(i llll ' .ll ■ ■•t \ ar 4m\ 1 mm' WM OJarKEll IntuBrBitii-'Iitbrarg t^ ^ 1^' 1^ This Referenc^a^Book is not to be taken from the Reading Room ^ ^ ^ ^ ''''-t,^ WHEN DONE WITH, RETURN TO THe'ShELF 1 I il i,i;i iiiii^ Hi Mk afornell Imuerattg ffithrarg jltl;aca, ^tm ^urh BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF HENRY W. SAGE 1891 "•}* to use reference books olrn,anx 3 1924 031 228 020 Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031228020 HOW TO USE REFERENCE BOOKS BY LEON O. WISWELL SCHOOL LIBRARIES INSPECTOR NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO Hv Copyright, 1916, by LEON O. WISWELL HOW TO USE REFERENCE BOOKS W. f . A PREFACE Skill in getting information from books is so necessary to a student that no school meets its full obligation if it does not early give systematic training in the use of a good library, and particu- larly in the art of consulting the more common works of reference. It has been too frequently assumed that little or no skill beyond the mere ability to read is required. This is a mistake. Centuries of time, in the aggregate, have been wasted by young students in awkward and only partially successful efforts to do it. The fact that these works are often of great size, are filled with technical devices, are complicated in some par- ticulars, and so are really difficult for inexperi- enced persons to use, is too generally ignored, with the result that the books are voluntarily used far less than they should be, in school and out. The aim in this book has been to offer prac- tical assistance of an elementary character to the great body of teachers and parents who have had no special training for this duty. For this reason considerable attention has been devoted to the use of the dictionary, which is at once the most important reference work and the most common. It is suggested that some course of this general character be given to all prospective teachers. TABLE OF CONTENTS The Library: Training to Use the Library . What are Reference Books ? . Special Aids in Finding References The Table of Contents . The Index .... Taking Notes .... Indispensable Reference Books : The Dictionary How to Encourage the Use of the Dictionary Finding Words .... Spelling Pronunciation .... Study of Primitives before Derivatives Definitions Classed according to Parts of Speech Selection from a Series of Definitions Second Series of Definitions . Etymology of Words Significance of Parts of Words Compound Words . Synonyms .... Special Sections The Cyclopedia .... 6 9 13 16 17 18 25 25 29 3° 31 56 58 59 63 64 72 76 76 79 85 TABLE OF CONTENTS Reference Works in Particular Subjects : Geography 93 The Atlas 93 The Gazetteer . 95 The Railway Guide . 96 Literature . 96 Books of Quotations 97 The Concordance . , lOI How to Trace Allusions . , 103 Literary Values ; Discrimination in Choice I OS History 1 06 Natural Sciences and Useful Arts . III Sociology • 112 Organization and Equipment: Library Economy 117 Classification . 118 The Catalogue 122 Analytical 127 Cross References . 127 The Physical Forms of Books 134 Selections • 134 Magazines ■ 13s Definitions . 136 Common Abbreviations . • 139 The Care of Books • 139 . 141 Accumulating a Library . . 141 Selection ■ 143 Course of Instruction : Lessons for Elementary Schools . . . • 151 Lessons for Secondary Schools • IS3 All minds in the world's history find their focus in a library. This is the pinnacle of the temple from which we may see all the kingdoms of the world and the glory of them. . . Ages have wrought, generations grown, and all their blossoms are cast down here. It is the garden of immortal fruits, without dog or dragon. — Gilbert de la Porree. TRAINING TO USE THE LIBRARY No student, however faithful and industrious, can hope to finish his education within the short period of his school course. He can only make a beginning. And if for superior attainments he is honored at the graduating exercises, still he is reminded by the name commonly applied to these exercises that he has reached only the Commencement of another period in the process of learning and doing, a period that is to continue as long as life shaU last. If, early or late, he decides to rest on his past achievements, that moment he ceases to progress, and the busy, aggressive world moves on and leaves him behind. Another person, more eflScient than himself, takes his place. Manifestly, one of the greatest services any school can do for its pupils is to train them in ways and habits of being self-helpful, so that, when the separa- tion comes, the individual shall go out strong in preparation for self -improvement. That no other single agency is so potential a means of improvement as a collection of good books is 9 lO THE LIBRARY everywhere conceded. Every thoughtful teacher beheves this ; yet, while he is earnestly desirous to do his full duty toward the pupils under his charge, he is likely to find difl&culty in accompHshing his purpose with the library. Lack of time, lack of books, lack of interest on the part of the pupils, lack of preparation on the part of the teacher, all com- bine to prevent it from being as useful or as helpful as it might be. The teacher often finds it easier to tell than to teach, easier to do a