ASIA ■ CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY GIFT OF Prof. Morse Stephens OLIN LIBRARY - CIRCULATION DATE DUE •HJtP U ' ' '66 J/ 1 1 CAYLORD PRINTEOINU.S.A. Cornell University Library DS 451.062 On the original inhabitants of Bharatava 3 1924 024 065 470 Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924024065470 We regret that owing to circumstances beyond our control, the publication of this work has been much delayed. Archibald Constable & Co. January, 1 894. ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS OP BHAHATAYARSA OR INDIA ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS OP BHARATAVARSA OR INDIA BY GUSTAV OPPERT PhD Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology Presidency College Madras Telugu Translator to Government Curator Government Oriental Manuscripts Library Src 8fc ^c WESTMINSTER Aechibald Constable & Co 14 Parliament Street S W LEIPZIG Otto Hareassowitz Querstrasse 14 MDCCCXCMl [All rights reserved] vs ¥6-/ MADRAS : PRINTED BY THE SUPERINTEKDENT, LAWRENCE ASYLUM PRESS. PREFACE. Thk main object of this work is to prove from existing sources, so far as they are available to me, that the original inhabitants of India, with the exception of a small minority of foreign immigrants, belong all to one and the same race, branches of which are spread over the continents of Asia and Europe, and which is also known as Finnish- Ugrian or Turanian. The branch which is domiciled in India should, according to my opinion, be called Bharalan, because the Bharatas were in olden times its most numerous and most honoured representatives, after whom the country received its name Bharatavarsa or Bharatavarsa. The favoured spots in which, in primeval periods, men pre- ferred to select their dwellings, were the highlands, hills, and mountains ; for these regions afforded gi'eater protection not only against the attacks of men and of wild beasts, but also against the fury of the unfettered elements, especially against the ravages of sudden and disastrous inundations. Though the plains were not altogether uninhabited, still the bulk of the population preferred, where obtainable, the higher and more secure places. I believe that the Bharatas were essentially a race of mountaineers, and that their name is intimately connected with the G-auda-Dravidian root paru , parai, mountain, a circumstance to which I draw atten- tion. ' See pages 13, 32, 83. VI PEEPACB. The Bharatas divided at an early date into two great sec- tions, whicli were known in antiquity, as Kuru-Pancalas and Kauravas and Paijdavas, and afterwards as Gaudians and Dravidians, and as Kuruvas or Kurumbas and Mallas or Malayas, etc. All these names, too, are derived from words which denote mountains. However nearly related these tribes were to each other, they never lived together in close friendship, and although they were not always per- haps at open war, yet feelings of distrust and aversion seem always to have prevailed. Though positive evidence in favour of mj^ assertions was very difficult to obtain, still, it was incumbent on me to verify my statements by the best means available. In order to do so, I had to betake myself to the fields of language and religion, which in matters of this kind are the most reliable and precious sources of information. For language and religion manifest in a peculiar manner the mental condition of men, and thouoii both differ in their aim and result, yet the mind which directs and animates both is the same, so that though they work in different grooves, the process of thinking is in both identical. Besides the mental character, we must not neglect the physical complement which is supplied by ethnology, and in this case the physical evidence of ethnology supports thoroughly the conclusions at which I had arrived from consulting the language and religion of the inhabitants of India. In the first two parts I have treated separately of the two bi'anohes of the Bharatas, relying mainly on the linguistic and historical material at my disposal concerning the ethnological position of the Dravidians and Gaudians. The principal Gauda-Dravidian tribes who live scattered over the length and breadth of the vast Indian con- tinent are, in order to establish their mutual kinship, separately introduced into this discussion. This method PBEIACE. Vn may create in tlie minds of some readers an impression that the several topics are somewhat disconnected, but this arrangement was necessitated by the peculiarity of the sub- ject of my inquiry. In pursuing the ramifications of the Bharatan, or Gauda- Dravidian, population throughout the peninsula, I hope I have been able to point out the connexion existing between several tribes, apparently widely different from each other. I have tried thus to identify the so-called Pariahs of Southern India with the old Dravidian moun- taineers and to establish their relationship to the Bhars, Brahuis, Mhars, Mahars, Paharias, Paravari, Paradas and other tribes; all these tribes forming, as it were, the first layer of the ancient Dravidian deposit. In a similar manner I have identified the Candalas with the fii*st section of thp G-audian race which was reduced to abject slavery by the Aryan invaders, and shown their connexion with the ancient Kandalas and the present Gonds. In addition to this, I trust I have proved that such apparently diiJerent tribes as the Mallas, Pallas, Pallavas, Ballas, Bhillas and others are one and all oiishoots of the Dravidian branch, and that the Kolis, Kois, Khonds, Kodagas, Koravas, Kurumbas and others belong to the Gaudian division, both branches forming in reality only portions of one a,nd the same people, whom I prefer to call, as I have said, Bharatas. Where there is so much room for conjecture, it is easy enough, of course, to fall into error, and I shall be prepared to be told that many of my conclusions are erroneous and the hypotheses on which they are built fanciful. But though much of what I have written may be shown to be untenable, I shall yet be satisfied if, in the main, I establish my contention, and I shall deem myself amply repaid for my labor if I succeed in restoring the Gaudian and Dravidian to those rights and honors of which they have so long been deprive d PEHFACE. In the third part which treats on Indian Theogony I have endeavoured to give a short sketch of some of the most prominent features of the Aryan and non-Aryan beliefs. After noticing briefly the reverence which the Yedic hymns display towards the Forces of Nature, which develops gradu- ally into the acceptance of a Supreme Being {Brahmayi), I go on to show how the idea of an impersonal God, a per- ception too high and abstract to be grasped by the masses of the population, gradually gave place to the recognition of a personal Creator, with whom were associated eventually the two figure-heads of Preservation and Destruction, all these three together forming the Trimurti as represented by Brahman, Visi;iu and Siva. About the time that the ancient Vedie views began to undergo a change, and the idea of the existem^e of a Supreme .Spirit impressi.'d itself on the minds of the thoughtful, tlie non-Aryan Pi-inciple of the Female Energy was introduced into the Arvan system. This dogma which originated with the Turanian races of Asia, and was thus also acknowledged in ancient Babylonia, soon exercised a powerful influence, and pervaded the whole religion of the Aryans in India. Its symbol was in India the Salagrama-stone, which Visnu afterwards appropriated as his emblem. I have further tried to show how the contact with the non- Aryan population aifected the belief of the Aryans and modified some of the features of their deities. Brahman was thus, by assimilating himself with the non- Aryan chief- god and demon-king Aiyauar, transformed into a Brahma- bhuta, while the very same Aiyanar was changed into Siva in his position as demon-king or Bhutanatlia, and Visnu became e;radually identified by a great section of the Brahmanic community with the Female Principle'and taken for Uma. The religions opinions of the original inhabitants were PEEPACE. IX on the other hand not left unchanged as the result of their intercourse with the Aryans, and many ideas and many of the deities of the invader were received into their religion. The prominent features of this religion lay in the adoration of the Principle of the Female Energy, or Sakti, as repre- sented by the chief local goddess or Grramadevata, in the acknowledgment of a Supreme God revered under such names as Aiyanar (Sasta), and in the worship of Demons. I trust now that the racial unity of the great majority of the Indian population has been established by this research based mainly on linguistic and theological evi- dence, as it has also been proved independently by ethno- logical enquiries. In order to perpetuate by an outward sign the racial union of the overwhelming majority of the population of India, I venture to suggest that the inhabitants of this country would do well, if they were to assume the ancient, honorable and national name of Bharatas, remembering that India has become famous as Bharatavarsa, the land of the Bharatas. In such a multitude of subjects, it was only possible for me to formulate my ideas in a somewhat imperfect manner, without being able to treat separately every particular subject as thoroughly and completely as it deserved, and as I had wished to treat it. 1 make this observation to show that I am fully cognizant of the incompleteness of this enquiry, but, I trust, I have at least succeeded in making clear its purport and significance. If time and circum- stances had permitted, I should have added some chapters on some essential topics, and enlarged the scope of others, but my impending departure from India has compelled me to be brief. If this book should be deemed worthy of another edition, I hope to be able to remedy these defects. It is here perhaps not out of place to mention, that the first portions of this book appeared some years ago, the PREFACE. first Part being priDted as early as 1888j and it is possible that the publication of this work in fragments has been attended with some disadvantages. I am thus well aware of the many defects in a publica- tion like thisj but I trust that even my errors may not be without use, if, like stranded vessels, they serve to direct the explorer, warning him away from the shoals and rocks that beset the enquirer in his seai'ch after truth. GUSTAV OPPERT. Madras, 14/A. February, 1893. CONTENTS. PART I. INTRODUCTION. CHAPTER I. General Remarks Philological Remarks ... Historical Remarks Division between Gaudians and Dravidians CHAPTER III. On the Mallas Explanation of the terms Dravida, Tamil and A ravam CHAPTER IV. On the Pariah (Parata, PahSria), Brahui, Bar (Bhar), M; (Mhar), &c Derivation of the word Pariah On the Brahuis ... On the Bars or Bhars ... On the Mars, Mhars, Mahars, Mhairs or Mers On the Maravar -• Religious and Social privileges enjoyed by Pariahs Wrong Derivation of the terms Holeya and Pulaya Caste distinctions among Pariahs ; Right and Left Hand Castes On the Vallnvar ., PAGE. 1-3 3-8 8-13 13 THE DRA VIDIANS. CHAPTER II. The names of ancient kings and Asuras indicate the names of the people over whom they ruled ... ... ... ... 14,15 Beginning of peaceful Intercourse and Inter-marriage between Aryans and Dravidians ... ... ... ... ... 16,17 18-25 25-30 30-70 31-33 34-37 37-47 47-49 49,50 50-56 56,57 57-66 66-70 Xll CONTENTS. CHAPTER V. On the Pallar, Pallavas, Pulayar, Ballas (Bhallas) Bhils, Pulindae, On the name of the Pallas and Pallavas On the Pajlar On the Pulayar ... On the Ballaa On the Bhils On the Pnlindas . . . On Pulaha, Pnlastya, Puloman, &c. PAOB. 70-89 70-73 73-75 75-77 78-82 79-85 85-87 87-89 CHAPTER VI. On the Pallis, Agnikulas, Paiidyas, Vellalar, &c. ... .. ... 89-108 On the Agnikulae ... 89-94 On the Pallis ... 94-100 Different meanings of the word Palli ... ... ... ... 100,101 Explanation of the words Pandya, Vellala, Ballala, Bhillala ... 101-108 PART II. THE GAUDIANS. CHAPTER VII. Philological Remarks ... Application of the term Gaudian Explanation of the use of Gaiula as a tribal name On the name Kolarian 109-112 112-114 114r-121 121-133 CHAPTER VIII. On the Kolis (Kulis), Kolas ... On the Gaulis ... On the Kulindas, Kuliitas, &o. CHAPTER IX. On the Kois, Konds, Kands, Gouds On the Oaadalas On the names Khandobii, Khandesh, Gondaja, &c. On Gondophares 133-141 141, 142 142, 143 143-155 155, 156 156-159 160, 161 CONTENTS. CHAPTER X On the Kocjagas On the Koragas On Hubasika and Huviska On the Todas ... On the Kotas CHAPTER XI On the Kuravas (Kuruvas, Kurumas), Koracaru. On the Kurus (Yerakulas) and Kaurs On the Kunnuvaa and Kunavarie XUl Page. 162-167 168-180 171-178 180-193 193-196 % 197-201 201-210 210-215 CHAPTER XII. On the Kurubas or Kurumbas Remarks about the name Kurumba ... On the sub-divisions among the Kurumbas On their religion, manners and customs ... On our historical knowledge about the Kurumbas On Adonda Cola On Toudamandalam On the Kallas under the Tondaman of Pudukota .. On the Kurmis, Kumbis or Kunbis ... On the origin of the term Kadamba PART III. INDIAN THEOGONY. 215-260 215-220 220-234 235-242 242-260 246-253 253-257 257-260 261-264 264-270 ^ /^ CHAPTER XTII. Introductory Remarks . . On Vedio Deities On Vedio Creation On the Trimurti 271-274 274-279 279-283 283-284 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XIV. BiTihmfi 11 . fieneral Eemarke On the present Worship of Brahman On the Brahmabhilta ... CHAPTER XV Visnu. General Remarks On the "Deluge ... On the Yugas ... On the Salagrama-stone On the modification of the worship of Visnu On Visiiu's wives CHAPTER XVI. §iva. General Remarks On the Linga CHAPTER XVII, ParamatTYian. On Paramatman, the Supreme Spirit CHAPTER XVIII. Introductory Remarks On Uma, Amma, Amba On Drvi (Durga), etc. On Sakti'a participation at the creation On the origin of the worship of the various Saktis On the VidySdevis, llatrs and Gramadevata.? CHAPTER XIX. Qrnmadevataa, Aiyannr 2m ; meta, peda ; membras, bembras ; palkiii, ballein, and patein, batein, &c. ; but nowhere else does there exist such a variety and difference of pronunciation as in the vernacular languages of India. Their system of writing is a proof of this fact. Tamil has, e.g., only one sign for the four sounds 1 belonging to each of the five classes ; in fact 20 different sounds are expressed by five letters, and even where, as in Telugu, these 20 sounds are provided with 20 1 s for k, kh, g, gh ; i^ for c, ch,,j, jh ; L fort, tt, d, ih ; /S for t, th, d dh ; and u for p, ph, b, bh. In their transliteration accordingly are only used k, c, I, t and p, which indicate the letter, but not the sound. 4 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS distinct characters, tlie pronunciation still remains so unoer- tain, that in his Telugu Dictionary the late Mr. 0. P. Brown arranged these four letters respectively under one head. The cause of this striking peculiarity and these continual per- mutations is to be found partly no doubt in indefinite pro- nunciation and dialectical divergencies, but mainly in the strict enforcement of the over-stringent and artificial rules of Sandhi or Euphony, which affect alike vowels and con- sonants, and which do not, e.g., permit a word in the middle of a sentence to begin with a vowel. Local differences in pronunciation exist in India as well as in other countries. Amongst these the interchanges between tcnues and iiiccliae are most common ; we find them in Wales and in German Saxony, where the tenues j), t, and A- are to this day con- founded with the mediae b, d, and g, or vice versa. The three Dravidian I'a (lev, Im- and I te) however differ- ently they may be pronounced, are only varieties of the same sound and are therefore interchangeable, thus, ?.(/., the Sanskrit phidaiii becomes in Tamil jjff/«m ueuii, or palaiii ulpld, while viu/him LDeusuih becomes maUam LDeir&rLh, relldlan Qsneiren-rrsmisr is also spelt veUalan Qsj sir err rrifissr, and a village or town is called pnlli udjsS [valli auajsS), palli uotj-ctA, or pdli urrifi. The harsher sound is generally used by the lower classes, and where these pronounce an eb I ot err J, a high caste-man will lisp a, jfi I, which letter is probably a modern innovation prevailing specially in Malayalam and Tamil. As the different /'s interchange between each other, so do the two Dravidian r and r ; ^ a hard double pp rr is pro- nounced in Tamil somewhat like a double //,' which ciroum- ^ Tamil it and p, Tolugu S and es Kanarese d and fee, Malayalam o and o, ^ Tho Tamil pp in represented occaaionally in Telugu \\y ks e.g., the Tamil l-\p^, pnrru, corresponds to the Telugu B&4.-' piitja. OF BHARATAVAR8A OE INDIA. 5 stance is a proof of the relationship between the r and t sounds. After this statement the permutation between the lingual d and the r and I sounds will not create any surprise. Some of these changes are pretty common elsewhere ; they occur in the Aryan as well as in the Dravidian languages. A further peculiarity of the Dravidian languages, and especially of Tamil, is their dislike to beginning words with compound letters : Brahma becomes Piramam, i3irLDih ; pra- handha, pirapantam, lSituje^lo ■ graniha, kirantam, Qit^^ld. In consequence of indistinct pronunciation and the desire for abbreviation, initial and medial consonants are often dropped at the beginning or in the middle of words, while on the other hand in opposition to this tendency a half -consonant is prefixed to an initial vowel, in order to prevent a word from beginning with a vowel. We thus occasionally meet words whose initial consonants are dropped and replaced by half- consonants, e.g., vella, white, in Telugu becomes ella and yelki, vesa, haste, esa and yesa, the name of the Billavar of Travan- core becomes Ilavar and Yilavar ; Velur becomes Elur and Teltir. This practice of prefixing a half-consonant before an initial vowel is generally enforced in the middle of a sentence, — a y is thus placed before an a, e, i, and ai and a v before 0, u, and au. The half-consonant is used to avoid an hiatus and this explains why the University- degrees M.A. and B.A. are pronounced by many Natives Yam Ya and Be Ya. Metathesis is likewise of not unfrequent occurrence in the Dravidian languages. It is even found in words of common occurrence, in kurudai, e.g., for hidii-ai, horse ; in Marudai for the town Madura ; in Verul for Elora (Velur or Ballora); in Vaikdiam {emw^irffLc) and Vaikaii [(saensirffl) for Vai&SMmn and Vaiidkhi ; in the Telugu agapa and abaka, ladle, &o. Another peculiarity is to drop one of two consonants in a syllable and to lengthen the vowel if it happens to be short, or to double a consonant and to shorten the vowel, 6 ON THE ORIGINAI- INHABITANTS if it happens to be long; e.g., ^csfcgto ceyyutaiov ^cxSo^^ cei/uta, Velldlan for Veldlan, Palla for Pdla, &c. It will be readily perceived that this laxity of pronun- ciation affords a wide field for philological conjectures, and that, if we choose as an example the representative name of the Mdlla or Palla tribe, a variety of forms for Mara and Malla, or Para and Palla, which actually occur, can be re- traced to the common source, and thus be shown to have a sound basis. The task which a philologist has to perform is a serious one and ought to make him cautious. Considerable and unexpected difficulties also arise from the great simi- larity of many Sanskrit and Dravidian words with Mara, Malla and their derivatives.* The explanations of names of persons, tribes, places, &c., so readily tendered by the Natives ' A fe'W of such, eimilar words are in Sanskrit : para, other, ^ato, m., straw, n., flesh, pala, m., barn, pallava, m., u., sprout, palvala, m., pond, psM, m., guard, ^«te great, ^/iaZa, n. , fruit, ^M?a, m., n., ploughshare, ^AwKa, open, bala, n., power, bali, m., oblation, bala, young, bhala, u.., forehead, mara, killing, mala, n., dirt, malli, f., jasmine, mdra, killing, mala, n., field, mala, f., garland, valla, covering, vallabha, m., lover, ■valli (j), f., creeper, &c.; in Tamil: alam, plough, alii, lily, alliyam, village of herdsmen, alai, cave, dlatn., water, palar (palldr), many persons, palam, strength, fruit, flesh, pali, sacrifice, pal, tooth, pallam, bear, arrow, palli, lizard, palam, old, palam, fruit, pali, ■ blame, palai, hole, pallam, lowness, paUayam (pallait/am) , ofiering to demons, pallaicci, dwarfish woman, pal, milk, palam, bridge, palar, herdsmen, palai, a,Tid, pali, cave, village, pdlayam (pdlaiyam) country, camp, pali, encampment, palai, palmtree, pilli, demon, pulam, ricefield, puldl, flesh, pulai, flesh, pul, meanness, piillii, grass, pullam, ignorant, pulli, lizard, malam, excretion, malar, flower, maJai, hill, mal, boxing, mallam, strength, malli, jasmine, r/iallu, wrcstUng, malai, rain, mallam, strength, mal, greatness, mullai, jasmine, mid, miillu, thorn, mel, above, valam, rightside, valam, power, vali, strength, t>ff/», strong, «'«/«(', net, rallar, strong persons, ■yaKajipan, beloved, vallavan, shep- herd, valli, woman, village, valliyam, vUlage of shepherds, valuli, poetical epithet of the Pandya kings, valappam, valamai, valam, valan, strength, ' valavan, epithet of Cola, vallam, com measure, valliyam, pipe, pepper, vdlai, plantain, ral, sword, vil, bow, villi, Manmatha, vel, white, vellam, inundation, velli, silver, vel, lance, veli, village, veljim, sugarcane -reed, &c.; in Teluyu: ala, wave, ala [alia), then, alii, water, lily, alle, bowstring, c^«, young, ella, all, limit, white {vella), palla (pulla), red, reddish, pdlemii, camp, pallemu, saucer, pala, name of a tree, white, jay, pdlu, share, milk, pilla, child, pilli, cat, puli {pulla), sour, puli, tiger, pulu fptillu), grass, piilla, piece, balla, bench, bhdli, affection, mala, mountain, malumii, dirt, main, again, malla or BHARATAVARSA OR INDIA. 7 of India and seemingly supported by some legendary and historical evidence, must be viewed with extreme caution and distrust. It is not an uncommon occurrence to make a statement of "this kind, and afterwards to invent cor- roborative evidence. This is often not done with any desire to mislead, but rather because it affords a fair display for speculative ingenuity. If, e.g., a rich man of a high caste acquires a Paraiceri, he will alter its name so as to hide the low origin of his property and to impart to it a sacred appearance. Near Madras is situated the well-known hill called St. Thomas' Mount. Its name in Tamil is Parahgi Malai or Mountain of the Franks or Europeans, from the original European or rather Portuguese settlement. Some years ago a Brahman settlement was established there and the name of Parangi Malai was no longer deemed respect- able. Thenceforth it was changed to Bhrngi Malai, the mountain of the sacred Bhrngi, and eventually in support of this appellation legendary evidence was not slow in forthcoming.* again, malle {ynallelu), jaemine, mala {male, mdlilca), garland, mdli, gardener, male, house, mula {mullu) , thorn, mule, corner, mella, hall, melamu, fun, melu, good, upper, maila, unclean, vala, right, net, valla, stratagem, valle, noose, vdli, custom, valu, long, sword, vilu [villu), how, vllu, expedient, vela, price, vella, white, rellui-a, flood, vela, limit, vela, time, vein 1000, toe, &c. Considering the changes the letters undergo in Dravidian words, when pallddu, goat, is also written veUddu and pala, flesh, hecomes ptilai and Valluru is also written Vdluru, Velluru, Telluru, &c., similar alterations need not create any great surprise, especially if it is admitted that small orthographical changes assist their heing the more easily distinguished. As an illustration how the names of the Mallas and Pallas appear in local appellations I only add as an example a, few such names as Mallapur, Pallapur, Ballapur, VaUapur, YaUapur, Allapur, EUapur, Vellapur, Yellapur, Illapur, ViUapur, Volluru, TJUapur, Vullapur, Mftlavur, Palavur, Balapur, Vfilapur, Yalapetta, Elapur, Elavur, Velapur, Yelagiri, &c., &c. 5 An example of the spurious character of similar writings is exhibited hy the Sthalapurana that contains the origin of the Gunmjbag-weavers, which, though of recent origin, is hy some incorporated in the Brahmanda Purana. A curious instance of the alteration of a name is supplied hy the Barber's bridge near St. Thom^ in Madras. It was originally named Mamilton's 8 ON THE ORIGIXAL INPIABITAXTS It might appear that when so many changes are possible, no reliance can be placed on such evidence, but these permu- tations do not all take place at the same time, indeed dialecti- cal pronunciation selects some letters in preference to others. The northern Hindu pronounces, a B, where the southern prefers a F, and both letters occur only in border districts ; thus no B is found in the names of such places situated in the Ohingleput, South- Arcot, Tanjore, Trichinopoly, Madura., Tinnevelly, and Malabar districts, while in South-Kanara, Ganjam and Mysore a Fis seldom used. These few preliminary philological remarks are absolutely necessary to facilitate the understanding of the subsequent discussion. The important position which language occupies in such a research as the present was well pointed out more than forty years ago, by the Pioneer of North-Indian Ethno- logy, the learned B. H. Hodgson, when he wrote in the preface to his first Essay : " And the more I see of these primitive races the stronger becomes my conviction that there is no medium of investigation yielding such copious and accurate data as their languages." Historical Eemaeks. Turning from these linguistic to historical topics, we know as a fact that when tracing the records of any nation or country as far back as possible, we arrive at a period when all authentic or provable accounts cease. We have then reached the prehistoric stage. What occurred during that epoch can never be verified. When the mist of historic darkness disappears from the plains and mountains of a country, the existing inhabitants and their dwellings become bridge after a gentleman of that name. The word Samilton, being difficult to pronounce in Tamil, was changed into amattan (common form for ampat- tan) which means in Tamil a Imrbcr, whence by retrauslation into English the bridge was called Barber's bridge. OF BHAKATAYARSA OR INDIA. H visible, but whether these are in reality the first settlers and their abodes the first erected, is another question which does not properly belong to the domain of history, so long as we are unable to assert its relevancy or to find an answer to it. Whether the people of whom we first hear in a country are really its aborigines may be doubtful ; but so long as no earlier inhabitants can be discovered, they must be regarded as such. So far as historical traces can be found in the laby- rinth of Indian antiquity, it was the Gauda-Dra vidians who lived and tilled the soil and worked the mines in India. This discussion does not concern the so-called Kolarian tribes, whose connection with the ancient history of India is so very obscure, that we possess hardly any historical accounts about them. However considerable and apparently irreconcilable may appear the differences exhibited by the various Gauda-Dra- vidian tribes in their physical structure and colour, in their language, religion, and art, all these differences can be satis- factorily accounted for by the physical peculiarities of the localities they inhabited, by the various occupations they followed, and by the political status which regulated their domestic and social habits. For every one must be aware of the fact that change of abode and change in position have worked, and are working, the most marvellous alterations in the physical and mental constitution of individuals and nations. Language, especially the spirit which pervades it^ is the most enduring witness of the connection which exists between nations, and with its help we can often trace the continuity of descent from the same stock in tribes seemingly widely different. From the north-west across to the north-east, and from both corners to the furthest south, the presence of the Gauda- Dravidian race in India can be proved at a very early period. On the arrival of the Aryans on the north-western fron- tier, the Gauda-Dravidians are already found in flourishing 10 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS communities. But successive waves of the Aryan invasion, swelled in their course by the accession of former opponents who had despaired of successful resistance, must soon have flooded over the Gauda-Dravidian settlements. Some by their prowess were able to maintain their ground against the invaders, while others, defeated, left their abodes and emigrated towards the South. Yet even the North, subject though it became in time to the Aryan or rather Brahmanical sway, can never be said to have been totally conquered by force of arms. Still less was this the case with the South, where the Brahmanical influence always assumed a more civic and priestly character ; influence, which though of another kind, can hardly be deemed less powerful, since it is more lasting and more thorough. Even the Aryanised languages of North-India — however they may prove the mental superi- ority of the invaders who were able to force on their defeated foes their peculiar mode of thinking — manifest their origin in their vocabularies and show the inability of the victors to press on the vanquished their own language. The languages of both, victors and vanquished, amalgamated and formed new dialects, and the diflerence which exists between the abstract synthetic Sanskrit and the concrete agglutinated Dra vidian is clearly expressed. This difference is easily observable when we compare on the one hand the construction of Sanskrit with that of such Aryanised languages, as Ben- gali and Marathi, which possess a considerable substratum of a non-Aryan element, and on the other hand the con- struction of Latin with that of the Neo- latin languages French and Spanish, which may be considered as entirely Aryan. I have alluded to this fact in my " Classification of Languages." Hindustani is a fair specimen of such a miscegenation of languages. The earliest mention of a Gauda-Dravidian word is to be found in the Bible. In the first book of Kings, x. 22 we read as follows : For the king had at sea a navy of Tharshish OF BHARATAVARBA OR INDIA, 11 ivith the navy of Hiram ; once in three years came the navy of Tharshish, bringing gold, and silver, ivory, and apes, and peacocks.'" « The expression for peacocks is tukkiyyim, a word derired from the Gauda-Dravidian toka {tokai or togai), which originally signifies the tail of a peacock and eventually a peacock itself. It exists in Telugu, Tamil, Malayalam, Kanarese, Gondi and elsewhere. The identification of tukki (tUki) with tokai is very old indeed, and is already quoted as well known in the early editions of the Hebrew dictionary of Wilhelm Gesenius.' The mere fact that the sailors of Solomon and Hiram designated a special Indian article by a Gauda-Dravidian word, renders it j)robable that the inhabi- tants with whom they traded were Gauda-Dravidians and that Gauda-Dravidian was the language of the country. The Aryan influence could at that time hardly have been strong enough to supplant the current vernacular, or to force upon it a Prakritised Aryan term. Moreover^ the peacock is a well-known bird, common all over India, and it is highly improbable that the Gauda-Dravidians should have waited for the arrival of the Aryans to name it, or should have dropped their own term in order to adopt in its stead an Aryan one. The vocal resemblance between the Hebrew hopk and the Sanskrit kapi is most likely accidental. The ancient Egyptians, who kept monkeys in their temples, called a monkey kdf. Besides it cannot at all be assumed that the sailors of the fleet of Tharshish did not know monkeys. May not koph, kdf, kapi, &c., after all be an OnomatopoiStikon ? Another word which proves the connection of the Gauda-Dravidians with foreign nations is supplied by « The Hetrew worda in 1 Kings, x. 22, are : Oni Tharsts noseth sdMb vakeseph senhahbim veqopMm vethukkiyylm. 2 Clironioles, ix. 21, has a long u and reads vethUkkiyyl'm. The derivation of senhaHim is still doubtful. ' See also my lecture On the Ancient Commerce of India, p. 25. The derivation of Abmiggim or Algummim from valgu as the sandalwood is called in different places, 1 Kings, x. 11, 12, and 2 Chronicles, ii. 7 ; ix. 10, 11, is very doubtful, and I hesitate to derive it from Sanskrit. 12 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS the Greek word oryza for rice, which corresponds to the Q-auda-Dravidian arUi, and not to the Sanskrit vrlhi.^ The Aryan invaders showed little sympathy with the inhabitants they found on the confines and in the interior of India. The outward appearance of the Dasas or Dasyus — these were the names with which the new-comers honoured their opponents — was not such as to create a favourable impression, and thoy were in consequence taunted with their black colour and flat noses, which latter made their faces appear as if they had no noses. Indra is invoked to reduce into the darkness of subjection the colour of the Dasas and to protect the colour of his worshippers, for the latter were not always successful in the combats, and the Dasas at times turned the tables on their foes by becoming victorious aggressors. So far as civilisation is concerned, a great difference could hardly have existed between the two races when they first met. However rude may have been the bulk of the indigenous population, a considerable portion of it must have already attained a certain degree of cultivation. It was no doubt the wealth which they had acquired that stimulated the invaders to pursue their conquests, even when a brave * See my lecture On the Ancient Commerce of India, p. 37 - " Of grains Eice formed an important commodity. The cultivation of rice extended in ancient times only as far west as to Bactria, Susiana, and the Euphrates valley. The Greeks most likely obtained their rice from India, as this country alone produced it in sufSoient quantity to he ahle to export it. Moreover the Grecian name for rice oryza, for which there exists no Aryan or Sanskrit root, has heen previously identified by scholars with the TamU word arisi, which denotes rice deprived of the husk. This was exactly the state in which rice was exported. The Greeks besides connected rice gene- rally with India. AthenaBos quotes oryza hepJithe, cooked rice, as the food of the Indians, and Aelianus mentions a wine made of rice as an Indian beverage. If now the Greek received their rice from India, and the name they called this grain by is a Dravidian word, we obtain an addi- tional proof of the non- Aryan element represented in the Indian trade." Aral, rice, occurs also in Keikadi, and nriselti, ricecakes, in Telugu. OF BHARATAVARfciA OR INDIA. 13 and stubborn resistance warned the Aryans not to drive to despair the various chieftains who had retreated to their mountain strongholds. The bravery of the Dasas excited the admiration of their opponents. Indra himself occasion- ally protects the Dasas, the Aryan priest deigns to accept his offering, and the divine Asvins partake even of his food. Though both the terms Dasyii and Ddsa originally denote a destroyer, at times a malevolent superhuman being, and at times in contrast to Arya, an enemy of the gods or a wicked man, and are in this sense specially applied to the aboriginal races who stood outside the Brahmanical pale, yet the expression Ddsa continued to be contemptuously used by one Aryan against another, till it became in time equivalent to a common menial or slave. Division between Gaudians and Dravidians. The foemeu whom the Aryans first encountered were generally brave mountaineers who offered a stout resistance in their numerous castles. Indeed, most tribal names of the inhabitants of India wiE. be shown to refer to mountains. The two special Gauda-Dravidian terms for mountain are mala {malai, par, pdrdi, &c.) and ko {konda, kuru, Jcunru, kora, &c.). Both kinds of expressions are widely used and prevail throughout India. Hence are derived the names of the Mallas, Mdlas, Mdlavas, Malayas^-^ &c., and of the Koyis, Kodiilu, Kondas, Gondas, Gaiidas, Kurums^, &c. I shall in future call those tribes whose names are derived from mala Dravidians^ and those whose names are derived from ko Gaudians. ' Conoeming the single and doutle I which is found respectively in Mala- ya, Malla and in their derivatives, it should be considered that the Dravidian languages do not possess fixed orthographical rules regarding proper names and that single and douhle letters are often used indifferently. A moun- taineer is thus generally described in South-India as Malayan or Malaiyan, while Kalian also denotes an inhabitant ot a mountainous district. 14 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS PART I. THE DRA VIDIANS. CHAPTEE II. The names of Ancient Kings and Asueas indicate the names of the people over whom they eulel). Among the tribes and people whom I regard as Dra- vidians, whose names are derived either directly from Mala or from cognate terms, and who are of the same race as the Mallas or Pallas, which term is chosen on p. 6 as their re- presentative designation, I may mention the Maras (Mhn.rs, Mahars, Maharas or Malas), Maris, Maravar, Pariahs, Parjas, Paravar, Paravari, JJo^povapoi, Paratas, Hapovrat,, Paradas, Parheyas, Bars (Bhars, Bdppai), Brahuis ; the Mallas {MaXKoi, Malli), Malas (Mais or Maras), Mala Arayar, Malacar, Malayalis, Malavas, (Malvas), Malair (Maler or Paharias), Mallar or Pallar, the Palliyar, Polaiyar, Pulayar, Holiyar, Pulindas {UovXivhaC) , Pundras, Pallis, Palas, PaliSj Pallavas (Palhavas^ Pahlavas, Pahnavas, Plavas), Pandyas, Ballas, Bhallas, Bhils (Bhillas, ^vXkl- rat), Bhillalas, Ballalas, Vellalar, Velamas (Vallamas, Vallambams), Valluvar, &c.^° The Rgveda only rarely confers special names on the Indians who opposed the Aryans, and these names wherever they occur cannot be easily recognised and explained. On the other hand the Indian gods adopted, particularly in later times, the names of the demons they had defeated in '" The Mftvglla or Mdvellaka whom Lassen in his Indische Alterthums- knnde (vol. I, p. 751, or 605) identifies with the Megalloi of Megasthenea as occupying Mflrwar, might perhaps ho added to this list. OF BHAllATAVAESA OR INDIA. 15 comlDat in order to perpetuate the memory of their victories. A. natural assumption leads one to infer that the names of the conquered demons or Asuras represent those of the forces they led to battle, and that the Asuras Malta, Bala, Bali, Bala, Bali or Vali, Vala ^^ and others were chiefs of the aboriginal race. Krsna is thus called Mallari,'^ the enemy or destroyer of the Asura Ma lla ; Indra is renowned as Valadvis or Valana- sana, enemy or destroyer of the demon Vala,^' the brother of Vrtra, and as Balanasana and Balarati, enemy or destroyer of Bala}^ Visnu goes by the name of Balidhvaiiisin,^^ for he defeated the great giant king Bali in the shape of a dwarf in the Vamana Avatara. Eama covers his name with doubtful glory by killing in unfair fight the mighty so- called monkey -king Bali or Yali, the brother of Sugriva ; hence Rama's name Balihantr. " Though Vala need not he taken in the Egvgda as a demon, he is regarded as such in later works. He may perhaps have been confounded later on with Bala. '2 Malldri or Ualhdrl is in the Maratha country regarded as an incarna- tion of Siva, and is also called Khandoha. 13 Or Valahhit, Valavrtraghna, Valavrtrahan, Valasudana, Valahantr, and Valarati. " Or Balanisudana, Balahhit and Balasudana. '' Or Balindama, Balibandhana and Balihan. Bali or Mahahali was the son of Virocana, and father of Bana. He ruled over the three worlds, estah- lished, according to the Matsya-Purftna, at the desire of Brahma, the four castes, and was eventually reduced by Visnu to become the king of Patala. He is still the most popular legendary king among the whole Hindu popu- lation, especially in South-India. We find a Mahdbalipura on the Son river in the North, and near Madras in the South. The people remember to this day the prosperity enjoyed under his sway. Once a year Bali is said to visit the earth, but this visit is not celebrated simultaneously throughout India. His greatest feast falls on the fuUmoon in the month of Karttiki, when the corn standing in the fields, the cow-houses, wells, and particularly the dwelling-houses, are illuminated with lamps. In Mysore popular songs are sung in his praise on the last day of the Navaratri. The Hindu people worship him also during the Pongal, when gourds (in Sanskrit kusmanda) are given to Brahmans. Bali is worshipped in Malabar on the Onam festival. He does not die and is one of the seven Cirajivins. 16 ON THE OEIGINAI, IMIABITANTS Beginning or Peaceful Intercourse and Intermar- riage BETWEEN Aryans and Deavidians. With the decrease of the Aryan immigration into India, their actual conquests ceased and the new comers, once established in the country, devised more peaceful means to perpetuate and extend their power. Colonists and mis- sionaries visited the hitherto unapproached provinces and tried to win by their superior knowledge and civilisation the good will of the natives. Intermarriage recommended itself as the most efficient means to gain this object, though the race-pride of the conquering nation shrank from such misalliances. In order to sanction them the example of the gods was needed, and Subrahmanya, the South-Indian representa- tive of Xarttikeya, the son of Siva, who delights to reside in wild forests and weird mountain tops is credited with having chosen a South-Indian girl called Valli ^^ as his wife. Valli is a well-known female name common among the Pariahs and Pallar, the Pallis and other Sudras, and corres- ponds to the equally-widely used man's name Malla. Valli is also celebrated as the Amman of Vaisnava gods." The '^ He 13 the presiding deity of many moimtains, as Tirupparahkunran , Cdmimalai (or Palani), Cdln-imrilai, &c., and is thus, among other titles, called the ruler of the Palani mountain, Palani A^di or Andavar. Two wives are generally assigned to Subrahmanya. They are called DevasSna (contrauted in colloquial Tamil into Tsvanai) and VaUi. (Valli- D^vasenftsameta-Subrahmanyasvamini? namah.) Subrahmanya is therefore also called in Tamil Vajlimanlnv)dlan, or husband of VaUi. " The popular derivation of Triplicane (Tiruvallikkeni) i from Alii, ^euetH, a kind of water lily ; which explanation I believe to be wrong. According to the Sthalapui-ana of Triplicane Xdi-ada goes to Kailasa to as- certain from ParamSSvara the position of Brndarauya which lies north-east of Tirunlrmalai near Pallavaram. The sage Bhrgu lived there near a pond full of lotus, called Kairavinl. He worshipped the 5 gods of the place, especially Ranganatha, who slept under a sandal tree. Near it Bhrgu found a little girl whom he gave to his wife to nurse. He called her Vedavalli, and married her in due time as VedavaUi Tayar to Ranganathasvami &o. The ancient temple tank in Triplicane is called Vedavallipuskarinl. OF BHARATAVARSA OR INDIA. 17 principal goddess in Trix^lioane, who, as Amman presides over the Ksetram and to whom the temple-compound belongs, is Yedavalli. The god Parthasarathi is only lodging there as her guest.i* In Tiruvallur the Amman is called Kanakavaili, in Chidambaram Pankajavalli, in Rrimusnam Amhujavalli, in Kumbhakonam there are two, a Komalavalli and a Vijaya- valli, in Mannargudi a Campakavalli, and in Tirumalirun- colai as well as in Nagapatam there is a Sundaravalli, &e. The derivation of Valli in these names from the Sanskrit Valli, creeper, appears doubtful, especially if one considers that Subrahmanya's wife, Valli, was a low-caste South- Indian woman, that the Saiva preceded the Vaisnava creed, and that Saiva temples were occasionally turned into Vaisnava temples. Parvati, the wife of Siva and daughter of the mountain Himalaya, is even worshipped as a Pariah woman in her disguise as Matangl. This word is derived from Matanga, which signifies a wild mountaineer.^* '* The difference between Amman and Ammal (both meaning mother) is that the former expression refers only to goddesses, while the latter is applied both to goddesses and mortal women. " The Syamaladandaka ascribed to Kalidasa contains the following ^l8ka concerning Matangl : — Manikyavlnam upalalayantim madalasam manjulavagvilasam Mahendranilopalakomalanglm Matarigakanyam manasa smarami. It is perhaps not impossible that there exists a connection between Mdtanga and Mdlahga. The d and the I are occasionally interchanged, compare the Greek Saftpu with the Latin lacryma. The Malayalis consis- tently pronounce an I instead of a i, e.g., for tasmdt karonat they say tatmal karandl. In Marathi the word Matanga has been contracted into Ma*ga, seep. 66. Compare also the Dravidian roots pala aadpandu, old. Telugu has besides pandu also pdta. The Amarako^a, II, Sudravarga (X) 20, 21, contains the following SlOkas concerning the Matanga and other out -castes. Canddla-Flai)a-Mdtanga-Livdkirti-Janangamdh Nifdda-Svapacdv-Antemsi-Cdnddla-Pukkasdh Slieddh R i rdla-Sabarn-Fulindd Mlecchajatayah. 3 18 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS CHAPTEE III. The Mallas. The name of the Mallas appears in various forma in Sanskrit literature. As the name of a people, we meet it in Malaka, Malada, Malaja, Malla, Mallaka, Mallava, Mala, Malava^ Malavarti^ &o. ; as the name of a demon in Malayaja (Rahu), Malla (perhaps also if not connected with maid, garland, in Malyavan and Malini), &o. ; as the name of a human being in Malayaketu^ Malayadhvaja, Malayanarapati, Malayaprabha, Malayasimha, Malay agandhini, Malayava- sini, Malavi, &c. ; as the name of a country in Malaya, Malayadesa, Malayabhnmi, Mallabhumi, Mallarastra, Mala, Malava, Malavadesa, Malavaka, &o. ; as the name of a mountain or mountain-range in Malaktita, Malaya, Malaya- parvata, Malayabhubhrt, Malayacala, Malayadri, Malyavan, &o. ; as the name of a ricer in Malavi, &c. ; as the name of a town in Malayapura, Mallapura, Mallavastu, Mallaprastha, &c. ; as the name of a plant in Malayaja, Malayadruma, Malayodbhava (sandal) ; Mallaja (Vellaja, black pepper), &o., &c. If we include in this list some variations of the sound Malla, we may mention the three mind-born sons of Brahma, the famous Prajapatis Marici, Pulaha, and Pulastya, who had among their progeny the most reputed Daityas or Rak- sasas, as well as the demon Puloman, whom Indra killed, in order to obviate the curse pronounced against him for his having violated Puloman's daughter ^aei. The name Mai wi occurs also among the Daityas, Maraka among the nations, and mallaja, black pepper, is likewise called inarica or marica. Maru means in Sanskrit a desert and a mountain, and the expression Marubhtl is specially applied to Marwar, but its inhabitants as well as the Mhars are the representatives OF BHARATAYARSA OR INDIA. 19 of an old Dravidian stock, like their namesakes the Maravar, mpsuir, in South-India. It is in itself very improbable, that these tribes should have obtained their name from a foreign source, and it would not be very ventui-esome to conjecture without any further authentic proof, that there existed in the ancient Dravidian dialect a word mar or marai for mountain, corresponding to the synonymous Tamil words par and pdrai. And in fact mar in the language of the original inhabitants of Marwar means hill, and the Mars or Mhars are in reality kill men.^" The Mallas, as a nation, are repeatedly mentioned in the Mahabharata, Harivariisa, in various Puxanas, the Brhat- sarhhita, the Lalitavistara and elsewhere. Mallabhiimi and Mallarastra, which as well as Malayabhumi refer to the northern parts of India, occur in the Eamayana and Maha- bharata. The Siddhantakaumudi mentions in a passage that refers to Panini, V. 3, 114^ the Malldh instead of Bhallah, which latter expression is found in the commentary to Dr. 0. V. Bohtlingk's edition of Panini. This quotation is significant as the Brhatsamhita mentions likewise the Bhal- las, who represent the modern Bhillas or Bhils. Bhalla and BhiUa are identical with Malla and are only different pro- nunciations or formations of the same word. The Mallas are specially brought to our notice by the circumstance that Buddha, the great reformer of India, preferred to die among the Mallas in Kusinagara. The citizens, when they heard of the arrival of the dying saint, met him sorrowfully, and among the last acts of Buddha was that he appointed the Malla Subhadra as an Arhat. This connection of Buddha with the Mallas appears strange and 20 See Lieut. -Col. James Tod's Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan; Louden 1829, vol. I, p. 680 : The Mair or Mera is the mountaineer of Eajpootana, La the country he inhaWts is styled Mainoarra, or " the region of hills." 20 OS THE OKIGINAL INHABITANTS strengthens the doubt whether Buddha was an Arj^an at all. His name of Sakyamuni and bis relationship with the Sakya race has been taken as a reason to associate his name with the Scythian tribes, who had for some time previously been invading north-western India. However this may be, Buddha's friendship with the Mallas supports his non- Aryan origin. The enmity which existed between the kings of KoSala and the Sakya princes is of itself significant, leaving altogether out of consideration the question whether Buddha was a prince or not. Moreover the inimical position which Buddhism soon assumed towards Brahmanism, the great hold the former took on the non-Brahmanical population, which rushed to be received into its fold, makes the conjecture of Buddha's non- Aryan origin rather probable. Another branch of the Mallas came into collision with Alexander the Great, while he was progressing towards the South along the valley of the Indus. In the fight which ensued during his attack on their city he was, as is well known, severely wounded. This happened not far from the present Multan, which word I assume to denote Mallasthana, the place of the Mallas, not Mulasthana, as has been assiuned hitherto. In fact Sir Alexander Burnes states in his Tirwels into Bokhara (vol. Ill, p. 114) that " Mooltan is styled ' Malli than,' or ' Mali tharun ' the place of the Malli, to this day." Malayaketu, the son of the mountain king Parvataka, who figures in the drama Mudraraksasa, represents the northern branch of the Mallas, settled in Malayabhumi, near the Himalaya while the Pandya kings Malayadhvaja, Malayanarapati, Malayaprabha, Malayasiiiiha and others are representatives of the south. Even to this day the name of the Mallas is preserved among the population all over India, for the Malas (Mais), OF BHARATAA^ARSA OR INDIA. 21 Mala Arayar or Malai Ara&ar, Malacar, ^^ Malayalis, Mala- vas (Malvas), Malair (Maler or Paharias), Majlar, Mars (Maras, Mhars, Mahars, Maharas), Maris, Maravar, &c., as they are named in different places, are found scattered all over the country. The word Malla also shows in its Tarious meanings all the vicissitudes to which individuals and nations are alike exposed. When the bearers of the name were prosperous in the enjoyment of wealth and power, kings were proud to combine the term Malla with their own appellation in order to add further splendour to themselves, so that the word Mallaha assumed also the meaning of royal, as in the Mrccha- katika ;^^ yet when the wheel of fortune turned and the star of the Mallas had sunk beneath the horizon, the former term of honour became degraded into a byname of opprobrium and was applied to the lowest population, so that Malavadu is in modem Telugu the equivalent of Pariah. Still the recollection of former splendour is not forgotten and is cherished among the Pariahs or Malas. The Pariahs or Mahars of the Maratha country claim thus to have once been the rulers of Maharastra. And this is not improbable, for not only are the Mahars found all over the country, but philological evidence is also in their favour. An old tradition divides the Dravida and Grauda Brahmans into ^' See Lassen's Indische Alterthumskunde, vol. I, pp. 433, 434 (364), note 1: "Die Malasir (Malliars, Journal of the R.A.S., II, 336) im Waldge- tirge Malabars, haben keine Brahmanen oder Guru, verehren als ihren Gott MaUung einen Stein. Auch die Pariar Malabar's haben in ihren Tempeln nur Steine." "Each village (of the Mala Arayar) has its priest, who, when required, calls on the Hill (Mala), which means the demon resi- dent there ;" see Native Life in Travancore, by the Rev. S. Mateer, p. 77. See note 28. 2^ Compare such names as Yuddhamalla, Jagadskamalla, TrailOtamalla, AhavamaUa, TribhuvanamaUa, &c. See about the Malla Era, Arehmolo- gioal Survey of India, toI. VIII, p. 203 ff, and about Mallaka, Wilson's Theatre of the Hindus, toI. I, p. 134. 22 ON THE OETGINAL INHABITANTS five classes. The Slokas whicli contain this statement are as follows : — Maharastrandhradravidah karnataSoaiva gurjarah Dravidah panoadha prokta Vindliyadaksinavasinali. Sarasvatah kanyakubja gaudotkalasoa maithilah. Graudah pancavidlia prokta VindhyaduttaraTasinah. Except the term Mahdrdstra , all the other names refer to Indian tribes. It may be presumed therefore that this is true likewise in the case of Mahirastra, and that this name should not be explained by " Great Kingdom." Maharastra was also called Mallarastra, the country of the Mallas. The Mallas are the same as the Maras, who are better known as Mars or Mhars. Mhar was eventually trans- formed into Mahar ; in fact both forms exist in modern Marathi. Two terms identical in meaning Mallarastra and Mahdrdstra were thus used. The former dropped into oblivion, and with the waning fortunes of the Mahars, their connection with the name was soon forgotten and Maharastra was explained as meaning the "Grreat Kingdom" instead of the Kingdom of the Mahars or Mallas. It is indeed curious that the word Pariah has still in Marathi, the meaning of Mahara, for the term Parardrl corresponds to Pariah, and is used in Marathi in a general way as a courteous or conciliatory term for a Mahar. ^ ' 2' There exist other SlStag about this division. The SJcanda-Purdna contains the ahovementioned SlOkas also in the following form : — KarnataScaiva Dra-idda Gurjara Eastravasinah Andhragca Dravidah pafica Vindhyadaksinavasinah. Sarasvatah Kanyaknhj a G-auda-Maithilakotkalah Panoa Gauda iti khyata Vindhasyottaravasinah. According to Dr. John Wilson : " Maharatta is the Pali form of Maha- rashtra, which with the variant reading Mallarashtra appears in several of the Puranas. . Now, Maharashtra jna^j mean 'the country of the MahdrSy^ n- trihe still known in the province, though in a degraded position, and still so numerous throughout the Maratha country that there runs the proverb, Jetiye OF BHARATAVARSA OR INDIA. 23 The proper names of Mallayija and Malladu, common among the Sudxa and Pariah population of Southern India, are occasionally like Kuppayija and VSmhayya ^* given among Brahmans and other high- caste people to a hoy, when the parents have previously lost two or more children. By this act of humility, displayed in giving a low name to their child, they hope to propitiate the deity and obtain for their offspring the health of a poor man's child. "With that object they even throw the infant into a dunghill or huppa (Tamil kuppai) ; a practice which has given rise to the name of Kuppayya. Step by step the Dravidians receded from Northern India, though they never left it altogether. The Brahmanical supremacy deprived them of their independence, yet not all submitted to Aryan customs and manners. Scattered remains of the Mallas exist, as we have seen, to this day in North- India. The immense chain of the Vindhya mountains acted as a protecting barrier, otherwise the Dravidians in the south, ganva tenye Mahara vada. ' Wherever there is a village there ia the Mahar ward. ' The Mahars are mentioned hy the cognomen which they still hear that of Parwari {Uapovapoi) by Ptolemy, in the second century of the Chris- tian era ; and in his days they were eridently a people of distinct geogra- phical recognition." See Dr. John Wilson's Ifbtes on the Constituent Elements. . of the Mardthl language, p. xxiii in the second edition of the Dictionary Marathi and English, compiled by J. T. Molesworth, Bombay, 1857.— Consult too Dr. John Wilson's Indian Caste, vol. II, p. 48 : "The Mahars, who form one of its (Maharashtra's) old degraded tribes, and are everywhere found in the province say, that Maharashtra means the country of the Mahars." Compare Notes on Castes in the Dekhau, by W. F. Sinclair, Indian Antiquary, vol. II (1874), p. 130. See also Col. Dalton's Ethnology of Bengal, p. 264 : " We have a tribe called Mai or Mftr, scattered over Sirguja, Palamau, Belounja, &c." In the Vishnupurdpa of H. H. Wilson, edited by Pitzedward Hall, vol. II, p. 165, Mallarastra is called Vallirdstra, and it is conjectured that Mallardstra may be identical with the Maharastra (the Mahratta country) of the Puranas. '^ Vembayya is called after Vembu, the Margosa tree, the representative of bitterness. Death should regard in consequence the child as too bitter and too worthless to carry it off. 24 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS unlike their brothers in the north, would not have remained so unmolested. In fact the Vindhya mountains were by- degrees recognized as constituting the natural frontier between the Aryanised nations of the north and the Dravi- dians of the south. Aryan colonisation progressed slowly in the south. The first missionaries appear to have been only visitors and sojourners not permanent settlers in the country, whence they retraced their steps homewards. The holy Agastya, according to one tradition^* a grandson of Brahma, a son of Pulastya, a brother of Visravas and an uncle of the Raksasa king, Ravana, is said to have remained in the South. Many miraculous deeds are ascribed to this diminutive sage. He is said to have been instrumental in the destruction of the powerful Nahusa, to have consumed and digested the Eaksasa Vatapi, to have drunk the waters of the ocean, and to have forced the Vindhya mountains to prostrate themselves before him. This last feat was intended to symbolize the fact that he having settled down for good in Dravlda, became the originator of Brahmanical coloni- sation. For he exacted from the insurmountable Vindhya, who was lying at his feet, the promise not to rise again until he had returned and recrossed, and as Agastya did not come back, the Vindhya could not lift its head again, and since then the mountain became passable for future immi- -^ According to anotlier tradition he was bom together with T'asistlia in a waterjar (therefore called Kamhhnsamhhava, Kiunbhayoni and Ghatodbhava) as the son of Mitra and Varuna (therefore Maitracdruni) and of the Apsaras Ufran. In the Svayamhhuva Manvantara the name of Agastya, as the son of Pulastya and Priti, is Dattoli. According to the Bhagavata-Purana Agastya was the son of Pulastya and of Havirbhu and was called in a \>TQvion3'hiTt'h Dahrd(/ni or Jatharar/iii. (Sec Vishnupur. , yo\. Xj'p. lo4.) He is also called Fitdbdhi as Ocean-drinker and Vdtajfidvls^ as destroyer of Vatftpi. His abode is fixed on the mountain Kunjara. Many hymns of the Egveda are ascribed to him. Lassen (vol. II, p. 23) has pointed out the incongruity of the reports respecting the time when he lived, as he is mentioned both as a conteniporrry of Anaataguna and of Klrtipufaija Pandya. OF BHARATAVAESA OR INDIA. 25 grants. Agastya's residence is said to have been the mountain Malayam or Potiyam, not far distant from Cape Comorin ; in the firmament he shines as the star Canopus. To him is ascribed the civilisation of South -India, in fact the most famous ancient Tamil works in nearly every branch of science, such as divinity, astronomy, grammar, and medi- cine are attributed to him. In consequence he is specially called the Tamil sage (^"Stp (Lpssfl). Explanation of the teems Dravida, Tamil AND Aravam. Sanskrit is called in South-India the northern language or pa to moU, eui— Qlditl^, while the Dravidian goes by the name of the southern language, or ten moli Qflasr Olq^-l^. Previous researches have established the fact that the words Dravida and Tamil are identical in meaning, that both resemble each other in form, and that Tamil seems to be a derivative from Dravida. Yet the origin of the word Dravida has hitherto not been explained. Though Dravida is generally restricted to denote Tamil : Dravida, Dramida or Dramila is also applied to denote ancient Malayalam ; in fact it is properly speaking applicable to all the Dravidian languages. The word Dramila occurs also in Sanskrit literature. I derive Dramila from Tlnmiala and explain it to signify the sacred Mala language, as Sanskrit is kut i^o-^^v the refined Aryan language. It is immaterial to us whether Tint is an original Dra- vidian word, or a derivation from the Sanskrit Sri, prosperity. Some of the best Tamil scholars of the past as well as of the present day have declared in favour of tiru being a pure Dravidian word, and this has all along been my opinion also. Tiru was probably in course of time changed to tira or tara, then contracted to tra or dra, and finally to ia (da), both letters t and d being identical. The Veda is called in Tamil Tiruvdy, the sacred word, and its Tamil adaptation specially 4 26 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS used by Vaisnavas is the well-known Tiruvay Moli. Tiruvay was eventually changed to Taramy, which is now generally used in the sense of Veda-rcading. The word Ottu does thus in Malayalam signify Yeda and Veda-reading. The tini of Tiruvallankodu has been similarly changed to tra in Travan- core, both alterations— Dravida and Travanoore — being no doubt due to the same Aryan influence. From Dramala to Dramila, Damila and Tamil is a short step, unless Tamil is directly derived from Tixumala. Dramila, Dramida and Dra^ada are Aryan corruptions of Tirumala and found re-admission into the South-Indian languages as foreign expressions, whose signification was forgotten and defied explanation. I recognize the name Tirumala also in the Tamala or Damala of Ddmahi raruhhaijam near Pdndamanga- Inm in the Trichinopoly district. Pandamangalam is regarded as the old capital of the former kings, among whom the name Tirumala did not unfrequently occur. Ubhayam (s-uinta) is anything offered or devoted to religious purposes, and Ddmalavar ubhayam denotes therefore the offering of the Tirumala people, var being used as the aflix of the Tamil pronoun of the third person plural. Tinimalardja is in colloquial Telugu often called Tiramalarayalu, as Tirupati becomes Tirapati. Like Ddiiuilacaruhhayam might be men- tioned Ddmalaceruvu in North-Arcot, Bdmal in Ohingleput, Damalapddi in Tanjore and others. I have been informed on good authority that the last place is to this day also known as Tirumalapadi. Yet, my derivation of Tirumala does not require the support of the etymology of these names. Another but rarer form of Dramila is Drimila, which is derived from Tinimila, as Tripati from Tirujmfi, Trikovil for Tirukocil, or Trikal for Tinikdl. The fact of the term Tamil being the ultimate derivative from Tirumala (Tramala) and denoting a special Dravidian dialect will perhaps serve in future researches as an historical clue for fixing the period when the various vernaculars of Southern India became sepa- OF BHARATAVAR8A OR INDIA. 27 rate and distinct languages. If the Limijrike (Ai,yi,vpiKr\) of Ptolemy (VII, 1, 8 and 85) is the Dimirica repeatedly men- tioned in the Cosmography of the anonymous geographer of Ravenna, as Bishop Caldwell has clearly pointed out by identifying it with Damirice or the Tamil country (see p. 14 of the Introduction to the second edition of the Oomparntive Dravidian Grammar), the work of Ptolemy contains the earliest mention of the word Tamil. All these permutations prove the continual interchange of m with the other labial consonants, and of / into the d and r sounds.^® 2^ Witli respeet to the above-mentioned conjectures a few observations are perhaps necessary. The change of a into i and vice versd is not rare, as in mala and inila, Damirica and Dimirica, Ufa, open, and tara. Sea., Sen. Tiniudy and its slang alteration into Taravay a,re both Tamil words, though the latter common form has been introduced into Telugu by Telugu J3rahmans — especially by Vais- nava Telugu Brahmans — -who live in the Tamil country, and has thus found its way even into modern Telugu dictionaries. The term Taravay for Veda- dhyayana or Vedopakrama is neither found in Kanarese and Malay alam, nor in pure Telugu. The most important lesson which Brahman boys have to learn at and after their Upanayanam or investiture with the holy thread are Veda mantras. Children generally alter words so as to suit their pro- nunciation, and Tamil boys most probably invented Taravay for Tirumy as they say tara, open, instead of tira. This corrupted form found eventually access into common Tamil, for up to this moment Taravay is only considered a slang term. The origin of the word once forgotten, tara of taravay, was connected with the word laram in the meaning of time (once, twice, &c.), and as every lesson in order to be known must be repeated, so also the reciting of the Veda after so many times or taram. It seems to be overlooked by those, who prefer this explanation, that the term Taravay is only applied to the repetition of the Veda and not to any other repetition, that if tara had been taken in the senss of " time," it ought to be at the end of the word, and that the syllable vay gives no sense in taravay unless it is accepted as meaning Veda or holy word. Taravay, taruvay, in taravata and taruvdta, occur in Telugu in the meaning of afterwards, as do in Kanarese taravdya and taru. vdya ; but these words have nothing in common with the above-mentioned Tamil Taravay. The elision of an r is also not unfrequent, as trdguta, to drink, in Telugu becomes generally tdguta. Already Bishop Caldwell was struck with the strange formation of the word Dravida, for he says : " The compound dr is quite un-Dravidian. It would be tira in Tamil ; but even if we suppose some such word as Tiravida or Tiramida to have been con- verted into Dravida by the Sanskrit-speaking people, we get no nearer to. 28 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS The Telugu, Kanarese and other cognate northern races, when they had forgotten their claim to the name of Dra- vidians, called the Tamil language Aravam. This word Aravam is most likely a corruption of Dravidam. Dravidam or Dramilam became in its turn Daramidam (Daramilam), Aravidam (Ara\ilam), and finally Aravam.^' However peculiar these changes may appear to the uninitiated, to the scientific philologist they can afford no special difhculty. Even in Sanskrit we occasionally observe an initial d dropped, e.g., in asru, tear, which is haKpv in Greek, thrdne in German, and lacnjma in Latin ; while the elision of an explanation of the original meaning of the word." See Introduction to Comparative Ilravtdtn)^ Gyaminar, p. 13. The name Tinunala hecomes in colloquial Telugu also Tiramala, Tirmala and Timma. This last word must he distinguished from Timiita for tim- mi(c!u or timmanna, monkey. Similarly does iuuibulamu, hetel, become tama- lamu (or tammalamu) and tamma ; and tdmara, lotus, tauiini. In Tamil the verb oiii (|B<^) means to recite the Vada, while ottu (sB^^) signifies the Veda itself. Both words are Tadhhavams formed from the Sanskrit word Teda. ^' The Tamil form Tirariditm for Dravidam appears to prove that the origin of the word/>/rtiJ^a had been forgotten, when it was re-introduced into Tamil. As the Telugu and Kanarese languages do not insert an i between two con- sonants in the same manner as Tamil does, the derivation of Aravam from Dravidam gains in probability. In Kanarese the Tamil people are besides called Tigahi-r, which I am inclined to consider also as a oorruptionfor Trimala. The r in the first syllable was dropped, and the labial in the second has been changed into a guttural (/, as is not mifrequent ; compare, e.g., Kudaman and Kudavan with Kudagan. Tigala and Arara have in this case the same meaning. I am aware that the Kov. Mr. Kittel, whose opinion carries much weight, has declared that the original form of Tig a(or {Tigular) was Tnjnrar. The derivations of Aniram hitherto proposed appear to me to he in- appropriate. Dr. Gundert thought it could be connected with aram, virtue, and araran woiild have the meaning of a moralist. Others preferred the Tamil word arira, knowledge, and ariran or aravan represented thus the TamuUan as the intelligent person of the South, others derived it from an obscure Tamil district Antra. The defect of these etymologies is the fact that the Tamil people ignore the word aravam, so far as their name is concerned. The Telugu pandits are in favor of arara meaning a-rara, without sound, for the Tamil language does not possess aspirates, or is according to others rather rough ; while some Kanarese pandits proposed as its root the Kanarese word arani., half, or deficient, as the ancient Kanarese people are said to have or BHAEATAVARSA OR INDIA. 29 medial consonants is not at all unusual in the Indian vernacu- lars, Bestdramu, Thursday, in Telugu, e.g., for Brhaspativara, jannidamu for yajnopavita, dnati for ajnapti. The importance I attach to the derivation of Dravidian from Tirumala in the specified sense can be duly appre- ciated only when one considers that it establishes at once the prominent position the Malas (Mallas) or Dravidians occupied in the whole of India. It may perhaps be interesting to quote from the eloquent preface of Hodgson on the Kocch, Bodo, and Dhimal Tribes the foUowiag sentences, in which the term Tamulian is employed as equivalent to Dravidian. " The " Tamulian race, confined to India and never distinguished " by mental culture, offers, it must be confessed, a far less " gorgeous subject for inquiry than the Arian. But, as the " moral and physical condition of many of these scattered "members of the Tamulian body is still nearly as little " known as is the assumed pristine entirety and unity "of that body, it is clear that this subject had two parts, "each of which may be easily shown to be of high " interest, not merely to the philosopher but to the states- "man. The Tamulians are now, for the most part, British " subjects : they are counted by millions, extending from " the snows to the Cape (Comorin) ; and, lastly, they are as " much superior to the Arian Hindus in freedom from dis- " qualifying prejudices as they are inferior to them in know- " ledge and all its train of appliances. Let then the student " of the progress of society, of the fate and fortunes of the " human race, instead of poring over a mere sketch of the past. regarded Tamil to be a deficient language. Bishop Caldwell has treated at some length on this subject in his Introduction, pp. 18-20. The initial consonant is often dropped in Dravidian languages, e.g., in Tamil Aval, assembly, for cavai ; alliyam, village of herdsmen, for valUyam ; alai, rat hole, for valai and palai ; amar, war, from Sanskrit samara ; alam, plough, from Sanskrit hala ; ita, agreeable, from Sanskrit hita ; in Telugu esa, haste, for vesa ; ella, white, for tella ; eyuta, to throw, for veyuta ; enu, 1, for nenu ; wu, thou, for nwu ; emu, we, for iriernu, &c., &c. 30 ON THE ORIGINAJ- INHABITANTS " address himself to the task of preparing full and faithful "portraits of what is before his eyes ; and let the statesman " profit by the labours of the student; for these primitive races " are the ancient inheritors of the whole soil, from all the rich " and open parts of which they were wrongfully expelled." As points of minor interest I may as well here mention that the words Tirumal and Perumal are also derived from Mala (Malla). Both terms were originally the titles given by the Mallas to their great chiefs and kings. Each Perumal was at first elected to rule for a period of twelve years, and was chosen from outside the country to govern Malanadu or Malay alam. As it often happens elsewhere with royal names, these were in later times applied as honorific appel- lations to the specially revered god, in this instance to Visuu. The terms sacred Mala or the Great Mala being once oon- neoted with the deity, lost their original meaning, which was in course of time entirely forgotten. This circumstance explains their peculiar derivations so often found in Tamil dictionaries, and the strange attempts of grammarians to explain their startling formations. The name of Perumal, the great Mala, is still a royal title in Malabar.^' CHAPTEE TV. The Pariah (Paeata, Paharia), Brahdi, Bar (Bhar), Mar (Mhar), &c. Before I turn to the Mallas known as Pallas, I shall, after a few remarks, discuss the position of the Pariahs 26 The malin Tirumal is generally derived from mal, illusion, while the same mdlia Perumal is explained as a change for man in the synonymous JPerumdn. The word Tirumal supplies the best evidence of the radical nature of the I in Perumal. The indigenous title of the South-Indian Csra, Cola and Panijya king was Perumal- Mallan was the name of a Perumal who built Mallur in OF BHARATAVABBA OE INDIA. 31 and kindred races. The Pallar are described in Dr. Winslow's Tamil and English Dictionary as " a low dependent caste employed in husbandry, &c., under their feudal lords, a peasant tribe dwelling in the south, supposed to be a change of Mallar, LDefrmir." Though the Pallar, like the Pallis and other tribes regard themselves as the descendants of the Pallavas once so powerful, they them- selves neither produce nor possess sufficiently reliable his- torical evidence in support of their claims, which nevertheless may be perfectly weU-founded. I have often but in vain tried to obtain some authentic information from the various castes in corroboration of their assertions, but I have only received vague and unreliable statements. Derivation of the word Pariah. If] the term Pariah is considered to signify every out- oaste from every caste, then the Pariahs, as such, do not come within the scope of this discussion ; for though the greater part of them belong no doubt to the original or rather aboriginal Dravidian population, from which they have in later times been severed by hereditary social rules, and though they in their turn acknowledge among themselves caste distinctions, yet as every outcaste becomes to a certain extent a Pariah, the term Pariah does not represent now a strictly ethnological sub-division. On the other hand it must be admitted that irrespective of this foreign element which has been added to the Pariah community, the Pariahs represent a distinctly separate class of the population, and as such wo have to deal with them here. The general name by which the Maratha Pariahs is known is Paravdri. Polanadu. Mallan is also called a rural deity whieli is set up on the border or on the ridges of rice-fields. Compare Dr. G-undert's Malaydlmn I/iction- art/, p. 801, and note 21 on p. 21. 32 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS That their name, in spite of its usual derivation from para or pared, drum, should rather be connected with the name of the original Dravidian population, seems to me to admit of no question. The supposition that the Pariahs are the drummer-caste and have obtained their name from that instrument appears to rest on a weak foundation. It is most probably an afterthought, the more easily explicable since the lower classes delighted in the noise of the drum, and the name of the drum -beating class was transferred to the instru- ment by which the Pariah made his presence known. The lute of the Candala (the candala-vallakl, canddlilid, cdndalikd, kandoli or kanddla-vlad) is similarly named after the Candala, and not the Candala after the lute. Moreover, the word^ara or parai is, except in Malayalam and Tamil, not found in the other Dravidian languages in the sense of drum and at the same time as the name of the Pariahs ; for the Pariah is called Holeya in Kanarese in spite of pare signifying a drum, and in Telugu he is known as Mdlavddu, which word origi- nally signifies mouutaiiieer (see pp. 21 and 56). If the Pariahs were really the caste of drummers, they would most probably be called so, wherever they are found in India. I regard the Pariah as the representative of the ancient Dravidian population, and as having been condemned to supply his name to the lowest layers of the population, as the ancient Stidras after their subjugation gave their name to the Sudra caste. It will be subsequently shown that the Canddlas are among the Gaudians, what the Pariahs are among the Dravidians. This connection is even indicated by the name of the Candalas, which resembles those of the Kandaloi, Khands and Gonds. I think that the word Pariah, the Paramrl of the Maratha country, is intimately connected with the names of the Paratas, Paradas, Paravar, Pardhis, Parheyas, Paharias or Maler, Bars (Bhars), Brahuis, Mars (Mhars), &c., &c., and that it designated originally a iiiounfaineer, from the Dravidian root OF BHARATAVAKSA OR INDIA. 33 para, preserved in the Malayalam para, in the Tamil fjar and partii, and the Telugu ^wrw. The formation of the word Pahdria corresponds probably with that of Muhdra, and as Mahara or Mahar is derived from Mhar and Mar, as Bahar is from Bhar and Bar, so may also Pahdr be regarded as a derivative from Phar and Par.^'' " Bishop Caldwell remarks on p. 549 on tMs subject : " It has lieen said " that the name Pareiya, or Pariah, is synonymous with that of the Paharias "(from pdhdr, a hill), a race of mountaineers, properly called Malers, " inhahiting the Rajmaha.1 Hills, in Bengal ; and hence it is argued that the " Pareiyas may be considered, like the Paharias, as a race of non-Aryan, non- " Dravidian aborigines. It is an error, however, to suppose that there is "any connection between those two names. The word Pariah, properly "Pareiya, denotes not a mountaineer, but a drummer, a word regularly " derived from parei, a drum, especially the great drum used at funerals. "The name Pareiya is, in fact, the name of a hereditary occupation, the " Pareiyas being the class of people who are generally employed at festivals, " and especially at funerals, as drummers." The improbability of this derivation, though advocated by such a great authority as the highly esteemed and learned Bishop, has been pointed out by me. Moreover, it may be remarked that Pariah drummers are not employed at the festivals of Brahmans. As the Dame of the Pariah is thus by high authorities derived from parai, drum, it is here perhaps not out of place to mention some of the various kinds of drums used by the natives of Southern India. The drums vary as to their size, construction, the material they are made of, and the manner in •which they are carried. A Samara (Sanskiit Damaru) is carried by a buU, a phanka (Sanskrit Bhakha) on a horse, a Nagard (of Semitic origin, in Arabic, e.g. , 8)US ; Tamil Nakard) by an elephant or camel, and a Bher'i (Sanskrit Blien (t)) on a cart. Other kinds of drums are carried by men, as the Tappattai, a small drum, which hangs from the left shoulder and is beaten under the left arm from below with a stick in the right hand, and from above with a smaU stick in the left hand. The Tdsd, a small semi-globular shaped drum, is worn in front round the neck below the chest and beaten with two small sticks. The Bol (Sanskrit BUla) is a big drum which is also carried over the neck, but is beaten only with one stick in the right hand and with the other hand. The Parai, which has the euphemistic name cf Alankdram, is not carried, when beaten, but lies on the ground between the feet of the drummer and is used at festivals, weddings, and funerals. It is beaten only by a particular class of Pariah the Yettiyan, who burns corpses and digs graves It is therefore neither beaten by all Pariahs nor used m common life The Tappattai and Td^o, are in fashion among the Pariahs and other low classes, though Muhammedans andSudras practise on them occasionally. The beaters of the other drums are mostly Sudras. The Kota. and the Todas on theN-ilagiri also have the Tappattai and Tasa. The term paTa^ is m TamU now used as the general term for drum. I believe that most of the 34 on the original inhabitants The Brahuis. On the northern frontier of India near the Bolan Pass not far from the seats of the ancient Bhalanas, who are mentioned by the bards of the Rg-veda, begins the long chain of the Bmhui mountains. This mountain range extends continuously from the vicinity of the Bolan pass to Cape Monze on the Persian Grulf, and is to this day the home of the Dravidian Brahuis, who must be regarded as the western borderers of Dravidian India. The origin above-mentioned names of the drums are merely imitations of the sounds these instruments make. H. H. Wilson introduced by mistake the " Palaya or Paraya ' ' in his translation of the second edict of ASoka. The Mdlalu or Telugu Pariahs are also called Mamiepiivdndlu or Highlanders ; see hid. Anliq., vol. VIII, p. 218. Compare Fr. Buchanan's History, Antiquities, Topography and Statistics of Eastern India, edited by Montgomery Martin, vol. II, pp. 122, 123: '* The mountain tribes are, I believe, the descendants of the original inhabit- ants of the country, very little, if at aU, mixed with foreign colonies. Their features and complexion resemble those of all the rude tribes, that I have seen on the hiUs from the Granges to Malabar, that is on the Vindhya moun- tains. Their noses are seldom arched and are rather thick at the points.. Their faces are oval. .Their lips are full.. Their eyes.. are exactly like those of Europeans." See Lassen, Indische Alterthumskunde, vol. I, pp. 454-458 (1st ed., pp. 380-384) : " Die Paharia uennen sich selbst Malar oder Berg- bewohner, . . sie haben dieselben Ziige und die Hautf arbe, wie alle die rohen Stamme vom Ganges nach Malabar . . es soU die Sprache der Paharia reich an Worten eein, die dem Tamil and Telinga zugleich angehbren." On p. 1028 Lassen remarks in note 5 : " Est is zu bemerken, dass Pdrada zwar auch Bergbewohner bedeutet haben wird." — I believe that the Parjas of Jeypore should be included among these people, though Mr.D. F. Carmichael prefers to regard this name as a corruption by metathesis from the Sanskrit ■word Prajas, subjects. See Manual of the District of Vizagapatam, p. 87 ; Madras Census Report of 1871, vol. I, pp. 223-225. — One of the Koli tribes on the Mahi Kanta hills is called Pariah. Two Eajput tribes of Mallani are known by the name of Paria and Pariaria. The fishermen in Tinnevelly are called Paravar (or Paratar and Paratavar). According to 5Ir. Simon Casie Chetty in his " Remarks on the Origin and History of the Parawas " in vol. IV of the Journal of the Royal Asiatic So- ciety, pp. 130-134: "It is the general belief among the Parawas that their " original country was Ayudhya, or Oude ; and it appears that previously to "the war of the Mahabharat, they inhabited the territory bordering on " the river Yamuna, or Jumna... In that section of the Mahabharat entitled " Adipurva, it is said, that the king of the Parawas who resided on the banks " of the Jumna, having found an infant girl in the beUy of a fish adopted " her as his own daughter, giving her the name of Machehakindi, and that or BHAKATAVARSA OR INDIA. 35 of the names of the Baluches "o and of the Brahuis is unknown, but I believe that they are in some way related to, if not indeed identical with, each other. I recognise in the name of the Paratas 3' and Paradas who dwelt in North- eastern Baluchistan, — which country coincides with the Para- dene of Ptolemy,^^ — the origin of the modern word Brahui. Both the Sanskrit as well as the Dravidian languages possess the two liquids r and /, yet the former letter seems to have ' ' when she grew up, she was employed (as was customary with the females " of the Parawa tribe) to ferry passengers over the river. On a certain day, ' ' the sage Fdrasara having chanced to meet her at the f eiTy, she became " with child by him, and was subsequently delivered of a son, the famous " Vyasa, who composed the Puranas. Her great personal charms afterwards " induced king Santanu, of the lunar race, to admit her to his royal bed, and "by him she became the mother of Vachitravirya, the grandsire of the " Pandavaa ani. KauroAxis.. Hence the Para was boast of being allied to the ' ' lunar race, and call themselves accordingly, besides displaying at their " wedding feasts the banners and emblems peculiar to it." This is the story of Satyavatl (MatsyagandhV) , the mother of Vyasa by Parasara, and of Vicitravlrya and Citrafigada by Santanu, which is told in the Adiparva in the 63rd and 100th chapters and elsewhere, as also in the Harivamsa, XVIII, 38-45. Compare also J. Talboys "Wheeler's History of India, vol. I, pp. 60-62. It is peculiar that the Palleva^dlu in the Telagu country who corres- pond to the Pajlis in the South are mostly fishermen, though the same term pallevdndlu applies also to villagers. In North India a class of fishermen is called Malla. The name denotes the tribe and not the occupation. ^'' The modern Baluches say that they came from Aleppo in Syria. Little is known about the origin of their name. It resembles that of the Ballas and Bhalanas, though it is unsafe to make any conjecture in this respect. ^' See Brhatsamhita, x, 5, 7; xiii, 9; xiv, 21, &c. Varahamihira men- tions the Paratas together with the Ramatas, and with other nations on the northern frontier of India, e.g., Saka-Yavana-Darada-Parata-Kambojah. The Paradas occur in Manu (x. 44), in the Eamayana, and repeatedly in the Mahabharata, HarivamSa and Visnupiirana. It has been also proposed to explain Pdrada as meaning a people living across the river, in this case beyond the Indus. Such a name could hardly have been assumed by the Paradas themselves, especially if they had never crossed the Indus. *^ When describing Gedrosia Ptolemy VI, 21, 4, says: la. ^tv oZv iitX SaXaaax) ttjs x^P"^ KaTex"""^" 'Ip/3iTa>' Kw/xai, to Se iropo Tr/v Kap/j-aviaf Ilap(rlSat(il Tlapirlpai), ra Se iropa Trif 'Apax'^jj. Compare "Notes on the Bhars and other Early Inhabitants of Bundellthand," by Vincent A. Smith in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal [1877], vol. XL VI, pp. 227-236, where in the first note on p. 227 we read : " The name is usually spelt ' Bhar, ' but the spelling ' Bharr ' would more accurately represent the pronunciation." ^ See Sir Henry M. Elliot's Stipplemental Glossary of Indian Terms, vol. I, pp. 33 and 34 : " Common tradition assigns to them the . . whole tract from Gorakhpllr to Bundelkhand and Saugor, and the large Pargannah of Bhadoi, in Benares (formerly Bhardai) is called after their name. Many old stone forts, embankments, and subterraneous caverns in GorakhpOr, Azimgarh, Jaunpur, Mirzapflr, and Allahabad, which are ascribed to them, would seem to indicate no inconsiderable advance in civilization. The wild Bhils of Marwar are called Bhaunrls, but I know not whether there is any connexion between them and the Bhars. The Bhoyas and Bhuttias of Agon and OF BHARATAVAKSA OK INDIA. 39 descended from the old Bhar nobility, who themselves claim to have been formerly Ksatriyas. They do not eat swine's flesh as the Bhars do, and this abstention is regarded as an indication of greater respectability. All these races are now very much mixed. The Bhars are often mentioned together with the Cherus. We possess very little information about the ancient history of the Bhars. Legend associates their name with the earliest Aryan heroes, e.g., with Rama and his sons, but the Bhars suddenly disappear from the scene, and, so far as history is concerned, reappear just previously to the Mahommedan invasion of India, at which period they cer- tainly possessed a vast territory, and were indeed the real owners of the soil. In fact the Bhars must have once ruled over a great area of country stretching from Oudh in the west to Behar in the east and Chota Nagpur, Bundelkund and Sagar in the south. Their name still survives in Bahar, Bahraich (Bharaich), Bara, Baragaon, Bara Banki, Barhapara and Barwan in Oudh, in Bareilly, Barhaj, Barhar (or Bharhar) in the North-Western Provinces, in Bar, Barabar, Baraghi and Barhiya in Behar, in Barva in Chota Nagpur, and in many other places.^^ Bara in Oudh is said to have been founded Singraull, who are generally classed as Ahlrs, may probatly bear some relation to the Bhars, though no trace can now he had of their descent. The Cherus also are sometimes said to be a branch of the Bhars. . . It is strange that no trace of Bhars is to be found in the Puranas, unless we may consider that there is an obscure indication of them in the ' Brahma Purana,' where it is said that among the descendants of Jayadhvaja are the Bharatas, who, it is added, ' are not commonly specified from their great number, ' or they may, perhaps, be the Bhargas, of the Mahabharata, subdued by Bhim Sen on his Eastern expedition. The Bhars consider themselves superior to Eajbhars, notwith.standing the prenomen of Eaj, but this claim to superiority is not conceded by the Eajbhars. They do not eat or drink with each other." See Barivarhia XXXIII, 53 : BharataSca suta jata bahutvannanuklrttitah. 3« See The Bhars of Audh and Saniras, by Patrick Carnegy, Com- missioner of Eai Bareli, Oudh, printed in the Bengal Asiatic Journal, vol. 45, p. 303 : " The parganas of Bhardoi, Bharosa, Bahraich, and Bharoli and the 40 ox THE OETGIXAL INHABITANTS by a Bhar Raja called Bar a, while the foundation of Bdra Hanki is associated with J as, another Bhar Raja. The Linga on the top of the Bdrahdr hill near Gaya was according to local tradition placed there by a Bar Raja, whose combats with Krsna are even now remembered by the people. '' This is most probably an allusion to the Asura Bdna, the son of Bali. The Bdrhapdra pargana is still populated with aboriginal Bhars. The pargana Bhddohi or Bhdrdohi is called after them, and the name of the town of Bharaich is also derived from their name.'' Traces of the former supremacy of the Bhars are found scattered all over the country. Most of the stone erections, fortifications, as well as the embankments, and the subterranean caves in Gorakhpur, Azimgarh, Janpur, Benares, Mirzapur, and Allahabad are ascribed to them. Such forts generally go now by the name of Bhdr-dih. The grand ruins known as those of Pampapura in the neighboui-hood of the modem town of Bhartipur (near the Bhar capital, Kusbhawanpur alias Sultftnpur), are all believed to derive their names from the Bhars . . Sleeman also mentions a large district of nearly a thousand villages near Mahamdi, which even in his day was known as Bharwara, now occupied by Ahban Rajpats." Com- pare Bengal Asiatic Journal, vol. 46, pp. 227 and 228 : " The former presence of the Bhars in the Hamlrpur District is attested by the traditions, which will be presently described, and by local names in every pargana. A few examples of such names out of many may be of interest ; thus the old name of the town of Sumerpur (in Parg. ISumerpur) is Bharua, and in the parganas of Maudha, Panwari-Jaitpur, Jalalpur, and Rath, respectively, we find localities named Bharsawan, Bharwara, Bharkharl or Barkharl, and Bhanraura Kera, and in several of these cases the evidence of the name is confirmed by that of tradition." With respect to Baragaon Genl. Sir A. Cunningham [Archs I have mentioned, is not only the guardian of boundaries, but also of the public peace and health, as watchman and scavenger ; of communications, for he should g-uide travellers and make petty road repairs ; and of the public treasure and correspondence, for it is his duty to carry the revenue to the treasury, and convey all messages on account of Government. It will be seen that he has no sinecure (and) . it is obvious that he is not one ' of the Queen's bad bargains.' These duties belong to the Mahar as yeslar, or village watchman . . . But the Tara.1 or gate- ward, an officer found in a good many villages, is generally also a Mahar by caste. The term Bhed is simply Hindustani for a Mahar and is found as we go northward." Compare " Two I^ectures on the Aboriginal Race of India," by Lieut.. General Briggs, Royal AHiahf S'tc. Jo'fjiinl, XIII, pp. 275-309, specially p. 281. See my remarks about the origin of the term Mahdrditra on pp. 22 and 23. 7 50 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS and exacts honors from, the surrounding chiefs and princes. The active life which the Maravan leads in the open air has imparted to him great bodUy strength. He can be easily distinguished from other natives by his good figure and generally erect and proud bearing. ^^ The Pariah, Paharia, Parheya, the Brahui, Bar or Bhar and the Mar, Mhar or Mahar of our day should, as I hope to have proved, be regarded as the descendants of the original Dravidian population. I am of opinion that all these tribes, whose names contain the letter r, are the representatives of the first and oldest stratum of the Dravidian race, and that the descendants of the Mul/a or Pal/a are those of the second stage, from which the other part of the present Dravidian population has been gradually evolved. Religious and Social Privileges enjoyed by Pariahs. In Mysore the Holii/a or Holej/a (joj®Sai:, ^jsSodo takes the place of the Pariah. The word Holiya may be another form for Palaiya, unless we assume that the / in Holiya is a change from /• and connect the word Holiya with Paraiya. However despised a position the Pariah and the Holij-a occupy in the places where they Hve, they have preserved and still cherish, as the Mhar and Bhar do, the memory of former greatness and regard themselves as the original owners of the soil. Political revolutions, about which we now know nothing, have most probably been the cause of *9 Maravan also means originally monntnineer, but Mr. Nelson in his Miinnal of Madura, has quotoil (II, p. 39) a legend, according to which the Maravar aided with Eama against Ravana, and' Kama thanked them and " exclaimed in good Tamil, Momven or ' I will never forget ' ; and that they " have ever since been called Maravans. With more probability the name " may be comicctod with the word marain, Ld/D'}), which means killing, " foi'ocity, bravery and the like." See Nelson's Mmmal, II, p. 3S-42, on the Muravar. 01- BHARATAVARSA OR INDIA. 51 tlieii- subversion by other kindred Dravidian tribes. Yet, considering the unstable nature of the Indian states, the continual disturbances and fighting which give to Indian history such an unpleasant and unsatisfactory appearance, there seems nothing peculiar in the claims advanced by those Pariahs, who are in reality the descendants of the original inhabitants. The Pariah calls himself to this day the elder brother of the Brahman, claiming in this manner precedence of the Brahman. The Brahmans on the other hand ascribe the origin of the Pariahs, Candalas, and other low castes to the connection of Brahman women with low caste men, or to the curse which sages, like Visvamitra, were so fond of utter- ing against their own flesh and blood, or against any one who was unfortunate enough to come across them at an inauspicious moment. The legend of the curse of Visva- mitra's sons is interesting, as it ascribes to them the origin of some wild tribes like the Andhras, Pundras, Sabaras, and Pulindas.^" The Pariahs have according to the Ndnaretti eighteen titles like the Yellalar and possess also the same insignia.*' The chief goddess of the Pariahs is called Attal or Animal, mother, and represents Parvati as mother of the earth, while ™ The elder filt.y of the hundred sons of Visrdmitra offended their father, and being cursed by him, became outcastes and the forefathers of all the wild tribes. According to an old tradition, found in the Piiranas and retold in the Kulasankarami'la of Veiikatacalacaryar of Eayapuram and in the Kanarese Somtsvaras<>taka^ Vasistha was the son of Urvasi, the famous divine prosti- tute, and the husband of a Candala woman of the Cakkili caste, who was in reality Arimdhati, reborn as a Candall. As such she bore him one hundred sons, ninety-six of whom disobeyed their father and reverted to the Pancama (fifth; or Pariah caste, while the four others remained Brahmans. — Agastya was, as already intimated on p. 24, n. 25, in this birth the brother of Vasistha. ^' Among these insignia are mentioned the following : white, earth-circle umbrellas ; lion, swan, green and white, monkey {Hmwinan), cuckoo, plough- handle, wheel and lion faced flags ; a trumpet ; closely carried torches {arulcu) and day torches ; victorious bells, two white chowries, white elephant ; white horse ; ivory palanquins ; cuscus fan, flute ; white petticoat, two poles with cloth across the street {makaratoruna), golden pot, &c. 52 ox THE OEIGIXAL IXHAHITAXTS as Pidari she ressmbles through her evil inclinations Kali. Different personifications of Parvati and Kali are variously named, as Velattal (Elattal), Nagattal, Egattal, Cemattal, Mariyattal or Mariyamman, Angalamman, Ellamman, Pun- ganamman (Pungattal), &c. Temples are found everywhere in South India, and she is generally the village goddess. Mar ill am man, the goddess who inflicts and removes small-pox and other diseases, is found among the Gauda-Dravidians of the whole of India. The feasts of these goddesses extend over a week and last occasionally sixteen days. During the whole of this time a Pariah is kept clothed and fed in the temple as the accepted bridegroom of the goddess. High across the streets festoons of margosa leaves are hung, and on the last day, while pots filled with water are carried by the people and the idol is taken in procession round the streets of the village, tom- toms are beaten in honor of the Pariah bridegroom, and after he has fasted and bathed, he gets a new cloth dyed with saffron, and the priest fastens a quarter anna piece to the right hand of the goddess and another to that of the Pariah. This ceremony is called kdppu, s/tljl/. The name Velattal is commonly explained as mother of Subrahmanya, from Vel and Attal. Nagattal is regarded to signify the same from Nagan (Subrahmanya) and Attal. Some Tamil scholars however do not favor this explanation. When revered in these forms Parvati or Kanj^akumari is regarded as a Pariah woman or Matangi. Tlie Pariahs enjoy even now, in many places, privileges, the origin of which cannot be explained except by admitting the existence of substantial reasons, which have long been for- gotten. A Pariah ties to this day the tali round the neck of Egattal, the tutelary goddess of Black Town in Madras. The Pariah, who acts as the bridegroom, arrives at the temple about ten days before the feast commences and is treated as described above. At Pemmbui; near Madras, the same deity OF BHAHATAVARSA OR INDIA. 