of Animals. New York, Appleton. 1886. Pp.435. $2.00. Lyddeker, K. Geographical History of Mammals. Cambridge, University Press. New York, Macmillan. 1896. Pp. 400, figs. 82. ZOOLOGICAL BOOKS AV ■Wallace, A. R. Geographical Distribution. New York, Harpers. 1876. 2 volumes. Wallace, A. R. Island Life. London, Macmillan. First edition, 1880; second, 1895. Pp. 563. I1.75. 10. Animal Psychology. The most important books along the lines of general psychology of animals are those by Lloyd Morgan and Romanes. Morgan, C. L. Animal Behavior. London, Arnold, igoo. New York, Longmans. Pp. 344. $3.50. (This should be read before the author's Animal Life and Intelligence, and as an introduction to the subject.) Morgan, C. Ii. Animal Life and Intelligence. Boston, Ginn. 1891. Pp. 512. (In addition to mental processes there is much interesting dis- cussion of problems of general zoology, such as evolution, heredity, etc.) Morgan, C. L. Introduction to Comparative Psychology. London, Walter Scott. 1894. Pp. 378. Morgan, C. Ij. Habit and Instinct. London, Arnold. New York, Longmans. 1896. Pp. 351. $5.50. Romanes, G. J. Animal Intelligence. New York, Appleton. 1882. Pp. 520. $1.75. Romanes, G. J. Mental Evolution in Animals. New York, Apple- ton. 1883. $2.00. Groos, K. The Play of Animals. Translated by E. L. Baldwin. New York, Appleton. 1898. Pp. 341. $1.75. Iiubbock, John. Ants, Bees, and Wasps. London, Kegan Paul. New York, Appleton. $2.00. (Deals with mental conditions, and powers of sense in these insects.) II. Economic Zoology. There is no concise work which adequately treats the econo- mic side of animals in general. Incidental references to eco- nomic importance may usually be found in books on general "natural history" of animals. In addition to the books named below, it should be stated that some of the best literature in the field of economic zoology has been published by the United States Department of Agriculture, and by the United States Fish Commission. Besides the annual reports of these two departments, there are many separate bulletins issued, especially in agricultural lines. Those interested should write to the Division of Publications, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, for the latest " List of Publica- 428 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY tions Available for Distribution,'' and also make application for the "Monthly List of Publications," to be sent regularly (free). Also apply to Superintendent of Public Documents for " List of Publications for Sale." These lists will give full information regarding many good bulletins, some of which may be obtained free upon application, and others at small cost. Some of the most useful which were available in 1902 are named below. Others which are now out of print may be reprinted, and in that event will be noted in future monthly lists. The complete bibliographical references to the first six books are given on pages 437 and 438. Miall, L. C. Injurious and Useful Insects. Smith, J. B, Economic Entomology. Sanderson, £. D. Insects Injurious to Staple Crops. Shaler, N. S. Domesticated Animals. "Wood, J. Gr. The Dominion of Man. Simmonds, P. L. Animal Products, their Preparation, Commercial Uses and Values. London, Chapman & Hall. 1877. Pp. 477. Bulletins of Division of Entomology. Principal household insects of United States {^Bulletin, No. 4, n. s., loc.) ; Insects affecting domestic animals (No. 5, n. »., 20c.); Some insects injurious to garden and orchard crops (No. 19, n. s., loc); Some insects injurious to garden crops (No. 23, n. s., loc.) ; Some insects injurious to vegetable crops (No. 33, n. »., loc.) ; Hessian fly in United States (No. 16, n. »., lOc); Honey bee (No. i, n. s., 15c.); Destructive locusts (No. 25, 15c.); Periodical cicada (No. 14, n. s., 15c.); and the following circulars •which are free: Hessian fly (No. 12); Mosquitoes and fleas (No. 13); House ants (No. 34); House flies (No. 35) ; Clothes moth (No. 36) ; Bedbug (No. 47) ; House centipede (No. 48); Cockroaches (No. 51). Bulletins of Division of Biological Survey. Common crow (No. 6, IOC.) ; Jack rabbits (No. 8, loc); Cuckoos and shrikes (No. 9, 5c.)"; Food of bobolink, blackbirds, and grackles (No. 13, 5c.) ; Relation of yarrows to agriculture (No. IJ, loc). Farmers' Bulletins (Free). Insects injurious to stored grain (No. 45) ; Standard varieties of chickens (No. 51); Some common birds in their relation to agriculture (No. 54) ; Bee-keeping (No. 59) ; Ducks and geese (No. 64) ; Insect enemies of the grape (No. 70) ; Three insect en- emies of shade trees (No. 99) ; Breeds of dairy cattle (No. io5) ; How insects affect health in rural districts (No. 155). Extracts from Year-Books (Free). Hawks and owls from the stand- point of the farmer (No. 10, 1894) ; Danger of introducing noxious animals (No. 132, 1898) ; Review of economic entomology in United ZOOLOGICAL BOOKS , 429 States (No. 177, 1899); The food of nestling birds (No. 194, 1900); How birds afiect the orchard (No. 197, 1900) ; The prairie dog (No. 227, 1901) ; Insects as carriers and spreaders of disease (No. 235, 1901). Bureau of Animal Industry. American breeds of fowls : I. The Plymouth Rock (No. 29, 15c.) ; II. The Wyandotte (No. 31, 15c.). 12. Philosophical Zoology and Evolution. An intimate knowledge of the special literature of this phase of biology (for here it is practically impossible to draw a sharp line between plants and animals), dealing as it does with abstract generalizations deduced from the known facts, is not as necessary for the actual work of the teacher in the high, school as is familiarity with the leading facts of morphology, physiology, and ecology, which are essential for elementary work in the science of zoology. Nevertheless, the philosophi- cal phase is important for the intellectual growth of the teacher, for study along this line tends to deepen vastly the interest in the great problems involved in the science of life. Philosophical zoology has its broadest outlook in such works as Spencer's Principles of Biology, Brooks's Foundations of Zoology, and stated largely in terms of general science in Pear- son's Grammar of Science. But these will have more signifi- cance for the reader after study of those more limited phases of philosophical zoology which centre directly around the theory of evolution. Spencer, Herbert. Principles of Biology. London, Williams & Norgate. New York, Appleton. 1864-1867. Revised edition, 1899. 2 volumes. $4.00. Brooks, W. K. Foundations of Zoology. New York, Macmillan, 1899. Pp. 339. $2.50. (A philosophical discussion of fundamental problems.) Pearson, Earl. Grammar of Science. London, Black. New York, Macmillan. 1892. Second revised and enlarged edition, 1900. Pp. 548. J2.50. (Chapters IX., X., and XI. are biological; but the entire work is of interest to workers in any science.) The place of honor in a list of books on evolution must be assigned to Darwin's great biological classic, the Origin of Species. However, this epoch-making work will be better under- 430 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY stood and appreciated if read after some introduction to the lines of evidence for evolution. As such an introduction, the first volume of Daruiin and after Darwin, by Romanes, and also his Scientific Evidences of Organic Evolution, hold very high rank. Other important and well-written elementary ac- counts are Clodd's Story of Creation and his Primer of Evolution, Bergen's Primer of Darwinism, Thomson's Study of Animal Life, Part IV., and also his Outlines of Zoology, Chapter XXIX. The first part of LeConte's Evolution is a clear exposition of the general theory and the lines of evidence favoring it. Darwin, C. R. Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection. London, first edition, 1859; sixth, 1872. London, Murray. Many re- prints of the sixth edition are on the market. The AmeTican authorized edition is by Appleton, New York, in one and two volume editions. (JS2.00 and $4.00.) Romanes, G. J. Darwin and After Darwin. London, Longmans. Chicago, Open Court Co. 1892. Vol. I., The Darwinian Theory, pp. 460, figs. 125. 5200. (Volumes II. and III. deal with the debatable questions relating to factors of evolution and appeal only to special readers.) Romanes, G. J. Scientific Evidences of Organic Evolution. Lon- don, Macmillan. 50c. Clodd, E. Primer of Evolution. London, Longmans. 1895. Pp. 186, figs. 3. 75c. Clodd, E. Story of Creation. Longmans. $1.25. Bergen, J. T., and F. D. A Primer of Darwinism and Organic Evolution. Boston, Lee & Shepard. New edition, i8go. $1.25. Thomson, J. A. Study of Animal Life. London, Murray. New York, Scribner. Third edition, 1896. $1.50. Thomson, J. A. Outlines of Zoology. London, Pentland. New York, Appleton. Third edition, 1899. LeConte, J. Evolution and its Relation to Religious Thought. New York, Appleton. Second edition, 1891. Pp. 382, figs. 70. )iSl.50. After some of the above books as introductions, followed by the Origin of Species, the reader will be interested in Wallace's Darwinism, Huxley's Darwiniana, and Man's Place in Nature, and his article, "Evolution," in the Encyclopedia Britannica, Animals and Plants under Domestication and the ZOOLOGICAL BOOKS 43 1 Descent of Man, by Darwin, and the part on evolution in Herbert Spencer's masterful Principles of Biology. These are the great pioneer works which supported the Origin of Species so convincingly that the evidences of organic evolution have come to be generally accepted even beyond the limits of the scientific world. But there was one dissenter even among the great naturalists, and to understand Agassiz's point of view in opposition to organic evolution one should read his Methods of Study in Natural History. "Wallaoe, A. B. Darwinism. London, Macmillan. 1890. Pp. 494. Huxley, T. H. Darwiniana. Collection of essays on evolution (1859-1888). New York, Appleton. 1895. Pp- 475- ?i-2S- Huxley, T. H. Man's Place in Nature. New York, Appleton. 1863. Pp. 328, figs. 32. $1.25. Huxley, T. H. Article, " Evolution," in Encyclopedia Britannica. Darwin, C. R. Animals and Plants under Domestication. London, Murray. New York, Appleton. Second edition, 1875. 2 volumes. Pp- 473. 495- H-°o. Darwin, C. E. Descent of Man. Second edition, London, 1874. Many reprints are on the market; the authorized one is by Appleton, New York, in one and two volume editions. Cheap reprint by Burt, New York. Agaasiz, Iiouis. Methods of Study in Natural History. Boston, Houghton. 1863. Eighteenth edition, 1887. Pp. 319. {1.50. (Agas- siz's famous protest against the evolution theory.) Interest in the factors or methods of evolution naturally comes after study of the evidences for the truth of the theory. Some of the wo^ks already mentioned, notably Darwin's Origin of Species, Spencer's Principles and Wallace's Darwinism deal with both fact and factors. In addition, there has been de- veloped a mass of special literature on the still uncertain ques- tions involved in the factors — heredity, variation, natural selection, etc. It is difficult to select one volume as best for the beginning study of the factors or for a general view of the whole field. Thomson in his Science of Life (see under His- tory of Zoology, p. 432) succinctly summarizes the points at issue, and in his Study of Animal Life there is a good literature list to which those specially interested can refer. 422 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY been specially trained in physiology, but also valuable reference works for the teacher o^ general zoology and physiology. Verwom, M. General Physiology. Translated by F. S. Lee. New York, Macmillan. 1898. Pp. 599, figs. 285. J4.00. Huxley, T. H. Lessons in Elementary Physiology. New York, Macmillan. American revised edition by F. S. Lee. igoo. Pp. 577 figs. 179. jSi.io. Martin, H. N. The Human Body, Advanced Course. New York, Holt. London, Bell. Fifth edition, 1898. Pp. 408, figs. 152. I2.50. Halliburton, "W. D. Kirkes' Handbook of Physiology. Seven- teenth edition, 1901. London, Murray. Philadelphia, Blakiston. Pp, 888, illus. 681. $300. (An unauthorized reprint of an earlier edition is on the market, and it is necessary to name the above publishers in orders for the book.) Stewart, G. W. Manual of Physiology. Philadelphia and Lon- don, Saunders. Fourth edition, revised, 1900. Pp. 894, figs. 336. JS3.75. Howell, "W. H. Editor. American Text-Book of Physiology. Philadelphia, Saunders. Second edition, revised, 1901. 2 volumes, 1,200 pages. JS6.00. Schafer, E. A. Editor. Text-Book of Physiology. London, Mac- millan. 1898. 2 volumes, pp. 1036, 1365. Vol. I., $8.00; Vol. IL, $10.00. (Contributed by prominent physiologists. Full and precise information and references to original authorities.) 4. Bacteriology and Hygiene. Books on these subjects are closely associated with human physiology, and hence properly belong in a list of zoological books. The books by Conn, Mrs. Frankland, and Prudden are excellent brief introductions to the bacteria. As more ex- tensive general accounts, the larger volumes by Newman and Frankland are excellent. With special refererfce to the path- ogenic bacteria Muir and Ritchie's Manual is well recom- mended as one of the latest books on the subject. Teachers who wish to introduce study of bacteria into their courses will find excellent practical directions for beginners in the hand- books by Gorham and Moore. The general field of sanitary science is well presented by Sedgwick's Principles ; and as a general survey of personal hygiene, Pyle's book has the advantage of having been written by a number of workers in special lines of this subject which is usually treated more or less arbitrarily. ZOOLOGICAL BOOKS 419 popular single volume covering the general field of zoology is Thomson's Outlines, but the text-books by Shipley and Mac- Bride, Hertwig, Packard, and the abridgment of Parker and Haswell's Text-book have many good points in their favor. As text-books aiming to present the elements of the general principles of zoology rather than a systematic account of the animal kingdom, there are at least five which are excellent : Huxlejf's Study of Zoology (^Crayfish), Parker's Elementary Biology, Sedgwick and Wilson's General Biology, Parker and Parker's Practical Zoology, and Morgan's Animal Biology. All of these are limited to descriptions of comparatively few animals, but for elementary presentation of general principles of zoology they are unquestionably the best. More advanced than these, and valuable for the special student and teacher is Hertwig' s General Principles. Parker, T. J., and Haawell. Text-book of Zoology. London, Mac- millan.i 1897. 2 vols., pp. 779, 683; figs , 663, 509. Vol. I., Inverte- brates; Vol. II., Chordates (not sold separately). $9.00. Glaus, C. Text-book of Zoology. Translated by A. Sedgwick. London, Macmillan. 1884, 1885. 2 vols., pp. 615, 352, figs., 491, 215. Vol. I., Protozoa to Insects; Vol. II., MoUusks to Mammals. Thomson, J. A. Outlines of Zoology. London, Pentland. New York, Appleton. Third edition, 1899. Pp. 819, figs. 332. ii!3.50. Hertwig, K. Manual of Zoology. Translated by J. S. Kingsley. New York, Holt. London, Bell. 1902. Pp. 704, figs. 672. J3.00. 1 In the following list the names of well-known publishing houses have been abbreviated by using the leading part of the name. Thus Macmillan stands for Macmillan & Co., of London, and The Macmillan Co., of New York; Longmans for Longmans, Green & Co., of London and New York ; Doubleday for Doubleday, Page & Co., of New York. In regard to place of publication and publisher, it is intended to give the place of original publication first, followed by name and address of the foreign agents or reprinters. In case of such well-known houses as those of Longmans and Macmillan, with branches both here and abroad, simply the place of original publication is given, usually London for English authors and New York for American. In several cases, at least, the publishers of certain books named have remaining in their possession few copies, but copies may usually be obtained from general dealers. 434 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY Wallaoe, A. K. Debt of Science to Darwin. Century Magazine, January, 1883. Huxley, L. Life and Letters of T. H. Huxley. New York, Apple- ton. 1900. 2 volumes, pp. 539, 541. Agassiz, E. C. Louis Agassiz, his Life and Correspondence. Bos- ton, Houghton. 1885. Pp. 794. $2.50. (After this eulogy the next work should be read.) Maroou, J. Life, Letters, and Work of L. Agassiz. New York, Macmillan. 1895. 2 volumes, pp. 302, 318. Jordan, D. S. Agassiz at Penikese. Chapter in volume known as Science Sketches. Chicago, McClurg. New edition, 1896. Also in Popular Science Monthly, Vol. XL., pp. 721, 1892. Eadot, V. Louis Pasteur, his Life and Labors. Translated from the French by Lady Hamilton. Introduction by John Tyndall. New York, Appleton. 1886. (Written under Pasteur's supervision by his son-in-law, Radot.) Frankland, P. Life of Pasteur. London, Macmillan. ITicholson, H. A. Lives and Labors of Leading Naturalists. Edin- burg. Chambers. 1890. Wright, H. A. Children's Stories of the Great Scientists. New York, Scribner. 1888. 