task for a pupil than to train him to do it for himself, easier to meet the immediate demands of the day than to look far ahead and make plans for a lifetime. No wonder there are failures. The ideal teacher, often approximated in real life, finds time, gets books, supplies deficiencies, over- comes difficulties, and somehow sees that his pupils obtain the essentials of the best training that the wisdom of the time can suggest. No one is more prompt than he to welcome and appreciate offerings out of the experience and study of another. The mere possession of books counts for nothing. In them may be recorded the wisest thoughts and the most noteworthy accomplishments of men, but unless they are read they are valueless. The stu- dent, if he knows how, may quickly turn to them for fact, suggestion or inspiration; and if his private TRAINING TO USE THE LIBRARY II collection is not sufficient, there are public libraries which he may draw upon if he chooses. Every school library and every other public library should be regarded as an educational means of the greatest importance; therefore, the training of pupils to use such a library properly and profitably should be a leading function of the school. The ability to find answers to the myriads of queries that arise in every obserAdng and thoughtful mind is not acquired by inheritance or by purchase, but by study and practice. Formal and systematic instruction in the use of libraries is logically a part of the course in English, and periods for it may very properly be taken from those assigned to that subject. If the authorities approve, students may earn credit in this division of the English course as legitimately as in any other. The first reading by the child is chiefly to learn the mechanical process of interpreting the printed page. As soon as this has been fairly well accom- plished, say at the end of the third or fourth year, he is prepared to read in order to acquire new ideas. Then, if not before, he begins to find in books men- tion of things of which he has little or no knowledge. If he is permitted to ignore them, he is receiving lessons in mental vacuity, in carelessness, in ineflS- ciency, in self-conceit, in bluff. If the teacher 12 THE LIBRARY simply gives the pupil explanations which the latter could find, and ought to find, for himself ; then the pupil is receiving lessons in dependence on the teacher, with whom he will be associated but a few months at most ; he is learning to expect from others service which he ought to perform for himself, and he is being deprived of the joy of doing and of mak- ing discoveries independently. The ability and the promptness of the pupils to help themselves not only relieve the teacher of much labor ; they are evidence of his success. It would be impossible to overestimate the value of the good books, other than reference works, with which the world has been blessed. To learn to read them habitually and with appreciation is a most important part of a good education. The reading of weak and senseless books is debihtating. A person will receive most benefit, and, incidentally, most pleasure and satisfaction, from books that are advanced enough beyond his knowledge or experi- ence to try his judgment and understanding some- what. It is true that without understanding there is no interest, and without interest there is little or no profit ; but the effort to learn will result in intel- lectual progress. The usefulness of reference works upon which the student can draw for information is apparent. REFERENCE BOOKS I3 Two helpful books on this subject for teachers and students to read are, Hinsdale, The Art of Study ; and McMurry, How to Study and Teaching How to Study. What are Reference Books? Most books treat of related topics in logical or progressive order, or describe a course of real or imagined events, and are intended for continuous reading. But there are some made up of bits of unrelated or loosely related information, which are intended for the enlightenment of the student, subject by subject, as he may choose to consult them. In the course of his reading, his studies, his travels, or his social intercourse, every intelligent person is frequently confronted by the discovery that he lacks understanding of some term, or knowl- edge of some particular subject. If he is earnest and conscientious, the impression made upon him by such a discovery is that of an unbridged chasm which effectually blocks his advance, or perhaps that of a great blot on the page, which obliterates an important word or passage and makes the meaning of other passages obscure. A book which contains the desired information in concise form is to him a means of bridging the chasm or restoring the passage. To it he refers as he has need ; hence it is a reference book. 14 THE LIBRARY Among the works which are designed solely for reference are dictionaries, cyclopedias, gazetteers, concordances, atlases, directories, time-tables, and others. The contents of each are so arranged or indexed that any particular item may be found with the least possible difficulty. Those works which treat of no particular subject are general; of this class the common English dic- tionaries and the common cyclopedias are examples. Those