63 is called Ceimtlal, mother of safety. In Mysore a Holiya is generally the priest of the village goddess, and the Kulvadi or Pariah headman of the village community is regarded as the real proprietor of the village. At Melkota a Holiya presents to Celvapillai, or utsava-idol, which is thus called as it is carried in procession at the festival, a hranch of the Cami or Vahni tree to be used as an arrow for his bow at the hunting festival {paricettai), and while the idol is moving in procession, a Pai'iah huntsman lets a hare run across the road in front of the car that the god may shoot at it ; this done, the idol returns in grand procession to the temple. The Pariah receives as a reward {pdritosihvm) a garland, the flowers of which are distributed among the heads of the large conflux of Pariahs. This hunting festival is in Mala- yalam called paUiretta, or royal hunt. It is just possible that pari and palli are identical words. The Holiyas pull the car at Melkota and are not ilebarred from approaching it. They pull also the ropes of the cars at Kancipuram, Kumbha- konam, Srivalliputtur, and other places. In fact they do so wherever there are big temples. To obviate any unpleasant- ness arising on such occasions, it is laid down, as a rule, that the touch of Pariahs and outcastes who come to revere the deity does not pollute. Devalayasamipasthan devasevartham agatan Oandalan patitan vapi sprstva na snanam acaret.^^ The Holiyas are permitted in Melkota to enter the Tiru- narayana temple on three days of the year. The Brahmans ascribe this privilege to the circumstance that a poor but pious Pariah had observed that a cow approached every day a white ant's hole and let her milk drop into it. He searched and discovered that the image of Celvapillai was concealed in it. In consequence, the Pariah took compassion on the cow 62 One need not bathe if one touches Candalas or outcastes, who stand near the teu:ple and have come to worship God. •54 ox THE ORIGlNAr. INHAIilTANTS an") is mentioned a copperplate order or Tdnira^dsanam which confirms the position of the Vauniyar, they held at Kinci during the reign of Sukhakal- ydpa in the 762nd year of Salivahana Saka ; hut, though it is stated there, that this Sasanam is still preserved, no one seems ever to have seen it. »■■' The quarrels and actual fights which occurred between these hostile par- ties have given rise to much litigation before Magistrates and Judges, espe- cially in the Chingleput and North-Arcot districts. The judgment of George Coleman, Judge and Magistrate of Chingleput, dated the 25th July or BHAKATAVARSA OR INDIA. 63 This dissension must have seriously affected, for some time at least, the agricultural, mechanical, and commercial interests of the country, for, as both parties were stubborn, a great deal of inconvenience must have been felt, till each party was able to supply its own wants. The right-hand side had in these circumstances to seek a fresh supply of artisans until the necessary knowledge was acquired by men in its own ranks. Borne who joined it were perhaps deserters from 1809, specifies the different people of both hands, gives their emblems, flags and instruments, and fixes certain privileges. I have applied to the Court and gone to Chingleput with the express purpose to obtain a copy of this important judgment from the District Court, but it could not be found among the records, though many decisions of less consequence and of earlier years are still extant. However, through the exertions of Mr. A. Krishnasvamy Iyer, B.A., an official of the Accountant -Greneral's Office, and a much esteemed former pupil of mine, I have been able to secure a Tamil manuscript copy of the judgment. On the right hand are enumerated the Velalar and Kavaraikal with the following insignia : white umbrella, white flag, curved fan, chowry, arukutlvatti, plough, plough-flag, monkey-flag, cuckoo-flag, parrot-flag, beU, conch, wheel stick, big-drum, green, blue lotus gailand, Atti flag, Tamntai, trumpet ; 2, Vatiiha Velalar (Northern or Telugu VeUaJar) with swan flag ; 3, Eediikal with plough flag ; 4, Eammavdrukal (agricultural labourers) with bull-flag ; 5, Eontalavarkal with chakora flag ; 6, Nattamon with Ali flag ; 7 Malaiyaindn with Aritdla or Srttala flag ; 8 Komattikal (merchants) with cotton-flag, Makaratoranam-ivam, Vimumayir, Itimuracu; 9, 7(a(y«>- (shepherds) with wheel; 10, Vatuka Itaiyar (Telugu shepherds) with conch; 11, Eannitaiyar (Kanarese shepherds), with tent, . . . five- coloured flag ; 12, Fatmaedliyar (weavers) with tiger vehicle, male tiger flag ; 13, Pattuedliyar (sUk weavers) with two-headed bird flag ; 14, Vatukaceni- yar (northern weavers) with jasmine flag, Nakapacam, five-coloured flag ; 16, J(zm- (Telugu weavers) with crocodile ; 16, Kannitaiya-Ceniyar (Kajia.- rese weavers) with wild jasmine garland, big eagle flag, Vicm-utan^ai ; 17, Pattunulkdrar (sUk thread weavers) with silk flag; 18, Cetar (weavers) with tortoise flag, and Kolinci&ng; 19, Cekkuvdniyar (oilpress mongers) mth cedaiceti (centu-tontu), eUuraci, sesamum-leaf garland, garuda-flag, drum ; 20, Ilaivdniyar (leaf oil-mongers) with kovai-garland, drum, cuckoo flag ; 21, Onti'erutu ■vamdyar (one bullock oil-mongers) with flve-coloured parrot flag ; 22, Janappar (hemp dressers) with chowry flag ; 23, Muceiyar (painters, &c.,) with makara flag ; 24, Kinciyar (braziers) with Poti flag ; 25, Vetakdrar (basketmakersVwith Cikkiri flag, wooden-legged horse, sword flag; 26, Nari cokiyar (Fox-beggars) with dog flag ; 27, Tamil Kuoamr (potters), Vatuka Kmavar (Telugu potters), Kuca Kanakkar ; 28, Melakkdrar (flooters) with drum flag; 29, Xattuvar (dancing masters) with cymbal flag ; 30, Ddcikal 64 ON' THE OEIGINAL INHABITANTS the hostile camp, while others were outsiders, Muhammadan artisans, for instance, who were allowed to earn their living in the Hindu community by following their profession. The fifth caste formed of outoastes is in consequence of this dissension divided into two great hostile camps, on the right side are ranged the Pariahs, and on the left side the Cakkilis or leather-workers. It appears that there prevails in some parts of the South the peculiar phrase : " the Pariahs (dancing girls) with Manmatha flag; 31, Cdndr and liar (toddy- drawers) with kurifioi flag, knife and ladder ; 32, Kuravar (mountaineers, foresters, snake-catchers, basketmakers, salt-sellers), with donkey flag ; 33, Cuhhdr cetti lampdtikal (salt-sellers) with picturesque flag; 3i, Vettaklcdrar (hunters) with sling flag; 35, Pattanarar (?) with tortoise flag ; 36, Karnh/nr (sea-coastmen) with fish flag ; 37, Ottar (road-makers and tank-diggers from Orissa) with spade flag; 38, Uppararar (common tank-diggers) with pig flag; 39, Poyi (hearers) with palanquin flag ; 40, PaniceyvOrkal (?) (menial servants ? ) with Tarai (trumpet) flag ; 41, Tamil Vanndr and Vatuka Vannar (Tamil and Telugu washermen) with curved knife, lotus garland and white elephant ; 42, Tamil Ndvitar (Tamil barbers) with tumpai garland, animal with human face ; 43, Vatuka Ndvitar (Telugu barbers) with nakasaram (musical instru- ment) ; 44, Tompiirarnr (rope-dancers) with Ke^ai flag ; 45, Mdriyamman Pucdrikal (Mariyamman priests) with small drum flag; 46, PMcaW/lrf with hoUow brass lingflag; 47, /»■!(/«»• (wild foresters) with iron bar flag; 48, Arippiikkdr Kavurni (kavarai weavers) with lotus flag ; 49, Vatuka Panda- ram (northern mendicants) with battle-axe flag; 50, Vancurdr (?)with pearl flag ; 61, Entukutuppaikdral {sooth.s3,ying beggars) with s4kti flag; 52, Jindti (forestmen) with hare flag ; 53, Kaldcvkdrnr (lascars) with cart flag; 54, Velikkarumdr excommunicated blacksmiths) with beUows and hammer flag ; 55, Vihkal tar.r.n.r (excommunicated carpenters) with chisel flag ; 56, Kappal tatcar (ship carpenters) with adze flag ; 57, Kappal ratnkar (Telugu sailors) with ship flag ; 68, Pantar (bards) with sword flag. The people and ensigns of the fifth class are - 1, Paeuniyar or Palanikal (processionists) with damara (drum) flag ; 2, VaUuuar^ Atdvattiydr and Vettiydr (mahaut), Paraiyar and Pantaparniyar with white umbrella, white chowry, white flag, conch, vajra stick, trumpet (tamukku), drum (tappattai), paiika (trumpet), tuttari (short trumpet), big tuttari, paraiya music, five pots and white makara (alligator) festoons. The left hand musters 1, Peri Cettikal (Beri merchants) with kite flag ; 2, Nakara Vdniyar (town oil-mongers) with tontu garland and garland of nine gems ; 3, Kaikkolar (weavers) with tiruvaraipattiram, adakkam, lance, male vulture, lion flag, bear flag, deer flag, peacock flag, cuckoo flag, drum ; 4, Kammdiar (artisans). [This class is composed of the TaY/ar (goldsmiths), Kmindr (braziers), Cirpar (masons), KnUar (blacksmiths) and Taccar (car- OF BHAEATAVAESA OE INDIA. 65 are not left-hand people, they belong to the Tamils ; " an expression whose exact meaning it is difficult to make out especially as a Tamilan or Tamulian denotes, in Madras, a Hindu in general, and not a Pariah.'^'' I believe that the meaning of this phrase is that, as the Tamilar or Vellalar, the masters of the Pariahs and principal Rudras, are right hand men, so are their dependents, the Pariahs. The Pariahs enjoy penters) ; the word Kammila is most likely the Sanskrit Kammara, which occurs already in the Veda '"n the meaning of artificer.] With hammer, chisel, adze, compass or ulakani, stick, parrot flag, eagle flag, or white kite flag ; .5, PaUikal with hig axe, crane feather, vgnkai garland, red lotus garland, crow flag, cloud-coloured flag, fire flag, cock flag, vulture flag, fox flag, date flag, stone flag, green flag, hair-queue flag, drum and how, kuntali, hlack flag. As helonging to the fifth class of the Ilankai are mentioned — 1 , Taltar with nelli garland and crab flag ; 2, Cakkililial (leather-workers) with saffron screen, hlack garland, warrior sword, cocoa leaf, drum, curved stick. Mr. Coleman's decision refers also to the manner in which temple, funeral and other processions should he performed by the different castes, but to quote his remark's here would lead us too far away. The Government Oriental Manuscripts' Library contains two lists of the right and left hand castes. 98 different divisions are ascribed to each sect. If the lists had not heen very inaccurate, I should have printed them here, but they place inter alias the Kammdlar on the right-hand and the Brahmans on the left-hand. Dr. Macleane (in the Administration Manual, vol. I, p. 69), though without producing confirmatory evidence, makes the important statement that the male Fullies belong to the right and the female Ftdlies to the left hand. He says : "The following lists show the more important of the i'ast<'8 "which take part in the disputes of the rival hands. On the left hand, " Chetties, artisan3,oilmongers, weavers, Patnavar, male leather- workers, and " female Pullies. On the right hand ; Vellaular, Cavarays, Comaties, acoouut- " ants silk-weavers, male Pullies, Pariahs and female leather- workers. " It is to be observed that the females of two of the inferior castes take differ- " ent sides from their husbands in these disputes." I have made inquiries among the PaUis on this point and they deny the correctness of the state- ment, yet it is very difiicult to decide such a question, unless both sides produce their authorities. It must certainly appear peculiar that husband and wife should belong to the different rival hands, as if it were desirable to specially provide causes for domestic disagreements. Mr. Nelson has, as will he seen on the next page, made a similar statement concerning the Cakkilis in Madura. «" The Eev. E. Lbventhal of Vellore communicated to me the existence of the saj-ing; usro/Tii^fr @l-I5ist,s .^siieu ^esjrra'dn ^tSifitT ; "The Pariyar are not Irfthand, they are Tamilians." 66 ON THE OEIGINAL INIIAIilTAXTS also the honorific title of Valahkamattdr or Valanhnhttdr and claim in consequence precedence over the left-hand Pallar. The Tamil Oakkili, the Telugu and Kanarese Madiga, and the Maratha Wang all do belong to the same caste. Their occupation is mostly connected with leather and rope making. The enmity between the common Pariahs and these people is very acrimonious as it concerns precedence ; and a Ming, who as ropemaker is generally also the hang- man, is said to regard as his proudest and most meritorious action the hanging of a Mahar or Maratha Pariah. Never- theless, the Pariahs and the Cakkilis, when not actually engaged in hostilities, acknowledge each other in a friendly manner as brothers-in-law. In his Madura Manual (II, p. 7) Mr. Nelson mentions the curious fact that in Madura the Cakkili women belong to the right-hand and their hus- bands to the left-hand. The words Mdng aud Madiga are corruptions of Mdtanga. The division of the Snkti worshippers or Sdktas in Dak- sinacaris and Vamacaris has nothing in common with the right or left hand castes. This difference concerns merely the ptija, inasmuch as the daksindcdra, the right observance, allows only milk, fruit, cakes made of blackgram, and other sweetmeats and sweet drinks, wliile the minnvdra, the left or adverse observance, permits, besides the mentioned eatables and drinks, meat and liquors also. The VALL^^ ar. The oppression which the Pariahs and Paljar haA-e suf- fered has not drawn them closer together, but yet these two classes have their priesthood in common. These priests are called Yalluvar, and their name has become renowned by Tirn VcMuua Ndj/anni\ the author of the famous Tamil work the Kural ((g/psrr). It is evident from this appellation itself, that Tiruvailuva Naj^anar is not the real name of this or BHAEATAVAESA OE INDIA. [ 67 celebrated man, but only his title.'"' This poet, who was born aud died at Mailapur, a suburb of Madras, showed in his writings a knowledge of, and a tendency towards Jainism ; and though some deny the fact of his having been a Jain, other Valluvar admit it : at all events the title Nayanar may be taken in favor of such an assumption, as it is used by the Jains as an honorific appellation. The word means /ord and devotee, and is probably a contracted form of the Tamil honorific term Ndijakanar, from which the syllable ha has been dropped. Ndyaka, a leader, especially a leader of troops, i.e., a general, is derived from the Sanskrit iii, to lead. This word becomes in Tamil Ndyalcan (Naik), in Telugu Ndi/ada (Naiduj, and in Malayalam Ndyar (Nair), and is used as a title by many Hindus in Southern India ; it is adopted in the '■ The accounts given about TinwaUuva Nayanar are very obscure. One fact alone is clear that he belonged to one of the lowest classes of the population, but that the highest classes could not ignore his talents, and to save their superiority connected his birth with the Brahman caste. Another important item of information is that other celebrated Tamil poets as Kapilar and Amai are also brought into intimate contact with the same lower classes. The legend given below mates Kapilar, Avvai and TiruvaUuva Nayanar, brothers and sister, though it is manifest that they did not all live and compose their works at the same time ; still the connection of all with one another and with the Pariahs and Pulayar is very peculiar indeed. Brahma performed, according to the legend, a sacrifice for the explana- tion of the Sanskrit and Tamil languages and Agastya arose from it out of a pot. The sage married the daughter of the Ocean, and had from her a son Peruncdrahan. His sou married at Tiruvalur a Pulaiyan woman or Pitlaieei, and their offspring was Bhagavan (usisuajr). About this time there lived Tavamuni, a scion of the Brahmavarhsa, who had married a Brahman woman Arulmahkai. They had a daughter, but left her behind to perform a sacrifice at the Virali mountain. A Pariah of Uraiyur found the girl, and brought lier up, until there fell a downpour of earth which killed all the inhabitants in the neighbourhood except the girl, who took refuge in the house of one Nxhyap- pan at Melurakaram. On his way to Benares the young Bhagavan stopped at the choultry near Melurakaram, when the girl passed. He asked her whether she was a Pulaicci or "Valaicci, and beat her with a wooden ladle on her head, so that it bled, and the wound left eventually a scar. On his return from Benares the pilgrim stopped at the same inn and again saw the young girl, who had since become very beautiful, at the house of Nitiyappan, but he did not recognise her and asked her foster-father to give him his 68 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS same meaning by the Bhillalas, Mahars and Gronds. Tte word Valluvan euerri^wesr, (PI. Valluvar) I take to mean "the honorable Palla;" Vallu or rather Pallu being the collective name of the Palla caste and an (ar) the honorific pronominal affix. The present position of the Yalluvar is highly inter- esting. He is famous for his superior attainments in Astro- logy, and is much consulted when horoscopes are to be cast. Though socially an outcaste, he is respectfully treated by Brahmans and especially by Brahman ladies, who often have recourse to his advice. He wears the holy brahmanical thread ot paj'mpavHa, in Taiiiil pilnii iiul or punill.^" At the weddings of Pariahs and Pallar he utters Sanskrit passages daughter in marriage. He consented and the marriage was celebrated when Bhagavan returned from Rftmesvaram. On his anointing, according to the ceremonial, the head of his bride, he saw the scar on her head and recog- nised her as the girl he had hcaten. Ashamed he ran away, but the girl — -who was henceforth called A ti (^ffl) — ran behind him. At Pftpaccerj she overtook him at last, when Bhagavan exacted from her the promise that she would leave behind her all the children which they might have on their ioiirneys. She consented and much against her inclination kept her word, advised by her babies to do so. Thus were born Aivai (^djsroaj) or Auvai (sjsirsrosu) as an incarnation of SarasvatI, TJppai (e.ueau') iu Tondaraandalam, ^^iAa;«^rt (^^SLniresr'] inKaruvur, Uruvai (a_mi©o>eu) in Kaveripattanam, Eapllar (aLSsvrr) in TiruvSrOr, J'«IH near the Veli mountain and Tirnealluvar in an oil nut tree tope at Mailapur. All these children play important parts in the legends and poetry of Southern India. Aviuii was nursed by hunters. Uppai was brought up by washermen and married a Pariah grave-digger. They were very poor, and she was attacked by small-pox and went about covered only with margosa-tree leaves. Thus she became known and worshipped as Mariyamman. Adjka- m'hi was educated by Csraman, Vruvai by brewers, Eapilar by the Brah- man Pdpaiya, and VaUt by Kuravar. The names of TiruvaUuvar and of most of his so-called brothi rs £.nd sisters are no pro))er names. *' See f The Pardsarapaddhati mentions the Bhlls, Pulindas, Pullas, MaUas and others in the following lines : Pulinda-Meda-BhiUasca Pullo MaUai^ca Phavakah, Kundakaro Dokhalo va Mrtapo Hastipas tatha ; Ete vai Tivarajjatah kanj-ayam Brahmanasya ca. See Ptolemy, VII, 1, 66; "Ilepi ie r'bv "Havayovvav ^vWlrai koX Brimy^, iv oTs Kcii'SaXot )U€V -/rapct tovs 4>uA.XiTas koX rhv i:oTafx6v''' See Sir A. Cun- ningham iu the Archeeological Survey of India, vol. IX, p. 151: " In his "(Ptolemy's) day the large district at the head of the Nanagnna, or Tapti " River, was occupied by the Kondali or Gondali, a name which has been ' ' generally identified with that of the Gonds. But their country is described "as pars PhuUitarum, the P/faKitee themselves being placed more to the " north. I take this name to be a pure Greek one, tpuAXenai, descriptive " of the ' leaf -clad ' aborigines. Varaha Mihira notices the Parna-Sabaras, '• or ' leaf -clad Sauras ' ; and we know that the Juangs of the present day " still preserve this primitive costume. I believe, therefore, that there may "have been Pa/7M Gaudas, or 'leaf-clad Gonds,' in the time of Ptolemy, " and that these are the people intended by his PhuUitae-Gondali." OF BHARATAVARSA OR INDIA. 83 The Mars of Ajmere resemble the Bhils, and these again are not dissimilar to the Parheyas and Khonds. The Bhils This opinion does not appear to coincide with that expressed by Sir A. Cunningham in vol. XXI, p. 93 : " Still further to the south Ptolemy places " the PhuUitae and the Kondali, -whose country is descrihed as Pars Phulli- " tarum. Phullitae I take to he a Greek name descriptive of the Parna " Savaras, or 'leaf -clad Savaras,' one of the most powerful of the ahoriginal "races in the early centuries of the Christian era. Their only town was " Aguftt, which may perhaps be identified with Sagar." In H.T.Colebrooke's edition of A.marakosa, Serampore, 1825, p. 2.52, note j, we read ; savarah or patrascwarah, wearing feathers (a peacock's tail, &c.). A. Loiseleur Deslong- champs' French edition contains on p. 233 the same remark. In Bothlingk and Roth's SansJcrit W'drterbueh, vol. IV, p. 417, standis patrasaoara, " ein mitFedem sich schmiickender Savara." BrhatsamhitS, XIV, 10, mentions the Purikadasdrndh with saha nagnaparnasataraih ; and Bothlingk calls ibidem, p. 574 the Parnasavara, von Blattem lebende Savara, i.e., Savaras, who live on leaves ; the term occurs also in MarkandSya Purana. Some take Parna as the name of a people ; e.r/., Mr. N. Chidambaram Iyer, who translates this passage : Nagna, Parna and Sahara. It is possible that in this place three different tribes are enumerated, the Nagna (naked), the Partia, and the Sahara : for if two tribes, the Nagna-iahara and Parna-saiara, i.e., the "naked Sahara" and the " leaf -Sahara, " are only mentioned, in order to prevent any doubt on this subject, any other mode of expression would have been preferable to the use of the compound in the Instrumental Plural, i.e., to nagnaparnasabaraih. I ought also not omit to mention that the Sabardh occur ten times in the Brhatsamhitd, but only once in the quoted place in connection with either nagna or parna. To these remarks I join General Sir A. Cunningham's comments as contained in his 17th vol. pp. 127, 12S: "I think it probable that Colebrooke's reading of Patra Savaras is ' ' erroneous, as Variha Mihira gives the name of Parpa Savara, or leaf -clad " Savaras. Varaha places in the south-east quarter, in the territory of the ' ' aborigines, the Purikas, the Dasimas, the ' ' naked Saiaras, and the Parva " iSaiaras," and in the south the Sauris and Kirnas. The commentator, ** however, takes these two names as one, or Saitri- Kirnas, who are probably " the people of Hwen Tsang's Kirna-Suvarna, Professor Kern thinks that '■ the Parna Savaras are ' manifestly the Phyllitae of Ptolemy,' and he ex- " plains the name as ' feeding upon leaves.' But, as we know that the Juangs, " a cognate race, still wear leaves, it seems to me more probable that the "term means ' leaf-clad.' In other places Varaha speaks of the ' Savara "savages,' (IX, 15), the 'savage Sabaras and Puliudas ' (IX, 29), and " of various tribes of i^aico'« savages (XXXII, 16). This last notice must ' ' refer to more than the two tribes of Nagna Sabaras, or ' Naked Savaras, " and Parna Savaras, or ' Leaf-clad.' Both Amara and Varaha date about "A.D. 650." To my previous remarks, I only add that the term c/JuWiTai, as used by Ptolemy, cannot apply to the Sabaras, who are mentioned by him VII, 1, 80 near the Ganges ; that a word tpvWeirai does, I believe, not occur in Greek, though u\\(T7)s (m) and tpvWiris (J) are used in the sense of (pxiWifos, made of leaves ; that the Phyllitae are distinguished by Ptolemy from the Kondaloi 84 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS being mostly mountaineers, are called in Kanarese Koracaru or Kuncciyar, and a Bhil woman or Koravahji is known in Sanskrit as Bhilld str'i or Pdrvafei/i.''^ Koravanji is also the name of a girl whom Arjuna is said to have married when he stayed in the Raicataka forest.'^ Cairns, cromlechs and stone platforms testify on the tops of hills to the presence of the Bhils. Clay horses are, as in Southern India, dedicated to the gods. If images of horses are deposited near or on the tops of hills, the souls of the dead are supposed to shorten their journey to heaven by using them. Though of a wild and unmanageable disposition and much addicted to thieving, the Bhils can, when they have once been won by kind and just treatment, be easily turned into useful and trustworthy servants, soldiers, and land labourers. Some of their villages show superior cultivation. In Nimar and elsewhere they fill the post of hereditary and that both cannot be regarded as one nation " Phyllitae-Oondali" (IX, p. 151) or as *' leaf-clad Savaras " (XXI, p. 93) : that the countrj^ of thp KoTtd- all is not by Ptolemy described ae Fan F/iiU/itariim ; and that the Sabaras are in the Brhatsaihhita, IX, 15, 29, and XXXII, 1 5, not respectively called " Savara savages," "savage Sabaras and Pulindas," and of "various tribes of Sahara savages," for we find there in the text dvikdnchabarasudrdn (IX, 15), s'abarapulindapradJiramsakaro (IX, 29) and Tangana-Kalinga-J'ahga- iJrariddh Sabardsea naikavidhdh, the Sabaras mentioned, but nowhere as Sahara savages. The Snhitya Larpana mentions the different dialects, by whom they should be spoken, and indicates that the language of the Abhiras and Sabaras should be used by those who gain their living by wood and leaves; i.e., most probably by wood-cutting and leaf-gathering (Abhlrl Savari capi kasthapatropajivisu). We meet here the Sabaras in connection with pair a. Bishop Caldwell advocates in his Comparative Grammar the derivation of :Bhil from bil, arrow, as he says on p. 464 : " Bhillas, probably Billas, from the Dra vidian vil, Ul, a bow, bowmen." The Bettigoi are also called Bittoi, Bittioi, and Bittigoi. Compare Lassen, vol. I, p. 113 (88), and Sherring, vol. II, p. 128-9, 284, 291-300, 326 ; III, 81-84. " See Dalton, pp. 264, 284, 430 and 439. Compare also " An Account of the Maiwar BhUs," by Mr. T. H. Hendley, Bengal Asiatic Journal, vol. XLIV, pp. 347-388. " The marriage is mentioned in a Kanarese ballad. A commentary of the Bharatacampfl goes also by the name of Koravardmiyam. OF BHAHATAVARBA OE INDIA. 85 watchmen, as the Mhars and Holeyas do in other parts of India. The chiefs of the Bhils are known as BMlldlas. Some Bhil chiefs have assumed the title of Ndyak or Naick, as the Pallis and Mahars have done. The founder of the Yadava Dynasty of Demgiri bore the name of Bhillama, which word I have previously explained. This Bhillama is also called Bhillamanrpa, and Balanrpa, and Bellam. Colonel Tod names Bulla as the progenitor of the Bhils.'' The Pulindas. Not only in their name but also in their habits and ciistoms do the Pallar, Pulayar and their kiadred tribes " See Mr. T. H. Hendley's Account of the Maiuidr Bhils, vol. 44, p. 347, ff . : "In tlie MRy tracts, the erection of cairns, usually on hill tops ; the adoption of Shiva and his consort as symbols of the powers of terror and darkness ; the construction of stone platforms on which stand blocks smeared with red paint ; the sacrifice of animals and tradition of human oblations ; the use of effigies of the horse are apparently relics of their ancient faith. Piles of loose stones, . . or mere platforms, are erected on the summits of high hills, . . on these are arranged a large number of stone or burnt clay images of the horse. I have seen a hollow cairn on the verge of a steep crag near Khairwara, four feet in diameter and as many deep, filled with these images, each of which was about four inches in length . . The common explanation of the construction of cairns and horses is as follows : — Heaven is supposed to be but a short distance from earth, but the souls of the dead have to reach it by a very painful and weary journey, which can be avoided to some extent during life by ascending high hills, and there depositing images of the horse — which in addition to reminding the gods of the work already accomplished, serve as chargers upon which the soul may ride a stage to bliss. . . The Bhil is an excellent wood-man, knows the shortest cuts over the hills ; can walk the roughest paths and climb the steepest crags without slipping or feeling distressed. . . Though robbers, and timorous, owing to ages of ill-treatment, the men are brave when trusted, and very faithful ; they have been looked upon by the Rajputs as wild beasts to be hunted down as vermin, and are now only beginning to feel themselves men. . History proves them always to have been faithful to their nominal Kajplit sovereigns, especially in their adversity. The Bhil is a merry soul loving a jest." About the Bhils read the account of Mr. W. I. Sinclair in the Indian Antiquary, vol. IV, pp. 336-338. Colonel Tod mentions Bulla on the first table of his Annals. In the IV Appendix to the same volume on p. 802 PuUnda-Devi is explained as the goddess of the Bhil tribe. With respect to the Naick title in use among the Bhils, see Dr. Wilson's 86 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS resemble the ancient Pulindas, who lived in olden times in various districts all over India. In the Aitareya Brahmana the Pulindas, together with the Andhras, Pundras, Sabaras,'* and Mutibas, are declared to be the offspring of the cursed elder sons of Yisvamitra, while, according to another tradition, they were descended from the dark-skinned, flat-nosed, and dwarfish Nisada, who had been produced by rubbing the thigh of the corpse of the impious king Vena. The Pulindas are frequently mentioned in the classical language of India as well as in those of Earope. The Ramayaaa fixes their abode in different parts of Northern and Southern India. They are found on the banks of the Indus, and even in Ceylon ; " in Central India they occupied extensive tracts and dwelt among the Bhils, Sabaras, and Gronds in such a manner that the one are often mistaken for the other. The Mahabharata, Visnu-, Bhaga- vata-, Padma-, and other Puranas, the Brhatsamhita and various works contain repeated allusions to them, and Ptolemy introduces them by the name of Pulindai agriophagoi,''^ or Indian Caste, vol. I, p. 99 : " The word Nak, the contraction of Nay ah, is the common epithet (of respect) used by the lowly Mahars of the Maratha country. From the abundance of Nahi connected with the BhiUs of the Baria jungles, east of Baroda, they are called Nakadas." Compare also Sherring's Hindu Tribes and Castes, vol. II, p. 299 ; " The territories of Baria and Chota Oodepoor, in Rewa Kanta, were infested by a class of Bheels, known as Naikras, of peculiarly savage and predatory habits." Consult also Indian Antiquary, vol. Ill, p. 208, on Nakara ; Nayak ; Nayko. ■>' I quote here the derivation of the word Sahara proposed by General Sir Alex. Cunningham, Archaohgieal Survey of India, vol. XVII, p. 113 : " The origin of the name of Savara must be sought for outside the " language of the Aryas. In Sanskrit Snrara simply means a ' corpse.' " From Herodotus, however, we learn that the Scythian word for an ' axe ' " was Sagaris ; and as g and v are interchangeable letters, Sarar is the same "word as Sagar. It seems, therefore, not unreasonable to infer that the '' tribes, who were so called, took their name from their habit of carrying " axes. Now it is one of the striking peculiarities of the Savaras that they "are rarely seen without an axe in their hands." '* See Lassen's Indische AUerthums/cunde, vol. II, p. 101, 469. '* no\/K7ySai aypiopdyoi ; Ptol., VII, 1, 64. OF BHAEATAVAfiSA OR INDIA. 87 raw flesh and wild fruits eating Pulindas, as living north of the present Barok. On Pulaha, Pulastya, Puloman, &c. The previously mentioned names of Pulaha, Pulastya, Puloman, ^c, bear in their first two syllables Pula a strange resemblance to the name of the Pulayar and Pulindas. Sans- krit grammarians generally connect the names of these Saints with the root pwl, to be great, and the word Pulastya is also derived from pulas, standing for puras. These deri- vations, however, appear too artificial." Pulastya is said to be the father of Agastya and Vilravas. Visravas had four sons. Ruber a by Idavida (or Ilavila) and Ravana, Kumhhakarna, and Vibhisana by Kesini. The saintly civiliser of Southern India, Agastya, is thus, as pre- viously noticed, very closely indeed related to the chief of the hated Eaksasas, being in fact the uncle of Eavana, the god- despising king of Lanka. While Ravana conquered .India and reduced the gods to abject subjection, from which they were only rescued by Visnu appearing as Balarama, his uncle Agastya waged war with the demons and advised Rama how to subdue the Raksasas. Similar family discords assisted Rama in his warfare against Ravana and Bali, whose respective brothers Vibhisana and Sugriva joined Rama. "While Ravana is regarded with horror by the Brah- mans, Rdvanabhet, a Vedic work on Phonetics, is ascribed to this Eaksasa. His memory is still cherished by the Jains. " Compare the remarks of the Eev. F. Kittel on the root pulai, pule, pole and on Pulaha and Pulastya in the Indian Antiquary, vol. VIII (1879), pp. SO, 51. Though I arrived at my conclusions previously to my reading Mr. Kittel's suggestive article, I admit his priority in this respect and gladly quote his opinion : "The Pallava . . and the Pallavaka, a libertine, a gallant, "I do not hesitate to connect with poleya ; and who knows whether the " ancient Pallava dynasty was not a dynasty of certain Poleyas when still a " powerful tribe." 0<3 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS It is also curious that Havana is esteemed and acknowledged by pious Pandits as a learned man, and is supposed to have heen the author of a Telugu Grammar.'* Though the Raksasas are described in the Ramayana and elsewhere as horrible monsters both physically and morally, it appears that the condition of being a Raksasa depended more upon the sins committed by an individual or by his progenitors than upon the accident of birth. If this be admitted, the physical monstrosities ascribed to the Raksasas must be regarded as the exaggerated creations of a morbid and hostile imagination. Even the Eamayana , extols the beauty and grandeur of Lanka, its architectural splendour, and the efficiency of its administration. This latter was so excellent, that no thief dared to pick up any valuable thing lost in its streets. The enemies of Rama could hardly, therefore, have been so rude and uncivilised as they are generally represented. The ancient historical capital of Ceylon went by the name of Pulastinagara.'^ If Ravana is regarded as the king of Lanka, and perhaps also as the master of Southern India, and if the present Pulayar are admitted to be representa- tives of the aborigines, the startling similarity of the names Pulastya and Pulayan is at once explained. The relationship between the Paulastya Agastya and the Paulastya Ravana opens at all events a new and wide per- spective. It thus appears that the mind-born sons of Brahma should be taken as the progenitors of all the different races of India, and that, as all men emanate from one common source, no vital difference is acknowledged to exist between ■"8 Compare the Andhxa Kaumudi in which the Ravamya, the Telugu Grammar ascribed to EAvana, is repeatedly mentioned. " lliigasthenes calls the Singhalese Falaiogonoi and the Periplus maris F.rtjthrai caUs Cej'lon Falaesimuiidn. See Lassen's Ind. Alt., I, p. 240 {2nd edition) ; compare alsoMr. T.W. Rhys Dayids in the Indian Antiquary, vol. II (1873), p. 286, on Pulastipura. or BIIARATAVARSA OR INDIA. 89 them at first. The degraded condition into which some sank was, therefore, due to subsequent events. The word Pula must be regarded as a corruption of Palla. This change from a to ti is easily accounted for. Not ouly is the letter a changed into u, as in the Sanskrit joa/a which in Tamil becomes piilai, but the vowel a is often, especially in the North India, pronounced as u. It is even possible that the names of the demon Ilvala, who was destroyed by Agastya, and of his son Balvdla con- tain another reference to the original Pallas. At all events the similarity of the names of Pulaha, Pulastya, Puloman, &c., with that of the Pulayar, as well as the connection which the near relationship between the Sage Agastya and the Eaksasa Ravana suggests as existing between the Brah- manical civiliser of Southern India and the representative ruler of the aborigines, should command in future researches the attention of the scholar. CHAPTER VI. On the Pallis, Agnikulas, Pandyas, Vellalar, &c. The Agnikulas. Another portion of the aboriginal South-Indian popula- tion is represented by the Pallis. The Pallis form at this moment on the whole a highly respectable class, living partly as agriculturists in the country and partly as citizens in towns. They belong to the caste of the Vannit/ar {(b-usirenfliLur).^'' The word Vanniyan is generally derived from the Sanskrit 80 This caste includes also the Anuppar, Bailagar, Devadigar, Kallar, Maravar Masadikar, Bantar, Muppar, Nattamhadis, Padaiyaccis, Pariva- rams Sudras, UppiHyar, TJdayar and Vanniyar. According to the last Census Report the Pallis number 1,300,733 souls, of whom 1,295,049 live in the Madras Presidency, which number is only exceeded by the Shanar with 2 028 546 of whom 1,478,660 dweU also in Madras, by the VeUalar with l'683'lOo' and by the Pariahs with 3,223,938 persons, and the whole of the other' unclassified population consisting of 3,934.990 individuals. The last two figures refer to the Madras Presidency alone. 12 90 ox THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS Vahiii, fire. Agni, the god of fire, is connected with the regal office, as kings hold in their hands the fire wheel or Agneyacahra, and the Vanniyar urge in support of their name the regal descent they claim, for they contend that the Pandya kings belonged to their race. In the north of India four races — the Cauhan, Cdluhya (S5lanki), Pramdra, and Parihdra — similarly claim to originate from Agni, and are called Agnikulas. The existence of these Fire-races, Agnikula or Vahnikula (Vanniyan), in North and South India is a remarkable fact. No one can refuse to a scion of a Non- Aryan warrior tribe the title of Rdjaputra, but in so doing we establish at once Aryan and Non- Aryan Rajaputras or Rajputs. The Vanniyan of South India may be accepted as a representative of the Non- Aryan Rajput element. Yet, if we thus admit a Turanian element among the Rajputs, the question arises, how far does it extend ? The modern Rajputs of Northern India are in most cases the offspring of mixed parentage, for even Aryan warriors of pure extraction did not scorn in bye-gone times to take as wives by peaceful or violent means the alien daughters of the soil.** The legend goes that after Parasurama had swept the Ksatriya race from the surface of the earth, ignorance and infidelity began to spread again in the land, and the Brah- mans were prevented by impious races —Asuras, Daityas, and Danavas — from fulfilling their sacred rites. Vasistha, ov according to others his great rival Viivdmitra, took compas- sion on the oppressed, and with Indra, Brahma, Siva, Yisnu and the other gods repaired to the Agnikunda, i.e., the hollow which contained the consecrated fire, on Mount Abu, the celebrated peak of Rajasthan. There the hermits prayed and purified the fire fountain with the sacred water of the Ganges. Indra first formed a figure of grass and sprinkling on " Compare pp. 45 and 46 on the genealogies of the EAjputs. OF BHARATAVAR8A OR INDIA. 91 it the water of life, cried : " Mar, Mar " " Slay, Slay," and the Paramdra, the killer of enemies, appeared. Abu Dhar and Uj jain were assigned to him as his territory. Brahma instilled his essence into the second image, and throwing it into the pit, Caluk or Solanki appeared with a sword in one hand, the Veda in the other, and a noose round his neck. He received Anhalptir. Slca formed the third figure, and Pari- hara rose as an ill-favored black figure armed with a how. He stumbled and was placed as a guardian at the temple gates. Nine places of the desert, Marusthalam, were assigned to him. Vimit formed Caturbhuja Cauhan, who appeared like him four-armed, in each arm carrying a peculiar weapon. He received Macavati Nagari. These were the ancestors of the Agnikulas who destroyed the demon races, and of all the thirty-six royal races the four Agnikulas rank highest, ac- cording to " Chaiid, the great bard of the Chohans." ^^ This creation " is dated so far back as the opening of the second "age of the Hindus" (Tod, ibidem, -p. 442). Cauhan chro- ^'^ See for this account Tod's Eajasthan, vol. II, pp. 440, £E. Vis'vdmitra is here mentioned as the presiding priest, while in the first volume, p. 95, Vasistha fills this place : " From the fire-fountain a figiu?e issued forth, but he had not a warrior's mien. The Brahmins placed him as guardian of the gate, and thence his name, Prithiha-dwara (portal or door [dwar) of the earth ; contracted to Prithihara and Purihara) . A second issued forth, and being formed in the palm {chaloo) of the hand was called Chalooka. A third ap- peared and was named Pramara (the first striker) . He had the blessing of the Eics, and with the others went against the demons, but they did not prevail. Again Vasiatha, seated on the lotus, prepared incantations ; again he called the gods to aid : and as he poured forth the libation, a figure arose, lofty in stature, of elevated front, hair like jet, eyes roUing, breast expanded, fierce, terrific, clad in armour, quiver filled, a bow in one hand and a brand in the other, quadriform {chatooranga), whence his name Chohan {ehatoor or cha, 'four'; Anga, body')." About Canhan, see EUiot's Sup. Glossary, vol. I, p. 63, ff. The discrepancies between these two legends are considerable, not only so far as the presiding priests are concerned, bat also with respect to the order of creation, and because in the description given in the text the gods them- selves take part in the creation. Caluka or culuka signifies a hollowed hand to hold water. Colonel Tod assigns (II, p. 441), as above stated, the nonangul Marusthali, or ' nine habitations of the desert ' to Parihara, while he had previously (vol. I, p. 91) allotted the No-lcote MaroosthuUi to Pramara. 92 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS nicies mention AJa as the founder of Ajmere, the mountain of Aja. Tradition connects Candragupta with the Mori branch of the Pramaras. Ujjayliu, the capital of Vikramaditya, is assigned to them, and Bhdja Raja, at whose court the Nine Gems are said to have flourished, belonged to the Pramara tribe. It is not my purpose to discuss here the fortunes of these celebrated clans ; they are only of interest in this inquiry in so far as a connection might be established between the Agnikula of the North and the Vanniyar of the South. Lassen regards the derivation of the name Pramara from Paramura in the sense of killfi of enemies as suspicious and ascribes it to a later period."' Colonel Tod says : " that " these races, the sons of Agni, were but regenerated, and " converted by the Brahmins to fight their battles, the " clearest interpretation of their allegorical history will dis- " close, and . . warrants our asserting the Agniculas to be " of this same race, which invaded India about two centuries " before Christ."— (Vol. I, p. 90.) No matter whether Colonel Tod's reasoning and conclusion are right or wrong, one can agree with him so far as the Non-Aryan origin of the Agnikulas is concerned. As has previoiisly been stated, mention is made by Ptolemy, VII, 1, 70, of the Poruaroi (Ilapovapoi), a name which Lassen thinks is derived from Pramara.^* I believe that Lassen is mistaken on this point. I prefer to explain the m as a modification of an original r, as, e.g., in Vellama for Pallava, and to suggest Pararara as the original form of Paramara. *' See Lassen's Inusyanta. The term Koli occurs in Kolisarpah, instead of which the manuscript used by M. Langlois contained probably Kolah Sarpah or Kolasarpah, as he translates the passage by : " les Colas, les Sarpas." The Kolis appear likewise in Sanskrit inscriptions. The name of the Kolas can be traced in that of the country Kolanca, which has, according to the Sabdaratnavali, Kanya- kubja as its capital, or which, according to Horace Haymaa Wilson, is identical with Kalinga. The word Kola forms also part of Sanskrit names of various peoples, plants, countries and mountains, as of Kolagiri, KoUagiri, Kolahala, Kollaka and Kolvagiri, &c^ We meet it even in South-Indian names of places, e.g., ia Kolam, Kolanadu, Kolattanadu and others. I regard the name Cola or Coda (in Telugu and Kanarese- Cola, and in Tamil and Malayalam Cola) as a modification of the word Kola. It is a remarkable historical fact that the Colas and Pandyas were as a rule rival kings who- fought continually against each other. With the various formations of the terms Kola, Cola, and Coda may be com- pared those of Kera, Cera and Ceda. The expressions Cera and Kongu are occasionally used identically. The first syllable ko in Kola and Koli indicates the mountain home, while the second syllable la or li intimates 18 134 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABTTAXTS the particular tribal distinction. The interchange between / and r produces Kori (Kohri) as a variation of Koli.^" The Kolis and Kolas, as has already been pointed out, should be distinguished from the so-called Kolarian Kols. In consequence of the near relation of the Kolis to the Bhils and Gronds, hardly any doubt can be entertained about their belonging to the Graudian branch of the Grauda-Dra- vidians. The establishment of this ancient kinship is an important fact. It severs the connection between the Kolis 3" KnlaTica means originally a country adjoining Kola. The late Mr. C. P. Brown explained Koladesamu, r*e)"i^^Ai, as the long country, which interpretation ia obviously erroneous when applied to the Sanskrit word Kola. Kolagiri is a mountain in Southern India. The commentator Malli- natha is surnamed Kolagiri. The Sabhdparva says in Slokall71 : " Krtsnam KOlagirim caiva Surabhipattanam tatha." The KoUagiri occurs in Varaha- mihira's Brhatsamhitd, XIV, 13 : Karnata - Mahatavi-CitrakQta - Nasiky a - KoUagiri - Colah Krauucadvipa-Ja^adhara-Kavgryo-Risyamukasca. The KauUagireyas fought according to the ASvamSdha with Ar j una : Arcitah prayayau hhflmau daksinam salilarnavam Tatrapi Dravidair Andhrair Audrair Mahisakair api. Tatha KauUagireyaisca yuddham asU Kirltinah. About Kolahala compare G-eneral Sir A. Cunningham's Arch(2ological Survey of India, vol. VIII, pp. 123, 125. Compare what is said about the town Kollagira in the Indian Antiquary, vol. XIV, p. 23, note 22: "it appears that KoUagii-a was another name of KoUapura or Kolhapur." See ibidem, vol. Ill, pp. 209, 210 in the article "The Geography of Ibn Batuta's Indian Travels," by Col. H. Yule : " The Koil prince must be the Kola-tiri or Cherakal Raja, whose kingdom was called Kola-ndda." About Kolatta-nddu, the district about Tellicherry, see Indian Antiquary, -vol. VIXI, pp. 115, 146. Compare also Dr. Gundert's Malayalam and English Dictionary, p. 318, under Kolani : " 4. North Malabar, subject to Kolattiri or Kolaswarupam." About the Cera or Kotigu kings confer among others the Indian Anti- quary, vol. II, pp. 155, 271 ; vol. V, pp. 13.1-140 ; vol. VI, pp. 99-103. About the change of the I into r in words like KoU compare General Sir A. Cunningham's Arehaologieal Survey of India, vol. XI, p. 101 : " I paid a visit to the old site of Eoron, or Kordwa-dih, because the people agreed in stating that the old name of the place was Kolpur, which I thought might perhaps be connected with the old city of Koli, the birth-place of Maj^adevi. But . . the position of Eorondih ... is much too distant to be identified with that of Koli." Compare also the late Mr. John A. C. Boswell's Manual of the Nellore District, p. 157 ; "The Yerukalas in this district state that their tribe name in their own language is Eurru, also Kola." OF BHARATAVAHSA OR INDIA. 135 and Kols, whicli is still occasionally asserted to exist and to which I have repeatedly alluded. The Kolis appear originally as mountaineers, but after- wards descending to the plains, some settled down as agri- culturists, while many others selecting the seashore became fishermen and sailors.'^ The Koli mountaineers were not long ago the guardians of the hill-passes, especially of those in the Ajanta range and in the Western Ghats. Their ancient position as lords of the mountains is to this day certified by the fact that the '' See C. Lassen's Indische AUerthtimskimde, vol. I, p. 137 (or 108): " Bhilla sitzen hier nooh in dem Granzgebirge naoh Malva, Eajputana und siidliclier ; ein grosser Theil der Bevolkerung besteht aus einem andern ursprunglich ahnliohen Volke, den Kuli {Kola) , welches aber Brahmanisohe Sitten dem grossem Theile nach augenommen hat." Compare further Eev. M. A. Sherring's Hindu Tribes and Castes, vol. II, pp. 307-316. Sir George Campbell remarks in his Ethnology of India about the Koolens on pp. 42-45 as follows : " I find, however, that the opinion of those quali- fied to judge seems to tend to the belief that there is no essential difference between the two tribes (the Koolees and Bheels) . Forbes in his Eas Mala says . ' Koolees or Bheels, for though the former would resent the classification, the distinctions between them need not be here noticed.' Captain Probyn says : ' I think there is no actual difference between Koolees and Bheels. Their religion ia the same.' Mr. Ashburner : ' There is no real difference between Bheels and Koolees ; their habits, physiognomy and mode of life are the same, modified by local circumstances.' And the Rev. Mr. Duulop Moore says : ' Koolees frequently marry Bheel wives.' Other authorities, however, say that they do not intermarry. They both seem to claim a northern and not a southern origin, pointing to the hills of Eajpootana and the north of Goozerat. The Bheels say that they were originally called Kaiyos ;^ Sir John Malcolm says that they are related to the Meeuas of Eajpootana, and once ruled in the Jeypore country. Forbes again teUs us that the Koolees were originally called Mairs, while in Eajpootana, Col. Tod speaks of Maira or Meenas as one race . . . Though probably in the main of the same class and similar origin, the Koolees and Bheels are now quite distinct tribes, and there is this considerable difference that the Koolees have come much more into contact with Aryan blood civilization . . . The Koolees are the Abori- gines of Goozerat (where they now live in considerable number), and of the hills adjoining that Province. The hills east of Goozerat are called < Kolwan ' and seem to be the property of Koolee tribes . . . The Bheels are the proper possessors of the hills farther in the interior and east of the Koolees . . . The Koolees seem to be scattered down the Coast country nearly as far as Goa, and north again into the ' Thurr ' and the neighbour- hood of Scinde. While the wUder Koolee* of the hills are like the Bheela, ]36 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS famous sanctuary at Mahabalesvara is under the hereditary wardenship of Kolis. Many shrines throughout India are associated with the lowest classes of the population, as we have seen, when speaking of the temples at Melkota, Puri and Trevandrum. The sanctuary at Mahabalesvara over a spring which is sup- posed to he the source of the Krishna, though said to have been founded by a Sattara Brahman, named Anagada, is under the hereditary superintendence of a Koli family, and the chief official in charge is a Koli. Such a Koli is called Gangaputra, and whatever offerings a worshipper makes after bathing form the perquisite of the Kolis and are taken by them. "At the temple of Mahabalesvara also," thus writes the Hon. Visvanath Narayan Mandlick, " the Kolis " hold a hereditary position, and the Guravas, who worship " the Linga in that temple, appear more closely allied to the " hill tribes than to the inhabitants of the plains ; they (i.e., " the Guravas) have, however, no connection with the shrine " of the Krishnd, where the Kolis alone are the principal the mass of more civilised Koolees are said to be not only fairer and more Caucasian in feature, but also more sly and cunning and less truthful . . The wilder tribes of the race are stiU predatory, and Forbes mentions the Koolees as by far the most numerous of the arm-bearing castes who in former days, living in the hills between Goo3erat and Rajpootana, disturbed the country. He describes them as of diminutive stature, with eyes which bore an expression of liveliness and cunning, clothes few, arms bows and arrows, habits swift and active, bold in assault, but rapid in flying to the jungles, independent in spirit, robbers, averse to industry, addicted to drunkenness, and quarrelsome when intoxicated ; formidable in anarchy, but incapable of uniting among themselves. This description seems exceed- ingly well to apply to the wild Bheels of modem days, whom indeed Forbes classes with the Koolees . . . Lassen in his map places Koolees (Kolas he calls them) in the centre of Kattywar . . . The Kolees of the Simla hiUs and Domes of Kumaon are merely inferior castes living among the general population." Compare the Gazetteer of Aurangahad, Bombay 1884, p. 280 : "The Kolis belong to the aborigines, and are of low but respectable caste. They are divided into the Kolis of the hiUy countries, and the Kolis of the plains. They are also arranged in separate tribes, and were formerly very trouble- some. Several tribes of Kolis guarded the passes of the Ajanta range imder their own N&iks, while others attached themselves to the Bhils ; but the majo- rity have long settled down to peaceful callings, and the land-holding Kolis OF BHAEATAVAE8A OR INDIA. 137 " officers in charge." ^^ The origin of the famous Mahaba- leSvara temple is ascribed to the Paulastya Ravana. He compelled Siva, so runs the tradition, by his severe penance on the mountain Kailasa, to surrender to him his Prdna Linga. The terrified gods tried every means to regain it, but their attempts were fruitless. At last Visnu raised his Cakra to prevent the sun-rays from descending to the earth, and Havana, who was then at Grokarna, believing that the sun was setting prepared to perform his Sandhyavandanam. But the Prdna Linga, which he carried in his hand, prevented him from performing properly his worship. He, therefore, requested Gampati to take temporary charge of the Linga. The god assented, but pretending that the Linga was too heavy placed it on the ground. Once there, it remained fixed in spite of all the attempts of the Eaksasa to remove it. When trying for the fifth time he cried as his strength was failing : " Mahabala," great power ! which expression is said to have given the name to the place. '^ deny all affinity with, those of the hills. In the village establishment, the Koli is most generally associated with the occupation of a water-carrier, and the Kunhi drinks water from, his hands. He is known hy his ehumli, or twisted cloth which he wears on his head in order to rest the waterpot ; but he is often a good farmer, or is engaged as a musician, handicraftsman, weaver, palanquin bearer, fisher, labourer . . . They use meat, drink spirits, bury their dead, worship KhandobS,, Bairob4, and Bhavini, and employ Brihmiins for religious ceremonies, but have also priests of their own." See Mstorical and Descriptive Sketch of S. H. theMmm's Dominions, compiled by Syed Hossain Bilgrami, b.a,, and C. Willmott, Bombay, 1883, vol. I, p. 310 : " At one time they (the Kolis) acted as guards in the hiU passes on the northern frontier and in the Ajanta hills ; there is a tribe of KoUs who had charge of the Ghaut passes." The Kambali Kurumbas make and wear chamlis (kambalis) in the same manner ; see p. 229, n. 107. I agree with Sir George Campbell so far as their relationship with the Bhils is concerned, the latter I have proved to be Dravidians, see pp. 19, 79-85. ^'' See " The Shrine of the Kiver Krishna at the Village of Mahibale^- vara," by E&o S&heb Vishvanlth NSrayan Mandlick in the Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. IX, pp. 250-261. '3 See ibidem, pp. 257, 268. Compare also Areheeological Survey of India, vol. VIII, pp. 143, 1*4, about Havana's connection with the linga of " Mahadeo EavaneSvara. " 138 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS The conneotion of the ancient hill tribes with many cele- brated Indian shrines is also admitted by the Hon. ViSvanath Narayan Mandlick. " The above tradition of Gokarna," he says, " points out to the origin of these places of Linga worship " by the influence of, if not amongst, the wild tribes of the " mountains of whom Eavana is a fair representative. The ** actual position of the Kolis at the temples of the Krishna " and also at Mahabalesvara, appears to confirm the above " conclusion. The serpent is connected with both these " temples, and from the Linga temples he seems to be quite " inseparable. In the latter he is represented as being coiled " round the Linga, while in the temple of the Krishna, a living " one is supposed to be guarding its sources." ^* The most accurate description of the Kolis has been written by Captain A. Macintosh, to whose account we owe, in fact, the greater part of our information about these people. Yet, he is compelled to admit : " We cannot " expect to glean much authentic information of an historical " description from an ignorant and unlettered people like the " KoKs. The few traditions they possess relative to their first " settlement in their present locations and of subsequent Read also Dr. Ft. Buchanan's Journey from Madras through the countries of Mysore, Canara and Malabar, second edition, vol. II, p. 316. " Gaukarna, or the cow's horn (?), is a place of great note among the Brahmans, owing to a celebrated image of Siva called Mahabaleswara. The image is said to have been brought from the mountain Coila by Eavana, king of Lanca. He wished to carry it to his capital ; but ha^-ing put it down here, the idol oeoame fixed in the place, where it stands to this day." *' The Kanara people regard Gokarna as holier than Benares ; for they say: Gokarnam ca mahakaSI viSvanatho mahabalah Kctitlrtham oa Gangayah simiidram adhikam phalam ; " according to the Journal of the Bombay Royal Asiatic, vol. IX, p. 258. Compare in the Indian Antiquary, vol. Ill, pp. 247, 248, Dr. J. Gerson da Cunha's account of the legend concerning the linga of Wdlukesvara, the present Malabar Hill, with which liiga the Kolis seem also to be con- nected : ' ' The Kolis, who, as wiU be shown hereafter, were the original inhabitants of Bombay, pay special devotion to this linya .... (their) principal quarter in the whole Konkan, I suppose, is Kulftba." OF BHAEATAVARSA OR INDIA. 139 " events until within the last century appear to be involved in " much obscurity and confusion." The late Mr. Alexander Kinloch Forbes mentions in his Rds Maid the legendary des- cent of the Kolis from YuvanaSva, the father of Mandhatr." Captain Macintosli repeatedly mentions in his Account the great veneration in which the Kolis hold the well-known ^ See " An Account of the Tribe of the Mhadeo Kolies," by Captain A. Macintosh, in the Madras Journal of Literature and Science, vol. V., pp. 71-112, 238-279; compare also /»!ija« Antiqunry, vol. II, p. 154 ; vol. Ill, pp. 76, 77, 126, 127, 186-196, 222, 224, 227, 228, 248 ; vol. V, p. 8, and Sir G. Campbell's Ethnology of India in the Appendix to vol. XXXV, of the Journalof the Asiatic Society oj Bengal, pp. 46, 53, 123, 125. In the Rds Mala, London, 1878, pp. 78-79, we read : " A similar fabulous descent is given to the Koolees from Youwanashwa, the father of Mandhata Raja. Their ancestor, Koolee, was brought up by a sage in the forest, and always led a jungle life, "whence it happened, as the bard says, that his descen- dants, though in the towns they are of little importance, are lions %n the jungle. The Koolees lived for a long time on the sea-shore, in the neighbourhood of the Indus, but they were removed to the country about the Null by the god- dess Hinglaz, and brought with them the earth-nut called ' beerd,' which even in famine does not fail. They were called at this time Mairs, as well as Koolees, and Sonung Mair was their leader. He left twelve sons, each of whom became the head of a clan ... In these times, says the bard, there was not so great a population in Goozerat, but there was much forest, and the Bheels and Koolees lived in security. They were doubtless then, as now, hereditary and professional plunderers, ' soldiers of the night, ' as they describe themselves. Raja Kurun Solunkee is the first ruler of Goozerat on record who devoted his attention to putting a curb upon these wild tribes." Captain Macintosh derived the term Kiili from the Koli tribe. He writes in a note on p. 71 : "On a former occasion, I ventured to derive the term Cooly, applied by us to porters, labourers or persons who work for hire, in the following manner — as the fishermen, boatmen, and many of the common labourers, at Bombay, and along the coast, are Kolies, the term Cooly may have originated among the English at Bombay. A passenger coming ashore, when a ship arrived from Europe, might have wished to give a box or package in charge to a native (probably a person of rank or caste) ; he would say, or a servant in attendance might say, that he would fetch a Koly , or a certain number of Kolies, to take ' master' s baggage ' to the shore. Thus the term would have become familiar, and, in the course of time, would be indiscriminately applied to all porters or labourers, and soon have spread among the few English settled in India in those days." In the above-mentioned Glossary of Anglo-Indian Colloquial Words and Phrases is on p, 192 the expression Cooli/ also connected with the Kolis : "The origin of the word appears to have been a nomen gentile, the name (Koll) of a race or caste in Western India, who have long performed such offices as have been mentioned . . According to Dr. H. V. Carter, the Kolis 140 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS Kliand5ba, whom I consider as a national deity of the Gau- dian Khands.^^ The Kolis have among thera a tradition, according to which they are the descendants of the famous Yalmlki, the poet of the Eamayana. It may be that the similarity of the profession embraced by Valmiki — previously to his becoming a poet — and by the Kolis, has something to do with this belief. Both are celebrated as robbers." According to the last census report, the Kolis number 2,488,372 souls: 1,669,302 live in Bombay, 429,688 in Baroda, 213,966 in Hyderabad, and 123,171 in the Punjab, &C.38 The KohJis in Bhandara and Chanda, who are agricul- turists, have a distinct Gond type, and have retained many Gond customs.'^ proper are a true hill-people whose especial locality lies in the Western Ghats, and in the northern extension of that range, between 18° and 24° N. latitude." I have referred on p. 131, u. 28, to another passage of this article in the Glossary. I have already on p. 131 declared myself against this explanation. Though it is a matter cf minor importance, I may observe as an additional proof that the tribal name is always pronounced Koli, and not Killi. ^ See ibidem, p. 106 : " The Kolies pay their adorations to all the Hindoo deities, but their chief object of worship is Khundy-row, commonly called Khundobah." 3' See ibidem, p. 82 : " One of the descendants of Neeshad and a female sboodur, were the parents of the Poolkuss ; and a male of the Neeshad lineage and a female of the Poolkuss family, were the parents of the Koly. He was to subsist, by kiUing whatever animals he encountered in the jungles and forests. It may further be stated, that the Kolies say that they are the descendants of Valmik, the distinguished author of the Ramayan, who, although of Brahman parentage, and born at Veer Walla, twenty-four miles south-east of Poona, it is said, followed the life of a Koly." About the Koolees or Bheelssee Sir G. Campbell's Ethnology of India, p. 46. 3' According to the Indian Antiquary, vol. VI, p. 233, the late Eev. Dr. John Wilson derived the name of the Kolis from the Sanskrit word kula, a clan. I need aot dilate on the groundlessness of this etymology. Compare p. 133. 3' See Eev. M. A. Sherring's Hindu Tribes and Castes, vol. II, p. 109 : " They have a remarkable faculty for selecting the best sites for irrigation reservoirs ; and to possess a large tank is their highest ambition. On the lands watered by these tanks they cultivate sugar-cane and rice." OF BHARATAVAR8A OR INDIA. 141 I telieve that the Koris (Kohris) are of the same extrac- tion as the Kolis. The former are said to have emigrated from Benares, in the train of a Bhonsla prince of the Chandah hranch.*" I am also inclined to connect the Koiris of Bengal with both these tribes.*^ Whether there exists any connection between the Kolis and the Graulis is doubtful. As was the case with Gauda, so also is the term Gauli differently interpreted. Some derive the name Gauli from the Sanskrit word go, cow, and explain Gauli to signify cowherd, others connect it with Koli. It is even pos- sible that both derivations are right, and that the term Gauli represents originally two different, but equal-sounding words ; oue being derived from Koli and the other from go. In the first case it has an ethnological and in the other a professional meaning. To those Gaulis who are cowmen both terms are *" See ibidem, pp. 107, 108 : " They produce sugar-cane in large quan- tities, the produotiou of which is chiefly in their hands. The tribe has distinguished itself for its great enterprise and energy in the excavation of noble tanks and in the formation of numerous embankments." According to the census of 1881, the Koris amount to 946,851, 843,422 of whom are found in the North-Western Proirincea, 48,826 in the Central Provinces, and 43,565 in Bengal. Compare Mr. Charles Grant's Gazetteer of the Central Provinces, pp. 61, 137, 181, 194 and 438 on the Koris (Kohris). *i Compare Colonel Dalton's Ethnology of India, pp. 320, 321 : "In some districts the Koiris appear to be more numerous than the Kurmis. The distinction between them is, that the former are generally market gardeners as well as agriculturists. Buchanan estimated that there were 30,000 families of Koiris in the Shahabad District, and 45,000 families in Bihar. A learned pandit informs me that the derivation of the name is ku, earth, and ari, enemy. They are so called from their constant attacks on the soil. Koiris, men and women, are always troubling it. . . Every three years they make offerings on a MU known as the Marang Bum of the Kols, the god that is invoked by the aborigines, especially when rain does not fall in due season." See also Eev. M. A. Sherriug's Sindu Tribes and Castes, vol. I, pp 325 326 : " These (the Koeris) and the Kumhhis are the great agri- cultural classes of these provinces. . . The Koeris and Kumbhis are agriculturists by profession. . . The Koeris are the principal growers of poppy, and producers of opium, both in Benares and Behar. . . The Koeris are numerous in the district of Jhansi, where they pursue the occupation of weaving. Their tradition is, that they came from Benares about seven hundred years ago." The census report of 1881 mentions 3,067 Koeris in Assam and 1,204,884 Koeris in Bengal. Eev. Sir O. Campbell's Ethnology of India, p. 107. 19 142 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS applicable. The Mahadeo Kolis assert that their ancestors subdued the Gaulis, and to these are also ascribed most of the earlier graves. The Grauli chiefs, according to tradi- tion, ruled in the Central Provinces long before the Gond Bajas. I believe that future enquiry will prove that the Grauli Rajas were not Aryans, but that they, like other tribes similarly named, belonged to the Graudian race.*^ I must not omit to mention here the ancient tribes of the KuUnda, Kuluta, (Koluta, Koluka) and Kauluta (Kaulubha), who inhabited the high mountain ranges of the Himiilaya in North India. Their names occur in one form or other in the Mahabharata, Ramayana, Visau Purana, Brhatsarhhita, Mudraraksasa and elsewhere in Sanskrit literature, while Ptolemy's KvXivhpivri (Kylindrine, VII. 1, 42) coincides in position with the country which some of these tribes formerly *' Refer to pp. 114 and 116, n. 12, where the Oaulas are mentioned. See Mr. Charles Grant's Gmctteer of the Central Provinces, p. 301 : " Among the people (of Nagpur) tradition, widespread though vague, is not wanting, pointing to a time far anterior to the Gonds, when throughout Deogarh Gauli chiefs held sway. The exploits and renown of these ancient chiefs are often referred to in the songs of the villagers. There are forts too, and tanks and temples, or remnants of such structures, evidently the handiwork of races preceding the Gonds. . . 'It was a Gaull, not a Gond king so our father told us,' this is the common answer to all questions respecting such reUos." The same legend is told about the fortifications of Ramtek, ibidem, p. 428. Compare in the Indian Antiquary, vol. I, pp. 204, 20.5, Mr. W. F. Sinclair's article on the " Gauli Kaj " in Khandesh and the Central Provinces : "1 think, therefore, that the most prohable explanation of the QauU RcIJ is this, — -that Gauli was the surname, or nickname, of a family of princes (and not of a nation) of Aryan race who established them- selves in the valleys of the Tapti and Narmada during the great migration southward which ended in the colonization of the Dekhan by the Aryan Marathas." Mr. Sinclair's remarks were criticized by Mr. W. Ramsay on p. 258 ; notice also Mr. Sinclair's query : " HemaiJ Pant and the Gauli Rajas" in the Indian Antiquary, vol. VI, pp. 277, 278, Captain A. Macintosh remarks in his " Account of the Mhadeo Kolies " in the Madras Journal of Literature and Science, vol. V (1837), pp. 261-282 : " There is a popular tradition among the people in this part of the country, that the Gursees were the original inhabitants of the Dukhan, and that they were displaced from the hilly tracts of the country by the race of GouUies or cowherds. These Goullies, it is said, subsequently rebelled against their law. ful prince, who detached an army that continued unceasing in their exer- OF BHARATAVARSA OR INDIA. 143 occupied. The similarity of their name with that of the Kolis and of the Kulu district is therefore not accidental.*^ CHAPTER IX. On the Kois, Konds, Kands, Gonds, &c. Much as the several tribes, whose names head this chapter, differ from one another in their manners, dialects and appearance, still there exists such a general resemblance between them, that, as has been pointed out by one of the greatest geographers of O'lr century, the late Karl Bitter, all these various races, however considerable may be the distances at which they live apart from one another, must be tions until they exterminated the entire race of Goullies . . It is a common practice with snch of the inhabitants of the plains as bury their dead, as- well as the hill tribes to erect thurgahs (tombs commonly of a single stone), near the graves of their parents. In the vicinity of some of the Koly villages and near the site of deserted ones, several of these thurgahs are occasionally to be seen, especially near the source of the Bhaum river. The people say they belonged to Gursees and Goullies of former times. The stones with many figures in relief roughly carved upon them, and one of these holding a drum ia his hand, and in the act of beating time on it, are considered to have belonged to the Gursees who are musicians by profession. The other thurgahs with a Saloonka (one of the emblems of Mhadeo) and ai. band of women forming a circle round it, with large pots on their heads, are said to be Goully monuments. This may be reckoned partly confirmatory of the tradition." Consult about the Gaulis also the Gazetteer of Aurangabad, pp. 136, 226, 278, 279. '3 About references concerning Kulinda, Euluta, Koluha, Koluta and Kauluta consult Bothlingk and Roth's Sanskrit W'irterhueh. About Kaulubha see Lassen's Indisehe Altherthumskunde, vol. I, p. 57 (p. 75 second edition), and vol. II, pp. 206, 207. Lassen desires to substitute for Kauluta in Mudraraksasa Kaulubha especially on the authority of Plinius who in his Historia Naturalis, lib. VI, cap. 22, mentions that: "Ultra (Gano-em) siti sunt Modubae, Molindae. . . . Colubae, Orxulae, etc." In vol. I, p. 547 (661), Lassen speaks of the Kulindas : " Die Kulinda wohnten nach dem Epos im hbchsten Himalaya und zwar ostwarts bis zu den Ganges- Quellen." Ptolemy assigns the sources of the VipaSa, Satadru, Yamuna and Ganga to the country Kylindrine : " 'Yirh Sh ras Bifida-ios Kal tov ZapdSpov Kal to5 Aia/iovm Kol tov Tdjyov n KuXipSptyii. " The inhabitants of this district were the Kulindas. About Kylindrine compare also Sir A. Cunningham's Ancient Geography of India, pp. 136-138, where it is identified with Jiland- hara whose "antiquity is undoubted, as it is mentioned by Ptolemy as l-i4 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS regarded as representatives of one and the same nation. They are still in occupation of nearly the whole area of that portion of the Indian continent which stretches from Khan- desh on the west to Gran jam on the east. Koi, Kui (contracted into Ku), Godu, Gauda, Gondu, Q-oandu, Gand, Koand, Kond (Kondh, Khond) or Kand (Khand) are all derivatives, as has already been shown, from the root Ko or Ku, mountain, so that their very name indicates a mountaineer. I have previously alluded to the peculiarity that both Lin^uals and Dentals are used in the formation of the derivatives of Ko. We need not, KuUndrine or Khdindrine, wWch should probably be corrected to Sulindrine, as the K and 2 are frequently interchanged in Greek manuscripts." Read also in H. H. Wilson's Vishnu-pwdna edited by F. Hall the notes on the Kulutas (Kolttkas), vol. II, p. 174, and Kulindas, p. 180. According to H. H. Wilson the Kulindas were mountaineers, see Fr. Johnson's Selections from the Mahabharata, p. 65. Varahanuhira mentions the Eulutaa in his Brhatsamhita, Chapter XIV, b1. 22 and 29 : DiSi paScimattarasyam Mandavya-Tukhara-Talahala-Madrah, ASmaka-Z^Miute-Lahada-Strlrajya-Nrsimha-Vanakhasthah. 22. AiSanyam Msrukanas taraj ya- PaSupala-Kira - KaSmlrah. Abhisara-Parada-Tangana-i^fi&fte-Sairindha-Vanara^trah. 29. Sir Alexander Cunningham considers the question of these hill tribes at length in the Archieological Survey of India, vol. XIV, pp. 125-135, 137-139 : " The origin of the Knnets, who form the bulk of the population in the valleys of the Bias, the Satlej and the Tons Rivers, has long engaged my attention ; and I believe that I have now solved the puzzle by identifying them with the Kunindas or Kulindas of early Hindu history. Under both of these forms their name is still preserved in the districts of Kulu on the Bias and Eunawar on the Satlej. The Vishnu Purana gives the name of Eulinda, which is supported by Ptolemy's Xulindrine, a district occupying the whole of the upper tract between the Bibasis or Bias River and the Ganges. It corresponds therefore most exactly with the Kunet District of the present day. Varaha Mihira places the Kunindas along with the Kashmiras, Abhi- earas, Kulutas, and Sairindhas, and makes their country one of his nine divi- sions of India. In another place he marks their position stiU more definitely as being to the east of Madras. {Madreso anyaseha Kauninda.) He also speaks of the King of the Kunindas. This was about A.D. 560, but we have coins of the King of Kuninda {Majnya Etmindasa), which date before the Christian era. For Kauninda the Markandeya Purana reads Kau- linda, which agrees with the Kulinda of the Vishnu Purana. It would seem therefore that these are only two readings of the same name. This conjecture is strongly supported by the fact that much more than half of OF BHARATAVARSA OR INDIA. 145 therefore, he surprised to see that the" Telugu Kodu, e.g., corresponds to the Sanskrit Konda (in Kondabhatta) and Gonda, though konda in Telugu signifies only mountain and not mountaineer, which meaning is expressed by Kondarudu.*^ The principal Gond tribes call themselves Koitor. Telugu people regard the last syllable tor of this term as identical ■with the word dora, master, which is not improbable, as the Kois affix this term to names, e.g., Bhima is called by them Bhimadur. The Kois of the Bhadracala and Eekapalli taluks in the Upper Grodavari district are called Doralu, (masters) only by their Mala and Madiga servants, for this title is otherwise generally conceded only to the Velama land-owners. It is a well-known fact that a word often loses its original meaning when it is used as a proper name. Koi designates the population of Kulu is Kunet. ... I have now" traced the Kaunindas up to the third century B.C., when they were a rich and powerful people. But there is still earlier mention of the people in the Mahabharata, where the Kulindas are said to have been conquered by Arjuna. From the context Wilson rightly concluded that they were mountaineers and neighbours of the Traigarttas or people of Kangra. In the Vishnu Purina 1 find not only the Kulindas but also Kulindopatyakas or ' Kulindas dwelling along the foot of the hills,' which describes exactly the tract of plain country bordering the hills in which Srughna, the capital of the Kaunindas, was situated." About Kulu or Kullu see Sir W. W. Hunter's Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. V, pp. 465-469: "The character of the hiU-men resembles that of moat other mountaineers in its mixture of simplicity, independence, and superstition. Polyandry still prevails in Seoraj, but has almost died out elsewhere. It consists simply of a community of wives amongst brothers, who hold all their other goods in common, and regard their women as labourers on the farm. The temples usually occupy picturesque sites, and are dedicated rather to local deities than to the greater gods of the Hindu Pantheon." Compare also Mr. J. W. McCrindle's Ancient India as described ly Ptolemy, pp. 105, 109, 110. *' The Teluga people call the Gonds, Konda or Kands, Koya, Koyavadu (pi. KOyavandlu), Kodu (pi. Kodnlu), Gondu, Kondarudu, &c. We read in Lieutenant Macpherson's Report upon the Khonds of the Districts of Ganjam and Cuttack, Calcutta, 1842, p. 20, §42, the following account: "The Hindu name for this people which we have adopted, Khond, in the plural Khondooloo, means mountaineer, from the Teloogoo word signifying a UU. Their sole native appellation south of the Mahanuddee is Koinga or Kwinga, which may be a corruption of Kulinga, which, by the exchange of convertible letters may be Pulinda, meaning in Sanskrit and thence in Tamil o bar- 146 ON THE OHIGIXAL INHABITANTS thus a mountaineer, but this radical meaning of the term was forgotten by that tribe when some of them had settled permanently in the plains. The Malvah or Grutta-Kois (Hill-Kois) are in consequence distinguished from the Sassi- Kois (Plain-Kois). The Khonds, on the other hand, call their own country Kui Bina or Kui Pruti, and that of the Uriyas Sassi Dina. The Kois worship as deities Katuradu, Adamaraju, Kor- raraju (who governs the tigers), Kommalamma, Sarlamma, and others. The five Pandava brothers, especially Arjuna and Bhima, are highly revered. They have imitated the step of Bhima in their dance. The Kois or Koyas in the Nizam's Dominions preserve a legend according to which they are descended from Bhima and a wild superhuman woman whom he met in the woods. ^^ larian, a savage mountaineer . , . They employ as distinctive epithets of their race, the terms — Subboro and Mullaro, the latter signifying hill people, from a root common to Tamul and Teloogoo, the Khonds designate the alpine portions of Oriasa solely hy its Hindu name (from the root) ' Malwa, ' meaning highlands. The Hindu people they call Sassi, a word whose signification is not ascertained. The Khonds, who inhabit the mountains are styled Maliah Koinga, those of the low country Sassi Koifiga." The fifth volume of the Calcutta Review (January — June 1846) contains on p. 26 the following note: " Respecting the name of Khonds, Lieutenant Hill remarks, that, in their own language, ' they call themselves Knee. A single Khond is called Kwinga. By Uriyas, they are called Khonds and by the TeUngas, Kodulu and often KoduwanQlu or hill people." According to Sir W. W. Hunter in his Orissa, vol. II, p. 71 : "The word Kandh, like Mali and the tribal names of other hill tribes, means in the aboriginal languages ' mountaineer.' " About the Gands or Gandas consult Mr. Charles Grant's Gazetteer of the Central Provinces of India, pp. 100, 103, 2i7, 251, 412, 413, and 457. They cultivate some land in Ealgarh, Laira and Sambalpur, but they seem not to be regarded as good cultivators. The population of Laira is chiefly agri- cultural and consists of Gonds, Khonds and Gandas. On the other hand the Gandas are generally classified as weavers. Their number in the Central Provinces amounts to 250,133. Koinga is the plural of Koi, nga being the plural termination in the Kond language. A similar termination exists in the Koi language on the Godavarl, e.g., mdra, tree, pi. marlngu ; goggodi, cock, goggodingu ; handi, carriage, bandingu ; goddeli, axe, goddelingu. " See the Rev. John Cain's articles on " The Bhadrachallam and Reka- palli Talukas, Godavarl District," in the Indian Antiquary, vol. V, pp. 301- OF BHAEATAVAE8A OE INDIA. 147 The four tribes to whom the title Koitor is applied are the Raj Goad, Raghuwal, Padal and Dholi, and occasionally 303, 357-359 ; vol. VIII, pp. 33-36, 219-221 ; and vol. X, pp. 259-264. Read ibidem, vol. V, pp. 358, 359 : "Formerly on a certain day in the year the Eoi men of each village were driven into the jungle by the women to hunt, and were not allowed to return unless they brought home some game, — a smaU bird, or even a rat, being enough to give them the right to be welcomed back. This practice is still carried on jby the Eois in ths Bastar country, and also by many in the Nizam's territory. Mr. Van- stavern, whilst boring for coal at Beddadanolu, was visited on that day by all the Koi women of the village, dressed up in their lords' clothes, and they told him that they had that morning driven their husbands to the forest to bring home game of some kind or other. Mr. Vanstavem also states that the Kois round Beddadanolu do not eat the goat annually offered for a prosperous harvest, but leave it to itseU in the jungle tied up to a tree. ' ' The Kois aay that the f oUowing gods and goddesses were appointed to be worshipped bj' the Sudras : — Muttelamma, MaridimahdlakshmT, Poturdzu, and Korrazulu, and the following were to receive adoration from the Kois : — Eom- malnmma, Kdtdradu, Adamarazu. The goddess Mamili or Lsle must be propi- tiated early in the year, or else the crops will undoubtedly fail ; and she is said to be very partial to human victims . . . All the Kois seem to hold in great respect the Pdndma brothers, especially Arjuna and Bhlma. The wild dogs or dhols are regarded as the (fete or messengers of these brothers, and the long black beetles which appear in large numbers at the beginniug of the hot weather are called the Pandava £ock of goats. Of course they would on no account attempt to kiU a dhol, even though it should happen to attack their favourite calf, and they even regard it imprudent to interfere with these datas when they wish to feast upon their cattle." In vol. VIII, p. 34, we read : " They say their dance is copied from Bhlma' s march after a certain enemy. There is no Koi temple in any village near here, and the Eois are seldom if ever to be found near a Hindu temple." In the Jeypore territory of the Vizagapatam district a similar practice as the abovementioned prevails. The men are often away for days in search of game, and if they return with none of an evening , their women pelt them with cow-dung. The Sistorical and Descriptive Sketch of S.B. the Nizairi's Dominions remarks in vol. I, pp. 325, 326, about the Kois as follows : — " The Eoyas or Eois (45,300) are an aboriginal race, found chiefly in the Khamam District (39,990). They belong to the same family as the G-onds and the other primi- tive races of Central and Southern India. The Kois say that ' they are the descendants of Bhimadur, and the local tradition is that when Bhimadur accompanied his brother Dharma Eagu to his forest exile he one day went hunting in the jungle, and there met a wild woman of the woods, whom he fell in love with and married. The fruit of their union was the Koi people. The tradition further states that this wild woman was not a human being.' The language spoken by them is similar in some respects to that of the Oonds. Like the latter they are noted for their truthful habits . . . The fruit of the Ippa tree is dried and reduced to powder. This made into cakes and porridge forms their favourite and principal food for the greater part of 148 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS the Kolam. The Marias who are likewise styled Koitur, represent perhaps now the purest type of the Gonds.*^ In ancient times these people occupied a much larger portion of India than they do now. Their name appears in places far distant from one another, in the north, e.g., in Gonda or Gauda in Oudh, in Khandwa in the Central Pro- vinces, in Gonddl in Kathiawar, in Khandesh and Khanddla in Bombay, in Gondvdna in Central India, while Khandagiri and EJiandapara testify to their presence in Orissa. Even the year. They also distil great quantities of an intoxicatiag drink from the flowers; they mU eat the flesh of every animal, not even rejecting that of the cow. They seldom remain long in one place, as soon as the productive powers of the soil are exhausted they move to another spot and make a fresh clearing. They have no caste, their religion consists of belief in one Supreme Being, they also worship the spirits of the mountains and a divinity who protects them from the ravages of tigers. They regard heaven as a large and strong fort where there is an abundance of rice stored up for those who are permitted to enter. Hell is a place in which an iron cow con- tinually gnaws the flesh of the unfortunate persons detained there. "Widows' remarriages are allowed. Their wedding ceremonies are exceedingly simple ; the betrothed couple have a triangular mark placed on their foreheads, they then kneel together, and the ceremony is completed by pouring water over the heads of both. The personal appearance of both sexes is the reverse of prepossessing." ** The Gazetteer of the Central Provinces of India, edited by Mr. Charles Grant, contains on pp. 137 and 500 the following statements : " The Marias, or as they are called towards the north the Kohiturs . . are in aJl probability the purest type of Gond. It is worthy of note that in villages bordering upon the more cultivated tracts the change of name from Maria to Kohitur, then to Jangli G-ond, and then to Gond, can be seen in progress, and it is easy to imagine that a well-to-do Maria family calling themselves Gond might in two or three generations adopt the more fashionable style of Raj Gond (p. 137). . Gotes and Kois, or as they are commonly called Gotewars and Koiwars— the termination war being a Telugu affix, signifying person or man — are the aborigines of the country (Upper Godavari) . Although almost identical in customs and in language, they do not eat together or inter- marry, the Kols claiming superiority over the Gotes. The proper name for the Kois is ' Koitor,' and this is what they call themselves. By the Telingas they are called Koidhoras, the word ' dhora ' meaning gentleman or sahib. This error has probably arisen from the last syllable of ' Koitor ' havin g been taken for ' dhora,' owing to the similarity of sound. The Kols, where they come into contact with the Telinga population, have adopted many of their customs. . The Got6 keeps more aloof from civili- sation; but . . the customs of the two races are very similar, and both belong to the Gond family (p. 500)." Compare also Indian Antiquary, vol. VIII, p. 34 : " The custom of calling the Kois doralu {dora = lord, Tel.) has OF BHAEATAVAESA OR INDIA. 149 now these tribes are found in all the Presidencies of Bombay, Madras, and Bengal, though their chief abode is in the Central Provinces.*' The Uriyas aspirate the final d, hence the name is often spelt Kondh or Kandh, but this pronunciation is only local. "Wherever the Gonds, Konds, or Kands are found in their own homesteads, far from strangers, they have preserved their national virtues, among which honesty, fidelity, and hospitality occupy a prominent position. Like many other wild tribes they are brave, but they are also cruel and very superstitious. In those parts of the country where they dwell, the simple-minded Gronds are feared as dangerous sorcerers and intimate friends of the evil spirits. About the Religious Doctrines of the Khonds Captain Mac- pherson makes the following remarks : " There is one Supreme been traced by some (Central Promnees Gazetteer, p. 50O) to the ending tor in the word Koitor. This has always seemed to me (Eev. Mr. Cain) rather doubtful, as this honoriiic affix is not only conceded to the Kois, hut also to several other castes, e.g. , the (true) Vellamma caste, and to all the most influential natives in the independent or semi-independent neighbour- ing states." The Gonds in the Singbhum District are called Dorowas or ]!faiks. See Dalton's Ethnology, p. 277, and Grant's Gazetteer, p. 137. Elsewhere in Narasingpur are found the Dhur Gonds which term appears to be identical with the Dhurwe or Naik Gonds. I wonder what is the meaning of the term Dhur (Dhurwe or Dorowas), and whether it is con- nected with the word dora. About the Marias consult also the Report of the Dependency of Bustar by Deputy Commissioner C. L. R. Glasfurd, pp. 46-52 : " 104. The Marias and Jboorias, I should say, are, strictly speaking, a sub-division of the true Gond family." *' See Lieutenant Macpherson, p. 13, § 13: " The Khonds are now seen, in " both of these situations, within the following Hi-defined limits. Upon the " east they appear scattered over the wilder tracts of the Ganjam district " bordering upon the Chilka Lake, and are seen in that qua,rter at a few " points, upon the coast of the Bay of Bengal. They are found, on the ' ' north-west, on the confines of Gondwana, in longitude 83°, while on the " west, they extend within the unsurveyed frontier of Berar. They are " found as far south as Bustar in latitude 19° 40', while the Zemindary of " Palconda is like that of Kunnapoor possessed by a Khond Chief on the " south-east, they are replaced on the limits of the Souradah and Moherry " districts in Ganjam, by the Sourah race, which henceforward occupies " the eastern acclivities of the Ghauts to the Godavery. To the north, " fifty miles beyond the Mahanuddee, in the meridian of Boad, they are " succeeded by the Kole people. On the north-east, they are found high 20 150 ON THE OHIGINAL INHABITANTS " Being, self-existing, the Source of Good, and Creator of the " Universe, of the inferior gods, and of man. This divinity " is called in some districts, Boora Pennu, or the God of " Light ; in others, Bella Pennu, or the Sun God ; and the " sun and the place from which it rises beyond the sea are " the chief seats of his presence. Boora Pennu, in the " beginning, created for himself a consort, who became Tari " Pennu, or the Earth Goddess, and the Source of Evil. " He afterwards created the Earth. As Boora Pennu walked " upon it with Tari, he found her wanting in affectionate " compliance and attention as a wife, and resolved to create " from its substance, a new being, Man, who should render to " him the most assiduous and devoted service, and to form " from it also every variety of animal and vegetable life " necessary to man's existence. Tari was filled with jealousy, " and attempted to prevent his purpose, but succeeded only " so far as to change the intended order of creation. . , Tari " Pennu then placed her hands over the earth, and said, ' ' in Cuttack, while Sourahs (not identified with the southern race) there " inhabit the inferior ridges of the Ghauts." (Compare his " Account of the Religion of the Khonds " in the Journal of t/ie Royal Asiatic Sooiety, vol. XIII, pp. 220, 221.) Compare also Papers relating to the A-boriginal Tribes of the Central Provinces left in MSS., by the late Rev. Stephen Hialop, missionary of the Free Church of Scotland at Nagpore : edited, with notes and preface, bj' R. Temple, C.S.I., 1866, pp. 3 and 4 : " The name of Gond, or Gund, seems " to be a form of Kond, or Kund, the initial gutturals of the two words being " interchangeable. . Both forms are most probably connected with Konda — " the Teloogoo equivalent for a mountain — and therefore wiU signify ' the hill " people.' And no designation could be more appropriate to the localities " which the majority of them inhabit. Though they are also found residing " in the villages of the plains along with the more civilized Hindus, yet " they chiefly frequent the mountain ranges l}-ing between 1 8° 40' and 23° 40' " north latitude, and between 78° and 82| east longitude. This tract some- ' ' what corresponds with the old Mahomedan division of Gondwana, but differs ' ' from it in not reaching so far to the east and in extending considerably " further towards the south-east. The Moghul geographers seem to have " included with the Gonds of Nagpore the KOls on their east frontier, and to " have been ignorant of the relationship between them and the inhabitants " of Bustar. In the north, Gonds are met with about Saugor and near the " source of the Hasdo ; on the east, they cross that river into Sarguja, where ' ' thoy border on the Kfils, and are found with Konds and Uriyas in Nowa- OF BHARATAVAESA OE INDIA. 151 " ' Let these beings you have made exist ; you shall create no " more.' Whereupon Boora caused an exudation of sweat to " proceed from his hody, collected it in his hand, and threw " it around, saying : ' To all that I have created,' and thence " arose love, and sex, and the continuation of species. The " creation was perfectly free from moral and physical evil. " Man enjoyed free intercourse with the Creator. They lived " without labour, .in perfect harmony and peace. They went " unclothed. . .The lower animals were all perfectly innocuous. " The Earth Groddess, highly incensed at the love shown " towards man thus created and endowed, broke into open " rebellion against Boora, and resolved to blast the loss of his " new creature by the introduction into the world of every " form of moral and physical evil. . . A few indiA^duals of " mankind entirely rejected evil, and remained sinless ; the " rest all yielded to its power, and fell into a state of uni- " versal disobedience to the Deity, and fierce strife with one " another. Boora immediately deified the sinless few without " their sufEering death. . . Upon the corrupted mass of man- " gudda, Kareal, and Kharond or Kalahandi ; in the south, they form the " mass of the population of Bustar and a portion of the inhahitants of " Jeypur (in the Madras Presidency), while they occupy the hills along the " left bank of the G-odavery about Nirmul ; and on the west, they are inter- " mingled with the Hindus of Berar for 30 miles from the right bank of the ' ' Wurdah, and, along the KOrs, extend along the hills both north and south ' ' of the Narbadda to the meridian of Hindia, where they give place to the " Bhils and Nahals. " In such a large extent of country, as might be expected, they are di- ' ' Tided into various branches, and distinguished by specific names. The ' ' classification adopted by themselves is into twelve and a half castes or " classes, in imitation of the Hindus. These are — Kaj Gond, Eaghuwal, " Dadave, Katulya, Padal, Dholi, Ojhyal, Thotyal, Koilabhutal, Koikopal, " Kolam Madyal, and an inferior sort of Padal as the half caste. The first " four with the addition, according to some of the Kolam, are comprehended " under the name of Koitor — the Gond, par excellence. This term, in its " radical form of Koi, occurs over a wide area, being the name given to the " Meria-saorificing aborigines of Orissa and to the jungle tribes skirting the " east bank of the Godavery from the apex of the delta as far up nearly as " the mouth of the Indrawati. Its meaning is evidently associated with " the idea of a hill ; the Persian name of which, Koh, approaches it more " closely than even the Teloogoo, Kondd. I need scarcely, therefore, add 152 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITAXTS " kind, Boora Permu inflicted high moral penalties, and. , " entirely withdrew his face and his immediate guardianship "from mankind. He made all who had fallen subject to " death. . .Universal discord and war prevailed. . .Diseases and " death came upon all creatures ; snakes became venomous.. . " Man. .sank into a state of abject suffering and degrada- " tion. .Meanwhile, Boora and Tari contended for superiority " in fierce conflict ; their terrible strife raging throughout " the earth, the sea and the sky ; their chief weapons being " mountains, meteors and whirlwinds. Up to this point, the '' Khonds hold the same belief ; but from it, they divide into " two sects directly opposed upon the great question of the "issue of the contest betweem Boora and his rebel consort. . " The sect of Boora believe that he proved triumphant in the "contest, and, as an abiding sign of the discomfiture of " Tari, imposed the cares of childbirth upon her sex.. .The " sect of Tari hold, upon the other hand, that she re- " mained unconquered, and still maintains the struggle with " various success." *' I give this interesting story of the " that it has no connection with the interrogative Koi, as some have sup- " posed, nor has Koitorany relation to the Sanskrit Kskatrii/a, as suggested by " Sir R. Jenkins. Though there are a few of the more wealthy Koitora who "would gladly pass themselves off as Rajputs, yet the great majority of " those known by that name resent, with no small vehemence, the imputation ' ' of belonging to any portion of the Hindu community. The sacred thread " of the twice-born, instead of being an object of ambition, is to them a " source of defilement." The passage on the Gonds and Khonds in C. Lassen's Indische Alterthiims- kunde, vol. I, pp. 426-432 (or pp. 373-78), should be consulted as well as those in the Eev. M. A. Sherring's Hindu Tribes and Castes, vol. II, pp. 134- 152, and vol. Ill, pp. 200 and 206, and Colonel Dalton's Ethnology of Bengal, pp. 275-304. In the second volume of H. H. Wilson's Vishnupurdna published by F. Hall, p. 163, Shanda is read instead of Khanda. *' Lieutenant Maopherson gives in his report on p. 61 a list of the Khond deities and divides them into national and local deities : " In the first class are (1) Bera Pennoo or the Earth god ; (2) Bella Pennoo, the Sun god, and Danzoo Pennoo, the Moon god ; (3) Sunde Pennoo, the god of Limits ; (4) Loha Pennoo, the Iron god or god of Arms ; (5) Joogah Pennoo, the god of Small-pox ; (6) Nadzoo Pennoo, or the VUlage deity ; the universal genius loci ; (7) Sora Pennoo, the Hill god, Jori Pennoo, the god of Streams, and Gossa Pennoo, the Forest god; (8) Moonda Pennoo, the Tank god; OF BHAEATAVAR8A OR INDIA. 