15. Periodicals. School Science. Chicago. Monthly. JiS2.oo per year. Important for all science teachers of secondary schools. Contains pedagogical dis- cussions, reviews of new books, practical notes, reports of meetings of teachers' associations, and notes on advances of scientific knowledge. Journal of Applied Microscopy and Laboratory Methods. Rochester, N. Y. Six volumes published; discontinued in December, 1903. Valuable for suggestions on laboratory practice and teaching, and descriptions of new apparatus. Science. New York, Macmillan. Weekly. $5.00 per year. Sent free of charge to members of the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science. (Concerning application for membership write to Dr. L. O. Howard, Permanent Secretary, Washington, D. C. All science teachers are eligible. Entrance fee is JSs.oo and annual dues JS3.00.) Interesting to all American workers in science because it gives reports of meetings of the important scientific societies, scientific addresses, reviews of recent books and numerous notes on science progress in general. American Naturalist. Boston, Ginn & Co. Monthly. I4.00 per year. Publishes many original articles of general interest to zool- ogists, and also abstracts of many recent articles. Popular Science Monthly. New York, The Science Press. Monthly. $5.00 per year. Devoted to non-technical summaries of scien- ZOOLOGICAL BOOKS 435 tific advances. Many biological articles of general interest are pub- lished. Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society. London. Bi- monthly. Gives special attention to abstracts of leading original papers in zoology, botany, and microscopy. Valuable for the teacher who wishes to keep in touch with the progress of investigation. Too ex- pensive for individual subscription, but found in many public and college libraries. 1 6 . Animal Natural History. In presenting facts which are of general or popular interest, as well as in a less rigidly technical style, the books of this list stand in contrast to those of the preceding pages, most of whidi appeal chiefly to special students of the science of zoology. Practically all the books here named are of inter- est to the adult general reader. The books marked with an asterisk (*) are especially suitable for supplementary reading by high-school pupils. In fact, many of these books have been reported as interesting to children of the seventh and eighth grades in the elementary school. Selected parts of many other books intended by their authors to appeal primarily to adult readers might be used by high-school pupils ; and special references to many of these are given in the outline of a course in Chapter VIII. Some of the school books of zoology named on page 444 are such excellent introductions to animal natural history that they deserve a place also in this list of books for reading and reference. General Works. Hodge, C. F. Nature Study and Life. Boston, Ginn. 1902. Pp. 514, figs. 196. f 1.50. (Excellent guide to nature-study.) IngersoU, E. Nature's Calendar. A guide and record for outdoor observations. New York, Harpers. 1900. Pp. 270. $1.50. (Sug- gestions for field work in nature-study.) Johnson's ITuiversal Cyclopedia. Zoological articles edited by D. S. Jordan are excellent for scientific and popular names and notes on American animals. International Encyclopedia. New York, Dodd, Mead. 1902. Zoo- logical articles under the supervision of well-known American zoologists. 4l8 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY Teachers who need more books or special works more technical than those here listed will find many additional „ . . references in Parker and Haswell's Text-book oj References to SpecMLit- Zodlogy, Vol. II., pp. 628-655; and m ap- pendices to Thompson's Outlines of Zodlogy and to his Study of Animal Life. References to important special literature is given in many of the general text-books ; for example, in McMurrich's ^Invertebrate Morphology, Wilson's Cell, and Schafer's Physiology. An appendix to Davenport's Introduction to Zodlogy includes many special works relating to ecological and systematic zoology of American animals. To the teacher and student of zoology whose unfamiUarity with the general literature of the science leads them to seek An Important suggestions regarding the selection of books I Books on would recommend especially the reading of the Zoology. appendix in Thomson's Study of Animal Life. The question of obtaining even the absolutely necessary general reference books is often a serious problem for the School Libra- teacher in some localities, but the rapid growth of •^^^ public and school libraries is solving this problem. Most of the reference books named on the following pages while directly valuable to the teacher are also useful to the pupils in that selected pages, and especially the illustrations, often make interesting additions to the elementary books. A good selection of such books should be a part of the equipment of the biological laboratory of the school. It is a reasonable expenditure of school funds. I. General Reference Books for Teachers of Zoology. I. General Zoology, Advanced Text-books and Reference Works. The most useful work for general reference by advanced student or teacher is Parker and Haswell's Text-book of Zodlogy. Claus and Sedgwick's Text-book of Zoology has long had such distinction, but the last edition bears the date 1884, and some parts of it are now out of line with later investiga- tions. However, it is still very useful. Probably the most ZOOLOGICAL MATERIALS AND METHODS 415 (Importer of European edible snail [Helix pomatia], September to March. About $1.50 per 100.) Sphung, a. a. North Judson, Ind. (Living frogs, turtles, snakes, fresh-water clams, and crayfish.) Tufts College Biological Laboratory, South Harpswell, Me. Address in college year is Tufts College, Mass. (Preserved marine material. Circular.) Ward's Natural Science Establishment, Rochester, N. Y. (Skeletons, taxidermic materials, and museum specimens in great variety. Catalogues for sale.) C. H. Ward, Rochester, N. Y. (Anatomical preparations.) Webster Co., Hyde Park, Mass. (Birds' skins and taxidermists' supplies.) Dealers in General Laboratory Apparatus and Supplies. Bausch & Lome Optical Co., Rochester, N. Y., New York City, Chicago, and Boston. Cambridge Botanical Supply Co., Cambridge, Mass. Central School Supply Co., Chicago, 111. C. H. Stoelting Co., Successors to Chicago Scale and Laboratory Supply Co., Chicago, 111. Eberbach & Son, Ann Arbor, Mich. EiMER & Amend, New York. Emil Greiner, New York. " Home-Made " Scientific Apparatus Co., Mechanicsburg, O. (Makers of specimen cases and simple apparatus.) Knott Scientific Apparatus Co., Boston. Kny-Scheerer Co., 17 Park PL, New York. Leitz & Co., of Wetzlar, Germany. American agency at 411 W. S9th St., New York. W. Krafft, Mgr. Lentz & Sons, Philadelphia, Penn. Pennock, Edward, 3609 Woodland Ave., Philadelphia, Penn. Queen & Co., Philadelphia and New York. Sargent & Co., Chicago, 111. Spencer Lens Co., Buffalo, N. Y. Whitall, Tatum & Co., Philadelphia, New York, and Boston. (Makers of glassware.) Williams, Brown & Earle, Philadelphia, Microscopes are made or imported direct by Bausch & Lomb, Eimer & Amend, Kny-Scheerer Co., Leitz & Co., Spencer Lens Co., Williams, Brown & Earle, and Queen & Co. Lantern Slides on zoological subjects are made by R. P. Wood- ford, Pullman, 111. ; A. T. Thompson & Co., Boston ; Kny-Scheerer Co., New York ; N. F. Davis, Bucknell College, Lewiston, Pa. Charts. Leuckart's zoological charts, a series of 100, mounted on cloth and rolled, about f 1.70 each when imported duty free. Less than 438 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY IngersoU, E. *Wild Life of Orchard and Field. New York, Har- per. igo2. Pp. 346, 25 illustrations from photographs. iSi.40. Jordan, D. S., and Evermann, B. W. *American Food and Game Fishes. New York, Doubleday. 1902. Pp. 573. Many colored plates and half-tones from excellent photographs by Dugmore. $4.00. Iiucas, F. A. *Animals of the Past. New York, McClure, Phillips. 1902. JS2.00. (Good popular account of palaeontology.) Mathews, S. ■*Familiar Life in Field and Forest. New York, Appleton. 1898. Pp. 284, many illustrations. JiSi.7S. (Mammals, birds, frogs, and salamanders.) Mjvart, St. G. The Common Frog. London, Macmillan. 1881. Pp. 158. (Now out of print and obtainable only from dealers in old books.) Mivart, St. G. *American Types of Animal Life. Boston, Little, Brown. 1891. Pp. 374, illus. 102. (Deals with animals peculiar to Ainerica — opossum, turkey, bison, raccoon, sea-lion, bullfrog, rattle- snake, sloth, and many others.) Shaler, IT. S. *Domesticated Animals, their Relation to Man and to his Advancement in Civilization. New York, Scribners. 1895. Pp- ■267. #2.50. (Mammals, birds, bee, silkworm.) Sharp, D. L. *Wild Life near Home. New York, Century Co. 1901. Pp. 357, many illustrations. $2.00. (Birds and mammals, fish, frogs.) *A Watcher in the Woods is an abridged edition for schools. Wood, J. G. *The Dominion of Man. London, Bentley. 1889, Pp. 400. (Domesticated and tamed animals useful to man.) Birds. Bird Lore. A bi-monthly magazine. New York, Macmillan. jf i.oo per year. Blanohan, Weltje (Mrs,. F. N. Doubleday). *Bird Neighbors. New York, Doubleday. 1898. Pp. 234, 52 colored plates. $2.00. (150 com- mon birds.) Blanohan, Neltje. *Birds that Hunt and are Hunted. New York, Doubleday. 1899. Pp. 359, 48 colored plates. JS2.00. (170 birds of prey, game birds, and waterfowl.) Blanohan, N. How toAttract the Birds. New York, Doubleday. $1.35. Chapman, F. M. *Bird-Life. A guide to study of our common birds. New York, Appleton. 1897. Pp. 270, 75 full-page plates from drawings by Thompson-Seton. Popular edition, 1901, has plates in colors and appendix for teachers. $2.00. (An excellent introduction to birds.) Chapman, P. M. *Bird Studies with a Camera. New York, Apple- ton, igoo. Pp. 218, 100 photographs from nature. $1.75. Herriok, F. H. *Home Life of Wild Birds. New York, Putnam. $2.50. (Numerous photographs. Suggestions for study of the birds.) Merriam, F. A. (Mrs. Bailey). Birds of Village and Field. Bos- ton, Houghton. 1898. Pp. 398, figs. 228, and 28 plates. JS2.00. (Con- ZOOLOGICAL BOOKS 439 tains excellent outlines for field observations and a list of books on birds.) Parkhurst. H. E. Song Birds and Waterfowl. New York, Scrib- ners. 1877. Pp- 285. Illustrated by L. A. Fuertes. jSi.50. Weed, C. M., and Dearborn, N. Birds in their Relation to Man. Philadelphia, Lippincott. 1903. Pp. 378. Illustrated. ^2.50. "Wright, M. O., and Coues, E. *Citizen Bird. New York, Mac- millan. 1897. Pp. 428, figs, in, by L. A. Fuertes. $1.50. (Plain English for beginners.) Wright, M. O. *Birdcraft. A field book of 200 birds. New York, Macmillan. 1895. Pp. 306, 30 full-page plates in color. $2.50. Mammals. In addition to the more general books by Buckley, Matthews, Inger- soU, Mivart, and others, which are named above, the following deal par- ticularly with the mammals. Baker, S. W. *WiId Beasts and Their Ways. London, Macmillan. 1890, 1898. Pp. 455. Burroughs, J. *Squirrels and other Fur-bearers. Boston, Hough ton. 1900. jSi.oo. Flower, W. H. The Horse. New York, Appleton. ( Out of print. ) Ingersoll, E. *Wild Neighbors, Outdoor Studies in the United States. New York, Macmillan. 1897. Pp. 301. $1.50. (Squirrels; puma, coyote, badger, porcupine, skunk, woodchuck, raccoon.) Long. *Ways of Wood Folk. *School of the Woods. *Wilderness Ways, and similar books. Boston, Ginn. (Interesting stories of wild animals interpreted from the human viewpoint. See criticism by John Burroughs in Atlantic Monthly, March, 1903, and reply by Long in North American Review, May, 1903.) Stone, W., and Cram, W. B. *American Animals. New York, Doubleday. 1902. Pp. 318. J3.00. (Mammals of North America, north of Mexico with sketches of the more familiar species. Splendidly illus- trated from photographs and drawings.) WaUihaii, A. S. *Camera Shots at Big Game. New York, Double- day. 1901. Pp. 77. (Recommended for its beautiful illustrations.) $10.00. Wright, M. O. *Four-Footed Americans. New York, Macmillan. 1898. Pp. 413. Many illustrations by Thompson-Seton. $1.50. (Well adapted to young readers. Simple key to North American Mammals.) 17. General Natural History. The books named above represent only the animal side of natural history. But the real student of nature will feel the need of books with a greater outlook upon all living and life- 430 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY stood and appreciated if read after some introduction to the lines of evidence for evolution. As such an introduction, the first volume of Darwin and after Darwin, by Romanes, and also his Scientific Evidences of Organic Evolution, hold very high rank. Other important and well-written elementary ac- counts are Clodd's Story of Creation and his- Primer of Evolution, Bergen's Primer of Darwinism, Thomson's Study of Animal Life, Part IV., and also his Outlines of Zoology, Chapter XXIX. The first part of LeConte's Evolution is a clear exposition of the general theory and the lines of evidence favoring it. Darwin, C. E. Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection. London, first edition, 1859; sixth, 1872. London, Murray. Many re- prints of the sixth edition are on the market. The American authorized edition is by Appleton, New York, in one and two volume editions. (J2.00 and $4.00.) Komanes, G. J. Darwin and After Darwin. London, Longmans. Chicago, Open Court Co. 1892. Vol. L, The Darwinian Theory, pp. 460, figs. 125. JS2.00. (Volumes II. and III. deal with the debatable questions relating to factors of evolution and appeal only to special readers.) Romanes, G. J. Scientific Evidences of Organic Evolution. Lon- don, Macmillan. 50c. Clodd, E. Primer of Evolution. London, Longmans. 1895. PP- 186, figs. 3. 7SC. Clodd, E. Story of Creation. Longmans. jSi.25. Bergen, J. Y., and P. D. A Primer of Darwinism and Organic Evolution. Boston, Lee & Shepard. New edition, 1890. |i.25. Thomson, J. A. Study of Animal Life. London, Murray. New York, Scribner. Third edition, 1896. $1.50. Thomson, J. A. Outlines of Zoology. London, Pentland. New York, Appleton. Third edition, 1899. LeConte, J. Evolution and its Relation to Religious Thought. New York, Appleton. Second edition, 1891. Pp. 382, figs. 70. jSl.So. After some of the above books as introductions, followed by the Origin of Species, the reader will be interested in Wallace's Darwinism, Huxley's Darwiniana, and Man's Place in Nature, and his article, "Evolution," in the Encyclopedia Britannica, Animals and Plants under Domestication and the ZOOLOGICAL BOOKS 427 'Wallace, A. B. Geographical Distribution. New York, Harpers. 1876. 2 volumes. Wallace, A. B. Island Life. London, Macmillan. First edition, 1880; second, 1895. Pp. 563. $1.75. 10. Animal Psychology. The most important books along the lines of general psychology of animals are those by Lloyd Morgan and Romanes. Morgan, C. L. Animal Behavior. London, Arnold, igoo. New York, Longmans. Pp. 344. $3.50. (This should be read before the author's Animal Life and Intelligence, and as an introduction to the subject.) Morgan, C. L. Animal Life and Intelligence. Boston, Ginn. 1891. Pp. 512. (In addition to mental processes there is much interesting dis- cussion of problems of general zoology, such as evolution, heredity, etc.) Morgan, C. L. Introduction to Comparative Psychology. London, Walter Scott. 1894. Pp. 378. Morgan, C. L. Habit and Instinct. London, Arnold. New York, Longmans. 1896. Pp. 351. $5.50. Bomanes, 6. J. Animal Intelligence. New York, Appleton. 1882. Pp. 520. $1.75. Bomanes, G. J. Mental Evolution in Animals. New York, Apple- ton. 1883. $2.00. Groos, K. The Play of Animals. Translated by E. L. Baldwin. New York, Appleton. 1898. Pp. 341. $1.75. Iiubbock, Jobn. Ants, Bees, and Wasps. London, Kegan Paul. New York, Appleton. $2.00. (Deals with mental conditions and powers of sense in these insects.) II. Economic Zoology. There is no concise work which adequately treats the econo- mic side of animals in general. Incidental references to eco- nomic importance may usually be found in books on general "natural history" of animals. In addition to the books named below, it should be stated that some of the best literature in the field of economic zoology has been published by the United States Department of Agriculture, and by the United States Fish Commission. Besides the annual reports of these two departments, there are many separate bulletins issued, especially in agricultural lines. Those interested should write to the Division of Publications, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, for the latest "List of Publica- 442 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY must depend upon the reader's interest. This list aims to include only books giving information about animals ; for special literature on the teaching of nature study, see Chapter IV. Hodge. Nature Study and Life. Thomson. Study of Animal Life. Jordan, Kellogg, and Heath. Animals. Chapman. Bird Life. Comstock. Insect Life. Needham. Outdoor Studies. Wright. Four-Footed Americans. c. Limited Selection of Books for the Teacher of Zoology. This is a selected list of the most indispensable books, such as a beginning teacher or student of general zoology will wish to purchase for the foundation of a private library. I would preface the list with the preceding one on nature-study. Parker and Haswell. Text-Book of Zoology. Thomson. Outlines of Zoology. Parker. Elementary Biology. Parker and Parker. Practical Zoology. Sedgwick and "Wilson. General Biology. Hertwig. General Principles of Zoology. Marshall. Vertebrate Embryology. Huxley. Lessons in Physiology. Huxley. The Crayfish (The Study of Zoology). Stewart. Manual of Physiology. Newman. The Bacteria. Pyle. Personal Hygiene. Morgan. Animal Behavior. Bomanes. Darwin and After Darwin. Vol. L Darwin. Origin of Species. Thomson. Science of Life. Huxley. Science and Education Essays (Appleton). 