which relate to a particular subject are special or technical; in this class would fall a dictionary of music or a cyclopedia of agriculture, for example. Of the books which are primarily intended for continuous reading or progressive study, some are admirably adapted to serve for reference. This is especially true of some advanced textbooks, of many treatises, and of all voluminous works. Their value for this purpose is greatly enhanced by the inclusion of full indexes. Whether such books shall be re- garded as reference works depends on the use that is made of them. After the devices or arrangements for quick find- ing have been mastered, there still remain the broader tasks of directing one's reading or study in profitable ways, and of deciding what books give greatest promise of furnishing satisfactory answers to inquiries. REFERENCE BOOKS 15 Teachers and others who are charged with the duty of selecting reference works for purchase, or of recommending any to students for use, might welcome the suggestions given or referred to in the paragraphs on " The Physical Forms of Books " and "Accessions." If choice must be made between books for reading and books for reference, the former should be taken. But a few books of reference are positively indispensable; the number may be in- creased as the need for them develops, and as the means to buy them become available. Reference books should be kept in a collection by themselves where they are perfectly accessible to students and teachers at all times. If the students make little or no use of them, the alert principal will observe that fact and will investigate the reasons for such neglect. Every school ought to be prompt to make profit- able use of any public Ubrary that may be in the vicinity. Some reference books, especially very expensive or pretentious works, belong particularly in the public library. It is better to consult them there than to use an undue amount from limited funds to buy them for the school hbrary. It is always to be remembered that, when rightly taught, the pupils find increasing pleasure and satis- faction in reading and in consulting references. 1 6 THE LIBRARY Only in this way can literary taste be improved and the reading habit be formed. If the work is distasteful and continues so, it is a failure. Special Aids in Flnding Reperences The course of the student in consulting any one book is repeated substantially with every other. He looks to the table of contents for an idea of the plan and scope of the book, and to the index for the location of matter on particular topics. He perhaps reads the preface, which is usually not without value. It is the author's personal word to the reader, in which he perhaps states the purpose he had in writing the book, the theory on which it was based, the conditions which he tried to meet, and similar matters that, if known to the reader at the outset, would insure a more intelligent, and, possibly, a more respectful review. To learn to do tasks in the simplest and easiest manner should be a part of every pupil's education. Life is too short and time is too precious to allow any one to do otherwise. These aids are among the num- berless means of saving time and so, in a sense, of lengthening life. It will be observed that the basis of the device or arrangement for the quick finding of any particular passage is almost invariably the alphabet, or the AIDS IN FINDING REFERENCES 17 Arabic numerals, or a combination of both. The Roman numerals are sometimes used to advantage. The study of a very few t)^ical works, therefore, gives one a key to the devices adopted in all the others. Two of the most useful devices, the table of contents and the index, are here described. THE TABLE OF CONTENTS A table of contents is a synopsis or summary of the topics treated in a book or magazine. Its usual place is at the beginning of the volume. Most com- monly it contains merely the chapter headings; sometimes, however, it contains the main topics and the divisions and subdivisions thereof, aU in orderly course, and in a form to indicate their mutual rela- tions. The page on which each begins is given. Such a table enables one in a moment to get a fair general idea of what the volume contains, and this in turn helps him to determine without loss of time whether the book as a whole, or any part of it, is likely to be of value or interest to him. It is only the novice, therefore, who laboriously turns the leaves of an unfamiliar book and glances at a page here and there, overlooking the table of contents, when his object is to obtain a general idea of its character and the topics treated, or to learn whether it includes matter on a particular topic. l8 THE LIBRARY Examples: Observe the construction of the Table of Contents in the following books : Brewer, Rural Hygiene; Griffis, The Romance of American Colo- nization; Hamerton, The Intellectual Life; Hudson, An Introduction to the Study of Literature; Park- man, Pioneers of France in the New World. THE INDEX Complementary to the table of contents is the index. This is an alphabetic arrangement of topics which indicates the page or pages on which each is treated. Its usual place is at the end of the book. Not every book is of a character