153 creation of the world and the fall of man which Macpherson ascribes to the Khonds. It reminds one, however, in many of its features of the Biblical Accounts, and fills one with wonder that such an uncivilised Indian tribe as the Khonds should have so beautiful a legend of their own. In the human sacrifices which these tribes offered up in days not long gone by, and which even now they have not altogether abandoned, they displayed an indescribable (9) Soogoo Pennoo or Sidrojoo Pennoo, the god of Fountains ; (10) Pidzoo Pennoo, th.e god of Eain ; (11) Pilamoo Pennoo, the god of Hunting ; (12) god of Births." Lieutenant (Captain) Macpherson's Report was re- printed under the title of " An Account of the Religious Opinions and Observances of the Khonds of Goomsur and Boad ' ' in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. VII (1843), pp. 172-199, and " An Account of the Ghonds inOrissa" in vol. XIII, 1852, pp. 216-274 of the same journal. Besides Bura and Tari there are (pp. 226-228) " inferior gods divisible into two classes, distinguished by their origin, their attributes, and the scope of their duties and authority. The gods of the first class sprang from Boora and Tari. . . 1, Pidzu Pennn,the god of Rain. 2, Boorbi Pennu, the goddess of new Vegetation and First Fruits. 3, Peteri Pennu, the God of increase. 4, Klambi Pennu, the God of the Chase. S, Loha Pennu, the God of war. 6, Sundi Pennu, the God of Boundaries. 7, Dinga Pennu, the Judge of the dead . . . The third class of inferior deities are sprung from the Gods of the first two classes. They are the strictly minor and local deities of the Khonds . . The following are the chief of this class of gods. I, Nadzu Pennu, the Village God. 2, Soro Pennu, the HiU God. 3, Jori Pennu, the God of Streams. 4, Tozu Pennu, the Family or House God. 5, Mounda Pennu, the Tank God. 6, Sooga Pennu, the God of Fountains. 7, Gossa Pennu, the Forest God. 8, Koosti Pennu, the God of Ravines. 9, Bhora Pennu, the God of New Fruits, produced on trees or shrubs." These two accounts differ in some respects. On pp. 243-256 : the worship of Tari Pennu is described : " In the worship paid to Tari Pennu by her sect, the Chief rite is human sacrifice. It is celebrated as a public oblation by tribes, branches of tribes or villages both at social festivals held periodically, and when special occasions demand extraordinary propitiations. And besides these social offerings, the rite is performed by individuals to avert the wrath of Tari from themselves and their families." According to Mr. Grant (p. 106; the Gonds worship as a rule only " Bar4 Deva and D614 Deva." Colonel Dalton says in his Ethnology of Bengal, on p. 281 : " The Gonds are, however, found to have one common object of worship, called, according to the linguistic peculiarities of the locality, Bdra Deo, B&da Deo or Badiil Pen. Pen and Deo mean the same, but the signification of B On the Kurds (Ybrakulas) and Kaurs. Another tribe who are acknowledged as a separate class of the Kuravas are the Yerakulavdndlu or Yerakala- mru, who caU. themselves Kuru, Kuluintru or Kola, while the Tamil people designate them as Kuravar, whom they resemble in their manners and customs.^^ They live in eat it, they deem the dead to have lived a very deprayed life, and impose a heavy fine on hie relatives for having permitted such evil ways." About the name consult Glossary of Judicial and Revenue Terms, hy H. H. Wilson, p. 294 : " Koracharu, also Korckaru, Korvaru, or Korsaru, &c., corruptly Korchoor. The name of a trihe in the Karnatic, whose husiness is making bamboo mats and baskets, or who carry hetelnuts from market to market : they live in the hills and forests. " Koravarava, Koramaravanu, or Koravanu, or ahhrev. Koravar, Koramar. . . The name of a low tribe in Mysore, of which there are three branches — Kalla-koramar, who are professed thieves ; Wakiga-koramar, who are musi- cians ; and Sakki-koramar, who are a migratory race, and subsist by making baskets, catching birds, &c. : they are hill and forest tribes and have a dialect of their own : (the name may be only a local modification of Kola, or Cole, the hill tribes of Hindustan)." On p. 306 : " Kuruchchiyan, or Euruman, Mai. A class of people inhabiting the hiUs in Wynad." »i According to the Census Beportof 1881, there were registered in India 7,875 Kurumarin. Madras, 1,071 Qorcha in the North- Western Provinces, 24Hakikoraw in Hyderabad, 11,864 Korachar in Mysore, 110,473 Eoramr in Madras and Travancore, 597 Korehar in Bombay, 3,448 Eormiavasayar in Madras, 14,106 Korvi in Bombay, 1,001 Kuravandlu in Madras, 31,644 Eura in the Central Provinces, 14 Euravar in the Central Provinces, and 3,135 Eunoai in Hyderabad, &c. 92 Consult H. H. Wilson's Glossary, pp. 560, 561 : " Terkullemr, ( ? ) Tel. probably for Eruktmddu, pi. Erukmtartdlw, and the same as those corruptly termei Yerkelwanloo, Yera-kedi, Terakelloo ( Je»^sj^2i> ). The designation of a wild migratory tribe who subsist on game and all sorts of flesh ; they make and sell baskets and mats, and are considered as outcastes : both men and women pretend to be fortune-tellers and conjurors: they are also said to be called Eoorshe-wdnlu, Terkel-wanloo {wdnlu, or more correctly vdndlu, being only the plural of vddu), Yera-kedi, and Yerakelloo, but to be known amongst themselves as Eurru ; they are possibly the same who appear 202 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS like manner under tents fixed by bamboo poles and covered with mats made of reed grass. They are also continually roaming about, avoiding villages and towns and preferring to pitch their tents in some open ground a few miles distant from inhabited places, only to strike them again after a few days' stay. They thus wander over Hyderabad, the Ceded Districts, and other adjacent provinces. Their tents of which every family possesses a separate one, with a few among tlie predial slavea in Kurg under the name ol Yerrwanroo, i.e., Erra-vdndlu, ? red men, or Tevaru q.v. or Yerlan, or Siehlen, (?) alao specified amongst, the serTile races of Kurg." Further see " The Migratory Eaces of India," by Assistant Surgeon Edward Balfour, Madras Army, in the Madran Journal of Literature and Science, vol. XVII (1857), pp. i-9 : " The Ooorroo. This seems to be a branch of the Korawa people, two divisions of whom . . were described by me in an article on the Migratory Tribes of India . . This wandering race occupy the Ceded Districts and are called by Mahomedans ' Koorshe Wanloo ;' Telings give them the names of ' Yerkel wanloo,' ' Yera keedi,' and ' Yera kelloo,' and the Aravas know them as Coortee ; bat their designa- tion among tliemselves is Ooorroo, the rr being pronounced by them with a loud thrilling sound. I believe them to be a branch of the Korawa people from the similarity of their customs, and from their using similar articles of diet, but the term korawa was quite new to this community, who, although familiar with the appellations of the Mahomedans and Hindoos, told me that Coorroo was the only name they ever designated themselves by . . They live in huts constructed of mats, very neatly woven froma long grass, named in Telagoo " zamboo," which grows in the beds of tanks, and which, they spread over a bamboo frame work. They are inces- santly on the move, wandering about the country, and they never reside inside of towns, but pitch their little camps on open plains three or four miles from some inhabited place. They rarely remain above two or three days in one spot and their journeys are of considerable length. The value of one of their huts would hardly amount to half a rupee (one shilling), asses, goats and pigs constitute their wealth ; the two last of these they use as food and sell for money in towns. They, likewise, earn a little by selling grass mats and baskets made of canes and bamboos, the handy-work of the men, but which are sold by the women . . . Each family in their communities lives apart in its own hut, constracted, as above-mentioned, by the mats woven by themselves. . The men informed me that they usually marry about the time that their mustaches appear (18 years of age ?) with women who have attained maturity, and a bride is never taken to her husband's but before two months after this period of her life. They marry one wife only, but they can keep as many of their women as they choose. The greatest number, however, that any of my informants remembered to have seen in one man's hut, was one wife and three kept women \ this latter class being in general widows. . . OF BHARATAVARSA OR INDIA. 203 asses, goats, and pigs represent their property. They earn besides a precarious living by selling grass-mats and cane or bamboo-baskets, which are made by the men, but hawked about and sold by the women. In their wanderings they sometimes commit all sorts of robberies and often are trouble- some dacoits and highway robbers. Accounts vary about their marriage customs. Accord- ing to some, the tali or marriage string is bound round the The marriage ceremony consists in sprinkling rice and turmeric oyer the bride and bridegroom's head ; and after it is over the bride returns to her parents and remains with them for five days. . . The Coorroo attaches much importance to the purity of their unmarried females, bat they regard a want of integrity in their married women as a trivial matter .... They drink all sorts of intoxicating drinks, but never use opium or any of the pre- parations from hemp.. They never use the flesh of the horse, jackall, tiger, cheetah, or crow ; but they eat the hog, mouse, rat, wild rat, and fowls.. It is difficult to say what their religion is. They do not bind on the tali in marriage, or use any of the Hindu sectarian marks on their foreheads, neither do they revere the Brahmans or any religious superior, nor perform any religious ceremony at any Hindu or Budhist temple, but they told me that, when they pray, they construct a small pyramid of clay which they term Mariammah and worship it. But though they seem thus almost with- out a form of religion, the women had small gold and silver ornaments suspended from cords round their necks and which they said had been supplied to them by a goldsmith from whom they had ordered figures of Mariamma. The form represented is that of the goddess Kali, the wife of Siva. They mentioned that they had been told by their forefathers that, when a good man dies, his spirit enters the body of some of the better animals as that of a horse or cow, and that a bad man's spirit gives life to the form of a dog or Jackall ; but though they told me this they did not seem to believe it. They believe firmly, however, in the existence and constant presence of a principle of evil, who, they say, frequently appears. . . When they die the married people are burned, but the unmarried are buried quite naked without a shroud or kufn, or other clothing, a custom which some other castes in India likewise follow. . . The Coorroo people are naturally of a bamboo-color, though tanned by the sun into a darker hue. Their faces are oval with prominent bones, their features having something of the Tartar expression of countenance. . . The dialect spoken by the ' Coorroo ' as their lingua franca, in their intercourse with the people of the country, is the Teloogoo, and I was surprised to find them entirely ignorant of the Canarese language although living exclusively among the Canarese nation." Compare also Mr. H. E. Stokes' account of these people in the Manual of the Nellore District, compiled and edited by Mr. John A. 0. Boswell, M.c.s., pp. 154-157 : "These people (the Yerukalas) wander from place to place, as they find it easy to gain a living, pitching their huts generally in open places near villages. Their property, consists principally of cattle and asses. 204 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS neck of the woman ; according to others this is not the case. This discrepancy may be explained by some having adopted the usual Hindu customs, while others still keep aloof from them. With respect to their religious worship the same observation may hold good. There is no doubt that originally they did not worship any Hindu deities, nor did they in consequence perform any religious ceremonies at any Hindu shrine, nor revere the Brahmans as their religious superiors. In fact the and they act as carriers of salt and grain ; the}' cut firewood in the jungles and sell it in the villages ; they also gather and sell a leaf called karepaku (the black margosa) ; they eat game, flesh of all sorts, and jungle roots. They all, hoth women and men, pretend to tell fortunes ; these people, like all the wandering tribes of the district, are basket-makers. . . They are stout men and very hardy in constitution. Like the Yanadies they tie their hair in a knot over the forehead. Lieutenant Bulmer, in his letter to the Collector, dated 22nd May 1865, No. 317, writes the following as to the Yerukalas : ' The crimes they are addicted to are dacoity, highway robbery, and robbery ; they are the most troublesome of our wanderers.' . . The gods whom they chiefly worship are Mahalakshmi and Venkatesvara (to whom the Trippati temple is sacred), and they also sacrifice to the pitris, or manes of their ancestors. They state generally that all gods worshipped by Hindus are worshipped by them. The old men of the tribe are priests. Each tribe or family has a god, which is carried about with the encampment. One, which I have seen, was a piece of wicker-work, about five inch square, cased in black canvas, one side being covered with white sea-shells imbedded in a red paste. It was called Polaperamma. Polygamy is practised among the Yerukalas, and the number of wives is only limited by the means of the husband. There is no polyandria, nor is there any trace of the custom, which sometimes is found among rude tribes, of the brothers of a family haviniJ; their wives in common. The marriage string is always tied round the neck of the wife. The females are said not to marry till they are full grown. The ceremony usually takes place on a Sunday, puja having been made on the Saturday. Rice mixed with turmeric is poured on the heads of the married couple ; the marriage string is tied on, and the ceremony is complete. During the lifetime of her husband a wife may not marry another man, but after his death she may if she wishes. . . A man supports all his children by all his wives. H he has a great number, the brothers will take some of them ; but when they are grown up they return to their father's family. Sons so reared will, through gratitude, support their uncles in old age. . . I have collected a number of words and phrases of the Yerukalas among themselves — a language which is unintelligible to the Telugu people. The most cursory glance at these is sufiSoient to produce the conviction that it is a Tamil dialect. It has been considerably mixed, as is to be expected, with Telugu and Canarese, but in its structure it is plainly Tamil. The Yerukalas understand Tamil when spoken, and it is superfluous to state analogies between their dialect and Tamil, inasmuch as OF BHARATAVAR8A OR INDIA. 205 old men of the tribe are to this day their priests. They mainly worship Mariamma or Poleramma, an image of whom generally accompanies each tribe in its wanderings. The god Venkatesvara of Tripati is also held in respect by a great many. They generally keep a lamp burning night and day in their encampments before which they offer up prayers. the former is nothing but a patois of the latter, in which Telugu and Canarese words are freely used. There can be no doubt as to the fact that the Terukalas are a Tamil tribe, but there are some points connected with the name and language which seem to throw farther light on the question. The name has two forms in Telugu, one TerukuTandlu, said by Brown and Campbell to be derived from ' Erugu ' to know, and to have reference to their fortune-telling powers, and one Yerukulavandlu ; the first of this word is evidently not a plural of ' Yeruku,' but a distinct word. This seems to be recognized by Brown and Wilson, who conjecture that ' Yeru' is a prefix to be connected by the word ' erra' red. . . The Yerukulas in this district state that their tribe name in their own language is ' Kurru,' also. Kola ; and I think there can be no doubt that the ' Yer ' or ' Yeru ' is a mere prefii and that ' Kala,' Wilson's ' KuUevar ' represents the real name of the tribe. To connect ' Yer ' or 'Yeru' with the Telugu 'erra,' red, seems quite meaningless ; it might perhaps be compared with ' Yervaru ' mentioned by Wilson, or which seems more plausible to suppose it to be the word ' Yeruku ' (which, as has been said, is one designation of the tribe in Telugu, com- pounded with the real tribe name ' Kurruvandlu,' or Kolavandlu, when, according to a common euphonic law in Telugu, the two ' k's ' would coalesce and the word becomes Yerukkalavandlu. The second ' k ' would easily bs dropped, and the word assume its common form Yerukalavandlu. I have been unable to find that there are any traditions among these people as to the country from which they came ; one of them indignantly repudiated the notion of a Tamil origin. The language, however, and the tribe name ' Kurru ' seems to me unmistakeably to point to the identity of this tribe with the well-known Kuravar or Koravar of the Tamil districts." The Historical and Descriptive Sketch of 3.. B. the Mzam's Dominions contains in vol. I, pp. 326-28, an account of the Yerakulavandlu : " The YarJcalwars are a nomad tribe living in huts made of palmyra leaves or reeds. They are found in some of the eastern districts of the Dominions. T"hey live on the flesh of swine, game and carrion, and a little grain they may get in barter for the mats and baskets they construct. They snare birds with bird-lime, and they have a small breed of dogs with which they kill hares. They kill most of the dogs when young, but retain the bitches, to which, when they are intended for hunting, they give a certain root that renders them barren . . Brahmans will not approach the Yarkalwars but the Jangam of the Lingayets is more pliant, and on the occasion of a death, for a present of some grain, he attends and blows his conch. Their marriage ceremonies consist in a headman whom they elect for the occasion, and place on a 27 206 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS The explanation of their hy-name Yerukulavdndlu ( Yeru- kalavandlu, Yerakalavandlu or Yerikalavandlu) offers some difficulties. Scholars like 0. P. Brown and H. H. Wilson are inclined to take yeru in the meaning of erra, red ; but there does not seem sufficient ground for this derivation. It is true, and I have elsewhere alluded to the fact, that Scythian tribes use occasionally terms signifying color, in order to represent political positions ; black, e.g., indicating, tinder these circumstances, dependence and servitude, and white liberty and sovereignty. I have not observed^ however, this throne of turf, putting rice on tlie heads of the young people, and uttering some mystic words ; a pig is then killed, the flesh is cooked and eaten, and ample as their experience must be of the qualities of every kind of flesh, they are unanimous in declaring that pork is superior to all. They then jump about, beat their bellmetal vessels, and the whole concludes by the whole party, male and female, getting drunk. One of their customs is very peculiar. On the occasion of a birth the husband is looked on as the subject of compassion, and is carefully tended by the neighbours, as if he and not the wife had been the sufferer. Like all vagabonds they are regarded with suspicion, and with some reason, as they affect to possess a divining rod in the shape of the frond of the wild date, by which they may discover on the outside of the house where property is placed within . . . Although despised as a carrion-eating caste, the ryots do not hesitate in cases of sickness to consult them. Then the divining rod is produced, a Yarkalwar woman holding one end while the other is given to the person seeking advice, a long string of words is rattled over, the result of the disease foretold, and the particular shrine is indicated where an offering is to be placed, or the offended Sakti named, whose wrath is to be appeased by sacrifice . . . They speak a corrupt Tamil." Compare also a " Brief Sketch of the Yerukala Language as spoken in Eajahmandry " in the Madras ./otnmi/ of Ziteratiire and Science, 1879, pp. 93-102. Messrs. A. G. Subrahmanyam I)-er, k.a., and P. Srinivasa Rao Pantulu, B.A., asked, imder the direction of Rev. Mr. J. Cain, a Yeruka a series of questions and drew up the paper. Mr. Cain published afterwards a similar but shorter paper in the Indian Antiqmi-i/, vol. IX (1880), pp. 210-212. The brief sketch contains, among others, the following statements: " The Yerukulas do not seem to have any distinctive tribal or national name. In conversation with each other they call themselves ' Kuluvaru, evidently from the Sanskrit ' kula,' merely signifjing ' our people ' while to strangers they speak of themselves as Yerukala varu, a name most probably given them by their Telugu neighbours (Telugu J air) in allusion to their supposed skiU in palmistry, which they practise as a means of livelihood. The Yerukula in question was not able to say when his people settled in Rajah- mandry. He only knew that a long time ago they came from the west. . . Their customs arc generally of a very simple character- They burn their OF BHARATAVARSA OR INDIA. 207 custom among the Gauda-Dra vidian tribes of India, though the term erra, red, is occasionally used in names, e.g., in that of the Erra Gollalu.^^ There is also no reason for connecting the two iaitial syllables Tera of Yemltalavdndlu with the Yeravas of Kurg. These are a distinct tribe and do not belong to the Kuravas, of whom the Kurus or Yerukulavandlu are a branch. The name Terava is in reality only another form of Parava.^^ A similar remark must be made as to the propriety of derivLag the name of the Kurus from the Telugu words dead with, little ceremony. . . There appears to be little doubt that the language belongs to the Dravidian family. The following collection of words and phrases seems to show conclusively that of these languages it bears the closest affinity to Tamil although possessing words, allied to Telugu and Canarese. ' ' '^ See my monograph Der Presbyter Johannes in Sage and Geschiehte, p. 121, note 1 ; " Die mougolischen Volkersohafteu pflegen namlioh, wie bekannt, dem eigeuthijmlichen Stammesnam.en eine Farbe, wie schwarz, weiss, etc., voranzusetzen.undhierdurch die politische Lage der Horde, ob sie unabhan- gig oder abhangig aei, anzudeuten." '* See " Ethnographical Compendium on the Castes and Tribes in the Province of Coorg," by the Rev. Gr. Richter, pp. 9, it) : " Of the hiU-tribes the Yeravas stand lowest and seem to have been in remote ages in a servile relation to the Betta Kurumbas . . They are immigrants from Wynad, where the same class of Yeravas is said to be found. Their language is related to that of the Betta Kurumbas and understood by the Coorgs. . . The Yeravas bury their dead with their clothes on lying flat the head eastward ; but according to the statement of an intelligent Yerava maistry, who was also the headman of his gang, the women are buried in a sitting posture in a hole scooped out sideways from what would have been an ordinary grave, so that the earth over head does not touch her." Read also Mysore and Coorg, hj Lewis Rice, in vol. I, p. 3.51 : " Yerava. These are only found in Mysore District, in the taluks forming the southern frontier ; they are said to have originally belonged to "Wainad, where they were held in slavery by the Nairs. They resemble the African in features having thick lips and compressed noses. They speak a language of their, own." In vol. II, p. 94 : " Yerra Ganga and Challava Grauga, two men of the Yerralu tribe," to this the note is added : " A wandering tribe identi- cal with or closely related to the Korachars. They are known in Coorg as Yeravas." And in vol. Ill, on pp. 214, 215 : " Yeravas, also known as Panjara Yeravas, 5,608 males, and 4,908 females. . . From the description given of the Yeravas, it is probable they would have been more correctly classed with Holeyas among the outcastes. They are said to be originally from Wainad, where, like the Holeyas in Coorg, they were held in slavery by the Nairs. They are met with almost entirely in Kiggatnad and Yeden^lkad 208 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS erike, eruka or eruku. The Telugu terms erihe or eruka knowledge, in the sense of astrology or of palmistry, and eruku, hunter, do not offer an explanation of the tribal name Kuru. It ia highly probable that the name and the occu- pation of the fortune-telling Kuruvandlu or Kulavandlu induced the Telugu people to call this tribe Terukulavandlu, Yerakalavandlu or Yerikelavandlu, including in these terms both their tribal name and their profession, and that this nickname, once substituted for the real tribal surname, supplanted the latter in course of time. I prefer this expla- nation to the conjecture suggested by Mr. H. E. Stokes in his interesting account of these people. Taking Eruku as a Telugu designation of this race, he adds to it their tribal name by dropping the last vowel of the first part of the compound, so that the word becomes Yerukkalmandlu. Peculiarily enough the term JErukukula occurs in reaHty as quoted in the note below, but apparently in the meaning of hunter. No race takes, as a rule, its name from a foreign language, and Telugu is a strange dialect to the Kurus, whose real idiom is rather akin to Tamil. In this language the expression Yerukalavas is ignored, and this tribe is called simply by the term Koravar.^* taluks. They speak a language of their own, a dialect of Malayalam, and live with the Coorgs, hut always in separate huts in or near jungle. They are much sought after as labourers." It is evident from the above that Mr. Rice's statements contradict each other. If Terra Ganga and Challava Qanga were Kuruvandlu or Terukulavandlu, they could, according to my opinion, not have been Yeravar. — Moreover Mr. Rice calls them " men of the Yerralu tribe," and the Yeravar are not, as I believe, known as Yerralu. Mr. Rice was induced tothis identification by Mr. Stokes' remarks, to which he refers. In this case it appears very doubtful whether yerra in Terra Ganga is a tribal distinc- tion at all, it seems rather to be a personal proper name. " See the Telugu and English Dictionary by Charles Philip Brown, p. 126 : "J6"^ or J ^> 6^ knowledge, acquaintance, fortune-telling. JdTejft or J8"^e;;i'S a female gypsey, a witch. JaTe):r>;Sb a fortune-teller: JoTe- 3r>oJfc gypsies. See J&S'ej. JiXj*' mountaineer, a savage. J&S'TsSjji) to tell fortunes. ^Hii adj. Belonging to gypsies, oi to hillpeople. J&>ei- OF BHARATAVAR8A OR INDIA. 209 It is hardly necessary after this to contradict two other statements, namely that the term Kulavaru is derived from the Sanskrit word kula and that the original trihal name of this race was Kala. The falseness of the first is ohvious, while the real trihal designation, as has been proved, is Kulu, Kola, or Kuru. Ko (ku), mountain, is, indeed, the root to which the name of the Kuruvas, Koravas, Koramas, Kuruvandlu or Kolavan41u must be traced. According to the last census 48,882 Terukulavandlu live in the Madras Presidency, 9,892 in Hyderabad, and 30 in the Central Provinces, or altogether 58,804 in India. These Kurus must not be confounded with the Kolarian Kurs, who live on the Mahadeva hills and in the forests watered by the Tapti and Narbada. The Kurs are better known as Muasis.'^ On the other hand, it is by no means improbable that the Kaurs of the Central Provinces stand in some relationship to the Kuxavas, as they appear to belong to the Gonds. '^& a. highland chief. J^iSoajr-Jfe a gypsey, J&S'ejS a gypsey wench. This tribe of fortune-tellers speak a peculiar jargon or cant : and when they pitch their camps near towns, they herd swine. ^Siivir>T> a woman of this trihe : a witch." Compare also Sabda Satndkaram, a dictionary of the Telugu Language, compiled by B. Sltfirftmacftryulu, Madras, 1885, pp. 160- 151. " J rajs' . ■^. S. 1. "383. . .5 ^^^io . . . JrajS. 'rf. S. 1. |-cr°SoiSi 2. sr^.SicJSi. " About the Kurmis compare Dr. Fr. Buchanan's Sistory, Antiquities, Topography and Statistics of Eastern India, vol. I, pp. 166, 283; vol. II pp! OF BHARATAVAR8A OH INDIA. 263 These facts seem to be conclusive evidence for the non- Aryan origin of the Kurmis and Kunbis. But what makes this tribe historically so interesting, is the circumstance that some of the chief Hindu dynasties of modern times such as the Eajas of Sattdra, the late Eajas of Tanjore, Scindia and others are of Kumbi extraction. The circumstance that the old Marathi dialect has preserved the term Kudumbi enables us to trace the connection of these Kunbis with the Kudumbas or Kurumbas. Considering the bravery and the fierceness of the ancient Kurumbas who were the dread and the bane of their neigh- bour's, we need not be surprised if the fire of their martial disposition was not quite extinct in the otherwise plodding Kumbis, and that the genius of Sivaji and Ekoji could kindle the spark into a blazing flame. If Sir Greorge Campbell had suspected the origin of the Kumbis, he would 468, 469 : " Next to the AMrs the Kurmis here (in Gorukhpoor) hold the highest place ; and in Parraona they obtained the whole property, although they were not able to secure the title of Raja. This, however, was bestowed on the family by the late Asfud-Doulah, but it gave great offence to the Eajputs, and has been discontinued. The families most nearly connected with the chiefs of Parraona, and some others, who were Chaudkuris of Per- gimahs, are reckoned Ashraf , and scorn the plough. While a great many of the Saithawar and Patanawar tribes have become ashamed of the term Kurmi, and reject all additions to the names above-mentioned, although it is well known that they are Kurmis, and many of them are not ashamed of this name. On the right of the Sarayu this tribe is most commonly called Kunmi or Kunbi, which, in the account of Mysore, I have written Cunabi (see above p. 232 n. 109); for itis one of the most generally diffused audnumerous tribes in India ; and in Malawa has risen to great power by the elevation of Sindhiya to the government of TJjjain. This person was a Kurmi ; but I am told, that at his capital the Kurmis are now reckoned Eajputs, as they would have been here had the Parraona family been a little more powerful. There is some reason to suspect, that their daim is better founded than that of many who have had more success ; for it is alleged by many, that they are the same with the Tharus, whose claim to be descended of the family of the sun, is supported by many circumstances which must be allowed to have some weight, although I do not think them conclusive. If the Kurmis, however, are the same with the Tharus, they are at any rate descended of the most powerful, most civilized, and most ancient tribe, that has been sovereigns of the country since the time at least of the family of the sun. Ag the Tharus, however, are impure, the Kurmis strenuously deny the connection, they being b5 264 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS not have been so puzzled about the military element so con- spicuous in their character.''^ On the origin of the term Kadamba. Having been able to recognize in the Kurmis or Kumbis the well-known Kurumbas or Kudumbas, I do not believe that I go too far by suggesting a similar explanation for the name of the famous Kadamba dynasty of ancient times. Only mysterious legends which connect its founder with the Kadamba tree are known about this royal race. I suspect that behind the name Kadamba lurks that of Kudumba or Kurumba, and that the former was originally an acci- dental alteration through variation of sound, which, in course of time, was accepted and used to obliterate the real origin of the ruling tribe. In this case, its ethnological status is ascertained, and I shall now enquire into the origin of the title Kadamba. nearly as pure as the A hire. Thej' formerly ate wild pork, tut now reject it, and will not acknowledge that they drink Bpirituous liquor. They keep widows as concubines. Their Gurus and Purohits are the same with those of the Ahirs." Compare further Sir Henry M. Elliot's Supplemental Glossary of Indian Terms, vol. I, pp. 155, 157 ; H. H. WHson's Glossary, pp. 302, a04 and 305, uniei Kunbi a,ni. Kurmi : " Knrmi, Koormee (H. ^_j«X jriy). The caste of agriculturists, or of a member of it, in Eastern and Central Hindustan, being the same, essentially, as the Kunbis of the west and south." Consult also Colonel Dalton's Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal, pp. 306, 308, 317-327 ; Sir George Campbell's Ethnology of India, pp. 40, 92-95 ; Rev. M. A. Sherring's Hindu Tribes and Castes, vol. I, pp. 323-325 ; vol. II, pp. 99-101, 187, 188 ; vol. Ill, pp. 150-152. ''* See Sir George Campbell's Ethnology of India, p. 94 :" Nothing puzzled me more than this, viz., to understand whence came the great Maratta mili- tary element. In the Punjab one can easily understand the sources of Sikh power ; every peasant looks fit to be a soldier. But the great mass of the Maratta Koonbees look like nothing of the kind, and are the quietest and most obedient of humble and unwarlike cultivators. . Although the Koonbee element was the foundation of the Maratta power, though Sevajee and some of his chiefs were Koonbees, it appears that these people came almost exclusively from a comparatively small district near Sattara, a hiUy region where, as I judge, the Koonbees are much mixed with numerous aboriginal aad semi-aboriginal tribes of JMhars and others." Compare about the Kunbis also the Gazetteer nj Auraiigr'had, pp. 265-270. OF BHARATAVARSA OR INDIA. 265 Different legends are told to explain the name of the Kadamha, Kadamba or Kadamba dynasty,'" One story tells us that after the destruction of the demon Tripura a drop of perspiration fell from the forehead of Kvara through the hollow of a Kadamba tree, and assumed the form of a man with three eyes and four arms. He was accordingly called Trinetra or Trilocana Kadamha, became the foimder of the Kadamba dynasty and erected near the Sahya mountain his capital Vdnavdii, also known as Jayantl- piira or Vaijayantipura}^^ Another tradition relates that he was the son of Siva and Parvati, who stayed for a certain period in the same mountain range, that he was born there eventually under a Kadambatree, whence the child obtained his name, and became a king in course of time. These are the two most widely-spread reports, but ac- cording to another a Brahman of Yalgi underwent a severe penance in order to become a king through the favor of MadhukeSvara.i^^ His penance was graciously accepted, and a divine voice informed him that he would be reborn as a peacock, that the person who would eat his head would become a king, that those who would partake of his breast would become ministers, and that those who would feast on the remainder of his body would become treasurers. The Brahman satisfied with this promise, went to Kdii, where he killed himself with a spear and was reborn as a peacock. In such a state he roamed about in the forest and announced 1" See " A Kadamba Inscription at Siddhapur" by K. B. Patbak, b.a., in tbe Indian Antiquary, vol. XI, p. 273 : " The name of the family seems to have been written differently, as Kadamba, Kadamba or Kadamba." 158 Consult Mackenzie MSS., Kanareee No. 744, 11, pp. 208 »eq., further H. H. Wilson's Introduction to The Mackenzie Collection, pp. 1., ci., old edition, pp. 60, 149, second edition; Mr. Lewis Eice's Mysore and Coorg, vol. I, pp. 193, 194) II> P- 352, and his Mysore Inscriptions, p. xxxiii. 15* See Maekemie Manuscripts, Kauarese, No. 725, VI, pp. 99-102 ; H. H. Wilson's Mackenzie Collection, pp. ci, ciii, old edition ; pp. 149, 150, new edition. 266 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS with a shrill voice that the person who would eat his head would become a king ; until he fell into the hands of a gang of thieves, who were resting under a Kadamha tree. They killed the bird and asked a woman, Puspavafl by name, who was living near by, to cook the peacock and to distribute its flesh amongst them. While the woman was preparing the peacock, and the thieves were bathing, her son came home very hungry, and, as he wanted something to eat, his mother gave him the head of the bird in ignorance of what was in store for him who ate it. When he had eaten it, the thieves returned, partook of the remainder of the meat, but were astonished that after staying a while, none of them was proclaimed king. They fetched the woman, who, when hard pressed, told them what she had done, and that her son had eaten the head of the peacock. The thieves found that it was of no use to fight against destiny and submitted to their fate. The king Annkapiirandara of Jayantipura had died at that very time without leaving any living issue behind and, as was the custom in these circumstances, the ministers let the state elephant loose with a watervessel containing holy water. While thus roaming about, he came to the spot in the forest near which the son of Puspavati was living close to the Kadamba tree. The elephant bowed down to the youth, who ascended the animal and was carried by him to Jayanti- pura, where he was joyfully received, placed on the royal throne and anointed as king. He assumed henceforth the name Mayuravarma Kadamba and ruled for a long time gloriously over the country. The election of a king is in Indian legends often entrusted to a state-elephant, and widely spread is also the belief that he who eats the head of a peacock becomes a king. The peacock is in Sanskrit called Mayura, hence the name Mayuravarma, which the youth accepted. So far as the person and his origin are concerned, the two legends differ, as one refers to Trinetra and the other to Mayuravarma OF BHARATAVARSA OR INDIA. 267 Kadamba, but the Kadamba tree plays in both traditions a significant part. As Puspamti prepared the food for the thieves of which her son partook, and which she distributed among the thieves, one may assume with good reason that she belonged to the same caste as the thieves who caught the peacock, and these people I feel inclined to identify with the Kurumbas. The peacock plays an important part in the account of the settlement of the Kallas in the Kadambavanam or Kadamhd- tavi of Madura. So far as the expression thief is concerned, it must not be forgotten that thieving or robbing was not considered disgraceful, if it was practised as a regular pro- fession, just as cattlelifting did not in former times attach any stygma to those who indulged in it in the Highlands of Scotland. The Kadamba tree, of which there exist various species, is much esteemed for its flowers which are sacred to the god Skanda, for its fragrant and highly esteemed powder which is used at religious ceremonies, for the juice which exudes from its stem, and for other reasons. Its name was spelt in various ways, Kadamba and Kadamba, and as it was origi- nally an indigenous Indian plant, I presume that this term is also indigenous and Non- Aryan. I believe that the people and the dynasty, which we caU Kadambas, were actually a branch of the Kurumbas, who had assumed a slightly modified designation by changing their name Kurumba into Kadamba, and that the stories about the Kadamba tree are inventions of later times in order to explain the coincidence. It is hardly necessary to restate here the resemblance be- tween the a and u sounds, and to mention that the Kadamba plant is in various places of India called Kudumba."" I have had occasion to allude to the peculiar mode of confederation prevalent among the Kurumbas and 18° See the Eev. Dr. Morison Winslow's Tamil and English Dictionary, p. 219, "Katampam, Eatampu, a flower tree." It is sacred to Skanda who ia called Katampan ; Madura is called Katampavanam or Katampdtavi. On p. 268 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS a similar institution is said to have existed among the Kadambas.^'i Yet, what seems to establish the original identity be- tween the Kurumbas and the Kadambas, is the fact that the term Kadamba is actually found in Tamil as a synono- mous and identical expression for Kurumba, though this circumstance has up to now escaped the notice it really deserves.'^^ 236 we find "Katampam, Katampu, the Kadamba tree." In the common vernacular the Kadamha tree is often called Kudumbu, in Hindustani and Bengali it is known as Kudum. — Toddy is made from certain Kadamba trees, and the Marathaa make mead from the Kadamba {Anthoeephalus Cadamba). Compare Dr. Dymock's Anthropogonic Trees, Bombay Anthropological Journal, vol. I, p. 301. ParvatI (or Durga) likes to dwell in the tree. Mr. Lewis Eice says on p. xxxiii in his Mysore Inscriptions that "the Ka- damba tree appears to be one of the palms from which toddy is extracted." The Vispupuraua (see H. H. Wilson's translation edited by Fitzedward Hall, vol. V, pp. 65, 66) reports, that " Varuna, in order to provide for his (Sssa's) recreation, said to (his wife) Vaninl (the goddess of wine) : ' Thou, Madira, art ever acceptable to the powerful Ananta. Go, therefore, auspicious and kind goddess, and promote his enjoyments.' Obeying these commands, Varunl went and established herself in the hollow of a Kadamba-tree in the woods of Vrindavana. Baladeva, roaming about (came there, and), smelling the pleasant fragrance of liquor, resumed his ancient passion for strong di'ink. The holder of the ploughshare, observing the vinous drops distilling from the Kadamba-tree, was much delighted, (and gathered) and quaffed them along with the herdsmen and the Gopis, whQst those who were skilful with voice and lute celebrated him in their songs. Being inebriated (with the wine), and the drops of perspiration standing like pearls upon his limbs, he called out, not knowing what he said." (In a note to this is said : " Kadambarl is one of the synonyms of wine or spirituous liquor. The grammarians, however, also derive the word from some legend ; stating it to be so called, because it was produced from the hoUow of a Kadamba-tree on the Gomanta mountain.") According to the Bhagavata the Kadamba - tree was placed on SuparSva; see Vishnupurana, vol. II, p. 116. In the Sanskrit Dictionary of Professors Bohtlingk and Roth we read in vol. I, p. 211: ^' Kadambara ein aus den Blumen der Nauclea Cadamba bereitetes borauschendes Getrank, n. Tfqi^, H (Smacandra) an. Med. f. f diesB. und A.K 2, 10, 40, H. 902, the rain-water which collects in clefts and hollow places of the tree (Nauclea Cadamba) when the flowers are in perfection, and which is supposed to be impregnated with the honey, Carey bei Haugh- ton. 4i

'li"i 3TRTT 11^ +KH<1l'r) HT Hariv. 5417, fg." "1 See p. 259. "^ I have elsewhere pointed out the circumstance that the name of the rude and cruel Kurumbas was used in some South Indian Languages as an expression for cruelty; so that Earumbart denotes in Tamil and Malayalam OP BHAEATAVAESA OR INDIA. 269 At a much later period we find the Kaclambas connected with the last great dynasty of Southern ludia, the Eajas of Vijayanagara. The founders of this kingdom are also said to have been Kurumbas. If the first family of the Vijaya- nagara kings were Kurumbas, and on the other hand re- lated to the once famous, but then decayed though not extinct royal house of the Kadambas of Tuluva, historical evidence, however slight, would have been adduced to estabhsh the connection between the Kurumbas and the Kadambas, and this connection is in its turn supported by philological proof of the original identity of their names.''^''^ I have thus in the preceding pages given an account of those more important sections of the Gaudian population whose identification offered the least difiiculty, and who from time immemorial have occupied an acknowledged position among the inhabitants of India. I have shown, moreover, that these Gaudians form together with the Dra vidians the Gauda-Dravidian race, and a savage, a stubborn fellow, and kurumiu (or ktirumhuttanam) , barbarity, insolence and wickedness. The same word underwent a slight alteration, of u being changed into a, so that Eadamban signifies in both these languages an unruly fellmv, and in Dr. Winslow's Dictionary we find on p. 219 " Si^LDuiT (Katampar), s. Unruly persons, (^^lduit (Kurumpar)." The only explanation of the name Kadamba I remember to have seen, is contained in Mr. Grigg's Manual of the Nilagiri District, where in note 4 on p. 208 he asks : " May not this word (Kadamba) be a compound of Katu or Katam (both meaning forest) and Kurumba, and perhaps be the same as Kad-Kurumba ? " i°3 See The Mackenzie Collection Introduction, p. civ; new edition, pp. 61, 62 : " There is little doubt also that the first princes of Yijayanagar were descended from a Tuluva family of ancient origin and power, whose dominions extended towards the western sea : whether they were connected with the Kadamba family does not appear, but that this race continued to hold possessions in Kernata, till near their time, is proved by grants at Banavaai, Savanur, and Gokernam, dated in the twelfth, thirteenth and fourteenth centuries by Kadamba kings." Compare also Mr. Lewis Rice's Mysore and Coorg, vol. Ill, p. 98 : " In 1336 was founded the city of Vijaya- nagar, whose princes are said to have derived their origin from the Kadambas." 270 ORIGINAL INHABITANTS OS BHAEATATAESA OE INDIA. that though descended from the same stock and speaking the same language, these tribes separated iuprehistoric times and subsequently became still more alienated from each other. In spite of this fact, they continued to live intermingled in the same districts, though a gulf of hatred and of caste prejudice prevented them from coalescing. The cause of this separation of the two kindred tribes it is now impossible to ascertain, but the division has since been kept alive and, if anything, it may be still further widened in the future. A few exceptions to this mutual antipathy however occur, e.g., in the case of the Bhils and the Gonds. With these remarks I shall pass to the third part, in which the religious aspect of this enquiry will be dis- cussed. Sto ( 271 ) PART III. INDIAN THEOGONY. CHAPTER XIII. Inteoductoet Rbmaees. In the two previous parts my researches concerning the Original Inhabitants of India proceeded from a linguistic point of view, I shall now endeavour to prove that the con- clusions I arrived at from philological evidence can be sup- ported by, as it were, a theological enquiry. Though the main subject of these researches refers to the non-Aryan population of this country, I have as an introduction also to consider portions of the Aryo-Indian theogony, as both the Aryan and the non- Aryan have eventually blended into one. The Sanskrit works which in particular contain accounts of such a nature are the Vedas, more especially the Rgveda, the Mahabharata, the Ramayaija, the Puraijas and the Dharmasastras. The Rgveda which supplies us with the most ancient description of the religious and domestic life of the Aryan invaders of India, and which on account of the sacred character of its hymns has been invested with a supernatural origin, contains the oldest, and as such the most important information, of this kind. The knowledge we derive from it is, however, of a very vague and obscure nature. The accounts preserved in the Mahabharata, Rama- yaua, Puraiias and Law-books refer to a later period, and are obscured by a legendary veil which renders their explana- tion difficult. The Veda contains a collection of ancient verses composed by different authors at various times for sundry purposes. 36 272 ON THE OEIGINAL INHABITANTS It is extant in four different Samliitas or texts. The Bgveda contains tlie rcas or verses arranged according to tlie hymns, to which they belong. They are recited by the Hotr-priests, and must be regarded as the literary legacy bequeathed by their forefathers to the present Aryan population of India. The separate verses of the Egveda hymns are compiled in the Sdmaveda without any internal connection and are sub- ject to musical modifications ; the Udgatr-priests sing these sdmani or songs at the Soma offering. The same verses are re-arranged into yajumsi or prayers, and are with a peculiar intonation muttered by the Adhvaryu-priests of the Yajurveda, of which two recensions exist, the Krsna, the black or unarranged, and the 8uMa, the white or cleansed Yajurveda. The verses of these three Yedic compilations are known as mantra. The Atharva- or Brahma-veda is the fourth Veda and consists mostly of popular incantations, some of which can justly lay claim to great antiquity, as they have been found also among the legendary lore of other Aryan tribes. It is ascribed to the priest Atharvan. The verses of this Veda rank more as Tantra than Mantra. "While the hymns of the Rgveda and of the Atharvaveda possess, besides their poetic and religious value, a high importance as historical documents, the liturgical element prevails in both the Samaveda and Yajurveda. The latter, however, attained in subsequent times such a popularity, that the Taittirlyopanisad likens the four Vedas to a bird, in which the Yajurveda forms the head, the Eg- and Sama- veda respectively the right and left wings, and the Athar- vaveda the tail. It is hardly reasonable to suppose that man in his earliest stage should have possessed sufficient aptitude and leisure to consider the obscure problem of creation. Wherever therefore we find in olden times, or amidst hitherto unknown people, an account of the creation, we may safely ascribe Such an account to a subsequent period when the conditions OF BHAEATAVAESA OE INDIA. 273 of life permitted sucli meditations. Tlie contemplation of tlie universe eventually, however, inspired the ancient poets to investigate and to try to discover the secrets of nature, to find out who created heaven and earth, the sun, the moon, and the stars, to determine whether the night pre- ceded the day, or the day the night, and similar problems. Whenever the creation of the world forms the sub-stratum of thought, it seems natural to assume that this creation — if a creative power or impetus is admitted — may be ascribed to one or to more than one creator, this creator being often considered as the supreme centre from which creation freely emanates to sub-centres, which in their turn emanate ad infinitum. Yet, all the religions actually known to us which accept a creative principle, acknowledge the existence of only one creator. But he who believes in the existence of one creator need not necessarily believe in the existence of only one God. Much less right have we to assume, that the religion of the people to whom a monotheistic seer belongs, must be monotheistic. A faint monotheistic tendency is quite compatible with a limited or even an extravagant polytheism, and this peculiar feature is, if anywhere, extant already in the faith contained in the Veda, and later on in the Indian Trimilrti and the immense Hindu Pantheon. The different Vedic gods, Varuna, Mitra, Indra, Agni, POsan, Savitr, Soma and others, are each in their turn praised and worshipped as the supreme divinity, but this worship of one deity at a time does not constitute monotheism. Every god thus adored retains his personal existence, and is not merged in another. This kind of worship has been styled Henotheism or Kathenotheism, but as such it must be distin- guished from Monotheism, the worship of one god. At all events the Vedic Henotheism savours much of Polytheism. The qualities and the position of the various deities are subiect to change, and this fact enables us to understand how the Asuras, the original gods of the Veda, were degraded 274 ON THE OEIGINAL INHABITANTS when the period of their ascendancy had expired, and the very term asura became identical with demon, and how Brahman (Brahma), the creative deity of the Indian cos- mogony, was deposed from his throne, was reduced to a comparatively insignificant place in the Trimurti, and nearly altogether lost his ascendancy as a propitiating deity. The rapturous enunciations of enthusiastic bards, enun- ciations which, in course of time, often develop into religious tenets, as mighty forest trees arise from tiny seeds, should neither be undervalued as indications of poetic eminence or of intellectual power, nor overrated as religious inspirations of supreme value. A too high theological importance has, in my opinion, been attributed by some European San- skritists to the comparatively few celebrated Vedic hymns which contain an allusion to the creation of the world and to its creator, an estimation which in this country has been readily accepted and has led to some peculiar conclusions concerning the ancient Aryan religion. The overpowering impression which the elementary forces of nature produce on the minds of simple but susceptible people is manifested by the worship they offer to these powers individually. From the nucleus of these deified elements arise at a later period the complicated pantheons of the various polytheistic religions. The ancient Aryans offer no exception to this general rule. The natural origin of their gods is manifested by the ancient songs of the Veda, which display the worship of the physical forces. Vedic Deities. I shall give in the following discussion a cursory account of the most important Vedic deities. The Vedic theogony has been described at length by many eminent European scholars, so that I need not dilate on it here, especially as an exhaustive treatise on it does not come within the range of this discussion. OP BHAEATAVAESA OE INDIA. 275 The Vedio poets assumed the existence of three great spheres, the heaven {div), the atmosphere {ant ariks a), a,nd the earth {prthvi, bhumi, ^c). The atmosphere lies between heaven and earth, and these two together are called rodasl. Heaven and earth are each subdivided into three spheres, those of the earth being called paramd, madhyamd and avama hhumi. The earth, or rather its spirit, is generally invoked together with heaven. Variina occupies in the Egveda the highest position. He resides in the heavens high above all gods. Like other gods he is styled an Asura, or Lord, and he is most probably identical with the Ahura Mazda of the Zend- Avesta. He is the chief among the Adityas, or the sons of Aditi. ^ He is the surrounder of the firmament, the Uranos of the Greek, and became subsequently the god of the sea. He has spread the stars on high and the earth below, he fixed the Seven Stars in the sky, he constructed the path of the sun, the moon moves according to his laws, he made the long nights follow the days. Like Tndra he is addressed as the supreme deity, for the divine Varuija is called the king of all, both of gods and of men, and Indra and Varmia together made by their power all the creatures of the world. He is also often associated with Mitra, when the latter is regarded as presiding over the day and Varuna over the night. Mitra is identical with the Iranic sun god Mithra, and another brother of Yamna, the Aditya Dhdga, becomes the Slavonic supreme god Bog. Sitrya, the sun, resides in the sky, and forms with Agni and Indra or Vayu the triad of the Vedic etymologists. He enlivens all that live in the morning and sends them to rest in the evening. The praises of Surya, Sura or Savitr, the genitor, are through the famous Gayatn daily sung by ^ The number of the Adityas varies. Besides Varnna are generally mentioned Mitra, Aryaman, Indra, Bhaga, Daksa, Aiisa, Saviti and Surya 276 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS millions of worshippers.^ Pusan is likewise worshipped as a solar deity or an Aditya. His name signifies nourisher, he is the protector of the paths frequented by men^ he is the herdsman who drives the cattle with an ox-goad, and he rides on a goat. He is the lover of his sister Sdrya, and assists the day to alternate with night. Vimu, the pervader, is also a Solar deity in the Veda. Although he does not occupy a predominant position, he appears as the friend of Indra, or as the god who strode over the seven regions of the earth and planted his step in the three spheres of the universe. Usas or the morning dawn, the daughter of heaven and the sister of the Adityas as well as of the night, is likewise worshipped She illustrates by her regular appearance the passing away of generations of men and the continuity of divine institutions. The two Asvins, the divine charioteers, who sparkle with perpetual yoath and are full of strength and of vigour, the Dioskuroi of the Greek, precede the dawn. They protect men, they heal the ailing and help the distressed, especially when exposed to danger at sea. SaranijU is mentioned as their mother. The moon and the planets are not enrolled in the Veda among deities. The moon is still known as Gandramas and not as Soma, nor is Brhaspati (Brahmanaspati) identified with the planet Jupiter. The Great Bear is mentioned among the stars which are fixed in the sky, and which are occasionally assigned to celebrated saints as mansions. Indra, the mighty sovereign of the atmosphere, is the god of the shining sky, who fixes the earth and supports the firmament. He defeats the demons in the sky and on earth, and Vrtra, the serpent Ahi, and Uala are thus con- quered by him. He protects mankind and vouchsafes refreshing rain to man and beast. His greatness transcends ^ figveda III, 62, 10 : Tat Sayitur varenyam bhargo devasya dhimahi, dhiyo yo nalj praoodayat, OF BHAEATiVAESA OE INDIA. 277 the sky and the earth and surpasses the atmosphere ; no one^ whether god or daring mortal^ can resist his command and empire. He eventually supersedes Varuija, and takes his place at the head of the gods. He manifests himself in the thunderstorm^ and his divine weapon is the thunderbolt. He supports the heroes in battle, swings his club, and heavy potations of Soma give him additional strength. Vdyu, the wind (also called Vcita), is associated with Indra, and is often mentioned as dwelling in the atmosphere in Indra's place. The first draught of Soma is presented to him. The wind god Vdta has been identified with the old Teutonic god Wotan {Wodan) or Odin. To Indra's or Vayu's sphere belong likewise the winds. The winds kut e^oxnv are collectively personified in Vayu, or individually appear as the Maruts. They are the gods of the thunderstorm. The Maruts are also called the sons of Budra and of Prsni. They follow Indra to the battle. The term Rudra, roaring, tawny-coloured, is as an epithet ap- plied in the Rgveda to difierent gods, e.g., to Agni, or it is used as the name of a separate deity, to whom as such are dedicated special hymns. He carries the lightning in his arm, and throws it as an arrow- He is the ruler of heroes, the fulfiller of sacrifice. His protection is required for men and for beasts, he heals the sick, destroys the wicked, but his anger must be pacified. At a later period Siva, the propitious, is identified with Rudra, but Siva is nowhere mentioned in the Rgveda, and Rudra is still everywhere subordinate to Indra. The rain god or thunder god Parjanya belongs likewise to this sphere, and he is the same as the Lithuanian god of thunder PerTtunas. Agni, the god of fire, who resides on the earth, is the first in the triad of Vedic gods. Though residing now on the earth, he came originally from heaven, from which Atharvan or Matarisvan carried him as a gift of the gods. 278 ON THE OEIGINAL INHABITANTS and not by fraud as the Greek Prometheus had done. As lightning breaking through the rain cloud, Agni is called the son of water. In fact Agni lives in all the three spheres, as sun in the sky, as lightning in the atmo- sphere, and as fire on the earth. He is not worshipped in temples made by the hands of men, but under the open sky, and the holy fire is produced at his worship by rub- bing a stick of the Asvattha tree against a stem taken from the Sami tree. He is the pervading life of the world, he remains young, because he is always renewed ; he is the priest, the 2^urdhita or rtvij of the sacrifice, which, as the first Rsi, he offers to the gods. He purifies men, confers on them wealth, and protects them from their enemies, especi- ally from the demoniac Raksasas, whom he burns and whose castles he breaks down. Thus he becomes the most popu- lar god amongst men. Though Varuija and Indra are often extolled as the mightiest gods, the Veda does not contain a classification of the gods according to their rank, a classification which it would have been difficult to establish, for the gods did not, as I have already observed, retain everywhere the same position, a fact exemplified by Indra, who himself, as he loses his eminence, eventually becomes the leader of the minor gods. In the Zend-Avesta Indra or Andra is even turned into a bad demon. The number of the gods is in the Rgveda generally fixed at thirty-three, and in the Satapatha Brahmana 8 Vasus, 11 Rudras, and 12 Adityas are enumerated, besides heaven and sky. In the Rgveda itself these thirty-three gods are classed in three groups, each containing eleven gods, who dwell respectively in the sky, air, and earth. As a thirty-fourth god Prajdpati is occasionally mentioned. Moreover, some well-known deities, as, t-.g'.,Agni,the Asvins, the Maruts, Usas and others are not included in these lists, so that the number 33 or 34 is by no means sufficient. Some OF BHAEATAVAESA OK INDIA. 279 hymns indeed allude to far greater numbers^ when Agni, e.g., is said to be worshipped by three thousand three hundred thirty and nine gods.^ Another division of the gods is into great and small, young and old. The Vedic gods lost in course of time their ascendancy^ and though Indra retained it longest, he was with some of his former colleagues relegated to the guardianship of a quarter of the world. He was posted to the east, while Agni went to the south-east, Yama to the south, Nirrti to the south-west, Varuna to the west, Vayu or ilarut to the north-west, Kiibera (who does not appear in the Rgveda) to the north, and Isana or Siva to the north-east. Yama, the son of Vivasvat and Saranyu, appears as the first man who died. He became the king of the dead spirits, who wandered to him after death. He is united with the gods, who think with him under a leafy tree, and is wor- shipped as a god. His sister is Yarm. He corresponds to the Iranic Yima who appears in the later legend as king Jamshld. The Persian hero Feridun is thus the representa- tive of the Iranic Thraetaona (Thrita), who is identical with the Vedic deity Trita Aptya. On Vedic Ceeation. In course of time the belief in the power of the gods as representing physical forces declined, and the mind of thinkers began to ponder over the mystery of creation. The Rg-Veda does not admit one universally adopted cosmo- gonic system, such as we find in the Bible. Well-known is the one expounded in the famous PurusasQkta. However, this hymn, though proclaiming the origin of the four castes, 'In Bgreda III, 9, 9 are mentioned 3339 gods (triai sata tri sabas- ranyagnim triiiisacoa deva nava casaparyan). This number -wbioh may have probably been formed by adding 33 + 303 + 3003. See the Aitareya Brahmanam, edited by Martin Hang, Ph. D., Vol. II, p. 212 ; Bombay, 1863. 37 280 ON THE OEIGINAL INHABITANTS hardly enters into the cosmogonic origin of the world. Moreover, it is of a comparatively late date, and its importance is thus much diminished. On the other hand, the Eg-Veda represents too early a period for broaching cosmo- gonic topics which were afterwards amply and even ad nauseam discussed in the Pauranio literature. Many different gods are, as we have seen, in their turn extolled as supreme and praised as the framers and rulers of the world. However, Prajapati, Hiranyagarbha, Visva- karman or Brahraaiiaspati appear in the Veda especially as creators of the uniA^erse. Most celebrated among the Vedic creation hymns is the 129th of the 10th book, a poem which has been repeatedly edited and translated since the time of Colebrooke. The 121st hymn of the same mandala possesses also great beauty and high poetic merit. It is addressed to Hiranyagarbha, the golden embryo. As the poet asks at the end of each verse : To what god may we offer sacrifice {kasmai dfvUya havisd vidhtma) ; the creator is also called Ka, Who, the nominative of Icasmai. Where such a variety of opinions exists, it is too much to expect that the various legends concerning the creation and the creator should agree, and indeed we find consider- able discrepancies among them. Even in principle they differ, for we find creation arising from nought, or from aught, or from emanation. These legends concerning the creation, however, initiate a new era of thought and reflec- tion and as sach they claim our attention. According to one legend the universe did not originally exist. Indra, the middle breath, kindled with his strength the other worn-out breaths or Rsis. He was called the kindler (Indha), because he kindled them. And Indha is called secretly Indra. The thus kindled gods created seven males, but as these seven males could not generate, the gods turned ihem into one. This male became Prajapati, who created OP BHAEATATAESA OE INDIA. 281 the Veda by his austere penance^ and the waters from his speech. He pervaded all and desired to be reproduced from the waters. An egg arose and the triple science^ the trayl vidyd, was created.* This account^ which peculiarly enough gives a two-fold creation of the Veda, is at variance with another found in the same Brahmana, which states that only the waters were at the beginning of the universe, and a golden egg was created when the waters desired to be reproduced. This egg moved about for a year, after which time a male, iiurusa, appeared j this was Prajapati. As he had no other home, he remained in this egg for another year, when he desired to speak. He said hhur, which became the earth, bhuvah, which became the firmament, and svar, which became the sky. As he desired offspring, he created with his mouth the gods {devdh], who became such on reaching the sky, divam. Meanwhile it became daylight [diva). From his lower breath he created the Asuras, who assumed this state when they reached this earth. Darkness then set in, and with it Evil. After this he created Agni, Indra, Soma and Paramesthin, as well as Vayu, Candramas, and Usas. In consequence he is the progenitor of both the gods and the Asuras, and is also called so. He is likewise said to have assumed the shape of a tortoise in order to create pi'ogeny ; as he made {akarot) what he created, the word hurma, tor- toise, is derived from the Sanskrit root Icr, to make.'' Tradi- tion also accused him of having conceived, to the great indignation of the gods, an unholy passion for his daughter, said to have been either the sky or the dawn, and from their bodies was formed Eudra, who, as Pasupati, pierced Prajapati. A great change in religious feeling and in civil life was meanwhile slowly taking place among the Aryans when * See Satapatha Bralimana, VI, 1, 1. » Do. VII, 4, 3 and XI, 1, 6. 282 ON THE OEIQINAL INHABITANTS they spread eastwards towards the plains of Hindustan and settled in large towns. Former shepherds and husband- men^ by becoming inmates of towns^ altered their mode of life and became artisans and traders. New interests^ and with them new divisions, arose and began to keep asunder the different branches of the population, which divisions, though originally only temporary, developed into permanent institutions and laid the foundation of the strict regulations of Hindu caste. The development of caste was great])' fostered by the fact that two rival and hostile races, the Aryan and the Gauda-Dravidian, occupied the country, and that the ruling nation aimed at intensifying and per- petuating this racial distinction. The priestly class profited most by such an arrangement, and the framing of the religious precepts and of the civil laws was left to their initiative. The priest not only framed the statutes, but also superintended their oliservanco with the help of the regal power, which he upheld for this very reason. The Brahman priest became the supreme head of the community, and though this power was not vested in one individual, but in the whole caste as an individual, it was not the less influential. The priest was the jDerformer of the sacrifice, and assumed the power to make it acceptable to the gods or not ; and as the gods depended on the Brahman priests for their sacrifices, their power extended even over the gods, and the Brahmans became the real gods, and the legislator Mann could say that a Brahman becomes by his birth the deity of the gods. Under these circumstances the religious enthusiasm of the bards of the Rgveda gave way to the theological meditations of the Yajurveda, the Veda of the sacrificial prayer, when this praj^er had lost its fervour, and had sunk to mere formulas, which had to be strictly observed. This prayer in its abstract form, or the neutral Brahman, grew eventually from the Atman into the Paratman (Paramdtman) or Supreme Spirit, and OF BHAEATAVAESA OR IKDIA, 283 developed in time into the male god Brahman^ who occupied the high throne to which gods and men had recourse in their troubles^ and who advised and cheered them as a grandfather his grandchildren. The divine Asuras of the Rgveda became the demons of the Yajurveda^ Visiju came more to the fore, and Siva made his appearance in the Tajurveda. Prajapati too, the creator of the universe, with its gods, demons, men, beasts, trees, and other matter, merges gradually into the person of Brahman, who though origin- ally unconnected with, and superior to, either Visiiu or Rudra, eventually forms with them the Trimurti. The Teimueti. It is a peculiar coincidence that the two great doctrines of the Trinity and the Transmigration of souls should have appeared in India, so far as we can judge, at about the same period; and so long after both had been known to the two leading nations of antiquity, the Chaldeans and Egyptians. The Chaldean triad, formed of the gods Anu, Bel, and Ea, the representatives of heaven, the lower world, and the water; the old Akkadian trinity composed of the divine father, mother, and their son, the Sun god ; or the Egyptian solar triads of Turn, Ra, and Kheper, or of Osiris, Isis, and Horns are too well known to require explanation. It may be interesting to add here, that the Hindu TriniQrti has been also explained as a representation of the three great powers of nature exemplified by the earth, the water, and the fire, and that the Indian sect of the Sauras revere the rising meridian and setting sun, corresponding to Brahman, Siva and Visnu respectively, as symbol of the TrimQrti. Similarly well known is the migration which the souls of the deceased Egyptians had to undergo to expiate the crimes they had committed while alive, until they could regain their human body and be united with 284 ON THE OEIGINAL INHABITANTS Osiris. In fact this final union with and absorption in Osiris shows a strikinec resemblance to the absorption in the Brahmanic Paratman or the Buddhistic Buddha. As I do not believe Buddha to have been an Aryan Indian, this question is of importance. It is highly probable that these Indian dogmas did not originate with the Aryans of India, and that they can be traced back directly or indirectly to those ancient countries. It is also possible that because these doctrines were not previously unknown in India, they could be more easily spread in this country for the vast majority of the Indian population belonged to the same race as did the ancient Akkadians and Chaldeans. It seems to me to be a matter of great regret that while the antique religious and civil history of India have often been discussed, no notice has been taken of the bulk of its population ; in consequence the results of the researches on these points have not been very satisfactory. CHAPTER ZIV. On Brahman. The legends concerning Prajdpati and Brahman have often a striking resemblance, and the latter occupies even- tually the position of the former. Brahman was born in a golden egg and arose from the waters. At the time of the deluge he assumed the form of a fish, and as a boar he raised the earth from the waters. To him belonged origin- ally the name of ISTarayaria, which was afterwards applied to Visiju. As creator he became the head of the Trimurti, a dogma probably unknown to Yaska, but already discussed at the time of Buddha, though finally developed at a sub- sequent period. His colleagues in the trinity, expressed by the mystic syllable Oto, are Visnu and Siva. These three gods are respectively regarded as the representatives of the three natural qualities (gunas), sattva, goodness, rajas, OP BHAEATAVAESA OE INDIA. 285 passion, and tamas, darkness. Brahman represents rajas, the creating power, Visnu preserves by sattva, goodness or indifference, and Rudra or Agni filled with tamas person- ates time or the destroyer. Yet, as creation involves pre- servation and destruction, and as each is indispensable to the other, true Brahmanism does not admit that any one member of the trinity is superior to the others. No man should attempt to create a division between the three gods, who does so, goes to Hell. Indeed some go further and assert that whichever of the three is Visnu, is at the same time Siva and Brahman, and that any one of the three gods reciprocally includes the remaining two.'' In consequence of his abstract origin and philosophical appearance and through his position of creator. Brahman always lacked the popularity which was enjoyed by his more attractive colleagues. In the Mahabharata, however. Brahman is still the creator of the world, he is eternal, sacred, and omniscient ; he teaches, advises, and governs the gods. He regulates all institutions and arranges the " Compare such well known verses as : " Avayor antaram nasti sabdair anyair jagatpate," or " Sivaya Visauriapaya Sivarnpaya Tispave," or : Tvani evaDye Sivoktena margena Sivariipinam bahvacarya vibhedena, Bhagavan, samupasate (Bhagavata). See also Bevihhagavata, III, 6, 54 — 56 : hi. Ye vibhedam karisyanti manava miidhacefcasah, nirayam te gamisyauti vibhedannatra samsayah. 55. Yo Harih sa Sivah saksat yah Sivali sa STayam Harih etayor bhedam atisthan narakiSya bhavet naralj. 56. Tathaiva Drnhino jueyo natra karya viearana, aparo gunabhedo'sti srijn Tisno bravJmi te. One of the three qualities prevails in each god, the other two are sub- ordinate ; thus rajas does prevail in Brahman, sattva in Visnu and tamai in Siva. Compare ibidem, si. 57 and 66. 57. Mukhyalj sattvagunab te'etu paramatmavicintane gauiiatve' pi parau khyatau rajogunatamoguaau. 66, Mukhyah tamogunaste'stu gaunau sattrarajoguaau (applying to Siva). See further ibidem, slokas 32, 39 and 44. 286 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS rules concerning sacrifice and penance, marriage and caste, and tlie position of kings and subjects. Notwithstanding that Brahman was originally superior both to Visnu and to Siva, who as Eudra sprang, according to a legend, from the forehead of Brahman, the adherents of these gods deny his supremacy. Yet, it is difficult to arriye at a final decision on this subject as the legendary evidence is so defective. Brahman is thus represented as rising from the lotus which grew from the navel of Yisiju, while the worshippers of Siva contend that Brahman was created by Siva, that he acted as Siva's charioteer and worships Siva and the Lihga. At another time he interfered in a dispute between Visnu and Rudra, and persuaded the excited gods to allow Siva a share at the sacrifices. The Prajapatis, whose names and number are variously recorded, are known as his mind-born sons, and appear to be identical with the ten Maharsis. These latter are mentioned as the progenitors of men while the Purusasukta gives another account of this subject. T^tlc, Speech, his daughter, became the object of his love and as Sarasvatl his wife." In fact this sinful attach- ment of Brahman became the doom of his supremacy, and caused the ascendancy of Visnu and Siva. By gazing intently at his charming daughter, he obtained five heads, but lost the topmost for this unchaste love by the hand of Siva, and is henceforth called the four-faced or caturmukha. His four heads, each of which wears a crown, are also explained as corresponding to the four Vedas. On his fore- head he has the mark of musk (kasturi) ; in his h airlocks ' SarasvatJ is described in revTbhagav.ita III, 6, 31 — 35 and in IX, 1,29 — 37. Another wife of Brahman SnTifrt is by some regarded as the deified sacred prayer which is known as the Gayatn (Bgveda III, 62, 10); about Savitri read also DevibhSgavata IX, 1, 38 — 43. Sarasvatl is called in the Vaijayanti, p. 3, line 18 : Vag Vani BhSratf Bhasa Gaur Gir Brahmi SarasTati. OF BHARATAVAESA OR INDIA. 287 he wears strings of pearls, in his four hands he wears respectively the Veda, a sacrificial ladle, a rosary, and an earthen waterpot. His colour is tawny. He sits on a lotus, and rides on a swan. Many names are given to Brahman and according to his worshippers he also possesses a thousand names. « I need not add that these legends are also explained from an esoteric standpoint. With these few remarks concerning the earlier accounts of Brahman, I shall now pass to his present position. Many of the legends concerning all these three gods of the Trimurti are of ancient origin, while others certainly point to a more modern invention. In some cases it may be possible to explain their source and to account for their raison d'etre. As India has since time immemorial been chiefly peopled with two races, the Gauda-Dravidian and the Aryan, we need not wonder that, when these two began to intermix, each became acquainted with the religious beliefs of their neighbours and adopted in a more or less modified form some of their gods and dogmas. This circum- stance explains the fact why so many Gauda-Dravidian elements are fonnd in the modern Hindu worship. And such an influence we can also trace in the modern worship of Brahman. I have previously mentioned that he lost his fifth face on account of his unnatural conduct towards his daughter, but later legends contend, that it was at the instigation of Parvati, who could not distinguish " In the Vaijajanti, p. 3, are given the following lines: Brahma Vidhata Visvatma Dhata Srasta Frajapatili, Hiranyagarbho JDruhiiio Viriiioah Kali Caturmukhali, Padmasanah Surajyesthali Cirajivi Sanatanalj, Satanandah Satadhrtilj Svayambhulj SarTatomnkhah, ParamesthI Visvaretali Puruso Hamsavahanah. Other names are : Abjayuni, Aja, Ananta, Atmabhii, Caturvaktra, Jagatsrastr, Jnanin, Kamalayoni, Kamalasana, Lokakartr, Lokakrt, Lokesa, Padmaja, SarTalokakrt, Savitripati, Vara, Vidhi, Visvasrj, Vedhas, &c. The Buddhists call him also Satampati. 38 288 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS Brahman from her own five-faced husband^ or because Brahman told a lie. He is therefore now generally repre- sented with four faces. ^ The Skandapurana relates that Siva cursed Brahman for his untruthful assertion of having seen the end of Siva, and for producing in confirmation of this lie a Ketaki flower as a witness. The original judg- ment that Brahman was henceforth nowhere to be wor- shipped was on Brahman's appeal mitigated, and his worship was allowed on all auspicious occasions, and at all initiatory ceremonies and Soma sacrifices.^" Present Woeship op Beahman. In consequence of the disgrace he incurred, as is now generally averred, or perhaps owing to his abstract and unapproachable position as creator. Brahman does not receive anything like the attention which is paid to Visnu and Siva. There exists also a proverb among the people that a man who has no house, says : "I have no house like Brahman." On the other hand it is a peculiar circumstance worth mentioning that the principal festival of every temple " See beginning of note 16, on page 207. '" The curse was : Yatrakutrapiloke'smiu apiijyo bhava, padmaja. This was modified to : ?!ubliakaryesu sarvesu pratidiksadliTaresu ca, Piijyo bhava, oaturvaktra, madvaco nanyatha bharet. In consequence Brahman is revered as guardian of the sacrifice at all yagas, vratas, marriages, funerals and annual ceremonies during the pre- liminary ceremonies. The real proceedings begin after Brahman has been worshiped with the words Brnlnmnam trnm rniimah?. The Brahman who acts as Brahman is provided with a seat, and betelnut, flowers, sandal and cloths are presented to him, but no incense is burnt in his favor, nor are lamps lighted, nor eatables presented, nor are fans, umbrellas, camphor, mirrors or flags alloi\ed. The presence of Bi-ahman who must be represent- ed by a Brahman who knows the A'eda, is necessary in order to superintend and help the Puruhita in the correct recital of the mantras and the np-keep of the fire. In fact Brahman is the guardian of the sacrifice. Siva also cursed the Ketaki flower, but this curse concerns only Siva, for the flower is still worshipped in honor of Yisnu, Laksmi, and even of Farvati. OP BHAEAtAVAKSA OE INDIA. 289 is called Brahmotsava. It is moreover -wrong to assert that Brahman is only revered in one place in the whole of India^ i.e., near the Puskara lake in Ajmere. The local legend there says, that the god Brahman left once his Satyaloka to perform a sacrifice in this mundane region, but forgot to invite his consort Sarasvati, Enraged at this discourtesy, she did not follow her husband. When Brahman had finished all the necessary preparations, and was ready to perform the Saiikalpa, while the gods and Esis stood before the sacrificial fire, he observed to his sur- prise that his wife was not present. As the priests refused to go on with the sacrifice, because Brahman had not his wife by his side. Brahman requested Indra to fetch, as quickly as possible, an unmarried girl to take the place of his wife. Indra returned with a Sudra girl, whom Brahman purified by letting her pass from the mouth through the alimentary canal of the celestial cow Kamadhemi. He then called her Gayatii, made her his partner and performed the sacrifice. Opposite to the temple of Brahman lies a large and deep tank, whose waters arc credited with miraculous qualities. If the shadow of a woman falls during her menstrual period on the waters of this tank ipushara) , it turns red and keeps this colour until purified by mantras. Brahman is in this place worshipped by his thousand names and the same formalities which are observed in the temples of "Visnu and Siva are also adhered to in this temple of Brahman.* ' ' 1 This report was communicated to me indirectly by a Brahman who had visited Pushkar. See Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan by Lieut.-Colonel James Tod, London, 1829, Vol. I, pp. 773—75. " Poshkur is the most sacred lake in India; that of Mansiirwar in Thibet may alone compete with it in this respect. By far the most conspicuous edifice is the shrine of the creator Brihma. This is the sole tabernacle dedicated to the One God which I ever saw or heard of in India. The statue is quadriferous and what struck me as not a little curious was that the sikra, or pinnacle of the temple, is surmounted by a cross." Read also the Bajputana 290 ON THE OKIGINAL INHABITANTS It is very peculiar that this renowned and ancient place of worship is connected like the temples at Melkota, Puri, Gazetteer, Vol. II, pp. 07— 71, which contains a full description of the legend ; from it I have extracted the following ; " Pnshkar is a celebrated place of pilgrimage, and the great sanctity of its lake equalled, according to Colonel Tod, onlj' \ij that of Manusarowar in Thibet, is due to the belief that here Brahma performed the yajnci, and that the Sarasvati here reappears in iive streams. The legends connected with these two beliefs maybe found in the Fushkar Muhatmya oi the Padma Purana. Brahma was perplexed as to where he should perform the sacrifice according to the Yrdas, as he had no temple on earth like other deities. As he reflect- ed, the lotus fell from his hand, and he determined to perform his sacrifice wherever it fell. The lotus, rebounding, struck the earth in three places. Water issued from all three, and Brahma, descending, called the name of the place Pushkar, after the lotus. (The holy ground extends for one i/oj'ai/' round the largest lake, called Jyesht Fvshkar. The second lake is the Madhya Fushkar, near the tank, now called Suda Bai. The third lake is the Eanisht Puslikar, which is now generally called Burka Pushkar. The middle lake is very small, and there arc no buildings round it or round the third lake.) Brahma then collected all the gods, and on the 11th day of the bright half of Kartik, everything was ready. Each god and rish i had his own special duty assigned to him, and Brahma stood with a jar of amrit on his head. The sacrilice, however, could not begin until SSvitri appeared, and she refused to come without Lakshmi, Parvati and Indrani, whom Pavan had been sent to summon. On hearing of her refusal, Brahma became enraged and said to Indra : "Search me out a girl that 1 may marry her and commence the sacrifice, for the jar of aun-il weighs heavy on my head." Indra accordingly went, but found none except a Gujar's daughter whom he pm-ified by passing her through the body of a cow, and then, bringing her to Brahma, told what he had done. Vishnu observed—- Brahmans and cows are in reality identical ; you have taken her from the womb of a cow, and this may be considered a second birth.'' Shiva added that, as she had passed through a cow, she should be called Gayatri. The Brahmans agreed that the sacrifice might now proceed, and Brahma, having married G.ij atri and having enjoined silence on her, placed on her head the jar of umrit, and the yajna com- menced. (The image of Gayatri may be seen in the temple of Brahma, close to that of Brahma himself.) The sacrifice, however, was soon inter- rupted by a naked man ^vho appeared crying ' Atmat ! Atmat ! ' and who, at the instigation of Shiva, threw a skull into the sacrificial ground. When it was attempted to rcmo\-c the skull, two appeared in its place, and the whole ground gradually becanje eo\ered with skulls ; till Shiva, at Brahma's request, finally agreed to remove them on condition that he should have a temple at Pushkar, there to be worshipped under the name of Atmaheswar. OF BHAEATAVARSA OE INDIA. 291 and Trivandrum witli the lower classes, and that the Pokharna Brahmans are according to tradition Beldars, who Meanwhile a number of Brahmans, all ugly men, arrived from the Dakhln. As they bathed in the lake, their forms changed iuto those of handsome men; and the ghat at which they bathed, called Suriip Ghat, is the resort of pilgrims on the lltli day of Kartik. On the morning of the 12th day the Brahmans came to Brahma and asked where they were to bathe. He directed them to bathe in the Priichi Sarasvati, the stream which passes by the village of Hokran ; and it is explained how the Sarasvati, after disappearing underground to escape the heat of the fire which she is carry- ing to the sea, reappears in five channels (as Suprahha which falls into Jyesht Pushkar, Sudha which falls into Madhya Pushkar, Kanka which falls into Kanisht iPnshkar, Nanda which flows past Kand, and Prachi which passes by Hokran), in the sacred soil of Pushkar, how two of these meet at Nand, five miles from Pushkar; and how from the junction, the river, thereafter called the Luni, proceeds to the sea. The sacrifice was disturbed this day by Batu Brahman, who let loose a, snake among the Brahmans. The reptile coiled itself round Bhrigu Eishi, whose son imprecated a curse against Batu that he might become a lake. Batu, going to his grandfather Brahma, was consoled by the promise that he should be the founder of the ninth order of snakes, and was directed to go to Kagpahar, where he should receive worship on the fifth day of the dark half of Shwan at the place called the Nagkand. The sacrifice pro- ceeded till the 15th each day having its appointed duties ; for this day the Brahmans were directed to make a circuit of the lakes and to bathe in Gayakup. (The virtues of the tirth of Gaya are said to reside in this place, whence the name.) Shortly after their return Savitri appeared, greatly incensed at the disregard which had been shown to her. Brahma sought to pacify her, but to no purpose, and she went away in a rage to the hill north of the lake where is her temple. Alter the yojna performed by Brahma, Pushkar became so holy that the greatest sinner, by merely bathing in it, went to heaven. Heaven became inconveniently crowded, and the gods complained that no longer any man regarded them or his duty, so easy was it to get to heaven. Brahman agreed accordingly that the tirtli should only be on earth from the 11th day of Kartik to the full moon, and for the remainder of the year he promised to remove the tirih to the air {antariksha). Such is the legend given in the Pushkar Mahat- mya." Bead also the short account about the temple of Brahma at Pnshkar in the Indian Caste by Dr. John Wilson, Bombay, 1S77, Vol. I, p. 170. " The Brahmans don't directly compromise themselves by taking care of the temple (which in point of fact is under the charge of Gosavis) ; but they lay claim to a share of the offerings at the shrine. The four faces of Brahma on the image are uniform, but they have a lengthened chin in the 292 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS obtained in return for excavating tlie sacred lake at Push- kar or Pokhar the favour of the god and the dignity of Brahmans.'^ Brahman has still a small but separate temple in Benares, and though there are very few temples in Northern India in which Brahman is now worshipped, there are not a few places in Southern India which possess temples dedicated to Brahman, and where he and his wife Sarasvati receive similar honors as are offered to Visnu and Siva. This is the case for example with the Brahma temple at Cebrolu in the Krishna district, which, as I am informed, was erected in imitation of the Brahma temple at Jayapu- ram ov Brahmagaya, a place which is without doubt identical with Pushkar. The construction of the present temple at Cebrolu is ascribed to the once powerful Rajah Yasireddi Vehkatadri Nayudu, Zamindar of Cintapalle, who resided both at Amaravati and CebrOlu, and in whose time the ruins of the celebrated Buddhist shrine were first discovered at Amaravati. The temple at Cebrolu is situated near a pit called Brahmagunda. A'ehkatadriin the hope of finding place of a beard. The temple is exteriorly associated with an image of Shiva with four visible heads placed on a Linga, and must therefore be principally frequented by votaries of that God." '^ Seo Dr. .T. Wilson's Indian Cusle, II, p. 1(1. "The tradition of their origin is singular ; it is said that they were Beldiirs, and excavated the sacred lake of Pushkar or Pokhar, for which they obtained the favour of the deity and the grade of Brahmans, with the title of Pokharpa. Their chief object of emblematic worship, the Klxoiloln, a, kind of pick-axe used in digging, seems to favour this tradition." Compare also the Haj- putann Gazetteer, Yol. II, p. 70. " They (the BrahmauB of Pushkar) say they are descended from Parasar, the father of the Veda Vyasa, and that like the Mathura Chaubes, their names were omitted when the list of the ten Brahmanical tribes was drawn up. They trace their descent, however, through one Bopat, and the general belief is that this Bhopat was a Mer. Brahmans will not eat with these men, who are found only in Pushkar and in a few of the neighbouring towns of Marwar. They arc generally called Bhojal- in the papers which have been given by the Rajas on the appoint- ment of Purohits." OF BHABATAVAKSA OB INDIA. 293 a treasure began to excavate it, but being disappointed in Ms expectations converted the pit into a water reservoir or Korieru, in tbe midst of whicli be built after his return from Kasi (Benares) the temple of Brahman, on the model of the one he had seen at Jayapuram. He dedicated it to CatiirmvMia Brahma LlhgesvarasvUmi, the last name being added as the temple was erected according to the Siva Agama, because the AgamaSastras do not contain measure- ments for a temple of Brahman. The original name of the pit Brahmagunda appears to favor the idea that previ- ously to the erection of the temple by Verikatadri Brahman had been worshipped in this district. As the Raja died before the commencement of the first year's ceremony, his death was regarded as a bad omen, and only daily offerings are made and lights are kept in this temple, but no peri- odical feasts or car festivals are observed. Venkatadri is said to have been under a curse for having treacherously beheaded 150 Centsu chiefs whom he had invited to a feast, and the immense sums of money he spent on charitable and religious purposes, he regarded as an expiation of his atrocious sin.^^ 1' Cebroluia also called Catarmuhhipuram. This name lufers to Brah- man, but cannot be explained to mean " the city facing the four points of the compass" as Mr. Gordon Mackenzie states in his Manual of the Kistna District, p. 203 ; see sXsoihidem, pp. 301 — 13. 1 am indebted for the following description to Mr. G. Campbell, Sub- Collector, Guntnr, dated the 15th December 1890 :— " I was at Ohebrolu " yesterday, and had a look at the temple from the edge of the l-nnia in " which it stands. The temple is quite a small square building, and is in " a neo-lected condition. Only one out of the four Dhvajastambas is " standing, and that looks very tottery. This is a rough plan, the square " beino- the kunta with the temple in the middle, outside being the eight "little shrines to the Dikpalakas. As far as is known □ " here this and the Brah'magaya temple are the only □ H □ ' da " Brahman temples in India. a Mr. G. Campbell kindly enclosed a report of the Cebrolu temple, which had been submitted to him by the late M.R.Ey. D. V. Chelapati Eow Deputy Tashildar of the Ponnur Division. The following is taken 294 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS An old and still used temple of Brahman exists in Kala- hasti in the North Arcot district, I visited it in January 1886. On the top of the mountain over the temple stands a fourfaced statue of Brahman. Popular tradition declares from this report i — " Popular legend states that dnring the energetic " days of Bajah Vasireddi Venkatadri Naidu he had determined to get rid " of a tribe of Chentchus who pillaged his Zamindary, and so inviting 150 ■' of the tribe to a feast, he had them all beheaded in the Port at Chinta- " palli. Remorse overwhelmed him for his treachery, and whenever he sat " down to his meal the grain turned into insects. In order to remove " this curse he went on a pilgrimage to Benares and other sacred places, " built temples, erected numerous pillars before various shrines, besides " mating charities. He made Chebrole his second residence, Amaravati " being the iirst. At this place (Chebrole) there had been a small pit " called Brahmagundam, about which was said to have been buried gold " grains of immense quantity and a Bhairava idol was fixed to guard the " treasure. He (the Zamindar) made excavations for the hidden treasure " to considerable extent, and havhig at the end been disappointed, he " converted the pit, including the Brabmaguiida, into a reservoir called " Koneru, and in the middle oonstruoted a temple dedicated to the worship " of Chaturmukha Brahma Lingesvarasvami as such a temple had no exist- " ence elsewhere in this part of the country, and he gave the name of " Chaturniiikhapuram to the place which has had several other names, " viz., Chebrole, Jayabrole, Tambrapani. The idol is of the following " description: The Lingam was first fixed in a red Chintamani stone most " beautifully carved in the form of a lotus (kamalam) of 1,000 petals, " underneath which is a raised seat called Peetam. On four sides of the " Lingam four separate Brahma images equal in size and equal in all other " respects were carved ; each image has two legs and four hands. Of the " four bauds two are empty, while of the other two, one contains a garland " (japamala) and the other a tumbler (kamandal). The Lingam is about "three inches higher than the Brahma images. The temple has four " gates. On the four sides and corners of the reservoir eight small temples " were built for the worship of the following deities : 1. North, Venu " Gopalasvami, and his .-\mmavaru. North-cast; 2. South, Ranganayakulu, " and his Araniavaru Xanohari, South-east ; 3. East, Chandramaulesvara- " svami, and his Ammavaru, South-east ; 4. \V'est, Sahasra Lingesvara- " svami, and his Ammavaru, North-east. (Mr. Campbell assigns these " 8 temples to the Dikpalakas, Avhich is very possible.) The Ammavaru "temples are falling down and the pillars of gilt fixed on the four sides " of the Brahma temple are in ruins. The temple has an endowment " of Ac. 29, 90 Ch. The title deeds bear the name of Chaturmukha Brahma " Lingesvarasvami. The worshippers are Pujaris and worship Bi-ahma with OF BHAEATAVAKSA OR INDIA. 295 that this hill is really the Sivanandanilaya, the highest peak of the Kailasa, which Brahman transferred in ancient times to Kalahasti. Of the four faces of Brahman the one which looks towards the south has fangs instead of teeth. " Namakam, Chamakam and with Sivanamamuhi after the Smarta fashion. " No kind of periodical and oar festivals are celebrated except making " daily offerings and lightings, &c. The non-oelebration is said to be due "to the bad omen, as the Zaraindar who constructed the temple and the " car at a great cost having died before the commencement of the first " year's ceremony. " I hear there is another Brahma temple at Jayapuram in the north. It " is called Brahmagaya, The temple there is said to be in a tank. " Brahma images similar to those at Ohebrole were carved on a Lingam " and worshipped. Yenkatadri Naidu appears to have built the temple "after he had seen the one at Jayapuram when he went to Benares on '' pilgrimage and named the place Chatnrmukham, meaning Brahmapuram. " I doubt therefore that Chaturmukhapuram means the city facing the "four points of the compass, as Mr. Mackenzie calls it.'' (I had intimated this previously as my opinion in a letter to Mr. Campbell.) " The addition Lingesvarasvami to Brahma appears to have been added " for the following reason. Temples are built according to the Agama " Sastram, which treats of the measurement of the several temples. This " Sastram is of four sorts with regard to Siva, Vishnu, Sakti and " Ganapati. No Agamam is known to exist which treats of measurements " regarding temples dedicated to Brahma, and hence no temple of such " sort has been constructed; but Venkatadri Naidu having the vanity to " excel the other Rajahs in charity and iu the construction of temples, con- " structed this temple partly arbitrarily and partly with Siva Agamam and " made the addition Lingesvarasvami to Brahma. " It is probable that there was originally at Cebrolu an old Brahma temple, and that Venkatadri rebuilt this shrine to revive the worship. With respect to the temple at Jayapuram, whose construction was imi- tated by the Rajah of Cebrolu, it is not cigar which Jayapura (Jaipur) is meant. There is a well known town of this name in the Vizagapatara District, and another rather more famous place of the same name lies iu Rajaputana not far from the above-mentioned Pushkar in the Ajmere Dis- trict where the famous Brahma temple is situated. This temple is most probably the one alluded in the above printed report. It must also not be forgotten that a Brahma temple exists at Benares and that Veiikatfidri visited this town previously to his building the Brahma temple at Cebrolu. His death prevented that a special Brahma worship was introduced, and was the cause of the adoption of the Smarta cere- monial. Raja Vasireddi Venkatadri Nayudu died in 1816. 