3. Text-books and Guides for Zoology and Physiology in Second- ary Schools. a. Books on Zoology. This list names most of the books in zoology for secondary schools which have been published within thirty years. Most of the older ones of these are still common in the school ZOOLOGICAL BOOKS 443 libraries, and, in fact, with few exceptions, all are in the market to-day. The list is arranged in the chronological order of publication of the books. Hooker, W. Natural History. New York, Harper, i860. Pp. 382, figs. 278. (A text-book, a type of the old-time text-books on animals.) Tenney, S. and A. A. Natural History of Animals. New York, American Book Co. 1866. Pp. 260, 520 woodcuts. (An interesting account of common animals. Still useful for reading.) Morse, E. S. First Book of Zoology. New York, American Book Co. 1875. Pp. 190, i58 excellent illustrations. 87c. (A reading book arranged so as to lead pupils to observe. Excellent.) Packard, A. S. Zoology, Briefer Course. New York, Holt. First edition, 1883 ; seventh, 1897. Pp. 364, figs. 338. $1.12. (A text-book.) Holder, C. F. and J. B. Elements of Zoology. New York, Apple- ton. 1884. Pp. 391, figs. 383. (A text-book.) Colton, B. P. Practical Zoology. Boston, Heath. 1886. Pp. 185. 6oc. New edition (1903) referred to below. This was the pioneer laboratory guide for high schools. Chiefly anatomical.) Packard, A. S. First Lessons in Zoology. New York, Holt. 1886. Pp. 290, figs. 266. (An excellent text-book in its day.) Steele, J. D., and Jenks, J. W. P. Popular Zoology. New York, American Book Co. 1887. Pp. 319, figs. 480. (A text-book.) Montmahon and Beauregard. A Course in Zoology for Secondary Education. Translated from French by W. H. Green. Philadelphia, Lippincott. 1892. Pp. 358, figs. 319. (A type of the text-book which has been used in France for more than seventy years. The general plan appears to have remained unchanged since the time of Cuvier.) Pillsbury, J. H. A Laboratory Guide in General Biology. Boston. 1894. Dodge, C. W. Elementary Practical Biology. New York, Amer- ican Book Co. 1894. (A laboratory guide for animals and plants in- tended for high school and college.) Boyer, E. E. Elementary Biology. Boston, Heath. 1894. Pp. 235. 8oc. Part I. deals with animals. (A laboratory guide. Almost entirely anatomical.) Needham, J. G. Elementary Lessons in Zoology. New York, American Book Co. 1895. ^P- 3°2- 9°<^- (^ text-book and laboratory guide. The text presents a good general view of the field of zoology. Laboratory work is chiefly anatomical. Excellent on field work, espe- cially on insects.) Chapin, H. E., and Rettger, M. A. Elementary Zoology and Laboratory Guide. Chicago, Engelhard. 1896. Pp. 212, figs. 144. Kingsley, J. S. Elements of Comparative Zoology. New York, Holt. 1897. Pp. 355, figs. 148. jSi.20. (Text-book and laboratory 426 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY 8. Animal Ecology. Animal ecology as the phase of zoology dealing with rela- tions of animals to environment constitutes a prominent part of most works on " natural history " named under that heading (P- 435)- 2ut there are some works which are limited more closely to ecological considerations, and the leading ones of these are named below. The first two are admirable elemen- tary accounts, treating broadly the relations of animals to en- vironments from the standpoint of adaptations in structure and habit. Thomson, J. A. The Study of Animal Life. London, Murray. New York, Scribner. Third edition, 1896. $1.50. Jordan, D. S., and Kellogg, V. L. Animal Life. New York, Apple- ton. 1900. Pp. 329, figs. 180. )i!i.20. Semper, K. Animal Life as affected by the natural conditions of existence. London, Kegan Paul. New York, Appleton. 1880. Pp. 472, figs. 106. $2.00. Beddard, F. E. Animal Coloration. London, Sonnenschein. New York, Macmillan. Second edition, 1895. Pp. 288, figs. 36, 4 colored plates. Poulton, E. B. The Colors of Animals. London, Kegan Paul. New York, Appleton. 1889. Pp. 360, figs. 67. $1.75. (Special attention to insects.) Darwin, C. Fertilization of Orchids. Insectivorous Plants. Vege- table Mould and Earthworms. New York, Appleton. 9. Zoogeography {Distribution). For the general student of zoology any one of the first three books will be satisfactory after reading the chapters on this sub- ject in general text-books, — for example, in Parker and Has- well's Zoology. Those more specially interested will also read Wallace's great works on this subject. Beddard, P. E. Text-Book of Zoogeography. Cambridge, Uni- versity Press. New York, Macmillan. 1894. Pp. 246. $1.50. Heilprin, A. Geographical and Geological Distribution of Animals. New York, Appleton. 1886. Pp. 435. $2.00. Lyddeker, K. Geographical History of Mammals. Cambridge, University Press. New York, Macmillan. 1896. Pp. 400, figs. 82. ZOOLOGICAL BOOKS At'^l Conn, H. 'W. Story of Germ Life. New York, Appleton. 1897. Pp. 197. 35 cents. Frudden, T. M. Story of the Bacteria. Dust and its Dangers. Water and Ice. New York, Putnam. Each, 75 cents. Newman, G. The Bacteria. London, Murray. New York, Put- nam. 1899. Pp. 348. $2.00. (A non-technical account of the general relations of bacteria.) Franklin, P. Our Secret Friends and Foes. London, Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. Third edition, 1897. (Excellent for general readers.) FrankTand, F., Mrs. Bacteria in Daily Life. London, Longmans. 1903. Pp. 206. Muir, R., and Bitchie, J. Manual of Bacteriology. Edinburg and London, Pentland. New York, Macmillan. Second edition, 1899. Pp. 550, figs. 126. There is also a larger American edition. New York, Macmillan. 1903. $3.75. (Good on methods. Deals only with patho- genic bacteria affecting man.) Gorbam, F. P. Laboratory Course in Bacteriology. Philadelphia and London, Saunders. 1901. Pp. 192, figs. 97. $1.25. Moore, V. A. Laboratory Directions for Beginners in Bacteriology. Boston, Ginn. Second edition, 1900. Pp. 141. $1.00. Sedgwick, "W. T. Principles of Sanitary Science and the Public Health. New York, Macmillan. 1902. Pp. 388. $3.00. Pyle, "W. L. Editor. Personal Hygiene. Philadelphia and London, Saunders. 1900. Pp. 344. $1.50. 5. Laboratory Manuals,' chiefly Morphological. A set of the best guides for laboratory work is almost indis- pensable for the teacher's reference while planning laboratory work for classes, and for direction and suggestion in personal studies. Those named below are all too technical for use as laboratory guides by pupils in the high school. Guides adapted for school use are mentioned in this chapter on page 442. The first five books named below are most generally useful. Marshall, A. M., and Hurst, C. H. Practical Zoology. London^ Smith, Elder. New York, Putnam. Fifth edition, 1898. Pp. 486, figs. 73. $3.50. (The fourth edition (1895) is still useful. Laboratory directions for Amoeba, Vorticella, Paramoecium, Hydra, liver-fluke, leech, earthworm, crayfish, cockroach, mussel, snail, Amphioxus, dogfish, pigeon, rabbit.) Huxley, T. H., and Martin, H. N. Course of Practical Instruc- tion in Elementary Biology. London, Macmillan. Revised edition by 446 THE TEACHING OF ZOQLOGY Furneaux, W. S. Animal Physiology. New York, Longmans. 1888. 80c. Pp. 243, illus. 218. Hewes, H. I". Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene for High Schools. American Book Co. 1900. Pp. 320, illus. 88. $1.00. Martia, H. N. The Human Body, Briefer Course. New York, Holt. 1883. Fifth edition, revised by G. W. Fitz, 1898. Pp. 408, illus. 157. $1.20. (The most important text-book for high schools.) Macy, M. L., and Norris, H. W. Physiology for High Schools. American Book Co. 1900. Pp. 408, illus. 143. jfi.io. (This book differs from others of its class chiefly in emphasis upon the nervous sys- tem, around which the whole book is centred.) Overton, F. Applied Physiology. American Book Co. 1897. Pp. 432. 80c. (Mentioned here in order to call the attention of teachers to the fact that it contains numerous erroneous and misleading state- ments.) Peabody, J. E. Laboratory Exercises in Anatomy and Physiology. New York, Holt. 1898. Revised, 1902. Pp. 79. 60c. (An excellent guide for practical work with classes.) Peabody, J. E. Studies in Physiology, Anatomy, and Hygiene. New York, Macmillan. 1903. Pp. 332, figs.' 147. J5i.20. (An excellent guide to teaching physiology on a practical basis.) "Walker, J. Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. Boston, AUyn & Bacon. Second edition, tgoo. Pp. 490, illus. 121. (Especially excel- lent on hygienic topics. Treatment of alcohol scientific. See review in Outlook, Vol. LXVI, 706-709, November 17, 1900.) SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE. Numerous zoological books have been published in the past ten years. The following additions are suggested to the foregoing lists : General zoology (p. 419) — Needham's General Biology (Comstock Publishing Co.) ; Hegner's Zoology (Macmillan) ; Oshorn's Economic Zool- ogy (Macmillan); Weysse's Synoptic Zoology (Macmillan). Physiology (p. 422) — Hough and Sedgwick's Human Mechanism ; Howell's Text-Book of Physiology ; later editions of Huxley, Martin, Halliburton, Stewart. Bacteriology and Hygiene (p. 423) — Marshall's Microbiology (Blakis- ton) ; Jordan's General Bacteriology (Saunders) ; Cann's Bacteria, Yeasts and Molds in the Home (Ginn) ; Allen's Civics and Health (Ginn). Animal Psychology (p. 427) — Thorndike's Animal Intelligence (Macmillan). Economic Zoology (p. 428) — Osborn's Economic Zoology (Macmil- lan) ; Smith's Insect Enemies and Friends (Lippincott) ; Weed and Dear- born's Birds in Relation to Man (Lippincott). See also the numerous references in sections on economic relations of various groups of animals treated in Bigelow's Aff Hid Biology and the Teachers' Manual of Biology. ZOOLOGICAL BOOKS 447 Evolution (p. 425) — see book list in. Chapter XIX of Bigelow's Teachers' Manual of Biology. Periodicals (p. 434) — The Nature-Study Review (Ithaca, N. Y.). Important for teachers of high-school biology. Animal Natural History (p. 435) — Comstock's Butterflies (Apple- ton) ; Dickerson's Moths and Butterflies (Ginn) ; Folsom's Entomology (Blakiston); Roger's Shell Book (Doubleday); Dickerson's Frog Book (Doubleday) ; Uitmar's Reptile Book ( Doubleday) ; Hoffman's Birds of New England (Houghton); Hornaday's American Natural History (Scribners) ; Kellogg's /l»»?n<:a« Insect (Holt) ; Comstock's Spider Book (Doubleday) ; Comstock's Hand-book of Nature-Study (Comstock Pub- lishing Company) ; Traf ton's How to Attract Birds (Houghton). Text-books of zoology (p. 444) — Linville and Kelly's Zoology (Ginn) ; Peabody and Hunt's Biology (Macmillan) ; Whitney's (et al.) Guide for Study of Animals (Heath) ; Davison's Practical Zoology (American Book Co.); Hunter's Essentials of Biology (American Book Co.); Sharpe's Manual of Biology (American Book Co.) ; Bigelow's Applied Biology and Introduction to Biology (Macmillan) ; Galloway's Zoology (Blakiston). See Appendix II in Bigelow's Teachers' Manual of Biology (Macmillan). Text-books of Physiology (p. 446) — Ritchie's series ( World Book Co.); Gulick's series (Ginn); Davison's series (American Book Co.); Eddy's General Physiology and Anatomy (American Book Co.). CHAPTER XI THE RELATION OF ZOOLOGY IN SECONDARY SCHOOL AND COLLEGE BIBLIOGRAPHY Davenport, C. B. Zoology as a Condition for Admission to College. Sixth (1898) Report High School Department, University of State of New York. Pp. 459-476. (H. S. Bulletin, No. 2, November, 1899.) Ganong, W. P. Suggestions for an Attempt to Secure a Standard College Entrance Option in Botany. Science, n. s., Vol. XIII., pp. 611-616. April, 1901. Osbom, H. L. The Differentiation of Zoology for the High-School and College Curriculum. School Review, Vol. IX., 1901, p. 567. Report of Committee on Secondary School Studies (Committee of Ten), National Educational Association. United States Bureau of Education. 1893. Report of Sub-comraittee on Zoology, National Educational As- sociation. Proceedings N. E. A., 1899, pp. 805-809. 1. Differentiation of Work for School and College. No aspect of zoological teaching in secondary schools has been the subject of so much discussion as has that of its rela- tion to the first college course in zoology. To some extent this interest may have been associated with the general atten- tion given to college-admission credit for all subjects of the secondary curriculum ; but certainly it was stimulated largely by the extensive overlapping of college and secondary work in zoology. The duplication of work resulting from the introduction of the Huxleyan morphological course of the colleges into the DupUcatioii secondary schools began to attract the general at- ScSd^Md' tention of zoologists in the early years of the last College. decade when high-school graduates first applied for advance credit in college zoology on the ground that the work done in the high school was closely similar to that of the THE RELATION OF ZOOLOGY 449 first course of the college. This condition of affairs suggested that at least from the college standpoint there was need of differentiation between the zoological work of the school and college. But with the exception of casual references at meet- ings of local educational and scientific societies the subject received little attention ; and no definite and organized protest against the overlappmg and duplication of college and second- ary courses in zoology appears to have been made before 1898. Previous to that time those colleges which made provision for admission credit in zoology made no requirement looking towards differentiation of college and secondary courses in zoology. In 1898 Harvard University published an " Outline of Re- quirements intended for use in preparing students for the Lawrence Scientific School." * This appears to xhe Harvard have been the first clear suggestion of differentia- 0"til"e. tion between college and secondary-school courses in zoology. The course outlined was " an attempt to restore the old-time instruction in natural history " in secondary schools, leaving the general principles of the science for the first college course in the science. The influence of this Harvard pamphlet was widespread, and it has led to very general advocacy, especially from the college standpoint, of natural history as the proper work for high schools and for college- entrance credit. It is to be noted that considerations along three lines have entered into the supporting arguments : First, natural history is a phase of animal study which '"s valuable in preparation for college work in zoology ; second, for natural its adoption in high schools would quite differen- tiate the secondary work from the common first course of the colleges; and third, the line of work proposed for the attainment of the above ends is the most valuable for general 1 This outline, which was later developed into Davenport's Introduc- tion to Zoology, has already been referred to in Chapter II. in connection with the discussion of the value of natural history. 29 45° THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY liberal education in the secondary school. Let us now examine more closely the arguments along these three lines. With regard to the first, there can be no doubt that knowl- edge of the natural history of common animals is a most valu- natnrai His- ^^^ preparation for college courses in zoology arSonfor'' which are largely composed of those phases of the College. science (especially morphology, physiology, and embryology) which have little direct concern with natural history. Witli regard to the supposed demand for differentiation, there is reason for thinking that the arguments from the college standpoint have been based upon an over- tiation estimation of the existing conditions. In con- needed? . -t . . J. t • sidenng the merits of this question we must not lose sight of the fact that probably not one high-school pupil in a hundred studies zoology in the school and later in college. It follows, then, that the overlapping of courses of zoology in schools and colleges, while theoretically a source of confusion for students entering college, is practically a very minor problem affecting relatively few individuals. Therefore, if differentiation of courses is to be made it must have some basis other than preparation for college courses and the avoidance of occasional duplication by the rare students who may take zoology in both school and college. The oft-quoted story of the student who found the same course in zoology " a la Huxley " in high school, college, and university is inter- esting, but such a case is so rare that it is without significance so far as it has been taken to indicate that the secondary school should avoid teaching that which belongs primarily to the college. In short, it appears upon critical examination that the question of differentiation offers a very unimportant line of argument in favor of natural history as the exclusive zoological work of secondary schools. Finally, with regard to the third argument, that natural history alone constitutes the proper work for the high school, we have been led in an earlier chapter (p. 271) to the con- THE RELATION OF ZOOLOGY 45 1 elusion that strict limitation of high-school work to natural history is not satisfactory from the viewpoint of liberal second- ary education. It is evident, then, that the plan natural His- proposed for complete differentiation between col- Ju^e^r tiie lege and school courses cannot be accepted as a High School, final arrangement ; for however satisfactory strict limitation of high-school zoology to natural history may seem from the college standpoint, such a course is only a part of the zoology which is needed in secondary education. Now, although it appears to be undesirable from the view- point of the high school to differentiate the subject-matter of zoology sharply from that of some parts of college courses in the science, it is nevertheless important that, just as far as possible without interfering with the fulfilment