or size to de- mand either a table of contents or an index, but most works of reference would be very incom- plete without both. The alphabetic arrangement of the dictionary and the cyclopedia makes the index unnecessary in those works, but ordinarily it is of special value. One has only to think of the most significant word in a topic to be studied, and turn to that word in the index, where he may learn exactly where to find the given passage, if the book includes it. The index is of value also in showing whether the book does or does not contain something in relation to some given topic. The table of contents is useful for the same purpose, of course ; but it is compara- AIDS nsr FINDING REFERENCES 19 tively broad or general in its terms and its order is logical, while the index is usually very specific and its order is alphabetic. In a work consisting of two or more volumes, each volume may have an index, or there may be one general index at the end of the last volume for the entire series. Where the latter is the case, both the volume in which an article begins and the page on which it begins must be indicated. The volumes are usually indicated by Roman letters and the pages by Arabic figures, as v. 256; that is, volume 5, page 256. Both the comma and the dash are some- times used, as pp. 84, 92-96, 105. This means that passages on the given topic may be found on page 84, on all the pages from 92 to 96, and on page 105. Illustrative index entries selected from Macau- lay's History of England: Monk, George. See Albemarle. Marlborough, John Churchill, Duke of; his rise and character, i. 416. His letters to William III, ii. 238, 398. Complaints of his avarice, iii. 394. His expedition to Ireland, iv. 68. William Ill's reconciliation with, v. 351. Roads, badness of, time of Charles II. i. 339, 344- Examples: Observe the construction of the index in the following books : Comstock, Handbook of Nature- 20 THE LIBRARY Study; Hudson, An Introduction to the Study of Literature; Parkman, Pioneers of France in the New World; Roark, Method in Education; Thorpe, A Short Constitutional History of the United States; Hoyt, Cyclopedia of Practical Quotations. (Observe Topical Index in fore part of last named book, and Concordance in back part.) Taking Notes Taking notes of information or suggestions ob- tained from the library, from lectures, or elsewhere, is an art that the student finds desirable to cultivate. Teachers may profitably spend a little time in giving advice on this subject to those under their charge. In the first place, notes are useful only as an aid to the memory ; and the poorer the memory, the fuUer should be the notes. If at all extended, the treatment of most subjects, perhaps all, may logically be divided into parts by topics, some major and some minor, and aU related to each other in some degree. It should be the aim of the student to recognize each topic as he reads and to formulate a brief title for it, perhaps using for this purpose a phrase from the text. The written titles in their consecutive order, interspersed with condensed sentences or direct quotations, con- stitute "notes." Properly prepared, these present TAKING NOTES 21 the skeleton of the book or discourse, later, perhaps, to be rounded into a full and complete composition. Skill in analyzing the text, in formulating topics, and in selecting striking phrases, is gained by prac- tice. It is advised that, wherever practicable, the rela- tions of the topics be indicated to the eye by arrang- ing the notes on the page so that the left margins shall be at varying distances from the edge of the sheet, the minor items a little farther to the right than the major items above. Letters and figures may be used for the same purpose. All non-essential words should be omitted, and some others may be abbreviated. A little knowledge of stenography is often helpful. Uniformity in the size of sheets used is a convenience in filing and preserving them. There is a kind of note making required in some schools which is intended for a quite different pur- pose. It furnishes with literary completeness a formal record of individual research, experimenta- tion and illustration. Formulating such a record leads to a clearer understanding of the subject, writing it out fixes it more securely in memory. And the notebook is material evidence of the extent and character of the work done. Notes which have been carefully collected and arranged may be indexed, and in themselves may 22 THE LIBRARY become a valuable work of reference. Whole courses of study have been compiled in this way by students who intend later to teach a special subject. Suppose a student wishes to use a course in his- tory as a permanent reference work. He takes notes daily in class. They may contain abstracts of dis- cussions raised by the questions of other students, or additional material contributed by the teacher as an expansion of that supphed by the textbook. Notes on references done as exercises outside of class work, besides providing for the teacher a record of assigned work done, constitute the selected or important phases in the course. An illustrated lec- ture may be part of the work, and an abstract of this may be added, or an account of a visit