39 296 ON THE OEiaiNAL INHABITANTS Special priests perform daily the prescribed worship in this Brahmadevalaya whose idol goes by the name of Manikar- nikesvara . In Kuttanur near Mayavaram the temples of Brahman and Sarasvati face each other, and Brahman priests wor- ship these two gods as Visnu and Laksmi, or Siva and Parvati are adored in their respective pagodas, A big temple of Brahman, I am told, exists at Tiruvannamalai and one devoted to Sarasvati as Manamhika i's, &t Tiruvalur.i* Vedaranyam possesses likewise a temple dedicated to the same goddess. Brahman's image occupies an honored place in the temple of Kodumudi near Erode, at Tirukkandiyur near Tiruvadi, in the Uttamarkovil near Srirangam, at Salyamangalam and Kila A'aluttur near Aiyampettai in the Tanjore district, at KumbhakOnam and elsewhere. Some contend that there is an image of Brahman in every temple of Siva at the place where the purified water, poured out over the head of Siva, or over the liiiga inside, escapes through the channel.^'' On the Bkahmabhdta. Among the population on the West coast, especially among the Tulus, where the devil-worship prevails, Brah- man is not only revered as a god, but also as a spirit or Bhuta. In fact all castes worship him, and he is universally adored ; he has in reality his special place of worship in 1 * This shrine at Tiruvaliir must not be mistaken for that dedicated to Kamalamba, which belongs to the Tyagarajasvami temple, within whose precincts is also a famous well, known as Sarasvatttirtham. ' ' A temple covered in the sand near the confluence of the Kaveri and Amaravati not far off from Karnr, is by some ascribed to Erahman, by others to Siva. According to a legend the god Varadaraj asviimin in Kaiicipuram arose from the flames of a sacrifice performed by Brahman over the Hastisaila, on which the present garbhagrha stands. I am indebted for a great part of this information concerning the wor- ship of Brahman in South India to my former pupil and young friend Mr. Nadadiir V. Desikacaryar, m.a. OF BHAKATAVAESA OE INDIA. 297 nearly every big landed estate. At Sirvaj Brahman is represented witli four heads, his image is about 2 feet high and is made of Pancaloha or the iiye metals, gold, silver, copper, tin and lead. He rides on the goose or hamsa in the usual position, one of his hands holding a water jar, while the other has a rosary or japamald, and the two remain- ing are folded on the chest and contain the Salagrama, The officiating Brahman or bhatta enters the temple daily after his bath with a water jar and pours the water over the image. He then fills, while muttering the usual mantras, the holy sankha with water and sprinkles the latter over the image. This done, he puts sandal and a garland on the head of the idol and offers some cooked rice to the god. These ceremonies occupy about three hours. The evening service is the same but only shorter, it lasts about two hours. The neighbouring Brahmans and Sodras celebrate every year a great festival, during which the image of Brahman is carried about within the precints of the temple and a special puja is performed.' ^ ' " The Eev. Oh. Gojar at Sirva near Udapi, gave the following in- formation to Rev. Gr. Bitter who sent me this report in German through the Rev. F. Kittel ; — " Eine halbe Stunde westlich von Sohirwa steht in einem Thai, Warasare genannt, ein Tempel, in welohem ein Bild Brahmaa, der 4 Gesiohter hat, angebetet wird. E asselbe ist gegen 2' hoch and besteht aus Pantschaloha. Brahma sitzt da auf dem Vogel Hamsa. Zwei seiner Hande hebt er zar Aohsel empor, in der einen ein Wassergefass, in der andern einen Bosenkranz (Japamala) haltend. Die beiden andern Hande hat er vor seiner Brust gefaltet and halt zugleioh darin den heiligen Stein (Salagrama). Der dienstthuende Brahmane (Bhatta) geht taglich nach seinem iibliohen Bad mit einem Wassergefass in den Tempel und giesst das Wasser iiber das Bild. Dann fiillt er, wahrend er Shastras hersagt seine heilige Mnsohel {shaiika genannt) mit Wasser und sprengt dasselbe anf das Bild. Hierauf legt er etwas Sandalholz (mehl ?) und einen Bin- menkranz auf des Gotzen Kopf und setzt ihm eine Portion gekochten Beises vor. AUes dies nimt jeden Morgen 3 Stunden in Anspruoh. Den Abend- dienst, der dem des Morgens fast gleich ist, abaolviert er in 2 Stunden. Ansserdem kommen die Tempelvorsteher, die benaohbarten Brahmanen und auoh eine Anzahl Shudras alljahrlioh einmal bier zu einen Feat zusam- 298 ON THE OEIGINAL INHABITANTS The Brahma-image in the temple at Kufijar has only three faces, and is therefore regarded by some as a repre- sentation of a Brahmabhuta. The Brahmabhuta must not be confounded with a Brah- marahsasa, the latter being the evil spirit of a dead Brah- man. Wherever the divine nature of Brahman prevails, Brah- mans perform the worship, even dancing at his service, while low caste persons generally dance in honor of the Brahama- bhutas. The festival of the superior Brahman is called a mandala, while that of a Brahmabhuta or of every bhuta is known as ahula. Thedrawing onthe floorfor suchamandala consists of black, white, red, green, and yellow colours and is made by the Jakkedakulus who occupy in consequence at men. Bei dieser G-elegenheit wird das Brahmabild in Tempelhof herumge- tragen nnd ein besonderer Puja (Anbetung) wird verrichtet. " Solche Brahmabilder iinden sich ini Udapi-bezirk; noch einige, z. B., in Kanjar, Bolle, Nandolige, &c. Doch ist zu bemerkeu, dass z. B. das Bild in Kanjar nur 3 Geaichter liat, und daruni mehr als Brahmaihuta betrac'litet wird. Der berunter gescUagene 4te Kopf des Brahma, so wird erziiblt, babe zu Parameshvara gefleht, der ibm dann rieht auf die Erde herabzusteigen und sieb den Bbutas auzuscbliessen. So seien die Brabmabhutas entstandeii. Ein solcber bat menschlicbe Gestalt und reitet auf einem Pferd ein Schwert in seiner recbten Hand haltend. Er wird tiigiich von Brabuianen, aber auch von Sbudras angebetet. Die Sbastras, die dabei gebraucbt werden, sind aber verscbieden von denen, welcbe man fiir den Brabnia-Gott benutzt. Es wird ibm nur ungekochter Reis vorgesetzt ; aber auch sein Kopf wird mit Sandelbolz und Blumen bestreut, auch wird Rauchwerk vor ibm verbrannt. See Note 20 on p- 303. " Ausserdem gibt es Brabuiabilder die von den Riscbis berstammen Eollen, und darnm regelmassig verehrt wcrdeii. Ferner finden sich da und dort gestaltlose Brabmnsteiiie, bci welcben jedocb kein tiigliober Dienst stattfindet ; z. B., J Stunden westlicb von TJdajii ist ein solcher Btein, zu wolobem viellcicbt das Jahr einmal ein Tisbnubild gebraoht und dort verebrt wid. Sie sind nieist mit Nnga-steinen vereint und werden nie fiir dcu Brabmgott, sondern nur fiir Brabmabhuteu angesehen. Auch in den gewobnliclien Bhutatempeln findet eich der Brahmabhuta, genannt Bernic. "Als Grund der Veiehrung das gestiirzten Brahms wird geltend gemacbt. das die altei Rishis gleichfalls nacb seinem Fall ihn anbeteten." OF BHARATAVAESA OK INDIA. 299 present a respectable position, but who were originally Holeyas or Paraiyas. Everything else for the maijdala is done by Brahmans, A Brahman becomes possessed of Brahman and to him he vouchsafes his oracles. The offering or ball consists of fruits and various condiments. Brahman is addressed as Svami Bermere, and not like the other gods as Svami Devere. The people pray to him as follows: We have been remiss in thy worship, spare us ; remove gra- ciously from us all evil, give us health for our body, increase our wealth in the house and on the field. The Brahman then makes his puja, and recites the following mantram : " Uddi ! I revere the sunlike, three-eyed Narayana, who is shining with the ornament of the serpent-prince, who is honoured by the skull held in his hand, who is armed with a chisel and a white lotus, who has anklets provided with golden bells and who is facing (me), the lord of the Bhotas, who removes fear^ has four faces and is called Brahman,*^ " ^' JJddi, hhaslcarasannihham trinayana-}ti nardyanavi nagendrahhusoj' jvalam hastddattalcapalamahitam ivetahjatahkayudham Tcancanalcihkininupu- ritasanTYiukhwm hhuteiam bhayaharam- caturdnanwm hrahTudhhidhdnam hhaje." Eev. M. Schaible writes from Karkal : " Ueber den Ursprung ties Brahma, im Volksmnnde Berme, wegeri seiner Verwandtsohaft mit den Nagas oft auch Naga-Brahma genannt, sagen die Leute : in alten Zeiten hatten Brahma and Shiwa 5 Angeaichler besessen. Um ihrer Aehnlichkeit willen sei einstens Schiwas Weib, Farwati, einmal bei ihrem Erscheinen in einer Gbtterversammlung in grosse Verlegenheit geraten, da sie, ausser Stande, ihren Gemahl und Brahma von einander zu nnterscheiden, nicht gewusst habe, zn welchem TOn beiden sie sich setzen solle. Schiwa, der ihre Ver- legenheit und den Grund derselben erkannte, hieb, nm ihr ins kiinftige derartiges zn ersparen, dem Brahma ein Haupt ab. Als dieses hieranf den Schiwa iiber die Art and Weise seiner Weiterexistenz um Eat und Hilfe anging, erhielt ea die Weiaung sich unter seine Ganas zu begeben, auf die Erde zu gehen, die Menschen zu plagen und so sich seinen Unter- halt zu verschaffen und seine Fortexistenz zu sichern." " Brahma geniesst allgemeine Terehrung von alien Kasten. Die Leute halten ihn fur den Urheber von Augenentziiudnng Hautauschlag und hauptsiichlich von Kinderlosigkeit. In Nandolige und Mala hat er zwei grossere Tempel, doch stehen dieae ihrer Grosse nach in keinerle, 300 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS The worsliip of Brahman and his eventual absorption into a Brahmabhuta shows the influence which the aboriginal inhabitants of India exercised over the Aryan invaders. Brahman becomes half god, half bhota; he is regarded as Such inferior to a naga, but superior to the common bhuta. A legend asserts that the fifth head of Brahman, after being Verhaltniss zn anderen grossen Hindutempeln. Sonst finden sich kleine Tempelchen, Brahmasthfina oder Bermeregunda genannt auf dem Gute nahezu jedes grogseren Gutsbesitzers, der oignen Grand und Boden hat. In dem Nandolige Tempel findet sich kein Bild, in dem in Mala dagegen ist Brahma aus Stein gehauen, in Menschengestalt anf einem Pferde reitend dargestellt. Die iibrigen fast zahTlosen kleinen Tempelchen enthalten entweder ebenfalls Brahma in Menechengestalt, oder aber auch nur einen rohen oder nur ganz oberflachlioh behanenen Stein, Bei dem Nandolige- Tempel hndet jahrlich im Zusammenhang mit einem Bhuten und einem Gbtzenfest ein grosseres Fest statt, zu dem Leute von nahe und fern gewallfahrtet kommen um dem Brahma ihre Geludbe, die sie ihm in den Tagen der Krankheit gelobt hatten, zu entrichten. Sonst findet an jedem Bankranti ein Puja statt. In dem Mala-Tempel wird taglich Puja gemacht, das am Preitag einen etwaa feierlichern Character triigt. Die gleiohe Ordnung fand ich in Mudar, wo dem Brahma, der dort ganz im Freien kampirt, und bloss in einem wenig behauenen Granitstein dargestellt ist, ebenfalls taglichen Dienst verrichtet wird. In den oben erwahnten vielen kleinen Tempelchen wird nur alle Monate geopfert ; nur im Monat Sona taglich oder einige Male in der Woche. Beim Puja wird eine Lampe angezundet, Blumen, Eeis und Sandelholzpulver vorgesetzt. Seinem Wesen nach ist dieser Brahma halb Gott, halb Bhuta. Er steht niedriger als die Kagas und hbher als die Bhutas. In seiner Eigenschaft als Gott kann nur der Brahmane ihm Puja machen und ergreift er bei Festlichkeiteu nur von diesem Besifcz, aber nie von einem andern niedern Kastenmann. Wahrend dem Bhuten ein liola, wird dem Brahma ein sogenanntes Mandala oder Barmadahali dargebraoht. Die Zeiohnung zu diesem Mapdala hat eine ursprunglich niedere, jetzt aber duroh ihreu Dienst zn Ansehen gekommene Kaste (die Jakkedalculii) auf dem Boden vor dem Tempel zu entwerfen, wobei 5 Farben, schwarz, weiss, rot, griin und gelb zur Verwen- dung kommen. Das Uebrige bei dem Mapdala kann nur ein Brahmane besorgen, von dem der Brahma Besitz ergreift und dann Orakel gibt. Das hali besteht in einer Darbringung vou Friichten und versohiedenen Gewiirzen. Beim Gebet zu diesem Brahma sagen die Leute: ' Wir fehlen gar viel in deiner Verehrung, verzeihe. Wende gnadig alles Uebel ab, gib Gesundheit dem Leib und mehre den Reichthum im Eaus und anf dem Feld.' Die Anrede lautet nicht wie bei den Gbttern — Svami devere Bondern Svami hermere, OP BHAEATAYAESA OR INDIA. 301 cut off, prayed to Paramesvara, who advised it to descend to the earth and to associate with the bhotas. According to a Tulu tradition the present Brahman (Bermere, Berume, Baruma, Berma or Bomma) is only a portion of Brahman united with the serpent god {naga devaru). Siva is said to have been jealous because Brahman had four faces and eight eyeSj while he had only three. He therefore cut off one of these four heads, and when this head asked him what he should do, Siva told him to unite itself with the serpent [ndga), torment mankind and to extort thus offer- ings from them. In Badakay Lokanad Brahman's head appeared first as a naga, and there it was worshipped. When I was visiting the Buddha temple at Kotahenu, a suburb of Colombo, I saw a figure of Brahman with three heads which I originally took to have four heads, the fourth being behind and thus of course invisible, But the temple- servant particularly declared that Brahman had only three heads, one representing the past, the other the present^ and the third the future. ^ * This legend I heard also confirmed by other Ceylonese Buddhists. At Kandy in the Maligava Temple or the Shrine of the Sacred Tooth is a picture of Brahman as Mahahrahmaraja, or as king of heaven — known as Brahmaloka or Satyaloka. ^ ^ He has only one head, and 1= Tivata is one of the Ceylonese names of Bratman. Its meaning and derivation are not clearly known. It can be connected with the Sanskrit words trivrtta (trivrt) and trivaktra. The High Priest of Adam's Peak and President of the Vidyodaya College in Colombo, Hikkoduwe Suman- gala Terunnanae, thinks that it is derived from trivrtta, and explains it as denoting Karmavrtta, Klesavrtta and Vipal-avrtfa. If vata stands for vaktra, trivaktra would mean three-faced. ^' According to Hindu cosmology there exist fourteen worlds, seven above and seven below the earth. The highest and best world Satyaloka is under the rule of Brahman, and is therefore also called Brahmaloka, while it is at times also assigned to Siva and then named Sivalbka ; the Kiirma- purana identifies Brahmaloka also with a Visnuloka. The lowest and worst world is Patala, it is under the rule of Tama, and hence also known 302 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS one-headed he also appears in the neiglibouring Mahadevale temple. Biesdes the statue of Buddha there are in this shrine the images of Visuu and oE Siva, respectively on the left and right hand side of the entrance door, and a one- headed Brahman is painted standing on the left side on the wall near Buddha. On my asking for an explanation, I was told that this one-headed Brahman represents the present time. The existence of a one-headed Brahman is as Tamaloka. The eeven nether worlds are I . Atahi,2. Vifalci,S. Sutala, 4. Rasatala, 5. Talatala, 6. Mahdtala and 7. Patnla, (the 4th, 5th and,6th hells are also respectively called 4. Xitala, 5 Dharatala and Mahatala, and 6. Talatala). It is perhaps worth noticing that also other sects, e.g., the Muhamraedans believe in the existence of seven hells. The seven upper worlds are 1. BhUrloin, the earth, occupied l)y men, 2. Bhuvarlolta, the space between earth and sun, occupied by Munis, Siddhas, &c., 3. Suvar- loka (Svarloka), or Devcdoka, between the sun and the polesfcar, or Dhruva, heaven of Indra with the 330,000,000 gods. The Visimpurana calls it the abode of Tisnn, where Dharma, Dhruva and the Yogis reside. 4. Mahar- loha extends one krore of yojanas beyond the polestar, residence of Bhrga and of other sages, who survive the annihilation of the three lower worlds, 5. Janaloha (Jandloka) occupied by the mind-born sons of Brah- man as Sanandana, the Ksis, and the demigods. 6. Tapololca is the resi- dence of the Vairagis, and 7. Satijaloka (Brahmaloka) is the abode of Brahman, whoever reaches this heaven is exempted from further birth. The first of these three upper worlds are destroyed at the end of a Kalpa or a day of Brahman, though the fourth outlasts the kalpa, it remains uninhabited during the conflagration raging below, for no one can endure the heat and its occupants repair to the next or Janoloka. The last three are annihilated at the end of the life or the 100th year of Brahman. The Devibhagavata (IX, III, 8, if.) contends that the Erahmripda contains the seven nether and the seven upper worlds, which at the time of a general destruction become a watery bubble. The A^aikuntha and Goloka- heavens, which lie beyond the Brahmauda, and are eternal, remain intact. Each of these fourteen worlds is 50,000,000,000,000,000 miles long and 25,000,000,000,000,000 miles broad. The fourteen worlds occupy therefore a space of 17,500 Quinquillions of square miles. The mountain Mahameru passes through all these 14 worlds. There are besides seven immense seas. The Mahameru together with the fourteen worlds is carried by the eight elephants I Airavata, Pundarika, Viimana, Kumuda, Anjana, Puspadanta, Sarvabhauma and Supratika, and by the eight serpents : Ananta, Vasuki, Daksa, Taksaka, Karkoiaka, Sajiga, Kulika and Mahapadma, but instead of these eight serpents some mention only the one thousand-headed Sesa, OF BHAEATAVAESA OB INDIA. 303 rather surprising, if we consider that Brahman as Brah- mabhuta is represented with one head, and that this Maha- devale temple, though Buddhistic in all other respects, contains Hindu gods, which may perhaps have been im- ported by non-Aryan Indians. The old Tamil rulers of Ceylon compelled thus their Buddhistic subjects to erect a shrine of Subrahmariya or Kandasvami (Kanda) near every Buddhistic temple, and this custom is observed to this day. The naga devaru is worshipped like this Brahman, but must not be confounded with Subrahmanya {Subraya devaru) who is likewise revered under the image of a serpent- ^ " Brahman is among the Tulus regarded as the cause of eye-disease, skin-disease and childlessness, he is even feared as the originator of all evil, but also adored as their remover. '° Eev. Jacob Goetz wrote thus from Karkal ; — " Dor Sira Gott sei einst dariiber neidisch geworden, dass der Brahma Gott 4 Gesichter somit 8 Augen hahe, -wahrend er ihrer nur 3 besasse, nnd habe ihm desshalb einen Kopf abgesohlagen. Ala ihn dann dieser abgeschlagene Kopf gefragt habe, waser denn nun anfangen soUe, dann habe ihm dieser Siva geautwortet, er soUe aich mit dem Naga, der Schlange, vereinigen, die Menschen plagen und sioh von ihnen Gabon nnd Opfer bringen lassen. So sei er denn als Schlange (Naga) zuerat im Badakay Lokanad aufgetretu und verehrt worden, welter wurde ihm dann auchin Mala am Fusse der Ghata und in Nandolige ein Tempelchen (Bermere guncia) gebaut. Anoh privatim wird er Ton alien Kasten ohne Dnteraehied verehrt und zwar mehr in der Art einea Bhuta ala einea Gottea. Auch versieht den Tanz oder Dienat meiat nur ein Brahmine, wahrend bei den gemeinen Bhutas meiat nur geringere Kaaten sich zum tanzen und sprechen hergeben. Daa Feat, das ihm zu Ehren gefeiert wird, heisst wie das dea Naga Mandala, wahrend daa Feat eines Gottes Jyajia heisst, nnd daa eines Bhiita i'oZa. Sein Bild ist daa eines Menachen mit einem 7 fachen Schlangenkopfe iiber seinem Haupt andere sagen es seien diea matted and twisted hair. Der gewohnliche Naga devaru, der in deraelben Weiae auch ohne Verbindung mit diesem Brahma verehrt wird, ist nicht zu verwechseln mit dem Subraya Devaru, der auch unter dem Bild der Schlange, aber eigentlioh ala Gott verehrt wird." See note on p. 298 about the statue of Brahman in Kanjar. 40 304 ON THE OKIGINAL INHABITANTS A BrahmabliQta has human form, and rides on horseback holding a sword in his right hand. His head is covered with matted and twisted hair, which is by some taken as a head of seven snakes. Brahmans as well as Sodras pay him daily worship, but mantras addressed to him differ from those offered to Brahman. Uncooked rice is present- ed to him, his head is covered with sandal and flowers, and incense is burnt to him. The Brahma temple at Mala contains a big stone image of Brahman riding as a man on horseback. Wliile there is no such figure in the temple at Nandolige, the innumer- able smaller temples in the country contain either such images, or in their stead rude or roughly hewn stones. A great festival of Brahman is yearly celebrated at Nan- dolige among a huge conflux of people. Crowds throng to this temple to thank the god, and to offer him the presents they had promised him in the days of their distress or sickness. There is also divine service or a puja at every Sankranti. In the temple at Mala, Brahman is daily worshipped, and the service on Fridays is specially cere- monious. In the smaller temples (Brahmasthana or Ber- mere gunda) worship is celebrated once a month, but during the month of Sona, the service is either daily or on certain days of the week. There exist also images of Brahman which are traced back to the Rsis and which, out of respect for them, are regu- larly worshipped, especially as the E.sis adored Brahman even after his fall. Besides these images of Brahman there are the well- known Brahma-stones, which must not be forgotten. They are found in great numbers in Kanara, especially among the Tulu population. Such stones are generally rude and unhewn. They are as a rule not daily worshipped, but at the granite stone at Mudar near Karkal, Brahman is daily OF BHAEATATAESA OR INDIA. 305 revered in the same manner as in the Mala temple, eight miles east of Karkal. Once a year the image of Visnu is carried to a similar stone, which lies about three miles from Udapi. The castes of the Barikeras and Talavaras have a peculiar custom, They draw a circle with pipeclay about half or a foot in diameter and make in the middle of it a point©. This point represents Brahman. All people are requested to pour oil on this stone, and to offer to it cocoa- nuts : in short they honor it with divine worship. Stones lying near the gates of a village or of a town, or which belong to such gates, are generally thus marked. The Rev. Mr. Kittel informs me that he has also seen this Bomma (Brahma) mark drawn on rocks near inhabited places. Such Brahma-stones are often combined with Naga stones and are therefore rather representations of BrahmabhQtas than of Brahman. ^i The Brahma-stones are no doubt connected with the stoneworship in vogue among the Gauda-Dravidians, to which I have already alluded when speaking of the Kurum- bas and Knnbis.^ ^ In the riding BrahmabhQta I recognize "^ The Bev. F. Kittel of Meroara, to whom I am indebted for most of the information obtained from Kanara, writes to me : — " Aua Slid Mahratta erbat ich mir einen genauen Bericht iiber Brahma von einem befreundeten alteu und intelligenteu Bingebornen. Seine kana- resisohe Antwort lautet in tjbersetznng wie f olgt. ' Die Kasten der Barikeras und Talavaras zeichnen (mit einer Art Pfeifererde) einen Kreia von etwa einem halben bis ganzen Fuss im Durohmesser auf einen rohen Stein, und machen eben damit einen Punkt in die Mitte, so ®. Dies tbun sie, um den Gott Brama oder Bomma (cJ. i. Brahma) darzustellen, und fordern so alle Leute auf, ihm anf den Stein 01 zu giessen, Kokosniisse zu opfern, &o., kurz ihm gottliche Terehrung zu erweisen. Hauptsaohlich zeichnen sie die obige Form des Bomma auf Steine, die gerade vor dem Thore eines Dorfes oder einer Stadt liegen oder sioh im Thore selbst befinden, oder in nicht welter Enteferung vom Thore liegen. Ausser den zwei obengenannten Kasten zeichnet keine die Gestalt des Bomma.' So weit der Eingeborne ; ioh selbst habe diesen Bomma auoh an Felsen in der Nahe von Ortsohaften angemalt geaehen." " See pp. 189, 235. S06 ON THE OEIGINAL INHABITANTS a resemblance to the Kliandoba (Khande Eao) of the Maratha country, who in his turn is most probably iden- tical with the Aiyanar of Southern India. Of the latter 1 shall speak hereafter. The identity of these chief popular deities, if confirmed, goes a long way to prove from a reli- gious point of view the national coherence of the principal aboriginal tribes of India, and this result is so important because it coincides all along with the already adduced philological evidence. CHAPTEE XV. On Visnu. Visnu represents in contradistinction to the more abstract nature of Brahman, the bodily incarnate deity to which men cling with fervour in times of affliction and despair. He became in fact the popular god of post Vedio India. Many tribal deities which resembled him, and which had been in reality mostly only deified heroes, were united in his worship and appeared eventually only as attributes among the thousand names by which he is worshipped. The cult of Siva offers a similar example. Visnu is an instance of a god of originally secondary importance rising to supreme dignity, because the Brahmanical priesthood required a god round whom the people could gather, as a counterpoise against the propagation of Buddhism. This being the case. Buddhism must have preceded Vaisijavism. Visnu, the second person of the Trimurti, appears, as we have already seen, as a deity in the Eg- Veda, and though in a subordinate position, yet he is called the intimate friend of Indra, whom he joins in the fight against Vrtra, and with whom he drinks the Soma-juice. He is also often associated with Pusan, anothei- Aditya. He performed the celebrated three steps, and is in consequence called Tri- vikrama. Through this action Visnu is identified with the sun. SakapQni explains these steps as referring to the OF BHAEATAVAESA OR INDIA. 307 sun's three-fold existence in the earth, in the atmosphere and in the sky, but Aurnavabha prefers to explain them as referring to the hill where the sun rises, to the meridian sky, and to the hill where he sets. The three aspects of the Egyptian sun-god bear thus some resemblance to the steps of Visnu. In fact, Visnu is a solar deity or an Aditya, or one of the six, seven, eight, or twelve sons of Aditi. He appears on this earth at critical moments in various shapes, as a fish, as a tortoise, a dwarf, &c. Some of these divine manifestations are already mentioned in the Yeda, and are there ascribed not to Yisrju but to other gods, e.g., to Prajapati and to Brahman, but they have been eventually tranferred to Visiju. When Brahman's supremacy was declining, the ascendancy of Visnu increased. He was thus identified with the Supreme Spirit, and Brahman and Mahadeva are regarded as having originated from him. However, in a different place he is called an offspring of Mahadeva, and appears sometimes as his friend, at others as his enemy. Manifold are the stories told of Visnu, but the goodness of his disposition is the principal characteristic of most. He pervades and preserves the whole of Nature, and his essence fills at his pleasure every object, in fact he is everywhere. He appears in each different yuga in a different garb, in the Krtayuga as the wise teacher Kapila, in the Treta as punishing Gakravartin, in the Dvapara as the Veda-dividing Veda Vyasa, and in the Kali as the order re-establishing KalM. Nothing is in this respect too small or insignificant for him. He honors with his presence the Salagrama-stone as well as the Tulasi plant; he descends into the Gariga river as well as into common animals like a fish, a boar, or a tortoise ; he is personated by a dwarf or a monstrous creature as well as by men of the highest merit, like Parasurama or Eama, the son of Dasaratha. All these various shapes he mainly assumes in order to save mankind from impending evil. As the world is often in danger of 308 ON TdE OEIGINAL INHABITANTS becoming a prey to bad and unscrupulous spirits, be they demons or men, Visnu has to appear repeatedly in various disguises to frustrate their evil intentions.^ ^ Brahman is only rarely incarnated, the Brahmans are regarded as his principal representatives on earth. Later legends ascribe to Siva various incarnations to the number of twenty-five, and though these seem to be invented to counterbalance those of Visiju, they do not equal them in importance, for the manifestations of Siva are less known and less influential than those of Visi;iu. Different expres- sions are also used to distinguish between the incarnations of the three great gods of the Trimurti, the terms vibhuti, avatdra and lllu being respectively used for those of Brah- man, Visnu and Siva.^ * Indra, Vayu, Agni, Sesa and other gods have assumed the forms of other persons, yet these personations do not reach the high level of the avataras of Visnu. Comparable with the descents of Visnu, however, are those of Buddha, who, though afterwards figuring among the incarnations of Visnu, claims to have appeared in many forms before he was born as a king's son in Kapilavastu. Regarding, as I do, the rise and success of Buddhism as mainly due to the antagonism existing between the ruling Aryan and the oppressed Turanian or Gauda-Dravidian population, it strikes me as by no means improbable that the incarnation doctrine may in India have originated among the Gauda-Dravidians independently " See Devlbhagavata, III. 6, 39-40. 39. Tada yadS hi karyam vo bhavisyati duratyayam, karijyati prthivyam vai avataram tada Hareh. 40. TiryagyonSvathanyatra manuslm tanum asrtali, Danavanam vinasam vai karisyati Janardanalj. ' * According to the following passage from Brahmandapurana : Parasakteh prabhSvena Brahmavisnuaivadayah isvara jagatah sadhye svakarmaByacaranti hi ; Brahmapalj sarjanam karma Yispoh palanam ucyate sarhharah tatra Eudrasya vibhiJtir Brahmanalj smrta Avatarah tatha Visnoh Illah Sambhor udlritali. OF BHARATAVAESA OE INDIA. 309 of any Aryan influence, as we see it at a very early period appear among the kindred Akkadians on the shores of the Persian Gulf. To Visnu are generally attributed only ten avataras, but this number was soon exceeded, and twenty-four or even a greater number of incarnations were eventually ascribed to him. In fact as innumerable as are the creatures of the creation, so innumerable also are regarded the manifesta- tions of Yisnu. I believe, however, that the original number was ten, and that the remaining fourteen must be regarded as additions. The order in which thsse different divine descents appeared, is manifest from the various readings of the Slokas which enumerate them. One stanza runs as follows : Matsyah KQrmO Varahasca Narasimhasca Vamanah. Ramo Ramasca Ramasca Krsno BuddhO Janardanah. Others read after Ramasca : Krsnah Kalkir Janardanah, or Buddah Kalkika eva ca, or Buddhah Kalki ca te dasa, etc. The first stanza omits Kalki, the second Buddha, and the third and fourth omit Krsna.^^ As the Kalki or horse- avatara is the only manifestation of Visnu which is yet to come, we may perhaps be allowed to assume that its con- ception originated at a later period than the tradition which omits it. ' ^ These ten avataras are generally known as the fish-, tortoise-, boar-, Narasiriilia-, dwarf-, Parasurama-, Rama-, Balarama-, (Kisna-), Bnddha- and horse-avataraa. These minor or upa-avataras are the following : Sanaka, Sanandana, Sanatsnjata, Sanatkumara, Naranarayana, Kapila, Visabhayogin, Narada, Hayagrlva, Dattatreya, Mohini (orMaya), Yajnapati, Vyasa and Dhanvan- tari. Some of the avataras are as it were localised. According to the Visnupurana Tisnu resides in the country of Bhadrasva as the horse-headed Hayasiras, in Ketumali as the boar Varaha, in Bharata as the tortoise Kiirma and in Kuru as the fish Matsya. In the Jatindramatadipikd of Srlnivasacarya, a pupil of Doddamahaoarya (Madras edition, p. 44) the number of the avataras of Tisnu is fixed at 36 (padmanabhadayo' pi sat- trmsadavatarah santi). 310 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS There is no doubt that the first two incarnations have a cosmological meaning ; the third ^ ^ is perhaps of the same nature, or, as it had two different versions, may with the fourth and fifth allude to the fights between the gods and the asuras, or rather to the attempts to firmly establish the worship of the Aryan deities in India by subduing the aborigines and superseding their religion. The avatara of Parasurama indicates the contention between the religious fervour of the Aryans and the brute force of the aboriginal races. I prefer this explanation to the accepted tradition, according to which the priestly Brahmans exterminated in war the Aryan warrior caste of the Ksatriyas. Rama, the son of Dasaratha, represents the extension of Aryan power and civilisation from the North to the South of India. Balarama and Krsna show the high state of development attained in political and religious fields degenerating into civil dissension ; and in Buddha we have the strife trans- planted to religious ground caused by the popular reaction against Brahmanic priestcraft, which reaction, however, was not successful in the end. Such a historical explanation of the order of the avataras of Visnu will, if proved to be correct, approximately settle the time of the origin of this Vaisnava doctrine. By mentioning Buddha as the last incarnation of Visnu, this dogma must have been conceived considerably after his time, when the belief in the power of Visnu was in the ascendant. A similar view has already been expressed by Lassen in his Indische Alter thumshunde. According to the Vaisuava belief Visnu assumed the decep- tive appearance {Mayamblia) of Buddha in order to lead by his wrong teaching the Daityas astray from the path of the Vedas and then to destroy them. 2" According to one legend Visnu as a boar lifts the sinking earth from the overflowing waters, while according to another he delivers it from the asura Hirapyaksa, who had seized the earth and carried it to the bottom of the sea, OF BHAEATAVAE8A OR INDIA. 31 1 Of late another, a cosmogonic explanation of the avataraSj has been attempted, in imitation of the Darwinian theory of development, beginning with the fish, tortoise, boar and man-lion, progressing from the human dwarf to the brutal man of violence, then to civilised warriors, till it ends with religious dissension. But if the avatara of the fish is considered, as it usually is, to be the first of a series, it presents another important aspect, for it may supply us with a terminus a quo for begin- ning the history of the Aryans of India. On the Deluge. The legend of the deluge in which the man Manu alone is saved by a fish, that had come into his hands while washing them, occurs first and in its most ancient and simplest form in the Satapatha Brahmana.''' ^ Manu saved the fish which promised to rescue him from the impending danger arising from a flood, which was to sweep away all living beings. He first put it into a jar, and as the fish was growing fast, he dug a trench and placed it in it, and finally he carried it into the sea, where it was out of danger. The fish told Manu the year when the flood was to come, advised him to build a ship in which he was to embark, and promised to save him. When the flood eventually arose, Manu embarked in his ship, the fish swam towards it, and Manu fastened the cable of the ship to the horn of the fish which guided it over the Northern mountain, where Manu bound it to a tree. With the subsiding flood Manu descended and the mountain was called Manu's descent {Manor avasarpanam) ; the commentator identified this mountain with the Himavat or Himalaya. As Manu alone was saved and desired offspring, by means of his sacrificial rites he produced after a year a woman, Ida, and from both these sprang the offspring of Manu. -'See Satapatha Brahmaua, I, 8, 1. 41 3l2 ON THE ORIGINAL IlJHABlTANtS The later legend related in the Vanaparvan of the Mahabharata identifies this fish with Prajapati Brahman, who appeared to Mann Vaivasvata in the shape of a fish on the bank of the Ciri^ir and asked to be preserved. Manu placed it first in a jar and afterwards ia a large pond, then in the Ganges, and lastly in the sea. When the time of the final dissolution arrived, Manu embarked with the seven Rsis and with the seeds recommended of old by Brahmans and fastened the floating ship to the horns of the fish, which took the ship to the highest peak of the Himalaya, which peak was afterwards known as Naubandhana. Pra- japati Brahman, who had assumed the form of a fish, then commanded Manu to create all living creatures, gods, asuras, men, &c. While the account of the Satapatha Brahmana does not refer to an incarnation of any deity, the Mahabharata mentions Brahman as having assumed the form of a fish, and the subsequent reports substitute Visnu instead of Brahman. The Matsya Purana makes Manu the son of the Sun, speaks of a general dissolution at the end of the Caksusa Manvantara, and mentions Malaya (Malabai-) as the place where Manu underwent his penance. Manu receives for his penance from Brahman the promise of becoming the preserver of all things, movable and immovable, and a Prajapati at the end of the general dissolution. Manu placed the Saphari (carp) fish which came with the water of the Krtamala into his hands successively in a pitcher, a well, a lake, the Ganges and the Ocean. The fish being recognized by Munu as Janardana (Visnu), promises Manu a ship constructed by the gods, in which he was to embark and to convey into it all living creatures in order to save them. This ship is eventually fastened to the horn of the fish by the serpent Ananta acting as a rope. According to the Bhagaviita Purana an occasional dissolu- tion happened at the end of a Kalpa, when Brahman was OP BHARATAVAK8A OB INDIA. 313 asleep and Hayagriva, the prince of the Danavas, carried ofi the Vedas, which had issued from the mouth of Brahman. Hari (Visiiu),on discovering this calamity, assumed the shape of a Saphari fish and appeared in the hands of Satyavrata, the lord of Dravida, who underwent austere penance. This Satyavrata represents Manu Sraddhadeva of the present Kalpa. The fish was transferred from a waterpot to a large well, a pond, then to various lakes, and finally to the ocean. Hari announces to Manu that after seven days the three worlds, the earth, air and sky would be sub- merged under the ocean, and that when this dissolution was impending, he would send a large ship to Manu in which the latter was to embark, taking with him all plants, seeds, the seven Rsis and all creatures. The tossing ship was to be fastened to the horn of the fish, the big serpent Ananta serving as a rope, and the fish was to draw the ship over the ocean, while the night of Brahman was lasting. Satya- vrata when on board of the ship, heard the divine explana- tion of the true doctrine of the soul, and Hari restored the Vedas to Brahman at the end of the dissolution after slay- ing Hayagriva. The Aguipura^a, which has in its description of the Matsya-avatara a great resemblance to the Bhagavatapu- rana, relates that the sleep of Brahman produced the occasional dissolution of the world, when Manu, the son of Vivasvat, was performing his penance in the Krtamala river. The legend of the deluge is common to nearly all the human races of the earth, with the exception of the black inhabitants of Africa and of Polynesia, a fact which assumes greater significance, if we remember that the disappearance of the continent Atlantis is often ascribed to the deluge, and that this continent is assumed to have been situated between Austral-asia and Africa. In Europe we find it among the ancient Greeks, the Celts, the Scandinavians and the Lets ; in Asia it was known to the Syrians, Jews, 314 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS Phoenicians, Phrygians, Chaldeans, Assyrians and Indians ; in America we meet it among the Greenlanders, Koloshes, Mexicans and Brazilians. This circumstance, however, is not conclusive evidence that all these traditions refer originally to one and the same fact, or that they started independently, as no connection exists between one and the other. The fact that an ancient author, when writing the history of a country, incidentally mentions that a great flood happened at the same time, or previously to, or later than another event he is speaking of, is no proof that the country, whose history he is writing, was inundated by the deluge. The Biblical report is undoubtedly a bond fide ac- count of an alleged universal deluge, yet, in spite of this, it is possible, yea even probable, that the so called Biblical deluge was only local, but regarded universal by the writer of the sacred record owing to his limited geographical knowledge. Even in our days, when news is quickly spread all over the world by means of telegraphic communications, it would be difficult to ascertain at once the extent of a great calamity which has befallen a distant land beyond the sphere of in- ternational contact ; how much more difficult must it have been in ancient times to obtain reliable information owing to the exclusiveness and ignorance of the people then living. If all the country known to a man is afflicted by an inun- dation, it is only natural that he should regard such a flood as universal. We know indeed of some inundations, which, in reality, only local, have been afterwards regarded as uni- versal, e.g., the great flood connected with the name of Ogyges is ascribed by some to the rising of the waters of the lake Kopais in Boeotia.^® Similar examples are fur- " Ogyges is regarded as the son of Poseidon, or of Boeotos, as tlie hus- band of Thebe, and the oldest king of Atliens. Others call him a Boeotian, a king of the Hektenes and founder of Thebes. The name Ogyges is some- times explained as being connected with the Sanskrit ogha, flood, OF BHAEATAVARSA OR INDIA. 315 nished by the inundation which, caused by the river Hoang- ho, devastated China in the reign of the emperor Yao, and also by the flood which, owing to the Punzha overflowing its banks, swept over the plain of Bogota in South- America. Many legends of deluges which we find both among modern and ancient nations, can be traced back to the Biblical or Chaldean record, but there are others whose origin it has not been possible to trace as yet. It is very doubtful, whether Egypt was ever overwhelmed by the deluge. In a fragment generally, though perhaps wrongly ascribed to Manetho of Sebennytos, the high priest of Egypt, who compiled and translated into Greek, at the behest and for the information of his sovereign Ptole- maios Philadeiphos, the hieroglyphic records of his country, it is mentioned that the inscriptions engraved by ThCth, the first Hermes or Hermes Trismegistos, upon the Seriadic columns, were after the deluge translated from the sacred dialect. 2^ The fragments of his important work on the " See Ancient Fragments of the Phainician, Chaldean, Egyptian, Tyriaii, Carthaginian, Indian, Persian, and other writers, by Isaac Preston Oory, Second Edition, London, 1832, pp. 168, 172. These columns in the Seriadic country (SiypiaSiic); 77)) said to have been written by Tiioth, the first Hermes, in hieroglyphics before the deluge and afterwards translated into Greek and deposited in the adytum of the Egyptian temples by Agathodaimon, the son of the second Hermes, remind one of the two columns which the Judaike Archaiologia oiFl&vias Josephup, I, .3, ascribes to the righteoup, sons of Seth, and which were erected to preserve for ever the knowledge these good men had acquired, in case the general destruction of all things lav liirpav vpwrSj' ean rots irep! to. ovpivia TrpayfiaTivofievois), a fact which Prof. Lauth has also pointed out. 334 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS it was adopted by the Aryan immigrants of India, as is proved by the existence of the sixty years' cycle of Brhas- pati or Jupiter. This planet accomplishes an entire revo- lution in twelve years or rather in 4,332 days, 12 hours, &c. As this cycle is divided into twelve years like a year is into twelve months, a lustrum of such a cycle constitutes the 60 years' cycle or the Chaldean soss. Whether the Kaliyuga, of which I spoke previously, owes its duration to twenty such Bosses being combined, it is now impossible to prove ; however, it is not at all improbable. The artificial arrange- ment of the yugas in which a morning and evening dawn, which occupied together a sixth part of an age {e.g., the 100 years of the dawn, the 1,000 years of the yuga and the 1 00 years of the evening) and which precede and follow each yuga, is also perhaps of later origin ; but whether this is the case or not, the correctness of my explanation of the origin of the nomenclature of the yugas will not be affected. The main object I have in view in this discussion is to draw attention to the close resemblance of Indian and Turanian computations.^ 1 '^ ' The twelve years of the cycle of Brhaspati have the names of the twelve lunar mouths, as the twelve-yearly rotation of Jupiter resembles the twelve monthly of the earth. If this twelve-yearly revolution is combined with the lustrum, yuga, or period of five years, the 60 years' cycle is the result. It is, however, quite possible, that this combination of the lustrum with the Jupiter cycle is only a later explanation of Indian astronomers, as it is certain that the latter derived in later times most of their knowledge from the West, especially through the Greeks, who in their turn were indebted to the Babylonians and Egyptians ; the Sanskrit names of the Zodiac are thus mere translations of the Western names. Compare Varahamihira' s Brhatsamhita, Till, 1, about the names of the single years of the cycle of Brhaspati corresponding to those of twelve lunar months and VIII, 27 about the sixty years' cycle : Adyam dhanisthamsamabhiprapanno maghe yada yatyudayam snrejyah sastyabdapiirvah prabhavalj sa namna pravartate bhutahitastadSbdah. See the Sarijasiddhanta, 1, 55, XIV, 1, 2 (edition of the Bibliotheca Indica, Calcutta, 1859, pp. 41, 369, 370) about the twelve-years' and sixty- years' cycle of Bihaspati : 55, Dvadasaghna guror yata bhagana vartarmanakaih. EaSibhih sahitah suddhah sastya syur vijayadayah. OP BHAEATAVAESA OE INDIA. 335 From the general description in the sacred record it does not appear that the deluge was accompanied by any such phenomena as have proceeded from geological revolutions produced by violent eruptions of water. The early drift accumulations prove, by their component elements, that they belong to a period much anterior to the deluge of Noah, but the crust and surface of the earth do not exhibit any clearly ascertained and indelible traces of the Noachian deluge. Notwithstanding that no such evidences of any great diluvian catastrophe are found, similar catastrophes and inundations, which created great changes on the surface of the earth, have happened within that period. Since the researches of Professor Prestwich, the existence of man has been traced to a period far beyond the limits of Biblical chronology ; nay, it is thought highly probable that human beings already existed in the so-called tertiary period, and hundred thousands of years must therefore have elapsed before we come within touch of historical times. It is, however, possible that though man existed, he was at that early period both mentally and physically far below the species at present living. In fact we know hardly anything about these men beyond their bare exist- ence ; they have almost totally disappeared, without leaving anything behind them, save their bones and a few traces of their handiwork and implements. On the other hand the Chaldean and Biblical deluge-accounts prove through the survival of the companions of Xisuthros and Noah respectively the continuity of the human species, and inform us besides of events that previously occurred. The exist- ence of the Chaldean tablets prepared with the express purpose of preserving to posterity the learning of bye-gone 1. Brahmam divyam tatha pitryam prajapatyam guros tathii, Saiuranca savanam oandram arksam manani vai nava. 2. Catnrbhir vyavaharoatra sauraoandrapk'asavanai'h BSrbaspatyena Bajtyabdam jfieyam nanyais tu nityasah. 4.4 336 ON THE OEIGINAL INHABITANTS times, favors the assumption that according to the expec- tation of the iuscribers the deluge would be confined by limits of time and place. These expectations appear to have been realised, for the discovery of these tablets shows, that there could not have taken place any great changes on the surface of the earth. In summiug up the evidence derived from the Biblico- Chaldean account of the deluge, assuming it to have been local and to have extended only over Mesopotamia and the contiguous countries, the Indian description of it must either have emanated from direct communications made by the descendants of survivors, or from reports, which events of such magnitude necessarily produce. As the Aryans had not yet entered India at such an early date, Manu could not have been in India, nor could the ark have landed on the Himalaya, or elsewhere in this country. This conclusion appears to be supported by the fact that the Veda nowhere alludes to such an inundation. I omit alto- gether at this moment to consider the possibility of the deluge legend being known among the Gauda-Dravidian population of India, but may point out that its connection with Malabar seems to lend a plausibility to such an assumption. If we were certain, which we are not, that Genesis -iupplies us with an approximate date of the deluge, and that this deluge was, what is very probable, identical with the Indian deluge connected with the name of Manu, we would be able, as the Noachian flood, according to Biblical chronology, can be fixed at 2500 B.C., to utilize this date also for purposes of Indian history and start from it as the commencement of its first epoch. I regard the matsya- avatara of Visnu, however, in its connection with Manu as the first legendary date of Indian history. This impor- tance that I ascribe to the fish avatara of Visnu, as exemplified by Manu's flood, has induced me to enter more OF BfiARATAVAEsA OR INDIA. 337 deeply into this subject than might seem at first necessary from a superficial view of the question. The prevailing Indian tradition that the three first avataras of Visnu belong to the Krta, the next four to the Treta, the eighth and ninth to the Dvapara and the tenth to the Kali-yuga has no historical weight. This inquiry has also brought to light the intimate connection between the Turanian tribes of the West with those of the East — a connection which will prove eventually of very great importance. On the Salagbama-stone. Visiju like other gods is worshipped by means of images {vigraha), but his pious adherents prefer to revere him in the form of the Salagrama-stonCj though jewels^, drawings and heaps of grain are also occasionally used to represent him.^^ The worship of idols is always diflioult and demands great attention. The slightest mistake or over- sight exposes the adorer to the wrath of the oSended deity. " Salagrame manau yantre, tanclule pratimadisn, hareh piija prakarfcavya na tu kevalabhiitale. The derivation of the word Salagra^nay Sdlagrama or Saligranin is disputed. Some connect the word with the Sal or Sal-tree (Sliorea robusta or Valeria robusta) , and contend that it signifies a collection of such trees, which are said to grow in abundance in the neighbourhood of the Sala- gramatirtha {salanam vrliSanam rjramah). Others assert that it signifies saragrava, the best stone, while others explain the first word of the com- pound sala or sara as formed of the prefix sa, with, and the noun ara or ala (for no real difference exists between )■ and I), spoke of a wheel, curl, saragmma or salagrama in consequence signifying a collection of spiral curls. Others again affirm that the name is connected with ali, bee. The VajrakUa worm, which bores the hole in the Salagrama, is by some commentators taken for a bee bhramara or ali, and as the holes are occasionally found in great numbers (grama), the stone received the name of Saligrama. This opiuion is expressed in a slokaof the Paiicaratragama mentioned to me by M.R.Ry- V. Tatadesikatataoaryar : Alayo vajrakitas syus tadvrndam grama ucyate, Aligramasametatvat saligramas sa ucyati?. A wrong conjecture connects it with iaila, rook. 33S ON THE OEiaiNAL INHABITANTS who in some form, e.g., as Narasiiiiha, is easily disposed to get angry and to take revenge on tlie incautious worshipper. The peculiar outward appearance of the Salagrama with its perforated hole [chidva or dvara), its spiral convolution [cahra), its various colours {varna) and other striking marks offers to the untutored mind of the superstitious beholder ample scope for astonishment and wonder, and as this stone possesses besides considerable magnetic force, one need not be surprised that divine or supernatural powers are ascribed to it, and that it is regarded as a manifestation of the deity. In this light it was without doubt viewed by the aboriginal inhabitants of India long before the Aryans invaded this country, and at a later period it attracted likewise the attention of the conquering I'ace. The several formations were eventually considered as representations of vai'ious deities, but the Aryans re- garded the Salagrama mainly as the emblem of Visi^u, who is in fact the only Hindu deity actually worshipped in its shape, and who is believed to really dwell in it.^^ The cause of the existence of so many various specimens of the Salagrama will be easily understood, when it becomes clear, that this pebble i'^ a much-waterworn concretion containing Ammonites and other shells such as Brachio- ■ Siilai^rfimagirir Hnrili, yasmaddharis sthitas tatra priidurbharair anekasali. We find also tho folluiving verses in the PadiuapuraHa : Salagi'iinia«ilayam tu sada SrTkrsnapujanam, uityam saimihitas tatra salagrame jagadgurnh .... SalagramasilariipJ yatra tisthati Kesarah, latra di'Viiauriis sarve bliiiTanani caturdasa. lu the Brltuunorridlija the second half is : " na b.^dhante grahiis lalra bhutavaitiilakadajal.i.' Srilagramasila yatra tatra tirtham tapovanam yatali sannihitas tatra bhagavan MadhusSdanah. Compare also Dcvimahatnnja IX, 2-1, IG : SalagramasilS. yatra tatra sannihito Haa'il.i tatraiya Laksmir ^'asati aarvatrrthasamauvita , .i great nnmbcr of similar slokas could be quoted, but these ivill »uffioe. OV EHARATAVAE6A OR INDIA. 339 pods. It is represented in three different formations; either as an unbroken pebble, or as one so broken that the fossil shell can be seen inside, or it is merely an outer frag- ment of the pebble, which shows in its interior the impression of the surface o£ the shell it previously surrounded.^ ■* '* See A voyage to the East Indies and China, translated from the French of Monsieur Sonnerat... by Francis Magnus, Calcutta, 1788, Vol. I, pp. 40 — 42 : " The stone of Salagraman is nothing but a petrifiecl shell of the species of comes d'ammon .- the Indians suppose it represents Viche- nou, because they discover nine different shades which refer to the nine incarnations of that god. It is found in the river of Cachi, one of the arms of the Ganges, it is very heavy, commonly of a black colour, and sometimes violet, the form is oval or round, a little flat, and nearly resem. ties a touchstone, and is shallow in the inside, there is only a small hole on the ontside, but within it is almost concave, and furnished in the interior coats above and below with spiral lines, which terminate in a point towards the middle, and in many these two points touch. Some Indians imagine it is a small worm which works upon the stone in this manner to prepare a habitation for Vichenou. Others have found in these spiral lines the figure of his chakram. These stones are very rare, and the Brahmans iix a great value on them, when they represent the gracious transformations of Vichenou, but when they border a little on the violet, they denote his incarnations in the form of a man, a lion, a wild boar, &c. When that it. the case, no follower of this god dares to keep them in his house ; the Saniassis alone are bold enough to carry them and to make the daily ceremonies to them. They are kept also in the temples." Compare the Miscellaneous Essays by H. T. Colebrooke, London, 1S73. Vol. I, p. 173, Note 1, in the article on " the religious ceremonies of the Hindus and of the Brahmins specially." "The salagramas are black stones found in a part of the Gandaki river, within the limits of Nepal. They are mostly roaud and are commonly perforated in one or more places by worms, or, as the Hindus believe by Vishnu in the shape of a reptile. According to the number of perforations and of spiral curves in each, the stone is supposed to contain Vishnu in various characters ... In like manner stones are found in the Narmada, near Onhiir mSndatta, which are considered as types of Siva, and are called Banling. Tlie salagrama is found upon trial not to be calcareous, it strikes fire with steel and scarcely at all eServesce-s ivith acids." Eead also Colonel Wilford's articles on the ancient Geography of India in the Asiatic Researches, Vol. XIV, pp. 414, 415 : " There are four stones, which are styled Saila-maya, and are accord- ingly worshipped, whenever they are found. The first is the Saila, or stone just mentioned (Soihnjrama); thR second, which is found abundantly in the river Sana, is a figured stone, of a reddish colour, with a sup- posed figure of Ganeia in the shape of an elephant, and commonly called 340 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS In consequence of this fundamental diiference a great number of varieties exist, which are arranged into various classes according to the colour {varna), curl {cakra), hole {bila or chidra), shape [miii-ti), size (sthulasuksmavibheda) , circumference (parimdna), measure (p-amana), base (asana), line (mudra), separate portions (avayava), &c., of the Sala- grama. Another division is made according to their habitat, or place of their origin, whether they belong to the water or to the land, i.e., whether they are jalaja or sthalaja, and their qualities vary according to this diiference. ^^ Oaneia-cd-pathar : the third, is found in the A'acm/ftada; and the fourth, is a single etoneof rook, which is the Saila-maya, of the third part of the bow of Paraiurama, after it had been broken by Barnachandra. It is still to be seen, about seven Cos to the N. E. of Janaca-pura in Tairalhucta, at a place caXlei Dhanucd-grama, or the village of the bow, occasionally called Saila-mayd-pur, or grama, according to the Bhnvnna-coia." In a letter read at the meeting of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta in October 1830, Dr. Gerard of Subathu observed that he had discovered in a lofty position (15,000 feet) of the Himalaya range, an extensive fossil tract of shell formation of which he describes four classes, and of the fourth thus writes : " Beleninites and Orthoceratites mineralized by the same material as the Ammonites (iron clay and pyrites). Their abund- ance in the beds of mountain torrents, especially the Gundak, has been long known, as they form an indispensable article in the uncra of the Hindu Thakoordivaree, under the name of Salagrama " (see Charles Coleman's Mythology of the Hindus, London, 1832, p. 176). Compare the Memorandum on the fossil shells discovered in the Himalayan mountains, by the Kev. E. Everest in the Asiatic Researches, Vol. XVIII, Part II, pp. 107 — 114, and Observations on the Spiti Valley by Surgeon J. G. Gerard in the same volume, pp. 238 — 277, where we read on pp. 276, 277; that " before cross- ing the boundary of Ladak into Basiihir I was gratified by the discovery of a bed of marine fossil shells resembling oysters and clinging to the back in a similar manner .... on the crest of a pass elevated 17,000 feet." " Madriiksptre parimaiiam asanam milrtibhedakam, sthiilasnksmavibhedam ca cakralaksaiiam evaca . . . Varnariipadyavayavaih pramanabilaliinchanaih, dviiradesavibhedena bhedali kasSiicit ucyate . . . OakrakiXram vinirmanam talra kuryur hi sarvasali, jalasthalamatham caiva taccakram trividham smitam. Niskesaram kitabhnktam taccakram mathasanjfiakam. idam fva dvidha proktam jalasthalavibhedatah. OF BHAEATAVAR8A OE INDIA. 341 The principal marks are the curls, holes, colour and shape. The cakras, curls, or spiral convolutions, are of the utmost importance ; they are divided into matha (cell) and kesara (filament). The latter possess superior merit and are ascribed to the water within the stone in which the fabulous vajrakita lives. ^^ The varieties of curls are con- siderable and are credited with producing various effects in the fortunes of those who worship stones marked in such a manner. A Salagrama may have one to twelve such curls. The Cakranadi is the river which abounds in Salagrama- cakras and cakras are according to the legend even found engraved on the heads, backs and bones of the creatures who live there, on men as well as on animals.^ ' ' " Atraati karanam yaooa tat te samyagnigadyate, rasam yasyam silayam tu sambhunkte kitakali sanaih. Pritya tasyam prajayeta oakram tat kesarair yutam, tasmat utpadyate oakram mathaaanjnam phalalpadam. Cakrabhyam ca sila jneya sastasasta vasundhare, yatproktam dvividham oakram tatpunar dvividham bhavet, jalajasthalajam oaiTa laksanam tasya kathyate. Susnigdham diptisamyuktam oakram tajjalajam bhavet, karkasam ksinatejo yat tacoakram sthalajam bhavet. Etayor jalajam sastam nadiparvatayogatah, madhyamam sthalajam proktam parvatasyaiva yogatah ' ' Cakreaa kambuna va ca padmena gadayaiikita, tatra Srih pratyaham tisthet sada sampat taya viset . . . Samacaksva param riipam cakranam laksanam mnue, sarvasiddhikaram oaiva sarvakamarthasadhakam. Laksanam yaooa cakr5pam tacohrnuava mahSmune, dharmakamarthamoksanam purasarthaikahetukam. Gandakyascottare tire girirajasya daksine, ksetram tu Vispusannidhyam sarraksetrottamottamam. Tojanadvadasamitam bahutirthasamakulam, tatra Cakranadlnama tirtham Brahmavinirmitanj. Tasyottare mahasingam mama pritikaram tatha, taoohayabhigatas tatra pasapasoa Khagesvara, Saccihnaisoihnitasoaiva taravo dharapitale, narapam api pakslndra kiScit kalanivasinam Sarvasthisu bhavecoakram maBtake prstha eva ca {Qarudapurana) . 342 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS The Salagrama may be flat, long, small, oval, round, and of rough or of soft surface ; one as small as an Amalahi fruit (Bmblic Myrobalam) is most highly esteemed. ^^ Though generally black, Salagramas of blue, violet, green, yellow, brown, red, white and other colours are also found. So far as the hole is concerned, those stones are particularly valued in which the width of the opening equals one-eighth of the cir- cumference, of less value are those where it equals one- fourth, while those in which it amounts to three-eighths are held to be of indifferent value. ^^ A Salagrama without marks is not esteemed,*"' while every good Salagrama is worshipped as a sacred place or hsetram.^'^ Good and bad qualities are mysteriously con- nected with the various Salagramas, the same stone can cause prosperity to one individual and destruction to another. I shall content myself with giving below a few examples of the influence ascribed to the Salagrama. A soft one fulfils the wishes of the worshipper, a small secures heavenly reward, a cool gives pleasure, a black fame, a red sovereignty, one with a wide hole destroys a family, one with crooked curls creates fear, one in which the cakras are arranged unevenly causes misery, a smoke-coloured makes stupid, a brown kills the wife of its owner, one with many holes turns its worshipper into a tale-bearer.'^'- However, not always '-^ Tasmat tarn pujayet uityaru dharmakamarthasiddhayp, tatrapyamalakitulyS aiiksma cativa ya tatha. '-^ Vittaaiitrastamo bliaga uttamam cakralaksanam, madhyamam ta oatarbhagam kaniyas til tribhagakam ( Piirana- sahgraha) . "" Lauohanena viua ya syat aprasasta tu sa smifca. " ' Salagramasya yat piiayam ksetram trailokyavisrufcam, tatrasti ca Haris saksat sarvadcvais samanvitalj. '" Compare oa this subject the Salagramalalcsana, Laksminamyana- samvada, Merutantra, and especially the Compendium P rlranavh-abhakti- ratnakara. Sviyavarna sila pujya BrahmaUadyaili sukhaptaye, snigdha sila mantrasiddhim raksasiddhim karoti ca. OP BHABATAVABSA OE INDIA. 343 the same virtues and faults are in tlie various descriptions ascribed to the same kind of stones. A Salagrama-stone and a Tulasi plant should be revered in every housCj otherwise such a house is like a burning groundj''3 yet two Salagramas together should not be worshipped in one and the same house ; a similar rule applies to the linga."* A Salagrama should neither be bought nor sold for a certain fixed price, those who do not observe this precept go to hell.''^' He who offers a Salagrama as a present is regarded to have given the best Mecaka kirttiha dhautaiigararat sa yasohara, papcluriiparthasamani malinS papadhikari. Pita putraphalam dadyat aravarna gutan haret, nila sandisate laksmlm dhfimrabhii liarate matiiu. Eogaprada raktavariia sindarabha mahakalim, daridryakaritii vakrii samS sarvarthasadhikS. Sfchala nihanti caivayuh siiksma svalpamatiui liai*et, piijaphalam lanohitaya nisphala liluoanam viua. Kapila oittavaikalyam uetrarogauca karbura, bhagna bhangakari jneya bahucakrapamauadri, Laksaijantaraliina ca devaoakra viyogada, Vrhanmakhi kalatraghni vihaccakrii sutan haret . . . Cakram va kevalam padmalaiiohanam tvatha va gadil. Laficlianam vanamala va Harir Laksmya salia sthitali, tasmin gehe na daridryam na soko maraaad bhayam. Na caivagnibhayam tatra grahair dustair na badhyate, ante mokso bhayam tasya piijanadeva nityasah. °* Yad gihe nasti tulasi salagraraasilarcanain, smasanasadiaam vindyat tadgiham snbhavariitam . . . Sa dhanyalj purusoloke saphalam tasya jivitam, salagramasila suddha gihe yasya ca pujita. °* Grhe lingadvayam naroyam ganesatrayam eva oa, dvau saukhau naroayennityam na saktitrayam eva ca. Dve cakre dvarakayaa tu narcyam si3ryadvayam tatha, salagramas samah piijyah nadyayam tu kadacana. Visama na ca piijyas te visame caika eva hi, naksataih piijayet Vispum na ketakya Sadasivam. <'^ Salagramasilayas tu miilyam udghatayet kvacit vikreta krayakarta va narake vai patet dhruvam. 45 344 ON THE OEIGINAL INHABITANT,^ land circle. «o It should also not be touched either by a Sodra, or by an outcast, or by a woman." ^ The sacred stone should be carefully kept apart in a shrine, between TulasI leaves and wrapt up in a clean cloth. It should be often perfumed and washed, the water ased on such an occasion becomes sanctified and fit to be drunk as holy water. The Salagrama is to be plentifully supplied with milk, rice and other requisites ; this is also done to test the quality and for choosing the proper stone. ^^^ The head of the family should at least once a day, '5'' after his morning ablutions, or at evening-dawn, offer his prayers to the Salagrama. Closing his eyes, he rings the bell to announce the approach of Visiiu and to warn the people to stand off, because the god is appearing from the Salagrama, which is placed on a small tray or simhdsana (throne). He supplies the burning lamps with camphor, sprinkles water on himself and on the stone, and offers to the god, while uttering liis mantras or prayers, arghya, 'padya, aeamamya, sndniya, pamya and annadiham.""- °° Salagramasilacakram yo dadyat danam uttamam, bhficakram tena dattani syat sasailavanakauauani Yo dad.iti silam Visnoli salagramasamudbhavam, vipraya vipramukhyaya tenestam bahubhir makbaih. " ' Salagramo na sprastavyo hinavarnair vasnndbare, strlsiidj'akaraBainsparso vajrasparsadhiko matalj. Mohat yah satnsprset siidro yosid vapi kadaoana, sa patet narake ghore yavat abhiatasamplavam. ° ' Ksire va tandule viipi aalagramam nivesayet, distvadhlkyam tayoh kiiicib grbplyat buddhimSn naral.i. It is asserted that rice and milk gain in weight, if a Srvlagrama is placed in them. °" Salagramam Harpsoihuam pratyaham piijayet naral.i. ' " Such mantras are : "Om bijam svaha salagramavasisriramaprityarthe viniyogah. Omnamo bhagavate hrdayaya natnah. Visnave sirase svaha, Salagramavasine sikhayai vausat. Sarviibhistaphalapradaya kavacaya hum. Sakaladuri- tanivarine netratrayaya vausat Salagramaya svaha. Astraya bhat." " Om namo bhagavate Visnave. Salagramauivasine sarvabhistaphala- pradaya sakaladuritanivarine Salagramaya svaha." OP BHAEATAVAESA OR INDIA. 345 He then walks three times from the right side round the Salagrama, repeats the thousand names of Visiju, and after finishing his prayers takes his food. The eificienoy of the stone to secure the blessings of this as well as of the next world is firmly believed in by pious Hindus.^' In consequence of this it is shown to dying persons and water poured on the TulasI plant is sprinkled on them through the hole of the stone in order to secure to them the benefit of dying in Kasi ; ' - even sinners when they receive it^ have their sins condoned/ ^ Avhile it confers likewise pleasure on the departed Manes.'"* The hole or opening of the Salagrama, which is in fact its most important feature, is ascribed to the action of the legendary insect Vajrakita. The story goes that the divine Narayana or Visiju wandered once in the form of a golden bee or Vajrakita on the surface of the earth. The gods seeing him whirling about with very great splendour, assumed also the shape of golden bees and approached him. ' ' Yah piijayet Harim cakre salagramasamudbhave, rSjasiiyasahasrena tenestam prativasaram. Yad atnananti Vedanta Brahma nirguiiam acyutam, tatpraaado bhavet nrnam salagramasilarcanat. Kotidvadasaliiigaistu pi3jitaih svarnapaikajaih, j'at syat dvadasavarsesu dinenaikena tad bhavet. Salagramasamipe tu krosamatram samantatah, kitako'pi mrto yati Yaikiinthabliuvanam guha. '■^ Salagramasilasparsah kotiyajnaphalapradah, marapat tatsamipesuKasItulyaphalam bhavet. "' Api papasaiuacarali karmauyanadhikarinah, Salagramarcaka vaisya naiva yanti yamalayam, Kamaih krodhair madair lobhair vyapto yo'tra narSdhipsi, so'pi yati Harer lokam salagramasilarcanat. Salagramasilam distva yanti papanyanekasali, sirhhan distva yatha yanti vane migagana bhaySt. ' * Salagramasilagre tu yah sraddham kurute narah, bhavanti pitaras tjptah kalasaiikhya tu naiva hi. This sloka occurs in the Matsyapuraua, it is also found in the Padma- purana where, however, the second half is as follows : pitaras tasya tisthanti tiptah kalpasatam divi. 346 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS The world surrounded by the swarm of bees was set a-whirl- ing and whirled about to such an extent that Visnu afraid of the consequences, assumed the. shape of a rock and stopped the moving of Garuda and of the gods, upon which Garuda entered into a big hole of the rock, followed by all the gods as bees, who made themselves each a separate tene- ment for the conversion of the infidels."'' Lieutenant-Colonel F. Wilford^" says in his essay On the ancient Geograjjliy < if India : " The origin of this rocky " hill is connected with a most strange legend, which I shall "give in the abstract, Vishmi, unwilling to subject him- " self to the dreaded power, and influence, of the ruler of " the planet Saturn, and having no time to lose, was obliged " to have recourse to his MdyU, or illusive powers, which are "very great, and he suddenly became a rocky mountain.''^ ' ' Hiranyagarblio bhagavan fidyiJ Narayanah srayam, vajrakitah prabhiitatvaooacara Tasudhatal?. Sauvarpatn bhramaraui dxstvri clevas tadriipadharipah, upataathur mahatmanam bhramantam atitfjasam ; ^aclaughribhir jagataarTam vyaptam ctaccaiacaram, hiraH3'agarbliabhramarair bhi'.aniitam bhi-antavat sad;l. Distva jagatpatir Visijnr Vainateyani sanntanab, riuodha aailariipcpa jagatani hitak.arakah. KiruddhavOgah sahah.a pravivr.sa vilam mahat, tasmin pravisto bbrainai-.as tadvilam vivisuh snbbam. Cakrus svam svam mahat vfsma kGsakaravat attnanali. naatikanam pvatyayartham vairakilah sadai'iglirayab (Dharmn- -amhitri). '» Sec Asiatic lu:searchc.'i and Tmnaactivns, Vol. XIV, p. 414 (Cal- cutta, 1822 '' In A viexv ''f the history, literntitre, aii'J relujion of the l-findoos by the Eev. W. Ward (Madras, 1863) a similar story is given on pp. 174, 175 ; " Tbe reason why this stone has been deified is thus given in the Shreebha- guvutu : — Vishnoo created the nine planets to preside over the fates of men. Shnnee (Saturn) commenced his reign by proposing to Braniha, that he should first come under his influence for twelve years. Brumha referred him to Vishnoo, but this god, equally averse to be brought under the dreaded influence of this inausijieions planet, desired Saturn to call upon him the next diiy, and immediately assumed the form of amountain. The next day Saturn was not able to find Tishnno, hut discovering that OF BHARATiVAESA OB, INDlA. 34V " This is called S aila-mdya, of a rocky mountain the illusive "form, but Saturn soon found liim out, and in the shape " of a worm, forced himself through, gnawing every part " of this illusive body. For one year of Saturn was Vishnu " thus tormented, and through pain and vexation, he " sweated most profusely, as maj' be supposed, particularly "about the temples, from which issued two copious streams, " the Grishna or black, and the Sivcta-Ganddci or white " Gandaci ; the one to the east, and the other to the west. " After one revolution of Suturn, Vishnu resumed his own " shape, and ordered this stone to be worshipped, which of " course derives its divine right from itself, without any " previous consecration, as usual in all countries in which " images are worshipped." The stories told by Colonel Wilford and Rev. W. Ward about Saturn I have not been able to find as yet in any Purana. The Rev. W. Ward is, I think, wrong in ascribing his version to the Sribhagavatapurana. My suspicion is that both accounts are made up from different sources and that a legend of Visnu as Mohini forms the real basis of the narrative of Colonel ^\'ilford. In another Sanskrit tale the gods became Vajrakitas through the curse of Gandaki, who in her turn was cursed into becoming a black sluggish river, ''^ an allusion per- he had united liimself to mount Gundnkee, he entered the mountain in the form of a worm called vajrukeetu (thunderbolt worm). He continued thus to afflict the mountain-formed Vishnoo for twelve years, when Visli- noo assumed his proper shape, and commanded that the stones of this mountain should be worshipped, and should become proper representatives of himself i adding that each should have twenty-one m.irks in it, similar to those on his body, and that its name should be shalgramu." '* " Kitayonim prapadyetha" iti gapdakyali suran prati sape. Tena karmavipakena jada kisna nadi bhaveti devanam gaijdakim prati sape ca late Visnuna tatsamadhrmayoktam tatha : Sinu Brahman, Mahadeva ! Sinu dcva Gajanana ; sadguiian brahmamau grahamiltaiigau sapato' tra ^ni, Bhavisyatas tayor moksam bhavisyami kalcvaram, sirnam bhavisyati yada tanmedomajjasambhavSli, 348 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS haps to the Krsna Gandaki mentioned above. Brahmau and Siva in fact assumed the form of Vajrakltas from the marrow and fat of a decayed body, but eventually the curse was removed through the agency of Visnu, the gods resumed their previous forms, and Gandaki became a pure and sacred river. The Salagrama-stone is in its various forms or murtis dedicated to the several deities and these forms have special names. The Bairdgis or wandering mendicants make the study of these various species their particular business, so much so that they are regarded as the proper authorities in this matter. Except an insignificant minority, all these shapes are dedicated to Visiiu, and in many instances more than one variety is ascribed to one and the same kind. There exist thus, so far as I know, 16 varieties of the Krsna-Salagrama, 13 of Nrsiiiiha, 12 of Rama, 9 of Narayana, 6 of Gopala, 4 of Kurma, Varaha and Sudarsana respectively, 3 of Balarama, and 2 each of Vamana, ParasurRma, Damodara and Vasu- deva. Six and occasionally more shapes are ascribed to Siva, r) to Brahman, 2 to N'isnu and Siva collectively, and one each to the Trimurti, iS'ara, Laksmi, Sesa, Surya, Guha, Dattatreya, Kartavlryarjuna, Dharmaraja, Ganesa, Kmida- lini, and to the five household deities (paiicayatanatnQrtayah. i.e., to Aditya, Ambika, Visnu, Ganesa and Mahesvara).^^ P.nsanrintargatalj kila vajrakhyah prabhavisyatha. Seo Vnchaspat'ia, oompileil liy TariinathaTarkayachaspati, Yol. IV, p. 6000 under Salagrama. '" The names of these milrtis of the Salagrama are . I, those of Tisnu : Matsya, Kiirma, Varaha, Sretavaraha, LaksraiYaraha, Bhii (Dharani) varaha, SuddhavarSha, Nrsimha, Vidarana Nrsiinha, Eaksasantakanrsimha, Aghoranrsimha, Mahanrsiiiiha, Yivrtasyanrsiriiha, Kuksinisiiiiha, Haranrsiriiha, Vibhisananiaiiiiha, Adhomukhanrairiiha, Kapilanrsiiiiha, Balanisimha, Laksminrsirii ha, Vamana, DadhivSmana, Santaparasurama, Ugraparasur3ma, Ramauiijrti, Dasaratharama, Sita- }'rLma, Tarakahrahmasitarama, Dasakanthaknhintakarama. Virararaa, Vijayarama, HTStarama, Kodandarama, Kalinasakararilma, l^rJrama, Padabliirama, Slrapani, Balarfima, Pralambhaghiia, Banddha, Kalki, OF BHAEATAVAESA OE INDIA. 349 Kundalini or Sakti is tlie same as Bhavanl, and to her two varieties are ascribed. It is even said that Mahadevi re- sides in the Salagrama.^ "^ The Salagrama-stone is found in Nepal in the upper course of the river Gandaki, also known as Salagrama, and marked on the maps as Salagrama river^ Kesava, Narayana (Maliauariiyaaa), Syamalanariiyaiia, Laksminarayana, Narauarayapa, RfipanarayaHa, Virauarayaija, Mayauarayana, Madhava, Govinda, Visuu, Mahavispu, iladhusiidana, Tri\-ikrama, Vamana, Dadlii- vamana, Sridhara, Hisikesa, Padmauabha, DamSdara, Laksmidamodara, Sai'ikarsai.ia, Vasudeva, Santa vasudeva, Pradyumma, Aniruddha, Purusot- tama, Adhoksaja, Acyuta, Janardana, Upendra, Hari, Krsna, Balakrspa, Gopalakisna, Govardhanakispa, Trailokyamohanakrspa, Saubhagya- varadakispa, Eiikmiplkispa, Vijayakisna, Ciidamanikrsija, Sanatanakrsiia, Dhananjayakisna, Pai-ijataharakiSMa, Syamantakaharakrspa, Kamsamar- dauakispa, Kaliyamardanakrsna, Caiiiiramardanakispa, Guvardhauagupala, Srigopala, Santanagopala, Laksmigopala, Madanagopala, Vamsagopala, Govardhanadhara, Vaiknntha, Hayagrlva, Caturbhuja, Pupdarikaksa, Sndarsana, Suddhasudarsana Ubhayasudarsana, Samasudarsana, Yoges- vara, Vispupanjara, Tajiiamiu-ti, Sirhsumaia, Haiiisa, Paramahamsa, Laksmipati, Garudadhvaja, Vatapatrasayiu, SesasJlyin, Visrambhara, Pitambharadhara, Satyavirasravas, Amrtaharana, Garuda, Vanamalin, Murari, Mukunda, SrivatsalaSchana, Dharaaidhara, Yogaraja, Srimnrti, Srisahaya, Devadera, Kapila, Avyaya, Kslrabhisayin, Musalayudha, Cakra- pajii, Bahariipa, Jagadyoni, Yisvakaena, Haibaya, &c. II, those of Siva : Sadyojata, Tamadeva, Agbora, Tatpurusa, Isana, Sarvasaujna, Saiikara, Candrasekhara, Sivanabha, Bhava, Tryambaka, Dhurjafi, Sambhu, Isv-ara, Mrtyuiljaya and Rudra. III, those of Brahman: Paramesthin, Pitaniaha, Hiranyagarbha, Svayambhii and Caturmukha. IV, the two miirtis ascribed to Vis an, and Siva collectively are Hari- hara and Sivanarayana. '" Salagraman, atho vaksye saktikitasamudbhaTan, yesam pfijanato devi Bhavani suprasidati. Srividyd sa tale cakramiirdhni chatram pradrsyate, vahye ghaptankita murdhna snigdha syamakhilestada. MuhdJcali tu sa jiieya yonicihnasamanvita, dvicchidradhya sarvasila trikopenankita ca ya. Yadayudhakitisoordhvam tam devim tatra nirdispt, devislla sucakra ya daksamargepa tam yajet; Sarjita vamamargena lokadvayasukhavaha , ya oakrarahita devlsilam tam vaniato'rcayet. See Matsyapurana XIII, 34 C : Salagrame mahadevi sivaliiige sivapriya. 350 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS a northern tributary of the Gauges. The special portion of the sti'eam where the most valuable and most efBoacious stones are found is distinguished by the name of Cak- ranadij and said to be twelve yOjanas north of the lower Gandaki. The whole neighbourhood is highly esteemed and famous for its sanctity, so that a visit to the Sala- gramatirtha confers great merit on a man. The mighty king Bharata, however, was disappointed, for he did not obtain the desired happiness by staying in this place. The Gandaki was known to the ancients as Kondoclmtes, as I have already mentioned elsewhere.*' ' ' See p. 1 14, N. 10, where I hinted that ii connection may exist between the name of the river and that of the Gand (Gond) aborigines. Compare also the Indische Alteiiluim.^l-unde von Christian Lassen, Vol. I, Zweite Auflage, 1807, p. 7o • " Der Hanptarm des Flusses entspringt bei Mastang auf dem Plateau-Lande im Norden des Dhavalagiri, zwischen welohem und dem Svetacihara er die hochste Kette durehbricht; an ihm ist eiu Pass nach Tibet. In seinem obern Laufe briu^t er Snlii>jrniua oder Amuioniten- Petrefacte mit sioh, in denen der Indische Glaube Verkiirperungen des I'ls/wnt erblickt ; daher seine Heiligkeit nnd der .starke Besuch seiner Wallfahrtsorte ; anch wird er selbst inlaiimml genannt iind mit einem Namen doR Gottes : ]!^ni-ajani ; wie bei der Jaumna und Gangil siud auch an seinem Qrsprnnge heisse Quellen. Er ist der Hauptstrom des Landes Kepiil im wciterri Sinne. Das Gebiet ihm im Westen bis zar Eapti heist Parvata, d. h, I'.L'rgland, oder MuhijabhUmi, drrselben Bedeutung; darunter n.ich Puden liegt das Gebiet Kaohi. {Knlarjnndlka, in Raj. Tar. IV, 5-15, die schwarze Gaiidika, wenn niclit etwas anderes dariu liegt)." Read also Col. Wilford's : On the ancient Geography of India, Asiatic Researches, Vol. XIV, pp. 412, 113, U5; "The Gandacl or Qandacavati is called Gmidac in the spoken dialects, and it is the Condochates oi Megasthenes . . . The name of this stone is written Salagram, Sailagrdm, Sailachacra, and Oandaci-Sila. Peopk-, who go in search of the Salagram, travel as far as a place called Thdcai-cote at the entrance nearly of the snowy mountains. To tlie south of it is a village, where they stop, and procure provisions. This village was probably called Saikumr or Pi(i7u;/mi», from its situation near a SniVa or rocky hill, and from it this famous stone was denominated Saihigrntii, as well as the river. Thacca is mentioned in Arroivsinilh's map. The river Gandaca is so called because it proceeds from a mountain of that name. The people of Nagpdla call it Cuiidan because it proceeds from the Cunda-sthala or the two OF BHABATATARSA OB INDIA. 351 Various legends are told about Graijdakij who appears in different guises as a deity, an Apsaras in the heaven of Krsna or Visnuj as the wife of an Asura, as identical with Tulasi or Vrnda, and as a river. The Sridevlbhagavata con- tains these stories in diiferent places, and I have put these accounts here together into one narrative, in order to point out their connection with one another. Tulasi (or Oandrthi according to other accounts) lived as a Gopi in Goloka, the heaven of Krsna, who was very fond of her. Rasesvarl (or Radh'i), another favorite wife of the god, saw once that Tulasi was dissatisfied with her husband, and, angry about it, cursed her into becoming a mortal. ^ 2 cavities, or depressions of the temples of Vishnu, in the shape of a mountain, as I observed before." Dasayojanavistirfle mama kfietre dvijottama, Tittare oaiva digbhage pramanam yojanam tatha. Sanunama parvatastu cakranamiiiikita nadi, Visnunamarnsakotthani mama riipani sarvatalj, Trikalam sikharikiitasoapsaroganasevitaVi, Sailamiirtir aham tatra cakrakhyam tu oa yam vidulj. Sodasair npaoaraia tu tatrarcam samvidhaya ca, gandharvair vividliaisoaiva samstiiya Madhuaiidanam, &o. — {Padmapurana) . " GaBdakyasoottare tire girirajasya daksine, ksetram tu Vismusannidhyat sarvakaetrottamottamam, Tojanadvadasamitam bahutirthasamakulam, tatra Cakranadinamatirtham Brahmavinirmitam. Tasyottare mahasrngam mama pritikaram tatha, tacchayabhigatas tatra pasanasca Khagesvara." (Garwda'pumna), see p. 341, n. 57. The Salagramalalcsarta contains also these verses up to Brahmavinirmitam or Brahmaviniicitam and then continues as follows : Hiranyam vajrakitena nirraitaiscakrasancayaih, Salagriimasilas tatra tirthe tisthanti samyutah. Cakraiscihnaisca gacohanti nanamiirtinidhim priye, miirtibheda nigadyante tatraikasitinamakah. Brahmyah Saivyo madiyasoa varadanat samudbhavah, tasu martisu ya labdhah tatra pi7Jam caret budhah. = ^ See Devihhagavata IX, 17, 24 — 26 i 24 Easesvarl samagafcya dadarsa rasamangale, govindam bhartsayamaaa mam easapa rueanvita, 46 352 ON THU ORiaiNAL INHABITANTS Radha had likewise cursed a Gopa called Sudaman, an admirer of Tulasi, causing him to leave heaven and become anAsura.^^ Krsna consoled Tulasi, who was aggrieved at the curse, by saying, that, through doing severe penance in her next birth, Brahman would grant her a boon in making her the wife of a person containing a portion {amsa) of himself (Krsna), and that eventually she would obtain her desire to be reunited with the god Narayana. In due time Tulasi was re-born in this world as the beautiful and highly gifted daughter of king Dharmadhvaja and queen Mddhavl, and she went immediately to the Badari forest to commence a most severe penance, in order to obtain Narayana as her husband, sitting in the hot summer season between five fires, and during the rainy season in wet clothes night and day exposed to the pouring rain. Altogether her penance lasted one hundred thousand divine years, during 20,000 of which she fed on fruit and water, 30,000 on leaves, 40,000 with an empty stomach on air, and 10,000 on nothing, while standing on one foot. A similar penance is undergone by the sage Upamanyu, for the sake of Mahadeva whom he wished to see and whom he placed above all the gods, as the Linga of no other god but that of Siva receives worship. To obtain this desire Upamanyu stood for a thousand years on the tip of his left toe, living for the first three hundred years, first on fruit, then on 25 Yahi tram m.inavim yonini itypTam ca sasapa ha, mam uvaca sa Govindo madam sam ca caturbhujam. 26 Labhisyasi tapae taptva bharato Brahmaiio varat, ityevam nktva deveso'pyantardhanam ciikara sail. About Tulasi possessing a superior portion of Prakrti, see ihidem IX, 1, 63 — 70. Radha, the favourite of KrSna is in the Dpvibhagavata IX, 1, 44 — 57 described as one of the five representatives of Sakti. •" See ihidem IX, 17, 28&— 29 ; see p. 354, note 85 : 286 Sudama nama gopasca srlkrSBiliigasamudbhavali. 29 TadamSascatitejasvi lebho janma ca bharate, sampratam Kiidhikasapat dann vam sasamudbhavali. OF BHAEATAVABSA OE INDIA. 353 withered leaves and lastly on water, and for the remaining seven hundred on air.^* ' * See Devibhagavata IX, 17, 14— 19a : 14 Sarvair nisiddha tapase jagama Badarivanam, tatra devabdalaksam ca cakara paramam tapal.i. 15 Manasa Narayainassvami bhaviteti ca nisoita, grisme pancatapasSite toyavastra ca pravrai 16 Asanastlia vrstidharas sahantiti divanisam. Vimsatsahasravarsam ca phalatoyasana ca sa 17 Trimsatsahasravarsam ca patrahara tapasvinf, catvarimsatsahasrabdam vayvahara krsodari. 18 Tatodasasahaarabdam nirahara babhava sa, nirlaksam caikapadastham drstva tarn KamalodbhavaVi. 19 Samayayau varam datum param Badarikasramam. Compare with this Gandakipurana : (Narada uvaca) : Srotum icchami deyesa Salagramasya laksa- nam, sarvasiddhipradatavyam sarvakamaprasadhakam. Karmasthane samutpannalj ke ca kali kaisoa piiiitali, pujitaih kim phalavaptir vidhanam tasya kidrsam. (Brahmovaca) : Divyavarsasahasram tu aradhya purnsottamam, tataa tutosa bhagavan varado me maiamune. Pancasatkotivistiriiiam bhiicakram Hariuirmifcam, saptadvipat tu tacchrestham JambSdvipam iti smrtam. Navakhandat ta tacchrestham Bharatam varsam uttamam, himasetii tayor madhye karmabhiimir ihocyate. Sarvadevasraya bhiimir bhdgamoksapradayiiif, sarvottamottamaksetram sarvatirthauisevitam. Darsanasparsauat va syat sayujyapadam apnuyat, raahata tapasa caiva prito bhavati Madhavab. Ajnanuddharanarthaya salagramasilapyabhiit, Gaudakyasoottare ramye girirajasya daksine. Dasayojanavistiriiam Hariksetram dvijottama, nilavarria tu niskranta cakranamankita nadf. Tisaupadambujat bhiitva m.ahapatakanasanr, aadakalam sthito Visijus tattirthe sarito munf. Tatraiva tatathita cakra nabhidvitricaturyuta, tatra tirthe dvija srestha sada sannihito Harih. See Mahabhdrata, Auusasanaparva, XIV, 168 — 70 : Tato'hara tapa aathaya tosayamasa Sankaram, ekam varsasahasram tu vamangugthagraviathitah. Bkam varsasatam oaiva phalaharaa tato'bhavam, dvitiyam slrnaparnaai tftjyam cambubhojanah. Satanam sapta caivaham vayubhaksaa tadabhavam, ekam varsasahaaram tu divyam aradhito maya. . . , S54 ON THE OBiaiNAL INHABITANTS Brahman at last appeared, listened to Tulasi's request, and told her that she would in the form of the TulasI plant be united with Narayana, but would previously become the wife of SaiikhacQda, who as Sudaman had lived in the Goloka and had also there made a severe penance in the Badarl forest. ^^ Tulasi was well pleased with the answer Brahman gave her, but still fearing B,adha, asked and obtained a mantra consisting of sixteen syllables as protection. She then became the wife of Sarikhacuda for the period of a manvantara. This Asura had meanwhile by his power, founded on a promise given to him by Brahman as a reward of his penance, subdued all the gods and sages, and had oppressed them to such an extent, that in their despair they went to Brahman for protection. He took them to Siva, and all went to Visiju who was in Yaikan- tha. Visnu told them the story of TulasI and Sarikhacuda, and gave to Siva a lauce or sQla with which to kill the Asura. Siva, however, could do this only if the Asura was deprived of his talisman or liuvaca, which the Asura wore always round his neck, as upon his wearing it, depended his power and his life. In the disguise of a Brahman, Visnu then visited See Deviihagavatu IX, 17, 30 — 36. — I translate here havaca by talisman and not by armour. 30 Safikhaoiida iti khyatae trailokye na ca tatsamah, goloke tvam pura drstva kamonmathitamanasalj, 31 Vilambitum na sasaka Radikayah prabhavatah, sa oa jatismaras tasmat Sudamabhiicca eagare. 32 Jatismara tvam api sa sarvam janasi sundari, adhuna tasya patni tvam sambhaviByasi sobhane. 33 Pascat Narayanam santam kantam eva varisyasi, sapat Narayanasyaiva kalaya daivayogatah, 34 Bhavisyasi vrksanlpii tvam piita visvapavani, pradliina sarvapuBpesu Visijupranadhika btaveh, 85 Tvaya vina oa sarvesam puja ca viphala bhavet, Brndavane vrksariipa namna Brndavaniti ca 36 Tvatpatrair gopigopasoa pfijayijyanti Madhavam, vrksadhidevirijpeaa sardham Krsnena santatam. OF BHAEATAVAKSA OE INDIA. 355 the demon, and obtained from Mm tte protecting havaca. ^® As soon as Sarikhacuda was thus deprived of his talisman, Siva attacked him with the sula, but the Asura knowing that his life had come to an end, prayed to Krsna, and after his death reassumed his previous state as the Gopa Sudaman in the Goloka. The bones of SaiikhacQda more- over turned to conches or saiikhas, which were heuceforth deemed so sacred, that Hari and Laksmi are said to reside in all the places where saiikhas are found.®'' Visiju had meanwhile assumed the outward appearance of Sankhaouda and had gone to the house where TulasI resided.® 8 She, believing him to be her husband, received ■8 See ibidem IX, 19, 87—91 -. 87 Ityevam Sankhaoiidasoa punastatraiva jiisyati, mahabalistho yogesas sarvamayavisaradalj. 88 Mama sulam grhitva ca sfghram gaoohata Bharatam, Sivah karota sarinharam mama sfilena raksasah. 89 Mamaiva kavacam kanthe sarvamangalakarakam, bibtarti danavas sasvat saihsare vijayl tatalj. 90 Tasmin Brahmasthitenaiva na ko'pi himsitum ksamah, tad yaoanam karisyami viprariapo'ham eva oa. 91 Satitvahanis tatpatnya yatra kale bhavisyati, tatraiva kale tadmrtyur iti datto varas tvaya. • ' See ibidem IX, 23, 23—28 : 23 Atha siilam ca vegena prayayau tara ca sadaram, asthibhis Sankhaoiidasya sankhajatir babhfiva ha. 24 NanaprakarariJpena sasvat piita surarcane, prasastam Saiikhatoyam ca devanam pritidam param. 25 Tlrthatoyasvariipam ca pavitram Sambhuna vina, Saiikhasabdo bhavet yatra tatra Laksmis susamsthira. 26 Sa snatas sarvatlrthesu yas snatas saiikhavariija, saiikho Harer adhisthanam yatra saiikhas tato Harih. 27 Tatraiva vasate Laksmir duribhutam amaiigalam, striaam oa saikhadhvanibhis sjadranam oa visesatali. 28 Bhitarusta yati Laksmis tatsthalat anyadesatah. Sivo'pi danavam hatva Sivalokam jagamaha. The Indian Antiquary contains in Vol. XVI, pp. 154—156, a popular version of this legend, in which the hero is called Jalandhara and Tulasi appears as Vrnda. 8 » See ibidem IX, 24, 2b— 3a : 2b Sankhaoiidasya kavacam grhitva "Vidnumayaya, 3a punar vidhaya tadrupam jagama tatsatigrham. 356 ON THE OEiaiNAL INHABITAtJTS him with all the affection due to him as such, but eventually discovered that she had been deceived by an impostor, and in her rage, owing to his hard-heartedness, she cursed him so that he became a stone. Visnu had great difficulty in appeasing her, and in proving that whatever had happened, was due to previous fate, which had destined her to become the wife of Saiikhacuda in order to obtain afterwards Narayana as her husband, which she had herself desired in her previous birth ; for after her death, which was imminent, her body would become the river Gandakr, and her hair would be turned into the Tulasi plant. Visnu, moreover, reunited with her in the Gaiidaki river, would be with her in the form of the Salagrama-stone, while the Gandaki would become a pure and holy stream, and known as such through- out the world. 8 9 '» See ibidem IX, 24, 23!)— 25a, 28—36, 56—58; 236 He natha te dayii nasti pasa i asadrsasya ca, 24 chalena dliarmabhai'igena mama svami tvaya hatali, PaaanahrdayaB, tvam hi dayahino yatali prabho. 25 Tasmat pasanariipas tvam bhave deva bhavadhuna .... 28 (Sribhagavani ■ Tapas tvaya krtam bhadre madarthe Bharate ciram, tvadarthfi Sarikhaoiidaica cakara siiciram tapali. 29 Krtva tvam kaiuinim so'pi vijahara catatksanat, adhuna datum ucitam tavaiva tapasali phalam. 30 Idam sariram tyaktva ca divyadeham vidhaya ca, Eame rama mayii sardham tvam Eamasadisi bhava. 31 lyam tanur nadirnpa Gaudakiti ca visruta; puta snpuiiyada iiT-nam puwye bhavatu Bharate. 32 Tava kesasamndhasca puijyavrkso bhavisyati, Tnlasikesasambhnta tulasiti ca visruta. 33 Triau lokesu puspanam patrauam devapiijanc, pradhanariipii Tulasi bhavisyati varanane. 34 Svarge martye ca patale goloke mama sannidhau, bhava tvam Tulasi vrkaavara puspesu aunnadi. 35 Goloke virajatire rase brndavane vane, Bhapdire Campakavane ramye candanakanane 36 Madhavi ketaki kunda nialika malativane, yasas te'traiva bhavatu punyasthanesu punyadah . . OP BHARATAVARSA OR INDIA. 357 In fact the other Puranas pay more attention to the penance of Gaijidakl than to that of Tulast, the object of both being so far the same, as both penances are under- taken to obtain Visnu as a husband. In the Varaha- puraija, however, Gandaki expresses a wish to become the mother of Visnu and the same desire is mentioned in the LaksmiDarayanasaiiivada.'*^ The Padmapurana contains a story according to which Indra sent the nymph Manju- vac^^ to disturb the penance of the sage Vedasir as, who 56 Aham ca sailariipena Gandakltfrasannidhau adhisthanam karisyami BhSrate tava sapatali. 57 Kotisaiikhyas tatrakitaa tiksiiadarii stra varayudhaili, tacchailaknhare cakram karisyanti madiyatam. 58 Bkadvaram catnscakram vanamalavibliiisitam, navinaniradakaram LaksmlnarayanSbhidham. '° Gandakyapi pnra taptam varsanam ayutatn vidhi". SirnaparnSsanam krtva vayubhaksapyanantaram. Divyam varsasatam tepe Visnum cintayati tada. Tatalj saksajjagannatho Harir bhaktajanapriyali. Uvaoa madhuram vakyam pritalj pranatavatsalalj, Gandaki tvam prasanno'smi tapasii vismito'naghe . Tato Mtnamso, sa devi Gandaki lokatariiii, pranjalilj praiiata bhiitva madhuram vakyam abravit. Tadi deva prasaunosi deyo me vSnohito varah, mama garbhagato bhntva Tisno matputratam n'aja. Tatalj prasanno Bhagavan oiutayamasa gopate, kim yacitara nimnagaya nityam matsangalnbdhaya. Dasyami yaoitam yena lokanam bbava moksanam. Ityevam krpaya devo niaoitya manasa svayam Gandakim avadat pritalj srnn devi vaoo mama. Salagramasilariipi tava garbhagatah sada. Tisthami tava putratve bhaktanngrahakarajjat, matsannidhyat nadinamtvam atisrestha bhavisyasi. Darsanat aparsanat snanat panat caivavagahanat, hariayasi mahapapam van manalj kayasambhavam {Vamhapurana). In the LaTcsminarHyanasamvada jSTarayaija or Visnu gays : Ganclakifapasa tustah putratv?nagata vayam. 9 1 Asit atitakalpe vai munir Vedasira mahan, Gaigatlre tapaa tivram knrvan lokasukhavaham Tattapobhitaoittena Mahendrf na nrpatmaja, preaita Manjuv5g devl devakanya manohara .... Tatsparaaromanoitadebam enam jSatva avavasyam nijabahnpasam 358 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS when he perceived her intention to distract him by her beauty from his penance, cursed her that she might become a river, but moved by her supplication that it was not her fault, she being only a servant of Indra, altered his decision in so far that she should become the holy river Gaudaki, in which according to the curse of Brnda (or Tulasi) Visnu would be reborn as the Salagrama-stone. So much about the connection which unites the worship of the Salagrama-stone with Visnn. Considering the compara- tively late date when Yisnu was identified with the Sala- grama-stone, it must long before have attracted the attention of the aborigines and been used by them as an object of worship, with this difference, however, that they regarded it as representing the female energy, their highest deity. Traces of this cult are in fact still extant, for various Salagramas are devoted to the principle of Sakti, when personating Bhavani and Kundalini. How and when the Salagrama became the emblem of Visnu is quite another question which is the more difficult to answer, when we consider the changes which Visiju, who tatkantliapiirsTc nidaclhe tadasau bubodha cattnauam anaiiga- viddham. Tatas tu krodhatamriikso munir Tedasira mahan, avastabhyatmanatmaDam sayapainam mahatapah. Tararigasitalatara bhujadvayasamanvita, srngarahradini bhiit-i-a viksipanti mamopari. Kamakundr majjayanti kseptukama bhavambudhau, yannadiva samahrsla tannadi bhaya bhamini. Evam sapti tu sa devi Manjuroh khinnamanasa, pratynvaoa munim dina prasadayapatat padoli. Fai-adhinasmi bho Brahman pritioestrini praknrvati, vinayavanata vSpi na saparhS praslda me. Tadovaca munih siinto nadi bhiitra Janardanain, avodaro dharayanti oa krtakrtyam janam kuru. Salagramasil.ii'ilpi Visiias tvayi janisyati, tvadyasovistaro lake inuktidatri nriiani iha Sairaisa Manju.vdg devI Gaudaki saritam vara, tasyam ViSBulj silarupl Brndasapat babhuva ha. OF BHAEATAVAESA OE INDIA. 