of the aims governing high-school zoology, the work of the school should not come into serious conflict with that of the colleges ; and, furthermore, that the zoological work of the school should be recognized for credit on college-admission requirements. For these reasons I wish now to indicate how a general course in zoology in the high school, for example, a course along the Hues advocated in Chapter VIII., would stand in relation to the first college course in which there is the most similiarity. In the first place, there could be no such confusion for the student taking the college course in general zoology as there might have been formerly when the morphological „ , „ .,,,,, , ^ ., . Relation of courses in school and college were almost identi- General Zoitlogy Is cal. In point of view, in order of study, in less school and , ., , . . . , College, attention to details and minute structure, m avoid- ance of all highly theoretical and problematical questions, in emphasis upon physiology and some natural history — in these and other minor respects a general course in zoology adapted to the high-school conditions would be decidedly different from the first course of the leading colleges. It is true that many of the general principles of zoology would be touched upon in the high-school course in anticipation of the college work ; but owing to the differences above noted, there is no 452 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY reason why even the same animal types might not with greater profit be repeated in the college by the occasional pupil who elects zoology in college after studying it in the high school. The advanced viewpoint of the college work, the greater ma- turity of students and increased facilities for critical scientific study — these ought to work to the end that the general view of the science and its methods obtained in the high school should fit the student for more rigid accuracy in work of the detailed type demanded in college laboratories. In short, I regard it as no serious matter if the high school does touch upon some principles and even illustrate them by the same animal types which are used in college ; for it rests with the college instructor to demand of the student with previous training more detailed and more supplementary work than may be required of most members of the class who will have had no high-school work in the science. It will be objected that many pupils vvho have studied high- school zoology will have the impression that they have mas- Danger in tered the science. This is too true. Fortunately Zo^^^^" ^^''y ^^^ °^ these will trouble the college depart- Higii Sciiool. tnent by electing zoology. But it is the duty of the high-school teacher to work against. the development of such an attitude on the part of pupils. Not only should great care be taken to avoid giving the impression that any topic or type has been studied exhaustively ("finished") ; but no op- portunity should be lost for emphasizing the fact that, owing to limitations of time and other conditions, only the more superficial facts can be learned in the high-school course, leav- ing most of the finer points for the more advanced work of those who have time and opportunity to pursue the subject farther in college. Finally, as a means of emphasizing the superiority of the college work, let it be clearly understood that work done in the high school is not equivalent and may not be substituted for advance credit in a college course, but let the high-school work be given its proper credit as such on entrance to college. THE RELATION OF ZOOLOGY 453 Working along the lines indicated in the foregoing discus- sion it seems possible to bring the high-school and the college course in zoology, each with its own peculiar aims, into a harmonious relation, with the result that the work best adapted for the general high school will also give an ad- vantageous, although not required, preparation for advanced college work in the same science. This must be the basis of any generally satisfactory scheme of college-entrance credits in zoology. Finally, we may profitably look at the question of the rela- tion of college and secondary zoology from a point of view entirely different from that of regarding the lower study of work as leading to the higher. Colleges now offer ^"cii^oi^^d' so many elective courses in science that many College, students have opportunity to pursue those which they did not study in the secondary school, and we may doubt whether it is advisable to encourage the mass of students to continue in college the sciences to which they gave most attention in the high school. Rather it seems wise to advise in general that new sciences be first undertaken to the end that a wider view of general science may be obtained. Personally, I have no sympathy with the too-common departmental selfishness which encourages three or four years of specializing in one science while the student remains almost absolutely ignorant of the essentials of other sciences. Such specialization is the proper work of the university. Undergraduate college work in science should primarily consist of a general view of the field of each of the three great phases of natural science, viz., physical (physics and chemistry), earth science (geography and geology), and biology. Scientific discipline is gained by each of these as taught by modern methods ; and with regard to information, either as a foundation for later specializing in any science or for the purpose of liberal culture, a view of natural science in general is surely more valuable than a special knowledge of detailed facts in any limited field, however interesting they may be to the student. 454 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY 2. Zoology for College-Entrance Credit. It may be taken for granted that no teacher of zoology in school or college seriously advocates placing zoology on the list of subjects required for entrance. Among sbouldnotbe many reasons why it should not be so, we may ^ ' '* ' note that it is not necessary as a preparation for the zoological study in college, since elementary courses in the science are now given in all leading colleges ; second, that very many good high schools and academies are not prepared to conform with such a requirement ; and third, it is the opinion of very many, perhaps a majority, of professors of zoology in leading colleges that, with the exception of studies in general natural history, the elements of the science can be presented so much better in colleges that it seems best not to encourage the study of zoology in the schools by the pupils who are aiming directly at preparation for college. Obviously, general acceptance of the last expressed opinion would not militate against the desirability of offering zoology in schools for the benefit of the vast majority who are Zoology Pri- ^ ■ r- i, a ^. -i mary for not prepanng for college. As we have seen, zool- paringfor ogy has facts and principles wherein it is valuable as a part of a liberal education ; and for the sake of the great majority of pupils who can never go to college the science deserves to be taught in secondary schools, excepting, perhaps, the special academies which aim directly at prepara- tion for college entrance and may well advise their pupils to leave zoology for college study. But evidently it is impossible to draw a distinct line between those pupils who are likely to go to college and those who are An Option in not. Many pupils cannot decide about college desiraMe. before graduation from the high school. Hence, it becomes important that at least all pupils who. do not look forward with considerable certainty to college work may be able to study zoology with assurance that in the event of change of their plan the work done in the schools may be credited for THE RELATION OF ZOOLOGY 455 college entrance. We see, then, that whereas a uniform re- quirement in zoology is highly undesirable, an option for credit on admission to college is a great desideratum. Recognizing this, the American Society of Zoologists has appointed (1903) a committee of five, with instructions to consider the question of a college-entrance option in zoology as viewed from the stand- point of secondary education. The final reports of this com- mittee will probably be pubUshed in Science and School Science, early in 1905. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE. DifEerentiation of zoology for high school and college is a problem which no longer interests teachers of the subject. The special com- mittee of American Society of Zoologists reported in 1904 that " this science should be taught in high schools for the benefit of pupils who will have no other opportunity of acquiring general knowledge of animals ; and that zoology thus taught from the point of view of general secondary education should have recognition as a college-entrance option, in order that pupils who cannot decide to go to college before the close of high school work may not be held> deficient in credits because zoology was elected." Since the adoption of that report the high schools have rapidly devel- oped their courses along the general lines demanded by secondary edu- cation, which is not primarily college preparation j and the colleges have accepted the work for entrance credits. CHAPTER XII THE TEACHING OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY IN SECOND- ARY SCHOOLS " Such a course of physiology as is needful for the comprehension of its general truths and their bearings on daily conduct, is an all-essential part of a rational education.*' — Herbert Spbmcer, in Education. BIBLIOGRAPHY Gage, S. H. Physiology in the Schools. Science, n. s.. Vol. IV., 1896, pp. 29-33. Also in Regents' Bulletin, No. 36, University of State of New York, pp. 66-72. Hall, W. S. The Presentation of Physiology to High-School Classes. School Science, Vol. I., 1901, pp. 58-61. Hall, "W. S. The Teaching of Physiology in the Common Schools, School Science, Vol. III., 425-431. February, 1904. Foster, M. On the Teaching of Physiology in Schools. Nature, Vol. LI., p. 487. 1895. Huxley, T. H. On Elementary Instruction in Physiology (1877). In Essays on Science and Education. New York, Appleton. Also in Nature, Vol. XVI., p. 223; and in Popular Science Monthly, Vol. XI., p. 668. Lee, F. S. Teaching Physiology in Secondary Schools. Paper before New York State Science Teachers' Association. University of State of New York, High School Bulletin, No. 13, pp. 807-832. (This bulletin is obtainable from Secretary of University of State of New York, Albany. Price, 35 cents.) Peabody, J. E. Physiology in the High School. New York Teachers' Magazine, Vol. I., No. 2, 1899, pp. 163-170. Peabody, J. E. Study of Bacteria in the Public Schools. School Science, Vol. I. November and December, igoi. Peabody, J. E. Physiology in the Peter Cooper High School, New York City. Journal of Applied Microscopy, Vol. III., pp. 917-932. July, 1900. Report of Committee of Ten on Secondary School Studies, National Educational Association, 1893. Physiology in Primary and Secondary Schools, pp. 1 58-161. Washington, United States Bureau of Education. Sedgwick, 'W. T. What Training in Physiology and Hygiene may we Reasonably Expect of the Public Schools ? Science, n. s., Vol. XVIII. Also in School Science, Vol. III. February, 1904. Set ence, Vol. XVIII., pp. 353-360. September 18, 1903. TEACHING OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY 457 Bigelow, M. A. The Study of the Human Body. W. Va. School Journal, Vol. XIX. January, February, and April, igoo. Bigelow, M. A. Elementary Study of the Nervous System. New York Teachers' Monographs, Vol. IV., No. i, pp. 102-105. 1902. A Teacher. Teaching Physiology in the Public Schools. Popular Science Monthly, Vol. XXXIII., pp. 509-620. 1888. Elementary Text-books of Human Physiology are Listed in the Chap- ter on " Zoological Books." The term "physiology" as commonly used to designate a special course of instruction in elementary and secondary schools refers to study of the human body from Scope of the combined standpoints of anatomy (structure), Elementary u • 1 n \- f \ A \ ■ PJ^sioiogy. pure physiology (functions of organs), and hygiene (laws and conditions of health) ; and hence the term " physi- ology " is used inexactly. However, this has some justification from the fact that the study of functions and activities — that is, physiology in the strict sense — is the central point in the elementary work, the facts of structure (anatomy) being a necessary basis for study of functions, and hygienic rules a logical application of the physiological principles. For the purposes of discussion it is necessary to accept the common usage, but to avoid possible confusion the quotation marks will serve to distinguish " human physiology," the combination of elementary studies of anatomy, physiology, and hygiene, from pure physiology, the science of functional activity. I. The Relation of " Human Physiology " to Other Biological Sciences in the High School. The nature of the common courses in high-school " physi- ology" is so familiar to those who have examined the text- books by Martin, Blaisdell, Colton, and others (see ^^ ggparate p. 446) that description is unnecessary as a basis <^i^^ for our discussions. Suffice it to say that the most striking features of this course as presented in the text-books are : first, that there is little important difference between this work for high-school pupils and that presented in other books for the last year of the elementary school ; and second, that 458 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY although human physiology is a phase of biology it is com- monly presented quite independently of the biological courses. On the basis of these two points it will be maintained that the separate course in physiology should be omitted from the high-school curriculum.^ With regard to the similarity between the high-school and €lementary-school physiology, careful comparisons of subject- matter in text-books and of results in certain schools SimUarityof , .,,.,,. the Work in has convmced the writer that there is no good HighajidEle- , ^, ,. ,. . , J , J mentary reason why the peculiar line of study represented School. , , ' . , ,. r 1 , , by the courses with direct reference to the human body should not stop with the end of the elementary-school work, for the high-school course adds nothing but details, except as it enters upon the field of other high-school sciences, thus producing a wasteful duplication of work. One argument for the high-school course is that this may be taught by the laboratory method. But I must answer that this laboratory work so far as it is individual work, is almost entirely the kind of duplication referred to above. Moreover, many elementary schools have successfully taught in the eighth grade the es- sentials of physiology by means of demonstrations which require no special laboratory — in fact, the very same demonstrations which are available in high schools where the physiology does not largely duplicate work of other science courses. These serious objections to the separate course in high school leads us directly to our main proposition that the study of " human physiology " should in the very nature cira^'r^ of its subject-matter be closely connected with the Ko'io^. study of biological sciences, and it is desirable that high-school "physiology" should be an integral part of the first course in biology in which it will naturally be closely associated with the animal phase. The importance of direct continuity with biology which furnishes important illus- 1 Excepting the few schools with five-year courses in which the first year corresponds to the eighth grade of the grammar school. TEACHING OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY 459 trative and comparative materials, especially in the line of practical work ; the difficulty of adjusting a separate course to the high-school curriculum ; and the difficulty of teaching a separate course so as to differentiate between the elementary- school work on the one hand and the high-school course on the other — these and other reasons appeal to teachers who have had experience with the present arrangement, and lead to the conclusion that to continue the separation of "physi- ology " from the high-school course in zoology is a serious mistake. This is no new opinion, but one which has been gaining favor for several years. Several prominent teachers have sug- gested a close correlation between " human physiology " and zoology, and also between these studies in the high school and the nature-study and elementary "physiology" of the lower schools. No one has expressed this idea more suggestively than Professor W. S. Hall of Northwestern University : " In the high school the pupil receives for the first time instruc- tion in nature sufficiently systematic to be dignified by the name of Biology. In the first year he should have a thor- ough course in elementary botany. It should be a Halu'sView. laboratory course supplemented by recitations. The plants studied should be few in number and the technicalities of a detailed morphology should not be attempted. What the student at this age needs is a knowledge of the life histories of plants and animals. How do they live ? How do they reproduce their kind? What becomes of them when they die? Why do two plants of the same species differ, one from the other? How do these living forms come to be? Are they changing? If so, why? In the high-school course in botany, physiology should be made more prominent than morphology. " In the second year of the high school there should be a course in zoology planned, like the