to a museum or some place of historic interest connected with the study. At the end of the term, the notes are collected and bound together. The whole course, class notes, lecture notes, and reference notes, is available for use as a basis of a new course, as reference, or simply as evidence of a piece of work weU done. INDISPENSABLE REFERENCE BOOKS Let the accent of words be watched ; and closely ; but let their meaning be watched more closely still, and fewer will do the work. A few words well chosen and distinguished, will do work that a thousand cannot, when every one is acting, equivocally, in the fxmction of another. — John Ruskin. THE DICTIONARY By far the most important single general refer- ence work is the English dictionary. It is the first which children use, and the more they increase in knowledge and understanding the more they get out of it. It is the student's constant companion while he is reading. It is a storehouse of precious information on an infinite number of subjects to which observing and studious men have been con- tributing for generations. It contains something for young and old, simple and wise, casual reader and specialist. Few even among well-informed people are fully aware of the variety and extent of the matter contained within a large modern dictionary. HOW TO ENCOURAGE THE USE OF THE DICTIONARY I. The dictionary should be easily accessible; if it is not, the voluntary use of it wUl be greatly diminished. If it is kept in another room or on a high shelf, it may almost as well be hidden. Every conscientious student will feel better satisfied with the results, if, when he sits down to read, he has the dictionary within easy reach so that he can consult 25 26 INDISPENSABLE REFERENCE BOOKS it with little effort. An almost ideal plan is for each pupil in the elementary grades to have in his per- sonal outfit a dictionary of medium size, and when this smaller book proves inadequate, to have conven- ient access to a larger one provided by the school board. Advanced students wiU usually find the smaller dictionaries more or less unsatisfactory, and should early form the habit of consulting the larger in the first instance. A small reference book is more gratifying to lazy or tired muscles, but a com- prehensive work is more satisfying to alert, inquir- ing minds. 2. The dictionary should be clean. A dirty book is repulsive. A reference book should attract. 3. The dictionary should be kept on a table large enough to hold both it and any other books or notes which the student may have occasion to use. A chair or chairs should be provided so that the student may suffer no discomfort, and regard should be had for the strength and direction of the light. To oblige an inquiring pupil to lift a heavy volume, to carry it some distance, and then to hold it on his lap while consulting it, is to discourage its use and to jeopardize its safety. 4. The use of the dictionary should be taught directly, positively and systematically. It is not enough for a teacher to say, "There it is; use it if THE DICTIONARY 27 you will," and to do little or nothing more. System- atic instruction should begin at about the fourth or fifth grade with simple exercises in finding words and learning their definitions. As the student advances from grade to grade, this instruction should be con- tinued and broadened in scope until, when he reaches the last year of his high school course, he has the ability to consult it intelligently and quickly. In- telligence to perceive and apply comes first, then facility in handling and in finding. The former is increased by instruction, the latter by practice. 5. Whether large or small, the dictionary should be the best of its kind, and of the most recent edi- tion. It is the content rather than the binding that should receive first consideration; yet the binding should be strong and durable. One of the tributes to real worth is the appearance of imitations, and the best English dictionaries are thus honored with rivals which, though widely and artfully advertised, the discerning will leave for the uncritical to buy. 6. The habit of using the dictionary should be encouraged and cultivated. Most people seem quite unaware of the extent to which, from morning till night, in small things and in great, their hves are ordered by habit. "Habit imphes a settled dis- position or tendency leading one to do easily, naturally, and with growing skill or certainty what 28 INDISPENSABLE REFERENCE BOOKS one does often." It is formed by simple repetition, and, when rightly regulated, it relieves the mind of indecision and holds one steadily to a desirable course. The frequent use of the dictionary is largely a matter of habit; but, if its use be imposed as a task in- stead of being set forth as an agreeable duty, repe- tition may only intensify the dislike with which it was begun. 7. The impulse to use the dictionary should come from within. Does the student act on his own ini- tiative ? Does he gauge his OAvn understanding and set himself to intensive study if there is need ? Or does he expect somebody else to tell him what to look for, and when and where to look ? Is he independ- ent or dependent? When he passes from the con- trol of the master, does he conscientiously continue his studious habits as occasion warrants, thereby both performing a duty and adding to his intel- lectual pleasure, or does he gladly discard the dic- tionary forever ? The success of his training must ultimately be judged by this standard. 