859 first appears on the religious horizon of the Aryans as a Vedic Aditya, must have undergone in the estimation of a considerable portion of the Aryan population in India, However^ so much seems clear, that, at whatever period we are inclined to fix the adoption of the Salagrama as an emblem of Visnu, it must have been assumed at a consider- ably later day than the liiiga, which was most likely in some way or other already known to the ancient Aryans of India as a divine representation, and we are the more justified in this opinion, as the linga worship spread over the whole world, while that of the Salagrama must have been originally confined to this country, even if the worship of this stone should be found existing beyond the borders of India, for the Sillagrama-stone is a product peoulip.r to India. As a connection between Siva and the linga did not exist in the earliest worship of Siva, the representation of Visiiu by the Salagrama-stone must even be ascribed to later period. The changes in religious dogmas and the acceptance of new emblems of worship are of great histori- cal importance, however difficult it may be to account for them. I believe that the adoption of the Salagrama-stone by the Vaisnavas was made to mark their opposition to the worship of the lihga, and, if this assumption is true, the Vaisnava emblem must have been adopted at a later period, than was the linga by the Saivas. On the Modification of the Worship of Vi^nu. And this is also the place to consider and allade to the strange transformation which Visiju, the second person of the Trimurti, has undergone in the religious tenets of a very considerable, if not the most numerous, section of the Brahmanic community of India. No doubt Visiju repre- sents the preserving principle, and preservation can be appropriately regarded as one of the chief qualities of the female principle. Yet there is still a great gulf between 47 360 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS the admission of the latter and the identification of Vispu with the female energy which the Smarta Brahmans revere in him. It is unnecessary here to lay stress on the various legends in which Visnu appears in the guise of the beautiful Mohim,^^ one of which is even directly connected with the origin of the GandakI river and the Salagrama-stone — a legend which for its indecency is hardly equalled by any other I know — as there exists early and indisputable evidence on this point. In consequence of the sacredness of its text, of the highest importance is in this respect a mantra of the Rgveda (X, 184, 1) which is repeated at the close of the wedding ritual- °'' It is also found in a passage of the mantraprasna of the Krsi^ayajurveda, i.e., in the fifth verse of the thirteenth chapter of the Apastambagrhya- sutra. Yisiju is here mentioned in connection with the female organ. This mantra goes back to a far distant age and is in consequence significant as it prepared the mind to still more important modifications of the position of Visnu. The peculiar wording of the Vedic text need not necessarily imply that Visnu is to be regarded as the representative "' Three occasions are specially noted when Visnu appears as Mohini, one is connected with the churning of the ocean, the other with Siva's visit as a begging brahmacarin in the Daruka forest, and the third with the giant Bhasmasura. The Sivarahiisj-a relates these legends at some length. " See Egveda, X, 184, 1—3. 1. Visaur yonim kalpayatu tvasta rapawi piriisatu, a sincatn prajapatir dhatS garbham dadhatn te. 2. Garbham dhehi sinivali garbham dhehi sarasvati, garbham te asvinau devavii dhattam puskarasraja. 3. Hiraayayi arani yam nirmanthato asvina, tam te garbham havamahe dasame masi siitavo. (1. Visnu may form the womb, Tvasta may shape the forms, Prajapati pour in (the seed), DhatS may lay on thee the germ. 2. Grant germ, SinivSlT, grant germ o Sarasvati, the two Asvins, the gods, may grant the germ with flower garland, 3, which with golden wood the Asvins elicit, that thy germ we call for bringing it forth in the tenth month.) OF BHAilATAVAESA OE INDIA. 36l of the yoni, because the word kalpayatu can be explained as signifying taking care of, or protecting. ^ * In the Rudrahrdayopanisadj however, Visnu is identified with Uma,^^ who elsewhere is explained to represent the female organ. The above mantra is recited and addressed on the night of the nuptial ceremony to the bride and bridegroom, when sitting on their bed. I need not specially mention that in the vedika-linga the base immediately under the linga is assigned to Visnu, and that Brahman resides beneath him. I deem it necessary to make these remarks in order to explain the various aspects in which Visnu can be and is actually viewed at present by the various Hindu sects. ** The common explanation is garhhcid}tnnal-sama'}n karotn. ' ^ See Riidrahrdayopan isad .• Eudrasya daksine parsve Ravir Brahma trayo'gnayali. Vamaparsve Uma devi Visiiuh Somo'pi te trayah. Ta Uma sa svayam Visuur yo Visnuli sa hi Candramali. Ye namasyanti Goviudam te namasyanti Saiikaram. Ye'rcayanti Harim bhaktyii te'rcayanti Vrsadhvajam. Te dvisanti Yirnpaksam te dvisanti Janardanam. Ye Rudram nabhijananti te na jananti Kesavam Rudrah pravartate bijam bijayonir Janardanah. Compare also the following slokafrom the Skalisardpanisad : Tvam visvabhiir yoniparo'si garbhe kumara eko visikhassudhanva vitatya banam tarnnarkavarnam vyomantare bhasi hiraayagarbhah. The Vaidilidgama ascribed to Parasara contains the following verses in explanation to the above quoted Vedic mantra : — Visnur yonir iti srutva liiigapitham samJritam, adipitham bhaved Brahman, Mayapitham tu madhyamani, Urdhva vedir Yisaupitham Visriur yonir iti srntih. With this compare the following sloka in the Mahabharata, AnuSasana- parvan, XIV, 235 : Pulliiigam sarvani Isanam striliiigam viddhi cSpy Umam, dvabhyam tanubhyam vyaptam hi caracaram idam jagat. It is not necessary to quote further evidence in support of these views j this fact should, however, not be overlooked, that the SmSrias while regarding Vijnu as the representative of the female energy do not intend to throw any slui' on the character of that deity, whom they themselves daily worship with the greatest reverence. 862 ON THE OEiaiNAL INHABITANTS Visnu is painted of a dark blue colour^ with four hands, two of which ai-e open and empty, for granting consolation and conferring gifts ; in the other two he holds a cahra and a sahhha, of which I have spoken already. On his head he wears a crown and on his forehead the KastQri mark. His whole body is covered with pearls, jewels, gold and silver, and his garment is embroidered with gold, from the shoulders downwards garlands of flowers and of sala- gr&ma-stones encircle his body, while with his feet he rests on a lotus flower. As Visnu has retained his popularity among the people, his worship being very widely spread, and his thousand names uttered with piety by millions of his worshippers, the manifestations in which he is revered are also of neces- sity very numerous. Many non- Aryan superstitions, how- ever, have crept into his worship and are held sacred by his followers. Without entering now further into this subject, I wish to draw attention only to the adoration offered to him as Tirumala, Perumal, VitthObha, Venkoba (Vehkate'a), or Ballaji and others. His connection also with the Aiyanar legend proves the influence of the Gauda- Dravidian element, which had to be considered when expanding his worship among foreign non- Aryan tribes of the population. On VisNtj's Wives. Laksmi is the well-known and renowned wife of Visjju. She possesses as Visnu's Sakti all the female powers, and is specially famous as the goddess of beauty. As Maha- laksml she combines the eight kinds of prosperity and is as such called Astalakpm. These eight prosperities are (I) Mahalak^mi, the great Laksmi, that is herself, from whom the others depend ; (2) Dhanalaksml, the goddess of wealth ; (3) Dhdnycdaksml,, the goddess of grain ; (4) DJiai/ryalak^ml, the goddess of venture; (5) Vlralak^ml, the goddess of OF BHAEATAVAESA OE INDIA. 363 bravery ; (6) Vidyalahsmi, the goddess of wisdom ; (7) Santanalak^mi, the goddess of progeny; and (8) Bhagya- lak^ml, the goddess of fortune. LaksmI is represented as the wife of Visinu at every avatara where he is regarded as married. As LaksmI she appeared in the avatara of Narasimha ; as Slta, in that of Eania ; as Dharanl (Bhumi) in that of Parasurama ; as Rukminl in that of Krsxia ; and as Padma when Visuu was an Aditya. According to one legend she was the daughter of Daksa or of Bhrgu, while, according to another, she sprang from the sea of milk when the gods churned the ocean to obtain the di'ink of immor- tality, or she with her friends arose from the amrta at the same time as the Amrtalinga came into existence. LaksmI is on account of this coincidence regarded as the sister of Siva. 9 6 Visi;iu possesses also two other consorts, Bhumidevi and Nila. The former is the goddess of the earth and the mother of everything which exists on it. She is the prototype of humility and she carries patiently her burden. She is revered, especially in South India, and invoked as a witness of everything that happens on earth. She is repre- sented with two hands, one of which hangs down empty, " Laksmi is described as an ariisa of Sakti in Vevihhagavata III, 6, 49—51, and also ilidem IX, I, 22—28. 22. Suddhasattvasvarupa ya Padma sS paramatmanah, sarvasampatsvarflpS sEl tadadhistliatrdevatil. 23. KJntatidantS ianta ca susil5 sarTamaiigala lobhamohakamarosamadaliaiikaravarjila. 24. Bhaktanarakta patyusoa sarvabhyasca pativrata pranatnlya bhagavatali premapatram priyamvada. 25. Sarvasasyatmika devi jlvanopayanipini Mahalaksmisca vaikuathe patisenS rata satf. 26. Svarge ca svargalaksmisca rajalaksmi^carajasu, grhesu grhalaksmlsca martyanSm grhinam tatha. 27. SarvaprSiiisu dravyesu sobhanipa manohara prltinlpa punyavatam prabhariipa nrpesu ca. 28. Vaiiijyariipa yanijam papinam kalahankura dayariipa ca kathita devokta sarvasammata. 364 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS while the other holds a lotus flower. Her skin is brown, her face red ; on her head she wears a crown, and she stands on a lotus flower. In her dress and ornaments she resembles the other goddesses. She is worshipped in the temples, her image standing on the left side of Visnu, while that of Labsmi is on his right. She may be connected with the Aryan Dharanl, Demeter or Ceres, or perhaps with the Gauda-Dravidian goddess of the earth, who plays such an important part, especially among the G-onds.^^ Nlla is also called Nagnajiti, the daughter of Nagnajit, the king of the Gandharas, she stands with BhQmi on the left side of Visnu. She is of green-colour and especially revered in the southern part of South India. ^^ CHAPTER XVI. On B'ud'ra ar Siva. Gkneeal Remaeks. Rudra, the howler or roarer, who, armed with a strong bow shoots fleet unerring arrows at the wicked, occurs in vari- ous hymns of the Rgveda, either as a distinct separate deity " ' In the Bhiisakta she is described as dark-brown, adorned with jewels and garments of different colours, seated on a lotus (or with four arms), with swelling breasts, with eyes like blue lilies carrying ears of corn and wearing a parrot. SyamSm vicitram sukai'atuabhiisarL5m PadmSsanam (or caturbhujam) tuiigapayodharanvitam Indivaraksim dhrtasalimaujarim [or navasalimanjarim) Sukam dadhSnam vasudham bhajSmahe, " » Bhagavad Ramanujacarya describes the three goddesses Sri, Bhii, and Nlla as follows in his work Nitya : " Bhagavantam pranamya daksi- natah Srim Sriyai nama iti gorooanavarnam Sriyam avShya pranamya, vame om Bhiim Bhiimyai nama iti iySmam Bhiimim tatraiva nim KilSyai nama iti haritavarnam NilSm om sarvSbhyo bhagavaddivyamahisibhyo nama itisarva bhagavaddivyamahisissamantatah praaamet iti", as quoted in the Gopnlacle^ikahnikam. In DevIbhSgavata IX, 1, 936 — Wia VasundliarS is described as possessing sn, superior share of Prakrti. OF BHAEATAVAESA OE INDIA. 365 01- as Agni. His energetic sons are the swift Maruts. Though generally appearing as a destroyer of men and cattle, he is likewise revered as the greatest of physicians dispensing healing medicines. He is therefore also called the benevo- lent and auspicious, or Siva ; however, he is not mentioned in the Egveda as Siva.^^ He is likewise called Sankara, the propitious, and revered as Bhava, a deified king, or the bowman Sarva (who both are often mentioned together), as Nilakantha or Nllagriva, whose throat turned blue by swallowing the poison at the churning of the ocean, as Girisa [Girisa), the lord of the mountain, as Pasupati, the lord of cattle, and as MahdcUva or Mahesvara he is identi- fied with the supreme spirit, yea even with Visnu ; eventu- ally he is even called the creator of Brahman and Visnu. He destroys the castles of the Asuras, he fights with Visnu as well as with Krsiia, and is worshipped by both these gods, as he is also by Brahman. At times he is identified with Visvakarman, when Visvakarman appears as a mortal or of earthly origin. With the various forms of Rudra may be compared the various Rudras who are mentioned together in the Rgveda along with the Vasus and Adityas, and, as in the case of Visiju, these different names represent different gods who in course of time have been all merged into the great supreme deity, the dread member of the Hindu Trimurti. By those who do not worship him, he is regarded as an offspring of either Brahman, Visnu or Krsna. In every Kalpa he is, differing in color, born as a kumara from Brahman. Siva is now generally represented white, though as Kala or Mahakala (time) he appears black. As Ardhandrlsa his body is half male, half female, uniting in himself the principles of generation. His body is sur- mounted by one or by five heads decorated with a crown. With these five faces which represent Brahman, Visi;iu, " This name may have also been given to Rudra euphemistically. S66 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS Rudra, Mahesvara and Sadasiva correspond the five actions ascribed to liim. These actions are creation, preservatioiij destruction, vanishing and grace. "^ " As Paiicanana ' " ' he has fifteen eyes, ten arms and hands, two hands are empty, with the four hands on the right he holds a deer, a lance, a tambourine and a sword respectively, and in those on the left a battleaxe, a trident, lire and a shield. When repre- sented with one face he has generally four hands,'"- two of which appear empty in a blessing and fear-forbidding attitude, while in the other two he carries an antelope and battleaxe, or a trident and a noose. His other emblems are a rosary, a boar's tusk, a human skull, &c. He has three eyes, the third standing high in the middle of his forehead, representing as it were, the three varieties of time, the past, present and future. '"^ On his forehead he wears three ""> See Sarvadarsanasangraha, pp. 96 and 97 • Pafioayidham tatkrtyam srstisthitiaarhharamatirobhavah tadvadanugrahakaranam proktam satatoditasyasya. (97) and : anugrahatirobhavadanalaksanasthitilaksanodbhavalaksanakr- tyapaiic.akakarariam. (96) ' ° ' Siva is called, when represented witli five faces, Pauoamukha, Pail- cavaktra, Paiicanana, Pancnsya, etc. -As no special temples are dedicated to Budra, Mahesvara, and Sadasiva, these three are under the name of I&vara revered as Siva ; see p. 385 on the five-faced liuga. ' "- To Siva are at diiierent times assigned two, four, eight or ten arms and hands i his image at Elephanta representing him as Mahakala has eight arms, two of which are broken, four hold a human figure, a sword, a basin and a sacrificial bellj while the remaining two draw a veil, which covers the sun and causes the destruction of the world. "" As such he is called Trikalajna (also the name of Krsna), Trioaksus, Trinayana (Trinayana), Trinetra, Trilocana, Tryaksa and Tryambaka. Similarly are Zeus and Jupiter called Triophthalmos and Trioculus. According to a widely spread legend Siva placed a third eye on his fore- head to prevent a re-occurrence of the calamity which happened to the world once when Parvati in play covered his two eyes vrith her hands. Siva is described in the Vcvlhhagavata III, 3, 11—13, IX, 2, 83—88 and elsewhere : 11 Nirgato bhagavan Sambhur vrslrfidhah trilooanah pancanano dasabhujah krtasomardhasekharah. OP BHARATAVAESA OR INDIA. 367 parallel white stripes, the Tripundra or Vibhuti and a moon's crescent near his central eye. His body is decked with jewels and gold and silver ornaments ; as a necklace he wears a string of flowers or a serpent and over his shoulders hangs a garland of skulls. His abdomen covered with a coloured clothj and a golden girdle encircling his waist, he stands with his two feet on a water lily. He goes under many names ; the Mahabharata contains a thousand and eight of them, and manifold are the occupa- tions assigned to him, high and honorable as well as low and disreputable, for he is styled the general of the gods, the king of the Bhutas, and also the lord of thieves, assum- ing indeed occasionally the garb of the latter. In the braids of his hair he intercepted on his head the Gariga, which was descending from heaven and kept her there confined for some time until as Bhagirathi she descended below to the earth. To preserve the gods he swallowed, as already mentioned, the poison which was at the Korma-avatara ejected by the serpent Vasuki. To save the world from sudden darkness when Parvati had covered his eyes, he placed a third eye on his forehead. To him as well as otherwise to Brahman is assigned the highest of the fourteen 12. Vyaghracarmaparidhano gajacarmottarryakah parsniraksau mahavirau Gajananasadananau. 13. Sivena saha putrau dvau vrajamanau virejatuh, nandiprabhrtayas sarve ganapasoa varasoa te. 83. Siiddhasphatikasankasah satakotiraviprabhah trisSlapattisadharo vyaghracarmambaro Harali, 84. Taptakancanavarnabho jatabharadharalj paralj bbasinabhiisitagatrasca sasmitalj Candrasekharali, 85. I'igambaro nilakanthalj sarvabhijsanabliusitah bibhraddaksiaahastena ratnamalam susamakrtam, 86. Prajapan pancavaktreiia brahmajyotih sanatanam satyasvarupam srikisnam paramatmanam fsvaratn, 87. Karaiiam karananam oa sarvamaiigalamangalam janmamrtyujaravyadhisokabhitiharam param. 88. Samstuya mrtyor mrtynm tarn yato mrtyunjayabhidhah ratnasimhSsane ramye samuvasa Harah purali. 48 368 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS worlds, or the seventh of the upper worlds commonly known as Satyaloka, the world of the good and virtuous.i°* His favorite abode, in fact the paradise of Siva, is the top of the high Kailasa mountain, which is often frequented by Kubera. His power is supreme, and his vigor is increased by hymns. The most sacred \^edio text, the Grayatrl, has been adapted for his special glorification . ^ '-' ■' A person who does not revere "'* See Note 111 on p. 301. ">= These altered versions of the Gayatri are mainly extant in the Jtrirayaiilyopanisad (a portion of the Taittiriya Araiiyaka) and in the Lingapurajaa. In the former extract the deities invoked are : Radra, Danti, Nandi, Sanmukha, Garuda, Brahman, Visiin, Narasiinha, Aditya, Agni and Durgi (standing for Durga). The prayers in the Lingapurana begin and end with Siva (Endra) and his wife Gauri (Durga), and after the verses in honour of his sons, vehicle and follower, come those concern- ing Visnu, Brahman and six guardians of the quarters of the world, with the omission of Kiiberaand Isana ("^iva), instead of whom stand Rndraand Durga. As I shall return to this subject I quote here in full those Nn rinjamydpanisad I, 5 — 7 (Telug'u edition, pp. 824, 825) : Purusasya vidmalj sahasraksasya mahadevasya dbimahi tanno Biidrah pracodayat. Tatpurusaya vidmahe vakratundaya dhimahi, tanno Dantih pracodayat. Tatpui'usaya vidmahe cakratundaya dhimahi tanno Nandih pracodayat. Tatpurusaya vidmahe mahasonaya dhimahi tannah San- mvl-hah pracodayat. Tatpurasaya vidmahe suvarnapaksaya dhimahi tanno Garndnli pracodayat. Vrdiitmanaya vidmahr hiranyagarbhaya dhimahi taiinn Brahmh pracodayat. >i arayaRSya vidmahe vasudevilya dhimahi tanno Visnvh pracodayat. Vajranakhaya vidmahe tiksnadara- strara dbimahi tanno Xarnsimltah pracodayat. Bhaskaraya vidmahe mahadyutikaraya dhimahi tanno Adityah pracodayat. Vaisvanaraya vidmahe lalilaya dhimahi tanno ^-If/ni?! pracodayat. KatyFiyanaya vidmahe kanyakumari dhimahi tanno Diirvja oder eines Phallus angebetet." The Rev. F. Kittel, in his excellent essay Uehfi- tJeii Urapriiinj des Lingal-ultus in Indien, Manga- lore, 1876, remarks on pp. 9, 10 : " Mit Bezug auf die im Nordwestlichen Dekhan verehrte Gottin Mahasaha must der Schreiber dieses bekennen, dass er eine seiche nicht kennt, wie es auoh Andern ausser ihm geht. Der Name selbst ist indess Sanscrit : ' sie die machtig aushiilt,' oder : ' sie die machtig siegt.' Dieser Umstand deutet auf einen arischen character." The Marathi Mahisa stands for the Sanskrit Mahisa. OF BHAEATAVAESA OR INDIA. 375 edition of Ziegenbalg's Genealogij of the Malabar Gods, supported the opinion of liis predecessors and tried to strengthen the argument in favor of the Non- Aryan origin of the liiiga by the statement that Ravanaj the representa- tire of the aborigines of South India was according to the Uttarakanda of the Ramayana, a staunch votary of the lihga, carrying in fact always with him a golden linga which he worshipped with incense and lowers. He also refers to the legend according to which Ravana was waylaid by Ganapati at GrOkarna when he was on his way to Laiika and compelled to leave the Praija-Linga^ which he had extorted from Siva by his severe penance at the first named place on the Western coast. " * I have alluded to this story previously and given the version supplied by the late Hon. Visvanath Narayan Mandlick, and I also referred to an account contained in the Archaeological Survey of India concerning the temple of Mahadeva Ravanesvara at Baijnath in Bengal.^ ' ^ '^* See Genealogie der Malabarischen Gotter . von Bartholomaens Ziegenbalg, erster Abdruck besorgt durch Dr. Wilheltn Germann, Madras, 1867, p. 156, Note : "Von Eavana dem Vcrtreter der siidlichen Urein- wohner wird in Uttarakanda Ramayanam erwiihnt, dass iiberall wohiu er ging, ein goldnes Linga mit ihni getragen wurde, Welches er mit Weili- ranob und Blumeu verehrte. Ferner die Sage, nacli welcber Tinayaka in etwas biibischer Weise dem Ravana die iibliche Verehrnng abzwingt, zeigt ihn uns ein Linga naoh Lanka bringend (freilich angeblich von Kailasa), der Tempel welches Linga jetzt Gokarna heissen soil (Saiva Sam. V, V, III. Fr. 18 ff). Also Ravana erscheint immer mit dem Linga." Another Ravana, the son of ludrajit, the third king of Kasmir after Gonanda III (perhaps identical with King Kaniska of the Saka era) erected the Tateivara lii'iga. 11= See above, pp. 136 — 138. I have alluded there to the legend given in the Archaeological Survey of India, Vol. VIII, pp. 143 — 145, and as it contains some peculiar items, I now quote it below ; "Ravana used daily to go to Uttara Khanda (sic ! 1 '.) to worship Siva. One day he went there, and in the exuberance of physical strength he shook the mountain, dis- turbing Parvati. Having done this, he went towards Siva's abode to worship i when he approached, Nandi forbade his advance, as Siva and Parvati were asleep together. Ravana, however, was not to be denied ; 49 376 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS Dr. John Muir and tlie Rev. F. Kittel were^ according to my opinionj the first to point out the error of these views, he told Nandi that he being in the place of a son to Siva, there was no harm in hia going in at any time. Saying this and pitching away Nandi to a distance, he entered. Siva was much pleased at his courage and firm faith, and desired him to ask a gift. Eavana said, ' It is along distance for me to come daily from Lanka to worship you here, be pleased to go to Lanka and abide there.' Siva consented on the condition that Havana was to carry him all the way, without for a moment setting him down. Bavana gladly took up the lingam, and proceeded, when he arrived at Lajhuri village, near the place where the temples stand (the village is now known as Harlajhuri), he felt it necessary to go to the fields ; he could not carry the lingam with him and pollute it, and he was cogitating what to do. In this emergency Vishnu, who saw that if Eavana succeeded in carrying Siva to his kingdom he would become invincible, assumed the guise of a poor Brahman, and being accosted by Eavana, and requested to hold the lingam for a few minutes, while he went a short way, the pre- tended Brahman agreed. Eavana now made over the lingam to the Brahman, and went aside. While Eavana was engaged, the Brahman quickly walked away with the lingam, arriving finally at the spot where the great temple stands, there he set the lingam down and vanished. Eavana on returning at the expiration of the whole day ffor Taruna had entered into him and occupied him all that time in letting out the sea of waters within him) found the Brahman gone. After some search he found the lingam, but on attempting to lift it up, Siva reminded him of the agreement between them and refused to stir. Havana enraged, pressed the lingam down, saying, ' Since you wont go to Lanka, go to Patala instead.' This is the mark which exists on the summit of the lingam to this day. The lingam thus established became known as Mahadeo ES vanesvara. In course of time the site of the lingam was over- grown with jangal, and no one but a poor gwala knew of its existence. This man, Baiju by name, used to dwell in the vicinity, living on roots and fruits ; he was ordered by Mahadev in a vision to worship him ; the poor man accordingly used to bring Bel leaves for the worship daily, but having no vessel to bring water, used to bring water for the libation in his mouth. This strange libation, however, did not please Siva, who after much patient endurance, complained to Eavana of the gwala's treatment. Eavana came, washed the lingam with water from Haridwar, and ordained that thenceforth none but Ganges water from the Tirthas of Haridwar, Gangotri, andDasasumeth (Ajodhya) was to be poured on the lingam. Siva at last was pleased with the untiring devotion of Baiju Gwala, and offered to give him any gift he should ask. The independent gwala replied . . . grant that henceforth my name should precede yours. From that day, the Hngam known as Ravaneswara came to be known as Baijnath." OF BHAEATAVAESA OR INDIA. 377 SO far as the worship of the liriga is concerned. The extent of the area in which the linga cult prevails at present, cannot be adduced as a reason, that it did not previously exist elsewhere or that the liriga was not worshipped in the north-west and north, but only in the north-east and in the south of India. As a proof that the liriga was worshipped m the north by Aryans, may be quoted the sage Tandi who revered Mahadeva in the Krtayuga on the Himalaya mountain, and JJpamanyu, who visited the hermitage of Ta^idi, and was one of the most fervent believers in the divine power of the liriga. But also many holy liriga shrines in the south are ascribed to or connected with holy Aryan sages and heroes. The sage Esyasrriga revered thus the liriga of Candrasekhara in a temple near Srrigeri- matham in Mysore ; the Saptahotisvaralihga at Narvem in the Portuguese territory of Goa is by the legend ascribed to the Saptarsis ; the Ramalihga at Ramesvaram is said to be erected by Dasaratha Rama, and a great number of lirigas in the Korikana country were established by Para- surama.^ ' ^ With respect to Ravana, even if he is at times reviled as a Raksasa, it must not be forgotten that he is through his grandfather Pulastya, the great grandson of Brahman, that he obtained his power, though he abused it later on, by his pious penance, and that in spite of the uuholy life he led, he was burnt according to Brahmanical rites. If Ravaua is on the other hand regarded as the representative of the aboriginal population, and I quite agree in this view, he may well have been a worshipper of Siva, as Bhiitesa or Bhutanatha, the lords of the demons or ghosts, but I believe that his representation as a worshipper of the liriga, is a " • See Original Sanslcrii Te.rts, by J. Muir, D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D., Vol. II, pp. 202, 391, IV, pp. 189— 196, 405—420, aud Ueher den Urapru-ng dm Lingakultus vou F. Kittel, pp. 2, 4 — 8. 378 ON THE OEIGINAL INHABITANTS later addition^ though it is to be found in the Uttarakaijda of the Eamayana. ' * '' The Paulastya Ravaiia stands besides not alone in his worship of Siva, for the Asura Bana is also mentioned as a devoted follower of Siva together with the cowherd The existence and worship of Siva as a great Brahniani- cal Hindu deity is no less a matter of historical certainty, than is the fact that Siva had been separately revered for a considerable length of time, before he was connected with the lihga. The origin and development of the cult of Siva as the chief of the demons, or Bhutas, is no doubt mainly due to the Non-Aryan demon worshipping popula- tion of India, yet, however many Non- Aryan elements are mixed with the present Saiva religion, its association with the liiiga need not be due to Non-Aryan influence. For it is a remarkable and indisputable fact, that, while the Non-Aryan aborigiues are on the whole throughout the country adherents of the worship of SciJcti, or female energy, as exemplified by their adoration of Crramadevatas, a worship which united with that of the ghosts, demons or devils, fills the mind of terrified man with an indescriba- ble awe of the mysterious forces of nature contained in the animal, vegetable and mineral kingdoms, an awe which manifests itself in the reverence paid to serpents, trees and ' ' ' The blokas in the Uttarakauda of the Ramayapa (XXXI, 12, 43) are : ^ atra yatra ca yati sma Eavamo raksasf svarali, jambunadaniayam lingam tatra tatra sma niyate. Balukavedimadhye tn tallii'igam sthapya Ravaioah, arcayam asa gandliais ca puspaiscariirtagandhiblijli. ' ' ' Al'ler the performance of the Paucayatanapiija the remaining p(jrtions of the offering are presented to Siva's attendants with this half verse : Bana-Ravaua-Candesa-Nandi-BhrBgiritadayah. Nandi is the son of the Brahman Silada and Bhri'igi, an incarnation of Gayatrl, is a dancer in the lioavcn Kailasa. OF BHAEATAVAKSA OK INDIA. 379 stones,-!— there exists hardly any evidence to show that these same people worshipped the linga or the organ of generation, and even at the present day we cannot point out any aboriginal tribe, who has retained intact its national customs, as revering the Phallus. On the other hand it is well known that in all the famous linga-temples in South- India at least, if not in the whole of India, the priestly office has been and is still filled by Brahmans, and yet it is well known that Brahmans do not like, as a I'ule, to have anything to do with the administration of the property of Siva ; an illustration of this antipathy supplies the Tamil proverb Siva sottu Jculandsanam, the property of Siva is the ruin of a family.^ ^ ^ Such linga temples are spread all over India iu great numbers. Among these are celebrated the Keddresalinga on the Himalaya, the Vaidyandthalinga at Deograh in Bengal, the Visvesvaralinga in Benares, the MahdJcdlalinga and Amaresvaraliiiga in and near Ujjain in Malva, the Omkdraliiiga on the Narmada, the Sdmesvaralinga at Somnath in Surastra, the TryamhaJcalihga near Nasik and the BMmasanlcaralinga near the source of the Bhima in Maharastra, the Mahabalesvaralihga at Gokarna in Kanara, the MalUhcirjunalmga at Srisaila in Karnul, the Rdmaliuga at Eamesvaram in Madura. The south of India possesses moreover five holy lingas representing the five elements earth, prthivt, water, op, fire, tejas, wind, vdyu and air, Ukasa, respectively at KancI or Kaiijivaram, Jambukesvaram or '" See Ziecjenbalg in Dr. Germann's edition, p. 31 ; "In den Pagoden darf Niemand anders dem Linga opf ern, als nur Brahnianen, denn solche Figur stebt im allerinnersten oder heiligsten der Pagode." With respect to Dr. Stevenson's remark that no Brahmans officiate in linga — while they do in Visnu temples Dr. Muir observes loco citato IV, p. 407 (Note) : " This distinction does not, I think, exist in Northern India. In the temple of Visvesvara, at Benares, the officiating priests, if I am not mistaken, am Brahmans. The same is the impreesion of Professor Fitz-Edward Hall, with whom I have ooinmunicated on the subject." 380 ON THE OEIGINAL INHABITANTS Tiruvanaikaval between Trichinopoli and Srirangam, Tiru- vaiiijamalai or Arunacala, Kalahasti and Chidambai-am. ^ ^ o There exists, it is true, a particular and widely-spread sect of worshippers of the liiiga, the so-called Lingayats, a sect which arose about the end of the twelfth century and which mainly consists of Non-Aryan Sodras, but the founder of this sect was a Brahman, the famous Basava, who left his caste in order to teach to Sudras and to despised Holeyas the doctrine of Siva and the linga, and to elevate them after their conversion to respectable castemen or kulajas.' ^ ' "° Compare F. Kittel's Lingalcultus, pp. 5, 6 ; the Indian Antiquary, Vol. II, p. 15, where a Gaul ameialihrja of unknown place is mentioned among the twelve lingas, while the Mahabalesvaralinga at Gokarna is omitted. — Tiruvanir in Tanjore claims also the akasaliiiga. 1 = 1 See Rev. P. Kittel's Limjahultus, pp. 11, 12 : " Zu Ende des 12ten Jahrhunderts bildete sich, nach dem Sturze der westliohen CSlukya- Dynastie, in Kaljana die Sekte der Lihgaytas (der jetzigen Eeohnung nach Siidras) in opposition gegen bestehende Heterodoxie (banddha und jaina) und Orthodoxie ; und in ihren zahlreichen Liijga-Tempeln fungiren keine Brahmanen. In den alten, d. h. brahnianischen, Linga-Tempeln dagegen, sind die piijaris ausschliessltch Brahmanen oder Aryas; and in diese Liihga-Tempel, z, B. der zu Gokarna und alls die obgeuannten, sind es, welche zu allgemeiner Beriihmtheit gelangt sind. Auch LingSytas kbnnen sie besuchen, aber diirfen nicht hinein ; es scheint aber, dass zur Zeit der ersten Kraft der Sekte in dieser Beziehung ein Unterschied stattfand;" and pp. 31, 32, 33 .- " Um gleich etwaigen Vermuthungen in dieser Beziehung vorzubeugcn, bringen wir hicr die Thatsache herein, dass naoh geschichtlichen Zeugnissen noch im Beginn des 13. Jahrhitnderts p. Chr. die andrischeii Sfnlrus, iind Holeyas (d. i. Unreine, die unter den Siidras stehen) in Kalyana unter dem jaina-vaishnava Kbnige Bijjala I als Klassen tenie XiH;y«-Tcre?irec waren, der Stifter der lihgayta Sekte aber, Basava, cin geborner Brahmane, «»/ Kosiea seiner Easte und seines Em/cs, es darauf anlegte ihnen dadurch, dass er sie zu solchen, respective Lingaijtas, machte, eine hohcre Stellung in der Gesellschaft zu geben . . . Die Tendenz dfis Basavapuraiia ist darzuthun, dass Basava das Pririlegium der Aryas unmittelbare Lii'nia-Verehrer zu sein, auch auf die Anaryas ausdehnen, oder das Lihga zuui Gemeingut AUcr maohen wollte, wenn auch meist aus soctirerisoheii Eiicksiohteu. Es war der erste und letzte derartige Versuoh." OF BHAEATAVAESA OE INDIA. 381 Thougli we possess no irrefutable proof that the ancient Aryans of India were acquainted with the worship of the organ of generation, or that they worshipped it themselves, the circumstance that the word lihga which is now gener- ally used in this meaning, is not found in this sense in the earlier Sanskrit writings, but in those belonging to a later period, and that as applied to the divinely revered repre- sentative of Siva, the term lihga occurs only in some not very old portions of the Sauptika-, Santi and Anusasana- parvans of the Mahabharata, in the last part (Uttarakanda) of the Ramayana and in similar places,!^^ does not offer sufficient evidence to assume, that the ancient Hindu Aryans were not acquainted with, or did not worship, the Phallus. It is equally difficult to state when the liiiga cult became prevalent in India, as it is to fix the time when the worship of Siva coalesced with that of the linga. That Siva was revered in the form of the linga in the North before the first century B.C. appears pretty certain, for this worship seems to have been the state-religion in Kasmir in the time of King Kaniska. However, as India had for three cen- turies been then already subject to Grecian influence, and as the Phallus-worship prevailed among the Greeks, it was possible that the Hindus obtained it from their con- querors, yet no evidence exists to prove such an assertion. In fact the worship of the male member was known all over the world. The Phoenician legend of Adonis, the Phrygian of Athys, the Egyptian of Osiris (or perhaps of Khem), and many others of a similar kind bear testimony to this fact. The Hebrew custom of circumcision represents originally a like idea. Derived no doubt from Egypt, it offers an example how a simple surgical operation can be transformed into a religious performance of the highest 1 ' ' See Sanskrit-Wbrterbuch %'ou 0. Bbthlingk, and R. Roth ; Vol. VI, p. 540, under lihga. 382 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS sanctity by establishing it as a sign of a covenant between God and the house of Abraham^ thus depriving this cere- mony of every taint of indecency and lasciviousness. And in a similar manner the cult of the memhrum virile was also viewed by the wise men and priests of Egypt^ and by the esoteric lihga worshippers of India, with many of whom it is unconnected with sensuality. The common mass on the other hand takes everywhere delight in the exhibition of coarse and vile practices to which must be counted the indecent Phallic processions in Egypt, Greece and Italy. Melampus, the son of Amytheon, introduced according to Herodotos the worship of Dionysos, and the procession of the Phallus first from Egypt into Greece/ ^^ where it degenerated, as was also the case in Italy, and filled the streets of the towns and the lanes of the country with crowds of riotous men and lascivious svomen, so that these processions had eventually to be suppressed by legal measures and by main force. Siva is said to be more pleased by being worshipped in the form of the liiiga, than by any other adoration, as he declared to Asvatthaman.' 2* Tradition has it that Siva assumed first the shape of the liiiga in the contest which took place between Brahman and Visnu, and at the day of Sivaratri he appears in the form of the Mahalinga. There exist on the earth seven various species of liiigas, which are called after Brahman, the Gods, Rsis, Siddhas, Raksasas, Men and Ba^ia. ' ^ ^ Different liiigas should be worshipped inside and outside the houses. Those used inside by householders should be 1" See Herodotos, II. 49. ' '" See Laksmindrmjanasamvdda, 18th chapter : Lingapiaja Sivaayesta vigraharadhanat priye Asvatthamue ca gaditam Sivavakyam tathaiva hi. '" Ibidem : Svayambhuvam daivam firsam saiddham raksasam eva ca, llantisam Bapapujyam ca sapta lifigani bhutale. OP BHAEATAVAESA OE INDIA, 383 made of goldj or precious stones, or quicksilver, or other similar material. There exists twenty-two various kinds of such lingas. Brahman householders should use liiigas made of rock crystal, Ksatriyas of silver, Vaisyas of bell- metal, Sodras of earth and Raksasas of gold. ' ^ ^ In the ritual of the Paficayatana are mentioned various kinds of lingas which can be worshipped, as the Narmada or Banalifiga, an artificial liriga, a Pa];iipltha linga, an earthen liiiga, one consisting of a jewel, or one made of butter, or one of gold, silver or copper, or one which repre- senting life, is drawn as it were from the heart. * ^ ' The natural stone lingas are found in various rivers, but those of the Narmada and Gandaki excel all others in value and efficiency, and of the stones of these two streams those of the Narmada are in their turn preferred.*^® It is a peculiar coincidence that the Gandaki which harbours in its bed the Salagrama-stones should be also renowned for its stone lingas- The origin of the lingas in the Narmada is ascribed to the asura Bana who worshipped in olden times in its neighbour- hood and placed the Liiigas in the Narmada. Of the three species which are found in the river the bubble-shaped are ^ ' " Ihidem : Griiastliain gehapujayam ratuasvarHaraaadibhih, dvavirhsatividliam synr liiiganyetam tatra ca. Sphatikam brahmaaanam tu rajatam bahnjanmanam, vaisyanam kam sy aracitam mrnmayam padaianmanam, Svarnaliigam raksasanam prasastam grhapujane. ' ^ ' Narmade va kriyalinge panipithayute' pi va partWve maniliiige va navanitamaye' pi va, Sauvarae rajate tamre pranaliige yajet Sivam, astamurtisu va Samblium nityam aradhayet dvijali. Under Paaipitha linga is also occasionally nuderstood a liiiga. made of earth and placed for worship in the left hand. ' ' " See Lahsminnrayanasamvdda loco citato : Bhanmam bhogapradam tatra dve linge sarvakamade Narmada-Gandaki-linge tatrapyuttamam Tritam Sarvada limgam abjakai Narmadaliiigam arcayet. 60 384 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS regarded as the best, next come the egg-shaped, and the last the bull-hump-shaped should not be worshipped at all by men. Wise persons should further worship those lingas which have a reddish colour like a ripe roseapple, or are dark blue like the muzzle of a female buffalo, or brown like the eyes of the wonderful cow Kapila.^^ ^ The Banalinga which stands always near Siva should be as long as the distance from the Masaline to the end of the hand, like a ripe roseapple, like honey, like a bee, a crystal, if blue, smooth like a mirrored image and with a basis of the same colour, like a bullhump, the nipple of a cow's udder, a fowl's egg and smooth. ^^^ Avoided should be those lingas, which are rough, uneven, short, light, thick, sharp-pointed, thin, triangular, long, without marks, with a hole, blue-coloured, low, cut, which have lines, spots or stains, are like a sula, are flat, tawny, glittering like a diamond, have a cracked basis, or a peri- carp of a lotus. Persons who desire final emancipation should avoid these lingas. '^ i ''" See Lalcsminnraijanasamvada looo citalo ; Aroayitva Narmadayam Banena nihitam pura, Sivalingam silarupam tatrabhistaphalapraclam, Uttamam budbudakaram madhyamam tvaiidasanDibham Pujaniyam dvayam lingam grhastbair liugamandire. Vrsabhaakandhasadrsam adhamam santyajet narab. JambSpakvaplialaprakhyam mahisinasikaprabbam Kapilaksisamam kantya piJjanlyam trayam budhaili. ''" Banam lingam adhisthitesam anisam masadihastantakatn, Jambupakvapbalopamam madhunibbaui bhrngaprabbamkacabham, Nilatn va pratibimbabandhabharitam tadvarnapitham kaknt — Tulyam gostanakukkutandasadrsam snigdham sadarcyam sriyai. Worth quoting is this stanza taken from the Sivadharmbttara : PiiiaiiiyaB sada Sambhuh svayamvyaktah phaladisu. A natural linga is often found within certain fruits and flowers. The Mdsa is the upper line which crosses the palm of the hand. ' ^ ' Varjyam karkasaruksakubjam aguru sthiilam sitagram krsam Tryasram dirgham alaksanam sasusiram nllabhanlcaksatam Rekhabindukalaiikasulaoipitam piiigam sphuraddhirakam Pitham va sphutitam sakaraikam idam sarvam mumuksus tyajet. OF BHAEATAVABSA OE INDIA. 385 Fourteen krores of Banalingas are found in eight differ- ent places of the world, one krore each in the Amarapati (ksetra?), Mahendra mountain, in Nepal (Gandaki), Kanya (kubja) and TlrtharajTiya, 3 krores each in Srigiri (Srisaila), Lingasaila and Kallgarta. Besides these lingas there exist many lingas with or without pithas worshipped in mantapas by the eight Dikpalas. ^ » ^ The Gandaki supplies six varieties of liiigastones which are called respectively : Sivanabha, Aghora, Sadyojdta, Vdmadeva, Tatpurusa and Isana, of these six the Aghora alone is unfit for worship, as it possesses an indistinct appearance, and has on its top a red braid of hair and the crescent of the moon. Siva is occasionally worshipped in the form of a cross-shaped linga. Pour of these lingas face the four cardinal points and the fifth looks upwards, standing in the middle on the top of them. These five lingas are called SadyOjata, Vamadeva, Aghora, Tatpurusa and Isana. The first faces the west, the second the north, the third the south, the fourth the east, and the fifth the sky. At the erection of a linga the five mantras of which the first begins with sadyojatam should be repeated. '■ ^ ^ •'" Asmilloke catnrdalakotibanalingavasthanasthalavisesa ucyante. Pratyekam kotir eka lay Amarapati-Maliendradri-Nepala-Kanya- Tirtharanyesu, kotitritayam atha pithak Srigirau Lingasaile Kaligarte oa pithair virahitasahitanyeva lirgani sarva— Prasadopetaplthanyatha haridadhiparoyani kamyani ca eyali. This latter information about tlie Banaliiiga was supplied to me by M.E.Ey. A. Krishnasvami Iyer, e.a. ''^ Ibidem. Gandakijatam abjaksi Sivanabham iti smitam, Sivanabhir Aghorasoa Sadyojatas tathaiva ca. Vamadevas Tatpurusa Isanah saclvidhalj smrtah, Agkoram tu parityajya pujyah pailcavidbalj smrtah. Saryatra saiiihitakara murdbni raktajatendudbrk Aghoramurtih sa tyajya grhasthailj subliakanksibbih. With respect to these five lingas it may be added that the Sadyojata- linga is in Kauci, the Tatpurusa in Kalahasti, the Aghora and Isana in Cidambaram and the Vamadeva-linga in Jambukesvara. These mantras 386 ON THE OEIGINAL INHABITANTS The two streams Gandaki and Narmada provide thus together seven auspicious kinds of the liriga, iive come from the former, two from the latter. ^ ^ * Ten general distinctive marks (laksaija) are ascribed to the stone-lingaSj the adhya is like a half-moon^ the anddhya like a triangle; the suredya like a fowl's eggj the sarvasa like an umbrella, the other six are the nagara, dravida, vesara, sarvadesika, kalinga and vardfa. In the preceding three chapters I have dealt with the three gods which constitute the Trimurti, and, by inquir- ing into the origin and nature of some of their character- istic emblems, I have been able to point out and to explain the changes in the position and worship of these gods, which occurred in course of time- From the consideration of the TrimQrti I now turnto the gradually developed con- ception of a Supreme Spirit (Paratman, Paramatman, Brahman or Parabrahman) and thence to the worship of the Energy or Sakti. CHAPTER XVII. On Paeamatman, the Supreme Spieit. Though Visnu and Siva still claim the chief adoration of the masses and are devoutly worshipped by their ad- herents, the great Indian thinkers have long ago discarded popular superstitions and arrived at a higher and purer begin respectively with Sadyojatam, Vamaclevaya, Aghorebhyah, Tat- pnrusaya and Isauah, and occur in the Narayauiyajiiiki Upanisad, 17^ 21. In the SarvadaHanasuhijraha, on pp. 96 and 97 in Taranathatarkava- caspati's edition (Saka 1793, A.D. 1871) it is said that the Supreme lord has the liana as his head, the Tatpurusa as his mouth, the Aghora as his heart, the Vamadeva as his secret parts, and the Sadyojata as his feet; " Isanamastakastatpurueavaktro ghorahrdayo vamadevaguhyah sadyojata- pada isvara iti." The same is expressed in the sloka : Tadvapuh pancabhir raantraih paiicakrtyopayogibhih Isatatpurusaghoravamadyair mastakad idam. See p. 366. ^ ^ * IhuJetn : Gandaklsambhave paiioa Narmadasambhaye dvayam, Pi3janly5ni lingani naraili saptavidhanyapi. OP BHABATAVAESA OK INDIA. 387 conception of the Godhead. However, their teaching has neither reached nor penetrated the mind of the masses to ■whom the worship of an abstract incorporeal and invisible divinity could only appear meaningless, and in whom it could not excite any fervour. A great religious reform in Brahmanism was, as is well known, effected by the famous Sankaracarya who was a native of Southern India, like the great teachers Bhagavad Eamanujacarya and Madhvacarya who appeared after him. It is not my intention here to discuss the development or pursue the history of Modern Brahmanism, I only wish to sketch in a few lines some of the striking points of the worship of the Godhead and to proceed then to the de- scription of the adoration of Sakti or female energy, a sub- ject which leads us back to the national religion of the Non-Aryan population of India. Sankaracarya, the founder of the Advaita belief, de- clared that the Supreme Spirit alone is real, is pure intel- ligence, free from all distinctions, eternal, stainless, kuowing and free, and that matter (jagat or mUya) is unreal; or that the former does not possess any qualities while the latter does ; or that the former represents knowledge and the latter ignorance. In consequence the Supreme Spirit is invisible yet all-seeing, omniscient, the cause, the maker and the giver of all. He cannot be comprehended by mind or speech and is impervious to the distinctions of place, time or matter, he is the lord and protector of all and shines through his own essence.^ ^^ 15= Compare Sarvadarianasangraha, p. 55: " Asesapratyanikam ciu- matram brahmaiva paramarthah taoca nityasuddhabuddhamuktasvabha- vamapi," and Ihidem, p. 96 : Sa jnah sarvasya kartrtvat sadhanaiigaphalaih saha. yo yajjanati knrute sa tadeveti susthitam. Sao also Devlihagavafa III, 6, 70, and IX, 2, 13, 14, 70. 70. Drsyanoa nirgujjam loke na bhulam no bhavisyati. nirgunah paramatmasau na tu disyah kadacana. 388 ON THE OEIGINAL INHABITANTS The Advaita philosophy admits six essential elements, five of which disappear, while one remains imperishable ; these six are the life, the lord, the pure intellect, the difference between the latter and the previous two, ignorance, and the difference between it and the pure intellect. This pure intellect does not perish. ' ^ ^ The natures of the Supreme Spirit and of Energy (Maya, Prakrti, or Sakti) are originally identical, and no difference exists between them. What he is is she, and what she is is he, confusion of mind only creates a difference, though a subtle distinction does in reality exist. Though eternal and without a second, Brahman arrives at the time of crea- tion at a dual state, and though originally without any attributes, he unites himself for the purpose of creation with matter (Maya) and becomes thus Sagunabrahman, Brahman with attributes. As the light through some cause becomes double, either through reflection or by means of a mirror, so also is the one (Paramatman) the reflection of the other (Prakrti). 'S'' 13. Tejorupam nirakaram dhyayante yoginah tada Tadanti oa param Brahma Paraniatmanam Isvaram, 14. Adisyam sarvadrastaram sarvajilam sarvakaranam sarSpam tamarupam ca tam Vaisnavah tanna manvate, The idea concerning the position of Brahman to matter is expressed in such axioms as : Brahma satyam jaganmithya ; Brahma uirgupam Brahma sagunam ; Brahma jnanariipam Maya ajnauarupinl. Other-wise the Supreme Spirit is described a.avahmanasag'ocaram, deiahalavasfupuric- chedaiilnyam and svayampraliaiavastu. '3 jjya 1^5 visuddha oit bhedastasyah tayor dvayoh avidya tacoitor bhedah sat asmakam anadayah. Sadanadayah tesu panca nasyanti, eko viSuddha cit ua nasyati, etat eva Brahman. Compare with this Sarvadarianasangraha, p. 103 ; Patividye tathavidya pasuh pasaaoa karaaam tannivrttaviti proktah padarthah sat samasatah." See DevlhhSgavata III, 6, 1 — 6, and IX, 2, 5 — 7. 1. Iti prjt^ maya devi vinayavanatena ca uvaca vacanam slaksnam adya bhagavati hi sa. 13? OF BHAEATAVAESA OB INDIA. 389 The Supreme Spirit is manifested in five different aspects, one of wMcli the individual believer regards as the principal form, the istadevata, and round this he arranges the other four. These five varieties form united the one Godhead.13 8 They are known as the Panca Ayatanani, called Aditya, Ambika, Visnu, Gananatha and Mahesvara, and are re- spectively represented by a crystal, metal ore, Salagrama- stone, redstone and a banialinga. Whichever of these five is chosen by the worshipper, is placed in the middle, and the other four occupy a fixed position in the North-East, South- East, Soath-West and North- West. If Siva is the middle then Visnu, Aditya, Ganesa and Ambika are respectively in the N. B., S. E., S. W. ; and N. W., if Visnu occupies the centre then Siva, Ganesa, Aditya and Ambika are in the corresponding positions ; if Aditya is chosen the order is 2. Sadaikatvam na bhedo'sti sarvadaiva mamaeya ca yosau saham aliam yosau bhedo'sti mativibhramat. 3. Avayor antaram siiksmatn yo veda matiman hi sah vimuktah sa tu samsarat uoyate natrasaiiisayah. 4. Ekam evadvitiyam vai brahma nityam sanatanam dvaitabhavam punar yati kSla utpitsusanjnake. 5. Yatha dipah tathopadher yogat sanjayate dvidha chayevadarsamadhye va pratibimbam tatharayoh. 6. Bheda utpitsukale vai sargarthamprabhavatyaja drsyadrsyavibhedo' yam dvaividhye sati sarvatha ; and IX, 2, 5—7 : 5. Nitya atma nabho nityam kalo nityo diso yatha visvanam golakam nityam nityo goloka eva ca. 6. Tadekadese vaikuntho hyabhramargannsarakah tathaiva prakrtir nitya Brahmalfla Banatani. 7. Tathagnan dahika candre prahlado bha ravau yatha sasvad yukta na bhinna sa tatha ijrakrtir atmani. 13 8 Vastuto nirgunam Brahma suddhadTaitara pracaksate. Mayaya sagunam tasya piijyata pujakaih krta. TJpasakanam karyartham brahmano gnnakalpanam yadisi bhavana yasya eiddhir bhavati tadrai. Svasvapriyatamam devam madhye sthapya suoivratah caturdiksu oatnrmiirtih panoayatanam arcayet, (Nirnayasindhn.) 390 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS Siva^ Ganesa, Visnu and Ambika ; if Ambika then VisnUj Siva, Ganesa and Adifcya ; and if Gaijesa or Gananatha is in tlie middle Visnu, Siva, Aditya and Ambika are re- spectively stationed in the N. E., S. E., S. W., and N. W.i^a In the Vaisnava belief, or Visistadvaita Vedanta, the desire of Yisnu is the Maya, which is subject to Visnu and through which he destroys the world after having created and protected it. ^ * ° The Supreme Spirit is according to the belief of the Vaisijavas always endowed with attributes, and is therefore always saguna. Bhagavad Ramanujacarya, the great Vais- nava reformer, teaches a triad of principles, the Supreme Spirit represented by Hari, the individual spirit by the soul, and the visible world by the non-soul. The individual spirits, or souls, are eternal. The Supreme Spirit of the Vaisnavas, Vasudeva, is also viewed under five different forms (murti), as area, adoration, in images ; vibhava, mani- "° Sambhau madhyagate harinaharabhudevyo, Harau sankare- bhJsyenagasuta Eavau Haraganesajambikas sthapitah, Devyam Visnnharaikadautaravayo, Lambodare'jesvare- naryah, Saiikarabhagatotisukhada vyastasta te hauidali. According to the Tarious deities worshipped, there are six principal religious sects in India, their respective deity being Siva, Visnn, Sakti, Surya, Ganapati, or Kapalin. The special characteristics of each are con. tained in the following lines : Saive lingadhrtir hi Saktikamate halahrtir Vaisnave Mudratapavidhir Ganadhipamate tucchiatavastngrahah Saure lohitacandanarcanavidhih Kapalite manusa dhvastih, yena kalau nirakrtam abhSt, somo guruh Saiikarah. In Srhgerl the principal seat of Sankaracarya the Paiicayatanam is revered as follows : SricaudramanlisvarasaradambS Sriratnagarbharkanrsiiiharijpam, aradhaniyam satatam manusyair Brahmaivapancayatanam prapadye. CandramaiUiSvara represents the principal forms of the liiiga, Sdraddmha the principal form of Devi or Ambika, Ratnagarlha the principal of the 21 Gauesamiirtis, Arha the principal of the twelve Adityamurtis and Nrsiinha the principal of the Visnmnrirtis. ' *" Visuor iochaiva Maya, sa Visijor adhiua, tayaiva Visnur jagatsrstva palayitva samharati. OF BHAEATAVAE8A OE INDIA. 391 festation, in the incarnations ; vyuha, formation, in the four- fold appearance as Sankarsaija, Vasudeva, Pradyumna and Aniruddha ; suksma, subtile, in the Supreme Spirit Vasu- deva with his six attributes, the first of which is exemption from sin ; and antaryami, interior spirit, controlling the individual soul, ' * ' ' * ' Compare Sarvadarianasahgraha, p. 55 : Isvarasoidaeioceti padarthatritayam harih iSvarasoita ityukta jiTadrsyam aoifc punar, Ibidem 64 : tatra cicohabdavaoyajlvatmanalj paramatmanali sakaiad bhinna nityasca Also 65 : Vasudevah param bi-ahma kalyanagunasamyutah btuvananam upadanam karta iivaniyamakah. Sa eva YasudeTah paramakaraaiko bhaktavatsalah paramapurusalj tadupasakanugunatattatphalapradanaya svalilavasad arcavibhavavyuha- suksmantaryamibbedena pauoadhavatisthate. Tatraroa nama pratima- dayah, ramadyavataro vibhaTah vyiihascaturvidhah Vasudeva-Saiikarsana- Pradyumnaniruddhasanjflakali, Buksmam sampiarpam sadgupam vasu- devakhyam param brahma guiaa apabatapapmatvadayah so'pahatapapma vijaro vimrtyurvisoko vijigbatBah apipasali satyakamab satyasaikalpa iti sruteh, antaryami sakalajivaniyamakali ya atmani tistbannatmanam anta- royamayatiti sruteh. " I bave corrected a few mistakes occnrring in tbe print. In tbe Yatindramatadlpika the five miirtis of Parabrahman are given in tbe opposite order : paravyubavibhavantaryamyaroavatarariipena paucaprakarah . ' ' Compare also the description of the Supreme Srikrsna as found in tbe Devlhhagavata, IX, II, 15 — 25 : 15. Vadanti caiva te kasya tejas tejasviua vina tejomandalamadhyastbam Brahma tejasvinam param. 16. Sveccbamayam saryarupam earvakaraaakaranam atlva sundaram rupam bibbratam sumanobaram. 17. Kisoravayasam santam sarvakantam paratparam navinaniradabhasam dhamaikam sy'amavigrabam. 18. Saranmadbyahnapadmaughaiobhamocanalocanam muktacchaviTinindyaikadantapanktimanoharam. 19. Mayurapinohaoiidam ca malatimalyamanditam sunasam susmitam kantam bbaktanugrahakarafiam. 20. Jvaladagnivisuddbaikapltamsukasusobbitam dvibhujam mnralihastam ratnabhiisanabbiisitam. 21. Sarvadbaram ca sarvesam sarvasaktiyutam vibhum sarvaisvaryapradam sarvasvatantram sarvamangalam. 22. Paripurnatamam siddham siddbesam siddhikaranam dbyayaute vaisBavas sasvaU devadevam sanatanam. 51 392 ON THE OEIGINAL INHABITANTS According to the Saiva religion Maya constitutes half the body of Siva on his left side, she is in reality Sakti as Par- vatl, or Visnu in the form of Maya.**-^ Religious fervour pervades the mind of the Indian popu- lation, and the various philosophical and scientific systems are anxious to define the nature of the Supreme Spirit. We need not therefore be surprised that attempts have been made to connect Brahman with sound and to identify him with the word spluifa, as Bhartrhari (Hari) does in his verse, stating that it is : "Brahman, without beginning and end, the imperishable essence of speech, which revolves by the state of things, and whence arises the formation of the world."!* 3 In order to give an idea of how the majority of intelli- gent Hindus comprehend the nature of the Supreme Spirit, I extract from the Bhagavadgita, the sacred portion of the Bhismaparvau of the Mahabharata, a few lines concern- ing Him. In the discourse of the divine Krsna with the Panda va hero, Arjitna, the former says : " Earth, water, fire, air, ether, mind, intellect and self- consciousness constitute my eightfold divided nature j however, know that, besides this, I possess a superior, an animate, nature, by which, long-armed, the world is 23. Janmanirtyujaravyaclhisokabliitiharam param Brahinaiio vayasa yasya nimesa iipaoaryate. 24. Sacatma sa param brahma Krsua ityabliidhlyate krsistadbliaktivaoano uasoa taddasyavacakah. 25. Bhaktidasyapradatii yas sa ca ki-sinah prakirtitah ityahur vaisiiavas tatra eiddhantah procyate mayfi. 1** Saivamatfi Maya ^^ivasya ardhariipam vamaj'igam saiva Saktilj; ■\vhioli idea ia also thus expressed ; Saivamate Visiiiir Maj-arupal.i, Sivasya vamaiige Parvatiriipema vaitalO. '*5 See Sarvaduiianasungruha, p. 158 ; " Sphotakhyo niravayavo nityah sabdo brahiuaiveti. Harinabliani : Anadinidhanam brahma iabdatattvam yadaksaram vivartate'rthabhavena prakriyfi jagato yatal.i. This theory about the eternity of the sound sphola is contradicted in Kapila'e Saikhyasutras V, 57 and 58. OF BHAEATAVAESA OR INDIA. 393 supported. Understand that this is the source of all creation. I am the cause and likewise the dissolution of the whole universe. Nothing higher, Dhananjaya, exists than me ; all this is strung on me like a multitude of pearls on a string. I am the moisture in the water, son of Kuntr, I am the splendour of the sun and the moon, I am the mystical syllable {dm) of all the Vedas, the sound in the ether, manliness in men. I am the pure flavour of the earth, and the light in the fire, the life in all beings,and the penance of ascetics. Know me, son of Prtha, to be the eternal seed of all beings, the intellect of all intelligent creatures, the brilliance of all brilliants. I am the strength of the strong, free from desire and passion, bull of the Bharatas, I am in animate beings the desire consistent with righteousness. Know that all the existences that partake of the qualities of Sattva (goodness), Rajas (passion), and Tamas (darkness) are from me, but not in me. The whole world, beguiled by the existences influenced by these three qualities, does not know me, who am distinct from them, and immutable. My divine illusion, depend- ing on the three qualities, is hard to overcome ; those, however, who have recourse to me, cross this illusion."'** 1*4 See Mahdbharata, Bhismapayvaii, XXXI, 4 — 14 : 4. Bhiimir apo'nalo vaytih kham mano buddhir eva ca ahankara itiyam me bliinna prakrtir astadlia. 5. Apareyam itas tvanyam prakrtim viddhi me param jivabhutam mahabaho yayedam dharyate jagat. 6. Etadyonini bhutani sarvanltyupadharaya aham krtsnasya Jagatalj prabhavalj pralayaa tatha. 7. Mattalj parataram. nanyat kinoidasti, Dhananjaya, mayi-sarvam idam protam sutre manigana iva. 8. Baso'liam apsu, Kaunteya, prabhasmi sasisiiryayoli praaavalj sarvavedesu sabdah khe paurusam nrsu. 9. Paiiyo gandhalj prthivyam oa tejasoasmi vibhavasau jivanam sarvabhutesu tapascasmi tapasvisu. 10. Bijam mam sarvabliutanam viddhi Partha sanatanam buddhir buddhimatam asmi tejas tejasyinam aliam. 394 ON THE OKIGINAL INHABITANTS " Brahman is supreme and imperisliable, Adhydtmun is individual constitution, the quality whicli makes the pro- duction of things is called action, Adhibhuta represents the perishable, the Adhidaicata is Purusa. I am here in this body Adhiyajna, best of corporeal beings. He who, at the end of time, when leaving his body, remembers me, goes to my state ; there is no doubt about it. Moreover, son of Kunti, he goes to that exact state which he remembers when leaving his body. Therefore remember me at all times and fight, fixing the intelligence of your mind on me. He who with a mind endowed with the practice of meditation does not stray elsewhere, goes, son of Prtha, to the Divine Soul (Purusa). He who at the time of his departure thinks of the ancient prophet, of the ruler, of him who is more minute than an atom, who preserves all, whose form is inconceiv- able, who has the colour of the sun, and who is beyond darkness, with a steady mind, withfaith and power of abstrac- tion, fixing his breath in the middle of his brows, goes to that supreme Divine Soul. I shall now briefly tell you about that i-)iace, which the Yedic scholars call imperishable, which the ascetics whose passions have gone enter, and longing for which they live a celibate life. He who, on leaving his body, departs, having closed up all the doors (senses), having confined his mind within his heart, placing his breath within his head, intent on persevering devotion, uttering the man- tra consisting of the one syllable Om, while remembering me, goes to the highest happiness. To him, son of Prtha, who always remembers me with a mind undiverted to other 11. Balam balaratamscaham kamaragavivarjitam dharmaviruddho bhiitesu kamo'smi Bharatarsabha. 12, Ye caiva sattvika bhavii rajasastamasasca ye matta evoti tan viddhi na tvaham tesu te mayi. 13. Tribhir gnnamayair bhavaii- cbbis sarvam idam jagat moMtam nabliiianati mam ebhyali paramavyayam. 14, Daivi liyesa gunamayi mama maya duratyaya mam eva yc prapadyantf mayam etam taranti tc. OF BHARATAVARSA OR INDIA. 395 objects, to such a devout devotee I am easily accessible. Those high-miuded persons who have attained the highest perfection and have reached m.e, do not incur rebirth, the transient dwelling of pain. The worlds downwards from the abode of Brahman, son of Kunti, revolve again, but when I am reached there is no more rebirth."'*^ "I am the Spirit, curly-haired, which resides in all beings. I am the beginning, the middle, and the end of things. Among the Adityas I am Visnu, among the luminaries I am the radiant sun, among the Maruts I ' * = See Bhismaparvan, XSXII, 3—15 : 3. Aksaram paramam Brahma svabhavo'dhyatma uoyate bhutabhavodbhavakaro nieargah karmasanjnitah. i. Adhibhutam ksaro bhavah piii'usasoadMdaivatam adhiyajno'liam evatra dehe dehabhrtam vara. 5. Antakale ca mam eva smaran mnktva kalevaram yah prayati sa madbhavam yati nastyatra saiiisayali. 6. Yam yam vapi smaran bhavam tyajatyante kalevaram tam tam evaiti Kaunteya eada tadbhavabhavitah. 7. Tasmat sarvesu kalesu mam anusmara yudhya ca mayyarpitamanobiiddhir mami evaisyasyasamsayah. 8. Abhyaaayogayuktena cetasa nanyagamina paramam purusam divyam yati Parthanuointayan. 9. Kavim puranam auusasitaram aijor aniyarhsam. anusmared yah sarvasya dhataram acintyarupam adityavarnam taraasah para- stat. 10. Prayanakale manasacalena bhaktya yukto yogabalena caiva bhruvor madhye pranam avesya samyak sa tam param puriasam iipaiti divyam. 11. Yadaksaram vedavido vadanti visanti yad yatayo vitaragah yad icchanto brahmaoaryam caranti tatte padam aaiigraheiia pravaksye. 12. Sarvadvarani saiiyamya mano hrdi nimdhya ca miirdhnyadhayatmanah pranam asthito yogadharanam. 13. Om ityekaksaram brahma vyaharan mam anusmaran yah prayati tyajan deham sa yati paramam gatim. 14. AnanyacetaB satatam yo mam smarati nityasah tasyaham sulabhah Partha nityaynktaBya yoginah. 15. Mam upetya punar janma duhkhalayam asaSvatam nSpnuvanti mahatmanah Bamaiddhim paramam gatah. <6. Abrahmabhuvanallokah punar avartino'rjnna mam upetya tu Kaunteya punar janma na vidyate. 396 ON THE OEIGINAt INHABITANTS am Marlcr, among the stars I am the moon. Among the Vedas I am the Samaveda^ among the gods I am Vasava, among the senses T am the mind, of living beings I am the life. Among the Eudras I am Saiikara, among the Yaksas and Raksas I am the lord of wealth, among the Vasus I am Pavaka, among the high mountains I am Meru. Know, son of Prtha, that I am Brhaspati, the chief among the high priests. Among army leaders I am Skanda, among the sheets of water I am the Ocean, among the great sages I am Bhrgu, among words I am the one syllable [Ovi), among sacrifices I am the Japa, among immovable things I am the Himalaya, among all trees I am the Asvattha, among the divine sages I am Narada. Among the Gan- dharvas I am Citraratha, among the Siddhas I am the sage Kapila. Among horses know me to be Uccaissravas which arose with the amrta, among the grand elephants the Aira- vata, and the king among men. Among weapons I am the thunderbolt, among cows I am the Kamadhuk. I am the pi'ogeny-producing Kandarpa, I am Vasuki among serpents. Among the Kagas I am Ananta, I am Varuiia among aquatic beings, I am Aryaman among the Pitrs, I am Yam a among those who restrain, I am Prahlada among the Daityas, the Time among those who count. I am the Lion among beasts, and Vainateya among birds. Among purifiers I am the wind, Rama among the weapon-bearers. I am the Makara among fishes, the Jahnavi (Graiiga) among streams. I am, Arjuna, the beginning, the end, and the middle of all things ; among the sciences I am the science of the Supreme Spirit, the speech of speakers. Of the letters I am the letter a, and of the compound words I am the Dvandva,! am also the undecaying time, I am the preserver whose face is turned everywhere. I am all-seizing death and the cause of all future things. Among feminines I am fame, fortune, speech, memory, understanding, fortitude, patience; among the Sama-hymns I am the Vrhatsaman, among metres OP BHAEATAVARSA OE INDIA. 397 I am the Gayatri, among the months I am the Margasirsa, among seasons the season of flowers, I am the gambling of cheats, of splendid things I am the splendour. I am victory, industry and the goodness of all good. I am Vasudeva among theVrsms,Dhanafijaya among the Pandavas, lam alsoYyasa among the saints, the seer Usanas among the seers, I am the rod of those who subdue, I am the Policy of those who desire victory. I am also silence among secrets, and the knowledge of the knowing. That which is, Arjuna, the seed of all beings, that I am, there does not exist a movable or immov- able thing that is without me. subduer of foes, there is no end of my divine powers, and this detailed description of my power is only mentioned by me by way of example." i*^ With these few remarks on the Supreme Spirit or Para- matman, I pass over to consider the adoration of the Female Energy or Sakti, which arising from foreign sources was received in the Aryan theogony. Its influence gradually increased, until it obtained equality with the male principle, and at last developed into the well known and widely spread Sakti worship. CHAPTER XVIII. 071 Sald'i. Inteoductobt Remarks. The principal deities of the ancient Aryans were of the male sex, and their consorts, whatever influence they pos- sessed otherwise, derived their power mainly from being the wives of the great gods. The Aryan Pantheon did not admit a goddess to supreme authority, nor did it allow to the wives of the gods an equal share in ruling. Pallas ^'0 See, Bft«,9mapa)-uam, XXXIV, 20 — 40. This passage is so well known tbat I need not give it in the original. 398 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS Athene (Minerva) the daughter, and Hera (Juno) the wife of Zeus (Jupiter) were thus dependent on the will of the chief of the gods, and Indrani, Agnayi and Varunani, the wives respectively of Indra, Agni and Varuna, occupied as such in the Veda only a secondary position. But this prin- ciple of male exclusiveness did not prevail among the Tura- nian races, for Davkina, the lady of the earth, was revered in ancient Babylonia as respectfully as was Ea, the lord of the water, and she was also worshipped as the creator of the world. The same idea predominates among the Gaada- Dravidians of India, where from a far remote period the Mother Earth, the representative of the Female Energy, was worshipped as the principal deity, and where even at the present day its substitute the local Gramadevata is revered as the founder or creator of each village or town, as had been the practice in ancient Babylonia, ' * '' This non- Aryan worship has to such an extent been accepted by the Aryan population of India, that almost all important sacred places, to which pilgrims resort from the Himalaya mountains in the Noi'th to Gape Comorin in the South are under the guardianship of the principle of female energy, i.e., of Devi, Kali, or Sakti, &c. The original Gauda-Dra- vidian Gramadevata, which is now also revered by the Brah- manSj is in most of these places represented by or trans- formed into an aryanised Ksetradevata. This Ksetradevata or titular deity of a town, district or country is acknow- ledged as a manifestation of Sakti, and the worship of these Saktis is specially performed on the eighth day {astaml) of the Durgapuja.^''8 1 « ' See page 327. ^« 8 In the Puraaas are given the names of many of such Ksetradevatas and below I qnote the following which are mentioned in the Sridevibhagavata and the llatsyapnrana; Abhayii, Amoghaksl, Anirta, Auaiga, AnnapflrnS, Arogya, Bhadra, Bhadrakarni, Bhadrakarnika, Bhadrasundari, Bhairayi Bhaviinl, Bhima, Bhimesvari, Bhrti, Bhramari, Bhiiti, Bhuvanesvari Bil- vapatrika, CaQcJamundl, Can(Jik'5, Candrala, Dan^lini, Devaki, Devamatr OF BHAKATAVAI^fiA OK INDIA. 399 Before the Aryan invaders became familiar with the religious tenets of their national foes, whose country they had conquered, and whom they had reduced to a state of Devi, Dhvani, Ekavira, Gauri, Gayatrl, Gomati, Guhyakall, Hiiigula, Hira- nySksi, Jambiinadesvari, Jaya, Jayanti, Jvalamukhl, Kala, Kali, Kalyaai, KamacariijS, Kaaiakhya, Kamala, Kambala, KSmuka, Kapila, Kausiki KotyaksT, Kulesvarl, Kumari, Kiisodaki, Laksmi, LalitadevI, Liiigadharini, Lola, Ma, MSdhavi, Madotkata, Mahabhaga, Mahadevi, Mahalaksmi, Mahalasa, MahamayS, MahaiiaudJ, Mahanfcaka, Mahesvari, Makutesvarf, Mandaki, Maijdalesa, Maigala, Manmatha, Margadayini, Mata, Medha, Minaksl, Mrgavati, Mukutesvari, IN'anda, Nandinl, Narayani, Silamba, Nilasarasvatl, Osadhi, Paramesvari, Parasakti, Patala, Pingalavati, Pra- cancja, Puruhiita, PuskaravatI, Puskareksawa, Pusli, Radha, Ramana, Rambha, Rati, Ratipriya, Reijuka, Rudraiji, Rukmini, Sahasraksi, Sakambari, Sandaki, Sankari, Saryani, Satyavadini, Simhika, Sita, Sivapriya, Smrti, Sthani, Sthanupriya, Sthaiivisa, Sthiilasya, Sabhadra, Suddhi, Sugandha, Siiksma, Snladharinl, Sunanda, Sundari, Svayambhuvl, Svaha, Tara, Tripurabhairavi, Trisandhya, Trisiila, Ugra, Umadevi, Urvasf Utpalaksi, Vagala, Vandaniya, Vararoha, Vastresvari, "\'imala, Vidhi, Vindhya- nivasini, Vipula, Visalaksi, Tiava, Visvamukhi, Visvesa, Yasaskari, Yogesvarl, etc. See Sr-idevihhagavata, VII, 38, 3 — 31 : 3 Sarvam drsyam mama Btbanaiii aarvG kala vratatmakah utsavas sarvakalesu yato'ham sarvarnpiiji. 4 Tathapi bhaktavatsalyat kiucit kinoid athoeyate srijusvavahito bbiitva nagaraja vaoo mama. 5 Kolapuram mahastbauam yatra laksmis sada sthita Matiibpuram dvitiyam ca Reinikadhisthitam param. 6 Tulajapuram trtlyam syat Saptasfiigam tathaiva ca Hiignlaya mabasthanam Jvalamiukhyas tathaiva ca. 7 Sakambharyah param stlianam Bhramaryas sthanam uttamam Sriraktadantikasthanam Durgastlianam tathaiva ca. 8 Vindhyaoalanivasiiiyas sthanam sarvottamottamam Annapiirnamahasthanam Kaiiciparam anattamam. 9 Bhimadevyali param sthiinam Yimalasthanam pva ca Sricandralamahasthanam Kausikiathanam eva ca. 10 Nilambayalj param sthanam Nilaparvatamaetake Jambiinadesvarlsthanam tatha Srinagaram snbham. 11 Gnhyakalya mabasthanam Nepale yat pratisfhitam Minaksyah paramam sthanam yacca proktam Cidambare. 12 Vedaraayam mabasthanam Sundarya samadhisthitam Bkambaram mabasthanam Parasaktya pratisfhitam, 13 Mabalasa param sthanam Yogesvaryas tathaiva ca tatha Nilasarasvatyas sthanam Cinesu visratam. 52 460 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS serfdom, a considerable period of time must have elapsed. It is, however, probable that the more enlightened and more peacefully inclined men of both races came gradually in 14 Vaidyanathe tn Tagairisthanam sarrottamam matam Srimacchribhuvanesvarya manidvlpain mamasmrtam. 15 Srimattripurabhairavyah Kamakhya Tonimaudalam bhumapdalc ksefcraratnam mahaniayadhivasitam. 16 NStali parataram sthanam kvacid asti dharatale pratimasam bhavet devi yatra saksad rajasvala. 17 Tatratya prthivi sarva dr-virupa smrta budhaili natah parataram sthanam Kamakhya yonimandalam. 18 Tatratya devatas sarvSh parvatatmakatam gatab parvatesu vasantyfva mahatyo devata api. 19 Gayatryasca param sthanam srimatjiuskaram iritam Amarese Capdika syat Prabhase Pnskareksana. 20 Naimise tu mahasthane devi sa liiigadharinl Puruhnta Puskarakhye Asaclau ca Katie tatha. 21 Candamundi mahasthane BaBdini Paramcs?ari Bharabhutau bhaved Bhiitir Nakulena Kulesvari. 22 Candrika tu Hariscandrc Srigirau Sankari smrta Japyesvare Trisula sjat Saksma camratakesvare. 23 Sankari tu Mahakale Sarvani Madhyamabhide Kedarakhye mahaksetre Devi sa Margadayini. 24 BhairavakhjS Bhairavi sa Uayayam Mangala smrta Sthanupriya Kuraksctrc Svayambhuvyapi Naknle. 25 Kanakhale bhaved Ugrii Visvesa Vimalesvare Attahaso Mahananda Mahendre tu Mahantaka. 26 Bhimc Bhimesvari prokta sthane Vaetrapathe punah Bhavani Sankari prokta Eudrani tvardhakotike. 27 Avimukte Visalaksi Mahabhaga Mahalayc Gokarne Bhadrakarni syat Bhadra syat Bhadrakarnikc. 28 Utpalaksi Suvarijakse SthaijTisa SthanuaaiijiiikS Kamalalaye tu Kamala Pracawda Chagalanclake. 29 Kurandale Trisaudhya syanmakole Mukutesvari Mandalese Sandaki syat Kah' Kalaiijari" punah. 30 Satikukarije Dhvanih prokta Sthiilasya Sthulakesvare juaniiiam hrdayambhoje Hrllekha Par.amcsvari. 31 Proktanimaui sthilnani devyali priyatamani ca tat tat ksetrasya mahatmyam srutvapiirvam nagottama. Compare with it MatsyapuraT^a, XIII, 26 — 54 : 26 Smartavya bhStikamair va tanivaksyami tattvatali, Varaaasyam VisiLUIksi Naimise Liugadharini. 27 Prayage Lalitadevi Kamnka Gaudhamadanc Manasc Kumud.a nama Visva Visvesvare viduh OP BHAEATAVAESA. OE INDIA. 401 contact with one another and acquired some knowledge of the peculiar thoughts, manners, and customs of their neighbours. This could to a certain extent be more easily done in those 28 Ma nama Visvakayantu Icoliayam Madanotkata Gomante Gomatlnama Mandare Kamaoarinl. 29 Madotkata Citrarathe Jayanti Hastinapure Kanyakubje tatha Gauri Eambha Maiayaparvate. 30 Nanda Himavatah prathe Gokarne Bhadrakarnika Sthaijesvare Bhavaniti Bilvake Bilvapatrik.a 31 Sri^aile Madhavi na.ma Bhadra Bhadresvare tatha Jay a Varahasaile tu Kambala Kamalalaye. 32 Puskare Puruhateti Kedare Margadayini Rudrakotyam tu Rudrajjl Kali KalaSjare girau. 33 Mahaliiige tu Kapila Maknte Makutesvarl Salagrame Mahadevi Sivaliiige Sivapriya. 34 Mayapuryatn Kumarif tu Santata Lalite tatha TJtpalakse SahasraksT Hiraijyaksi Mahotpale. 35 Gayayam Maiigala uama Vipula Purusottame Vipasayam Amoghaksi Patala Pundravardhane. 36 NarayanT Suparsve tu Trikijte Bhadrasimdari Vipule Vipula nama Kalyami Malayacale. 37 Kotyaksi Kotitirthe tu Sugandha Magadhe vane Kubjamrake Trisandhya tu Gangadvare Ratipriya 38 Sivakumde Sunanda oa Nandini Eevikatate Eukmini Dvaravatyam tu Eadha Brndavane vane. 39 Devaki Mathurayam tu Patale Paramesvari Citrakute tatha Sita Tindhye Vindhyanivasini. 40 Sahyadravekavira tu Harisoandre tu Candika Ramana Ramatirthe tu Yamunayam Migavati. 41 Karavire Mahalaksmlr Umadevi Vinayake Arogya Vaidyanathe tu Mahakale Mahesvari. 42 Abtaya Suklatirthe tu S mitir va Vindhyakandare Mandavye MandakI nama Svaha Mahesvare pure. 43 Chagalande Pracaiida ca Candikamarakantake Somes vare Vararoha Prabhase Puskaravatl. 44 Devamata Sarasvatyam Paravaratate mata Mahalaye Mahabhaga Payosae Piiigalavati. 45 Simhika Krtasoce tu Kartikeye YaSaskari Utpalavartake Lola Subhadra Sindhusaiigame. 46 Mata Siddhavane Laksmir Ananga Bharatasrame Jalandhare Visvamukhi Tara Kiskindhaparvate. 47 Devadaruvane Pustir Medha Kaemlramandale Umadevi Himadrau tu Sasthe Vastresvari tatha. 402 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS early days, when the differences of birth and occupatioD had not yet produced the intolerant distinctions of caste. As soon as intercourse between the opposing camps had been established, and had led to an interchange of ideas between the two alien races, the minds of the thinking members of the two communities began to meditate about, and to assimilate, doctrines hitherto strange to them. In this way, I suppose, did the principle of the Female Energy and the worship of Sakti become known to the Aryans and enter into their philosophical theories, naturally in a con- siderably modified form. For I do not believe that any Vedic account of the creation, e.g., the 129th hymn of the 12th mandala of the Rgveda, can be rightly interpreted as pi'oving that a belief in such a principle existed among the ancient Aryan population of India. No doubt Dyaus and PrtMvl appear in the E.gveda respectively as God of Heaven and Goddess of Earth, and are called father and mother, but this latter expression admits of a totally different explanation, and does not indicate a worship oE Mother Earth such as we find among the Gauda-Dravidian Hindus, a worship which in this form is also nowhere 48 Kapalamooane Suddhir MatS Kayavarohaije Sankhadvare Dhyanir nama Bhi-tih Pindarake tathji. 49 Kalii tu Candrabhogayam Acchode Sfiladharinl Vaii'iayam Amitcl nania Badaryrun Urvasi tatba. 50 Osadhi cottarakuran Kusadvipe Kusodaki Manmatha Plomakn te tu Kutnude Satyavadini. 51 Asvatthf Vandaniya tu Vidhir Taisravawalaye Gayatrl Vedavadane Parvati Sivasaunidhau. 52 Devalokc tathendratii Brahmai)ge tu Sarasvati Siiryabimbe Prabha uama JIatrniim Vaisnavi tatba. 53 Aruudhati Satlnam tu Ramasu ca Tilottama Citte Brahmakala nama Saktis Sarvasarlrinam. 54 Btad uddeaatab proktam Naiiiastasatam uttamam Astottaram ca tTrfclian5m satam etad udabrtam. About the worship of the titular deities of different districts on the 8th day of the Durgapuja, see Umya Puja, pp. 70, LXV and LXV I. OP BHAEATAVAESA OE INDIA. 403 found among the other Aryan nations.' ** Yet, it had already appeared at an early date in the Sahkhya system wh-ichis ascribed to Kapila. According to general tradition he is said to h.avebeenaBrahman, who lived about the seventh or eighth century B.C. However^ the meaning of the word Tcapila, monkey-coloured, brown, from kapi, monkey, sug- gests a nickname, perhaps even alludes to a (foreign) extrac- tion. The teaching of Kapila was at variance with the Veda, and did not prove the existence of a Supreme Deity. In consequence it was stigmatized as heretical and athe- istical. ' ^ " On the other hand Kapila is called a son of Brahman, as are also the six sages Sanaka, Sananda, Sanatana, Asuri, Vodhu and Pancasikha. ' ^ ' Kapila was the precursor of Gautama Buddha who some centuries later was born in Kapilavastu, the town of Kapila, said to have been founded by the sons of Iksvaku at the ' *° See Essays and Lectures chiefly on the ReUrjion of the Hindus by the late H. H. Wilson; edited by Dr. Beinhold Eost, London, 1862, Vol. I, pp. 241, 242. " The worship of the female princij^le, a.s distinct from the divinity, appears to have originated in the literal interpretation of the metaphorical language of the Vedas, in which the ivill or purpose to create the universe is represented as originating from the Creator and co-existent with him as his bride, and part of himself." See also Reli'jious Thought and Life in India, by Monier Williams, pp. 180 — 182. '=" See Sahkhyasutra 1, 92; "Isvarasiddheh," from there being no proof that there is a God (Isvara). The term in Sanskrit is niriivara. Sankaracarya says that Kapila errs by not admitting the identity of Brahman and the Universe, by disagreeing from the Veda and acknow- ledging an independent Prakrti and a diversity of souls. See his B»-a?ima- sutras II, 1 : Kapilo hi na sarvatmatvadarsanam anumanyate atmabhe- dabhyupagamat atas ca atmabhedakalpanaya'pi Kapilasya tantrasya vedaviruddhatvam vedSnusarimanuTacanaviruddhatvam ca na kevalam svatantraprakitiparikalpanaya eveti siddham. 1 5 1 See Sankhyakarikabhasyam in the Sankhyahdrika by Isvara Krishna, translated by Henry Thomas Colebrooke, Esq. ; also the Bhasya of Ganda- pada, translated by H. H. Wilson, Bombay, 1887, p. 2 : Sanakasca Sanandasca trtiyasca Sanatanah Asurih Kapilasoaiva Vodhuh Pancasikhas tatha, ityete Brahmanah putrali sapta prokta maharsayah. 404 ON THE OKIGINAL INHABITANTS instigation of Kapila. Visnu who, as has been previously pointed out, appeared as Buddha in order to destroy the Daityas by leading them astray, became in his fifth avatara incarnate as Kapila, whose dangerous principles were put into practice by G-autama. ' ^ ^ The existence of a connexion between the teachings of Kapila and Buddha is an admitted fact. Their doctrines appealed to the feelings of the populace, already outraged by the insolence of the Brahmanic priest.s, though with the diiierence, that the Sutras of Kapila were more appreciated by the learned, while the doctrine of Buddha set the masses in motion ; in other words, the doctrine of Kapila remained a philosophi- cal theory while the teaching of Buddha developed into a practical religion. It is therefore easily intelligible, that the assistance of the deity, i.e., of Visnu, was required and invoked by the orthodox Brahmans in order to obviate any disastrous consequences and to appropriate to their own tenets, whatever appeared useful to retain. Kapila assumed the existence of an absolute Soul [Purusa) and of an independent Creative Force (Prakrti, Pradhana), which altogether form 25 Tattvas or categories, and from the counting of which the philosophical system of Kapila has received the name Sahkhya (enumerating).!^' " Together with Kapila ' thus says the SdnhhyakUrikabha- sya ' were born Virtue, Knowledge, Dispassion and Power : for he being born, and observing the world plunged in ' " See pp. 308, 310, and Bhagavata I'umna I, 3, 10 ; Panoamah Kapilo nama siddhesah kalaviplutam provacasiiraye saiikhyam tattvagramavinirnayam. Janaka, king of Videlia, is said to have dismissed his hundred instructors and followed the sage Pancasikha, a pupil of Asuri, who was in his turn a pupil of Kapila. Elsewhere (in the Bhagavatapurcna) Kapila is called a sou of Vitatha and also of Kardama. ' = ^ Safikhyam prakurvate caiya prakrtieca pracaksate Caturvimsatitattvani tena saiikhyah praklrtitali. (Mahabharata.) OF BHAEATAVAESA OR INDIA. 405 profound darkness by the succeeding series of worldly revolutions^ was filled with compassion ; and he communicat- ed to his kinsman, the Brahman Asuri, a knowledge of the twenty-five principles, from which knowledge the destruc- tion of pain proceeds." ' '' * It is the aim of the Soul, the last tattva, to obtain its final emancipation by acquiring a complete knowledge of the other twenty-four tattvas, which are described as follows . " Creative Force is an " equal state of goodness, passion and darkness ; from " creative force (comes) mind, from mind self-conscious- " ness, from self-consciousness the five subtile principles "and both the organs (external and internal), and from " the subtile principles the gross elements. (Besides these) " the Soul. This is the number twenty-five." The first eight tattvas are also called the prakrtis or producers and the following sixteen the vikara.s or produc- tions. Kapila, moreover, contended that the Soul does not possess any qualities, that the Creative Force is eternal, that Soul and Creative Force are both not created, that Creative Force is always the cause, and that nothing comes out of nothing. ' ° ° '°* See Sankhyahcrika, pp. 2, 3; Kapilasya matotpanna dharmo jiianam vairagyam aisvaryam oeti; evani sa utpannah sau andhatamaai majjajjagadalokya samsaraparamparycjia satkaruHyu jijuasamanaya Asu- riaagotraya brahmaijiayedam pancaviriisatitattvanam jiianam uktavan. 1^^ Goxnpave SaAkhyasutra, 1, 61 . " Sattvarajastamasam samyavastha prakxtih prakrter mahan mahato'hankaro'haiikarat paiica tanmatranyu- bhayam indriyam tanmatrebliyah sthijlabliiitani pxirusa iti panoaviriisatir ganalj Nirgujjadisrutivirodhasceti (54J. Mnle miilabhavat araiilam mulam (67). Samanah prakrter dvayolj (69). Adyahetnta taddvara paratnparye'pyanuvat." (The Saukiya aphorisms of Kapila by James K. Ballantyne, 3rd edition, 1885, pp. 56, 71, 82, 85 and 90.) The five ianmatras are iabda, sjiaria, rRpa, rasa and (jandha. The external and internal organs (bdhyalhyantarendriyciTii or the jnnnendri- yat}i and karmendriyani) are respectively srolra, tvac, calcsus, jihvn and ghrana, and vac, pani, pada, pdyu and upasthd. The sthidahhTifa or mahahhiita or pdi'icikrtabhiifa are prthivi, dpah. 406 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS The belief in the twenty-iive principles secures final beati- tudej for " he who knows the twenty-five principles, what- ever order of life he may have entered, and whether he wear braided hair, a top-knot only, or be shaven, he is liberated (from existence), of this there is no doubt." i^'' Kapila's investigation was made in consequence of an assumed infliction of three kinds of trouble which are personal {adhyatmika) , mateiial {udhihhaiitiJid) and super- natural {ddhidaivika) .^ ''' fejax, vnijv, and ntriia, tliey form the perishable sf/iM^asarira or material body, while the apaficllcrtahhrkta form the imperishable sTd-smn or Uhga- iarlra. ^^^ See Sahkhyakaril'nbhasyaf pp. 2, 3 : Paucavimyatitattvajiio yatra tatrasrame vaset jati muiidi sikhi vapi mucjatiT- natra saiiisayali. '^' See ibidem; p. 2 : " DuhkhatraySbhighatajjijilSseti; tatra dnhkhatra- yam : adhyatmikam, adhibhautikam, adhidaivikam, ceti." Compare about the Saiikhya-philosophy tlie Yogasidra of ratafijali translated by Manilal Nabhnbhai Dvivedi, Bombay, 1890, Introduction, pp. Ill, IV- "The Sahkhya ig an enumeration (sahkhya) or analysis of the universe. It starts with the proposition tliat the world is full of miseries of three kindg, physical {adhihhautika), supernatural (adhidaivika), and corporeal (adhyatmilca) ; and that these are the results of the properties of matter {prakrti) and not of its inseparable correlate intelligence of consciousness (purusa). The inseparable prair(i and jmnisa are enough in themselves to account for the whole of the phenomena of the universe, and the idea of a Creator is looked upon the SaVikhyas as a mere redundant phantom of philosophy. PiirNsas are each a centre of simple consciousness, being ever unchangeable and unique Prakrti is that substratum wherein the three properties, ]iassivity (saltva), energy or activity {rajas), and grossness (iamas), exist in a state of equilibrium. Energy moves the other two and evolution bcyins. From the first differentiation of prakrti proceeds mahat or the germ of individuality which gives birth to Ahahkara or individuality proper. Ahahkara from its passive and gross sides produces, under the influence of energy, the eleven organs of action and perception, internal and external, and the five states (tajinwtras) preceding material formation. From the tanmatras are evolved the five definite material elements, akoia voyUj tejaSj 'fila, prthn, the five states of matter properly speaking, which enter into the formation of things. These are the twenty-four forms of jn'akrti which, with the j^itrusa, make up the t^venty-five elements into which the snhkhya. revolves tlip whfile of the universe. All pain is the OP BHARATAYAR8A OR INDIA. 407 The Devlbliagavata which has for its object the glorifi- cation of Devij Prakrti or Sakti, reproduces and adopts on the whole the theses of the Sankhya philosophy. Every- thing that exists in this world possesses the three qualities ; no visible thing exists in this world which has no qualities ; the Supreme Soul or Spirit {Pararndtman) alone has no qualities (is nirguna), but is never visible. Sakti however is both saguna and nirguna, she is always the cause but never the effect ; as cause she has qualitieSj but, when near the Soul {Purusa)she is without qualities. Mind, self-conscious- ness, the qualities and the subtile principles revolve con- tinually as cause and effect by night and day. Self-con- sciousness is produced by Sakti, and through it she becomes the cause. Self-consciousness which possesses the three qualities is the effect of Sakti; from self-consciousness comes that mind which is called intellect (buddhi) ; intellect is the effect, self-consciousness the cause; the subtile principles originate always from self-consciousness. They are at the time of creation the cause of the five gross elements ; there are also five organs of knowledge and five organs of action, the gross elements are also five, and the mind is the six- teenth; effect and cause are surely a class of sixteen. The Supreme Being is neither effect nor cause. ' ^ ^ result of rajas ; all grossness, ignorance, darkness of tamas ; all pleasure, passivity, knowledge, peace of sattva, the mind is a result of rajas, and it is sattva alone whicli by its light illumines it and enables it, at times, to catch glimpses of the blissful purusa ever near to sattva." Compare the passage from the Bhagavadgita on p. 394 : ' = » Compare Sanlchyalcarilcd 3, 11-13, 22, etc., pp. 20, 59-72, 106. 3 Mulaprakrtir avikrtir mahadadyah prakrtivikrtayah sapta Sodaaakas tu vikaro na prakrtir na vikrtilj purnsah. 11 Trigunam aviveki visayah samanyam acetanam prasavadharmi, Vyaktam tatha pradhanam tadviparitas tatha ca pumSn. 12 Prityapritivisadatmakah prakasapravrttiniyamarthah. anyo'nyabhibhavasrayajanauamithunavrttayasoa gunah. 13 Sattvam laghu prakSsakam iatam npastambhatam calam oa rajah, guru varaakam eva tamah pradlpavaccarthato vrttih. 53 408 ON THE OBIGINAL INHABITANTS The twelve BuddMst principles whose observance leads to final beatitude are the five organs of knowledge and the five orgaus of actions, together with the mind and the intellect. It is not difficult to observe, that they were derived from the Sarikliya philosophy. ^ ^ ^ Intimately connected with the Sahkhya is the Yoga system, from which it mainly differs by adding, to the twenty-five tattvas for the purpose of meditatioD, a supreme God or Isvara, who is a particular soul uninfluenced by afflic- tion, works, fruition, and impressions. In consequence of this 22 Prakrter maliamstato'hankaras tasmad ganasca sodasakah. tasmadapi sodasakat pauoabliyalj paSca bhStani. Read Devniwgavata, III, 6, 69—78 : 69. Bbhir vihinam samsaie vastu naivatra kutraoit, vastu matrantu yad drsyam samsare triguiiam M tnt. 70. Drsyanoa nirgunam loke na bhntam no bhavisyati, nirgniiali paramatmilsau na tu drsyalj kadacaiia. 71. Sagnwa nirgmja caham samaye Saiikarottama sadfiham karanam Samblio na oakaryam kadacana. 72. Saguna karanatvad vai nirguna Purusantike, mahattatvam ahankarn guijali sabdadayas tatha. 73. Karyakaranarupeaa samsarante tvabarnisam, madudbhutalj tvahankarali tenaham karaijam Siva. 74). Ahankarasca me karyam triguiao'sau pratisthitahj ahaukaranmahattatvam buddhih sa parikirtita. 75. Mahafctatyam hi k.^ryam syad alaankaro M karanam, tanmatraiii fcvahaiikarad utpadyante sadaiva hi. 76. Karanam paiioabhntanam tSni sarvasamudbhave, kannrndriyani paiicaiva paiica jfianendriyani ca. 77. Mahabhiitani pancaiva manali socjasam eva ca, karyam ca karanam oaiva gaijo'yam sodasatmakali. 78. Paramatma pnmau adyo na karyam na ca karanam, evam samudbhavah Sambho sarvesam adisambhaye. Compare these with the preceding slokaa 29 and 30 : 29. Sasvatam ksanikam siinyam nityaiiityam sakartrkam, ahankarsgrimam caiva saptabhedair vivaksitam . 30. Grhauaja mahattatvam ahnnkarah tadadbhavah, tatassarvani bhtitani racayasva yatha pura. ^^* See Sarvadar^anasahgrahay p. 28 : Jiianendriyani paiioaiva tatha karmendriyani oa mano buddhir iti proktam dvadalayatanam budhaih. 03? BHARA.TAVAESA OE INDIA. 409 assertion the philosophy of PataSjali is called Sesvarasan- khya, the Saiikhya with an Isvara^ in order to distinguish it from that of Kapila, which goes by the name of Nirisva- rasahkhya, or Sfiiikhya without an Isvara; for according to Kapila the existence of a god is not proved.' «o The main object of Yoga is to obtain by means of practical exer- tions the requisite knowledge (jnana) for securing final beatitude or moksa. The use of Yoga is necessary to the worshippers of Sakti, as without it they would be unable to obtain their ultimate aim. Yet without faith or hhakti the practice of yoga is useless. This faith is of three different kinds. It is external faith or bahyalhakti which teaches a person to follow all the observances of the SastraSj to convince him that whatever he does^ he does with the will and consent of the Deity^ i.e., in this case of Sakti, and that he is in consequence in no way responsible for his actions ; or it is firmly concentrated faith, ananya- hhakti, which grants neither hope nor expectation of any return for any good or bad deed in the present birth, as the individual creature is only the instrument for carrying out the dictates of the Divinity, who in his turn will pro- vide him in his lifetime with whatever he requires j or lastly it is exclusive faith, ehantalhakti, which causes a man to concentrate all his thoughts on his God, without distract- ing them to the consideration of mere worldly afiairs.^^' '"o See The Ydgasatm of Patanjali, XXI]', in M. N. Dvivedi'e transla- tion, pp. Y, 15, and above p. 403, note 150. 1"' The hahyabhaldi is performed by listening to the praises of the Deity, by praising and remembering the same, by prostrating oneself before it, by revering and serving it, by treating it like a friend, and by giving oneself entirely over to it. The Sanskrit sloka alluding to the worship of Visnn describes it as follows : — Sravaaam kirtanam Visijoli smaraaam padasevanam arcanam vandanami dasyam sakhyam atmanivedanam. According to the Saubharjyaral iinkura the smaraiiam consists of the nathaparaya'iam, uamaparayauam, ghafikaparayapam, tattvapirayaijam, 410 ON THE OEIGINAL INHABITANTS Through bhakti a man secures the three first of the four objects of human life, dharma righteousness, artha wealth, and Jcdma pleasure, and after a successful practice of yOga he reaches final beatitude or the fourth step mok^a, with the help of knowledge (jnana). It has been occasionally asserted that these four aims correspond to the special desires and aspirations which prevail at the various periods of life, that kdma should be cultivated in youth, artha acquired in middle life, and dharma practised in old age, so that at the end of life, after death, mbksa, final beatitude, or freedom from rebirth may be gained. The yoga whose practice is instrumental to obtaining the necessary knowledge is of four kinds ; ma^itrayoga, layayoga, hathayoga and rujayuga. In the first yOga the devotee confines himself to continually uttering the pranava or mystical syllable OM, whose letters A, U, M represent respectively either Brahman (creation), Visnu (preservation) and Siva (destruction), or the sthula-, suksma- and karana- sarlra, or the icchd-,kriy a- andjudna-sakti. The Layayoga is undertaken to procure by total abstraction an assimila- tion of one's soul with the Supreme Soul, while in the Hathayoga the mind is forced to abstain from considering external objects and to obtain mental concentration by submitting to the eight mortifications, viz., yama forbear- ance, niyama restraint, dsana posture, prandydma breath- nityaparayamam and mantraparayanam. There are forty different modes of arcanam and vandanam. The ananyahhalcti requires entire concentration when worshipping the deity, and the Sakti worshippers repeat continually the words sarvam iaktimayam ja ' See above, p. 419. The 108 places where the parts of the corpse of Sati fell are called pifhcis, among these are the best known in Bengal the KSlIghatta and Kamakhya Pithas. = '* Sec VevlihBgavnta, IX, 1, 14—21, 1456— I49n ; 1456. Pnjita Surathenadan Dnrga Dnrgartinasini tatah Srinlmacandrewa Bavaiiiasya varlhiirthina. 1466. TatpaJciijjagatSm miita trisu lokesu piijita jatSrlan Daksakanya ya nihatya Daityadanavan. 1476. Tato deham parityjaya yajfie bhartusca nindaya jajne Himavatah patiiyilm lebhf Pasnpatim patim. 1486. Gan^iasca svayam KrsHali Skando Visnukalodbhavah babhiiTatuli tau tanayan pascat tasyasca Narada. "5 See D?vlhh(igavata, IX, 1, si. 22—38 and 1496 ; Laksmir Maugalabhapena prathamam paripnjitS trisn lokesu tatpawcTit devata munimrinayaili. = '» See ihklem, si. ;JS— 13 and 1506: Savitri AsvaiDatina prathamam paripnjit~\ tatpascat trini lokesti devatSmunipuiigavaili. '" See ibidem, si. 29—37 and 1516: Adau Sarasvati devi Bralimana paripiijitil tatpascat trisu lokesu devatamunipungavaih. OF BHARATAVARSA OK INDIA. 447 GolOka during the full moou of Karttika^ and afterwards by shepherds and shepherdesses^ by boys and girls, by herds of cows, by Surabhi, and, at the command of Hari, by Brah- man and the other gods, &c.