botany, to emphasize the life histories, and to answer for animals, questions similar to those raised in the study of plants. All of this in preparation for the study of high-school physiology. "With a preparation for physiology so thorough as that out- lined above, I should make this branch rather the biology of man than simple human physiology. Let the class study the ani- 46o THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY mal — Homo; his species, varieties, and races ; the geographical distribution of the races and their characteristics. Let them review the morphology of man in its general features, and insti- tute comparisons between man and his nearest associates among the vertebrates. . . . " Questions of life history, reproduction, whence, how, and whither would better not be discussed. The courses in botany and zoology have sharpened the senses and incited the thoughtful questioning of the pupil. When he comes to the study of man, leave him alone with his thoughts on these deeper and more delicate questions, and he will arrive at the Truth." i In the above paragraphs there is expressed the essentials of an idea which has long been developing in the minds of many teachers. It is the inevitable outgrowth of the introduction into secondary schools of the modern courses in botany and zoology taught by the laboratory method. The study of the structures and activities of the human body apart from its relation to other animals is a loss both to " human physiology " and to zoology, for each subject may contribute much of importance to the other. Accepting the view that it is desirable to combine or cor- relate the teaching of " human physiology " and other bio- logical work in the secondary school, what is Howtmite Physiology the best method of accomplishing this union of and Biology ? . . the two subjects which are commonly presented independently ? The arrangement which may first be discussed is that sug- gested in the above quotation from Professor Hall's paper. ^ ^ It is that a course in botany in the first high- Frofessor ... Hall's Sng- school year and zoology in the second should pre- pare for a biological study of the human body in a later year. This is excellent in ideal ; but the practical objec- tion is that " human physiology " is usually required and should be studied by all high-school pupils ; and therefore it would be I School Science, Vol. I. April, 1901. Pp. 60, 61. TEACHING OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY 461 impracticable, and certainly undesirable, to compel all pupils to take courses in botany and zoology as a preparation for the study of the structure and functions of the human body. Elsewhere it has been pointed out (Chapter V) that from the standpoint of the general curriculum it is desirable that the general field of the biological sciences be presented in a single year's course in the high school. Certainly it is not advisable to make a uniform requirement, or even recom- mendation of more than one year of biology for the high school ; and, even if wholly or in part elective, the biological sciences cannot without undue emphasis be extended beyond two years. It follows that if the work in "human physiology" is to be articulated with the biological sciences the combina- tion must be adjusted to either a one-year or, at most, a two- year scheme. Now these are the possible arrangements : first, one year may be required and given to a course which aims to present the most important facts of botany and zoology and ppssmg "human physiology"; or, second, zoology and ■*"'^^^™*"^ " human physiology " being most closely allied may be pre- sented in one required year and botany offered either elective or required, as a second course in biological science. It may be objected that in either case the year including the "physiology" would include an impossible amount of work. In answer to this it may be stated that the study of " physiology " in the elementary school may be Amonnt of assumed to have given the general view of the study of the human body. With this foundation the proper work of the high school would be, not study of the usual type of special text-book which is slightly different from that studied in the elementary school, but rather a comparative study based on the animals studied in zoology and on physiological prin- ciples growing out of both the animal and plant phases of biological study. Viewing high-school "physiology" in this light, it is not impracticable to include the important principles of human anatomy, physiology, and hygiene in a year's course 462 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY in biology; or, if one prefers the second suggestion given above, it would be a perfecdy simple matter to unite " physi- ology " with zoology in a course of one year, leaving the botany as an independent course. In some high schools the demand for concentration of the biological sciences into a single course has been met by divid- Three-Term ing the year into three terms, for botany, zoology, ■^'^' and " physiology " respectively. But in most cases this plan of uniting the required " human physiology " with other biological courses seems to have resulted simply in a combination of three courses and not in a true correlation of subject-matter so as to make one unified course in biology. Very commonly in such combined courses the presentation of the zoology and botany part is on the basis of the laboratory method and the study of " human physiology " consists merely of recitations from an ordinary text-book — a method of con- ducting the course which is sure to break up the continuity. In another place (p. 340) I have argued for a unified course in biology as opposed to the usual combination of half-years in botany and zoology in which there is a sudden transition at the mid-year period, and it has been noted that there are serious objections to such a break in the continuity of a year's course. The addition of " physiology " without correlation and unification of the whole course would give two such sudden transitions in subject-matter, and it is clear that we cannot justify the inclusion of "physiology" in a course in either zoology or biology unless the material can be so arranged as to make a continuous development through- out the year. Another possible plan for the concentration of the biological sciences consists in making " human physiology " the central Anotber ^As^ of a year's course in biology which includes Plan. studies of plants and animals so far as by com- parison of structure and functions they throw hght upon the study of the human body. Such a course would be primarily " human physiology " for which illustrative materials would be TEACHING OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY 463 drawn both from zoology and botany.* The advantages of such a high-school biological course on the basis of " human physiology" would be that it provides for the "physiology" which the laws require, and which is needed in general educa- tion, because of the practical importance of its subject-matter. Also it would present the subject from the biological viewpoint and methods, and would introduce the pupil to the general field of biological science by including in the course of " phys- iology" many of the principles of general biology which are so important as to merit a place in a required part of the secondary curriculum. But there is at least one serious objection to such a high- school course in biology based upon " human physiology." Pupils are wearied by the continuous study of the xuew latter subject in the elementary school; and for aISmci the sake of an entirely new approach in the high l^esif^Me- school it seems desirable to present the principles of biology apart from direct reference to the human body to which they may later be applied. There would also be an advantage in that erroneous impressions gained from the elementary work are more likely to be corrected when the facts of human structure and function are approached from the animal stand- point instead of from the familiar human aspect of elementary- school " physiology." The study of animals and plants would give the proper perspective for the biological study of man, making this vastly more interesting and intelligible. With the preliminary work in the elementary school, it will not be neces- sary to spend much time in the high school upon the special conditions of human structure and function. These are largely matters of detail of Uttle general importance. In the high school the broader comparative view should prevail. Emphasis should be placed upon the resemblance in structure and function between man and other animals ; then in the next step the 1 The recent Studies in Physiology, by Peabody (New York, Mac- millan, 1903) is essentially such a course. 464 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY resemblance to all living things ; next the similarities to all vertebrates ; and finally the chief resemblances and differences of man as compared with other mammals. The greater part of this work will naturally be directly connected with the work in zoology, but this in turn should be closely correlated with the work in botany so as to place emphasis upon the great biological features, especially the physiological, in which plants and animals are essentially similar. Incidental references to human structure and functions may come up in connection with any lessons, but the formal comparative study will best be taken up by way of summary at the end of the course in zoology, which will then have prepared for an intelligent appreciation of the biological study of man. The outline of a course in zoology which is given in Chapter VIII. involves the essentials of general morphology and physi- ology of animals which are directly applicable to the human body ; and it may be referred to for further explanation pf the suggestions in the above paragraphs. Finally, it should be noted that in some States it is scarcely possible at the present time to involve " human physiology " in , close correlation with a course in zoology, as has Laws opposed °^ to Proper been suggested above, for the reason that laws Correlation. . , require that " physiology " be taught as a separate study y>(7»2 a text-book for a specified number of lessons. Fur- thermore, the book must include peculiar subject-matter, espe- cially "temperance instruction," most of which could not be correlated with a good biological course. Under such condi- tions the absurd laws must be obeyed and a period of weeks set aside from which to teach " from text-books in the hands of the pupils." If this must be so, let the subject of " physiology " continue to stand alone in the secondary curriculum until possible changes or repeal of existing laws leave science teachers free to correlate, as they may think best, "physiology" with the other courses of biology in the high school. Summarizing the above considerations of the relation of high- TEACHING OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY 465 school "physiology" to other biological courses, it has been pointed out : (i) That much is to be gained by close g,„,„„g_-, correlation with botany and zoology, especially the latter. (2) Simply assigning- " physiology " to a term of ten weeks in a year devoted to biology is not sufficient ; there must be complete correlation. (3) One plan for this consists in making " human physiology " the centre of a year's course into which animal and plants are brought as illustrating the structure and functions of man. The objection to this is that the line of approach is too much like that in the elementary school. (4) The plan which obviates this objection consists in making all references to " human physiology " grow out of studies of zoology. 2. Teaching the Essentials of " Human Physiology." No matter whether " human physiology " is to be presented in the high school as a separate course or as an integral part of a course in zoology or biology, the emphasis of the xhe Essen- instruction should be placed upon the essentials of ^^^ needed, the subject, and needless details neglected altogether. The general criticism on the text-books of " physiology " which are commonly in use in our public schools is that almost without exception they give prominence to many , • „ J ., , ■ , f , General Crlti- topics and especially details which are of exceed- cismofTezt- ingly doubtful value in either elementary or sec- ondary education. Moreover, the great foundation ideas of the science are usually so intermingled in the text with minor points that beginners must fail to distinguish between essentials and comparatively insignificant facts. There is need of selection of the important subject-matter whose place in public-school education can be justified on the ground of its applicability to every-day life. With this aim in mind, we shall discuss the teaching of some aspects of "physiology" which are commonly over-emphasized in the public schools, and later consider some whose general importance demands for them more at- 30 466 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY tention than is commonly given in the elementary courses of "physiology." After " temperance instruction," which we shall discuss later, the topic which first appeals to us as being treated in elemen- tary books more extensively than its practical or EZCeSSive ,. . ,. . ■ '^ ■ y ^ e Attention to disciphnary importance justmes is that or anatomy. °™''' Bones and muscles, minor blood-vessels and nerves, and the details of minute structure have for years received emphasis in most of our text-books. As taught by the book method this anatomical study is simply memorizing of useless names and descriptions. In most cases only the general facts of structure are needed for the study of functions, and detailed facts of anatomy which have no relation to general functions are useless in public schools. To illustrate : The important physi- ological point concerning the heart is that it is a pump, and the essential facts of its structure can be demonstrated in five or ten minutes with a heart obtained from the market. Such details as those regarding bicuspid and tricuspid valves with their papillary muscles and chordae tendineag are no more essential for high-school physiology than are these names them- selves. The only essential thing is that pupils see that there are valves so arranged that blood must pass in one direction only. Applying to the study of structure in general this idea of what is essential in the anatomical line would greatly reduce Zoology as a the amount of material to be taught in " physiology " i?^*of ^s ^ separate course ; and if presented with a course stmctnre. jjj zoology as the basis, the study of several types of animals along the lines discussed in Chapter II. would make it unnecessary to give much special attention to anatomy in direct connection with " human physiology." The incidental remarks which have been made above with refereiice to the technical terminology in certain cases should Technical ^'^° '"'^ applied to that of all the other systems of Terminology, the body. Our common elementary text-books in- clude a large number of scientific terms which have no legiti- TEACHING OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY 467 mate place in public-school education, and especially is the emphasis placed upon mere names, probably an inheritance from the old-time natural history, still too prominent in the teaching of elementary " physiology." Some technical names are in such common use in every-day life that they have lost their strange- ness, and it is certainly profitable for the pupil to learn them ^ in association with the thing designated. I have in mind here names such as : mesentery, pancreas, aesophagus, trachea, phar- ynx, and larynx. These are needed ; but quite different is the case with uncommon special terms like valvulae conniventes, chordae tendineae, alveoli, duodenum, and many other similar terms found in elementary text-books. Especially is the tech- nical nomenclature carried to an extreme as applied to nerves and blood-vessels. In the case of the cranial nerves four should be associated with their names — namely, olfactory, optic, facial, and auditory ; but I see no good reason for a special attempt at memorizing the names and numbers and distribution of the others. A diagram and a dissection of a frog will teach the general facts concerning the distribution of nerves without recourse to special terminology and complicated descriptions in words. The same is true of the blood system ; the primary vessels connected with the heart and the main branches — such as, carotid, hepatic, renal, iliac — may be considered well worth knowing by name ; but there is no justification for naming in public schools such minor branches as popliteal, azygos, peroneal, and tibial. In this connection may be mentioned the common use of chemical terms which are meaningless to elementary pupils. It is absurd to suppose that pupils in the public ^ , , , , , . r Useless Chemi- schools may understand better the action of pan- cai names in .. .- 1- ,1 ji T ^ ^ Pliysiology. creatic juice after being enlightened by the state- ment that " the fluid contains the ferments trypsin, amylopsin, 1 It is interesting to note that less than fifty years ago authors of cer- tain elementary text-books felt constrained to defend in their prefaces the use of lungs for " lights," abdomen for " stomach," intestine for " bowel." These terms do not now appeal to us as technical scientific terms. 