8. Every individual should have a good diction- ary of his own. Aside from the convenience of it, a special interest in it will arise from the sense of ownership. This is one reference book which is absolutely indispensable at all times, and with a few standard books for reading, it should form the THE DICTIONARY 29 nucleus of a collection that may finally grow into a fine library. FINDING WORDS In using a dictionary, particular words must first be found, and without waste of time. If a pupil spends five minutes in finding a word which he ought to be able to turn to in ten seconds, it is obvious that he is wasting time and energy. For convenience, the alphabetic order is used ; and the ability of the pupils to name the letters rapidly in order should be tested. Expertness in finding words can be acquired only by practice. For the user's assistance there are two de- vices, the thumb index and the top guide words. The thumb index is an arrangement by which the exact page on which each initial series begins is shown by the letters of the alphabet arranged in two diagonal rows down the front edge of the book. By pressing the thumb on the proper letter and opening the book at that place, the user at once finds the beginning of the particular initial series which includes the word sought. This saves time and saves the book. The letter at the bottom of the first row and the one at the top of the second should be observed and re- membered. The next step in the search for a word is to observe the two words plainly printed at the top of each 30 INDISPENSABLE REFERENCE BOOKS page, one on the left, the other on the right. They show respectively the first and the last words treated on the page and so serve as guides to the words listed on it. From these it is easy to determine whether the given word is to be found on the page. SPELLING Capitals; Hyphens Usage varies as to the spelling of certain words. Proper names and adjectives derived from them, as a rule, begin with capitals ; but in applying the rule there is often uncertainty. When in doubt, consult the dictionary. When two or more forms of approved spelling are given, the one that is con- sidered preferable is placed first. The dictionary indicates the correct forms of irregular plurals of nouns and of past participles of verbs. The student who has access to the New Inter- national Dictionary wiU be interested in the special chapter on orthography, which includes a historical sketch, " Observations ", and "Rules for spelling certain classes of words." Present usage sanctions fewer hyphenated words than former usage did. The tendency is to com- bine the parts of compound words into sohd, un- hyphenated words or to write the parts as separate THE DICTIONARY 31 words. In consulting the New International Dic- tionary for the correct use of hj^hens, observe that both heavy and Hght hyphens are given. The light hyphens are used merely to separate such syllables of any word as are not separated by accent marks. The only h3^hens actually to be used in writing a word are those printed in heavy type. Words for observation or practice : bedtick birdseed bloodhound bookstore earring shopkeeper silversmith bobwhite fishhook baseball waterfowl millstone battlefield wall paper war horse water mill pig iron mince pie cabbage head bay window market place sea rover basket ball water cress mUl pond cave men water-logged mock-heroic middle-aged jack-in-the-pulpit brother-in-law to-day broken-down post-office boot-tree ten-strike bull's-eye make-beHeve battle-ax PRONUNCIATION If a person is to consult the dictionary intelli- gently regarding the pronunciation of words, he must have accurate knowledge of the elemental 32 INDISPENSABLE REFERENCE BOOKS sounds of which they are composed, and of the printed symbol by which each is represented. He must also know the correct division of words into syllables, and the correct position of the accent. Division into Syllables As perceived by the ear, a word is an impulse of the voice or a succession of such impulses, the basis of which is an open sonorous sound proceeding from the vocal cords (vocal hps) located in the larynx. These sounds are called vowel sounds or, simply, vowels. As the letters which represent them are also called vowels, the student should be careful to distinguish between these two uses of the word. The vowel sounds may be, and generally are, im- mediately preceded or followed, or both preceded and followed, by sounds that are formed with some degree of obstruction by the lips, the tongue or other vocal organs. These are known as consonant sounds or consonants. As with the word vowel, so with the word con- sonant ; it is used to denote both a certain kind of voice sound and the letter which represents it. A consonant sound is hardly ever given separately, but is practically always uttered in connection with a vowel sound ; hence the name {con, means with ; sonant means sounding). THE DICTIONARY 33 A vowel sound or a combination of