^ ' ^ Devi was, at the advice of Sankara, first worshipped in the holy land of Bharata by Suyajna, and afterwards at the command of the Supreme Spirit fervently adored by the sages in the three worlds with flowers, incense, &c. Like Rukmini of old, a Hindu bride generally visits Devi's tem- ple before her marriage. ^ ' ^ Next to the Vidyadevls, as representatives of Sakti, rank the Divine Mothers {Matrs ; Matarah, or Matrhdh), who vary in number between 7, 8, 9 and 16. They are also called Nurses {Dhatrls) and are considered to personate the Female Energies of the gods Brahman, Visnu, Mahesvara, Indra, Varaha, Narasimha, etc. They therefore bear the names of these gods ; but are variously enumerated as Brahmi, Mahesvarl, Aindrl, Varahi, Narasinbhi, Kaumari and Yaisnavl, or as Gauri, Brahmanl, Eaudrl, Varahi, Vaisijavi, Siva, Varunl, Kauberl, Narasimhi and Vasavl, or otherwise. The Matrs are arranged in three classes : Antarmdtrs, Bahyamdtrs and Bamharamatrs, or internal, external and contracting mothers.^^" = '» See ibidem, si. 44— 57, and 1526— 155a : 152!). Prathamam piiiita Eadha gol5ke rasamandale paurnamasyam karttikasya Krsaena paramatmana. 1536. Gopikabhisoa gopaisoa baTikabhisca balakaih gavam ganaili Surabhya ca tatpasoat ajilaya Hareh. 154b. Tada Brahmadibhir devair muuibMh paraya mnda puspadhilpadibhir bhaktya piljita vandita sada. ^ *" See Srllhagavata, X, 53, 50, and Devlbhagavata, IX, 1, si. 156b— I57a ; 155b. Pithivyam prathamam Devi Sayajnenaiva pnjita Sarikarenopadistena punyaksetre oa Bharate. 156b. Trisn lokesu tatpascad ajnaya paramatmanalj puspadhiipadlbhir bhaktya pSjita munibhih sada, ^^o Compare Vaijayantl, p. 8, lines 128, 129 : Brahrai Mahesvari Caindri Varahi Narasirahyapi Kaumari Vaisnavi ceti ta etah sapta matarah. 58 448 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS In the power of Sakti, in fact^ participate all womeUj god- desses as well as mortals. The difierence between them depends on the portion of Sakti they possess, whether they have a full share, or a portion, or a sixteenth part of a por- tion, or a portion of such a portion.^ ^ ' A superior share (pradhanamsa) is possessed by Ganga,^^ ^ Tulasi,--''' Nages- varl,^^'' Devasena,'^2 5 Mangalacaijclika,'2'- " Kali,--'' and The sixteen mothers are : Devaspna, Gauri, Medha, Padma, SacI, Santi, Savitrf, Svadhii, Sraha, "Vijaya, Jaya, Dhrti, Pusti, Tusti, Atmadevata and Kuladevata. See also Devibhagavata, III, 6, 14. ^'' These variations are also distinijuished as purnaialcti, ni'niarapinl , kalnrupinl and halamSarupini. See iiidem, IX, 1, 58, and 1S76 : 58. Arnsarilpah kalarupah kalami.lmsan'isasambhavah prakrteh prativisvesn devyasca sarvayositah. 1376. Kalameamsasamudbhiitali prativisvesn yoaitah. ''^'^ See ihidein, IX, 1, 44—62. 2" See ibidem, si. 63—70. ^''* See ibidem, si. 71 — 77 ■ 71. Pradhanamsasvariipri ya manasa Kasyapatmaja saiikarajDriyasisya ca mahajijanavis.ni'arl.l. 72. Nagesvarasyanantasya bhag-ini nagapiijita nage.svarl nagamata snndari nagavahini. 73. Niigendraganasarnyukta nagabhnsanabhiisita nagendravandita siddha yogini niigasSyinl. 74. VisBuriipa Tisnnbhakta \'if!ijupnjaparayana tapassvarnpa tapaaam phaladatri tapasvinf. 75. Diyyatn trilaksavarsam ca tapas taptvii ca ya Hareh tapasvinlsu piijya ca tapasvisu ca Bharate. 76. Sarvamantradhidevi ca jvalanti Brahmatejasa brahmasvarnpa parama Brahmabhavanatatpara . 77. Jaratkarumnneh patnl krsiiainsagya pativrata astikasya muner mat.T pravarasya tapasviuam. '^-'' See ibidem, si. 78— 83a: 78. Pradhanamsasvarilpa ya Devasena ca Narada Matrkasn pnjyatama sa Sasthi ca praklrtita. 79. Patrapautradidatri ca dhatrJ trijagatam sati saBtharbsariipa prakrteh tenasasthi prakirtita. 80. Sthane ^isunam parama vrddhariipa ca yogini p5ja dvadasamasesn yasya visvesu santatam. 0^ BHAEATAVARSA OK INDIA. 449 Vasundhara.^^s The wives of eminent personages are mostly endowed with a sixteenth portion of Sakti.^^" The Gramadevatas, curiously enough, appear at the bottom of the long list of beings possessing a share of Sakti.^"* Considering that they are in reality the original 81. Pfija ca sutikagare pura sasthadine sisoh ekavimBadine caiva piija kalyaijahetuki 82. Munibhir namitri caisa nitya kamyapyatah para matrka ca dayilriipa sasvadraksaiiakarini. 83. Jale sthale oautarikse sisimana sadmagocare. ^^^ See ibidem, si. 83!)-87o. = ^2' See ibidem, al. 87b— 93a. '"''' See ibidem, si. 93b-96a. = 29 See ibidem. §1. 96b— 136. As such kal as of Sakti are named SvahadevI, wifeofAgni; Daksina, wife of Yajnapati (Daksa) ; Svadha, wife of the Pitrs ; SvastidevT, wife of Vayu; Fasti, wife of Ganesa ; Tusti, wife of Ananta ; Sampatti, wife of Isana; Dbrti, wife of Kapila; Sati, wife of Satya; Daya, wife of Moha; Pratistha, wife of Punya; KIrti, wife of Sukarma ; Kriya, wife of Udyoga ; Mithya, wife of Adharma ; Siinti and Lajja, the two wives of Susila ; Buddhi, Medha and Smrti, the three wives of Jnana; Miirti, wife of Dharma ; Nidrawife of Kalagnirndra; who stupefies into sleep all the worlds by her yoga ; Sandhya, Ratri and Diva, the three wives of Kalaj Kjudh and Pipasa, the two wives of Lobha ; Prabha and Dahika, the two wives of Tejas, Mrtyu and Jara, the two wives of Prajvara; Tandra and Priti, the daughters of Nidra and wives of Sukha ; Sraddha and Bhakti, wives of Vairagya ; Aditi, mother of the gods; Surabbi, progenetrix of cows; Biti, mother of the Daityas ; Kadri), Vinata and Eanu ; Rohiai, wife of Candra ; Sainjna, wife of Siirya; Satarapa, wife of Mann; SacI, wifeof Indra; Tar.i,wife of Brhaspati; ArundhatJ, wife of Vasistha i Ahalya, wife of Gautama ; Anasiiya, wife of Atri; Devah iiti, wif e of Kardama; Prasiiti,wifeof Daksa; Menaka, mind-bom daughter of the Pitrs and mother of Ambika ; Lopamudra ; Kunti, wife of Kubera ; Varuijanl, Vindhyavali, wifeof Bali; Damayanti, Yaioda, DevakI, Gandhari, Draupadi, Saibya, SatyavatT, Sidhvi, wife of Vrsabhanu ; Kulodvaha, mother of Radhil; Mandodari, Kausalya, .Subhadra, Kauravi, RgvatI, SatyabhamS, KSlindi, LaksmaaS, Jimbavati, NagnajitI, Mitravinda, RukminI, Sita, Kali; Yojanagandha, mother of Vyasa; Usa, wife of Bana; ' Citralekha, friend of Us.a; Prabhavati, Bhanumafcl ; Eenuka, mother of Bhrga; Eohiui, mother of Balarama; Ekanandi or Durga, sister of Krsaa, etc. ■izo gee ibidem, si. 137a and 158o : 137a. Ya yasca gramadevyalj syuh tah sarvah prakjteh kalah, and 15^". Pujita gramadOvyasca gr.^me ca uagare muuf . 450 ON THE OKIGINAL INHABITANTS representatives of the Female Energy or Sakti, the Divine Mother or Amma of the non- Aryan population of India, this may appear at first singular. However, the fact of their being mentioned at all in Sanskrit Puranas is a strong evidence of the honoured position they occupied among the people, a position so important that it could not be ignored by the Brahmans, who found it even to their spiritual and worldly advantage to include in their Pantheon not only the principle they represent, but also occasionally these, in their opinion, lower deities- Having thus tried to show the non-Aryan origin of Siva as Bhutesa and Girisa, or Lord of Ghosts and of Mountains, and the identity of the worship of Devi and Sakti with the aboriginal Am7na-cult, I shall now discuss the subject of the non-Aryan deities, as represented by the Gramadevatas and Aiyanar. CHAPTER XIX. On Gramadevatas, Aiyanar and Bhidas. Genekal Remarks. The Grdviadevatd represents the principal national deity of the uon-Aryau population of India.'- ''• ^ With this female deity is intimately connected the well-known Aiyanar or *'' The J ;/«)/ias/Hifis()i'a contains a sloka wHcli assigns the Gramadeva- tas to the Surlras : Brahmainanam Sivo clevali, Ksatriyauam tu Madhavali. Vaisyanam tu bhaved Brahma, Sndranam Gramadevatah. Siva is the god of the Brahmans, Madha^a of the Ksatriyas, Brahman of the Vaisyas, and the Gramadevatas of the Siidras. The commentator explains this as follows : Sira as the fire and the Veda, Madhava as religion and sacrifice, Braliman representing the Brahmans, and the Gra- madevatas as described by Parasaraare respectively revered by the four castes (Sivo'gnir vedasca, Madhavo dharmo yajhasca, Brahma tu Brah- maijia eva, Gramadrvatali Parasaroktas caturvai-nyena yathakraniam arcyante), 01? BHAEATAVAKSA OE INDIA. 451 Sasta, tlie chief of the ghosts and evil spirits. As he prevents these demons or Bhufcas from doing harm to men, he acts like a Bhatesa, Bhutaraja or Bhufcanathaj in the same manner as does Siva, with whom he is as such identical. The Gramadevatas are revered throughout the length and breadth of India, not only by the rudest aborigines, bub also by the highest castes. There exists no hamlet, village, or town which does not possess a shrine dedicated to a Gramadevata, that she may by her power preserve her devotees from diseases, plagues, and other calamities. I have previously drawn attention to the fact, that the Pariahs, the despised representatives of the oldest Gauda- Dravidian stock in India, are often connected with the proudest Brahmanic temples sacred to Siva and Visiiu. The privileges these outcasts still enjoy seem to prove that they possessed originally proprietary rights over these sites, which perhaps even belonged to Pariah idols before the lands were taken from them and devoted to rival deities.^ ^ ^ Neither can it be denied that the worship of the aborigines has secured access into Brahmanism, with the result that not only did the Ksetradevatas enter into the Brahmanic liturgy, but also that superstitious Brahmans still sacrifice at the shrines of the popular deities of the lower orders. The word Gramadevata signifies deity of the village or town, and as India contains a large number of such villages and towns, there exists also an immense multitude of these deities, which vary in name and appearance, and whose legendary history depends on the special locality over which they preside. In consequence it is contended that the Gramadevatas owe their existence to the influence of time and actions, that they are framed according to judgment and are revered in the various districts under ^ ' ' Sasta and Sdstr are the two Sanskrit forms of this name of Aiyanar. About the Pariahe see ahove, pp. 50 — 56. 452 ON THE OEIGINAL INHABITANTS their special vernacular names. ^^'' Nevertheless, kowever much the several tutelar deities may seem to differ outwardly, they are in reality all alike, in so far as they must be con- sidered as the manifestation of the Gauda-Dravidian belief in the power of the Female Energy, represented by the productivity of the Earth. Tu this worship of the Mother Earth must be ascribed all the shrines that are dedicated to her local representatives. The original object of this veneration was probably a rude shapeless stone growing out of the earth and not fixed there by the hands of men; with preference a stone which in its outward appearance resembled a human head, such as we find still frequently worshipped in the northern Telugu country, and which is generally found on the outskirts of villages. Special images came afterwards into use, in order to distinguish the several divinities which were adored by the people. That all these various local deities represent one and the saine principle, becomes apparent from the fact, that one and the same name Amma, mother, is given to each singly, person- ating, as it were, the supreme power of Xature (pral-rti) or of Energy (sa&i'i). The identity of the word ^/uwa with Uwd in Sanskrit has been proved above. ^^'' The Gauda-Di-avidians i-evered the Earth as the power- ful being, on which all that is or lives in or on it depends, and which in consequence exercises an unlimited iuaueuce for good or evil over all earthly creatures and objects. The Earth was to be propitiated by valuable sacrifices in order to yield the necessities of life, and nothing was deemed too precious that could gain her favour. In consequence not only offerings of grain, honey and tiowers were made to her, but also cocks, goats, pigs, buffaloes and even men See Dev%'ja)nala : KiilakarmavaMajjatah kalpita baddhiyogatal.i svadrsabhasatianiadyair arcyante gramadeTatah. See p. 421. OF BHAEATAVAESA OF. INDIA. 453 were immolated at her shrine. The Meriahs, whom the Khonds sacrificed until lately to the great goddess of the Earth, are an example of the prevalence of such human sacrifices. 2 s » In fact the native mind is still so familiar with the idea of immolating human beings that a human head, or as its substitute a cocoanut, is required for the decoration of the shed (mantapa) in which the G-ramadeva^tais placed.^ss The Todas in the Nllagiris offer to this day milk and blood sacrifices to the Mother Earth. The former are intended to obtain from her good grass and good buff aloe-mi Ik, and at the New-year milk is for this purpose poured on the ground. The bloody sacrifice takes place at the dry Kedu, when buffaloes are killed and their blood is spilt to satisfy the goddess, who will reward her adherents with a rich harvest. The buffaloes take now the place of human beings, but the tradition still survives among the Todas that in former times they sacrificed men to the Bhrimidevi, though they have managed to keep it secret. With respect to the Todas, whose real name is, as I have proved, Eodas, and who belong to the Gaudian Khonds, this information is very important, as it settles for good all doubts as to their nationality, for the worship of the Earth and of the Grama- devatas proves them to be Gauda-Dravidians.^^? The aborigines of this country seem likewise to have revered, and some mountain-tribes who have not come into contact with Brahmans or other civilised Hindus do still revere, an invisible Supreme Spirit, of whom they form no special image, but whom they generally adore in the "' See pp. 153, 154. ''" See GramadevafnpratisthS : " manaviyena sirasa tatpratinidhin narikelaphaleiia..,alaiikrte mantape," compare p. 461, note 247. ^" See above, pp. 190—192. I obtained the information about the original object of the Keilu, the funeral ceremony serving ae a pretext for the barbarous massacre of cattle, from respectable Todas of five different Hands. 464 ON THE OEIQINAL INHABITANTS shape of a stone. An instance of this worship is Guruna- tha.2^8 It is incorrect to connect this stone-worship with the Lihga-worship, with which it has nothing in common. This Supreme Spirit who protects men in their trouble and guards them from evil spirits is adored as the kind father Ayya, and is known in South-India as Aiyanar. Mother Earth and the Great Father, as represented by the Gramadevata and Aiyanar, are the central figures of the Gauda-Dravidian pantheon. Both have fallen from their throne, and lead a degraded existence. Just as the Vedic deities became Asuras in the Brahmanic creed, and the gods and goddesses of the Bdda were transformed into Devils and Witches, so also do the Gramadevatas and Aiyanar occupy the position of fallen angels. They diifer, however, from other fallen angels, in that their influence is not malig- nant. Their real object is to protect human beings from all kinds of calamities, and especially from the mischievous machinations of the evil Spirits, with whom the Universe is peopled according to th e opinion of the Aborigines. And here it is worth mentioning that in spite of the Gauda-Dravidian populace occupying an inferior and dependent position, it has exercised a considerable influence on the Brahmanic element. It has forced its way gradually into the very heart of the Aryan worship, which eventually, by amal- gamating with Gauda-Dravidian doctrines, underwent a thorough change, so that the purity of its system disap- peared, and a new belief, the Brahmanic religion of our day, was substituted in its stead, a belief which partly rests on non-Aryan ideas. We even find Brahmans openly partici- pating in the unhallowed proceedings at the festivals of the village-goddesses, and defending their behaviour with the statement, that every act of a Brahman is connected with »" Seep. 200. OF BHARATAVAESA OE INDIA. 455 Brahman, and that in consequence he can not do wrong whatever he may do.^ ^ ^ Ifj however, the pure Vedic doctrine has been altered by the influx of non- Aryan tenets, so also have the latter undergone a change by coming in contact with Aryan ideas, and not only have males intruded into the once ex- clusively female circle of Gramadevatas, but also a motley of queer figures have crept in, forming indeed a very strange gathering. The Gramadevatapratistha mentions as Gra- madevatas the skull of Brahman, the head of Visnu, the skull of Renuka, the figure of Draupadi, the body of Sita, the harassing followers of Siva (the Pramathas), the attend- ants of Visnu (Parisadas), demons, Yoginis, various kinds of Saktis made of wood, stone and clay ; persons who were unsuccessful in their devotional practice, Sunassepha, Tri- saiiku, Ghatotkaca and others ; Devakl's daughter, multi- form Durgas and Saktis ; Potana and others who kill chil- dren ; Bhutas, Pretas, and Pisacas ; Kusmanda, Sakini, Daki- ni, Vetalas and others, Taksas, Kiratadevi, Sabari, Rudra, 100 krores of forms of Rudra; Mataiigl, Syamala, unclean Ganapati, unclean Candali, the goddess of the liquor pot (Surabhaiidesvari), Mohini, Raksasi, Tripura, Lankhini, Saubhadevi, Samudrika, Vanadurga, Jaladurga, Agnidurga, suicides, culprits, faithful wives, the Goddesses of matter. Goddesses of qualities and Goddesses of deeds, efcc.^*'-' '"^ See Deviyamala : " Tasam avoanam cabrahmanaapi samsantityeke. Sarvam khalvidam brahma tajjalaniti santa upasltetyadi srutivacanair brahmanasya sarvam brahmamayam bhavatitinirdustam. Etadvai kami- nam uktam apakaminam na kiuoana." (Some Bralimans also revere them (the gramadevatas) . The whole world is Brahman, who creates, destroys and protects. One should, free from passion, meditate on him, this is a Yedic precept. Everything connected with a Brahman i.5 icleutifled with Brah- man, and in consequence there is no fault in it. So say those Brahmans who desire something, but not those who do not desire.) -*° See &rdmaclevatdpratistlid : Tatra (ayatane) devata Brahmanah kapalam Visnossiro Renukiimastakam Draupadimiirtis Sitatanuh Prama- 59 456 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS The Hindu exoterics^ especially those who belong to the modern schools, have their peculiar ideas about the con- tliah saiva Vaisnavali parisada graha yoginyalj saktayo nanavidha daru- silamrRmaya jata bhrasta ye ca yagato na siddhim gatah Sunassephas Trisankur Ghatotkacacsa ityadya Devakigarbhottha bahuriipinl Durga ca Saktih Piitanadya balaghatinyo Bhijtapretapiaacasca Ki3smaiida Sakini Dakinl Vetaladya Yaksah Kiratadevi Sabari, Rudrasoa Satakotiriapani Eaudrani MatangI Syamaloochistagaijapatir Uochistacandali Surabhan- desvarl MohinI BaksasI Tripura Lankhini SaubhadevI Samudrika Vana- darga Jaladnrga Agiiidurga atmahantai-ah siksitah pativratasca dravy- adevyo gunadevyah kriyadevya ityadya gramadevatSs samavayena pujyante. According to Bopadeva the following are the Gramadevatas : 1. Sivasaktih Suvarnamba Hannmun Patali tathii Durvasaputri Muktamba Rainukascanima tatha. 2. Viramba Marika'Ganga Phalagauri ca Nagnika Arkika Virabhadrasca VJras S-rapatir eva ca. 3. Bhillah Kiratah Siddhasca DraupadI cagraja tatha Sarvamba caryanathasca Bhavani Siddhapiirnsali. 4. Raudri Rudra Mahixrastrl Maaika Rudrasaiighika Miikamba Vallavas sarve krsnabhaktasca Yadavali. 5. Laksmis Tara Brahmarakeas Trnamba PhuUalocana Dharma Iso Guruscaiva Sarabhah Khadgaravanal.i. 6. Saiigamesi Mahadevi Rudranl Candikesvarah Vinayakascaikamata cintyesi Varana tatha. V. "Valmikini ca Bheruijcla Dnrgamba cargalambikri Jyotir Maheso Yogloa Yogini Bagala tatha, 8. Sukahasta Siiikhalika Mayiiri Sirhhavahani YarunI Sasktill Krtya RaksasI Candraeekhara. 9. Nirgundikiirkavrksastha Prasthii Paryai'ikavasini Anjana Bhiisca Niryasas Tatakesyosadhlsvari. 10. Vy.ighresi ca Dhauuskotis Tulakotis tathendirS Upalii Nagarnpa ca Jafi Sasta ca Bhairavah. 11. Rsyasrngo Jamadagnyah Parsadas Sakunas Sami Drsadvan Kitanatha ca Mahamaiida ca Kundika. 12. Srenika caidkhela ca Kusm.iiidasca Vinayakah Masfirikahiphena ca TulasI Pasuvatsapa. 13. Retassira Mahavisniih Kaijcyam siddhena piijitah Pratitikas Tamalasca Gangabhrcca Dukfilika. 14. Nilasca Mihirasvatal Sphotamba oa Muuisvarah Calini Siirpika caiva Grahayiithapayiithapa. 15. Dakini Yaksariipa ca Markatolnkhalatmika Hayyaiigavina Musali Kumarl Bauariipiju". 16. Jalamiirtiscagnimiirtis Cakravatadrinayika Lankini Putanetyadyah piajj^ante gramadevatrili, OF BHAKATAVAKSA OR INDIA. 457 nexion of the Gramadevata and the Earth. They uphold that the Lord Isvaraj beyond whom they admit the exist- ence of the highest unmanifested Spirit, the Parabrahman, has seven forms or aspects, which manifest themselves in seven planes- The highest aspect of Isvara is exhibited in the Bigveda, another in Buddha, the seventh appears in the G-ramadevata on the surface of the Earth. In each sphere the leading spirit is attended by hosts of subservi- ent gods and ghosts, differing from each other according to the condition of these planes, which, though differing in elevation, stand to each other in a co-ordiuate position. On a level with the Gramadevatas are elsewhere the so-called fairies and gnomes. These spirits can be easily evoked, and are therefore objects of popular worship. In their lower types they often display a cruel disposition and delight in bloody sacrifices, but their ruder constitution does not necessarily indicate a bad disposition. On the Gramadevatas. The Gramadevata is the personation of the Female Energy as represented by Mother Earth, and as such the principal deity of the Turanian race. As the Gramadevata is the tutelary deity of every place in India, it is impossi- ble to give a complete list of them, nor is it even necessary to do so, considering that, though differing in name, quali- fications and other points, they are by their nature identi- cal with each other, as representatives of one and the same power, i.e., of Sakti. ^ * ^ Some Gramadevatas are connected only with their special locality, while others, as Kali and Mariyamma, though retaining their local supremacy, in consequence of the peculiar powers they possess, are encountered all over the country . As their name Amma or = * ' This idea is also expressed in the Devlydmala in the sloka ; Indranipramukha devyas sarvadevamsasambhaTah, Saktajas tatra pujyante nanariipah kalau ynge. 458 ON THE OEiaiNAL INHABITANTS Amba, mother, implies, they are, wherever they reside, revered as the protecting mothers. They are not identical with the Mutaras of later Sanskrit mythology, though there exists without doubt a connexion between them, and it is probable that the conception of the Mataras is due to G-auda-Dravidian influence- For a closer inquiry into this subject discloses the fact, that Aryan legends have been thus inseparably blended with non- Aryan, so that it is often difficult to keep the two currents asunder, and to dis- cover the oi'iginal source. That the worship of the Gramadevatas is very popular, is not only proved by the great number of their shrines, but also by the fact, that though their most faithful devotees form on the whole the poorest class of the population, their temples are often endowed with sufiicient land to cover the expenses incurred for their maintenance. Every villager, man or woman, takes a personal interest in his G-ramade- vata, her temple is daily visited, and the shady tree on its premises forms the favorite meeting place of the commu- nity.2 4 2 The temple of the Gramadevata stands either within or outside the village. Vaisnava people worship the goddess in the centre of the hamlet, Saktas do so outside it, Kapa- Ijkas on the burning ground, Gaijapatas at the house-door or at the house-pillar, and others with the exception of the merchants revere her in the bazaar-street. All, how- ever, can adore her near a waterside, in a forest, or in stone-, wooden-, or clay-temples. '■^*3 According to the Smrtipurdiiasarmiccaya, Gramadevatas are found in the "'^ See Devlyamala ; GrSmlno gramaraksarthi pujayed gramadevatalj. ^'^ See Gramadevatapratiitliii : "Atha gramiaah sTesam eamastikse- maya svasthaniye gramad bahir va gramasaktim pratisthapya pujayeyuli, Vaisnava gramamadhyeSaktababiliKSpalikas smasaneGanapatadvaradese Btambbadeso va anyc tvantara yapijah paiiyavitbyam sarve jalanikate vane ya pasaiiadriruuirumayayatancjvarcayeyuli. OF BHARATAVAESA OK INDIA. 459 hamlets of low-caste people, iu the abodes of savages and in the villages of peasants, in the tents of the Abhiras, in the station of banters, in the flocks of outcasts and in bazaars, among the Sudras and cultivators, in capitals, towns, villages and sub-villages, in carpenters' shops, on the roads, in the houses of village servants, in the abodes of vilomas, as well as in the huts of Pulkasas and in the houses of weavers.^** The idol is almost daily decorated with saffron powder and red kunkuma, and what remains of it, after the idol has been ornamented, is distributed among those present. The sacrificer (who is generally called Piijari, or Bhopi in the North, or Viravesin when possessed of the demon), and even the members of his family are supposed to be in possession of powerful charms, capable of bewitching, as well as of driving away evil spirits. The chucklers also often claim to have an exclusive knowledge of such spells. The G-ramadevata is as much a living part and parcel of the village, as are the Karnam, Talaiyari, Toti and other village officials. These deities are, as I have already point- ed out, the tutelary gods, and each villager expects his own divinity to preserve his village from evil spirits. They, it is believed, try to injure the crops as well as men and beasts, and to harm the village community in various other ways. The goddess is therefore venerated like a benevo- lent mother. If a villager is affected with any illness, her assistance is invoked, her favour is entreated by all kinds ^** See Smrtipurdnasamuccaya : 1. Pallipakkanakhetanam abhlrasibirasya oa Kiratapallikayasoa pugasreuivanikpatham. 2. Siidranam karsakanam ca nagaryah pattanasya pa gramasya copagramasya tvastravasasya paddhateh. 3. Gframacandalavatyasca vilomavasakasya ca Tatha pulkasavatyasca knvindavasakasya ca. 4. Devjo yas cabhimaninyah kathyante gramadevatah, Vilomas are the same as pratilomas. 460 ON THE OEIGINAL INHABITANTS of sacrifices, and additional votive promises are made, should such offerings prove successful. If the patient re- covers, his recovery is ascribed to the power and benevolence of the Gramadevata, and to the influence and efficiency of the Pujari. The promised vow is religiously kept, whether it takes the shape of a present, as a bell or a silver figure of the goddess, or of an act to be performed by the re- covered patient, e.g., to walk round the idol in a dress of margosa leaves. At the worship of the Gramadevata are used the leaves, flowers, resin and milky juice of the holy and of the red Oleander, of the white Calatropis gigantea, of the black Datura, the China rose, the Nimb tree, Euphorbia antiquo- rum and of other plants. When an animal, a black goat, or any other goat or a buffaloe, is to be sacrificed, the Pujari walks from the right side round the firepit, binds the beast on the flagstaff to the east of the temple, and the sacrificer possessed of the demon {vlrUvesin) , after pouring saffron water on the victim, waits until it indicates the consent of the deity by shaking its body and then kills it with a sword, with one stroke, otherwise it is regarded as unpropitious. This done, he cuts off its foot, and places it into its mouth. On its head is arranged an oil lamp, which is lighted with a new cloth wick. The Pariahs dance and play on musical instruments in honor of the Gramadevata, while the more respectable and high-caste villagers who attend the festival, place the prasada, i.e., flowers, leaves, flour, etc., on their heads.2*° Oblations consisting of liquor, meat, grain and lights are ^^^ See (ri-dmadevatdpraiisllid : Devakaraviraraktakaravirasvetarkani- lonmattaiapSpicumandasnuhyadipatrapuapaniryasaksiradyair arcayitvag- niknndasya pradaksiiiycna pracyani agaraaya dhvajastambhe pasiim san- nalaya krsnachagam ba3tam mahisam va vfravfSi khadgenotkitya tasya padam tanmnklip safikilya tacchirasi dcvatabhimukham tailasaravam niksipya nijtanavasasa dipam prajralya viidyaghoseija mahanrttena candala devim stuvanti gramina anye ca darsanapiasSdamatram sirasa rahanli. OF BHARATAVAKSA OR INDIA. 461 presented to the deities, and special festivals celebrated in their honor. ^ ■* " The sacrificer begins with placing the figure of the devata in the Maritapa. This is decorated with flesh, palm-toddy, honey, liquor, ghee and milk, with a human scull or with a cocoanut as its substitute, and with cocks and other beasts as substitutes for living animals. The idol is then adorned and propitiated with rice mixed with blood, and other gifts. Some devotees cut off their limbs and present them to the idol.^* " In the Telugu country this Vlravesin is called Poturdja, who occupies in the household of Ellamma the post of a herald. His services are, however, not monopolised by this goddess. This name is derived from putu, a male animal, especially a male buffaloe [mahisa), and Poturaju or Potaraju is in Kanarese called Potappa or Konara.ya.'^'^^ He is con- sidered to bethe son of a Pariah, and in consequence called CandUlaputra, and, as Putula rclju, is the king of buffaloes. He is personated by a Madiga who kills the sacrificial goat, by strangling it with his teeth and tearing open its throat. It may be here remembered with respect to the buffaloe that this animal serves as the vehicle of Yama. Bloody sacrifices are required at most feasts, and every marriage or other important event is commenced with the immolation of fowls or sheep. A general subscription is raised in a village every year or two in order to arrange for a festival or yatrd for pro- pitiating the goddess. A suitably decorated pot is for this purpose carried round the village, as a rule by the Pujari, 2*° See ibidem: Sldhumamsabalibhih dipair utsavaisoa . . arcyate. ^♦' See i!)i(Je?» : Pratisthayam adau diksitali pisitenapariaruta oa mad- huna madyena ghrtena ksirena ca manaviyena eiraea tatpratinidhina narikelaplialena praaipratinidhibhih knkkutadibhir alaiikrte maritape pratimam alaokrtya lobitannadibalibhir aradhya kecid upasakahsvasvari- gani chittva prayaccbanti. Natrodbandhanam, nainani apakurvanti sahaso va etad viranam kalan pratyakslbhavati phalam prafcyakslbbavati phalam, etad eva kalau Siidranam uoitam ityaha bhagavan ParaSarah. »•» See above, pp. 97, 469. 462 ON THE OEIGINAL INHABITANTS and every cottager contributes his share in kind or in coin. A great heap of cooked rice, afterwards distributed espe- cially among the village servants^, is placed before the god- dess ; and the beasts are slaughtered before ber image. A Vettiyan or Talaiyari carrying a pot full of rice deeply satu- rated with blood goes every day, generally about midnight, so long as the feast lasts, along the backyards of the houses of tbe village, and throws a handful of this rice in the four corners of every street, in such a manner that he may not be seen by any person ; for whoever sees him is sure to be afflicted by the devil.';, whose favours are to be gained by the offerings contained in this pot. This is done to secure the village against attacks of evil spirits. At the end of the festival the pot is taken to a particular spot on the boundary line of the village, wliere the offerings are thrown up in the air to be received by the devils, and after this ceremony, the pot is broken on the same spot. This pot is known in Tamil as the Ellai-catti, boundary pot. Moreover, on the last day of the festival the metal image of the goddess is carried round the outskirts of seven neighbouring villages, in order that the Gramadevatas of those villages be kept from visiting and molesting the place. If the Gramadevata is propitiated, the village will be free from small-pox, cattle-disease, famine and tree-disease, fire will not burn down the houses, nor will the river overflow its banks, nobody will die a sudden death, nor will poisonous snakes, scorpions and other obnox- ious animals do harm, nor will animals with claws or fangs, nor worms, bears, tigers or lions do injury : general security prevails in the country, and the people are prosperous.^*"'' ' ■" ° See O ramailc L'citnpratistha : PraBannS yada gramadevata tasmin mari- karogapaaurogadurbhiksavrksarogadayalj samyanti, nagnir gehani prada- henna nadijalamaplavayet, amrtyurnasayatinaiYa, sarpaviscikadayo risa- vlrya na badhante, nakliinS darhstrinascaraayakab kltabhallnkavya- ghraaimhadayo na himsanti, yogaksemah kalpatc riistre ca prajSksrmo bhavatiti vijuayate. OP BHAEATAVAESA OE INDIA. 463 If in spite of all precautions, an evil-disposed spirit should nevertheless haunt the village, so that the crops are destroyed by blight, or fires burn down the houses, or epidemics rage and decimate the population, the favour of that spirit must be secured, and his anger appeased by a great expiatory feast during which an immense number of animals are killed. At this celebration the entire popu- lation congregates outside the village, and a pot {'karaJcam) representing the enraged deity is with great honor carried into the centre of the village, and there deposited. After a lapse of three days it is with like ceremonies carried back to the borders of the village. Fresh sacrifices are then offered, and, when the above mentioned pot has been there broken to pieces, the spell is pronounced to be removed from the afflicted village.^ ^^ As a proof of the former supremacy of the Gramadeva- tas among the deities of this country, should be quoted the generally accepted tradition that they once enjoyed the highest bliss, but incurred by their pride the curse of the Supreme Spirit, who condemned them to roam over the world and to protect there mankind from the machina- tions of the demons, who were subjected to their sway. Out of gratitude for this protection, men established yearly festivals to every one of them. At the end of the world they will, however, be freed from the curse, and regain their former pre-eminence.^^' What the G-ramadevata is to the village, the Kuladevata is to the family. This deity is likewise of Gauda-Dra vidian origin, though now largely worshipped by Brahmans, especially in the Maratha country, but also elsewhere, e.g., ^^0 Inspector-General of Police, Colonel PorUous, has kindly placed at my disposal a Memo on the Village-goddess in India, and 1 am indebted to it for some valuable information wbioli it contained. ^ = ' This opinion is expressed in a letter written by a Native of India to the Bev. B. Ziegenbalg on pp. 146, 147. 60 464 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS in Mysore, where the Brahmans of Bettadapurain revere Angaramma as their Kuladevata. In fact^ if anybody sees her or any other Gramadevata with his own eyes, he must devote himself and his whole family to the service of that deity who henceforth becomes the family deity or Kuladevata. Connected with the worship of the Kuladevata is that of the Istadevatd, the chosen or tutelary deity of the house. Among the Brahmans the Istadevata is that god of the Paiicaya,tana,2 b 2 which is placed in the centre. The Pancayatana itself is restricted to the higher castes, but even the lowest orders worship household gods represented by very small figures of the Gramadevatas, made either of stone or of wood. I shall now give some particulars about a few of the more important village deities, beginning with those whose worship, in consequence of their wider sphere of influence, is spread over larger areas, and who have been more spe- cially distinguished by the name of the nine Saktis or Navasaktis. These are Ellamma, Mariyamma, Aiikalamma, Pidari, Bhadrakall, Durga, Camunda, and Purna (Puranai) and Puskala (Putkalai), the two wives of Aiyanar. Some of these names are Sanskrit or partly Sanskrit, replacing per- haps other older names of purely Gauda-Dravidian origin. 1. Ellamma. Ellamma, Ellammai, or Ellamuttammai, from ella all, and amma mother, the mother of all, in Sanskrit called 8ar- vdmba, (under which name she is, e.g., worshipped at Basapat- tanam), is, especially in the Telugu country, revered as the Adisakti. All castes from the Brahmans downwards adore this Gramadevata. She, so the legend says, has neither father, "'^ See above, p. 389. OP BHARATAVAKSA OB INDIA. 46& mother, nor husband, and was born from out of the earth. The MalaSj who claim to be descended from the sage Adijam- buvu, contend that Bllamma was created by his mantras, and that she attained her maturity nine hours after her birth, looking like a girl of twelve years. She then went to Adi- jambuTQ desiring him to be her husband, but he refused, giving her, however, a Sanjiva root with the instruction to plant it on the Mataiigagiri, and to present there ofierings to him. This done, he predicted that a cock would in time arise from the root of the plant, Ellamma become a hen and lay three eggs. One of these eggs would fall into the Nagaloka and give birth to Adisesa, another would turn bad and, falling into the city of the king Bali, would become a Brahmaraksasi, but on the third Ellamma would sit, and Brahman, Visnu and Siva would be born from it. After the creation of these three gods Ellamma would again become a woman.^^^ And as he had prophesied, so it happened. 2 = 3 I owe this story to the Rev. W.Howard Campbell, m.a., of the L.M.S., who has written to me as follows about Ellamma : " Bllamma is the Adisakti, without father or mother or husband, born out of the earth, a virgin. Before her was Adijambuvu, a great muni, who was born six months before the Kaliyugam. (The Madigas claim to be his descendants.) He by his mantras caused Ellamma to be born out of the earth. Nine hours after she was born, she attained to maturity and was like a twelve years' old girl. Putting on grand clothes and gold ornaments she went to Adijambuvu and greetedhim 'Trimitramangalam([^»^(^a':>o?Ce;5S», author of the Shastras who made Ganga speak and helped Bama in the Kritay ugam) , grand- father.' He looked at her and said ' What is it, Adisakti ? ' She replied ' I have searched all hills and plains and secret places and have found no husband who will satisfy my youthful desires.' He said ' No gods are yet born with the Kaliyugam, so there is none to satisfy your desire.' She replied ' I have come to have intercourse with you.' ' That,' he said, ' cannot be.' ' Who then is there ' she asked, ' to satisfy my desires ? ' He replied ' I give you a Sanjiva root, take it to Matangagiri hill, plant it there, and with offerings worship me. Prom this root will spring up a cock, and on its appearance you will become a hen. You will lay throe eggs. Of these one will fall down into the Nagalokam, and from it will come forth Adisheshan. One will go bad, and will fall into Balimaharaja's city. The 466 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS According to another legend, especially current in the Tamil country, Ellamma was the revived Renuka, who had originally been the chaste wife of Jamadagni, and the mother of his five sons. One day she saw Citraratha, king of Mrttikavatl, sport with his queen, and became jealous of their happiness. Her husband perceived that Renuka had lost her chastity, and ordered his sons to kill her. The elder four refused to do so, but the youngest, Parasurama, con- sented. Renuka, on hearing of this, fled for protection to a neighbouring village inhabited by Pariahs. Her son pursued and found her there, and after killing all the Pariahs, cut off the head of his mother, which he brought to his father. Jamadagni, as recompense for such obedience, granted his son the favour of asking a boon, who thereupon requested his father to allow him to restore his mother to life. Jamadagni consented, and Parasurama went with the head of his mother to the place where he had killed Brahmarakahasi will be born from it. On one you will sit, and from it Brahma, Vishnu and Siva will come forth. On their birth, you will again become a woman.' It happened as the sage said, and on becoming a woman, Ellamma turning to the Trimurtulu asked them to satisfy her desire. They replied ' Mother we came from your womb, how can we do this ? ' She answered ' I am not your mother, but only your grandmother, as you were born from an egg, so you need not hesitate.' They fled from her in foar from place to place, and at length rushed into the presence of Adijam- buvu to tell him, who they were, and why they had fled from the Adisakti. He turned to Siva and said ' It is you she seeks and not the others. When she presses you to comply with her wishes promise to do so on the condition that she gives you her third eye. She will agree to give you her eye, and with it I shall take away her strength, so that her robe will become a burden to her.' Siva did according to these directions, and the Adiksakti's strength and vigour disappeared. He asked if she still wished him to comply with her request, and she replied that her robe had become a, burden to her. The Trimurtulu left her, and after receiving instruc- tion from Adijambuvu, she returned to Matangagiri hill. Nine hours later the Kaliyuga began and the people came in multitudes to worship her. Some other stories about her are besides in the mouths of the people." 0^ BHAEATAVAESA OR INDIA. 467 his mother. He put her head on the trunk of one of the beheaded women, and thus revived itj but he mistook the corpse of a Pariah woman for that of his mother, and the head of Eeijuka was in this manner put on a wrong body. This is the popular tale about the origin of Bllamma. Another legend contends that Parasurama put by mistake the head of a Pariah woman on the body of Renuka, and that in consequence Jamadagni did not recognize as his wife the thus revived person, who was allowed to be worshipped by the Pariahs, while Rei.iuka's head was called Ammachar. In the Tulu country. Kali goes by the name of Ellamma, and it is a peculiar coincidence that Parasurama is in most Kali temples worshipped in a special shrine. There existed therefore an old tradition which associated this fierce enemy of the Ksatriyas with the aborigines of India ; but it is as yet unsafe to propose an explanation of the legend which ought, however, to be remembered and not overlooked.^^* ^'* See Dr. Willielm Germann's edition of the Qenealogie der Malabari- schen Goiter von Bartholomasus Ziegenbalg, pp. 157—159. The following different version of the story of Eenuka was given to me by a Native as follows : " Benuka, the mother of Parasurama, was by virtue of her chastity in the habit of making a vessel of sands and of bringing water from a river in such a vessel. One day, as usual, she went to the river, and when bathing she saw in the water the shadow of a Gandharva passing in the sky. Perceiving the shadow to be beautiful, she thought in her heart that the real Gandharva must be extremely beautiful. From that instant her virtue left her, and she was unable to weave a vessel out of sands. (According to the story related by Ziegenbalg she could through her chastity draw the water out of the Kaveri in the form of balls and roll them to her husband, who performed his sacrifices with this water.) She returned home in sorrow. Her husband knew it all, and asked his sons to slay Eenuka. The youngest, Parasurama, consented and pursued her into the quarter where Chandalas lived and slew her there. Then leaving the corpse on the ground, Parasurama went to Jamadagni, related that he had carried out the sage's orders, and asked a boon that Eenuka may be brought back to life. Jamadagni gave some sanctified water which had the power to revive dead bodies. Before Parasurama went to the Chandalas' quarter, some Chandalas removed Eenuka's head and left a Chandala woman's head near the trunk of Benuka. Parasurama taking this head and 468 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS Ellamma is represented in a sitting posture with reddish skin and very fiery face. She wears on her head a crown with serpents lying over it ; for the natives declare, that many serpents dwell in her pagodas, and that people who see serpents, invoke her aid, drive them away so that they do no harm. She wears on her forehead three white lines of cow dung- ashes, but is otherwise adorned like the other goddesses. She has four hands. In her raised right hand she carries a drum (rkmarw) round which a serpent is entwin- ed, and in the other a trident ; in her uplifted left hand she carries a noose, and in her bent left hand the skull of the torn-off head of Brahman. This skull is said to attract all the blood of men and beasts that is shed in the world, and yet cannot get full. As much blood is spilt at the sacrifices of the Gramadevatas, they generally carry in their hands the skull of Brahman. A metal image of Ellamma stands in her pagodas and is carried about at the festivals. The principal image before which sacrifices are made in the shrines, is hewn out of stone, and fashioned in such a manner, that only the head above is visible, while the body stands concealed in the earth, in commemoration of the fact that only her head was revivedand placed on the trunk of another woman. ^ ^ '' I have referred already to the stone images of the Gramadevatas which are shaped like a head, and given an explanation more generally applicable.^ ^^ Shrines of Ellamma are found everywhere, though they trunk as belonging to his mother, sprinkled water on them. Tlie head and trunk united, and the renovated creature flew at Parasurama and pursued him to Jamadagni's residence. Jamadagni not recognising the creature as his wife, the latter demanded of the former, what she should do. She was allowed to live among Chandalas and be worshipped by them all over the Earth.'' The devata with the trunk is Ellamma, and the head alone (being purely Brahmanic) is called Ammachar. = "= See Ziegenbalg, p. 159. « " See p. 452. OP BHABATAVAESA OR INDIA. 469 are only small in some places.^s? Such temples contain, besides the image of Ellamma, generally those of Jamadagni, Renuka's husband; Parasurama,'ReT}nkH.'s son; Pohiraja,^^^ her herald; Mallujetti,^^^ her (wrestler) champion; VigJmes- vara, Siva's son ; Bhadra-Kali, Matangl, the Pariah woman on whose trunk the head of Eenuka was placed ; and the Angels of Life (in Tamil Uyirttundilkarar), -who catch in a net the souls of those who have suddenly died a violent death. These after they have been conveyed to Bllamma, who had suffered a similar fate, will in their turn undertake the office of soul- catchers. ^^"^ There are also found in her temples, images of serpents. The priest or Pujdri of such shrines is a Pandaram. Once a week at least, on every Friday, sacrifices are with certain mantras offered to her. She is invoked for help by those who are threatened by poisonous snakes. Fishermen pray to her when they cannot catch any fish, or are in danger on the sea : others do the same, when they are in a perilous position. In her honour is every year celebrated a festival which lasts about eight days, during which her image is carried about.^'^' Pigs, bucks and cocks are decapitated before the door of her temple ; the priests retain the heads of these animals, while their owners eat the remainder. Some cook the meat of these animals and deposit some slices on leaves to Potu- raju, and to the Uyirttuijdilkarar. They also bring a great » = ' E.g. at Tenampettai. ' = ' Voturaju (Potaraju), from 'potu (Ea^«^ j a male animal, especially a male buffialoe) ; G. P. Broivn makes him out to be the husband of the Gramadevata. (See p. 461.) ^ = 1 'Frommallu (^^) andjetti C^^) wrestler. "° See Ziegenialg, p. 159. 20 1 rjij^e Jiev. W.H. Camplell of Kadapa has written to me about the worship of EUamma as follows : "This goddess is worshipped by people of all castes. Ceremonies in her honour are performed by dobeys (T^^SeiV ^Q^^y. sellersf"^^ X j and chnoklers( sir's "^V Her temples, which are numerous 470 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS quantity of cooked i-ice, whicli belongs partly to the priests, and partly to the workmen who carry the figures. Many vows are fulfilled on such days, one of which is the notorious hook-swinging when iron hooks are stuck in the back behind the shoulders of the persons who have promised to swing in the air on a pole. This hook-swinging is, in this district, are built at a little distance from the villages in the vicinity of the Sudra houses. They should be overshadowed by a margoea tree. There is, as a rule, in each a stone-image representing a woman with three eyes, in the shrine (sSxrosjiJr'j^sSM^ and near this a small image made of the five metals. In the verandah there is a small palanquin in which this smaller image is carried at festivals. People of all castes, Brahmans included, make offerings to the goddess of cocoanuts, incense, and not unfrequently oifer sheep. It is an Idige man who acts as pujari in presenting the usual offering, and who when an offering of food (ii JSjS^sSmj is presented, places a portion before the idol, and returns the remainder to the offerers. When a sheep is presented it is a dobey who sacrifices it. After he has cut off the head, he places it on the pandal in front of the temple, and those who have presented it, take away the carcase. The Madiga people who are present or rather those of the JIadigas who are set apart for the purpose, theBainenivaiu.Uu(^"^psr'o^j, play upon the instruments and recite tales of the goddess, while offerings are being presented. A festival is held once a year at each temple. It lasts for three days. On the first day 24 seers of cholam are boiled, poured in a heap in front of the temple, and decorated with flowers and turmeric. A buffalo is brought forward, the Bainenis (Madigas) tie margosa branches to its neck and drive it three times round the temple. Then they ask the village magistrate, if the sacrifice be performed. On his assenting a dobey comes forward and onts off the buffalo's head. The Bainenis rip up the belly, tie the intestines round their arms, mix rice with the dung and march round the temple throwing this into the air and crying out : Kobali rathahali (§'*»l) StfaS). They then prostrate themselves in front of the temple. The reddi (village magistrate) and Karnam come forward, cover them as they lie with a new cloth, and present betel to them. On this all rise to go off to their midday meal. In the evening all assemble again at the temple. A mix- ture of five seers of milk, five seers of jaghari and twenty-five seers of rice is cooked and placed in the temple. Then the Bainenis come forward and, after playing some music, tell a story of the goddess. On the second day, at dawn, a square (sSw^;^) is drawn with coloured powder in front of the temple, and on it are placed camphor, betel, limes, toddy and arrack. The goddess is said to be specially fond of liquor. A male goat and a female OF BHAT^ATAVARSA OE INDIA, 471 however, not confined to Ellamma, but also performed at the festivals of other Gi-amadevatas.^c^ 2. Mariyamma. Mariyamma is the name of another G-ramadevata.^*'^ She is regarded also as one of the nine Saktis, in fact by some worshippers she is considered to be the chief Sakti and goes thus by the name of Parasakti. She is of high repute, and among her names occur those of Ammai, Ayi, Tay, Poleramma, Peddamma or Periyammai. ^ " * To her applies sheep are brought and placed near the square. The dobey priest sacri- fices the sheep in the usual way, and after he has done so, the Bainenis come forward after they have bowed before the shrine. One of them per- forms the gavu f "'^^ j by seizing the goat by the neck and strangling it with his teeth. When he has done this, he sits down in real or feigned excitement, and eats l-f seers of rice, i of a seer of curd, and J of a seer of ghee. .This concludes the morning ceremonies. At night the id egas (toddy- sellers) or bestas (fishermen) place the small image in the palanquin and take it to the river. It remains there till dawn, and the Bainenis spend the time in repeating their stories. At dawn of the third day they take the image back to the temple. There are no further ceremonies, but from midday till evening the Bainenis tell their stories." ""^ E.g., at those of Mariyamma [see pp. 480-484) and Aiigalamma. Compare also Ziegenbalg, p, 160. 2 6 3 fjje name Mnrii/amma is generally derived from the Sanskrit word Mdri, pestilence, plague, and amma, mother ; its meaning is therefore mother of pestilence ; Miiri corresponds to the Sanski-it Marika. ^°* Among her many names the most common are : Adi, Adisivadevi, Alamelumarigai, Ammaai, Aradharapporul, Ayi, Ayirankannudaiyal (who has thousand eyes) , Arimnttuvaliy ammai, BhiidevI, Dranpadi, Dhurandhari, Isvari, Kaccipadiyal, Kadukal or Kadukalammai (mother of the burning place, or of forests), Kamaksi, Kapali, Karanasaundarl, Karaai, Kiliyenduna- yaki, Koddi, Mada, Madarasi, Mahamayl, Maharasi, Maugai, Marigalavi- nodi, Maiigamariyammai, Manomaui, JIaijimantrasekhari (chief of poison stones and spells), MSri, Marika, Marimuttu, Maritay, Mariyatta, Mataiigi, Mayi, Muttumariyammai, Mutyalamma, Nagakanya, Nallamuttu (good pearls), Nelliyakalliyani,Nili,Paranj6di (supreme light), Padinayirankaijnu- daiya] (having 10,000 eyes), Piijakkuratti (revered by Korava women), Samayapurattal), Sankari, Sakkacoivaudaval, Sitala, (SltaladevI), Urkak- kuikali, Vacaki (pleased by sounds), Vadugi (VadugantSy), mother of Vaduo-an or Bhairava, Vallidevanai, Vallanmaikkari, Vallavi, Yakkaladevi or Takkamma patroness of the Arkaplant, see p. 496), etc. See about 61 472 ON THE OKIGINAL INHABITANTS the legend wBicli I give below, and which has much resem- blance to the story told about Bllamma. ^ e b In fact the Mariyamma and her names the small Tamil poem Mariyammcm talattu, lullaby of Mariyammai. 2n=^ I am indebted to the Rev. Mr. W. H. Camphell also for this legend about Peddamma, see pp. 469 — 477. " Before aught came into existence, hills or fields or trees or plants, all was a waste of water. In the midst of this one ocean was sus- pended the great world-light. This light meditating all things within itself, thought to itself that the Kaliyugam must be brought forth, and men and cattle and all things created. Thus meditating, it took the form of a woman, and formed in the midst of the waters an island on which to rest. In this island she formed a garden, and in the garden a well. By the well she planted a mangrove tree and caused an ant-hill to arise near the tree. Day by day she went into the garden, bathed in the well, ate of the fruit of the garden and adorned herself with its fiowers. One day, while she was thus adorned, passion entered her heart, and the thought arose "Had I a man, it would be well." As she passed into the garden giving utterance to this wish, a jessamine bough bent over towards her. Plucking a flower from it she said " This will be my husband," and taking it to the well placed it in the cup of a lotus flower which floated on the surface of water. Having done this she assumed the form of a bird, a roller (Coracias Indica), and settled upon the lotus, brooding over the jessamine flower which she had placed in it. In time she became pregnant by the flower and laid three eggs in the lotus. She gathered these under her with her bill and brooded over them. In 72 days one egg, 'vfhich was three-faced, opened. The lower shell became the earth with the all- circling sea surrounding it. The upper became the heavens, the white of the egg became the stars, the yolk the sun and moon. From the black speck in the egg, Brahma, Vishnu and Siva were born. Of the other two eggs, from one which was covered with 72 hairs, the Rakshasas were born. As soon as they were born they rushed oft to the western sea. The last egg became addled. The goddess seeing this, and knowing that from it would come all manners of disease to man and beast, placed it aside in concealment. After Brahma, Vishnu and Siva had been born, she reared them carefully up to their 12th year and then gave them each an aerial chariot and a trident, taught them the C)m mantram, and bade them build for themselves three cities. As she looked on them, she lusted after them, and dressing herself in beautiful garments and adorning herself with all kinds of jewels, she went up tu Brahma and asked him to satisfy her desire. He replied "You are my mother, how can I ? " and shut his ears. She said ' It is not so.' I'll tell yon how it is ; the egg is my child ; yon are born from it, so I am your grandmother and you my grandson. Do as I wish." He replied "I cannot, go to Siva." She went to Siva, and he gave her a similar answer. At last she flew OE BHAEATAVAESA OE INDIA, 473 variously named Gramadevatas are in principle identical, and this is also the reason why they have so many names in common. to Vishuu in a rage and addressed herself to Mm. He saw her wrath and was afraid and said " I consent to your proposal, but this is not a suitable time, come at midday tomorrow." She went back to her garden rejoicing, and next day at noon returned decked with jewels and gar- lands. She found the three in one place and asked Vishnu to fulfil his promise. He said " I will, but you must first swear to give me three things I ask for.'' She made an oath, and he asked her for the fairest of her 1,000 eggs, the ornament of her forehead, and a certain weapon. She gave the eye and Vishnu gave it to Siva who placed it in his forehead, and thus became three-eyed. She gave the forehead ornament and weapon, and when she had given all, suddenly her strength and vigour disappeared and she became as an old woman of 100 years. She lost all memory of her desire, and saw the world and all things clearly. Then she said ' The demons are increasing, I go to slay them. Remain you here as guardians of this well and garden and send me daily jessamine flowers.' Thus saying she went to the western sea and began to slay the demons. She slew multitudes, but as she slew them their blood fell upon the earth, and as it fell, millions of demons sprung up from it out of the earth. Then she bethought herself how she might slay them, and at last assumed her divine form, and put out her tongue. Her tongue extended for 120 miles upon the earth, and she began again to slay the demons causing their blood to fall upon her tongue instead of upon the earth. In this way she slew them all. But a little blood had fallen to the earth without her noticing it, and from this Dun- dubhi, the buffaloe demon, was born. He, in fear of the goddess, plunged into the sea and swam over to Sugriva's mountain, and lived there for some time, daily increasing in strength. At length unable to resist the attacks of Vali and Sugriva he left the mountain and made his way to the garden of the goddess, and began to defile her well and destroy the garden. Brahma, Vishnu and Siva, who were guardians of the place, saw the harm that had been done, and on looking for the cause of it, found the demon lying upon a bank. They asked him who had destroyed the garden, and he said " It was I." " Who are you ? " they questioned. " I am Vishvamitra's son ; my name is Dnndubhi Rakshasa," he said. Thereupon he challenged them to fight, and they attacked him with their tridents i but strike' as they would they could infiict no wounds on him. He taunted them with their inability, and they owning that they could do no more, challenged him to attack them. He breathed on them and they, with their cloud chariots, were carried away in the storm. Then ho stamped with his foot, and the earth trembled so that their chariots were shaken to pieces. In terror they rushed o£E to the goddess and told her of the 474 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABIT NTS Mariyamma ranks as a sister of Visnu and of Krsna, and is thus known as Mayasahodarr^ Narananartangai^ Seii- kannantangai and Gopalantangai. In the Samayapurattal temple near Srlrangam^ the Gra made vata Mariyamma is supposed to be a sister of Rariganatha^ and all the collec- tions which are made in that temple, are credited to the account of Eanganatha. Mariyamma is revered all over India,, but in the South especially at KannanQr (Krsna's town) and Samayapuram encounter. She at once armed herself and set off to encounter the demon, with weapons in each of her seven hands. She found him lying by the way- side and struck at him with all her weapons, but her blon- had no effect. Then she invited him to attack her, but he, saying ' How can I attack a woman,' simply breathed and she was carried away by hia breath when he stamped his foot, and the earth trembled so that she was thrown into the air. She fled in terror and he, lowering his horns, rushed after her. As she fled she cast some drops of sweat on the ground, and from these sprung up an ant-hill with 3 horns which rose half \vay to the heavens. She at once assumed the form of an ichneumon and rushed into the ant-hill. The demon not seeing her rushed upon the ant- hill and trampled it into pieces. As he dashed past, however, it sprung up again as before. For 14. days he continued his contest with the ant-hill and in this time Peddamma reached the Nagaloka, made friends with the Siddhas and turned back leading 90 millions of them to do battle with the demon. As the Siddhas rcarohed up to the upper world, they chanted incantations, and, such was the force of these incantations, that, before they emerged from the ground, the demon fell down and died. When they came out of the ant-hill they saw the demon lying dead, and cut off its head in triumph. They placed the head before the goddess with uuc of the forelegs in the mouth, put the fat from the belly on the head, and above all set a lamp fed with the melted fat of the demon. After doing this, they procured a large quantity of rice and strong drink, out up and cooked the body and had a great feast. At Peddamma's festival, an earthen image of the goddess is made. This is dressed and adorned with jewels and placed in a small booth made by people of the washer-caste. Food and arrack arc placed in front of this and the history of the goddess is related by the Asadhi people (Jlalas). The Malas bring forward the buffaloe to be sacrificed, a dobey slays it, the Madigas cut up the carcase, the Malas take the head and place it in front of the image and light a lamp and place it upon it. After the ceremonies are over, the image is taken to the boundary of the village and thrown away." OF BSAEATAVAKSA OE INDIA. 475 m Tricliinopoly ; in Koranginiyamman-kovil in Tinnevelli ; in' Tadikombu, Vatalagundu, Colavandan, Vlrapaiidi and Periyakulam in Madura j in the town of Tanjore and in the famous Mariyamman-kOvil in its neighbourhood ; in Koli- yanur and Tiruvannamalai in South Aroot; and in Periya- palayam and Kanci in Chingleput ; and in other places. ^ ^ ^ She was expelled from heaven, so goes the legend, on account of her haughtiness, and she is also more feared for causing in her anger plagues and other calamities, than beloved for removing them, and for protecting men from the attack of demons ; though she will kill the devils when a person remembers her while the demons oppress him. The special disease with which she is connected, is small- pox, and she is therefore called Marimuttu, Muttumari- yamma, Mutyalamma, Nallamuttu, Sitaladevi, etc. Those who die of small-pox are admitted to her company. In consequence of the prevalence of this and other diseases, Mariyamma is much in request, and yearly festivals in her honour take place everywhere.''^ ^'' To her is sacred the 7th day of the light fortnight {suMapakm) of Sravana, which is called Sitalasaptami. 2 Tjie Mariyamman-talattu quotes the following places as celebrated for their worship of Mariyammai : Kaunanur, Kapnapuram, Vijayanagaram, Ayodhya, Picoaudisannidhi, Kanjagiri, Indranagaram, Tulukkanam, Mala- yalam, Samayapuram, Viratapurani, Kadumpadi, Uttaikadu, Padavidu, Periyapalayam, Arani, Viramapattaaam, Koliyanfir, Tillavanam, Kasi, Usivalanadu, Kollimalai, Madurai, Kacci (Kaiicipuri), Axuaacalam, Tiru- vaniiaraalai, Anaigundi, Malayaniir, etc. ' " ' See On some Festivals to Tillage Goddesses, by Mr. Fr. Fawcett, Super- ^ Intendent of Police in Bellary, Journal of the Anthropological Society of Bombay, Vol. II, pp. 164-264, who describes the festival of Mariyamma in the village Hoshalli as follows : " Her image, cut out of Margosa-wood, is carried from temple to a stone called a Baddukal, in the centre of the village, on the afternoon of the first day. A rounded stone, about 6 inches above the ground and about 8 inches across, is to be seen just inside the gate of every village. It is what is called the Baddukal or navel stone, it is worshipped in times of calamity, especially during periods of cattle disease ; often, women passing it with water pour a little on it, and every 476 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS It appears that the ceremonial varies at the different temples of Mariyammaj some only allowing bloodless one on first going out of the village in the morning is supposed to give it some little tribute of attention. It is considered to be as a sentinel to prevent mischief entering the village .... There she is worshipped on her litter, over which is made a little booth of Margosa leaves .... The following day all men and women of Sudra castes substitute garments of leaves of the Margosa (little branches tied together) for their ordinary clothes, and thus attired go with music to the goddess, who has been left out all night by the Baddukal), carrying offerings of milk and curds called Mlsalii. The pujari drinks the offered Misalu. A buffalo bull, devoted to the goddess since the last feast, and not worked in the interim, is then dragged through the village streets, by ropes tied to its legs and body (for it is generally savage), and brought to the goddess with shouts. There is no music. It is beheaded before the f^oddess by a JIadiga man, and the head is placed on the ground near the goddess with the right foreleg, which is also cut off, in the mouth. People then accomplish vows by sacrifices of shoep, which are afterwards eaten by the Madigas. About 60 seers of rice arc boiled, and the blood of the buffalo mixed with the rice is thrown round out- side the village. This occupies the people until midnight. . On the thu-d day a gaily decorated cow is brought to the goddess and she is placed on it- uud wheeled in procession to a certain place outside the village and left there. In the evening the villagers congregate to listen to some special music played by musicians of a neighbouring village. On the fourth day a little booth of Margosa leaves is erected on the ground near the Baddu- kal, and in it is placed a brass plate containing ashes, red powder used for feminine adornment, bangles of earthen ware, and a gold necklace, as sym- bols to represent the goddess for the time being. The people congregate there, and a man whose patronymic is Poturaz, brings a small black ram to the goddess. The ram is provided by general subscription raised for the festival, and Poturaz bathes before he brings it to the goddess. Stand- ing in front of the goddess he holds the ram in his arms, and seizing its throat with his teeth bites the animal until he kills it. He tears the ram's bleeding flesh with his teeth and holds it in his mouth to the goddess. The body of the ram is then buried beside the booth, and PotnrSz is bathed by the headmen of the village, who put a new turban on his head and give him a new cloth. The people retire after this, and on the following day return to the goddess in the car outside the village, and bring her to the little booth and place her inside it, with the brass plate, which is not removed. She is left there a while, and the people take their evening food, after which she is carried on a litter in procession, with music, to her tem- ple. On the following day gram and other grains are offered to the goddess ; and on the seventh and last day arrangement is made for a buffalo for the next festival. If no one oUVrs to give one, there is a general subscription to provide uue." OP EHAEATAVAESA OR INDIA. 477 oblations to be offered within their precincts ; others, and this is by far the greater number^ requiring animal sacrifices. In some shrines of the latter class the custom of hook-swing- ing prevailSj i.e., of men being suspended in the air fastened to a pole by hooks stuck in their backs. To the first category belong among others the Kannanur temple in Trichinopoly, the Mariyamma-temple in the Town of Tanjore and the Periyakulam temple in Madura. It must not, however, be understood, that because no animals are killed within the limits of the temple, therefore no blood is shed at these Mariyamma festivals ; far from it, for the worshippers of Mariyamma delight in the taste of meat, and the animals are killed at home before the domestic idol, instead of being slaughtered by the Pujari at the temple. At Koraiigini in Tinnevelli, in Tadikombu in Madura, in Sama- yapuram in Trichinopoly, in the big Mariyammankovil near Tanjore and in Koliyanur in South Aroot, animal sacrifices prevail, while at Vatalaguiidu, Colavandan and Virapandi in Madura, and elsewhere hook-swinging is still practised. In Periyapalayam near Madras sheep-swinging has of late years been substituted for man-swinging, and at Valpanur goat-swinging is introduced at the festival of Aiikalamma. Of late also fire-treading, an ancient custom peculiar to the Draupadi-worship of the Pallis, has been introduced into the Mariyamma worship. (See note 91 on pp. 98, 99.) A stout three-forked Margosa-branch is at the beginning of the festival fixed in the middle of the altar, and during the following fortnight watered every morning by young and old, especially by girls and women. The whole popula- tion, in order to appear clean before the goddess, submit in the mornings to thorough ablutions in the neighbouring rivers, tanks and wells. The temple courtyards present at the time a curious spectacle, as the boys of the place fulfilling the vows which their mothers, or they themselves have made, roll themselves over the ground, while girls and 478 ON THE OEiaiNAL INHABITANTS women, who have just returned from their bath, run in their wet clothes after them, describing with their fore- fingers circles on the ground. Other people measure the ground with their bodies, standing alternately on their legs or on their heads ; others walk on one leg ; others proceed alternately standing and sitting down; some have laid aside their usual dress and walk about covered from head to feet only with thick layers of Margosa leaves. On the evening of the fourteenth day before the com- mencement of the real festival, the females begin to prepare in their houses the festive meals with a generous admixture of meat, especially of fowls and sheep. About seven at night the sacred portion of the house is consecrated and daubed all over with cowdung water. Red stripes are also drawn along its borders with a preparation of water-colour, and in the centre are made with liquid rice flour drawings of various flowers and creepers. The matrons of the household put in the same place two or three pots filled with Pdlikai, (from the Sanskrit Fidikci), i,e., twelve days old shoots of the nine sorts of grain, navadhdnya,'^^^ which have been anxiously kept from light, so that tbey may retain their brownish colour, and the leaves of this Palikai are also covered with Kunkuma and Sandal-powder. Dishes filled with rich food are placed in front of these pots, and the youngsters of the house greet them with the verse: Kadalai cirupayaru karamani payaru Sengamalanacciyarukku cirupayaru pOdungadi. Put to the Red-lotus- Lady (Mariyamma) Bengal gram, small pulse, lentils, pulse, and another kind of small pulse. A ripe cocoantit is then broken, myrrh and frankincense are offered to the Palikai which represents the Goddess, and the prasdda is indiscriminately distributed among the mem- bers of the household. ••"'» These nine grains are.called in Tamil : Nellu, TJlundu, Perumpaya):, Kadalai, Mocoai, Avarai, Tuvarai, Karamani and Cirnpayar. OP BHAEATAVAESA OR INDIA. 479 At three in the afternoon pious worshippers cover their bodies with lime [sunnam) and the juice of pulse {avarai), perforate their body near the waist on both sides with a needle, pass a thin thread through each hole and bind the two threads together in front. A person then takes hold of the knot, and dragging the other man by the threads after him, both move on dancing through the streets. Others carry either small bulls or a thousand lights made of clay on their heads. Plantains and live-chickens are thrown from the temple walls and upstair-houses among the crowd, who tear these poor birds to pieces, each person trying to obtain a head, a wing, a leg, or a feather, or some other portion of the bird. Cocoanuts are thrown and broken on the thre.shold of the temple ; and great excitement prevails throughout. The temple is illuminated at night by wicks of cotton- fibre burning in brass lamps, and girls and women carry to the temple offerings of flowers, cocoanuts, plantains, cam- phor, rice-flour mixed with water and shaped into a conical jelly. On the top of this jelly they dig a small hollow about an inch deep, fill it with ghee, put a cotton wick into it, and light it. When the Pujari has broken the cocoanut, camphor is burnt, and everyone touches the flame with the palms of his hands and apply them, thus hot, to the eyes. The people prostrate themselves before the idol, receive from the Pujari sacred ashes of cowdung and offer to the temples gifts of eyes (in Tamil called kanmalar, eye-flower), hands, legs and breast plates, made usually of silver, but sometimes also of gold. After their return home, they gather round the Palikai beating time with their hands while they sing : Tananai, tananai, tananai, tananai. Mundi mundi Vinayakane Muruga Sarasvatiye. They then remove the Palikai to a flowing stream, let the shoots be washed away by the current, taking all the while 62 480 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS care that the pot, which they want to bring back, is not broken. Some women retain some of the plants and place them in their Tali. Before the animals, which are adorned with garlands and painted with colours, are sacrificed, saffron-water is poured on their heads, and, after they have shivered, they are killed with one blow, a sickle-like axe cutting off their heads. It is an inauspicious sign, if more than one blow is required. The head of the slaughtered animal goes invariably to the washerman, who is so eager to collect these heads and to get the milk-rice well boiled, that this anxiety of his has passed into the Tamil proverb : Why do you hasten so, as a washerman does for a sheep's head (Enna ni vannau aituttalaikku parandar pol parakkiray) ? At last the Pujari boils for himself on three stones two or three measures (kalams) of rice and spreads on plantain- leaves, the sharp edges of which lie in front to the left of the goddess, mangoes, plantains and jackfruits. This col- lection is called Palayam. After this comes the performance of treading on embers and walking through fire, A circular moat, 25 feet in diameter and 5 feet deep, is dug in the courtyard of the temple. Faggots and big logs of wood are burnt, and when the flames have subsided a little, while the heat is still unbearable in the neighbourhood of the ditch, those persons who have made the vow, and have fasted and abstained from all pleasures for a certain time, walk covered with mango-leaves and flower garlands on the embers in the pit, without doing themselves as a rule much harm. Other worshippers chant hymns during this time. Red hot embers are by the Pujari poured upon the hair of women, who also generally escape unhurt. If hook-swinging is proposed to be performed, the God- dess is consulted whether it is to take place or not, and the OF BHAKATAVAESA OK INDIA. 481 decision goes in its favour if the voice of a lizard is heard on the right side of the Goddess. As soon as her consent becomes known^ all the houses of the place are whitewashed, the payals on the outside of the houses are painted with white and red stripes, and festoons of mango and margosa leaves, are hang across the road. On the third day before the beginning of the feast a wooden car richly decorated with bannei's and plantains, provided with a pith cover and with a brass vessel [Kumbha or Kalasa) on its peak, is constructed and the image of the Goddess is on the third day of the feast taken from the temple and deposited in the centre of the car. It devolves now on the Goddess to appoint the person who has to fulfil this task, which in the South is only done by a Mara van. White and red flowers are distributed among the competing Maravar, who have to fast previously for a fort- night. The candidate is then chosen from those who have received red flowers by the chief man among the Maravar, to whom the Goddess appears in the night of the 14th day, and announces the name of the person chosen by her. This man drinks a good deal of arrack on the 15th day, and a two-hooked iron previously fastened to a long and stout pole is inserted behind the big muscle of his back. This instru- ment is called Sedil in Tamil. He is then raised into the air, swinging from the pole which is fixed on the car, on which musicians, dancing girls and the Pojari are placed around the idol. The car is dragged by the crowd through the streets, while the man is oscillating in the air. During the progress of the car many people prostrate themselves before it, and sheep are sacrificed as the car moves on. On its re- turn to the starting-place, the hook-swinger is released from the hooks and much honoured. Though serious accidents seldom happen, they do at times occur. On one occasion in Vatalagundu, when a young Marava girl was swinging, she 482 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS fell from the pole and was killed. She was buried in the temple-compound, and afterwards revered as a deity. At Virapaudi the pole broke once at such a performance, but the man escaped Avith only a slight injury. It is a pity that this detestable custom has been of late revived, as is proved by the hook-swinging festival at Cola- vandan which took place the other day. It is high time that legislative measures are taken, to prevent its reoccur- rence and this relapse into barbarism. The slaughter of animals at these feasts is enormous, and they betray a very cruel character. Even milch-cows are offered to this Gramadevata. This particular fact is very significant, when one remembers the sacredness of the cow, and the late anti-cow-killing movement.- ''^ Her shrines are generally situated apart, and at a certain distance from the dwellings of the people. Some stand in fact quite secluded in the jungle. Her temple contains ten separate apartments, and in these she resides for preserv- ing the whole world. She sits there on her throne surround- ed by Ganapati, Dundubhi, Subrahmaijya, Parvati, Kali, Durga, Valliyammai, Devayanai, Visnu, Lak^mi, Bhudevi, her son Pavadairayan, Arigalammai, Ellaippidiiri and the other six Pidaris, and attended by Valumuni, Japamuni, Karuppan, Kattan, Cinnan, Pujaikkuratti, Nallatahgal, Vira- tarigal, Senkodiyammal, Anaigundiyalli, Malaiyanurmari who has a skull in her hand, and by her servants Mutyalu and Ravuttan. Her shrine is sometimes surrounded by a wall, with a stone altar in front of it. Opposite to her special sanc- tuary is often erected another which contains the figures of Virabhadra, Madhuravira, Mataiigi, besides the devil Kat- °°" Sue ifnriyamman talaltv, p. 11. " ParamasiviiiivasalilepaviiaBU kiivii- koHtlay " in the coartjard of Paramasivan thou hast taken a niikh-cow as a aatiilicu OP BHAEATAVAESA OR INDIA. 483 tan, a shepherdess, a Brahman-girl, a merchant's wife and the two doorkeepers.^ '' ° Mariyamma is represented in a sit- ting posture and adorned in the same manner as Bllamma. Two figures of her stand in her temples ; the one made of stone is immovable, while the other, made of metal, is carried about at the festivals. Besides these, small images of stone or wood are used for domestic worship. If the temple has a rich income, sacrifices are made every day, otherwise they take place only once a week, namely, on Fridays. The women offer to her now and then eatables in order to obtain her favour, these victuals becoming the perquisite of the Pojari and his servants. A great festival in honor of Mariyamma is yearly cele- brated during eight days, when fowls, goats, pigs, buffa- loes — males of their kind — are immolated, and rice and milk are boiled in enormous quantities ; the last day being the most splendid. This feast is not held at a fixed date, but may be observed in any month of the year. As a rule, one of these festivals is much like another, no matter in honour of what particular Gramadevata it is made. Mariyamma dwelt formerly in fire, and resides still in a lamp, or in a triangle [trikonacahra), square {catuskona- cakra) or in a hexagon {satkonacakra) . She is found on ■^ ' ° See Ziegenhalg, pp. 160 — 163. The two doorkeepers are called in Tamil Sukkumattadihlcarar, weavers of the staff Sukhumattadi . Eattdn is a chief of devils, born of an adulterous Brahman woman, exposed by her and brought up by a Pariah. He knew the hour and the manner of his death, namely, that he should be impaled. He violated all the women, and as the men who tried to oatoh him and to put him on a spit could not do so, he impaled himself before them. In consequence Mariyamma took him into her service, his duty being to bring to her all those who have hanged or impaled themselves. He is even more dreaded than Mariyamman, and to him are sacrificed a far greater number of goats and cocks than to her. The shepherd woman, Idaippen, gave buttermilk to the impaled Kattan. Kattan had also stolen and outraged the Brahman-girl Pappatti and after- wards kept her as his mistress. The merchant's wife, Settippen, had met wtib the same fate. 484 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS cross roads, aud guards burial-grounds. Her chariot is made of Nimb wood, and she lives often under a Nimb tree, and reclines on Nimb tree leaves, while her head rests on a serpent cushion. Five hundred serpents (nagas) are braided in her hair, in fact nagas form her chief ornament ; she car- ries, however, a parrot in her hand. Her eyes are filled with serpent-poison, and she stings and darts like a snake at a person who looks at her. In war she represents Viralaksrm. She destroys those who laugh at her. She is fond of milk- rice (poiigal), the resin of the Nimb tree, and especially burnt bones. This is the reasnu why loaves of bread baked in the form of bones are offered to her. She likes the sound of the pariah drum Tappattai, of the hand drum U^uhkai, and in short of all similar musical instruments. AVhen mantras are addressed to her, she heals the most dangerous diseases, but also removes illness by applying ashes and leaves of the Nimb-tree, and of the Wormwood Y>la,nt {T&mW Masipattiri). On the other hand she enters into the bodies of girls, and makes them whirl round, as if possessed by a demon, yet she removes the sin of those who address her with the holy five letters {pancciksara) .'^ "^ '^ She is regarded as the mother of the Saiva virgins, or Kannimar, and is therefore called Saptakanycinam mdtd, = '' Her hj-na,me Manimantraiekharl refers to her power over poison- stones and spells. In the following I quote a charm against cholera, small- pox and other diseases contained in the Gramadcvatapratisthn and ascrib- ed to the supplement of the Atharvanave da . Vantibhedikutadaimantram, Atharvanavedam parisistam, Vitobakan- dalo. "Dustorenur bhauma amonabhasvatyaddha ankto ghatuko'tatyanante, hariisamprapyaprauihimsam vidhatte tannah payadamrtesvaryamogha." Ancna mantrena amrtesvarim oatuspathamantape pratisthapya gopura- nikate va tautrikamantrair aroayitva balim upahitya maharatre bahis eaniautad gramasya vadyaghosena kalamamai5]'arikalasambhaBa parisic- ya dovim udvasayed vamivirccanadimarikarogasantir bhavati. the pailcaksara is the well-known Sivnya nainuh. OF BHARATAVAESA OR INDIA. 485 Pavadairayan, who wears the lower garment of a womaiij is considered to be her son.^ ^^ This short description of Mariyamma may give an idea of the position this Gramadevata occupies among the Indian people. 3. Ahgaramma (Aitgalamma, AnhUlamma, Ankamma). Angaramma (Angalamma, Ahkalammaj or Ankamma) is as her name ahgara (in Sanskrit coal or charcoal) indicates, specially associated with fire, and this assertion is substan- tiated by the following stories. At the beginning Brahman was residing alone on the Meru. He dug there a deep pit, Om-gunda, filled it with sandalwood, placedon it an antilope's skin, and havingtaken his seat on this pile, set fire to it. A great flame rose, and when he was about to be seized by the flame, he uttered a mantra. Instantaneously the Adisakti Angalamma, who had never been seen or heard of previously, appeared in the flre, and demanded that he should worship her as the divine Sakti. Brahman, however, had no offerings to igve her, but promised that Rama and Laksmaiia would adore her at a future period. According to another legend Angaramma was the daughter of a learned Brahman in the Cfila-country and had acquired such a superior knowledge that she put to shame the greatest Paijdits of her period. These men did not like to be worsted in arguments and discussion by a young girl, and in consequence conspired to disgrace her in public. For this purpose they presented her with a beautiful smooth cloth, which would, when put on her body, unawares slip from her waist, so that she would appear without any 2 ' " This Pavadairayan has other nick-names as Eanjoveriyan (mad through hemp, cannabis), Kanaveriyan (very mad), Ahhiniveriyan (opium- mad), AHveriyan (excessively mad), Saravefiyan (wine-mad), Taniveriyan (chief of mad men), etc. 486 ON THE OEIGINAL INHABITANTS clotHng before the assembly. Angaramma accepted their present^ and divining theii' intention, put on the dress in such a manner, that it could not slip. Thus attired, she entered the assembly, where she thoroughly discomfited her oppo- nents, and outcasted those Brahmans, who had attempted to dishonour her. Their meanness provoked her besides to such a fiery rage, that she was burnt to ashes, — hence her name.^ '^ In commemoration of this event the Brahman-women of Bettadapuram near Mysore wear on their neck a golden image of Angaramma, besides the tali ormaiigalyam. They also tie their cloths in the same manner as Angaramma tied on the one given to her by the treacherous Brahmans. '" ' The Rev. W. H. Campbell wi'ites in continuation of the first story of Aikaramma (whom he calls Aiikalamma) and Brahman, that she appeared afterwards at midday in the city of Devagiri, when no cloud was in the sky, blazing like a thousand thunderbolts. The gods erected on her arrival a large golden temple in the city, but after a while the citizens became disgusted with her and expelled her from the town, for which she infested them with aU sorts of loathsome diseases. At last she relented, and sent her younger sister, Kollapati-Aiikamma disguised as a Yeru- kula woman into DTvagiri, to persviade the citizens to recall her. When these, however, heard who the Yerukula woman was, and why she had come, they threw her in their rage into a prison fall of vermin. AiigSramma revenged her sister after delivering her, by catching the nine kingly brothers of Devagiri, and impaling them in her garden compound outside the city. A student of mine has favoured me with another version of the second story of Ai'ii^aramma, whom he calls Angalamma. " A certain Brahmin was teaching the Veda to his disciples. One fair- looking Pariah living iiar was constantly listening to the recitation and learnt the Veda well. One day, assuming the appearance of a Brahmin bachelor, he presented himself before the teacher of the Veda and recited the Veda to the teacher's satisfaction. The teacher took him for a Brah- min youth and gave him hia daughter in marriage. Time passed; she became of age and was taken to her husband's home. Then she discovered that her husband was a Chandala, returned to her father and stated to him the matter. He decided that fire alone could purify her. She went back to her husband's home, set fire to it when all the inmates were asleep, and threw herself into it, but was extracted half-burnt. She has ever since been roaming over the earth, doing acts of malice against mankind." OF BHARATAVAKSA OE INDIA. 487 The Kuladevata of the Saiiketa-Brahmans of Bettadapuram is to this day Angaramma. In fact the women are very fond of Angaramma, and her worship preponderates among them, while among the men it is more or less confined to the performance of animal sacrifices. On festival days the women rise early in the morning at4 o'clock, and after fulfilling their domestic duties and cleaning their houses with cowdung and sprinkling cow- urine on the floor, they repair with their brass- vessels to the nearest river or tank, to bathe and to paint themselves with saffron [Palafigali manjal). Then they return home, take their midday-meals, put sesamum oil into their hair, which is either arranged in snaky braids or in the form of a ball, entwined with flowers. Attired in their best dresses and wearing their many precious ornaments, they go, attended by their male-folk, to the temple of the Groddess. If a bloody sacrifice is to take place the men bring along with them the sheep and cocks which are to be killed, the heads of which animals are afterwards taken home. The women boil their rice in their brass-vessels, and are careful to see that the grains sink after boiling in a southern direction, which is regarded an auspicious omen. Round the rims of the vessel saffron twigs arewound, andin front of them three lines are drawn with water mixed with ashes, and the woman who forgets to draw them, must make on the following day another boiling. After the worship has commenced, and the Pariahs have struck up their music and everybody is provided with their pallayam, the Goddess enters into a woman, who dances before her shrine, consuming pails full of saffron-water and eating heaps of margosa leaves. After having danced for a while before Aiigaramma, she leaves the temple-compound, and returns dancing to her home, eating and drinking in abundance all the way, till the fit leaves her. Meanwhile the other people will 63 488 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS go on enjoying themselves, partake of their meals near the temple, and return home early in the morning. Occasionally the women bring at moonlight, after the meals are over, a new image of the Goddess made by the potter, and after arranging themselves in a circle round Aiigaramma, whirl ten times round her, singing the following verse, indicating while so doing the number of their roundelay. The fifth time, e.g., one half will begin : Anjani kili dda (fifth parrot play), the other half will add : PaTicavarnakili puda (five-coloured parrot sing), and all clapping their hands, will finish with the refrain Arputa- may perundevi adiya •pantada (wonderfully plays the great Goddess the ball) . After they have sung and danced thus ten times, they return home at daybreak. If a woman is possessed with adevil, she will bathe and repair in her wet clothes at night to the image of Angaramma, attended by her relatives and an exorcist. Plantain leaves are placed before the shrine, the possessed woman will move her head in all directions, and the exor- cist while beating a drum will sing : " For the kneeling legs, mother, for the legs, mother, certainly (use) pomegranate-flower-ooloured trousers ; after having risen, put on the legs, mother, on the legs, mother, tutti-flower-coloured (yellow-coloured) trou- sers.""* He will then ask the devil what his name is, and when he tells it, naming generally one of the common Karuppaiina- svamis, the woman will under the influence of the goddess touch a knot tied without her knowledge. The devil will now be beaten with twigs of the Arka plant (Calatropis gigantea), confess where and why he took possession of the woman, and promise to leave her, if he gets 3 or 4 ^'* "MandipoHakalkallukkii taye kalkaljukku tSyp madulampusalla- dam am. Tukki vaita kalkallnkku taye kalkallukku taye tuttipSsalladam am. OB' BHAEATA.VAK8A OE INDIA. 489 panams of arrack to drink. The woman after this gets up, takes a big stone and hurls it at the tree, where the devil is supposed to dwell. Her relatives and the exorcist run after her, cut the above-mentioned knot from her hair, wind it on an iron nail and fix it on the tree. The woman will then bathe and be free from the devil. When only unbloody offerings are presented to Aiigar- amma, she is called Kanakammal. The statue of Angaramma resembles those of Ellamma and Mariyamma. She also appears in a sitting posture, with four hands, two of which are raised while the two others are bent. The raised hand on the right carries a weapon of wood and leather, round which is wound a serpent, while that on the left contains a noose (pdsa), with which she attracts the souls of the dead ; one of the other two hands is empty, in the fourth she wears the head of Brahman. On her head is placed a crown, behind liei- ears are two flowers and in them are two big earrings, while the locks of her hair are raised. Beside her stand two lamps, which are, however, not always burning. In her temples, which resemble those of the previously mentioned Gramadevatas, and which are generally situated near rivers or fords, Angaramma stands in the inner apartment, and in the outer, generally carved out of wood ai-e found Periijatamhiran,'^'' ^ Irulan (a savage forester), Banaviran, a valiant demon ; Virahhadra, Pavadaivlran, who resembles Ranaviran j the A^igels of Life (the TJyirttundilharar) who have been mention- ed previously as attending on Ellamma, and are in the same capacity utilised by Angaramma; a woman who com- mitted suicide by springing into the fire, was burnt, and did many wonders after her death, whose name is in Tamil a ' 5 Periyatambirdn, the great god, is according to some the god whom Daksa had chosen to displace Isvara. Others make liim the husband of Aigaramma and the chief of the devils. If sacrifices are offered to him, he does do no harm. See Ziegenlalg, p. 167. 490 ON THE OUIGINAL INHABITANTS Tikkudittammal; and lastly a powerful demoness Kufteri,ol wliom the people are very mucli afraid. At least, once a week, on Fridays, Aiigaramma is wor- shipped in her pagoda. Like the other Gramadevatas she also has a yearly festival celebrated in her honour. - ' '' Such a feast lasts about eight days, but has no certain fixed ^'° Tlie Rev. U N. Tlinjiissen,of the Aiiiericau Baptist Mission, gave me the following description of a festival of Aiigaramma at Vinnionda : " In the year 1884 many of the thatched honses of the town burned down, having been set fire to, so it is alleged, by an insane man. The many fires frightened the natives who began to enquire what goddess they had offended, and the Brahmin Karnam and others said that Ankamma was destroying their houses and would soon kill the cattle and children, if she were not propitiated by sacrifices of buffaloes, sheep and cocks. At once all the Hindus of A'innkonda, a large town of about 5,000 inhabi- tants, situated about 250 miles north of Madras in the Kistna District, secured sheep, tied wreaths of margosa leaves round their necks, and placed them outside of their houses on the street. Carta were decorated by painting the wheele, and gaudy standards were fastened on them, some 20 feet high, and on Sunday afternoon the people went to the Ankamma temple, a tumble-down building about 6 feet wide, 10 feet long and 7 feet high. In a corner of this place was a common stone, about Iv feet high and 8 inches wide, which represented Ankamma. The stone was painted, eyes, mouth and nose put on it, a red cloth with some tinsel was wrapped around it, and light.s were placed before it. Each cart was driven three times around the temple, and then the sacrifices were killed with a sickle-shaped knife before the idol, some of the sheep being impaled by placing tlieir sternum vipon a sharp post and pulling them doivn, so that the wood pass('d through their bodies. The excitement about Ankamma increased, and soon the surrouudiuii- villages sent carts and sacrifices to the Vinuconda Ankamma. Messengers who professed to be possested by Ankamma went from village to village, telling people to come and worship this Graniadevata. Every day of the week carts came bringing worshippers and sacrificers, but Thursday and Sunday were considered the most propi- tious days, and on these days sometimes as many as 70 bufilaloes, 2,000 sheep, and numberless cooks were killed. Ankamma was said to burn houses, kill cattle, cause cholera and give children to barren women, who, after sleeping tliicc nights near the temple were to become pregnant. Some boys and dancing girls professed to be incarnations of Ankamma, and these would sometimes fall into convulsions and prophesy. The oldest inhabitant of the place did not remember the time when this idol had before been worshipped, but neglecting Ankamma so long was held to be the cause of all the calamities that befel the people." Of BHAEATAVAKSA OB INDIA. 491 date. The brazen image of the Gramadevata is carried round in the morning and evening, and on the evening of the last day all the villagers, especially the women with their daughters, assemble before her pagoda, and light everywhere fires for cooking rice, a portion of which they present to the goddess and her attendants, whilst they distri- bute the remainder among themselves. Hundreds of such rice-fires are thus lit by the women round the temple, and illuminate the neighbourhood, while the men sacrifice cocks, pigs, goats and buffaloes, part of which they present cooked to the goddess. If a person is possessed with a devil, he is brought to the temple of Angaramma, whose principal ofiice it is to pro- tect men from jungle, field, and domestic demons. A sacri- fice is then offered, the demoniac is placed before the image, a drum [loamhai) is beaten, praises are sung in honour of the goddess, and the other necessary ceremonies are per- formed, by which the demon is compelled to leave his victim.^ "' 4. — Pidari. PidUri 2 ' 8 is one of the most widely worshipped and most mischievous Gramadevatas- Her temples, large and small, are found everywhere, especially in South India. She is reputed to have a very passionate and irascible disposition, and she is for this reason represented on her images with a red-hot face and body, and on her head is burning fire. She sits on her throne or rather on the altar, with a crown on her head, and the emblems of Siva on her forehead. The locks of her hair stand up erect, and ornaments are entwined in them. From the slit flaps of her ears hang pendants above and below, and two flowers are fastened behind her ears. She carries in her four hands a drum fastened to a snake, - ' ' See Ziegenhalg about Aiikalamma,, pp. 164 — 169. ^'» There are seven kinds of Pidari, the EUaippidnri stands on the boundaries, another is Kcmtijipidari. 