468 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY and steapsin." Likewise there can be no definite meaning in elementary work for these statements : " Bile contains gly- cocholic and taurocholic acids " ; " The chief fats are mar- garin, olein, palmatin, and stearin " ; " Coffee contains caffein and tea theobromin," and " Muscle contains myosin and syn- tonin." Elementary chemistry has some important applica- tions in connection with the study of " physiology," but the above examples from elementary books represent special chem- istry which is utterly useless in public-school education and should be omitted altogether. Turning now to discuss certain topics which are not ade- quately treated in most of the usual elementary courses in this subject, the most important of these is that of the Inadequate ,- , . , r ■,-■-,-, Treatment of fundamental processes of general nutrition. Usu- Processes of ally the processes of digestion, circulation, respira- tion, assimilation, dissimilation, and excretion are defined and discussed in separate chapters, and elementary pupils are led to think of so many isolated processes which have little or no relation or interdependence. The great prin- ciple of co-ordination between these processes is more often than otherwise not clearly set forth and emphasized, and the reason for the existence of each process is not as a rule clearly presented to elementary pupils. For example, a chapter in the text-book deals with food in nutrition without reference to the necessity for food as shown by a logical application of the law of conservation of energy. If pupils are asked to give an answer to the question, " Why does the body need food ? " a very common reply is, " To keep the body alive." But such an indefinite statement is no more scientific than the com- mon knowledge which any one with common sense possesses. If more definite ideas are to be given, the principle of conser- vation of energy must be explained and its logical application to the human body made clear to the pupils at the very* begin- ning of the discussion of nutritive functions. Unless the essen- tials are thus made clear at the outset, the pupils are likely to become bewildered by the mass of details concerning the TEACHING OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY 469 structure of the organs, minor processes, varieties of foods, effects of alcohol and hygiene of digestion — all of , . , . .1 ■ . . Essentials which in many text-books are given lust as promi- sbouidiie , , ^ , , dlstUigoished nent a setting as that given to the fundamental from Minor nature and purpose of food. Likewise in the study of blood and its circulation pupils learn much about haemoglobin, corpuscles, fibrinogen, etc., but often fail to grasp ^^fundamental idea that the blood is essen- Essential tially a transporting medium between the tissues and fS^ of the outside world, and made necessary by the ^i""^- demands of the tissues for supply of food and oxygen, for removal of waste matters, and for distribution of heat. Ask average pupils the question , " Why does the body need blood and its circulation ? " and again comes the all-explanatory an- swer to all general physiological questions, " To keep the body alive." Of course, this is quite true, but we have no justification for science study which stops with such facts of common observation. And such is the story of the usual presentation of the whole series of functions involved in general nutrition. Essentials and facts of secondary importance are massed indiscriminately, and to the average pupil all are of equal importance. This is certainly a very undesirable result. To guard against it, the most important aim should be that the pupils come to understand the essential nature, the interdepend- teacbing ence and the part which each process of internal of internal organs plays as a step in general nutrition. It is ^"'*' essential that the body be considered a working whole com- posed of interdependent and co-ordinated organs, and around this central idea should be ari'anged all other minor facts of function and of structure considered as the working machinei These are the essentials which should first of all be clearly pre- sented in a general way, and secondarily there may be added as much of the minor details of the general processes as the time and age of pupils will allow. Space here will not allow more than these general remarks, but it may be suggested that 47° THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY this idea is well developed in the eighth and ninth chapters of Martin's Human Body, Briefer Course. In these Martin's , , , , , , , , "Human chapters the fundamental processes are clearly de- fined and emphasized apart from the secondary facts which follow in later chapters. The plan is an excellent one, which no other author seems to have developed so well. It can be apphed by teachers who use other text-books with their classes. The subject-matter dealing with hygiene is usually well pre- sented by the text-books, except, as has been incidentally suggested in the preceding paragraphs, that the ordinary arrangement often tends to a confusion of essential physiological principles. This is avoided if, as recom- mended above, a general survey of physiological essentials apart from hygiene be made first, for then the later detailed study of the various functions will lead to a logical presentation of hygiene facts and principles. With sound understanding 9f physiological fundamentals much of the hygiene will be better understood and appreciated ; in fact, many of its rules become applied common sense. As to the method of teaching hygiene, one general suggestion deserves emphasis, namely, that an attempt should be made Practical *'° develop the practical method, for memorizing tea^Jne" ^'^°™ ^^ book without immediate practice is of Hygiene. doubtful value, as in all other science work. The teacher can accomplish much in the line of practical teaching by leading the pupils to begin at once in their home life the practice of some of the hygienic principles which they learn. Moreover, in many cases, particularly in connection with the notes on emergencies, it is possible to give demonstrations which teach more and better than would volumes of printed matter. For examples, artificial respiration, aseptic treatment of wounds, simple bandaging, and applying tourniquet to arteries are some of the important topics which should be taught carefully by direct illustration. The very important topic of the relation of bacteria to health TEACHING OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY 47 1 and disease has in the past received Httle attention in connec- tion with elementary hygiene, but the best recent _^. . text-books give short accounts of the subject. It Bacteria, is of the greatest importance that there be widely diffused knowledge of the general principles of bacteriology. Even a superficial knowledge will convince the public that sanitary principles and laws are well founded, and the simple practical prophylactic measures against such diseases as typhoid, malaria, cholera, tuberculosis, etc., are more often applied when the relation of the causative germs to air and water are understood. The natiire of infectious diseases, isolation in contagious diseases, the principles and methods of disinfection, the prin- ciples of inoculation and vaccination, the importance of general sanitary cleanliness in cities as well as in homes, pure food, water, arid air — these are examples of topics in which every citizen should have an interest, and no part of the course in elementary hygiene is of so great importance from the practical standpoint. These should be well taught. The teacher will find useful reading for pupils in The Story of the Bacteria and Dust and its Dangers, by Prudden ; in the Story of Germ Life, by Conn; and in Mrs. Frankland's Bacteria in Daily Life. Other books of interest to the teacher are named under " Bacteriology " in Chapter X. The importance and ease of teaching by practical work in this line should be emphasized. Many recent text-books (see p. 446) have some suggestions, but worthy of special mention is Peabody's recent Studies in Physiology (Macmillan, 1903).^ In conclusion, I have attempted to present some general suggestions for improving our teaching of high-school "physi- ology " by limiting its subject-matter to those facts and ideas which have a possible value as applied knowledge. To select for emphasis the essentials of " physiol- 1 See also a paper by same 3.ys!i!cim vn Journal of Applied Microscopy, Vol. IV., No. 2, p. 1 164; also his Laboratory Exercises (Holt, New York) ; and papers by Frost and Hastings in Journal of Applied 472 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY ogy " is a problem to which experts in science teaching will surely give more attention before many years pass. We need concise text-books which concentrate in their one hundred pages all and more than is now given in three and four hun- dred pages. But at present in the absence of such guides to the essentials, teachers will, I think, find that their own expe- rience teaches the relative values of many minor parts of the subject-matter of which it has been possible here to suggest only the most general outlines. 3. "Scientific Temperance" or "Temperance Instruction." BIBLIOGRAPHY Atwater, 'W. O. Alcohol Physiology and Superintendence. Edu- cational Review, Vol. XX., pp. 1-29. June, igoo. Also in Proc. N. E. A., 1900, pp. 229-266. Atwater, "W. O. Alcohol Physiology and Temperance Reform. Harper's Magazine, Vol. CI., pp. 850-858. November, 1900. Atwater, W. O. Nutritive Value of Alcohol. Ibid., pp. 675-684. October, igoo. Atwater, 'W. O. Alcohol Physiology in Public Schools. Printed with report of committee of New York State Science Teachers' Asso- ciation, which see below. Dutton, S. T. Scientific Temperance Legislation. School Jour- nal, Vol. LX., pp. 268, 269. 1900. Eliot, C. 'W. Educational Reform. Pp. 190-191. New York. Cen- tury Co. 1898. Ferguson, "W. B. Temperance Teaching and Recent Legislation in Connecticut. Educational Review, Vol. XXIII., pp. 233-249. March, 1902. Hunt, Mary H. A History of the First Decade of the Depart- ment of Scientific Instruction in Schools and Colleges of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union. Boston, second edition, 1891. Hunt, Mary H. An Epoch of the Nineteenth Century. An Outline for the Work for Scientific Temperance Education in the Public Schools of the United States. Boston, 1897. Jordan, D.S. Scientific Temperance. Popular Science Monthly, Vol. XLVIIL, pp. 343-354- January, 1895. Microscopy, Vol. VI., series of papers beginning in March, 1903. These latter have many good suggestions, but are not, on the whole, as practicable for the average high school as are the books and papers by Peabody. TEACHING OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY 4^^ Sabin, H. Education. May, igoo. (Answer to Atwater's paper on Alcohiol and Superintendence.) Sedgwick, "W. T. The Modern Subjection of Science and Edu- cation to Propaganda. Science, h. o., Vol. XV., pp. 44-54. January 10, 1902. Presidential Address before American Society of Naturalists. Articles on " temperance text-books " and Atwater's experiments in Outlook. Vol. LXII., 703-706, 700-702, July 29, 1899. Vol. LXII., 882,883, 908-911, August 19, 1899. Vol. LXIIL, 483-485, 493-497, October 28, 1899, Vol. LXIV., 390, February 17, 1900. Vol. LXVI.,' 706-709, November 17, igoo. Vol. LXVI., 974, 996-999, December 22, 1900. Report of Committee on Alcohol and Narcotics, New York State Science Teachers' Association. Sixth conference, 1901. University of the State of New York, High School Bulletin, No. 17, pp. 745-762. Discussion of report and paper by Atwater (see above), pp. 763-815. (Bulletin No. 17 may be obtained from Secretary of University of State of New York, Albany. Price, 40 cents.) Reply to above report. A circular by New York State Central Com-' mittee on Scientific Temperance Instruction in Public Schools. Ob- tainable from A. L. Manierre, Secretary of Committee, 31 Nassau St., New York City. School Instruction in the Effects of Alcohol and Narcotics. From the report of a committee of the New York State Science Teachers' Association (see above). Educational Review, Vol. XXIV., pp. 31-47. June, 1902. Protest against bill to increase instruction in physiology, with special reference to alcohol and narcotics. Signed by many leaders of science and education in the State of New York. Department of Public In- struction, State of New York, Albany, 1895. Report to the Committee of Fifty. Physiological Aspects of the Liquor Problem. Based on investigations by and under direction of Atwater, Billings, Bowditch, Chittenden, and Welch. 2 volumes, pp. 396, 379. Boston, Houghton, Mifflin. 1903. I4.50. Reply to above report. Senate Document, No. 171, 58th Congress, Second Session. Also obtainable from A. L. Manierre, 31 Nassau St., New York. The most characteristic feature of the present teaching of " physiology " in public schools of the United States is the so- called "temperance instruction," or " scientific ^^^^^^^^^ temperance " which deals with the nature and of Temperance ^ Instractloii. effects of alcohol and narcotics. So prominent is this in the subject-matter of most elementary text-books that in almost every case the topic is mentioned on the title-page ; and even that most excellent among elementary books, Martin's 474 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY Human Body, Briefer Course, bore on the cover of the last edition prepared by the author the strange title, The Human Body and the Effects of Narcotics. Viewed from the stand- point of advanced study of pure physiology, such prominence for alcohol and narcotics is surprising ; for, except in special investigations, little attention is paid to them in college and university courses. But in fact, as will be shown later, the "temperance instruction" included in elementary books is only in part physiological. For this reason and also because the introduction of this material has had a very peculiar influ- ence upon the teaching of " physiology " in public schools, it has seemed best to discuss the subject apart from the preced- ing section on the essentials of a course in " physiology." It is not my purpose to review here the history of the de- velopment of this phase of instruction in connection with special Legls- "Physiology." Suffice it to say that its general lation. introduction into our public schools has been in conformity with laws which have been enacted in many States ; and these enactments were the direct result of a well-organized movement on the part of certain " temperance '' societies which have aimed to make " physiology " a basis for instruction with special reference to the effects of alcohol and narcotics.* It is now generally agreed by at least a large majority of the most prominent educators and scientific men that the " tem- Harmftil In- perance instruction " movement has had a very Tea^Sig'of harmful influence upon the teaching of "physi- Physioiogy. dogy " jn public schools in the United States. I am aware that this statement might be challenged on the basis 1 The history of the movement to secure legislation has been written by Mary H. Hunt, a leader of the movement (see two books cited in the bibliography of this section). The address by Professor W. T. Sedgwick of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology concisely reviews the important points in the history of the movement. His critical remarks met with the general approval of the national scientific society before which they were made, and hence may be taken as expressing the consensus of opinion of very many of the leading scientific men of the United States. Every teacher of" physiology " should read the address. TEACHING OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY 475 of the claim of " temperance " leaders that to the movement for special instruction concerning alcohol and narcotics is due the introduction of " physiology " into the schools. It is true that laws have made the study required in schools, but we must not overlook the fact that long before the beginning of the " scientific temperance " crusade there was a strong move- ment in favor of " physiology " in general education. In sup- port of this it is only necessary to call attention to the papers by Huxley, Horace Mann, and others. Moreover, the earlier school reports prove that " physiology " was not uncommon in many States long before it was required by laws physiology framed in the interests of "temperance instruc- JlrMcJi™- tion." We admit that the movement for " scien- structJ""- tific temperance" may in some cases have hastened the introduction of physiology, but in the very importance of its subject-matter we see good reason for believing that the sub- ject would, be taught to-day in all schools fitted to teach it, even if there had been no laws requiring the teaching. In general the injurious influence which " temperance in- struction" has had upon the teaching of "physiology" has come from the laws ■^ which, framed to meet the „ ^ Battue and demands of the " temperance " leaders, have speci- Effect of fied in detail concerning the nature, amount, and arrangement of instruction on the subject of alcohol and narcotics. It is true that only in certain States have such 1 Some form o£ "temperance instruction" laws now (1902) exist in nearly every State and Territory. In over thirty States and Territories the study of " scientific temperance " is required in all public schools, and all pupils who pass through the schools must pursue the study. In about twenty of these not only is such teaching required but penalties are provided for non-compliance with the laws. At least fifteen of these require the study from " text-books in the hands of all pupils able to read." About ten States require that text-books for elementary schools must have one-fourth or one-fifth of their space devoted to " temperance," and in the case of high-school books not less than twenty pages. And in at least thirty-two States teachers must pass examinations on the sub- ject of "scientific temperance." The laws of New York and Illinois are the most extreme. In New York all pupils below the second year of 476 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY limitations been placed upon the teaching of " physiology " ; but even where the laws have not thus specified the influence has been essentially the same, for the text-books of the most prominent publishers have been made to conform with the most extreme laws. We may now inquire more specifically concerning the nature of " temperance instruction," considering first the methods of teaching the subject, and second the subject-matter itself. The " approved " method of giving " temperance instruc- tion " is that of reading and recitation from text-books. Upon Tiie"Ap- this point the leaders of the movement have been Method of insistent, and through their agitation it has been Instruction, required by law in many States that the effects of alcohol and narcotics must be studied from "graded text-books in the hands of all pupils able to read." It has, therefore, come about that the " scientific temperance " laws of some States and the resulting text-books have worked together in producing and maintaining the widespread use of the recitation method in the teaching of " physiology," which is decidedly out of line with all modern science teaching. To these S^mtUic criticisms it may be answered that teachers are free, even in New York and Illinois, to introduce as much practical work as they wish, and that the " approved " text-books have appendices directing such practical study ; but the fact is that the nature and arrangement of required book work is such as to interfere seriously with a logical develop- high school and above the third grade shall be taught this subject every year with suitable text-books in the hands of all pupils, and not less than thirty lessons per year. Text books for the elementary schools are " suitable " and " approved " only when one-fifth of their space is devoted to alcohol and narcotics, and high-school books must have not less than twenty pages. It is further provided that the material on alcohol and narcotics must be distributed throughout the book. The revised Con- necticut law is a slight advance. It provides for " temperance instruc- tion " in all grades above the third and excepting high school. Text- books must be used above the fifth grade. But it does not specify con- cerning the nature and amount of " temperance instruction." TEACHING OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY Ar17 ment of " physiology " on a practical basis. Moreover, owing to the requirement for the book work, the practical work becomes optional supplementary work. In short, the whole arrangement of books on " physiology " is in. conformity with the idea that they are to be used primarily as text-books, and this is opposed so completely to the practical method that only highly trained teachers are able Books of Phy- siolog7 and to make the proper rearrangement of the materials, other In all other sciences practical work is made the basis, and the leading books in botany, zoology, physics, and chemistry are arranged on a foundation of laboratory work which practically precludes their exclusive use for recitation. The order of study now approved by the leaders of " tem- perance instruction," and required by laws in some States, is regarded as pedagogically absurd by many leading educators and scientific men. In the earlier " tem- study as " approved." perance physiologies " alcohol and narcotics we're treated in -special chapters, often in appendices; but to avoid any possibility that the pages on alcohol might escape the eyes of pupils, and in order to gain in emphasis, it is now required in some States that this subject-matter must be dis- tributed throughout the book, showing the effects of alcohol and narcotics on each system of organs — even the bones ! Only books with this distribution of subject-matter are now approved by the self-appointed censors in the ranks of the temperance leaders. The result of this arrangement is a weary- ing reiteration for pupils, for the "temperance" Reiteration matter consists largely of repeated application of "s»its. general statements to each system of organs. Add to all this the fact that in very similar books this must be gone over year after year from the early grades to the high school and in books with at least one-fifth of their space devoted to teaching " temperance," and we have the explanation why children com- monly think that the most important topics in " human physi- ology " are those of alcohol and tobacco. Such over-emphasis is certainly scientifically and pedagogically unsound. 478 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY Elsewhere (p. 469) it is pointed out that the " sandwich- ing " of relatively unimportant topics, such as that of alcohol, Continuity breaks up the continuity of the scientific study of broicen. physiology. On this ground alone we may urge that if " temperance instruction " must be given, it should be confined to a separate chapter where it will not interfere with the scientific teachings of the principles of physiology. To this A Temper- ^ statement ^ made by a temperance leader answers Mys'iSogfcai "^^^ "temperance" and not "physiology" is the Movement. more important subject-matter for which the arrangement of lessons should be adapted. But with this we cannot agree after reading the dissertations by Horace Mann, Huxley, Herbert Spencer, and others who have written in de- fence of the study of " human physiology," but have made no reference to the effects of alcohol and narcotics. Another pedagogical feature of " temperance instruction " in which it is unique among subjects commonly taught in elemen- tary schools is that of citations from original sources. Original We are all familiar with the common form : " Pro- fessor or Dr. states it as his opinion that alcohol," etc. On page after page of some "approved" text- books there are such citations, many of which are merely personal opinions which are absolutely worthless in science. In no other subject taught in elementary schools are original author- ities thus mentioned ; and all other text-books are compiled from the common fund of established and accepted knowledge. Citation of original authorities in " temperance instruction " suggests the suspicion that there is no such common fund from which to draw materials on this subject. The nature of the subject-matter relating to the effects of 1 " This is not a physiological, but a temperance movement. In all grades below the high school this instruction should contain only phys- iology enough to make the hygiene of temperance and other laws of health intelligible. Temperance should be the chief and not the sub- ordinate topic and should occupy at least one-fourth the space in text- books for these grades." — Mary H. Hunt, loc. cit., 1897, p. 47. TEACHING OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY 479 alcohol and narcotics in " approved " text-books has been much discussed in recent years. Within the limits , ■' Discussion of this chapter it is impossible to do more than ofSubject- • J- , ,. ,- , ,• • , >, Matterof mdicate the lines of the discussions. Most Temperance . . , , , , . ^ Instruction, prominent m these have been the questions, Is alcohol a food? or, Is it a poison? Atwater's experiments demonstrating, what had long been supposed true, j^ jucohoi a that to a slight extent alcohol may be a source of Food? energy in the human body, led to the charge of inaccuracy in many "approved" text-books which teach that alcohol is always a poison. We cannot here discuss the technical side of this question, but by way of summary it may be stated that physiologists now agree that in minute quantities alcohol is a food in the sense that it is a source of energy. But it does not follow that alcohol should be recommended as a regular part of human diet. The important question, which Alcohol a physiologists clearly appreciate is not, Is alcohol a **™'"*"*- food? but, What are its effects as a stimulant? This is shown by the following quotations : " Man has recourse to alcohol, not for the minute quantity of energy which is supplied by itself, but for its powerful influence on the distribution of energy furnished by other things." ° " Wine, beer, tea, coffee, etc., belong to the important class of stimulants. Some of them contain small quantities of food sub- stance, but these are of secondary interest." ' " In a preceding article I have hinted at the fallacy of at- tempting to measure the real effects of alcohol by experiments in which small quantities are taken for a short time, and only its nutritive action is tested. . . . That alcohol serves as a nutriment, there is no reasonable doubt. But its nutritive effect maybe, often is, counterbalanced by its ulterior action." ^ 1 The teacher should read the editorial articles in the Outlook, and the papers by President Jordan, Professor Atwater, and others named in the bibliography. " Foster — Text-book of Physiology. Fifth edition, 1889. Book II., P- 837- ' Stewart — Manual of Physiology. Fourth edition, 1900, p. 481. * Atwater — Harper's Magazine, Vol. CI., p. 850. 480 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY But admitting that the food value of alcohol is small, and its effect as a stimulant great, are these influences absolutely and , .. -,. constantly harmful or beneficial? The answer to Are its Stun- ■' niating this question may be found in the following sum- £il6CtS harmfni? mary which expresses the demonstrated facts about the physiological effect of alcohol, as it is commonly accepted by leaders in physiology. 1. In small quantities alcohol is oxidized in the body, but SnmmatTof '^^ energy derived is insignificant. No one takes ^sioiofical alcohol as a source of energy, but rather as a AicohoL stimulant. 2. Its stimulating influences are injurious or harmless, de- pending upon many conditions. While undoubtedly injurious in certain quantities and conditions, it may in smaller quantities be harmless or even beneficial, e. g., as a drug in certain diseases. More specifically, alcohol especially affects the nerv- ous and vascular systems, dilating blood-vessels, accelerating heart-beat, and stimulating nervous organs. All these effects may be injurious, harmless, or even beneficial, depending upon highly variable conditions, such as, quantity of alcohol, presence of other food, and various physiological conditions of the individual. 3. The limit of possible beneficial effect of alcohol is soon reached, and beyond that harm is likely to result. The limit is, however, variable with individuals ; a so-called stricriy moderate quantity being harmless to one man and decidedly injurious to another. 4. Undoubtedly habitual excessive use tends to induce diseases of many organs. 5. No individual can absolutely estimate the limit between harmless moderate use and injurious excessive use. Hence, habitual use of even limited quantities may have its dangers. 6. The dangers of developing habitual excessive use are so well known as to require no scientific demonstration. 7. While alcohol may be harmless under certain conditions, there is no evidence that it is useful to healthy men. TEACHING OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY 481 8. It is frequently overlooked that many common liquors do not have the same effect as pure alcohol, for the reason that they contain substances far more powerful than alcohol itself. It is clear that in the light of present-day knowledge of the physiological effects of alcoholic liquors we cannot sta^:e without qualification that they are injurious. This ^ I ^ J J- u- ui Unqualified may or may not be true, depending upon highly statements • ui J-.- J 1 . . . ■ misleading, variable conditions ; and any general statement is at once inaccurate and misleading. We see the impossibility of firmly basing total abstinence from the use of alcohol upon physiological facts, for this could be done only by scientifically demonstrating that inevitable and invariable results follow the use of any alcoholic liquors even in limited quantities. To teach this was the original purpose of the promoters of the movement, and many of the present text-books tend, through over-emphasis, to give pupils such an impression. But although present-day physiology is unable to afford support for such ab- solute temperance principles, its well-established facts, as sum- marized above, show clearly that alcohol is not demonstrably 'useful to the normal healthy man. This and the undisputed danger of developing uncontrollable habits offers important sup- port to appeals from considerations other than physiological. Here is safe material for "scientific temperance instruction," but to teach total abstinence from alcohol as an established law of personal hygiene is educationally wrong because it is so obviously false. Nothing of permanent value is to be gained by over-estimating the physiological facts regarding the effects of alcohol, for while the young children may be misled for a time, they are sure to discover the truth which will lower their re- spect for teachers and text-books, and especially for a school system which encourages the teaching of things which are very doubtful or untrue. It is to be noted that in the various physiological papers written within the past five years the chief discussion of the effects of alcohol are centred around the . question of its limited use. This is so because the injurious effects of large doses are 31 482 THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY so well known as to require no scientific demonstration. Any person with ordinary intelligence is well enough aware of the Instruction physical, mental, and moral ruin wrought by exces- ^olS*^^ sive use of alcohol, without having studied in the Aicaboiism. public schools the horrible descriptions of chronic alcoholism illustrated by awful pictures of drunkards' stomachs and hobnailed livers. Such teaching has no justification, for detailed knowledge of such extreme pathological conditions is likely to have little influence in comparison with that exerted by the well-known facts which every one gains from every-day life. If horrible facts in this line will have any influence, absolute temperance reform ought to be possible on the basis of common knowledge without any appeal to the science of pathology. The summary above includes all the important well-estab- lished principles regarding the physiological effects of alcohol, Few Facts ^iid little could be added except in details or tobetanebt. ^Jong the line of scientific hypotheses. Certainly the latter do not belong in elementary text-books, for no sane educator would approve teaching in elementary schools that which is subject to change with advancing knowledge ; and especially should uncertain physiological theories be avoided in a subject like " temperance instruction," which finds its one justification in that it is made the basis for moral instruction. If the leading physiological facts about alcohol, as stated above, are to be presented to young pupils, they would, of course, LessSDacein '^^1'^''^^ some expansion into simple elementary Text-books, form, but at most half a dozen pages would suffice to state all the important general truths. In the excellent little text-book, Physiology for Beginners, by Foster and Shore, two pages (instead of fifty) include all important demonstrated physiological facts about alcohol, but the book is quite free from the unimportant details, the platitudes, the reiterations, the wild guesses, and the hypotheses which enter so prominently into the "temperance instruction" in most "approved" text- books. Comparing this book with the advanced treatises and TEACHING OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY 483 with the "approved" elementary books, we are forced to conclude that the important demonstrated facts on the strictly physiological side of " temperance instruction " should be pre- sented in a text-book in at most one-tenth of the space required by law and demanded by the leaders of the movement. More- over, our limited knowledge of the physiological effects of alcohol does not justify repetition of the study of physiology for the sake of giving temperance instruction in from five to seven years of the school course. At most the strictly phys- iological facts deserve not more than six or eight pages to be studied in some one year, preferably the seventh or eighth grade, for such instruction must be meaningless to younger children. We must now consider " temperance " teaching in another aspect, for in many text-books a larger part of the subject- matter relating to alcohol is not physiology, but g^yg^j. more properly belongs to economics, ethics, and p?*^'^!"'' ■ *^ sociology. ««i- With regard to the economical aspect of " scientific temper- ance," we believe with Professor Atwater that " statistics of the nation's liquor bill do not appeal very strongly to _ ^ , , 1 , 1 Economics In the ordinary man, still less does the average boy Temperance ' , , . , . , Instruction, care for them." The only economical considera- tions which will make much impression upon a modern boy is the fact that chances of employment for responsible positions are vastly increased for total abstainers. But why should such teaching be coupled with physiology? With regard to the matter of ethical import, there is a grow- ing belief among educators and men of science that the great- est value of "temperance instruction" lies along .