vowel and consonant sounds uttered with one effort or impulse of the voice in the pronunciation of a word is called a syllable. Almost every syllable has a vowel sound, but some vowel letters, like final silent e as in ride^ are not used as the bases of separate syllables. Listen to the pronunciation of illustrative words, as copper, contradict, perpendicular, and note the suc- cessive impulses of the voice, each of which has one open, sonorous sound (vowel), and some of which are also strongly marked by obstructions in the vocal passage (consonants). The division of a word into syllables is easily per- ceptible to the ear and is usually learned with little effort by imitation. Ordinarily there is little occa- sion to divide the written or printed word at all; but a difficulty with syllables arises when the writer or the printer finds it desirable to divide a word at the end of a line, and particularly when, as in read- ing aloud, the student wishes to learn how to pro- nounce an unfamiliar word. The best and most convenient help is the dictionary ; and to consult it for this purpose intelligently one must know some- thing about the elemental sounds of the language, of which the letters are mere signs. Of course the untrained person guesses at the correct pronunciation of every unfamiliar word he 34 INDISPENSABLE REFERENCE BOOKS happens to see; and as there are usually several incorrect ways of pronouncing it, while there is only one correct way, the chances are against him. Not understanding this, or not caring, he ventures un- hesitatingly, with the almost inevitable result of exposing his lack of training to every hstener. For further study, see "A Guide to Pronuncia- tion," in the New International Dictionary, p. xxxviii, and "Rides for the Syllabic Division of Words in Writing or Print," p. lix. Accent Accent is the prominence given to one syllable of a word over the adjacent syllables. This prominence is manifested by stress, or force of voice, which in- creases the relative loudness, by higher pitch, by increase of duration, or by a combination of two or more of these elements. Every word of more than one syllable contains at least one accented syllable. Various degrees of accent may be distinguished in polysyllables {poly means many), but in practice all are classed as either primary (marked ') or secondary (marked ' or ")• The accent marks immediately follow the syllables to which they re- late. Every spoken word of more than one syllable has at least one syllable with a primary, or heavy, accent. In many words of three syllables and in THE DICTIONARY 35 most words of more than three syllables both primary and secondary accents occur. Diacritical Marks or Special Phonic Signs In an ideal alphabet, i.e. one that is purely pho- netic, there would be exactly as many letters as there are elemental sounds in the language, and each of such sounds would be represented by a par- ticular letter. The English alphabet consists of 26 letters ; and as these are used to represent more than 40 elemental sounds, it follows that some letters must each represent more than one sound. A, for example, does duty for several sounds. To make our system more confusing, two letters are sometimes used to represent one sound, as ch in chin; one letter sometimes represents two sounds, as x in box; a letter, or even a combination of two letters, is sometimes used in a word without representing any sound whatever, as ue in tongue; and a letter is sometimes used to represent a sound that ordinarily is associated with another letter, as i for e in caprice. As neither c, q nor x represents any distinctive sound, these three letters could be dropped with- out serious loss were it not for established custom. The condition just described makes necessary the use of a system of diacritical marks or special phonic signs {phon means sound) by which to indicate the 36 INDISPENSABLE REFERENCE BOOKS particular sound or sounds for which certain letters stand. At present there are numerous systems in use. The best known is the one used in Webster's New International Dictionary ; the important marks of that system have been famiKar to all -educated Americans for three generations and have been incorporated in reference books of many kinds. Obviously, the student should learn the system or systems used in the books which he consults, if he is to understand any printed references to the pro- nunciation of words. It is desirable to choose one for illustrative purposes here, and that which is followed in the New International Dictionary is accordingly taken. It is hoped that every reader who happens to use a different system wiU recognize the common phonic basis of all systems, and that he win be helped by this study to a clearer understand- ing of his own system. Though a phonetic chart (guide or key to pronunciation) ought to be at hand for reference in this study, an expensive printed one is not necessary as each student can easily copy for himself the one given in the fore part of his diction- ary, or a large one can be written for the class. The publishers will send one on request. As the system of the New Standard Dictionary (see page xxxviii) con- sists partly of modifications in letter forms instead of