492 ON THE OEIGINAL INHABITANTS a trident, the skull of Braliinan and an elephant's goad. As a rule there is no other image in her temple than her own, and she is not surrounded by deities, as are the other Gramadevatas. Near her own image stands occasionally Vighnesvara, and at the entrance of her temple are placed two gigantic and horribly shaped demons or Munnadiydr. Where he-r temple is large, she is surrounded by her eighteen generals with their soldiers. In front of her shrine stand a married couple of trees, a Pipal (E'icus religi- osa) and a Margosa. These trees must be above twent}' years old before they can be used for worship. The tree- couple is duly married with all the necessary ceremonial dis- played :it human weddings. In case of any thing untoward happening to this pair, another is planted in its neighbour- hood, in order to take its place eventually. When in consequence of drought, murrain, or some other reason, it appears desirable that Pidari should be wor- shipped, the Brahmans of the village are consulted, and if they give in their assembly, or Mahmiddu, a favourable reply, preparations are at once made for its celebration and wubsuriptious collected. In case of a murrain the ryots choose generally a young fat bull as a worthy gift to Pidari, which, when marked with a trident (triinlla), is allowed to roam about at its own free will, till the time of its end comes, and it is chosen Irom among the other bulls to be sacrificed. These special sacrifices are also celebrated on a Friday, when the temple is carefully decorated and pandals erected in front of it. The sacrificial bull is then removed from the field, bathed in the neighbouring tank or river, and taken to the temple. As soon as this is done the Pujari rings the bell in the morning, as a sign that the feast has begun. Fire-treading, though in an altered form, figures also at these ceremonials. Those who have made this vow Of BHAEATATAESA OE INDIA. 493 prepare themselves by previous fasting, and tie round their right arm a fortnight before the feast a string dyed with saffron colour. To this string is attached a small iron ring, to keep off the devils, as the evil spirits cannot stand the proximity of iron. When the time has approached, they walk through the fire-ditch, which is 45 feet long, 5 feet broad and 3 feet deep, and after having performed this religious feat, they take off the saffron-tie and dedicate it to Pidari. At 3 o'clock in the afternoon the sacrificial bull, richly decorated, is conducted in procession through the main streets. He is tied with two strong ropes or even with iron chains. Music goes along with this troupe and dried palmyra leaves are dragged behind in its track. The women present, when it passes their houses, a mixture of water with saffron, lime and margosa leaves {nalaiigu) contained in shallow brass-trays, and pour it afterwards out in front of their houses. After the first has finished its circuit, a second procession starts from the temple on the same road as the previous one, but the formerly dry palmyra leaves are now dragged behind all ablaze in flames, which are kept up by pouring ghee on them. This ceremony is undertaken to prevent hostile spirits interfering with the sacrifice. A third circuit is made after this second has reached the temple, and numerous three months' old lambs are sacrificed on its way in all the street corners and in places which are said to be haunted. The flowing blood is mixed with rice and thrown into the air as an oblation to the devil. Women and children are allowed to witness this procession. After this is over, the women return to their homes, to take their evening meal. They then assemble in a lonely place, generally on a sandbank formed by a stream, or in a tank, where they erect two inches above the ground a square platform, in the centre of which they place a new 494 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS and clean pot, whose mouth is covered with a fibreless cocoa- nut which is surrounded by flowers. This pot [haraham) is then amidst i.he sounds of music (Kottumelam) taken up by a properly trained man, who places it on his head and performs the wildest dance without letting it drop to the ground. At last at about 11 p.m. the bull, surrounded by torch- lights and attended with music, appeal's on the spot, where the people are already assembled, and a moat as high as the bull has been dug. A pole and a cross-bar over the moat are provided. The bull is placed under the cross-bar and tied to the pole. Towards midnight only a few men have the courage to remain, most slink away out of fear of the dreadful goddess ; till at last, when only a few are present, Pidari will possess a man who with a sword lying ready will at one stroke cut off the head of the bull. While the outpouring blood is collected in a basin and mixed with rice, a man addresses the goddess, crying out : Oin enru sol, am enru sol, akaradi ukaradi adakkam sadaksaram ! Vali, Kapali, Nili, Neru, Mali, Bhairavi, Camundi, Vallavi, Uddaiidakali, Ohkarakali, odi va, odi va, odi va (come running) ! Another man throws rice balls soaked in blood into the air as an offering to the devils, and he is bound with iron chains and dragged away by his friends, lest the evil spirits should catch hold of him. With this the ceremony ceases, the goddess is appeased and the people return homo. An annual festival, lasting between seven and eight days, is held in her honour out of gratitude for the protection she vouchsafes to men against the machinations and attacks of the devils, as whose queen she was for this purpose appointed, when she was expelled from heaven aud banished to earth owing to her malicious and mischievous character. But at her pagoda, especially before her image of stone, once a week libations are poured OF BHAEATAVABSA OE INDIA. 495 and offerings of fruit and animals are made. Those who hang, or poison, or drown themselves, or die a sudden death, or who die in consequence of having maliciously torn their tongues out of their own mouths, or are killed by- snakes,, become devils and join the company of Pidari.^^^ 5. — Bhadrakdll. 6. — Camunda. 7. — Durgci. Bhadrahati, Camunda and Durga represent three aspects of Amba or Sakti in her passionate character or in her dark colour. Kali ur Bhadrakali, the auspicious Kali, com- monly known as Kaliyamma or Kalamma (as in the Tulu country), the tutelary deity of Calcutta, became after her expulsion from heaven in consequence of her savage dis- position — hence also called i]\eAghurasa}tti — the queen of the female demons. Yet, in spite of her fierce and cruel tempera- ment she protects men against demons. Siva is said to have competed with her in dancing at Cidambaram and surpassed her in this performance. Siva is therefore in the Tamil country known as the Peyudddi, he who danced with a devil, and for this reason Kali is represented in a dancing position. She wears on her head a fiery crown entwined with snakes, Siva's signs are marked on her forehead, two lion-fangs protrude from her mouth, she pos- sesses ten hands of which two are clapped together and two empty, while of the remaining six the throe on the right side carry respectively a rope, a parrot and a spear, and the three on the left side a drum [da'inaru) with a snake, fire and a trident. Besides her own images there are found in her pagodas those of Vighnesvara, Virabhadra and AghOra. Aghora, an euphemistic expression, is in reality an avatara of Siva who rushed out of the linga in order to destroy the giant Marutta, to whom Brahman had promised invincibi- 2'" See Ziegenbalg, pp. 176, 176. 64 496 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS lifcy and who had made himself unbearable by his presump- tion and violence against gods and men.^^o To Kali bloody sacrifices are offered^ and the victims are not only animals, but up to late — (and who knows if not even at present) — human beings. The investigation against the Kulin-Brahmans in the Mahratta country showed of what common occurrence were these religious murders, commit- ted under the pretence of gratifying the goddess, but really done for the sake of covetousness. Kali, under the name of Bhavani, was the goddess of the Thugs, who regarded themselves her faithful followers while pursuing their nefarious profession. Caniunda is a counterpart of Kali, and resembles her also in her outward appearance, in her erected hairlocks, her fiery complexion, and her two lion-fangs. She has, howevei, only four hands, two of which stretched out up- wards carry respectively the weapons of Visnu, a conch and a disc, while the other two are joined and open. Under her feet lies the head of the Mahi.>asura, whom she killed, for which deed she is celebrated in Jlysore. Her temples also generally contain the figures of Vigh- nesvara, Yirabhadra (mostly made of wood), the Uyirttuii- dilkarar, and the devil who acts as her aide-de-camp [eval- hdrappvy) . Camunda confers valour on her adherents, and assists the wizards in their magic arts, and she is invoked by those sorcerers with special spells.^*' Durga (Durgamba, Durgamma, Durgiyamma, Durgy- amma) is represented with the face of a sheep while 'killi'D g Simharniikhasur a on whose lion-head her feet are rest- ing. She is likewise of a fiery temper, wears golden orna- ments, pearls and gems on her head, has the emblems of Siva on her forehead, and carries in her sis hands a ring, a sword, '"" Compare Ziegenbalg, pp. 170 — 174. = 1 ' See Ziegenhalri, pp. 176—187. OF BHAEATAVAESA OE INDIA. 497 a trident, an elephant's goad and a human head. The giant Simhamukhasura had been appointed by Aiyanar superin- tendent of his garden, and fought with Durga, when she was trespassing and doing mischief in it. As Durga killed him, she was ordered to look after men and protect them on earth, with the further obligation to obey the orders which Aiyanar would give her.^^^ It is not necessary to describe specially the worship of these three goddesses, as it resembles that of the other Gramadevatas."8 3 The legends concerning Bhadrakdi, ^'^^ See Ziecjenbalrj, pp. 178—180. ^'^ Abont the sacrifices to Burgh compare the paper of Mr. F. Fawcett, p. 267 : " In BaniTikal the village goddess is called Durgamma, and every year there is a festival in her honour. Tn her temple outside the village she is usually represented by five conical earthen symbols called Kelu. The temple is built over a snake's hole, and besides it is a large margosa tree. The tree and the snake (if there is one) are sacred, and considered to be symbols of Durgamma . . The pujari, whose ofiice is hereditary, is a Boya by caste. In his house he keeps the more important symbols of the goddess, viz., two tiny images of Basavana ; a cane staff 3 feet in length almost covered with silver bands (the offering of devotees) and surmounted by a cobra's head in silver; a female face also in silver, and nearly life- size . . . On the first day of the feast the symbols, which collectively represent Durgamma, are carried on a litter to some water, any tank or well, and washed by the j^ujari; and afterwards, together with a new pot filled with water, carried to the temple and put in the place of the Kelu, which are removed to one side and ornamented with bangles. The silver face is erected on a stick behind the pot of water and a woman's cloth is tied to it just under the face and over the pot of water. The other sym- bols are placed beside it, the snake upright. The symbols are decorated with flowers, leaves of the Bilva (Aegle marmelos) and some leaves of the betel-nut tree, while wave oiferings of camphor are made by the pujari. A buffalo bull is then driven through the village streets with tom-toming to the temple ; a black ram is brought too. These are not devoted animals, but have been purchased for the feast. They are washed at the temple, decorated with red powder, and beheaded with a weapon, shaped like a battle-axe, in front of the goddess ; the sheep first, the buffalo afterwards, by one of the Boyas present. The sheep's head is buried in front of the goddess (the place is marked by a small stone), and the buffalo's head is placed in a miniature temple about 30 feet in front of the goddess, its 498 ON THE OEIGINAL INHABITANTS Camunda and Durga are, moreover, so well known, as they are described in the Sanskrit Puranas, that I need not dilate on them. These three have also much in common with each other and are distinguished in appearance from the previously described four Gramadevatas. These four have throughout human features, while Kali and Camunda have lion-faDgs, and Darga has the head of a sheep; they are represented in a sitting posture, while the other three do not sit, but are either dancing, standing, or even riding. These seven, with the two wives of Aiyanar (of whom right foreleg in the mouth ; and on the head are placed some fat from the stomach, some flour, a little manure, and a lamp in an earthen vessel. Then, men and women of the Boya caste who are under vows to the god- dess, divest themselves of clothing and dressed from chin to feet in mar- gosa leaves, walk thrice round the temple. After this they go home, put on new cloths and bring each a black sheep as a. sacrifice to the goddess. These sacrificed animals are afterwards eaten, the heads being given to musicians and servants. The sheep that was first sacrificed is then cooked at the temple, and with some flour eaten there by all the flesh-eating peo- ple, after offering some to the margosa tree and to the other symbols of the goddess. By this time it is 9 p.m. and the symbols are carried back to the pujari's house, a Madiga, with the buffalo's head on his own leading the procession. The pujari iDours the water away and retains the pot for his own use." A similar description is given further on, in which it is said : " Near is a temple of Durgamma. Five stones represent her in her temple. The people start in procession with music to a tank, the pujari (a carpenter) carrying the kelu going first and following him one of his household carrying a new earthen pot with a man's cloth tied round it and a small cloth, in which is a piece of turmeric, round its neck, and inside it some betel-nuts and cocoannt fruits. Gaugamma (the tank) is worshipped by breaking cocoannts and carrying burning camphor, the pot is filled with water, and the kelu is marked with red powder and turmeric. The pot of water and the kelu represent the goddess. They then go in procession to the temple, the kelu is placed in front of the five stones, and the pot next it. All go with music to bring Durgamma's image from the pujari's house, where it is kept, to her temple. The wooden image is dressed and adorned ; and the pujari carries it on his head to the temple . . ." of BHAKATAVAESA OE INDIA. 499 I shall speak afterwards), form the nine Saktis, and are the principal Gramadevatas. According to the various qualities ascribed to Amba or Sakti as a Gramadevata, she is called the Mother, Tiiy ; the one and principal Mother, EhamCda, Egattal (Egatta, Bgamman, Egatte (iu Madras), Ekavalli ; the protecting Mother, Kattayi ; the good Mother, Nallattal ; the goddess of righteousness, CeZte^i (Celvayi, Celliyamman) ; the shel- tering Goddess, Tanciyamman ; the auspicious Goddess, Kalliydniy animal ; the self-existing Goddess, Tantbniy- ammaii ; the Mother of welfare, GtmUtte (in Perambur) ; the small Mother, Omnammat; the young Mother, Tayilulamman (Balamba). When granting coolness she is the Kuluntiy- amvian ; when carrying a conch she is Geiikodiyamman ; when wearing anklets Cilambcdtal, when flowers Cevantiy- arnman, when a garland of pearls Kolamaniyammal ; when lotus-eyed Mundahkanniyamman ; when of green colour Facciyamman or Faccaiyammal. She grants conception to women as Paindiyamman (though as such she should per- haps be regarded as one of the Balagrahas, or as a Ksu- dradevata). She is invoked especially in Mysore by barren women as Unmattambd to bestow children, and heals boils as Bobbalamma. She is the goddess of war as Genaiyditdl, of the spear as Vildttdl ; the mother of snakes as Nagdttdy. She protects the village and is as such the Uttukkdt- tammam or Uramman,''^'^ or Geniyammal (from Sreni, row) ■ ^ "* About the worship of Uramman compare The Village Festivals in S. India by F. Fawcett, p. 274, " In Kudligi the village goddess is Uramma and her festival is performed in this way. As a preliminary the headmen of the village meet on a Tuesday and lake five new earthen vessels to the temple and put in each five ' duddns,' half a seer of rice, five oocoannt fruits, and five betel-nuts; and put one vessel in each corner and one near the place of the goddess, who is now out being painted. Her image is of margosa wood. The pots are covered, and on the centre one is placed a lamp which must not be extinguished for 8 days, while the vessels remain as they were placed. Brahmins worship the pots with offerings of cooked rice and other food, etc." 500 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS she protects tlie soil as Mannamma (Mantamma);^^^ she guards the various streets and is in the Maratha country adored during the Navaratri-festival as Mahalui Mdta, when on the northern gate of a village she is called Vadalchuvacaldyi ; where three roads meet^ as in the Black- town of MadraSj she is known as the MuccancUyamman, in Sanskrit as Trisandhlsrarl, the Latin Trivia. Sailors when at sea^ or those who travel by sea^ solicit the favour of Alaimotiynvimul, the Sanskrit Kallulini, while some ascribe to the seven Kannimdr or virgins (from the Sanskrit Kanya, virgin) the charge of the rivers in the forests and hills. Many Gramadevatas are named after the villages they 28= ;-;pg ihideiii, p. 270 : (The goddess) of Hiirlipalis called Mannamma and lier festival is expensive, as 1 ,2S0 seers of rice are required. Preliminary to the festival, which occnpies 5 days, three seers of paddy are poured on the floor of a Madiga's house ; -water mixed -with jaggery is also poured on it, and a new pot of date palm toddy is placed thereon. The toddy is purchased and not devoted in any way. It is left so for 5 days, or until the paddy sprouts, as it generally does on the third day; and tlje sooner it does the better the omen for the coming season. The lladiga's office is hereditary and he receives a share of the income or profits of the temple. The night after the paddy sprouts the festival begins by the Madipa carrying the pot of toddy t(j the goddess's temple and placing it on a platform in front of it. It is worshipped there during the following dav. Tn the afternoon of the next day, Mariamma, another goddess, is wheeled on her little car, to the left side of the door of Mannamma'a temple, and left there. At 3 p.m. a buffalo is sacrificed to the right of the temple door, liy a Madiga. On the next days, 1,280 seers of i-ice are boiled, a sheep is sacrificed wliere the buffalo was, and every bit of its blood, bones and its all, is mixed with the rice and scattered round about outside the village. This occupies all night On the next day n, small black ram is bitten to death by a Poturaz, as described before, and this sheep is buried with the pot of toddy to the right of the door of the temple, ilariamma is then wheeled back to her temple. The fifth and last day is occupied in general worship of the goddess. There is no drinking or i;eneral feasting. (I have retained the name Mannamma, as it appeared in the first print of Mr. Faweett's article in the iladras Moil, instead of Wannamma, as it was afterwards printed). OP BHARATAVARSA OR INDIA. 501 protect or perhaps the villages after them^ e.g., Ocuramman (Hosur in the Salem district), Kaccipioatiijal (Kanjivaram), Kadumbcidiyammdl, Ki iriltattammal, Kblaramma, Samaya- purattdl (Samayapuram near Triohinopoly), Padaivlttam- man, etc. The Grramadevata is also associated with auimals, e.g., with serpents, scorpions, birds and trees. The Gramadevata of Kolar or Kolaramma is called Vrscikt'svarl (from vrscika, scorpion), for she heals those who have been stung by scorpions; the tutelary deity of Pittapur is Kuhkutjimha or Kukliufesvarl (from Icuhkida, cock). Puttiilainma (or ValmiMnl, the mother of white ants) is worshipped in Putturu ; from puttiha, in Sanskrit white-ant. Trees are often regarded as personating the deity, and the villagers in Guzerat throw pieces of rags on trees which they intend to worship, especially on the Saral tree, converting it into a deity by this ceremony. An instance of this custom supplies the worship of the Tamil Yahkalddevl, who is the patroness of the Arka plant or Calatropis gigantea. Certain Brahman families worship this Tahkavivia (Arkamma, Arkavrksastha or Arkesvarl) as their Kuladevata. The EUaikaramma is revered by- gardeners who cultivate betel. The Panaivenyamvuin (from jjanai, palm tree or talavrksa) is fond of palmyra and other palm trees, and is thus known as Talaoasint ; as Balabhadrika she is said to have come into existence after Balabhadra. The Puliyi-daivaliyamman is associated with the Tamarind tree puU, under which Mariyam- man also resides.^*'' Ettiyaniman from etti, wvlsl vomica, protects against the poison of that fruit; she has a tem- ple in Pumnii. The Asaldttdl derived from Asala, a maid- servant of Sabari, an incarnation of Parvati, at the time when Siva had assumed the form of a hunter or sabara, ^ = ° Under a tamarind tree was born Namtnalvar or Sathakopa, 502 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS protects from wild beasts^ serj^ents and thorns^ and the asalamantra is uttered in order to avoid them. The well- known 'I'elugu Gramadevata Polerammaj Poleriyammal, who is connected with small-pox and thus associated with Mru'iyamma, as mentioned above on p. 471 is by others explained as identical with Holeyaramma, the goddess of the Holeyas or Pariahs, and therefore called Caijdalamatr, Matahgi, or Palagaun. Polalamma is mentioned as a sister of Aiikalamma. Surpanakha, the well-known sister of Ravana, is as Muk- Larasu, a person who has her nose cut off, revered in the villages of the ISIilagiri mouutaius.^®^ In the various sacrifices mentioned aLiu\'e, repeated allu- -'' Besides these village goddesses I may mention : Accammill (Yac- c;ii]una, a corrupted form of Laksmi), Akkadevatalii (.in Pedda Gerukiiru), Alamantal, AUamma, Aiicainmal (in Chittnr), Aiudyamman near Banga- lorOj one of the personated siddhis, aiiiman, mahimanj laghiman, garinian, pi-i^pti, r)iiikam}-a, is:itva and vasitva), Aracattal, Aracattamman, Aratam- ma, Aretamma i in Kodayalizru), Aiapnra, Auvaiyar, Ayijamnian (in Uk- kal), Ba,'cal^, Bahucarg, Balamnia, Baiigaranima, Bantadeyade (Tula), Becarajl, Berai, Bhramaramba, Canalamma, Caugalamma, Cai'igalammal {in tfarinahalli, brick-goddess), Oavuramma, Ceiicaninia, Ceiikalawiyamma], Deyallanima, Devyammai, Ekavirika (in Mapuri), Elaiikaliyamma, Ela- matticchi, Elugulamnia, Ennamma, Galagalanima, Gaiigamma (in Gaiiga- pattauani), Gaiigayya, Gangauamma, Ganteramniaj Iriciyammau, Irulat- tammanj Julamina, Jogulamba (in Alampnri), Kadambariyammanj Kam- amma, Kedaranima (in Bellari), Kiratamma, Kommamma, Kduamma, Kondamma, Kiiridalamma, Konelamba, Kotanima, Kimalamma, Kandi- yamman, Kuppamma, Kiiialamma, liladdalamma, Malamma (of the moun- tain), Mamillatiima, Maiii^aliyamman, Mantiyamman, JIarakI, Maramma, Jlarellamma, Xlfiremma, Jlelkattai, Mnracauiman, Muduccattfil, Mukundi- yamman, Mnkambri, Mullittumaiigiliyamman, Murukattal, Naociyar, Nagamambii, Magalamma, Niikalainma,01amma,( bnattal (sister of Etliyam- man), Pi'iliyamman, Pallalamma (in Vanapalli), Panaiyattal, Panaiyattam- man, Paudellamma, Patalapoa ;iiyamraan, Ppramma, Poriyammai, Peddaci Pdlakamma, Polakamma (in Indukilrn) Ponuiyarnmi, Pnllamma, Punkoii- yammal, Pnnnalamma, Pciffalamma, Puttamma, Suranima, Tallamma, Tattamiiia, Timmamma, TulakS'; animan, Udisalamma, Uggamma, Uiiknl- amma. Valliyammal, Vantipiinniyamman, Vadavudj'amman, Yellaiyant- mal, Velagalamma, Yellamma, Yenyamma, Veiikammal, Viramma, etc., etc. Compare above pp. 184, 185 abont Bilvana's connection with the Tortas. OP BHAEATAVAESA OR INDIA. 503 sion has been made to the custom of representing the god- dess by pots, so that the existence of a special Gramadevata, as pot-goddess, need not surprise us. She is called in Tamil Kumbattdl, in Sanskrit Kumbhamdtd, and in Kana- rese Garigadiuara. In Tamil such a pot is called Karaham. The position of the G-ramadevata as chief deity of the non-Aryan population, has been proved, I trust, by the description contained in the preceding pages, however in- complete and even inaccurate it may be in some respects. An important feature of the worship of the Gramadevata is the fact that not only does the well-to-do rural popula- tion devote itself religiously to the strict performance of all prescribed ceremonies, but also the lowest layers of the Indian people, the Pariahs, play, as we have seen, a leading part in them- It is they who in fact perform the sacrifice and become possessed with the goddess, before whose presence they appear in persou. The prominent posi- tion of the Pariahs at the festivals of Brahmanic shrines has been already noticed, and it has been proved on that occasion that the greater number of such shrines were intimately connected with legends, in which the now despised Pariah was the favorite of the divinity.^ ^ 8 j felt in consequence entitled to infer that these Brahmani- cal pagodas occupy at the present day the sites of former places of Pariah worship, and that the Pariahs, though deprived of their property, had managed to retain some title to it, which seemed to be admitted by the fact that their presence was required for the solemnization of the religious rites. Still, this participation of the Pariahs in the festivals at Brahmanical temples is not so surprising as the presence and assistance of Brahmans at the feasts of the Gramadevatas, a participation which may be scorned by many pious and intelligent Brahmans, but which is "» See pp. 50— 56, 451. 65 504 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS nevertheless a well-known fact, proving the influence which superstition exercises on the human mind, however free it may boast to be. These variously named Gramadevatas are all essentially of the same nature, and so are also the rites performed at their festivals. The majority of the names of the Gramadevatas I have quoted, are taken from the verna- culars of Southern India, but their exact counterparts will also be found in GuzeratI and in the languages of Hindustan. I have been compelled to confine myself mainly to the tutelary deities of Southern India, for in spite of all my endeavours, I was unable to obtain satis- factory and trustworthy information from the Northern districts of India. From the knowledge I have obtained, I am, however, of opinion that the same religious ideas pervade the whole non-Aryan population throughout India, though differences may exist owing to local idiosyn- cracies. Finally, it may be necessaiy to repeat that in the Gramadevata the people revere their local deity, who protects the soil of their village or town — -or by whatever name we may call the community — from all sorts of cala- mities, who grants rich crops and supplies sufficient food for men and beast. She represents the Mother Earth, the Prakrti, the prototype of the power which afterwards developed into that of Sakti. On Aiyanar {Ayyappa or Sdsta)- In the preceding pages 1 have repeatedly alluded to AiyanUr by which name the Supreme God of the Gauda- Dravidians is principally known in Southern India, while the Kanarese people call him Ayyappa. 2 89 He is indeed the highest ruler among the non-Aryan aborigines of this 2*" About Aiyanar compare Ziei/enl/a/^, pp. 148—156; see also the short note about him by the Eev. F. Kittel in the Indian Antiquary, Vol. II, p. 168. OF BHABATAVAKfiA OE INDIA. 505 country, and is therefore very appropriately called Sdsta, ruler, by which term he is generally named. The expres- sion Aiyanar is Tamil, but its first portion, Aya, Ayya, or Aiya contains the ancient Gauda-Dravidian word for father, lord and master, while the plural termination ar added to the Tamil Aiyan expresses honor ; the Kanarese affix appa, father, in Ayyappa indicates the same meaning. I do not believe that this Gauda-Dravidian word Aya, Ayya or Aiya is derived from the Sanskrit word Arya, respectable, though the latter term has in some cases been really changed in Gauda-Dravidian dialects into aiya, aya or ayya. The influence of Aiyanar has much decreased in course of time, but not so much perhaps among the raral people, who both love and dread him. He uses his position, as Chief of the Bhotas, or of the Ghosts, to restrain them from inflicting harm on men,'^^"' Mounted on a wild elephant or on a horse, he rides sword in hand over hills and dales to clear the country from all obnoxious spirits. It is generally believed that at midnight, preceded by heralds, and followed by his retinue, Aiyanar leaves his residence to go a hunting. All ride at an awful pace with swords in their hands and surrounded by torch-bearers. Any one who meets this hunting party on the road, meets a certain death, and the sight of Aiyanar, Aiyankdtci, is therefore much feared. The people, however, praise his kindness 280 See Ziegenlalg, pp. 152, 153: " Wenn die Teufel wider Aiyanars Willen den Mensolien einigen Schaden zufugen, so straft und peinigt er Bie. Seine Wohnuiig ist in der Welt, er ist gegenwartig an alien den Orten, wo Menechen nnd Tenfel zu finden sind. Wir opferu ihm deshalb in und auaser seinen Pagoden, dass nicht etwa die Teufel sich zu uns nahen mochten und uns besitzen. Damit er nun alle Arten Teufel von uns abhalte und von ibrer Jtacht una beaohutze, auch alles Bose abwende, bringen wir ihm allerlei Opfer und Verehrung als Bbuke, Schweine, Hahne, Weiu, gekochteii Reis und dergleichen Ess-und Trink- waaren mehr. Nur aus dieaem Grunde pflegen wir ihm Opfer zu bringen." 506 ON THE OETGINAL INHABITANTS and say to him : " Lord of ghosts^ who is always pleased, who is filled with kindness towards all creatures, protect, protect, long armed; to Thee, Sasta, be salutation and salutation."2 9i He is generally requested to grant wealth, to bestow sons, to destroy enemies, to avert drought, to secure the favour of women, to destroy the evil effects or omens caused by lizards, and similar boons,- ^^ Under his special charge are the boundaries, forests, tanks and rivers. In his duties and outward appearance he has much resemblance to, nay is really identical " ' ' Bhiitaaatha sadanauda sarvabhiitadayripara raksa raksa maliabilho aastre tnbhyam namo naniali. Aiyanar is thus epeoially reTered as the god of hunting, and bears in Kurg the name of -Bete ^i/yappa, Lord-father of hunting; as Hill-god he is called Male Deva. See Kittel loco citato, p. 168. = " 2 These wishes are expressed in the following prayers or mantras : " ( )m namo bhagavate hariharaputraya putralabhaya, satrunasaya (gaulldosa- vinasaya) madagajavahanaya niahasasta3'a namah." Another mantra runs as follows ; "Asya srimahasastamantrasya Bndra raih, Anustup chandah, Mahasasta devata. . . . Mama sarvabhistasiddhaye viniyogah Sadaiigam, Harihaiaputrava hrdayaya namali, arthaUbhaya putralabhaya sirase svaha, iatrunasoya sikhayai Tasat, sarrastrlmobaniiya kavacaya hum, madagajaturaiigava- hanaya netratrayaya vausat, mahasastaya hum phat svaha astraya phat." The meaning of this prayer is ; "Of this mantra of the great S.'ista Rudra is the Bsi, Anustup the metre, Mahasasta the devata. . . . " Application for securing all my wishes. Allocation in the ^ix limbs. With Hayiharaputraya "namah" to the heart, with arthalabhdya -putra- labhnya "svaha" to the head, with iatrvnaiaya " vasat " to the hair-tuft, with saiTastrimohanaya "hum" by laying the hands across, with madaga- jatiirangavnliaiinya "Ytmsat" to the three eyes, with mahasastaya "hum phat svaha" with clapping the hands." Each mantra is divided into si.\; portions, each of which is as a rule located in a different limb of the body, rarely in some parts of the hands, these locations are respectively called niiganyasa and karanyasa, they are heart, head, hair-tuft, laying hands on the upper arms, three eyes and luind-clapping. The same mantra runs in its abbreviated form as follows ; " Um aim hrim saum klim srim hrim hrim klim hariharaputraj'a arthalabhaya putralabhaya satrunasaya sarvastrimohanaya niadagajatu- raiigavahanaya mahasastaya namali." OF BHAEATAVAESA OE INDIA. 607 with, Khaiidoba and the BrahmabhQta/'^ » s ^]jo \[]^q j^ij^ qq horseback pursue the demons sword in hand and do mani- fold good to men. As protector oi: fields, or Ksetrapala, Bhairavais mistaken for him, because, in spite of being occa- sionally styled Ksetrapala, Bhairava's protection is in reality only confined to the temples and their property. On the other hand, if we admit that Siva and Aiyandr avo identical, there is no difiiculty in extending this identity to the avata- ras of Siva, i.e., to Vlrabhadra and Bhairava, ^^* who are often identified with Aiyanar. Virabhadra^^^ ^g g(;y]g(j g^ata as = " See above, pp. 157, 298, No. 16, 304. Dr. VVilhelm Germanu has in the edition of Ziegenbalg, pp. 155, 156, already alluded to a connexion between Khandoba and Aiyanar. '^°* This mantra is addressed to Aiyanar as Bhairava, who is called ksetrapala and instead of Hariharaputra iioakeiavanandana : " Ksetrapil- lamantrah. Om namah ksetrai^.^ilasya iipaduddharakasya sivakesavanan- danasya paramesvararapasya nilameghasya mahabhairavasya trisSladama- rukadharaja saiikhacakradharajra kapalamalasikapaladbaraya sakini- dakiuibhiitaprotapisacaparayantraparaniantraksasagandharvasvapacara- krSragrahatatakeya karkotakakesavandrikabhaya kumaramustakhalvan- gadharasya mama sarrasatrusaiiiharaaasya hram hrim hriim hraim hrauni, hram pi hum phat svaha." The following stanza is addressed to Kalabhairava : Kapalamalikakantani j valatpavakalocanam kapaladharam atyugram kalayf Kalabhairavam. Eight forms of Bhaix'ava are mentioned, viz., asitai')t;a-, caudracilda- or rudra-, kala-, kapiila- or tamracada , krodha., maha-, ruru-, samhara- bhairava. In his eighth form as Krodhabhairava he became the ksetrapiila Aiyanar ; Krodhenanena vai balal.i ksetranam raksako'bhavat miirtayo'stau ca tasyapi ksetrapalasya dhimatah. ' ^ ^ The stanzas referring to Aiyanar or Sasta in his Sattvika, rajasa and tamasa condition are as follows. In the .Sattvika condition he is called Virabhadra : 1. Somkaram devamiilam jitaripubahalam syamalam Virabhadram Khatkaram vyomakesam ghanighaniiiinadam khadgakhetagrahastam Kuiikarani bhirnnadam hutavahanayanani dahyamanakhilamsani Phatkilram vajradathstram pranataripiijanapranahantSram ide. 508 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS possessing the quality of goodness or of sattva, while Bhai- rava is distinctly designated as the son of Siva and Visnu. When identified with Virabhadra and Bhairava, Aiyanar appears in his dark or angry nature^ corresponding to the daric element in Siva's character. Aiyanar occupies his proper position as K&etrapala, in so far as the Gramadevata is also a Ksetradevata. It was natural for the Brahmanic priesthood, in its own interests, to destroy the influence the ancient non-Aryan gods still exercised over the masses, and the best means to effect this purpose was to heap disgrace on those deities, and to vilify them in the eyes of the faithful. With this object in view, they invented a disgusting account of the incestuous origin of Aiyanar. There lived once in ancient times a demon Bhasmasura, who by his fervent penance had gained the favor of Isvara and obtained from him the boon that whatever he might touch with his hand shouldbe turned to ashes. On receiving this power, the demon tried to test it on Siva himself, who running away hid himself in a flower which was growing in a tank, and thence prayed to Visiiu to rescue him. On this Visnu appeared before Bhasmasura in the form of Mohini, a beautiful, enticing woman, and inflamed his mind to such a degree, that in his passion he lost all control over his senses. At last the virgin consented to submit to him, if the giant would previously bathe himself in the water of the neighbouring pond and then clean and rub oil with his hand on his head. Bhasmasura in his infatuation did so, and was reduced to ashes as soon as his hand touched 2. Santam saradaoandrakhaudadhavalam caudrabhiramananam candrarkopalakantakuudaladharam candravadatamsukain vlnipustakam aksasiitravalayam Tyakhyanamndram karair bibhranam kalaye sada brdi mahasastam suvaksiddliaye. 3. Tejomandalamadhyagam trinayanam divyambaralankrfcani devam pnspasareksukarmukalasaQmaiiikyapatrabliayan bibhi-.iuam karapaiikajaii- madagajaskandhadhiriulham raaha- sastaram sarapam bhajami varadam trailokyasammohanam. OP BHARATAVAESA OE INDIA. 509 liis head. Immediately afterwards Siva became acquainted with the destruction of his pursuer, left his hiding place in the flower, and requested Visnu, who told him what had happened, to assume again the body of Mohini. Visnu did so, and found himself a prey to the uncontrollable passion of Siva. The result of this incestuous connexion between Hari and Hara, was, so say the Brahmans, Aiyanar, who is therefore also called the son of Hari and Hara, or Harihara- putra. The pedantic Pandits of the Tamil country go so far as to contend that the real name of Aiyanar was Kai- yanar, he haying been bora in the kai, or hand of Visnu. The image of Aiyanar is generally found at the junction of two' roads, as according to popular belief he wants to learn from way-farers about the peculiar position in which he stands in regard to his mother ; for Visnu being a male deity cannot be called his mother, nor can ParvatI be his mother, as she did not give him birth. The name Harihara occurs frequently in the modern dynasty of the Vijayanagara kings, who attempted to unite to a certain extent Vaisiiaviam with Saivism,but this circum- stance is in no way connected with the subject of this enquiry. The existence of Aiyanar is an intrinsic portion of the ancient Gauda-Dravidian belief, and long antece- dent to the Brahmanic story of his alleged origin. Though the names of Aiyanar and Sasta do not occur in all parts of India he is, as Lord of the Ghosts, revered by the non- Aryan aborigines under one designation or another all over the country. In the northern portion of the Madras Presidency, especially among the Telugu people, his wor- ship appears to be merged into that of Vehkatesa, whose name indicates a connexion with the Vehka or Vehkata tribe, and which must not be explained, as proposed by some Paijdits, to signify veh katayati, he purifies sin. There is hardly a village in the south of Southern India which does not possess one temple dedicated to Aiyanar, •llO ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS Most of these shrines are of small dimensions and stand in a lonely place to the west of the village surrounded by lofty- trees. The prettiest spots are generally chosen for the sites of such shrines among shady ti'ees near a flowing brook. In woods and forests a stone alone indicates at times the abode of Aiyanar, and from such stones sounds are said to arise and to scare the neighbourhood. Clay figures — of large and small size — representing horses, elephants, buffaloes, dogs and other animals or objects are arranged in rows under the shade of trees, representing the gifts of pious devotees, who when they or their families were ill or in dis- tressed circumstances, vowed to dedicate such offering's to Aiyanar. The promises made to him are various and occa- sionally rather peculiar. In times of drought the villagers assemble and raise a subscription for a service in honour of Aiyanar. Bice is collected from every house, and on a Wednesday orders are issued to the potters to make life-size horses, occasionally also horses with riders on their back, or life-size armed soldiers. AVhen the potter has prepared all these figures, the vil- lagers go in procession with drums beating to the house of the potter, and carry those figures to the temple of Aij^anar, which is generally two miles distant from the village, near the boundary stone. A richly decorated and well-attired matron carries in front of the procession a vessel full of sweet toddy on her head. This procession is called in Tamil Puri ndiqipu, and the vessel Maduhkudam. The PQjaris are generally potters. Offerings of food, fruits, &c., are then made, and the worshippers take their midday meals, irrespective of caste. The people have great con- fidence that Aiyanar will be gracious, and grant thew their wish, which also often happens. In some parts of the country, when a child is stricken with a dangerous disease, the parents make a vow, to carry OF BHAEATAVAESA OE INDIA. T^H it in procession round the village suspended from a hook which is fixed in his back. This hook is called in Kanarese Sidi, and Aiyanar goes ia consequence by the name of Sidiviran, At the gates of these temples stand two gigantic guar- dians, Munnadiyar, of formidable and hideous shape : they wear crowns on their heads and carry stout sticks in their hands. They resemble devils in their appearance, and have lion-fangs projecting from their mouths- The front portion of the temple is occupied by the seven mothers, who ai'e also worshipped.'- ^ '^ Two images of Vighnesvara generally stand inside, one on each side of the door. In the inner hall sits Aiyanar between his two Avives, Purna, and Pushala, in Tamil called Puranai and Putkalai,^ ^ ^ and round them stand in the corridor the seven virgins or Kannhnar, who are occasionally worshipped, especially on Wednesdays and Saturdays, when the crops on dry lands are suffering from blight. 2 3 '^ In another building at the side of the temple in a sort of vault are kept the wooden images of horses, elephants, birds, demons and other creatures on which Aiyanar and his wives are carried about in procession on festival days. When not riding, Aiyanar is generally represented in a sitting posture as a red-skinned man. On his head he wears a crown ; on his forehead are painted the three white lines of the Yibhuti ; in his tuft-like locks hang strings of 2 9° Ziegenbalg givea on p. 150 their names as Trikarasiiri, Miiyakarasijri, Raktacamuada, Vanaoarial (Katteri), Bhagavati, Balasakti, and Bhuva- nasakti. 2 ° ' In this mantra occur the names of the two wivea of Aiyanar : Eko. nacatvarim sadaksaro mantrah. PiirnapuskalambSsametasrlhariharaput- raya namah. 2" Seep. 106, Note 100. The villagers join on such occasions in a Picnic Samaradhanai, anoint the Kannimar, a woman possessed with them begins to dance, and animals are sacrificed. 66 512 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS pearls, which adorn also his ears and his neck ; and on his chest he wears a sort of decoration. Ornaments also cover his arms, hands, feet and even his waist. As an emblem of his royal dignity he carries a sceptre in his hand. A girdle, VaJnippattai, encircles his waist and his left leg ; flowers hang from his shoulders; the upper part of his body is naked ; while a gay-coloured garment surrounds his lower extremities. Two or three times a day are sacrifices presented to Aiyanar. These take the foi^m either of libations, or of offer- ings of food, or of burnt sacrifices, and are accompanied by special prayers and ceremonies. Gifts consisting of spirituous liquor, or of animals, such as pigs, goats, cocks and other creatures, are also presented to Aiyanar, such animals being beheaded on the altar outside his temple. These bloody and spirituous offerings are made by Sudra priests or Pandarams without the participation of Brahmans who, however, perform the bloodless and purer ritual. In fact, as previously mentioned, two sides, a bright and a dai'k one, are distinguishable in the worship of Aiyanar. Besides these daily services a special festival in honor of Aiyanar is held once a year in every village. This feast, which has no fixed date, falls mostly either after the first or second harvest, and lasts from seven to nine days. The villagers carry the figures of Aiyanar and his two wives through the streets, both in the morning and in the evening. Every inhabitant is bound to contribute towards the expenses according to his means, and to offer to Aij'anar special sncrifices in the shape of cooked rice, eatables, drink, or animals. Ai3'anHr and his wives are then praised for the protection and assistance they have granted during the past year, and the continuation of his favour is requested for the ensuing year. Aiyanar is known by various names such as the warrior of 01' BHAKATAVAKSA OK INDIA. 613 a sacred crown, Tirumudisevahar ; the good warrior, Nal- lasevakarj the god who lives outside the village, Puxattavan ; the beautiful sea-coloured, Puhhadalvannan ; the Lord, Saltan; the husband of Puranai, PiM'awaite/wn; the hus- band of Putkalai, Putkalaimanalan ; the ascetic, Yogi; the stainless, Orumasattdn ; one who has a fierce weapon, Candayudhan ; the venerable, Ariyan ; the protector of virtue, ArattaikJcappon ; the rider on a white elephant, Vellaiyanaiyurti ; the youth, Kumaran; the father (master), Aiyan; the son of Harihara, Hariharaputtiran ; he who has a fowl in his flag, Kulikkodiyon ; etc.^^^ The two wives of Aiyanar, Puranai and Putkalai, have yellow complexions. They wear crowns on their heads, in one hand they hold a flower, while the other hangs down empty. Besides this they have the usual ornaments. Puranai wears on her forehead the black Kasturi-ma,v]i, while Putkalai is distinguished by the Vibhuti, the three holy white streaks [Tiruniru in Tamil). They sit on one leg, Puranai on the left, and Putkalai on the right side of her husband, in whose duties and honors they participate. With these remarks I finish this brief discussion on the position of the G-ramadevatas and Aiyanilr, a subject which is important enough to attract more attention than it has done hitherto, for these divinities represent the national deities of the non-Aryan population. Their worship has indeed been preserved, but it has been altered considerably owing to foreign influence, though not for the better. On Bhutas, or Fiends, Ghosts, and Devils. Demoniac beings or Bhiltas,—he they Fiends, Ghosts or Devils, whether created as such from the beginning or at a subsequent period, and whether or not the restless spirits »»" Compare Ziegenbalg, p, 152, 514 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS of the deceased^ — frighten the minds and threaten the lives of mortals in this world. They exercise their baneful influ- ence not only over rude barbai'ians, or credulous masses, but also over individuals otherwise sensible. Their exist- ence is genei'ally asserted, and their power supported by the wiles of subtle priestcraft. The various religious beliefs and philosophical systems, though agreeing on some vague points, have all their special dogmas or character- istic opinions on matters spiritual and demoniac. There are men who believe that they are in possession of the key which opens the door to the mysteries beyond human ken, but it is useless to systematize topics which appertain to speculation, and in which imagination occupies the place of reality. The inventive genius of the Hindus has peopled the world with variously formed and differently endowed crea- tures, who derive their origin from divine sources. In the Amarakosa, the well-known Sanskrit vocabulary, are enu- merated as such the Vidyadharas, Apsarases, Yaksas, Eaksases, Gandharvas, Kinnaras, Pisacas, Guhyakas, Sid- dhas and BhQtas.^ ° " Excepting the Eaksases, Pisacas and Bhutas, an inclination towards good is found prevailing in all of these, but in some Bhutas there is an equal dis- position towards good as towards evil, while the majority of Raksases are decidedly bad, ^o" See Aiiiaralwia,!, 1, 1,6; VidyadLuio' iwaiu-Yaksa-Kakao-Gandljurva-Kiuuiiral.i J'isScu Guhyakalj Siddho Bhutu'mi dcyayouaviil.i. Compare also Vaijuyantl, YaksadyadLjSya, 1 — j . 1. Sparsanaudastvapsarasas sumadaioa ratemadjii svarvesyasoatlia khasC-yo yakso'tha siii-agayanah ; 2. Gandharvo gatugrmdharvau siddliSs syus sanakadayali btutaputras tn bhutani bhutasca sivaparsyagah ; 3. Kinnaras syuh kimpurusa mayaTo'sTamnkliasca te guliyaka manioarayas tatha devajanas sutalj ; 4. Vidyadharas tu dyucarah khecariis satyayauvaiiali pisacas syat kapiseyo'nrjur darvaica piudakah ; ,5. Devayonaya etc syns avarvesyadyas saraksasah. OP BHAEATAVAESA OE INDIA. 515 I have adopted the Sanskrit term Ehiita (being), as an expression that applies to all the different beings discussed in this chapter, as this term is indeed applicable to all, though it is in certain districts of Southern India only used in relation to a particular species of demons. For the sake of classification, I propose to divide these BhQtas into three groups. Those who compose the first group, I call Fiends. They are endowed with superhuman powers, and possess material bodies of various kinds, which they can change as they list, and which are subject to destruc- tion. As free agents, they can choose between good and evil, but a disposition towards evil preponderates in their character, as the examples of Ravana and Hiranyakasipu, and the exceptions of Vibhisana and Prahlada sufficiently prove. The so-called Asuras, Danavas, Daityas and Raksasas belong to this group. All these are personations either of the hostile powers of nature, or of mighty human foes, both which have been eventually converted into superhuman beings. The second group consists of the Ghostn of those who once moved as living creatures in this world, but who, after having departed their mundane life, roam restlessly about, until they are united with the Supreme Spirit, and obtain Final Beatitude by complete absorption into it. The third group consists of the Devils or Demons, who persecute, seduce and destroy mankind. These Demons are often divided into two classes, consisting of ruling and ministering spirits, who are specially known as Pisacas and Bhtltas. The main object of this inquiry is to ascertain, if possible, the ethnological origin of these groups, and of the several members which constitute them. When this object has been achieved, and the difference between Aryan and non- Aryan demonology has been successfully defined,, the later 516 ON THE OiaUlNAL INHABiTAiJTS development of both can be more easily uuderstoodj and the modifications^ which the beliefs of both races under- went, can be traced Avith greater exactness. It is not pos- sible; however, at this stage of our knowledge to arrive at a final decision on this subject, and all that can meanwhile be achieved is, to collect as much evidence as possible and to arrange the material in a lucid and at the same time accu- rate manner. A. About Fiends. Man-eating ogres and ogresses, formidable giants, treach- erous gnomes, mischievous sprites, wicked elves et hoc umne genus, who delight iu teasing and destroying men, are called fiends- In Sanskrit literature they appear especially as Danavas, Daityas, Eaksasas and Asuras. To this class may be added the evil sorcerers and wizards, known in the Veda as Ydtus, YdtudhUnas and YdtudhCnils, with whom may be coupled the vile Kimidins.^'-' i As I have already observed, some substantial basis, supplied by natural phenomena or events, underlies the assumption of the existence of these beings. In the Rgveda we encounter them as Danavas, or sons of Danu and Kasyapa ; as Uaityas or sons of Diti and Kasyapa, in contrast to the divine Adityas, the sons of Diti's sister Aditi and of Kasyapa ; as Asuras and as Dasas or Dasyus, the human foes of the Aryan invaders. The principal of the Danavas, of whom there are seven, IS Vrtra, who is called the ancestor of the dragons, pratha- majd ahmum. He opposes suffering mankind, and is feared by all the gods, whom he openly defies. He keeps back and steals the heavenly waters, i.e., he prevents them from coming doAvn as rain, and for this offence Indra destroys him with his thunderbolt.^"^ Vala, cave (in which the = "1 Compare Rn-dda,l, 35, 10 i VII, 1, 5, etc., and Vll, 104, 2 j X, 87,24. 3 us See RgvMa, I, 32, 3, -1, ; II, 11, 18 ; X, 120, 6. OF BHARATAVABSA OR INDIA. 517 rain-cows are confined), is the name of another demon, who is in later works called the brother of Vrtra.^O'^ Besides these are mentioned in the Rgveda the Danava Aurnavahha, the handless Kunara who was crushed by Indra ; Kuyava who causes bad harvests and whose two young wives (yosi) bathe in milk and ought to be drowned; the blaspheming Kuyavuk; the demon Jaridha whom Agni killed; Eauhina ffho ascended into heaven and whom Indra tore into pieces ; Budhikra who was likewise destroyed by Indra ; Visisipra who was vanquished by Mann and others."^'' Anarsani, Namuci, Pipru, Sambara, Srbinda, Susna, and the Dasa Vrsasipra, who practised the magic arts and was slain by Indra, are probably prototypes of non-Aryan foes.3o=5 A female fiend Arayl is also frequently mentioned in the Veda. She is described as ugly, one-eyed and hipped. She kills the foetus in the womb and hates Indra. ^"'^ It is needless to remark that the Athaiwanaveda contains much fuller information about these fiends, and the means of rendering harmless their diabolical machinations by the use of efficacious charms and mantras. Demons insidiously try to inflict injury (druh), ov hurt (raksas). Driih,-when personified, moves in darkness, gets hold of the villain, hates Indra, and finds its slayer in Brhaspati, who preserves truth and the sacrifice.^'"' Raksas is connected with all that is bad and objectionable ; it is impure, pernicious ^°' See ahove, p. 15, Note 11. "* See Bgoeda, II, 11, 18 ; VIII, 33, 26, 66, 2 ; III, 30, 8 ; I, 103, 8; I, 104, 3 ; I, 174, 7i I, 103, 8, 104, 3 ; VII, 1, 7 ; II, 12, 12 ; II, 14, 5 ; and V, 45, 6. 3 0= See RgvUa, VIII, 32, 2 ; II, 14, 5 ; 1,51,5; VII, 99, 5 ; I, 33, 12 ; I, 103, 8 ; and VII, 99, 4. = »° See Rejveda, X, 155. 3°' See Roveda, I, 133, 1 ; II, 30, 9; III, 31, 19; IV, 23, 7, etc. Com- pare Ver Rirjveda von AlfrccT Lndwig, III, pp. 338, 339, •")18 ON THE OUICilNAT, INHABITANTS and base. ^"■'^ Both engencler misohief, and gods as well as men must fight against druh and rahsas in order to de- stroy them, Asuras and Raksasas are eventually regarded as beings who particularly practise druli and raJtsas, and whose nature is so undefined, that no difference is made between them and men. Indeed just as the character of human l)oi]igs varies, so also does theirs vary, and they are, accord- ing to their pleasaro, hostile or friendly, malevolent or benevolent. Ctceupying a position midway between gods and men, the fiends possess like both of them bodies ade- quate to their condition, bodies which partake of the ethereal elements of the deities and of the earthly elements of human beings. Among themselves the fiends differ in size and shape, some of them possessing the power to assume whatever form they desire. Like gods and men they share in the three qualities, and like men they are also subject to the laws of transmigration, The term Asjtra, from a.-^ii, life (root as, to live), applies in the Rgveda principally to Varuna, Indra, Agni, bat also to other gods as Pa>au, Rudra, Savitr, Soma and the Maruts.3 0^ In the tenth Maudala it is, however, already used in the sense of impious demon, and as such, e.g., ap- plied to Piprn." 1 " When the Vedic gods were in course of time thoroughly displaced, a fixed distinction was made be- tween Gods and Asuras, and a separate creation assigned to both, the Gods being created by the mouth, and the Asuras by the lower breath of Prajapati.^ i ' The Visnupurana re- lates that Brahman created the Asuras while he was pervad- ed with darkness, and that they, his firstborn, proceeded from his thigh. When the darkness which developed into 30S See E.jveda, I, 12, 5 ; VI, If.. 29, etc ^o" Compare alove, p. 275. 3>» Compare E'lvccla, X, 1.3S, 3. "1 See ahove, p. 281. OP BHAKATAVAKSA OE INDIA. 519 night had deserted him, he became pleased, and from his mouth issued the Gods, endowed with goodness. In con- sequence of these facts, the A suras prevail at night aud the Gods during daytime.^ i^ In the account of the crea- tion contaiaed in the Manavadharmasastra, the Asuras sink to a lower depth, for they were created by seven Manus, the offspring of the ten Prajapatis, together with the Yaksas, Raksases, Pisacas, Gandharvas, Apsarases, Nagas, Serpents, winged Birds and Pitrs, after the Gods and the Maharsis or great sages. ^ ' ^ The Asuras, Danavas and Daityas are engaged in con- tinual fight with the Devas, and their repeated attempts to thrust the Gods from their thrones, resemble the efforts which the Titans made to defeat the Olympians."*'' The Gods, however, did not always employ fair means to ensure victory, but had recourse to mean tricks. At the churning of the ocean, the Devas required the assistance of the Dai- tyas, and in order to obtain it, promised them an equal share of the Nectar or Amrta which would be produced froru the agitated sea. The serpent Vasuki was wound like a cord round the mountain Mandara, the Gods headed by Krsna being stationed at the tail, the Daityas and Danavas at the '12 See VisnupurSna, I, 5, 28—32 : 29. Tnktatmanas tamomatra udriktabhiit prajapateh sisrksor jaghanat piirvam aeura jajnire tatali. 36. Sisrksui- anyadehasthah pritira apa tatas surah sattvodriktali samudbliiita mukhato brahmanodvija. 32. Tyakta sapi tanue tena Battvaprayam abhud dinam tato hi balino ratravasura devata diva. = 1 ' See ManavadharmaSSstra, I, 37 : Yaksaraksahpisaoamsca gandharvapsaraso' anran nagan sarpan supariiamsoa pitfijam oa prthag ganan. 2 1* In the AmarakoSa, I, 1, 1, 7, the Asuras are styled : Asura Daitya-Daiteya-Danuiendrari-Danavah Sukrasisya Ditisutah Pflrvadevah Suradvisah ; and in the Vaijayanti, YaksSdyadhyaya, p. 15, lines 18, 19 : Asura Danava Daitya Daiteya Devasatravah, Purvadevas Sukrasisya Rasageha Haridvisah. 67 520 ON THE OEIGINAL INHABITANTS head. Tho lattei- in consequence were stifled by tlie fierj' fumes emitted from tlie mouth of the serpent, while the Gods were refreshed by the pleasant showers descending from the clouds. When Dhanvantari appeared with the Amrta cup inhis hands, the Daityas tried to snatch it from him, but Visnu as.-^nming the shape of a beautiful woman, fascinated them and securedthe Amrta for the Gods. Theydrank it, and through this invigorating draught they were enabled to resist the onslaught of the enraged Daityas and to hurl them to Patala.'' ' ■' As the Daityas had refused the Sura or Varuiu, {.p., the goddess of wine, while the Gods had accepted her, the latter, so goes this version, were styled Svrax, and the former Asuras. The number of the Asuras is continually increasing, and the stories about them become more complicated and wonderful in course of time. It is indeed not difficult to perceive that a foreign element, a love of marvels and terrors, has joined the Aryan stock, and that these miraculous legends are the product of combined Aryan and non- Aryan conceptions. The simple stories of the Vedic period have given place to elaborate descriptions, manifesting the change which has come over the religious and ethnological constitution of the population. As a plain example of this fact, I quote only the remarkable accounts about Asuras, which are contained in the Asurakaiida, of the Sivarahasya- khai.ida, a portion of the Saiikarasariihita of the Skanda- puraua. One such story will, I believe, suffice to prove this assertion. The Mahai'si Kahja.fa became through his wife Diti, the father of sixty -four crores of Daityas, the natural enemies of the Gods or Adityas, the sons of Kasyapa and Aditi. Asurendra was the chief of these Daityas, who married 3 10 Spp Vifnuptirnna, 1, 9, 80—109. Oi? bHAKATAVAESA OR INDIA. 521 Mangalakesl. Their daughter iSurasU was educated by Siikracarya, the instructor of the Daityas. As she proved herself a very apt pupil and became thoroughly versed in all the arts and sciences which he taught, he con- ferred on her, as an honour, the name Maya and resolved to make use of her to further his designs which aimed at the restoration of the waning power of the Asuras. In order to gain this object, he induced Maya to approach Kasyapa and to obtain from him offspring, able to fight and subdue the Gods. Won over to his plans she repaired to the banks of the Ganges, where by her incantations she created a most beautiful pleasure garden near the place where Kasyapa was undergoing his penance, and as soon as he opened his eyes, he beheld her and fell in love with her. But she did not intend to yield so easily to Kasyapa. Therefore, after informing him that she did not want to be disturbed, as she had come hither from Mount Meru for the sake of her penance, she disappeared so suddenly, that Kasyapa in his excitement fell into a swoon. Maya at last consented to remain with Kasyapa, if he would agree to assume whatever form she pleased. This he did, and 8ura- [jadmdswa was the result of her first connection in the first Ydma, besides 30,000 Daityas who were produced from her perspiration. The child of the second was Simhavaktra, or Tdraka, who had 1,000 faces and 2,000 arms, and was born when both had assumed the shape of lions. Together with SimhavaJctmsura appeared 40,000 Daityas. The third time, both becoming elephants, Gajamukha was born with another 40,000 Daityas, and at last in sheep form was born the female Demon Ajdmuhhi. After changing their forms for some time longer into tigers, cows, pigs, etc., and produc- ing various other Asuras and two hundred thousand Daityas, they re-assumed again their original shape. When Sorapad- masura consulted Kasyapa as to what he should do, the father of the Gods advised him to obtain through severe penance 522 ON THE OEIQINAL INHABITANTS the favor of Sambhu. At the suggestion of his mother he performed Vlrayaga with his brothers at Vatadvipa, in order to acquire wealth and power ; while she also imparted to them all that she had learnt from Sukracarya. They then made a sacrifice which lasted for 10,000 years, on a piece of ground meassuring 10,000 yojanas. Surapadma sacrificed at the chief pit which extended over 1,000 yojanas, while Siih- havaktra offered oblations at the 108 surrounding pits ; but this sacrifice was not graciously accepted by the deity, until Surapadma cut his own body into pieces and threw them into the fire. Surapadma then conquered the whole world, all the gods included, except Siva. Xot content with his victory, he maltreated the gods in such a shameful manner that they could no longer bear the indignities heaped upon them, and applied to Siva for redress.^ ' '' As Mahesvara thought that the Gods had been sufficiently punished for their previous misbehaviour, because SOrapad- masura had with Siva's consent subjected and tormented them for a hundred and eight yugas, he permitted his son Sanmukha or Subrahmanya to take the field against the Asuras. The cause of Siva's grudge against the Gods was *'" The creation of the nine Kanyas from the nine gems of Parvati's ;i,nklet is connected with this incident For when the Gods rushed in de- spair into Siva's room, he was seated there with Parvatf, and when, scared she got up in hasto, nine gems fell ont from her anklet. (Jn looking at them, Siva saw tliat they refieeted her own image, and this so fascinated him that he caused the gems to appi'oacli him, which they did in the form of beautiful ladies. This proceeding, however, aroused the jealousy of Parvati, who invoked a curse on them that they Hhonld remain garhhiui, i.e., pref;nant, without bringing forth children. In their agitation brought on by this curse, the nine Kanyas produced through their perspiration innumerable Gaiias. At last Parvati took pity on their miserable con dition, removed the curse, and they were delivered of nine heroes. The names of these nine Kanyiis and their nine sons were respectively : 1. Ratnavalli and Viruljahu, 2. Taralavalli and Virakesarin, 3. Pausivalli and Viramahendra, 4. Gomedhavalli and ViramaUesvara, 5. Vaid uryavalli and Virapurandara, 6. Vajravalli and Viraraksasa, 7. JIarakatavalli and Viramartauila, 8. Pravalavalli and Virantaka, 9. Nilavalli and Viradhira, OP BHAEATAVAKSA OB INDIA. 523 that they all had attended the sacrifice of Daksa^ to which he had not been invited, and he revenged himself on the G-ods, by creating for their subjugation these numberless Asuras and Daityas. The boon which Surapadmasura had obtained was, that he should not be conquered by any exist- ing creature or god, nay not even by Siva himself, or, as he is called, by the five-faced or Fancamukha. As Siva could not break his promise, he created Subrahmaijya or Sanmuhha, the six-faced, and thus accomplished the destruction of the Asuras without breaking his word to Siiiihamu- khasura. At the request of Siva, Brahman created as many BhQtas as could be accommodated within 1,000 yojanas. With these myriads of troops, who were joined by the 330 millions of Gods and 100,000 heroes, Subrahmaiiya was able to destroy the Asuras. To give an idea of the number of warriors who followed Subrahmajjya, it is said that the seven seas were dried up by their marching aud that the sun and the moon were covered with dust. ^ ' " The campaign of Subrahmanya put a final stop to the power of the Daityas- Together with the Asuras are generally mentioned the Raksasas. They are described as cruel, deceitful, men- eating ogres, who roam about at nights and use witchcraft to deceive their opponents and to obtain their object. ^ ' '" 2 " It is said that the God of the seaa complained to Subrahmanya about this hardship, but the manner in which the latter redressed this well- founded chai-ge does not bear repeating. = 18 See Amarakoia, I, 1, 1, 55, 56 . 55. Eaksasah kaunapah kravyat kravyado'srapa asarah ratrincaro ratricarah karburo nikasatmajah 56. Yatndhanah puayajano nairrto yatnraksasi ; and VaijayanU, Lokapaladhyaya, p. 12, si. 40, 41. . 40. Atha raksariasi yatiiui raksasa alalohitah ratriiioara ratricarah kravyatkravyadauairrtah, 41. Kaikaseya yatndhanah purusadah pravahikah anusa ridhura raktagrahas saikava asarah. 524 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITAH'1'8 liavaua, son of Visravas and grandson of Bralimau, is regarded as the chief representative of the Raksasas. He is the powerful foe of Rama, son of Dasaratha, and the Ramayana contains a full account of his greatness and defeat. He is as much abhorred by the Brahmans, as he is esteemed by their foes, the Jains, and though some Hindus declare Ravana to have originally been a Brahman, who was for his inic[uity cursed so as to be reborn a Rak,sasa, he may with greater probability be regarded as the real repre- bentative of the original inhabitants of this country. ^ "^^ The Vayupuraua regards them as descendants of Raksas, son of Kasyapa and Khasa. The meaning of tlie wo id Raksas which has above been given as Ji urt, is elsewhere in the Pura- uas derived from the word rnliS, to })rotect. According to the \'isnupuraiia, the Raksasas, tormented at their creation by excruciating hunger, appealed to Brahman to preserve them from starvation, ^ '"^ •* while the Bhagavatapurana contends that the Raksasas deranged by hunger, attacked together with the Yaksas Brahman who had assumed a nightlike body, and that the Creator cried out to them not to eat, but to protect him.^^ ^ The dwelling places of the Danavas, IJaityas, Yaksas, Nilgas and similar beings are the seven regions of Patala, or lower world, known as Atala, \itala, Nitala, Gabhastimat, = >" See ahdve pp. S7— 89, 136— 13S, 184,, 18o, 376-378, 502. '■-" See p. .517 ; Visnupiirnnii, I, 5, lU : 40- Ksutksriiiirmandhakare' tha so' srjad bluigavarastatah viriipah limasi-ula jatas to' bbyadliavanta tam pvabhiini. H. iMaivaui bliy raksyatatn rsa yair uktam rak-^asas ta te. ■'■''' Hee Blicigacdlapiirdna, 111,20,18—20: 18. Visasarjafcraanah kayani nribhyanandarastamoniayaui jagfhur Taksaraksarnai rat rim kstittrlsamuclbliaTam, 19. KsutU-dbhyain upasistris tr tain iagdhximabhidudruruli mfi raksatainam jaksadhTam ityiiciilj ksuttrtjarditah. 211, Dcvas tan aha saiiivigno niu m;lm jnksata raksata alio iiip yaksarak^inisi praja yilyam babhilvitha. OF BHAEATAVAUSA OR INDIA. 525 Mahatalaj Sutala and Patala according to the Visiiupurana. Tlie Patala is by no means a doleful abode. The sage Narada declared after returning from it^that it was far more pleasant than the heaven of Indra. It is richly adorned with beauti- ful woodsj streams and lakes covered with lotus. The melo- dious songs of birds resound in the air, mingled with the strains of musical instruments^ fragrant perfumes pervade the air, which is lighted but not heated in the day by the rays of the sun, while the moon imparts light without coldness during the night. The beautiful daughters of the Dana- vas and Daityas who reside in splendid palaces, enliven these worlds, whose soil is respectively white, black, red, yellow, gravelly, stony and golden.822 jf -^^q -j^^q^ take ^^^ The names of these seven worlds are Tariously given: see ahnve, p. 301, Note 19. Compare Tisnupiirana, II, 5, 1 : — 1. Vistara esa kathitah prthivya bhavato mayS saptatis tu sahasrani dvijocohrayo'pi kathyate. 2. Dasasahasram ekaikam patalam mun-'sattama Atalam Vltalan caiva Mtalanca Gahhastimat, 3. Mahakbyana .Sutalan cagryam patalaiioapi saptamam suklah krsHarunah pitasarkarah sailakancanab. -i. Bhiimayo yatra Maitreya varaprasadasobhitab tean Danavadaiteyajatayah satasanghasab. 5. Nivasanti mahanagajatayasea mahamune svarlokad api ramyani Patalaniti Naradab 6. Praha svargasadam madhye Patalebhyo gato divam ahladakarinab subhra inanayo yatra snprabhab 7. Nanabbaranabhnsastu Patalam kena tatsamam Daityadanavakanyabhir itascetaioa sobbite, 8. Patale kasya na pritir Timnktasyapi jayate Divarkarasmayo yatra prabham tanvanti natapani, 9. Sasinasoa na sitaya nisi dyotaya kevalam bhaksyabhojyamabapananinditair atibhogibhih 10. Tatra na jnayate kalo gatopi Danujadibhih vanani nadyo rarayani sararasi kamalakarab 11. Pnrii skokilanam lapaioa manojiianyambaraai ca bbSsanani oa ramyani gandhadhyau cannlepanam 12. Vmavemumrdanganam nadais tiaryani ca dvija etanyanyani codarabhagyabhogyani danavaib, 526 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS a retrospect of tliis subject, I believe it will be admitted that the Asuras, Eaksasas and other fiendish demons owe their existence primarily to the imagination of Aryan minds, but that the non- Aryan element of the Indian population contributed afterwards considerably to the further devel- opment and boundless enlargement of the number, activity, and power of these fiends. B. About Ghosts. Under Ghosts I understand here the spirits of the departed. There is hardly a human being in existence, who even if he regards this earthly life as ending with death and not followed by an here-after, has not at some time considered what may become of him, after he has shufiled off his mortal coil. The ancient Aryans of India though delighting in the pleasures of sublunar life, could not shut their eyes to the stern necessity of leaving it. Birth and death are inseparably connected, and death's companion [mrtyuhandhu] is man. As everyone must relinquish this life, one should leave it as late as possible, after having enjoyed it for the longest possible time, i.e., for a period of at least one hundred years. The hymns of the Rgveda prefer in consequence the breaths of air in this world to the still features of death and to the uncertain fate of the next life. Death however, cannot be avoided, and the dead must be disposed of. In the earliest stages of Aryan societj- these eventualities had been taken into consideration. Both burying and burning the dead were generally resorted to, and a distiuction is made between burnt {agnidagdha), and unburnt [anagnidagdhi; see Rgveda, X, 15, 11, 14), 13. Daityoragaisoa bhujyante Patalantaragooaraili ; patalanam adhas caste visi'ior y.i tamasl tauah. Besides other Purai'ias see Qaniilupurnna, I, 57, Avliose third sloka diiiers in the description of Patala : 3. Ki'snS sukiririina pita sarkara sailakaricana bhiimayas tatra daiteya vasanti ca bhujaiigamali, OP BHAEATAVARSA OR INDIA. 527 or buried Manes.^^s Besides these the Atharvanaveda (XVIII, 2, 34) mentions two other Manes, calling them paropta and uddhita.^^ * In various hymns of the Rgveda we find allusions to these ceremonials, as well as lengthy- descriptions of the proceedings observed on such occa- sions. Professor von Eoth has in the treatise quoted above given with annotations a classical German transla- tion of the 18th hymn of the 10th Maiidala of the Rgveda, which describes most probably the burial of a Ksatriya. As it is a very important and significant hymn, I give it in the English translation of Mr. R. T. H. Griffith:S2 5 1. "Go hence, Death, pursnethy special pathway apart fi-om that which gods are wont to travel. To thee I say it who hast eyes and hearest ; touch not our offspring, injure not our heroes. 2. As ye have come effacing Mrityu's footstep, to farther times prolonging your existence. May ye be rich in children and possessions, cleansed, puriiied, and meet for sacrificing. 3. Divided from the dead are these, the living : now is our calling on the gods successful, We have come forth for dancing and for laughter, to farther times prolonging our existence. 4. Here I erect this rampart for the living ; let none of these, none other, reach this limit. May they survive a hundred lengthened autumns, and may they bury Death beneath this mountain. 5. As the days follow days in close succession, as with the seasons duly come the seasons, ^^' See Jacob Grimm Ueher das Verhrennen der Leichen, Berl. Acad., 1849; G. Eoth Die Todtenhestattung im indischen Alterthum, in the Zeit- schrift der Deutschen Morgenldndischen GeseHsc?iaft, Vol. VIII, 467— 475 ; Max Miiller Die Todtenhestattung bei den Brahmanen, ibidem Vol. IX, X — LXXXII ; Albreoht Weber Sine Legende des fatapatha Brahmaria iiber die strafende Tergeltung nach dem Tode, ibidem, pp. 237—243 ; Muir, Original Sanskrii Tents V, 284 ff ; and Heinrich Zimmer AUindisches Leben, pp. 400—422. = 2* See Atharvanaveda, XTIII, 2,34: 34. Ye nikhata ye paropta ye' dagdha ye coddhitah sarvamstSn agna a vaha pitfu havise attave. 3a: See The Hymns of the Rigveda translated by Balph T. H. GrifBth, Vol. IV, pp. 137—139. 68 52S ON THE OKIftlNAL INHABITANTS As eacli successor fails not his foregoer, so form the lives of these, O great Ordainer. 6. Live your full lives and iJnd old age delightful, all of you striving one behind the otlier. May Twashtar, maker of fair things, be gracious, and lengthen out the days of your existence. 7. Let those unwidowed dames with noble husbands adorn themselves with fragrant balm and unguent. Decked with fair jewels, tearless, free from sorrow, first let the matrons pass into tlieir houses. ^. Rise, come unto the world of life, woman ! come, he is lifeless by whose side thou liest. Wifehood with this thy husband was thy portion, who took thy hand and wooed thee as a lover. 9. From his dead hand I take the bow he carried, that it may be our power and might and glory, There art thou, there; and here with noble heroes may be o'ercome all hosts that fight against us. 10. Betake thee to the lajj of earth the mother, of earth far-spreading, very kind and uracious. Young dame, wool-soft unto the guerdon-giver, may she preserve thee from destruction's bosom. 11. Heave thyself, earth, nor press thee downward heavily : afford him easy access, gently tending him. Earth, as a mother wraps her skirt about her child, so cover him. 12. Xow let the heaving earth be free from motion : yea, let a thousand clods remain above him. Be they to him a home distilling fatness, here let them ever be his place of refuge. \'.i. 1 stay the earth from thee while over thee I place this piece of earth. May I be free from injury. Here let the fathers keep this pillar firm for thee, and here let Varna make thee an abiding-place. 14. Tiven as an arro\v's feathers, they have laid me down at day's decline. My parting speech have I drawn back as 'twere a courser with the rein." This lij^mn shows iis the relations and friends assembled round the corpse, with the widow sitting in the centre of the group. The head-man stands at the side of the dead near the lighted altai-j and requests Death to spare the living survivors. For this purpose he places a .stone between the mourners and the dead, as a frontier-mark between 0¥ BHAEATAVAE8A OK INDIA. 529 the realm of death and the land of the living, and Death, who is in possession of the dead, is not allowed to overstep that boundary. Moreover, the hope is expressed that none of the mourners be removed from life before their time. The married friends of the widow whose husbands are still alive, and who, dressed in festive garments, do not show any sign of grief, present their libation to the departed. When the widow has performed the last sad duty she owes to her husband, she is asked to sever herself from the dead, and, the bond between them being dissolved, she leaves her dead husband and returns to the living.^^^ After this the bow is taken from the hand of the corpse, to be pre- served for the use of the community. The body is then committed to the earth, and when the grave is closed, the earth is asked to lie softly over the dead and not to press on him. With a prayer that this participation in the burial may not hurt him, the head-man commits the departed to the care of the Pitrs and to the protection of Yama to secure for him a seat in heaven. The famous funeral hymn addressed to Agni commences in Mr. Griffith's translation as follows t^^ ^ 1. Bnrn Mm not up, nor quite consume him, Agi<: let not his body or his skin be scattered. Jatavedas, when thou hast matured him, then send him on his way unto the Fathers. 2. When thou hast made him ready, Jatavedas then do thou give him over to the Fathers. When he attains unto the life that waits him, he will obey the Deities' commandment. 326 Prof, von Roth observes loco citato, p. 475, that this request made to the widow to leave her dead husband, contains a clear refutation of the assertion of the Brahmans, that the Veda orders the self-cremation of the widow. Compare about the burial Rgveda, Yll, 89, 1; Atharvanaveda, V, 30, 14; XVIII, 2, 25, 52 ; XVIII, 3, 70, etc. ^'^ See Hymns of the Rigveda, X, 16, Vol. IV, pp. 132, 133. Compare Dr. J. JXuir's Original Sansl-rii Texts, V, pp, 297. 298, and Atharvnnaixdn, XVIII, 2, etc. 530 ON THE OEIGINAL INHABITANTS 3. The sun receive thine eye, the wind thy spirit ; go, as tliy merit is, to earth or heaven. Go, if it be thy lot, unto the waters ; go make thine home in plants with all thy members. 4. Thy portion is the goat ; witli heat consume him ; let thy fierce flame, thy glowing splendour, burn him. With thine auspicious forms, Jatavedas, bear this man to the region of the pious. 5. Again, Agni, to the Fathers send him, who offered in tliee, goes with our oblations. Wearing now life let him incrt'a^c his ottspriug . let him rejoin a bi.iily, Jatavedas. While the inauimate Ijody is thub committed to the covering earth or the burning fire^ the incorporeal portion goes ti-i that other world to which the virtuous or sinful act.s of the person consign him. Various hymns acknowledge the existence of a future life, where rewards are obtained for the good deeds performed on earth, and punishments art' meted out for crimes committed in this world ; in fact the immortality of the soul forms part of the creed of the Vedic religion .•-' '^ ^ Precededby the sacrificial he-goat and protected by Pusan, the soul wanders through dense dark- ness a long and tedious way, until it reaches the final woal and arrives at the region of the blessed, after crossing in a boat the river which lies between both spheres. The solemn and simple funeral rites of the Vedic times gradually changed and became more and more complicated and intricate, as the priestly powers of the Brahmans increased. Transmigration, a new article of faith apparent- ly unknown to the \''e See ibidem, 140: 140. Nyiinabdikafloa yacohraddham tatra bhujikte snduhkhitah sampiSrue tu tato varse Sitadhyam iiagaram vrajet. '*' See ihidem, 145 : 145. Trayodasa pratiharalj sravana nama tatra vai Sravanah karmatas tuayantyanyatha krodham apnuyuh. «*■' See ihidura, II, 0, 147: 147. Damstrakuralavadanam bhriikutidarunakrtim, viriipair bhrsaaair vaktrair \'rtam vyudhisataih prabhum daijdasaktamahabahum pasahastam subliairavam. »*2 See ibidem, II, 6, 149: 149. Ye ta puuyakrtas tatra tr pasyanti yamam tada sanmySlci-tim kuiidalinam maulimantam dhrtasriyam ; OF BHAEATAVABSA OK INDIA. 537 Yama, the sou of Saranyu and of Vivasvat, the twin- brother of Yami, whose offer to marry him he refused as immoralj nowhere appears in the Veda as a judge of the dead, and the punishment of the bad is no concei'n of his. He is mentioned as the first man that died and found the way to the other world, to which he eventually guides other mortals. His messengers among men are two hoi-ri- ble dogs, which strike terror into those who behold them and which everybody tries to avoid and to pass by. In the Puranas and in other later works Yama appears as the judge of the dead. The distance from this world to the residence of Yama, amounts to 86,000 yOjanas,^''* and the making of this journey is the first trial the dead have to undergo. The good already experience now the fruit of their good actions, for they are supplied with all they want and are well cared for j but for the wicked it is indeed a sore trial, as they are exposed to all kinds of hardships, and suffer great bodily pain as well as mental agitation caused by fear and anguish. Yama encourages the good and pro- mises them a blissful future, while he predicts to the bad the sufferings ofhell.^*^ According to some statements, he accompanies the Pretasarlra to the town where Gitra- gupta, Yama's recorder, resides. ^^'^ This dread official presents a hoi'rible appearance. He has red eyes, a long nose; awful tusks project from his mouth; his thirty- two arms are three yOjanas long, and his terrible voice sounds like the rolling of thunder at a general dissolution. When a new arrival approaches, Citragupta and Yama's servants, and II, 19, 6. Compare also Yrhannaradiyapuraaa, XXIX, 36: 36. Yamasoaturbhujo bhutva sankhaoakragadadibhrt puuyakarmaratananoa snehanmitravadaroayet. ^** See Vrhannaradlyapurana, XXIX, 4; 4. Sadasitisahasrani yojananam munisvarali yamamargasya vistarah papiuam bhayadayakah, »*= See ibidem, 21—39. = " See Qarv4aj?urai}a, II, 19, 1, 2, ■j38 on the original inhabitants who resemble their master in dreadful ugliness, begin to roar in a frightful manner. ■' * " Citragupta then reads out the judgment at which he has arrived after a careful examina- tion of the record which he has kept of the good and bad actions of the deceased, a judgment which displays even- handed justice. Accordingly the good set out for heaven, and the bad are pushed into hell, each to reside in their respecti\-e places aniung the gods, pitrs, men, or the damned, until they rejohi once more the living world, iu a shape pi'eviously assigned to theui.''""^ The mure modern ■"' Auolhei- reading luis ill sloka i7, ;;2 iustcail uT '■'<'!. Sec Vrhaniin- raclhja, XXIX, 47—50; 17. PralayainbiitIaoirgliu>u anjanadrisamaprabhal.i vidyutiDrabliayudhaiL- bhimu dvatririisadbhujasamyutiili. ly. Yojatiati'a3'avistar6 laktaksu dirglianaaikali damstrakaralavadano vapitulyaTilocanali, yj. Mrtyujvaradibhir yuktas Citragupto vibhisanah sarve diifcasca garjanti yamatulyavibhisanab. 50. Tatu braviti tan sarvau kampamanamsca pri})iiial,i iocatab svani karmani Citragupto yamajnaya. Oomparu (Janulapuraiia, II, 10. 6 : a. Saptadbanyasya danena prilo dharmadhvaju bbavCt. tatra gatva pratiharo briite tasya sabhasubham. " "" See Gdi-udapurana, II, 10, 11 — 16 : 14. Kvam krtena sampasyet sa ua.rah krtakarmaua daivikiin paitrkim youim manusim vatha narakiiu. 15. Lbarniarajasya vacauan miikiir bbavati ya tatab luaiiusyatvani tatal.i prap^a suputrab putrataui vrajC'i lb. Yatbfi yatba kitam karma tani tarn youim srajruuarab tat tathaiva ca bbuSjuno vicaret sarvalokatab. See also Vrhannnyadlya, XXIX, 57 — 61 . 57. Dharmarat paksapatantu na karoti hi be janah \'icarayadhvaui yilyam tad ynsmabbis caritam purti, 58. Daridre'pi ca mnrkbe ca pandite va sriyanvite adhye vSpi ca dhire va samavarti yamah smitab. 59. Citraguptasya tad vakyam srutva te papiuas tada socantah svani karmawi tiisnini tisthanti niscalab. 60. Yamajiiakariuas sarve candadya ativegifcah narakesu ca tan sarvan praksipantyativegitab. 61. Suddhakarmaplialan tf tu bhuktvante papasesatab jnahitalaiioa samprapya bliavauti stUavariidayal.i. OJr BHARATAYAKSA OK INDIA. 539 doctrine carefully recognises three kinds of spheres into which the soul of the deceased enters^ those of Final Beatitude,^*" Heaven, and Hell. In the first sphere Brahman is reached by the Devayana, in the second the ascent to the Moon takes place by the Pitryana ; and the eventual descent from it is performed in the reverse manner. The difference in the conditions between the two stations may be briefly defined as that existing between nirijima and saguiia (see pp. 387 — 90, 411). With Brah- man he remains until the end of the Kalpa, after which he is reborn ; iu Heaven and Hell he passes the prescribed period until his reappearance on earth. As a Sannydsiu is believed to obtain Moksa or Final Beatitude after his death, the otherwise obligatory ten Pindas are not offered after his burial. The difficulties which beset this subject are considerable, not only on account of its nature, but also on account of the obscure language in which it is discussed. I think it there- fore advisable to say a few words iu explanation of an expression which is often used in connexion with this topic. This is the word Aiivdhika, which is in various writings used in different senses. Its first meaning is transport- cthle. In such a sense it already occurs in Eapila's Sutras, when he contends that the body is not necessarily a gross one, for there exists also a transportable one. This is com- posed of three of the five elements that form the living- body (see p. 406) ; they are the last three : tejas light, vdijii, air, and akUsa ether, which rise upwards, while prthivt earth, and dpah water, go downwards. This dtivahika body is strictly reserved for men and is never imparted to other living beings.3°° In the Brahmasutras of Dvai- = *» Compare Sribhagavata, II, 2, 21, 22, and Brhadaranyakopanisad V],2, 2. 3 5 See Eapila-Sutru, Y , 103 : " Na sthiilam iti myama ativahikasyapi vidyamanatvat.'' 540 ON THE OEIGINAL INHABITANTS payana we find the Ativahikas mentioned again in the aphorism " Transportable through their sign " and Saiikara- carya expresses a doubt whether this term applies in the Upanisads to the signs of the Road {mdrgacihna which the spiritual body has to traverse after death) ^ or to the places of enjoyment (jbhogabhiimi) , or to the leaders of the wander- ing spirits {iwtaro ijantfnam).^^^ In the Gltandugya- and Brhadaranyahu-Cfpanisadu it is connected with certain stages, through which the ghost of the deceased has to pass in order to obtain Final Beatitude or Heaven.ssi ^^q ^j^g first the pious or knowing (jnclnin) is led by the northern way, while he who is ouly practising his work (kurmin) reaches the second by the southern road. The deities on this southern path presiding over smoke [dhmiia), night (ratri), the dark fortnight [aparapuksa), the sis southern months [saddahsinUyanarndsah), the sphere of the Maues [pitrluka), and ether (akdsa), lead him on, until the not yet beatified spirit reaches the moon [candramas) where the Gods use him. To Final Beatitude on the other hand the pious are guided under the safe conduct of the genius of the rays of light [arcis), day [ahan), the bright fortnight {apuryamdfia- pahsa), the six northern months [sadudagayanamdsdh) , the year (samvatsara), sun [dditya), moon (candravias) and lightning [vidyut], whence a not-human personage leads him to Brahman. 3 5 ^ See Ynchaspatija, p. 653, about this statement from the Visnudharma : Ativahikasanjno' sau delio bharati Bhargava kevalam tan mannsyajuim nanyesiim praninam kTacit. ^ = ' See B/ii'imosrifra IV, 3, -1 : Ativahikas talliigat. The Commentary of Sahlcarncnrijii remarks about it: " TesveT.arciradisu samsayah kim etani lurirgaoihnanyuta bliogabhiimayo'fha va netiiro gantraam iti." ^^° See Chanddgyopanisad, Y, 10,1 — 4: " Tadya ittham viduh ye cemc' ranye sraddha tapa ityupasate te'rcibani abhisambhavantyarci so bar ahna apuryaraaijapaksam apuryamaijapaksad yau sadudaniieti masamstan (1) masebhyas samvatsaram saiinatsarad adityam adityac caudramasam can- dramaso vidyutam tatpuruso'manayas sa enan brahma gamayatyesa devayanalj pantha iti (2); Atha ya ime gi-ama islipurte dattani ityupasate OF BHARATAVABSA OR INDIA. 541 We see thus a peculiarly devised procession, in whicli one presiding genius leads the spectral body from this stage to the next. Though the Vedic poets had already admitted, as previously mentioned, a division of heaven similar to that of the earth into three spheres, in the highest of which the Manes dwell, these simple conceptions no longer satisfied the imagination of later generations.^^^ Ativahika indicates also the body with which a spirit enters into all the three places, whether he obtains moksa, ascends to heaven,^'''* or is hurled into hell; and, lastly, it denotes a soul sojourning in hell.^^^ dhiimam abliisambhaYanti dhiiraad ratrim ratrer aparapaksam apara- paksad yan saddaksineti masamstan naite samvatsaram abhiprapnuvanti (3) ; Masebhyalj pitrlokam pitrlokad akasam akasac candramasam esa somo rrijataddevanam annam tarn deva bliaksayanti (4)." Continued on p. 551. The expression bhaksayanti does here not mean eat but vse (enjoy) according to Sahkaracarya's Commentary to this place : " Kim tarhyupa- karanamatram devanam bhavanti te stripasubhrtyadivat ; drstaS canna- sabda upakaranesu striyo'nnam pasavo'nnam viso'nnam rajiiam ityadi. With respect to the presiding Deities consult ihidem : Srutyantaradye ca satyam hirauyagarbhakhyam upasate te sarve'arcisam arcirabhimanam devatam abhisambhavanti pratipadyante. Compare with the above given quotation Chdndogyopanisad, IV, 15, 5, and Brhaddranyakopanisad, YI, 2, 15 — 16 ; and see p. 551. The Ativdhikas are not always given in the same order and number ; so are, e.g., now generally twelve dtivahikas mentioned a.s leading on the northern road to Final Beatitude (Mukti). They are: the ray of light, or day, the bright fortnight, the six northern months, the year, the wind, the sun, the moon, lightning, Varuna, ludra and DhStr ; as indio ated in the following sloka : Mukto'rcirdinapurvapaksasadudanmasabdavitatnsumad glauvidyudvaruiiendradhatrmahitasslmantasindhvaplutah. "= See abore, p. 275; Rgveda,Y,eO, 6; Til, 164, 11; Atharvanaveda, XVIII, 2, 48. ^ ^* Comjjare among othersthe Commentaryto Asvalayana's Orhyaautra, IV, 4, 8 : JanuQiatre garte etavatkalam ativahikam sariram asthayahitagnih samskarampratiksate tato'smillokedagdhahsanavatanniskramyadhumeua saha svargam etiti sruyate. 2 = = See Vaijayantl, Lokapaladhyaya, 38 ; Naraka jantavah preta yatya apyativahikiih pretah pareta vetala gandharvSasattvaka grahali. :,i2 ON THE ORiniNAL INHABITANTS The number of the various pits of hell varies. The law- books of Manu and Yajnavalkya mention twenty-one by name, while the Visnupurana and Bhagavatapurana mention twenty-eight. The Garudapurana goes so far as to speak of 84 lacs, or of 8,400,000 pits of helLs-'" Into all these many dungeons sinners are thrown. According to the sin each has committed a particular cell is assigned to him. After he has expiated his sins in hell, he once more joins the living creation, but on doing so his previous Pre- tasarira disappears. The same fate overtakes also the spectral body which has left heaven to undergo rebirth in the world belo\r. Unless the individual is born again as a Dvija or Aryan twiceborn, no Pindas are offered for a Pri'-'ta or Ydtand-srmra which arises at the death of any subsequent rebirfcli. This existence and change of the astral body of a departed creature is a very significant feature, helping us, as it does, to appreciate the peculiar system of the Indian transmigration or SamsUya. It indi- cates an essential point where it is at variance with the Egyptian dogma. As the body of every creature is liable to decomposition, as sonn as the soul has left the body, particular care must be taken to keep the body as intact as possible, and to "» See Manavadha)'i)iainstra, IV, 88—90: S8. Tamisram aiidhatSniisrain maharauravarauravani narakam kalasiitranca mahanarakam eva ca. ^\i. Sanjivanam mahavlcini tapanam sampratapanam sarhhatauca sakakolam kaijmalam pStimrttikam 'JO. LoliasSiiikum rjisaflca panthanam sSlmalim naclitn asipatravanaficaiya lohadarakam eva. oa. Compare Yfii'iimalkija, III, 222 — 224. These two lists do not altogether coincide in the names of the hells. Compare also ]lsnifjnii't'nia, II, 6. 2 — 5; Bhdga>-niapurana, V, 26, 6, 7; Oarudapnrd/i" , II, 4. The subject is likewise treated in ,Mr. FitzEdward Hall's edition of H. H. Wilson's translation of Hio Visnitpv.rnna, Vol. II, pp. 214, 21.5. OP BHARATAVAESA OR INDIA. 543 secure its preservation, it has to be embalmed,3 5 7 because, according to the Egyptian religion, the soul effects its reunion with the body, after it has returned from the sub- terranean regions, previously to its final absorption into Osiris. During its separation from the soul, the body pants for reunion with it and entreats the god of An (Heliopolis) to permit it to do so.s^s i^ India, on the other hand, the preservation of the body was never re- garded as a matter of religious importance. In fact the body by being buried or burnt was delivered over to destruction ; and allowed to resolve into the various elements which composed it. Whether the corpse was buried, or whether it was burnt, the dissolution into its component elements (panoatva) was the main object. After the earthly body had been disposed of, it was deemed necessary to provide the shelterless soul with an artificial raiment, and through the agency of oblations and mantras a counterfeit substitute of the body was produced. In the case of pious sages, who, renouncing the pleasures of life, end their days in deep contemplation, the offering of the Pindas becomes unnecessary, for they enter at once from this world into Final Beatitude or Moksa, and are thus until the end of the Kalpa exempted from the pangs of rebirth. There exists, therefore, from the very outset a great differ- ence between the Egyptian and Indian doctrines, though on many points they show a great deal of resemblance. Ma, the Goddess of Truth, and Hows guide the soul of the deceased to the nether world, where it is laid in the scales and weighed by Anubis, Horos and Thoth, the last marking the result. Led by Horos, he then appenrs in the presence of Osiris, who, attended by his guards and surrounded ^ = ' See Booh of the Dead, chapter 154. The gross body, Ka and soul of the Egyptians have by some been compared with the sthula-, silltsma and kararana- sarira in Sanskrit. ^ '^ * See ihidem, chapter 89. 70 544 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS by seventy-two judges, pronounces tlie final judgment. If the examination takes an unfavourable turn, and ends in a sentence of condemnation, tlie head of the shade is cut off either by Set, Horos, or some demon. If behead- ing is not deemed a sufiicient punishment, the guilty shade is thrown into an ever-flaming fire, which enveloping him burns continually. Awful and wonderfully variegated tor- tures are inflicted on the wicked, whom seventy-five hell-pits of various conditions are ready to receive. The most dread- ful punishment of all is, however, utter annihilation, or the so-called second death.^ss Life is on the contrary the most precious of all gifts, and Ra is therefore called life.3«« On the other hand, those who have escaped conviction do not at once reach the goal of highest bliss. They have to undergo purification by fire, pass through a series of por- tals beset with monsters which bar their progress, and escape dangers that threaten their existence. To over- come these perils and to deceive their enemies, the shades, imitating the example of Osiris, occasionally assume during their stay in these trying regions, which are known as AmeJiti, Teser or Cher-nuter, forms of various animals, such as crocodiles, adders and hawks, a proceeding which may have been mistaken for a migration of the shade into some other body. Yet, as this temporary change in the external appearance of the shade only takes place in the nether- world, and does not imply a rebirth on the surface of the earth, it differs from the transmigration of souls and can- not be taken as identical with it. It is true that the de- ceased appears in a certain picture in the shape of a pig, when escorted on a bark by the two dog-headed apes of Thoth, but as this voyage is subsequent to the judgment passed by Osiris on the dead, the ship conveys him most probably to an 3^9 See ibidem, CIX, 11. "00 See ibidem, CLXI, and elsewhere. OP BHARATAVAESA OE INDIA. 643 infernal place of torture^ and not to the earth to appear there as a pig. The soul of the cleansed shade is on the other hand ultimately reunited with his body^ in order to return to life and to be for ever merged into Osiris. ^ s i While the most ancient Egyptian records do not contain any evidence for the dogma of Transmigration, whether Metempsychosis or MetensomatosiSjS 6 2 prevailing among the Bgyptiaus of old, it may yet be possible that some doctrines embracing it, may at one time or other at a later period have found access into Egypt. At all events we have it on the authority of Herodotos, that the Egyptians not only maintained that Demeter and Dionysos (Isis and Osiris) ruled in the nether- regions, but that the soul of man was also immortal, and that, after the destruction of the body it entered into that of another animal, and, after assuming the forms of all beings that exist on earth, in water and in the air, it took again the shape of man ; such a rotation being completed in the space of three thousand years. ^ ^ ^ Pythagoras — though not named by Herodotos, who intentionally abstained from mentioning any Greek writers as having borrowed this doctrine from the Egyptians but published it as their own — is generally regarded as having imbibed his knowledge on this point during his stay in Egypt. This is possible, even probable, but not certain. The religious preservation of the body by embalment and the annihilation of the sinner by the second death, is in my opinion, prima facie incompatible with the doctrine of transmigration. The fact of the corpse being preserved with the object of '^' Compare The History of Egyptian Religion by Dr. C. P. Thiele, London, 1882, pp. 67 — 73, and Chaldean Magic by Fr. Lenormant, pp. 84 — 86. 3 62 The difference between Metempsychosis and Metensomatosis is that the former term is applied to express the wandei-ing of a soul into other human bodies or the wandering of different souls into one body, while Metensomatosis implies either the confinement of a soul in another natural body, or the migration of a soul into different bodies. . = »» See Herodotos, II, 123. 