^^^^^^^ this hne ; but this is no more physiological than is Teaching as the teaching of manners, honesty, and the like. Many teachers and men of science urge that " temperance instruction" take primarily the form of ethical appeal; but this should be made as such and not under the guise of physiology. Let all "temperance instruction," except a few pages in the text-book devoted to strictly physiological facts, be given, if it 484 TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY is to be given in the schools, as part of the general instruction in morals ; and, we believe, a more lasting impression for good will be made upon the pupil than can be obtained from any attempt to warp the physiological facts into a material basis for moral instruction. In short, let the study of " human physiology" be freed from all non-physiological phases of " temperance instruction." There is no sufficient reason why this subject should continue to be the scapegoat, for litera- ture and history might with much less juggling of subject- matter, be made to teach temperance as regards the use of alcohol. In conclusion, we have seen in our examination of " temper- ance instruction " that the extremely unsatisfactory conditions, especially those arising from the absurd and intolerable laws, not only interfere seriously with the teaching of "physiology" in our public schools, but also degrade it in the estimation of many prominent educators and scientific men. This should not be so. The study of the human body is a great and important subject which deserves to be freed from the influence of propagandismj and the teaching developed to the efficiency becoming a study which is an " all-essential part of a rational education." To this end all educators and men of science Need of should make a united effort for decided changes in United Effort, ^jjg present conditions which prohibit advances in the teaching of" physiology" in the public schools. At present teachers in many States are so hampered by the absurd laws that little improvement is possible. In some States the laws are not stringent or else are not enforced^ and hence the teachers are more or less free to choose regarding the subject-matter. But Changes great and decided improvement in the teaching of necessary. physiology throughout the United States can be secured only by beginning with the following changes : — 1. Repeal of all existing laws and the defeat of all pro- posed ones which place any limitations upon the teaching of " physiology." 2. Selection of text-books which give only concise state- TEACHING OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY 485 ments of the essential physiological facts relating to alcohol, and these confined to one chapter to be studied in one of the last two years of the elementary-school course. 3. The teaching of non-physiological facts of ethics and economics which relate to temperance as such and not as part of " physiology." We agree with President Jordan that the only adequate remedy for present conditions "lies in allowing that science shall be free to teach its own lessons, and that the pubUc schools shall not be used by advocates of science any kind of social or political reform, no matter how meritorious the cause may be in itself." " The whole ' scientific temperance ' movement is opposed to the movement for good schools through the choice of good teachers. It has been judged l)y its motives, which are good. It will come to be judged by its results, and these are bad." '^ SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE. In the past ten years " physiology " as a separate course has been losing caste in American high schools, and the essential facts formerly included under " human physiology " are now taught in the most pro- gressive schools in close correlation with zoology and biology or in courses of hygiene that touch both the personal and public (" sanitation ") aspects of the science of healthful living. Kellogg's Animals and Man and Peabody and 'Hxait's Animal and Human Biology sxe text-books in which human physiology is taught in association with or in continuation of animal studies. Hunter's Essentials of Biology and Bigelow's Applied Biology and Introduction to Biology attempt to present human physiology and hygiene as an integral part of the science of biology. ■ Sex-instruction. The suggestion on page 460 that the study of animal and plant life histories will give sufficient information concerning repro- duction is now incorrect, for it is now clear that the biology courses of the high school should be supplemented by some direct teaching in the line commonly called sex-instruction. The relation of such instruction to high-school biology is discussed by the author in pages 73-80 of the Teachers' Manual of Biology (Macmillan, 1913). See also the pamphlets issued by the Society for Sanitary and Moral Prophylaxis and by the 1 Popular Science Monthly, Vol. XLVIII., p. 354. January, 1896. 486 TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY American Social Hygiene Association, both of 105 West 40th Street, New York City. Tlie situation regarding temperance instruction has not changed in ten years, except that there is a general tendency to allow the laws to become obsolete. In Illinois, the teachers' association attempted to ob- tain new legislation, but met with strenuous opposition (see Nature-Study ^m/ww, Vol. 4, Dec, 1908, pp. 287-292). The "temperance" subject- matter presented by the recent text-books of " physiology and hygiene " is decidedly more accurate than formerly. The author has reviewed the main physiological facts relating to alcohol in chapters in the Applied Biology and the Introduction to Biology. Index [The indexes to the two parts of this volume have, for convenience in reference, been consoh'dated. In cases where a topic might be taken to refer to either the plant or animal sides of biology, the Botany and Zoology parts of the book are indicated below in parenthesis- Pages numbered above 240 are in tlie Zoology part.] Adaptation, 55, 139 (j« Ecology). Agassiz, method of, 107, 306. Aims of zoology, 259, 262. Alcohol, instruction concerning, 473 ff- Algae, 190; blue-green, 189. Amoeba, 363, 379, 394. . Analogy, 136. Analysis, 48. Anatomical courses (Zoology), 269 ff. Anatomy, human, 466 ; in zoology courses, 268 ff. Anatomy, plant, 143. Angiosperms, 204. Animals for laboratory, 356 ff., 394 ff- Apparatus (Botany), home-made, 221. Apparatus (Zoology), distribution of, 313 ff.; special for zoology, 409 ff. Approach, method of, in botany, 119, 132, 133. Aquaria, 393, 409 ff. Bacteria, 188, 471 ; books, 422. Beginning of zoology, 104 ff., 340. Bibliographies (Botany), 7, 25, 62, 8i> 99. 135. 208, 216, 230-236. Bibliographies (Zoology), 241, 242, 261, 294, 29s, 320, 321, 331, 419 ff., 448, 456, 457. 472. 473- Biography in biology, 291 ; books, 433- Biology (Botany), as discipline, 14; humanistic value of, 17 ; pleasure of, 11; relation to labor, 20 ; relation to sex problem, 21. Biology (Zoology) unified science, 250, 332 ff. ; place in curriculum, 337 ff. ; year's course, 337 ff. Bodily activity, use of, 34. Book work in human physiology, 476 ; in zoology,_3io ff. Books : animal natural history, 435 ff.; evolution, 429 ff.; selected lists, 440 ff.; text-books of zoology and physiology, 442 ff.; zoology, 417 ff. Books, botanical, 230 ff. Botany, descriptive, 100 ; geograph- ical, 206; informational content of, 69; parts of, to be repre- sented in a course, 115; relation to sex problem, 77 ; synthetic course in, 93, 117 ; type course in, 106. Bryophyta, 196. Bud, 184. 488 INDEX Cases, spedmen, 412. Cause, 56. Cephalopods, 367. Character forming, 37. Chart-racks, 213. Charts, 218. Chemotropism, plant, 166. Classification, of plants, 144. Classification, animal, 280 f£., 425. Cobalt chlorid test, 178. Coelenterates, 363, 381, 397. College admission in zoology, 336, 454- Committee of Ten, 142. Comparison, 126, 133. Control experiment, 129. Correlation : botany and zoology, 331 ff.; nature-study and biology, 320 ff.; physiology and zoology, 457 ff; structure and func- tion, 344 ff. Crayfish, 358, 372 ff., 404. Cryptogams, 186, ff. Culture value of zoology, 250. Curriculum of high school; zool- ogy in. 331 ff- Dealers (Botany), 221, 225. Dealers (Zoology), 414 ff. Deduction, 52, 53, 299, 304. Descartes, ideals of, 39. Descent of man, 252, 289. Development, idea of, 128. Differentiation (Botany), 139. Differentiation (Zoology), school and college, 448 ff. Digestion, plant, 165. Directing laboratory vFork, 306 ff., 312 fi- Discipline, scientific, in zoology, 244 ff., 298 ff. Discrimination, 49. Dissection, animal, 271, 411. Division of labor, physiological, 141. 377- Drawings, 316 ff. Earthworm,^ 360, 400. Echinoderms, 365, 386. Ecology (Botany), 56; of leaf, 183; of roots, 172; plant, 144, 153. Ecology, animal, 275; books, 426. Economic zoology, 247, 286 ; books, 427. Education (Botany), agricultural, 20; aim of, 31 ; nature study in, 3'- Education (Zoology), science in, 242 ff. ; zoology in, 244 ff. Elective courses, zoology, 334 ff. Embryology, animal, 282 ff., 376. Emotions, 34, 42. Energy, expenditure of, by plants, 159- Equipment, for pupils, 212, 219; laboratory, 217, 409 ff. Essentials of physiology, 342 ff., 465, 468 ; of zoology, 292. Etiolation, 167. Evolution, books, 429; in schools, 286 ff. ; in zoology, 251, 346. Experiment, control, 129 ; value of, 54- Extraction, study of foods by, 162. False generalization, example of, SI- Fern-allies, 199. Fern-earthworm course (Botany), US- Ferns, 199. Flowering-plants, 203. Field work, 204^ on fruits and seeds, 158; on roots, 173. Foods, plant, 163. Frog, 378, 383, 360, 370, 386 ff., 408. Fruit, outline for study, 146 ff. Fungi, 193. Garden, school, value of, 48, 49, S3- Geotropism, plant, 166. Grafting, 180. Gymnosperms, 203. INDEX 489 Half-year courses, 335 ff., 390 ff. Hand-lens, 127. Hepaticae, 196. Histology, animal, 375, 387, 393. Historical allusion, 96. History of zoology, 291; books, 432. Homolog)"-, plant, 136. Honesty, intellectual, 38. Human body, study of, 390, 457 fE. Huxley, ideas of, 39. Huxley's method, 352 ff. Hydra, 363, 381, 397. Hygiene, 470. Hypocotyl, delimitation of, 170. Induction, 29, 299 f£. Inference, 50. Information (Botany), how to im- part, 41. Information in zoology, 246 ff., 296. Insects, 361, 372, 384, 407, 412. Interest (Botany), 67 ; popular, in nature, 32. Interest (Zoology) of pupils, 255 ff., 324 ff., 340 ff. Interpretation of microscopic ob- jects, 125; (Zoology), 347. Investigation in laboratory study, 306 ff. Irritability, plant, 166. Laboratory (Botany), equip- ment for, 217 ; lighting of, 209 ; method of seating, 210; plans for, 216. Laboratory (Zoology), directions to pupils, 312; special equip- ment, 409 ff. ; minor problems, 312 ff.; technique, 392 ff.; time for, 315 ff. ; work, 295 ff. Laboratory work, (Botany), 130. Lantern, 219. Laws, influence on physiology, 464, 474, 484. Leaf, ecology of, 183; external features, i8i ; physiology of, l8l. Liberal education and zoology, 244 ff., 261 ff. Lichens, 195. Life-history, plant, 137. Liverworts, 196. Logical order (Zoology), 345 ff. Magnifying glasses, 217. Mammals, 359, 389. Materials, animal, 356 ff., 394 ff. Materials, plant, for demonstration, 225; living, 215; preservation of, 222 ; values of, 75 ff. Metazoa, 345 ff., 358 ff. Method, scientific, laboratory, 29s ff. Method of study, scientific, 41. Microscope (Botany), 217 ; hori- zontal, 217. Microscope (Zoology), 347 ff., 375. MoUusks, 366, 385, 406. Morphology, plant, 143. Mosses, 198. Museum preparations, plant, 225. Museum specimens, animal, 408, 413- Myxomycetes, 187. Names, value of (Botany), 47, 102. National Educational Assn., Re- port of, 142. Natural history ; books, 435 ff. ; in beginning zoology, 340 ff. ; for college entrance, 449 ff. ; in education, 265 ; in high school, 322 ff. ; relations to zoology, 263 ff., 275; vertebrate, 368 ff. Nature-study (Botany), 25 ; method of thought in, 44 ff. Nature - study, (Zoology), books, 320, 435 ff., 441 ; relation to phys- iology, 327; to zoology, 321, 341- Nature, interpretation of, as beau- tiful, 35 ; popular interest in, 32. Note-books, 318. 490 INDEX Object-lesson, value of, 29. Observation, 45. Oils in plants, 164. Ontogeny, plant, 137. Outline of courses ; zoology, 371 ff. Outlines, laboratory (Botany), 146. Paleontology, animal, 285. Paramoecium, 363, 379, 395 ff- Periodicals, botanical, 235. Periodicals (Zoology), 434. Phanerogams, 203. Philosophy of biology, 251 £F. ; books, 429 ff. Phototropism, plant, 166. Phylogeny, plant, 137. Physiography, plant, 206. Physiology, animal ; 247, 272 ff. ; introduction to, 342, 376, 468. Physiology, human ; relation to biology, 328 ff. ; to nature-study, 327 ; teaching in high school, 456 ff.; text-books, 421, 446. Physiology ( Botany), correlation of animal and plant, 140 ; of roots, 172; plant, 144, 159. Physiology of leaf, 181. Phytogeography, 206. Pleasure, relation of knowledge to, 65. Point of view (Botany), 104; im- portance of, 89. Potassium permanganate test, 170. Preservatives for plant materials, 223. Preserving animals, 362, 394 ff. Principles of zoology, 352 ft, 372 ff. Projection, optical, 219. Proteids in plants, 163. Protozoa, in beginning work, 345 ff ., 379 ; materials, 363, 394. Psychology, animal, 276; books, 427. Pteridophyta, 199. Purpose, 56; Pfeffer on, 58; von Sachs on, 58. Reality, value of study of ob- jective, 10. Reason, 34. Reproduction, knowledge of, 79. Respect for rights of others, 40. Roots, 169; anatomy of, 170; ecology of, 172; physiology of, 172; secondary, 170. SCHIZOMYCETES, l88. Schizophyceae, 189. Schizophyta, 188. Science in education, 9. Sciences in education, 242 ff. ; in high school, 332 ff. Seed, outline for study, 146 ff. Senses, training of the, 46, Sentimentalism, 68. Shoot, 174; anatomy and morphol- ogy of, 17s; ecology of, 179; physiology of, 177. Snail, 366, 385, 406. Standard for botanical course, 143 ; value of, 82 ff. Starch in plants, 163. Storage, methods of, 213. Study, botanical, method of, 124 ff. Synthetic course in botany, 93; outline of, 143. Sugar in plants, 164. Table tops, finish for, 211. Tables, laboratory, form of, 210. Temperance instruction, 472 ff. Text-books ; human physiology, 445 ff. ; criticisms on, 465 ff. 472 ff.; zoology, 310 ff., 442. Thallophyta, 186 ff. Type, to form a notion of, 126. Types, animal, 356 ff., 381 ff. Types (Botany), arrangement of, 109. Unicellular animals ; in begin- ning work, 345 ff., 379 ; materials, 363, 394 ff. INDEX 491 Value of Zoology j as discipline, 244 S. ; as information, 2466. Verification in laboratory study, 306 «f. Vertebrates, 367 £E., 386 ff., 40S. Worms, 364, 382, 400. Xylonite, use of, 227. Zoology ; college entrance, 454 ; divisions of, 263 ; in high-school curriculum, 331 ff. ; in school and college, 44SfE. ; relation to botany, 331 ff. ; subject-matter, 261 ff. AMERICAN TEACHERS SERIES Edited by JAMES E. RUSSELL, Ph.D. DBaN OF TEACHERS COLUEBE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY In all the field of education there are no problems more difficult to solve than those pertaining to the work of the secondary school. What is the aim of secondary education ? What is its function in modern society? What knowledge is of most worth? What means and methods produce the best results ? Such questions as these come to every secondary teacher and demand an answer. The most encourag- ing sign of the times is the growth of a teaching profession pledged to study these problems intelligently and to find some rational solution of them. The " American Teachers Series " will review the principal subjects of the secondary school curriculum. The purpose is to discuss the educational value of each subject, the reasons for including it in the curriculum, the selection and arrangement of materials in the course, the essential features of class instruction, and the various helps which are available for teachers' use. The books are not intended to correct the faults of ignorant teaching ; they are not put forth as manuals of infallible methods. They are designed to be contributions to the pro- fessional knowledge necessary in secondary education, and are ad- dressed to teachers of liberal culture and special scholarship who are seeking to make their knowledge more useful to their pupils and their pupils more useful to the State. — From the Editor's Preface. The Teaching of Latin and Greek. By Charles E. Bennett, Pro- fessor of Latin, and George P. Bristol, Professor of Greek, Cornell University. Crown 8vo. 354 pages. jSi.50. The Teaching of History and Civics. By Henry E. Bourne, Pro- fessor of History, Western Reserve University. Crown 8vo. 395 pages. $1.50. The Teaching of Chemistry and Physics. By Alexander Smith, Professor of General Chemistry, Columbia University, and Edwin H.. Hall, Professor of Physics, Harvard University. Crown 8vo. 384 pages. iSi-So- The Teaching of English. By George R. Carpenter, late Professor of Rhetoric, Columbia University, Franklin T. Baker, Professor of English, Teachers College, Columbia University, and Fred Newton Scott, Professor of Rhetoric, University of Michigan. Crown 8vo. 390 pages. $1.50. The Teaching of Mathematics. By Professor J. W. A. Young, Uni- versity of Chicago. $1.50. The Teaching' of Biology. By Francis E. Lloyd, Macdonald Pro- fessor of Botany, McGill University, and Maurice E. Bigelow, Pro- fessor of Biology, Teachers College, Columbia University. jSi.50 LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO^ New York.