diacritical marks, it cannot be readily transcribed THE DICTIONARY 37 with pen or crayon. It is not advisable to make an exhaustive study of each element as it appears in the chart; better results will be obtained if a practical knowledge of all the elements is secured by drilling on a sufficient number of miscellaneous words. The fundamental thing is the elemental sound. It will be the student's aim to produce each correctly, to distinguish it readily and to make the corre- sponding character or phonetic sign which shall exactly represent it to the eye. It is only by asso- ciation in this way that, when later the process comes to be reversed, the printed form as given in the dictionary promptly suggests the correct oral form. This study has the further advantages of inducing distinct utterance and preserving the purity of the language. It is of course well to begin with the simplest elements. Names oj Most Common Diacritical Marks (For complete list see tables in " Guide to Pronun- ciation " in dictionary) dot . circumflex macron - modified macron breve w cedilla » two dots •• tilde ~ 38 rSDISPEXSABLE REFERENCE BOOKS Long Vowel Sounds The vowel letters are a, e, i, 0, and u. All the other letters are consonants, except that w and y are vowels when they stand for one of the five just mentioned. For the distinction between vowel soimds and consonant sounds, see the paragraphs on " Division into Syllables," page 32. In the word ate, the name of the first letter, a, and the somid for which it stands are the same. This is therefore called the name sound, or, more commonly, the long sound, though it is reaUy no longer than some other sounds of the same letter. It is in- dicated by a macron over the letter, as a. The other vowel letters represent name soimds or so- caUed long sounds also, and when they do so they should be marked similarly, as e, i, o, u. They occur, for example, in the words mete, mite, mote and mute. In each, the name of the second letter and the sound for which it stands are the same. The name sound of m is a little more clearly observed in use, in which an initial y or 1 sound may be de- tected. With the consonants it is different; the name is one thing, the sound it stands for is quite another. Take, for example, the word make; the name of the first letter is em, but the sound it stands for is that part of the word which occurs before THE DICTIONARY 39 the vowel sound and which is produced by closing the lips and directing the sound through the nose. Each vowel letter may stand for different sounds in different words, and therefore it needs distinguish- ing marks, while with few exceptions each consonant letter stands for one sound only, and therefore needs no diacritical mark. Following are a few miscellaneous words for study and practice. Others may be added. Pronounce each distinctly, giving attention with the ear rather than with the eye ; then word by word produce each elemental sound in succession and indicate it by the correct letter, adding diacritical marks as needed. Silent letters, i.e. those which represent no sound, may be canceled. Full Form Phonetic Form make (i) mak beat (2) bet hide (3) hid folks (4) foks lure (s) lur (i) Observe that the k sound in make is not kay nor kuh, but is simply a slight outburst or explosion of breath following the closure of the vocal passage toward the back of the mouth. Wh.en produced correctly it is voiceless, while the sounds of m and 40 INDISPENSABLE REFERENCE BOOKS a are voiced. To detect the difference, place the . fingers on the throat at each side of the "Adam's apple" and observe that it vibrates or jars only when the voiced sounds are produced. The final e is silent. The printed word contains four letters, but the spoken word contains only three elemental sounds. (2) The first sound in beat is not he nor buh. It is a voiced sound made with the lips closed and is somewhat difficult to produce alone. The a is silent. The final sound is not te nor tuh, but is a slight outburst of breath following the closure of the vocal passage by the tip of the tongue. Other voiceless consonants are/, h, k, p, and s. (3) The first sound in hide is a mere breathing or pure aspirate. Listen carefully to the last sound as the whole word is spoken. It is not duh. (4) In folks, the I is silent and the only voiced sound is that of 0. (5) Listen carefully to the last sound as the word lure is pronounced. Note that the word has only one syllable ; it is not lu'er. Short Vowel Sounds Another series of vowel sounds, the so-called short sounds, is illustrated in the words bag, beg, big, bog and bug. Each is indicated by a breve over the corresponding vowel, as a, e, i, 6, u. THE DICTIONARY 41 Illustrative words and the corresponding phonetic forms : ham ham box (4) boks get (i) get exist (5) eg-zist' jump jump cape (6) kap bridge (i) brij race (6) ras lint lint toque (7) tok ring (2) ring we (8) we ink (2) ii]k quest (9) kwest vest (3) vest yet (10) yet zone zon by (11) bi nose (3) noz hymn (12) him (i) It will be observed that in get and bridge the g has different soimds, the "hard" and the "soft," the latter of which is the j sound. Persons who desire to indicate the pronmiciation without respeU- ing may mark the words get and bri