646 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS securing to the soul^ during its infernal wanderings, its legitimate habitation on earth, precludes the assumption of the existence of a belief in a transmigration of the soul into different living bodies. With respect to the statement of Herodotos, we must bear in mind that the cost of embalming and the ability to secure the permanent protection of the embalmed body require not only very considerable means, but also a powerful influence extending beyond the grave j such as only a few distinguished persons in the whole nation could possess, if we except the king who in ancient Egypt united with his office that of high priest also. In these cir- cumstances it is quite possible that in course of time dis- satisfaction spread in Egypt with a religion which, at the expense of the many poor, favoured the few rich. Though we do not possess any historical records in proof of such a movement, there exist indications which suggest the possi- ble existence of such a commotion, which, if it took place, was probably encouraged by the priests, who were jealous of the royal ascendancy. A complication of this kind would be favourable for the adoption and spreading of a faith, which promised eternal life to every one and opened to the poor and oppressed the prospect of a future life with a change for the better and the assurance of ultimate bliss. I do not believe, however, that the Egyptian religious belief, exercised a direct influence on India. On the other hand it is necessary to refer to Egypt in order to show by a juxtaposition of the systems current in both countries, the material differences which existed between them. ^ 64 If we now return to India, we find that among the ma- jority of non-Indian scholars the opinion prevails, that though the Veda clearly contains the doctrine of a life after death, and admits the immortality of the soul, it does = " * See alove, pp. 283, 284. OF BHAEATAVAESA OR INDIA. 547 nowtere hint at the transmigration of souls. This opinion was nearly forty years ago expressed by Professor Albrecht Weber. Professor Paul Deussen has adhered to it in his system of the Vedanta, and it has lately been again confirmed by Professor Zimmer.^''^ While this view is taken by European Orientalists, I must not conceal the fact that the Brahmanic priests and pandits entirely disavow it. They contend on the contrary that the ideaof transmigration is found in the Rgveda already, and especially in Rgveda X, 16, 3. Indeed the commentary ascribed to Sayaija clearly explains the former verse as referring to transmigration, and he does the same in his commentary to the Taittiri- yarayiyaha.^^^ This being the case, so much is clear, ^"^ See Dr. A. Weber's Legende dea Satapatha Brahmana in the ZeiU schrift der deutschen morgcnldndischen esellschaft, Yol. IX, p. 238 : " In den Liedern des Eik ist nooli keine Spur der Seelenwanderang oder dee Hasses der Einzelexistenz zu finden " ; Das System des Vedanta, von Dr. Paul Deussen, Leipzig, 1883, p. 385 : Diealteste Ansioht, wie sie in den Hymnen des Bigveda herrsoht, kennt noch keine Seelenwanderung " ; and AUindisches Lehen von Heinrich Zinamer, p. 408 : " Von der spatern indis- clien Lehre der Seelenwanderung haben wir jedooh im Veda keine Auden- tung." On the other hand Sir Monier Williams remarks in his Religious Thoughts and Life in India, p. 281 . " It is remarkable that in some passages of the hymns (X, 58, 7 ; 16, 3) there are dim hints of a belief in the pos- sible migration of the spirit of the deceased into plants, trees and streams." '"s Compare Sayana's commentary to Bgveda X, 16, 3 : "He preta te tvadiyam caksur indriyam siiryam gacchatu prapnotu atma pranah vatam bahyam vayum gacchatu api ca tvam api dharmaua sukrtena tatphalam bhoktum dyam ca atra ca sabdovikalpartlie dyulokam va prthivim ca prthivim va gaccha prapnuhi, apo vantariksalokam gaccha prapnuhi yadi tatrantarikse hitam sthapitam te tava karmaphalam osadhisu sarlraili sariravayavailjpratitisthapratitisthati." Sayaiiacarya's commentary to the same verse contained in the TaittiriyaranyaTca VI, 1, 22 is even more explicit : " He preta te tvadiyam cakauli indriyam siiryam gacchatu, atma praaah bahyavayum gacchatu, tvam api dharmana sukrtena tatphalam bhoktum dyulokam bhillokan ca gaccha va jalam gaccha, caksuriidindriyasamarth- yam punar dehagrahanaparyantam tattadadhisthatrdevata tvaya dyulo- kadisu sarire svikrte pascat tvam eva prapsyati. Yatra yasmin loke te tava hitam enkham asti, tatra gatva ojadhisu pravisya taddvara pitrdeha- matrdehau pravisya tatra tatrocitani sarirani svikrtya taih sariraih prati. sthito bhava. 548 ON THE OEIGINAt INHABITANTS that whatever may have been the idea of the Vedic seer on the subject of transmigration, whether he believed in it, or whether his words accidentally favoured an interpretation not intended by him^ but afterwards applied to them, — the indigenous tradition corroborated by the accepted commen- tator, connects the above Vedic verses with the dogma of transmigration, a circumstance which seems either to have been entirely overlooked, or not treated with proper attention. This evidence of Sayana is by no means an unimportant matter, for though tradition may be wrong, it should not without sufficient cause be rejected as false and irrelevant, especially when no positive proofs exist to refute it absolutely. And here I have to mention a peculiar incident. The sage Yajnavalhya in the Brhada- ranyakopanisad is asked the question where is the dead person whose speech enters the fire, whose breath the air, whose eye the sun, whose mind the moon, whose ear the space, whose body the earth, whose self the ether, whose hairs of the body the shrubs, whose hairs of the head the trees, and whose blood and semen the water ':" This pas- sage, though much enlarged, greatly resembles Rgveda X, 16, 3. Professor Paul Deusseu, one of the most learned and thoughtful Sanskritists of the day, is inclined to recognize in this extract the genesis of the doctrine of the migration of the soul, and yet apparently does not apply a similar meaning to the Vedic verse, where the same sentiment is likewise expressed, as Artabhaga had most probably this verse in mind when he asked his question.^ '''^ '0' See Dr. Paiil Deusaen das System des Veddnta, p. 405 : " Zu dieser merkwurdigen Stelle, in der Avir, wre ee scheint, die Genesis der Seelen- wanderungslehre Belfast vor Angen haven." and Brhaddranyakopanisad III, 2, 13; " Yajuavalkyeti hovaoa ; yatrasya purusasya mrtaayagnim vagapyeti vatam pranasoaksnr Tidityam manas candram disah srotram prthivlm sarlram akasam atmausadhlr lomani vanaspatiu kesa apsu lohitaiioa retasca nidhiyate kvayam tada puruso bhavatiti." Compare p. 530. OP BHAEATAVAESA OR INDIA. 549 I am myself in agreement with those who decide against transmigration being originally an article of the Vedic dogma, but I take my stand on another ground, for even if the two Vedic allusions should refer to the doctrine of Metempschychosis, one must not forget that the portion of the Rgveda, in which they are found, does not belong to the most ancient, but to a subsequent period already exposed to foreign influence. So much is at all events certain, that the idea of the peregrination of the soul through various bodies pervades the whole population of India and is expressed in its Lawbooks and Puranas.^^^ Perhaps the earliest quota- tion of transmigration is contained in certain passages of the ChandogyOpanisad and Brhadaranyakopanisad, though the above mentioned tevva Ativahika which occurs in the Kapila- Sutras, may be understood as insinuating it. Brhadaranya- kopanisad, the older, simpler and more concise of the two Upanisads, alludes to it in two places as follows. " That very " Self is Brahman, endowed with knowledge, mind, life, " sight, hearing, earth, water, wind, ether, light and no light, " desire and no desire, anger and no anger, right and wrong, "and everything. If he' is now endowed with this or that, " this means, that according as he acts or behaves, thus he " becomes ; if he works good he becomes good, and if he " works bad, he becomes bad ; he becomes pure by a pure " deed, and bad by a bad one. They also say here, that " man is endowed with desires, meaning, that what he " desires, that he resolves, and what he resolves, that he " does, and according to the deed he does, he gets. About " this is a verse: On whatever object a man's mind is " intent to that he goes together with his deed, and after " he has received the final reward of whatever deed he "does here (in this world), he returns from that world to " this world of action. So far as to him who desires, but 3 8 Compare on this subject among others Manu I, 50, 117 j II, 201 ; XII 39 51, 55—72 ; Adiparvan XC and Visnupumna II, 6, 32, 33, 550 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS " now about him who does not desire ; of him who not desir- " ing, free from desires, has obtained his desires, or desires " the Self, the breath does not pass away, but being Brah- " man, goes to Brahman. ^"^ " Those who thus know this and those who worship in the " forest faith and truth, they enter into the light of the " pyre, from the light to the day, from the day to the "bright fortnight, from the bright fortnight to the six " northern months, from the months to the world of the " Gods, from the world of the Gods to the sun, from the " sun to the sphere of lightning ; and a spiritual personage " having appeared leads these with lightning endowed " spirits to the world of Brahman. In these worlds of " Brahman they live elevated for years ; for them there is " no return. "But those who conquer the worlds by sacrifice, liber- '' ality and penance they enter into the smoke of the pyre, " from the smoke to the night, from the night lO the dark " fortnight, from the dark fortnight to the six southern " months, from the months to the world of the fathers, "from the world of the fathers to the moon, and having " reached the moon, they become food. The Gods feed " there on them, as the sacrificers feed on the king Soma, " as he waxes and wanes. When, however, (the effect of '"" SeeBrhadaramjalcdpanisadlV , 4, 5 — 6 ; Sa vaayam atmabrahmavijna- natnayo manomayali pranamayas catsurmayah, srotramayalj prthivimaya apomayo yayuraaya akasamayas tPjomayo' tejomayah kamamayo' kama- raayalj krodhamayo' troclliamayo dharmamayo'dharmamayali sarvamayas tad yad etad idammayo' doraaya iti yathakari yathacari tatha bhavati sHdhukari sadliur bhavati papakorl papo bhavati punyali piiiiyena karmaaa bhavati papah papena; atho khalvahuh kamamaya evayam purusa iti sa yathakamo bhavati tatkratur bhavati yatkratur bhavati tatkarma karate tad abhisampadyate. (5) Tadesa sloko bhavati ; Tad eva saktalj saha karmaiiaiti liigam mano yatra nisaktam asya ; prapyantam karmanas tasya yat kinceha karotyayani, tasmallokiit punar aityasmai lokaya karmana iti, nu kamayamano' thSkamayatnano yo' kamo niakama apta- kama atmakamo na tasya utkramanti Brahmaiva san Brahmapyeti. (6)" OF BHAEATAVAESA OE INDIA. 551 " tHeir actions) passes away, they re-enter the ether, from " the ether to the air, from the air to rain, from rain to " earth, and having reached the air they become food. In " a tire-like man thej' are again sacrificed, and are thence " born in a fire-like woman. Eising upwards to the worlds, " they thus surely revolve. Those who do not know these "two paths, become worms, birds and serpents. ^ ''" ^'^ See ibidem, VI, 2, 15 — 16; " Te yaevam etad vidur ye oaml aranye sraddham satyam up.Tsate te'rcir abbisambhavantyarciso'har ahna apclr- yamanapaksam apiiryamSiiaiDaksSd yan s.iiimasan udaiii'iaditya eti mase- bhyo devalSkam devalokad adityam iidityad vaidyutam tan vaidyataii piiruso miiuasa etya brahmalokan gamayali te tesu brahmalokesu parali parayato yasauti tesani na pimar avrttili (15). Atha ye yajuena daneua tapasa lokan jayauti te dhiunam abhisambhayanti dhiimad ratrim ratrer apaksiyamanapaksam apaksTyamaijapaksad yan saiimasan daksinaditya eti masebhyah pitrlokam pitrlokac cnudram te candram pr.apyanTiam bhayanti, tamstatra deyS yatha soraam rajanam apyayasyapaksiyasyetye- vam enamstatra bhaksayanti tesam yadii tatparyayaityathemam ovakasam abhinispadyanta akasad yaynm yayor yrstim vrsteb pithiyitn te pithiyfni prapyannam bhayanti, te punali parnsagnauhnyantc" tato yosagiian jayante lokan pratyutthayinas ta eyam cvanuparivartantc'tha ya etau panthanaa na yidus te kitah patanga yad idatn dandasiikani." The Ghanddgyopanisad discusses this subject in two places, in IV, 15, 5 and V, 10, 1 — 8, the first portion of the latter has already been giyen on pp„540, 541. C/ianiJoji/a IV, 15, 5runs as follows : " Atha yadu caivasmin chayyam kuryanti yadi ca narcisam evabhisambhayantyaroiso'har ahna apiiryamanapaksam apilryamapapaksad yiin sacludaiii^eti masamstan masebhyah sarn yatsarani sarnyatsarad adityam udityiic candramasara candramaso yidyntam tatpuruso'manayah sa enan brahma gamayatyesa deyapatho brahniapatha et(~na pratipadyamanii imam manayam avartam nayartante nayartante." I continue the extract from the Chandogyopanisad (see p. 541) asit differs considerably from the Brhadaranyakopanisad : "Tasmin yayat sampatam nsitya' thaitam eyadhyanam punar niyartante yathetam iikasam akasad yayum yaynr bhfitya dhnmo bhayati dhiimo bhiltya' bhram bhayati (5). Abhrambhutya megho bhayati megho bhiitva prayarsati ta iha yrihiyava osadhiyanaspatayas tilamasa iti jayante'to vai khalu durnisprapataram yd yd hyannam atti yd retah siSoati tad bhiiya eya bhayati (6). Tadja iha ramauiyacarana abhyaso ha yat te ramaaiyam ydnira apadyeran brahnia- ydnim ya ksattriyayonim ya yaisyayonim ya' tha ya iha kapilyacarapa abhySso ha yatte kapiiyam yonim Spadyeran svayonim ya sSkarayonim ya 71 552 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS The purport of this passage is quite clear- It gives ex- pression to an idea that the spectral body passes into higher or lower spheres according to the merits of its deeds, and describes the return passage of those who have ascended by the Fitrijana to the blissful abode of the moon : a view which in its outlines, no doubt, was already widely spread among the Indian population before Buddha appeared and preach- ed his doctrine, or else it would not be easy to explain how the belief in transmigration could have so quickly found ad- mission into the minds of the Hindus. It is my opinion that the origin of this belief must be traced to the con- ception of the non-Aryan races who inhabited India in ancient times, and whose descendants still inhabit it. ■' ^ ' candalayonim va (7). Athaitayoh pathor na katarena ca na tan imSni ksudranyasakrd [ivartmibhiltani bhavaDti jayasya mriyasvetyetat tftljam sthanam tenasau loko na sampdryate tasmaj jugupseta." The way leads in the Bihadaranyaka (VI, 2, 15 1 from the northern monthsto the-n-orldof the Gods (fleualo/fa), while in the Chandogya (V, 10, 1) it leads to the year (samvatsara ' . Aboat this difference between devalolta and samvntsara see Sankaracarya's commentary to Brahmasittra IV, 3, 2. According to the Chandogyopanisad the liarmin after leaving heafen becomes respectively ether, air, smoke, mist, clond and rain ; and is reborn as rice, barley, herbs, trees, sesamum or beans, from which state it is very difficult to escape. However, as such plants are eaten, he may obtain rebirth through this process, and, if deserving, be reborn as a Br.ih- man, Ksatriya or Vaisya, while, if unworthy, he will become a dog, a pig, or aeandala. Compare Mahahharata, Adiiiarvan XC already quoted above. = " I disagree with the statement of the late Bishop Caldwell which he makes on p. 5.S1 of the second edition of his excellent Cohiparative Grammar of the Dravidian Langmujes : " Neither amongst the Shamanites, nor amongst the primitive, un-Brahraanised demonolaters of India is there any trace of belief in the metempsychosis." The Shamanites whose name is derired from the Sanskrit iramana, religious mendicant, believe that the soul is only enabled to obtain the body of a, perfect Shamanite after repeated migration through different human bodies. With respect to the primitive Indian demonolaters the remark is far too sweeping, for our knowledge about their religious beliefs is as yet too limited and inaccu- rate to allow us to make such a positive statemeut about the principles of their faith. At all events the Todas, whose ethnological connexion with the Gauda-Dravidians I hope to have conclusively proved (see pp. 180 — 193 OF BHAEATAVAKSA OE INDIA. 653 When speaking of the Sankhya system of Kapila I observed that the admission of Prakrti into his philosophy must have been due to that very same cause ; and it is a most striking coincidence that the term Ativahikais already found in Kapila's Sutras, an expression of such vital impor- tance in the doctrine of transmigration. ^ 7 2 Though it is quite impossible to prove at the present moment what really took place in remote antiquity, I think I am not far from the truth, if I ascribe the Indian doctrine of transmigration to the original inhabitants of Bharatavarsa. If we do this, all becomes easily explainable ; for if the Brahmans adopted this idea from the Gauda-Dravidians. we need not wonder that this doctrine found so easily general acceptance, and is still so popular in this country, and that Buddhism, which promulgated it, spread so quickly among the people. Indeed the main difference between the worship of the an- cient Aryans and that of the non-Aryans may be stated as consisting in the former revering the Forces of Nature, while the latter adored the Manifestations of the Forces of Nature. This distinction explains the higher status which character- ises the Aryan belief when compared with the non-Aryan. It expresses the gulf which separates the Male from the Female Principle, and it explains the superiority in position and 453) believe in transmigration (compare Ool. W. E. JIai'shall's Phreno- logist amongst the Todas, p. 188), and it is not at all necessary to suppose that they derived this dogma from a foreign source. The same applies to the Rdjmahalis (see Ool. Dalton's Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal, \). 2^1). Lieut. Shaw ascribes to the Pahirias {Tuppahs of Mudgeway, Ghurry and Munnuary) a belief in a Supreme Being, in a future state and in trans- migration. The soul of a sinful man migrates either into an animal of the brute creation, or into plants (see Asiatic Researches, IV, pp. 46 and 48). Lieut. Shaw thinks it probable I hat the idea about metempsychosis is borrowed from the Hindus. See also Sir W. W. Hunter's The Annals of Bv/ral Bengal, p. 210, according to which the Santals believe that good men enter into fruit-bearing trees. I could multiply my quotations on this subject, but all statements pro et contra must be taken with reserve, "2 See alove, pp. 401—406. 554 ON THE OKIGINAL INHABITANTS and conception niaintaiued by the Aryan over tlie non- Aryan divinities. It is also manifested by the tendency towards abstractness so fully developed among the so-called Aryan and Semitic racesj in contrast to the predilection towards concreteness so apparent among the non- Aryan tribes ; a fact to which i dre^v attention more than fourteen years ago in Diy (.'lassification of Languages. n. On. Devils. In tile preceding discussion on the Girimadevatas and Aiyauar I had occasion to refer repeatedly to the Devils. The former are regarded as the superiors of the latter, who h;ive to obey their orders. One of the principal duties of the Supreme Spirit or the Great Father and of ]\Iother Earth, i.e.; of Aiyanar and the Graniadovata, consists in- deed in preventing the Devils from hurting and tortui'ing men.3'^ In tact the unbridled malignity of these Demons excited the fear of the people to such a degree, that the religious fervour of the non- Aryan aborigines concentrated itself in a worship for pi-otection against these evil spirits, which eventunJly assumed the garb of Demon-worship or Demonolatry. In this way the adoration of a Supreme Spirit or Male Divinity and the worshiji of the principle of Female Energy, as represented by the Gramadevata, are quite compatible with the existence and prevalence of demonology in this country. The ancient Akkadians had similarly recourse to their chief gods, Ea, the lord of Heaven, and Davkina, the lady of the Earth, in order to obtain from them protection against the wicked demons. These people of hoary antiquity invoked the help of the Spirits of the Heaven and of the Earth against the evil s])irits when in distressed circumstances, for without their "= See nhuvc, p. 1-54. OF BHAKATA.VAKSA OR INDIA. 555 support the supplication was inefficient. I quote as an example of this kind the following incantations : — " The wicked god, the wicked demon, the demon of the desei-t, the demon of the mountain, the demon of the sea, the demon of the marsh, the evil genius, the enormous Uruku, the bad wind by itself, the wicked demon which seizes the body, which disturbs the body — Spirit of the Heavens, conjure it ; Spirit of the Earth, conjure it !" "The demon who seizes man, the demon who seizes man, the Gigim who works evil, the production of a wicked demon ; — Spirit of the Heavens, conjure it ; Spirit of the Earth, conjure it."'''^^ It is a very curious and interesting incident that these evil spirits, the Utuq, Gigim and Mashim, had particular fractions, derived from the sexagesimal system of numera- tion, assigned to them according to the position they occu- pied in the rank of the demoniac company. The fraction indicating the much-feared Maskim was |-2- or -|, while the Gigim were described by |-^ or A, and the Utuq by ^^ or 4- Whole numbers were on the other hand reserved for the Gods. The belief in the mysterious power inherent in numerals is not confined to the ancient Akkadians and Chaldeans : it pervades the Kabbala and is also found in India, where the Gods likewise are represented by numbers ; and this, I deem, the proper place to introduce the following remarks.^ ^ ^ It is not unknown that the method of expressing by numbers the secret powers of divine nature has been ascrib- ed to the philosophical system known as the SdiiMiya which relates to Number. Aphorisms of this kind, are, however not extant in the present Sahkhya. In consequence many learned sages, such as Sankaracarya, have declared, that "* See above, pp. 326, 327 about Ea and Davkina and Chaldean Magic, by Franijois Lenormant, pp. 3 — 11. = ' = See Chaldean Magic, pp. 25—27. 556 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS the sOtras, at present ascribed to Kapila, were not tlie same he originally expounded.^ ^ s If we now take into considera- tion what I have previously said about Kapila, and the foreign source from which his teaching concerning Prakrti was probably derived, and add to this statement the fact that the antiquity and originality of the Chaldean numeral system is acknowledged by all competent scholars, these suppositions gain much ia probability. The ethnological connexion between the original inhabitants of India and those of Chaldea is corroborated by philological and theo- loo-ical evidence, and this further accord in the mysterious use of numerals for the expression of divine secrets, sup- ports the assumption that the teaching of the genuine Kapila was based not on an Aryan, but on a non- Aryan or Turanian foundation. The Chaldean demons were of two kinds. A cosmical char- acter belongs to the most powerful, who subverted by their nefarious proceedings the regular order of nature. A prominent place among these demons is occupied by the seven malevolent Maskim, who ransack heaven and earth, disturb the stars and interfere with their movements, though they themselves live in the bowels of the earth. The generic name of all the inferior Akkadian demons is ^'o Compare on this subject tlie Discoiiraes on the Bhagavntgltn by T. Subba Row, b.a , b.l., p. VI. ^" See Chaldean Afagic, pp. 26,27: " Wo are better acquainted with all that relates to the spirits of an inferior and decidedly malevolent order, the demons properly so called. Their generic names is Utuq, which has passed from the Turanian Akkadian into the Semitic Assyrian. The name 1,7 HO, however, further takes the more limited and special signification of a particular kind of demons. The other species are the Alal or destroyer, called in the Assyrian Alu; the (iigim, in the Assyrian Eliim, the meaning of which is not known ; the Tclal or warrior, in the Assyrian Gallu ; and lastly the -1fa.s7i/)ii or slayer of ambushes; in the Assyrian Knlitn. Asa general rule each class is divided into groups of seven, that most important magical and mysterious number." OP BHAKATAVAESA OR INDIA. 557 The ancient Chaldeans inhabiting under a clear and generally cloudless sky the continuous plains of Mesopo- tamia possessed rare opportunities of watching the stars and their movements. They assigned peculiar divine powers to the most important stars and to certain clusters. Thus originated the worship of the stars : and of the ancient Chaldean religion Sab^ism became an offshoot. That name is derived from the Semitic word zaba, army, host. The Sabseans saw in the stars of the heaven the bodies of those Grods, who occupied an intermediate position between the supreme deity and meuj over whom they exercised a power- ful influence. The planetary gods (Sun, Moon, Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn) were represented by images in their temples and thrice worshipped daily. The Sabaaans practised astrology and the magic arts, and used talismans against evil spirits. They also believed in the transmigration of souls. Harran in Mesopotamia was their centre during the middle ages. Muhammad opposed Sa- bffiism, and the Koran asserts that Abraham left Ur Chas- dim in consequence of the pi'evalence of Sabasism. The Yezidis or worshippers of the Devil sprang from the Sabseans. This sect, which suffered great persecution both from Muhammedans and Christians, have a tradition that they came originally from Bassora. Tbey revere the Devil as Melek Taous, King Peacock, or Melek el Kout, the mighty angel, who, now punished and in disgrace for his i^ebellion, will eventually regain his high position, and who should be revered, because he has at present the power of inflicting evil on mankind, and may afterwards again confer benefits on his worshippers. The connexion between the ancient Chaldeans, Sabaaans and Yezidis is a historical fact ; though it need not be spe- cially mentioned that the religion of the latter embodied in itself portions of various beliefs."'^* I introduce 3'8 Jfinei'e/i a/!.(J ((»■ '•emai?is by Austin Henry Layard, Vol. I, pp. 296- 306. " The Yezidis recognize one Supreme Being ; but, as far I could learn, 558 ON THE OEIGINAL INHABITANTS the tenets of the Yezidis into this discussion in order to prove the development of the Chaldean religion into devil-worship. The belief in demons came after the Babylonian exile into the Hebrew religion and passed from it over into Christianity. they do not offer up any direct prayer or sacrifice to Him . . . The name of the Evil spirit is, however, never mentioned ; and any allusion to it by others so vexes and irritates them, that it is said they have put to death persons who have wantonly outraged their feelings by its use. So far is their dread of oifending the Evil principle carried, that they carefully avoid every expression which may resemble in sound the name of Satan, or the Arabic wurd for 'accursed' . . . When they speak of the Devil, they do so with reverence as Melek Taoun, King Peacock, or Melek el Kout, the mighty angel . . . They hold the Old Testament in great reverence, and believe in the cosmogony of the Genesis, the Deluge, and other events recorded in the Bible. They do not reject the New Testament, nor the Koran ; but consider them always less entitled to their veneration . . They baptize in water, like the Christians ,■ if possible, within seven days after birth. They circumcize at the same age, and in the same manner as the Mohammedans, and reverence the sun, and have many customs in common with the SabEeans . . . They have more in common with the Saba?ans than with any other sect . . . The Yezidis have a tradition that they originally ccme from Busrah, and from the country watered by the lower part of the Euphrates ; and that, after their emigration, they first settled in Syria, and subsequent- ly took possession of the Sinjar hill, and the districts they now inhabit in Kurdistan. This tradition, with the peculiar nature of their tenets and ceremonies, points to a Sabasau or Chaldean origin . . . There is in them a strange mi.xture of 8aba;amsm, Christianity, and Mahommedanism, with a tincture of tho Gnostics and Mauiohasans. Sabteanism, however, appears to be tho prevailing feature ; and it is not improbable that the sect may be a relic of the ancient Cbaldecs, who have, at varioiis times, outwardly adopted the forms and tenets of the ruling peoples, to save themselves from persecution and oppression ; and have gradually, through ignorance, confounded them with their own belief and mode of worship. Such has been the case with a no less remarkable sect, the Saba?aus, or jMendai (the Christians of St. John, as they are commonly called), who still inhabit the banks of the Euphrates and the districts of ancicut Snsiana.'' Like the Yezidis so also do the Dravidian Oi'ao^is acknowledge a Supreme God, as Tharmi or Dliarmesh, the Holy One, who is perfectly pure, but whose beiieviilcnfc dcsiuns are thwarted by malignant spirits. Mortals neglect in conseqiicbc-! Dharmesh and adore the evil spirits. (See Col. Dalton's Ethnology of Dung al, p. 256.) OF BHAEATAVAESA OE INDIA. 559 Among all the kindred Turanian tribes demonology has thus existed since the oldest times, and we find it still flourishing throughout Northern, Central and Southern Asia : in Siberia as well as in Kamtchatka, Tartary, Mongo- lia up to the confines of China, in the Himalayan region as well as in the whole Indian Peninsula situated on its southern side. It is found in fact all over India, though it prevails particularly in certain districts, such as Nagpore, Guzerat, Kanara, Malabar, Tinnovelly and Travancore.^''^ It is also spread among the inhabitants of the adjacent island of Ceylon. ^^^ In Southern India these devils are commonly called Bhutas, Pisacas or Peys, the latter word being their name in Tamil.88 1 Some Hindus contend that the devils were sent into the world to punish great sinners for their bad deeds by torturing them in this life and after death. Others say that the devils were originally created good, but became bad, and committed such atrocious crimes that they were in consequence cursed and transformed into devils. Their number is always increasing as all join them who die suddenly or meet a violent death, either at their ' ' ' See tlie essays of the late Bishop Caldwell on " The Shanars of Tinnevelly," published by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, 1844, and on the " Ancient Religion of the Dravidians," VII Appendix, pp. 579 — 597 of his second edition of the Dravidian or South-Indian Family of Languages ; the Bhut Nibandh, an essay, descriptive of the demonology and other popular superstitions of Guzerat by Dalpatram Daya, translated by Alexander Kinloch Forbes, Bombay (after 1849) ; The Land of Charity by the Rev. Samuel Mateer, London, (1871), pp. 189— 226; The Belief in the Bhutas, Devil and Qhosl worship in Western India by Mr. M. J. Walhouse, in Vol. T (1876), pp. 408 — 423 of the Journal of the Anthropological Institute ; etc. "° About Cej\on consult TaMun Nattannawa, a Cingalese poem, de- scriptive of the Ceylon system of demonology, translated by John Callaway, late Missionary in Ceylon, London, 1829. "^ The derivation of the Tamil Pei/ is unknown. Its original meaning is evil, had ; and it is in this sense also applied to wild or obnoxious plants. 72 560 ON THE OEiaiNAL INHABITANTS own hands or otherwise.^ss Their appearance is horrible; they are represented as quite blacky with abominable faces and distorted and emaciated figures. In fact they were so ugly that they took fright at their own hideousness, and ran away when they saw their own images ; this was at all events the opinion of the ancient Chaldeans.^^^ The chief Ceylonese devil is the Great Black God, the son of the queen Karandoo Bana. He walks and plays in the midst of the Seven Seas ; the people who behold him get sick. The Black Female Devil dwells under the rocks and stones of ' " According to the Bhut Nibandh by Dalpatram Day a, p. 7, the follow- ingpersons become Devils, orBhiltas: "If a man at tlie time of death has his affections excessively fixed on u, son, or n wife, or a house, so that on account of the tenacity of that affection his life does not readily part from his body but quits it after a violent struggle, he, vi-hen he dies, becomes a Bhut. The man who dies fighting with his face to his enemy goes to Swarg, and he who in a cowardly manner is slain with his hack turned to the foe, departs to Narak. In either case, if at the time of death he has been very solicitous about his property, or any thing else, he becomes a Bhut. He who falls by hia own hand, or by poison, or commits any other kind of suicide, becomes a Bhut. He who dies of the bite of a snake, is struck by lightning or drowned, or crushed by the fall of earth, etc., or burned — or when in any other case his death is sudden, becomes a Bhut. He who dies on his bed or in an upper room, or who is defiled after death by the touch of a Sudra, or other defilement, is also a Bhut." ""' See Chaldean Magic, pp. 50—53: "The Chaldeans represented the demons under such hideous forms that they believed that it was sufficient for them to be shown their own image, to cause them to flee away alarmed. The museum of the Louvre has lately bought a very curious bronze statu, ette of Assyrian workmanship. It is the figure of a horrible demon in an upright position with the body of a dog, the feet of an eagle, the claws of a lion, the tails of a scorpion, the head of a skeleton but half decayed, and adorned with goat's horns, and the eye still remaining, and lastly four great expanded wings. This figure was originally suspended by a ring behind the head. On the back there is an Akkadian inscription, which informs us that this hideous creature was the demon of the South- west wind, and by placing this image at the door of the window, its fatal influence might be averted . . . The monstrous forms thus assigned to the demons, which were composed of parts borrowed from the most differ- ent animals, were also, according to Berosus, characteristic features of the first rudimentary beings born in the darkness of chaos, before Bel-Marduk the demiurgus began hia work." OP BHAEATAVAEsA OK INDIA. 561 tlte Black Sea, and makes children ill. ^ « * Devils vary muchj however, in outward appearance. They reside generally, as mentioned in the incantation above, in deserts, on moun- tain peaks, in malarious marshes and in the sea. They prefer to dwell, according to the opinion of the Natives of India, on trees which are not used for sacrificial purposes, especially on palmyra-, umbrella-, or tamarind-trees ; some haunt houses, or hover about in the air; some wander restlessly from one place to another, preferring as their homes, burial and burning grounds, gibbets or places of execution.3 8 5 They are always hungry and thirsty. The throats of some are said to be as thin as the eye of a needle, but yet they can swallow at once twelve buckets of water, and as their food they gobble all kinds of dirt and refuse. They delight ia perpetrating mischievous and malignant deeds. Their name is legion. The passions which lead men into temptation and afterwards to perdition are per- sonified as Devils, in the form of bad habits and diseases which are peculiar to them and from which they suffer. ^ 8 o ""■ See Takhun Nattannaiod, pp. 3, 4. The person who represents the Black Devil ia described as follows : " 16. He received permission from sixteen hundred queens ; he has a black turban on his head ; he has four arms ; a sword in one hand, and a shield in the other. A mark was fasten- ed to his head in order to make sixteen faces, like those of a tiger and deer. 17. Having held a great elephant with his two hands and head, he sucked its blood with his mouth, and covered the whole body with the entrails. He is dressed in black habitments, having ii picture of the black devil for a vestment, and rides on a bullock. 18. His whole body is black, and he rides on a black bullock. The breast also is black, and a demon is in it. In his left hand is a pool of blood and white. food. May the sicknesses caused by the Black Prince be taken away this day." The female figure of the planets has a monkey's face (p, 7), and other evil spirits are differently described. '8' See Chaldean Magic, py- 30, 31 1'^" In another [place it is said that the Utuq inhabits the desert, the Mas dwells on the heights, the Oigim wanders in the desert, the Telal steals into towns." Compare Takkun Nattannawd, pp. 2, 3, 6, 8 and 14. 2'° Ziegenbalg quotes on pp. 183 — 186 about eighty such Devils, and Dr. Graul in his Reise nach Ost-Indien, IV, p. 333, states that he possesaes 562 ON THE OEIGINAL INHABITANTS According to popular superstition the demons and the mischief worked by them can only be removed by the use of multifarious incantations and by sacrifices, a fact already asserted by Diodorus Siculus when speaking of the Chaldean magi.^s^ The Chaldeans were indeed famous for their knowledge of the magic arts. Assarbanipal, king of Assyria, the Sardanapal of the Greek, became such a list of 123 Devils and 40 Bhutas, and that he was told that the number of the latter amounted to 721. The late Eev. Mr. Wanner, of the Basel Mission, communicated to me a list of the Bhiitas worshipped in South Kanara, which I have arranged in alphabetical order. The male Bhiitas are the following : Babbariye (slave who became a Muhammedan and did all kinds of mischief). Darn (slanderer), Gimde, Gulige (of whom are varieties, the Antargulige or air-haunting G., Carikaragulige, Kunyagulige, and Rajandagulige), Gurumarle (fool of a guru), Jarandaye (Bhiita who sits on horseback), JumSdibante (servant of Jumadi), Kalkude (Bhuta with an umbrella, the stone-mason of the Gautama monument at Karkal), Kalrutti (Bhuta of Kalkude and Orte), Kanberlu (demons of former slaves), Kantanutrijumadibante (servant of K.), Kilu (base), Ketrale (gluttonous), Kinnibagge (instigator, who goes a little bent), Kodadabbu (demon of Pariahs), Kodamanataye (who rides on a horse), Eoragataniye (Koraga born on a Sunday), Kukkendaye (who sits on a Mango tree), Kulataye (family or tank-bhiita), Kundayc (humble), Kurupergacle (the little master), Km-iyaddaye (who plays with boils ?), Mallabagge (who is much bent and makes himself invisible), Meisaiulaye (who rides on an ox), Mereru (demons of former slaves), Mudadaye (the eastern), Nalkeitaye (four-handed), Naudigone (blood-sucker), Paiijadaye l,who lives in Panja), Paiijidaye (who keeps pigs), Panjurli (who rides on a pig), Kuppepanjurli (heap of P.), Pafijurlibante (servant of P.), Pattoridaye (prattler), Posa (or Jlarlajumadi), Puiiic (cock), Devupufije, Lakkarasupunje, (cock of Lakka Eaja), Nai'ikolye (the fettered), and Sonne (winking Bhiita). Of the female Bhiitas I may mention : Abbage and Darage (two twin sisters who also died at the same time), Beikaddi (uncombed), Javuma- dimalu (virgin), Jikkini (wife %\ho troubles her husband after death), Jumadi (Kantanutrijumadi or Kanterijamadi, Malejumadi, Marlejumadi or (foolish J., Saralajumadi), Korapolu (carrion eateri, Korati (Holeya woman), Madakorati, (Holeya-woman on the roof), Kuiijaladdi (forest tramp), Mayandalu(iuvisiblemaking),Mayelu,Pil-camujjdi(Tiger-camundi), Pottelu (dumb), Subbi (who shows herself), Taddyadajji (grandmother who sits on the stairs), Tanimaniga (llolcya-woman), Tappedi and Tukatteri (fiery Katteri). »" See Diodorus Siculus, II, 20. OF BHABATAVAESA OE INDIA, 563 an enthusiastic student of antiquarianj and more especially of theosophicalj lore^ that in order to spread and promote useful knowledge he opened to the public his large library of clay tablets and papyrus rolls which he had deposited in the temple of Nebo at Nineveh. He also acquired, with great pains, from all quarters of his vast empire, rare and important works on theogony and cosmology, and enter- taiaed a great number of writers and copyists to recopy important but fading inscriptions and to compile huge encyclopedias. Among the collections thus made, not the least important are the tablets which contain the formulas of conjuration and incantation. They were arranged in three parts, the first contained the hymns to Gods ; the second, incantations for curing diseases ; and the third imprecations to drive away wicked demons and spirits. I need not mention that only fragments of this interesting collection have been preserved. To the chanting of these imprecations supernatural power was ascribed, a power which perhaps in its mode of operation, resembled the more modern display of mes- merism and hypnotism. Specially trained experts were employed at Chaldeafor this purpose, who corresponded to the classes of professionals referred to by Daniel.^^^ The evil spirit which entered a person was in ancient Chaldea exorcised by prescribed prayers. The manner in which thi^ was done is described in the following incanta- tion which was used against the Mashim, one of the most terrible class of evil spirits : '°' ^ee Daniel II, 2 ; Vayyomer hammeleoh liqro laljarfcuimnini vela- assaphfm velamchasphrm velaclichasdim lebaggid lammelech halomothav ; and ibidem, T, 11. The verses are rendered in the English (Oxford) translation of the Bible as follows : Then the king commanded to call the magicians, and the enchanters, and the sorcerers, and the Chaldeans, for to tell the king his dreams (II. 2) . . And the king, thy father made him master of the magicians, enohanterB, Chaldeans and soothsayers (V, 11), 564 ON THE OEIGiNAL INHABITANTS " They are seven ! They are seven ! In the depths of the " ocean, they are seven ! In the brilliancy of the ocean they " are seven ! They proceed from the ocean depths, from the " hidden retreat. They are neither male nor female, those " which stretch themselves out like chains. They have no " spouse, they do not produce children, they are strangers " to benevolence, they listen neither to prayers nor wishes. "Vermin come forth from the mountain, enemies of the god " Hea, they are the agents of the vengeance of the gods, "■ raising up difficulties, obtaining power by violence- The " enemies ! They are seven ! They are seven ! The enemies ! " are twice seven. Spirit of the heavens, may they be con- " jured ! Spirit of the earth may they be conjured !"3 8 9 The evil demons were turned away from places, by hanging their images on doors or windows.^so Different sorts of talismans were used. Some acted like incantations to prevent demons from entering into the house, others were fastened to the furniture or to garments, to ensure safety against diseases, demons, and misfortunes. They were made of different material, such as cloth or stone.^^^ All diseases were ascribed to demoniac agency and in- cantations were uttered to counteract the evil and to restore health to the sufferer. We read thus : " Disease of the " bowels, the disease of the heart, the palpitation of the "diseased heart, disease of the vision, disease of the head, '°° See ibidem, p. 10. '"" See ibidem, p. 52. ^ ° '■ See ibidem, pp. 46, 47. On page 8 Mr. Lenonnant gives a description of a talisman : Two double bands of white cloth upon the bed on the platform as a talisman if he binds on the (right) hand, two double bands of black cloth if he binds on the left hand, the bad demon, the wicked Alal, the wicked Gigiin, the bad Telal, the wicked god, the wicked Maslcim, the phantom, the spectre, the vampyre, incubus, succubus, nightmare, wicked sorcery, the philter, liquid-poison, that which gives pain, that which liurts, that which is evil, their head tipon his head, their foot upon their foot, they never seize him, they will never return. Spirit of the heavens, conjure it ! Spirit of the earth, conjure it ! OP BHAEATAVARSA OE INDIA. 565 " malignant dysentery, tlie tumour which swells, ulceration "of the veins, micturition which wastes, cruel agony which "never ceases, nightmare : Spirit of the heavens conjure it ! " Spirit of the earth conjure it \" " Painful fever, violent fever, the fever which never leaves " man, unremitting fever, the lingering fever, malignant "fever : Spirit of the heavens, conjure it ! Spirit of the " earth, conjure it \" "Let the disease of his head depart. May the disease " of his head be dissipated like nocturnal dew. May he "be cured by the command of Hea ! May Davkina cure "him!"3 9 2 All calamities which befall sufferingmankind, whether they appear as war, fire, flood, drought or epidemic disease, are in India and in the countries in its vicinity ascribed to the evil demons, as was done in ancient Chaldea. In fact, all kinds of maladies bat especially those which nttack men suddenly and startle by their frightful aspect, such as cramps, convulsions, epileptic and other fits, are by devil- worshippers imputed to the mischievous agency of evil spirits. In order to cure the patient, supplications must be made directly to the harassing demon, or the aid of a tutelary deity must be invoked, in India the aid of Aiyanar or the Gramadevata is sought, just as the ancient Akkadians called upon the Spirit of Heaven and tho Spirit oF Earth for protection. In Ceylon, where demon-worship prevails, the Great Black God seizes men and frightens them so that they fall sick with burningcolic and inflammation of thebowels, while the demon Maha Sohon inflicts chin-cough, leanness of the body, thirst, itching of the body, windy complaints, dropsy, weakness, consumption and madness. ^as For the relief of the sick '^^ See ibidem, pp. 4, 5, 22. "' See Tahkun Nattmmavin, Tp-p. 1,2, 7^^3. The devil Oddy gives thus swelling, fever, head-aolie, inflammation of the bowels, phlegm, colic, con- Bumption, asthma, etc. 566 ON THE OEIGINAL INHABITANTS no doctor, but conjurors and exorcists are called in. The famous Venetian traveller, Marco Polo, when visiting south- western China, witnessed in the province Yunnan the pro- ceedings of such devil-conjurors, who professed to heal the sick by incantations. His graphic and accurate description which is well worthy of being quoted, is given below. ^^^ "' See The Booh of Sir Marco Polo, hy Col. Henry Tule, c.B., Vol. II, pp. 53—55. " Let me tell you that in all those three provinces that I have been speaking of, to-wit Carajau, Voclian, and Yaohi, there is never a leech. But when any one is ill they send for the Devil-conjurors who are the keepers of their idols. When these are come the sick man tells what ails him, and then the conjurors incontinently begin playing on their in- struments and singing and dancing ; and the conjurors dance to such a pitch that at least one of tliem will fall to the ground lifeless, like a dead man. And then the devil entereth into his body. And when his comrades see him in this plight they begin to put questions to him about the sick man's ailments. And he will reply : ' Such or such a spirit hath been meddling with the man, for that he hath angered the spirit and done it some despite.' Then they say : ' We pray thee to pardon him, and to take of his blood or of his goods what thou wilt in consideration of thus restoring him to health.' And when they have so prayed, the malignant spirit that is in the body of the prostrate man will (mayhap) answer : ' The sick man hath also done great despite unto such other spirit, and that one is so ill-disposed that it will not pardon him on any account ;' — this at least is the answer they get if the patient be likely to die. But if he is to get better the answer will be that they are to bring two sheep, or may be three ; and to brew ten or twelve jars of drink, very costly and abundantly spiced. Moreover it will be announced that the sheep must be all black-faced, or of some other ])articular colour as it may happen ; and then all those things are to be offered in sacrifice to such and such a spirit whose name is given. And they are to bring so many conjurors, and so many ladies, and the business is to be done with a great singing of lauds, and with many lights and store of good perfumes. That is the sort of answer they get if the patient is to get well. And then the kinsfolk of the eick man go and procure all that has been commanded, and do as has been bidden, and the conjuror who had uttered all that gets on his legs again. So they fetch the sheep of the colour prescribed, and slaughter them, and sprinkle the blood over such places as have been enjoined, in honour and propitiation of the spirit. And the conjurors come, and the ladies, in the number that was ordered, and when all are assembled and everything ia ready, they begin to dance and play and sing in honour of the spirit. OF BHAEATAVAESA OE INDIA. 567 These men endeavour by their incantations to expel the devil from the person, in whom he at present abides. Every person, who thinks himself competent, may act the part of an exorcist. The proceedings begin with the usual invoca- tions, and when the presence of the devil has been estab- lished by the mad antics of the possessed person, the exorcist begins his proceedings by requesting the devil to leave his present quarters, without giving further trouble, and to discontinue haunting the patient. When, as is to be expected, no notice is taken of this demand, recourse is taken to more forcible means, and the devil iu the person who gives shelter to him, is severely beaten and kicked. Eventually the devil submits, and is then asked to give his name, the place whence he came, and the reason for visiting and troubling the person into whose body he entered. After replying to these questions he leaves the place and is then often regaled with a sumptuous repast, in order to pacify him and to cover with marks of respect his undignified retreat. Such sacrifices, and the ceremonies observed at them, are with slight differences throughout the same, although the taste of different demons very often does vary, some preferring a goat, while others have a And they take flesh-broth, and drink, and ligu-aloes, and a great number of lights, and go about hither and thither, scattering the broth and the drink and the meat also. And when they have done this for a while, again shall one of the conjurors fall flat and wallow there foaming at the mouth, and then the others will ask if he have yet pardoned the sick man p And sometimes he shall answer yes ! and sometimes he shall answer no ! And if the answer be no, they shall be told that something or other has to be done all over again, and then ho shall be pardoned; so this they do. And when all that the spirit has commanded has been done with great ceremony, then it will be announced that the man is pardoned and shall be speedily cured. So when they at length receive such a reply, they an- nounce that it is all made up with the^spirit, and that he is propitiated, and they fall to eating and di'inking with great joy and mirth, and he who had been lying lifeless on the ground gets up and takes his share. So when they have all eaten and drunken, every man departs home. And presently the sick man gets sound and well." 73 568 ON THE OKIGINAL INHABITANTS greater liking for a cock, a pig or some other animal. There exists^ however, with respect to intoxicating liquor a great agreement of opinion as to its being acceptable. ^ ^ ^ I have already alluded to the dances which form a prominent feature of demon-worship. Such dances are of common occurrence among the Shanars in Tinnevelly; and in Ceylon the dancers, who perform, appear to put on hide- ous masks differing according to the external appear- ance of the demon represented,^ 9 The principal part at such an occasion is played by the chief or one of the leading men of the village, occasionally also by some roan or woman who is moved by the spirit. The person, who enacts the part of the demon appears in peculiarly monstrous garments and decorations, resembling as nearly as possible the demon whom he represents. As the dance is accompanied by music, it may be mentioned that one of the most prominent musical instruments, besides tom-toms, horns, and clarionets is an enormous bow, which is placed over an empty brass- pot. On its wooden frame are tied rows of bells, and to it are tightly fastened a number of strings. By striking the latter a shrill sound is produced which is accom- panied by the tinkling bells and the vibrations from the brass-pot, which is struck with the hand. When all things are ready, the musicians begin to play a slow and quiet tune on their insti'uments, while some one beats time with his hands. At this moment the devil-daucer appears and commences to move about slowly. By de- grees the music becomes quicker and shriller, and with it the performer getting more excited, whirls round in a frenzy, and nourishes his staif covered with bells, until » = '= Bead aiove, p. 488. = "» See Bishop CaldweH'e Tinnevelly SlmiKirs and his essay on the Ancient Religimi of the Di-«i'icl(aiis, quoted aljuve on pji. 585, .5S6. Compare also Yakkun Natlnnnawa, p. 3, and the Pmclices of o Oapua, ibidem pp. 16—21. OF BHAEATAVAESA OR INDIA. 569 he has worked himself to such a state of excitement, that he loses all control over his movements, and the demon appears to have taken possession of him. When he has arrived at such a condition the people worship him as a deity, and the bystanders ask him questions on all subjects about which they desire to get information, to which question they obtain somehow obscure and oracular answers. These devil dances are generally performed at night.3 9 7 ^°' In the Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal by Colonel Edward Tinte Dalton, O.S.I., on pp. 232, 233 is described a similar dance of the Muasia, which was often witnessed by Captain Samnells : "The Baiga is always the medium of communication, but he assembles the people to aid him in the invocation. Musical instruments are produced, dancing com- mences, and the invocation to the spirit is chanted until one or more of the performers manifest possession by wild rolling of the eyes and involun- tary spasmodic actions of the muscles. . . . The affection appears con- tagious, and old women and others who have not been dancing become in- fluenced by it in a manner that is horrible to contemplate. . . . The affection, says Captain Samuells, comes on like a fit of ague, lasting sometimes for a quarter of an hour, the patient or possessed person writhing and trembling with intense violence, especially at the commencement of the paroxsym. Then he is seen to spring from the ground into the air, and a succession of leaps follow, all executed as though he were shot at by unseen agency. During this stage of the seizure he is supposed to be quite unconscious, and rolls into the fire, if there be one, or under the feet of the dancers without sustaining injury from the heat or the pressure. This lasts for a tew minutes only, and is followed by the spasmodic stage. With hands and knees on the ground and hair loosened, the body is convulsed, and the head shakes violently, whilst from the mouth issues a hissing or gurgling noise. The patient next evincing an inclination to stand on his legs, the bystanders assist him and place a stick in his hand, with the aid of which he hops about, the spasmodic action of the body still continuing and the head performing by jerks a violently fatiguing circular movement. This may go on for hours, though Captain Samuells says that no one in his senses could continue such exertion for many minutes. When the Baiga is appealed to, to cast out the spirit, he must first ascertain whether it is Gansam himself or one of his familiars that has possessed the victim. If it be the great Gansam, the Baiga implores him to desist, meanwhile gently anointing the victim with butter ; and if the treatment is success- ful, the patient gradually and naturally subsides into a state of repose from which he rises into consciousness, and restored to his normal state, feels no fatigue or other ill-effects from the attack," 570 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS Malabar and Kanara are likewise wellknown centres of the devil-worship. Mr. M.J. PFaZAowse gives an interesting account of a devil dance in a village in Kanara : — " The festival always takes place at night, and about 9 o'clock all the villagers assemble in their best attire, the women wearing all their orna- ments, and their heads, as well as often the men's, thickly garlanded with flowers. Tom-toms and drums are beaten, and the Pujari, or priest, takes the Bhiita-sword and bell in his hands, and whirls round and round, imi- tating the supposed mien and gestures of the demon. But he does not aspire to full possession, which in aboriginal rites like these is only given to a representative of the aboriginal tribes, now the lowest castes. A Dher, one of the islavc caste, at other times regarded with contempt, but now advanced to the foremost post, comes forward naked, save a waist-band, and with all his head and body grotesquely and frightfully besmeared with white, yellow and red paint. Over his head, and tied to his back, there is a sort of an arch, termed Ani, made of green cocoa-tree leaves, with their ends radiating out- For some time he paces np and down, within a ring formed by the crowd, flinging about his arms, gesticulating wildly, leaping, and shaking his body furiously. Meanwhile a dozen or more tom-toms and drums are beaten incessantly and stnunlngly, with a continually increasing din ; and the Dher presently breaks into a maniac dance, capering, bounding, and spinnini;- vehemently, whilst the instruments redouble their noise, the power of the Bhiita being estimated by the fury and persistence with which the Dher dances. The multitude around joins in raising a long, monotonous, howling cry, with a peculiar vibration. At length the Dher stops, he is full of the demon, and stands fixed and rigid, with staring eyes. Presently he speaks, or rather the demon speaks from him, in loud, hoarse, commanding tones, wholly unlike his own, or indeed any natural voice. He addresses the headman of the village first, and then the principal inhabitants in due order, for any neglect of etiquette on this point by the Bhiita would infallibly give rise to great resentment. After thus speaking to the principal villagers and asking whether all the people are present, the possessed Dher goes on to say that the Bhiita is pleased with the per- formance of the ceremony, and exhorts all the people to behave justly and charitably to one another. A'arious disputes and litigated matters, especially when evidence and ordinary means of adjustment fail, are then brought forward and submitted to the decision of the Bhiita, and his award, pronounced through the DhFr, is geaerally, though not always, submitted to. After this the demon desires to have food, and the Dher eats fried rice and drinks the milk of young cocoanuts j or, if the demon he repre- sents be one of low degree, he cats animal food and drinks arrack. He then distributes areoa flowers and pieces of cocoanut to all assembled in due order of precedence, and the Bhiita passes away from him, he loses his commanding mien and tones, and relajises into the servile drudge."' °* »" See Journal of the Anthropological Institute, Vol. V, pp. 413, 414, OF BHAEATAVAESA OK INDIA. 571 Among the Wagries, Bhils and other aboriginal tribes in the Dekhan and Guzerat the same customs prevail ; the principal demons there revered are named Khodiyal^ Meladij Senabi, Barochi, Totabi, Butiya, Sikotar, Kesurbai, Vantrij the Khapar Yoginis^ the Zambdis and Vissoti. The first six of these are demons and the last six are de- monesses. Vissoti is said to occupy a superior position among these demons, and not to be altogether bad-natu red. Some of the abovementioned devils, like the Senabi, do not enter into bodies, but are invoked to drive away the devils who have taken possession of men.3 9 9 ^ ° ^ I obtained this information from a native gentleman of Ahmedabad. Mount Girnar near Junagar is the principal seat of Khodiyal, who is wor- shipped thronghout Guzerat by offerings, consisting respectively of 5i seers of Labshi (wheat flour mixed with jaggery and boiled in water), Ij seer of jaggery, J seer of sugar, a goat and a bottle or more of liquor. Sikotar is the wandering ghost of an impious woman who enters the bodies of men and is driven out by a Bhuva or devil-priest. She is also at times revered as the goddess of the sea, who restores ships which have been wrecked at sea, and stories are told to this eifect. The Yoginls are of three kinds, PwZ-(flower), La!-(red) and Kesur-(hair) Toginis. They are invoked when epidemics, especially cholera, rage in the country. With their hair hanging over their shoulders, their faces painted with red colour, the Bhuvas assemble at a prominent Yoginl-temple, and after having partaken of a liberal supply of intoxicating liquor, jump about, pretending that the YoginI has entered them, and that they speak in her name. At first the Pulyogini appears alone, complaining about the neglect she and her sisters have suffered threatening the arrival of her sisters Lalyogini and Kesuryogini, if she is not properly appeased now. The people made then in their homes the requested sacrifices consisting of a goat, rice, ghee and liquor, and in the evening Pulyogini is in a small carriage, resembling a children's toy, taken with tomtom beating out of the town, and in the dead of night drives to the limits of the neighbouring village, where the chief Bhuva leaves her without looking backwards. The inhabitants of the next village when they find the carriage on the next morning are fright- ened by the arrival of Pulyogini and send her with similar ceremonies to another village. The Zamhdis are the ghosts of bad women and are distinguished as Pul, Eambhii, Dipa, Dharma, Juhu and Dhunba-Zambdis. Diikini and Chudel are included in this group. These Zambdis appear generally in different shapes deluding benighted travellers on their way. I give these details about the Guzerati deities with the intimation that I have not been able to verify them. 572 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS The Pisacas are in South India attended by peculiar demo- niac servants^ who are popularly known as Bhiitas. They are small, but stout and of red colour. Pigtails surround their heads, their faces are horrible and lion fangs protrude from their mouths. As they are created for the special purpose of being servants, they do not mind doing the lowest and most menial services, and are quite satisfied with their position, which cannot be said of the Pisacas. The Bhutas are generally employed as gatekeepers of their masters, watching those who enter and go away, or fetching or carrying off somebody.* ° ° In the Persian plays which are often performed in India, black Devils or Pisacas and red Bhutas appear and serve in the court of Indra. The temples which are dedicated to the worship of the devils present generally a very mean appearance, though some are of considerable size. The majority of these places are constructed of mud, without stone or brick, in a pyra- midal form, covered with white-wash and streaks of red oclire, a stone or a small heap of earth serving as an altar. Occasionally a low square groundwork of stones or bricks terminates in a pyramid or obelisk, the angles of the pyramid generally corresponding with the cardinal points. These pyramidal obelisks are according to the late Bishop Galdwell a distinguishing characteristic of devil worship.* '^ ^ "o See Zierienhahj, pp. 186 and 187. ■""■ Oompare Bishop Caldwell's Tinnevelly Shannrs : "The places in which the demons are worshipped are commonly termed Pe-coUs, or devil temples. A heap of earth raised into a pyramidical shape and adorned with streaks of white-wash, sometimes alternating with red ochre, con- stitutes in the majority of cases, both the temple, and the demon's image, and a smaller heap in front of the temple with a flat surface forms the altar. The dcYil-pyramid is sometimes built of brick and stuccoed over ; and when thus built of coherent materials it rises into something of the shape of an obelisk. So far as I have seen, the angles of the pyramid are made to correspond with the cardinal points. Its height rarely exceeds eight feet and is generally leas than five. This pyramidal obelisk ia a distin- gaiahing characteristic of devil-worship." OF BHAEATATAESA OK INDIA. 573 According to the Rev. S. Mateer a small pyramidal erec- tion or obelisk oi' four or five feet in beight stands in front of a devil temple, or even by itself. "^ " ^ These obelisk shrines represent, no doubt, a very ancient style of architecture. It is here worth mentioning that of the two kinds of temples which are found among the Todas, the Boa [Boath) which is regarded as the older form of building and of which there are only four left on the hills, is such a conical structure looking from a distance exactly like a church- steeple. These conical shrines are surrounded by a circular wall.4 3 ■'"^ See Mateer's Land of Charity, p. 213: " Pe coils, or devil temples, are very numerous throughout the country. They bear no resemblance whatever to the Brahmanical idol temples, being in general mere sheds, a few yards in length, open at one end, and mostly quite empty. Indeed, images are no essential element in demonworship. In front of the devil- temple, or sometimes without any covered edifice, there stands a small pyramidal erection or obelisk four or five feet in height, generally built of brick and stuccoed which is always associated with this worship and takes the place of an image ; but it is impossible to ascertain the origin or meaning of this symbol." Mr. M. J. Walhouse says loco citato, p. 412: "The general buildings dedicated to these demons are called Bhiltastans, and when dedicated to one of the superior, or very popular, Bhiitas, sometimes of considerable size ; but far more commonly a small plain structure, four or five yards deep, by two or three wide, with a door at one end, covered by a. portico supported on two pillars, with a, thatched roof, and windowless. In front of it there are usually three cr four T-shaped pillars, the use of which is not clear. They are said to denote that the building is - a Bhiitastan, and flowers are placed, and cocoannts broken on them at ceremonies. Inside the Bhutastan there is usually a number of images roughly made in brass in human shape, or resembling animals, such as pigs, tigers, fowls, etc. These are brought out and worshipped as symbols of the Bhiitas on various ceremonial occasions. The Bhiitas themselves are usually represented by mere rough stones." *•" See above, p. 186. The priest in charge of a Boa is a Vorshal or sacrifice man, who belongs to the second class of priests. Some scholars doubt, whether the Boas, though now appropriated by the Todas were erected by them. See Col. Marshall's A Phrenologist amongst the Todas, pp. 168, 169 and Mr. Breeks' Account of the Nilagiris, pp. 14, 15. 574 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS Prom the foregoing exposition I may now be permitted to deduce a few conclusions. The simple and poetic worship paid in the Vedic songs to the physical forces of Nature, gave place in course of time on the one hand to a rigid, sacrificial ceremonial, propounded and enforced by priests, and on the other, to an exposition of philosophical systems trying to explain in a more liberal way the creation and existence of the Universe. These systems were already at an early period modified by contact with the ideas enter- tained on this subject by a foreign race, which occupied India. These non-Aryans belonged to the great Turanian race which reigned then over civilised Asia, with Mesopo- tamia as their centre. They believed in the existence of one Supreme Spirit of heaven, with whom was associated and admitted to an equal, and eventually even superior, share of power the Goddess of the Earth. Both ruled supreme over the good as well as the evil spirits who disturbed and tortured men ; over men and the entire world. Associated with this doctrine was a belief in the transmi- gration of souls after death. The combination of these Aryan and non- Aryan systems affected the beliefs of both nations, and the result of this connexion is apparent in the present religious state of India. ( 575 ) PART IV. THE BHARATAS. CHAPTER XX. Inteoductoey Remarks. The hope which I expressed at the beginning of the third Part that an inquiry into the system of Indian theogony would corroborate the conclusions that had been previously arrived at by the linguistic evidence, has not been disap- pointed. Both inquiries indeed have elicited the fact, that the Aborigines of India belong on the whole to one and the same race which being composed of Gaudians and Dravidi- ans I should like to call Bharatan. In order to determine for a race the position to which its thinking powers en- title it, or to ascertain, as it were, its mental index, it is necessary to study the formation of its thoughts, in their linguistic and philosophical, or rather religious, aspects as revealed in the framing of words and sentences, and in the expression of ideas. For finally fixing, however, the place to which an individual or a community is entitled in the ranks of mankind, the condition of the mental qualifications must be supplemented by physical evidence, such as ethnology alone is able to furnish. It is there* fore of great importance that the results of the ethnolo- gical investigation concerning the population of India should coincide with those gained by the help of philology and theology. In fact these three sciences agree in their conclusions that only two chief races exist in India. ' ' Read The Tribes and Oastes of Bengal, by H, H, Kislej, Ethnographic Glossary, Vol. I, pp. XXX, XXXI : " The data thus obtained from 6,000 persons, representing 89 of the leading oastes and tribes in Northern India, 74 676 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS With these remarks I may proceed now to inquire into the political status of the ancient inhabitants of India. The two principal and rival races we meet herCj are styled in Sanskrit Ari/a and AnTirya, names which correspond to the modei'n Aryan and non-Aryan, the latter being also described as Dasyn and Dasa.^ The former represents the invaders of India, the latter its original inhabitants; for even if the Bharatas or Gauda-Dravidians had at an earlier period immigrated into India, we possess no information about this fact, and, so far as our knowledge goes, they occupied the country at a pre-Aryan epoch on both sides of the Himalayan mountains. from the Bay of Bengal to the frontiers of Afghanistan, enable us to dis- tinguish two extreme types of feature and i^hysique, i\'hich may be provi- sionally described as Aryan and Dravidian. A third type which in some respects may be looked upon as intermediate between these two, while in other, and perhaps the most important, points it can hardly be deemed Indian at all, is found along the northern and eastern borders of Bengal. . . . With this type, which raay conveniently be described as Mongoloid, we have for our present purpose no immediate concern. Except in the districts of Assam and North -Eastern Bengal, it has contributed com- paratively little to the evolution of caste as it now exists in India, and may be left out of consideration in the attempt to trace the stages of growth by which the prevailing state of things has been aixived at. See Die Anthrnpoloyie Iiidiens von Emil Schmidt, -p. 3. "Das Endre- sultat der miihevoUen ausgedehnten Untersuchung ist, dass wir es inlndien wenu wir Ton dem ausgesprocheu fremdartigen Eassenelement der nion- golischeu Bewohner der Nordgrenzen absehen, wesentlich mit zwei ver- schiedenen Rassen zu thun habeu. Sohon die filtesten Urkunden, die Veden, lassen einen Kampf zweier verschiedener ethnisoher Elements erkenneu, einen Kampf der zu tiefgreifenden socialeu Qegensatzen getiihrt hat. Dass, aber diese soziale Sonderuny (die Kaste) voryw, d. h. Farbe genannt wird, ist bezeichneud dafiir, dass urspriinglioh der Gegensatz ein solcher des Blutes war ; es war der Kampf einer eingewanderten, hellhaiitigen mit einer schon ansassigen dunkelhiiutigen Easse. Die exakten Untersuchuno'en Risley's bestiitigen von naturwissenschaftlicher Seite her die auf histori- scher Grundlage gewonneue Anschauung. Es handelt sich danach um zwei Grundformen." 1. Der arische Typus. 2. Der dravidische Typus.'' " See above, p. 13, OF BHAEATAVAESA OK INDIA. 577 We are likewise without any reliable information about the events which marked the progress of the Aryan inva- sion and conquest of India, but thus much is clear, that no sooner had the country been finally occupied, and its former inhabitants been subdued or expelled, than the victors began to quarrel among themselves, nnd open strife and war broke out between the several tribes hitherto united in kindred friendship. The songs of the Rgveda are full of the valorous deeds performed in such inter- necine expeditions, which became the more frequent, the more the resistance of the aborigines declined, for the less the Aryans had to fear them, the more they could indulge in combats among themselves. Occasionally the excessive strength of one tribe gave to others a welcome pretext to oppose and subdue it, and in order to overthrow the growing ascendency of a clan, confederacies were formed to remove the danger which threatened the independence of the rest. Among such confederacies one of the most renowned is that of the five tribes, which comprised the Turvasa, Tadu, Anu, Druhyu and Purn. ^ The various wars which were waged by ^ In the Teda text occur the following terms denoting five races : paiica hrstayah (Eg. Ill, 2, 10 ; 53, 16) ; panca IsJtayaU (Eg. 1,7,9; 176, 3 ; V, 35, 2, etc.) ; panca carsanaijah (fig. V, 86, 2 ; Til, 75, 4) ; panca janfih (fig. Ill, 37, 9; 59, 8, etc.) ; panca manavah (Atharv. Ill, 21, 5 ; XII, 1, 15) ;pancu manusah (fig. VIII, 9, 2), etc. The expression five races refers probably to the five tribes above mentioned who occur thns iu fig. I, 108, 8, as Pro- fessor Kuhn has first pointed out. Elsewhere in Yaska's Nirukta III, 8, (see Eoth's edition, p. 54) panca janah are explained as : " Gandharvalj pita- ro deva, asura raksarbsi " ; and in the Aitareyabrahmapa III, 31, we read : '' Pancajanyam etad uktham yadvaisvadevam sarvesam va etat panca jauanam uktham devamanusyaijam gandharvapsarasam|sarpapam oa pitr- nam oa." In the Sanskrit dictionary of Professors Sothlingh and Roth, Vol. II, p. 412, we find under the word, Icrsti : " Die fiinf Volkerschaften (panca Tcrstayyli ; vgl. auch Icsiti, carsani, jana) ist Bezeichnung fiir alle Volher, nicht bloss fiir die arischen Sttimme ; eine alte Zahlung, fiber deren Ursprung wir in den vedischen Texten keinen ausdriicklichen Aufsohluss finden. Vergleichen kann man, dass die Weltriiume oder Richtungen ofters als funf gezahlt werden . . . wobei man als fiinfte Richtung die nach 578 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS Sudas, the famous king of the Trtsus, brought about such alli- ances in which Aryans and non-Aryans fought together on both sides. It is indeed very difficult to decide in every single case whether a tribe is of Aryan or of non- Aryan origin, because the evidence on this point is so deficient that the opinion of scholars is of necessity rauch divided. General opinion is unanimous on the point that the Trtsus were a powerful Aryan tribe, and that the jealousy of the two great Brahmanic sages, Vasistha and Visvamitra, who at various times occupied the office of high priest to king Sudas, caused to a great extent those wars which ended at last with the disastrous overthrow of the Trtsus. Even after Visva- mitra had been compelled to make room for his rival, fortune remained faithful to Sudas. He defeated king Bheda, and under the guidance of Vasistha the Bharatas, to whom Visvamitra belonged, were broken like staves (Rg. VII, 13, 18, 19; VII, 3-3, 3, 6, etc.), and the ten kings who opposed king Sudas were thoroughly defeated in the battle on the banks of the Parusni (Rg. VII, 18 ; 83, 6, 8).* But the Aryans on either side were not strong enough to fight these combats unaided with any chance of success, and hence required the support of allies, whom they sought and found in the camps of their national foes who took part in this battle of the ten kings. The non-Aryan Pak- der Jlitte . . . d. h. die Arier als Mittelpnukt nnd um sie herum die Natio- iien der vier ^Veltgegenden zu zahleu hattc ; vergl. die entaprechende Punftheilang von Indien bei Hiuen-thsang . . . Nach vediaohem Spraohge- branch darf die Zahl fiinf nicht als Bezeichnung einer unbestimmten Viel- heit angeaehen werden." The five tribes are mentioned by name Rgveda, I, 108, 8)— Yayati, mentioned in t}ie Rgveda, I, 31, 17 and X, 63, 1, is in_ the latter place called the son of Nahusa, and is in the Mahabharata (Adiparraii LXXV) and the Pnr5n;i.s named as the father of Turvasa and Yadu (by DTvayaiii) and of Ami, IJruhyu and Puru l.y .Sarmisth.i. Read Lassen'a Indische Alterthiimnl-iinde, Vol. I, pji. 719—722, 726 and Anha.ng, pp. XX and XXI, and compare Roth's Zur Litteraiur and GeschicMe des Weda, pp. 132, 183. ♦ See pp. 582, 596—598, OP BHAEATAVARSA Oli INDIA. 579 thaSj Bhalanas, AlinaSj Sivas and Visaijins fought on the side of Aryans against Aryans and non-Aryans. ^ Many tribal names besides the above mentioned occur in the Egveda, such as the Ajas, Bharatas, Oedis, Gandharis, Klkatas. Eu- samaSj Sandikasj Sigrus, Simyus, Usinaras, Yaikarnas, Yaksus and others. Except in a few cases where the Aryan or non- Aryan origin of a clan is pretty well ascertainedj as e.g. the Aryan extraction of the Trtsus and the non- Aryan of the KlkataSj we are quite in the dark as to the ethnological race to which most of these tribes belonged. The Anus are thus by some claimed as Aryans, while others explain the term Anu as applying to non- Aryan people, and the Bharatas are identified with the Kolarian race.^ Another difficulty in this inquiry is the uncertainty felt in knowing or deciding whether a proper name, if used in the singular number, applies to an individual, to a family, or to a tribe, for the exact meaning often cannot be gathered from the context; as is the case with names like Drbhika,'' Kavasa, Nahusa, Sriijaya, Taruksa, Tugra, Vetasu, and others. It is also possible that the plural of the name of a person occurring in the Veda, only applies to his pos- terity, and not to a tribe, the wider meaning being also 5 See B.gveAa VII, 18, 7. ° The Aryan nationality of the Anu is upheld by Professor Zimmer, the non-Aryan by Professors Lassen, Bothlingk, Roth, Grassmann, and Mr. Hewitt. Professor Lassen says Indische AUerthnmskimde, p. 719 : " Von seinem vierten Sohne Anu oder Anava warden die Gesohlechter der Mlekha abgeleitet andnach dem Norden Terlegt. Anu bedeutet eigentlich Mensoh, im Veda wird die Bedeutung jedoch besohrankt auf feme, dem Arischen fremde Volker, und das Wort bedeutet nur scheinbar einen besondern Volkstamm." Mr. J. P. Hewitt has assigned a Kolarian origin to the Bharatas and conjectures that the Anus, identifying them with the Kathi, were also Kolarians. ' Drlhlka is by the German lexicographers decribed as a demon, while Professor Ludwig (Vol. Ill, p. 207) thinks he recognizes in them a trib^ which reminds him of the AepjSiKfs and A€/>/3iKKai. 580 ON THE OKIGINAL INHABITANTS admissible, especially when referring to a feudal community, such as prevailed among the Scotch clans. As the Egveda is a compilation of songs by diiierent authors of different times, it is, I think, rather hazardous to use the language or the meaning of one stanza or song for the explanation or interpretation of another, unless the authors of both are the same, or cogent reasons favor such a proceeding. If we meet thus with considerable obstacles in elucidating the details of the clan-formation in Vedic times, we must also on the other hand not overlook that, however deficient our knowledge of this period is and always will be, so much is certain that the Aryan invasion of North India was successful, that the border-country was permanently conquered, and that the subjugation of the adjacent provinces to Aryan rule had in consequence become an inevitable destiny. It is, however, quite a different matter to dilate on the ethnological constitution of the invaders, whether or not they formed a homogeneous group of Aryan tribes. It is not only possible, but also highly probable, that friendly aliens swelled their ranks, and that, as is generally the case with migrating peoples, the weaker tribes whom they had dispossessed were compelled to follow in theii- tracks. When immigrating, or victoriously invading, swarms of people settle down as a stable commu- nity, their various heterogeneous component elements amal- gamate gradually into one national body, which presents to the outside world the aspect of a united nation, when even its multigenerous origin is still conspicuous and lives fresh ill the memory of others. By and by with increasing- power, the admission to citizenship will be rendered difficult, till it may be altogether denied to newcomers. We have in the United States of North America a modern instance of the formation of such a state, and the foundation of Venice by frightened fugitives who were joined by bold OF BHAEATAVAESA OR INDIA. 581 adventurers was followed in course of time by the estab- lishment of the proudest aristocracy, which displayed its exclusiveness by the closing of the golden book. A like fate befell the Aryan settlement in India, which, free and liberal in its constitution at the beginning, became by degrees conservative and exclusive, till at last by priestly prepon- derance it developed the most successful and pernicious system of caste the world has ever known. Tet before this social edifice had assumed the immutable form it now exhibits, there preceded a time when its various portions existed separately and were not mixed with others. There can be no doubt that though the national Aryan stock prevailed among the Brahmans, many foreign bodies had joined before it became consolidated as a Brahmanic caste : but once thus constituted it remained on the whole unchangeable, even if at times strange elements found access to it in a surreptitious manner. In spite of all the difiiculties which surround this ethno- logical mystery the Veda has preserved some slight intima- tions which may throw light on this important question. Among the most interesting episodes which are found in the Rgveda, Aitareya-Brahmaria and other Vedic writings, as well as in the Mahabliarata, Kamayana and Pnranas, must be numbered the rivalry and contest between Vasistha and Visvamitra. On Vasistha. The origin and history of the life of Vasistha have, from the importance attached to them, always been a subject of the greatest interest and even in ancient times were the favorite topic of legendary accounts.^ In * Among European scholars Professor von Eoth in his Litterafur vnd Geschichte des Wecla, Professor Christian liassen in his Indische Alter- thwmsTcunde, Professor Albrecht Weber in his Indische Studien, Professor Max Miiller in liia History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, and Dr. John Muir in his Original Sanskrit Texts (especially in Vol. I) have much contributed to the elucidation of this Vedic period. 582 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS the Egveda he appears as a sage, a priest and a poet, its seventh maijdala being ascribed to him. As the domestic chaplain of king Sudas, the grand-son of Pijavana and the famous king of the Trtstis,^ he became the rival of Visva- mitra. He is said to have belonged to the tribe of the Trtsus, to whose king, Sudas, the Mahabharata alludes as a Sudra ; a circumstance which proves how little historical reliance can be placed on that epic ! ' « He was a friend of Varuna, but having lost his favour, in order to regain it he humbly implores the forgiveness of the incensed God. ' ' He teaches Indra the Viraj metre, and in return receives for this instruction the explanation of the formula of expiation {ijreiyakitta) ; ^ ^ the same Grod also imparts to Vasistha the devotion (hrahvian), while to Visvamitra he only grants the recitation {uhtha).^'"^ Vasistha is called the son of Varuna and Mitra and of the nymph Urvasi. For when he had inconsiderately caused Nimi to lose his bodily form, the king retaliated by pro- nouncing a similar curse against his former domestic priest, in consequence of which Vasistha's male energy entered into Varuna and Mitra, but left them at the sight of Urvasi. As Agastya was born on the same occasion, he became, as it were, a brother of Vasistha. ' * The enmity of Visvamitra subjected Vasistha to many trials and hardships. He lost all his hundred sons. His son Sakti was either killed by the sons of Sudas, or all his sons were according to the Mahabharata and Sayana's com- » See Rgveda, VII, 18, 4, 5, iil— 25 ; VII, 33, 1—6, etc. Sudas is also occasionally called the son of Pijavaua. 1° See Snntiparvan, LX, 38: Sndrali Paijavano nama saliasranam satam dadau. 11 See S.jveda, VII, 86. 1^ See Satapatha-Brnhmana, XII, 6, 1, 38. 1^ See SadvimSa- Brahniana, 1, 5. 1' See By-oeda, VII, 33, 10, 11 ; Vifnupni-dna, IV, 5, 6, and Bhagavata. purana, IX, 13, 1 — 13. or BHABATAVAESA OK INDIA. 583 mentary to Bl,gveda VII, 104, 12, devoured by a Kaksasa. Conformably to the Epic the machinations of Visvamitra made kingKalmasapada, the son of Sudasa, when transform- ed into a man-eating Raksasa, swallow all the sons of Va- sistha. 1 ^ Sayaija connects the murder of Yasistha's sons with this story and explains the Vedic verse in which the bereaved sage indignantly repudiates the accusation of being a Raksasa or Yatndhana, which had been insidiously brought against him, as referring to the calumnious statement that Vasistha had in the shape of a Raksasa eaten his own sons. ' ^ In this state of mind Vasistha preferred death to revenge, and tried to destroy himself by first throwing himself from the summit of mount Meru, then by walking into the blazing forest-fire, again by hurling himself with a heavy stone tied on to his neck into the sea, and lastly by drowning himself in the swollen waters of the Vipasa Hard as he tried, however, he could not obtain his desire to lose his life. The respect in which Vasistha was held and the worship which he secured after his death, elevated him to a divine '* Gom'pa.re the Taittirlya-Samhita, VII, 4, 7, 1. See also Mahabharata, Adiparvan, CLXXVIII, about Kalmasapada, the son of Sudasa, 22iid descendant of Trisaiiku, meeting Saktr, the son of Vasistha, in the road, and the consequences of their quarrel. It appears that both reports refer to the Hame occurrence, and perhaps the persons alluded to in the T. S. as the Saudasah and Kalmasapada, the son of Sudasa, (and in consequence a Saudasa), are really identical with each other. '" See Rgveda, VII, 104, 12. According to Sayana in his commentary, V. 12, a Raksasa who had slain the hundred sons of Vasistha, assumed the form of the latter, saying that he (the Raksasa) was Vasistha and Vasistha the Eaksasa : " Hatva putrasatam piirvam Vasisthasya mahatmauah Vasistham raksas'osi tvam vasistham riipam asthitah Aham Vasistha ityevam jighamsii Eaksaso' bhravit Atrottara rco drsta Vasisfheneti nah srntam." See the end of the introductory remark of Sayana to Bgveda VII, 104, where he quotes the Brhaddevata as follows : Raix dadarsa raksoghnam putrasokapariplutah hate putrasate kruddhah Saudasair duhkhitas tada. 75 584 ON THE OKIGINAL INHABITANTS position. Manu mentions him as one of the ten Mahareis ; ' ' the Visnupurana acknowledges him in one place as one of the nine mind-born sons of Brahman, while heis called in another one of the seven sages of the present or Vaivasvata Man- vantara. '® The Mahabharata also is not consistent in this respect. The Adiparvan does not include his name among the six great sages, but the Sautiparvan adds him as the seventh, and names him also as one of the twenty-one Praja- patis : ' ■' the Eamayana, however, is silent on this subject. Vasistha had various wives. By Urjja he had seven sons, but Sakti (or Saktrjwas not cmeof these. Another wife Aksa- mala is said to have been of low birth, but was elevated to a high position by her husband ; some identify her with Arun- dhatt, who is well known as being the zealous and jealous wifeof the sage. She is regarded as one of the Pleiades, and by her union with Vasistha was revered as the mother of the seven great patriarchs figuring in the sky as the constella- tion of the Great Bear. By the wife of his son Sakti he became grandfather to the posthumous Pardsara. Vasistha is also mentioned as one of the superintendents of the month Asadha, and as a Vyasa or divider of the Veda in the eighth Dvapara. He was the owner of the celebrated cow Surabhi which excited the covetousness of Visvamitra, and was according to later traditions the inno- cent cause of the protracted enmity between both sa,ges, as Vasistha did not want under any conditions to part with his favorite Kamadhenu. Vasistha communicated his knowledge to king Janaka. He was the priest of Nimi, son of Iksvaku, whom he cursed for retaining Gautama; he was the teacher of Sagara, Iksvaku's 37th descendant ; the sacrificial priest of Kalmasa- " See Manu., I, 35. " See Visnupurana; I, 7, 5; and JII, 1, li. '» See SaiiUparuun, CCVIII, 2—5, and CCGXXXIV (flrut Calcutta edition CCCXXXVI), 3.V-35. OF T3HAEATAVAESA OE INDIA. 586 pad a, Mitrasaha or Saudasa, 50th in descent from Iksvaku and the priest of Rama, his 61st descendant. According to the Raghuvaiiisa he procured progeny to king Dilipa, by inducing him to pay respect to his favorite cow Surabhi. These few statements prove that Vasistha like Agastya and Visvamitra lived for many ages beyond the usual limit assigned to human life.'^" Vasistha is the one sage whom the Brahmans particu- larly love to glorify, and whom they therefore endow with all kinds of virtues to make him worthy of their reverence and worship. By doing so, however, they have artificially created a superior being who is placed beyond the range of historical research. On the other hand they go to the other extreme in vilifying as much as possible the character of his great rival and enemy Visvamitra. With these remarks I now turn to Visvamitra. Ua Visvamitra. The seer and priest Visvamitra, the author of the third Maiidala of the Rgveda which contains the famous Gayatrl (III, (3:^, 10), first appears prominently in the Rgveda, in his ofiicial capacity as the priest of the Trtsu-kiug Sudas, whose affairs he for a while conducts satisfactorily, but whose court he has to leave owing to the influence of Vasistha. The exact position in which both priests stood to the king is not clear. Visvamitra was most likely only temporarily employed, but having expected to keep his post permanently, felt much aggrieved when through the influence of Vasistha he was disappointed in this hope ; and henceforth he directed his hatred against the king and his priest. Vasistha was, as has been suggested, by birth a Trtsu, and Visvamitra a Bharata, the former repre- senting the ruling, the latter a section of an alien tribe = " See Muir's Original Sanskrit TeHs, Vol. I, p. 337. 586 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS which sought its fortunes by entering into the service of a mighty and noble prince. With respect to A'isvamitra's nationah'ty, there are two possibilities. He was either an Aryan of liberal mindj who had embraced the cause of the aliens, in this case of the Bliaratas, witli whom he became in course of time thoroughly identified, or he was of non- Aryan extraction, i.e., a Bharata. If so, considering the high position he occupied from the first, it is very probable that his immediate forefatliers had already become natur- alized among the Aryans, and participated in the enjoyment of Aryan privileges, which Visvamiti'a inherited from them, and of which lie made the iitmost use owing to his great mental qualificatious and fearless disposition.-' ThatVis- vamitra, a high-minded and ambitious man, should try his utmost to elevate himself and the Bharatas by seeking for them an alliance with the most powerfol nation of the neighbourhood, need not create any surprise. The moment appears to have been well chosen, for the times were troublous, and the league was acceptable to Sudas, as the martial Bharatas considerably strengthened liis army. On the other hand the Bharatas, up to now a rather insignificant and even despised I'ace, gained a political ])osition which '-' See Notes on the early liistfry o/ Northern India hv J. F. Hewitt, in the Journal of the lloijal .iaialic Sorietij of Great Britain and Ireland, "Vol. XX, |ip. 3-15, 346 : " The whole Btdiv shows the opposition between two parties, cue strictly Brahminieiil, i'epre-:entea by Vaaistha, who wished to briun- the people completely under Brahniinical rule, to enloree the caste distinctions between Aryans and nou-Aryans, to restrict the right of offer- ing sacriHceaaud ac(|tdrii]LC Icarniu-, with the advantages thence resulting, to those who were uf pure Aryan birth, and received as Brahmins into the saered caste. The other was the party of compromise, wlio wished to pive Aryan privileges to the rutin;.; chi^ses of the native races, and to take their gods into the Aryan pantheon. The party of compromise, who were, as Vievrimitra describes the Bharatas in the Xii-veda, the far-seeing people', won the day. The advantages of securing the alliance of the ruling classes of the native races were too ercat to be neglected by those who looked at the question in its widest aspects, and they wcrcformally re- ceived into the highest castes." OF BHAEATAVAESA OE INDIA. 587 placed them socially witMn the pale of the superior class^ a position which, when once obtained, could not easily be wrested frora them again, because the rank secured in those days was afterwards permanently acknowledged by the establishment of the distinctions of caste. The personal ambition of Visvamitra was at first centred in acquiring and permanently maintaining the post of domestic chaplain to king Sudas and his family. Perhaps this apparently selfish object was really prompted by not altogether selfish designs, for his personal promotion was of the greatest import to the Bharatas. When these entered into a com- pact with the Trtsus, Vasistha, if then present at the court of Sudas, may have even promoted the treaty as strengthen- ing the position of the Trtsns. At all events he neither suspected any danger arising from this alliance nor did he penetrate into the ultimate object and secret aims of Vis- vamitra, so that the latter was for a while able to insinuate himself into the good graces of the king and gain popularity with the people. But when Vasistha fathomed the dcBigns of Visvamiti-a to supplant him, he presumably lost no time in counteracting and frustrating them. Visvamitra was in consequence either forced to resign his post or was deposed from his office, which event put an end to the alliance of the Trtsus and Bharatas. The latter under the lead of Vis- vamitra, separated themselves from the Trtsus, and when open war was declared, sustained at first a defeat. Visvamitra was still in the service of Sudas when he sang : 9. The mighty sage, god-born and god-incited, who looks on men, restrained on the billowy river. When Visvamitra was Sudas's escort, then Indra through the Kusikas grew friendly. 10. Like swans, prepare a song of praise with pressing-stones, glad in yonr hymns with juice poured forth in sacrifice. Ye singers, with the gods, sages who look on men, ye Kusikas, drink np the Soma's savoury meath. 688 ON THE OEiaiNAL INHABITANTS 11. Come forward, Kusikas, and be attentive; let loose Sudas's horse to win him riches. Bast, west, and noith, let the king play the foeman, then at earth's choicest place perform his worship. 12. Praise to Indra have I sung, sustainer of this earth and heaven. This prayer of Vis\"amitra keepa secure the race of Bharatas.''^ On leaving Sudas^ Visvamitraj wbo appears to have re- treated unmolested, i-ecvo,ssed with his wealth and his Bha- ratas the rivers Vipas and Sutudrl, after imploring them to stop flowiug until he and his friends had passed, and to resume their course afterwards : 11. Souu as the Bharatas have fared across thee, the warrior band, nrged on and sped by Indra, Then let your streams flow on Id rapid nation. I crave your favour who deserve our ^vorship. 13. The warrior host, the Bharatas, fared over : the singer won the favour of the rivers. Swell with your billows, hasting, pouring riches. Fill full your channels, and roll swiftly onward.-^ The end of the 53rd hymn in which Visvamitra expresses his hatred against Vasistha and threatens him with revenge --= See Kgv?da III, 53, 9—13 : 0. Mahiin rsir devaja devajiitoi stabhnat tindhum arnavani iircakb'ab, Visvaraitro yad avahat SudSsam apriyayata Knsikebhir Indrali. 10. Harnsa va kruutha slokam adribhir madanto "iibhir adhvarc sute saciv devebhir vipra rsayo nrcaksaso vipibadhvam Kusikah somyam madhu. 11. Upa preta Kusikas cetayadL\am atvam raye pra mnncata Sudasah raja vittram janghanat pray apag ndag atha yajate vare a pxthivyah 12. Ya ime rodasi nbhe aham Indram atustavam Visvamitrasya raksati brahmedam Bharatam janam. The translation is taken from Jir. B. T. li, Griffith's Hymns of the KigvC'da. ■-= See Bijrsda, III, 33 : Sa> ana coulirms this statement in his preface to the hymn: " Pura kila A'iivamitrah Paijavanasya Sudaso rajijah purohito babhilva. 8a ca paurohityena labdhadhanah sarvam dhauam ad5\a Vipal-Sntudiyoh sambhedam ayayavanuyayur itare, athottitirsur Yisv.a- mitro gadhajale te nadyan distvottaranartham adyabhis tisrbhis tustava." Compare Yaska's Nirnkta, II, 2-1. See Griffith's translation. OF BHAEATAVAESA OR INDIA. 589 was, as Professor Roth has already pointed out, written at a later period than the preceding verses rjuoted above, and the last or 24tli verse shows this clearly iu the following words : — " These sons of Bharata, Indra, desire dissociation not association, Tlie^r urge their steed as against a constant foe, and cari-y a strong bow in battle-"-'' ^^ See Prof. Eoth's Litferntiir and Oeschichte dex Weda, p. Ill : " Diese Sohne Bharata's, o Indra, kennen (feindliches) Abwenden, nicht (freund- liches} Hinwenden. Pie spornen ihr Ross; wie einen ewigen Feiud tragen Bie den starken Bogen (spahend) umher in der Schlaoht." Professor Both discusses this hymn at some length and says on pp. 121 — 123: " Diese l(Vasistha's) Paniilie also angehorig dem Yolkstamme der Tiitsu, war es, "vvelche ihrem Filrsten Sudds den wichtigeu Dienst leistete durch ihre Anrnfung die Huld der Gotter im Kampfe von den Feinden ab nud anf seine Seite zu wenden. Wie stimmt aber hiemit, was Ti^vamitra von sich und den Ku9ika riihmt, dass diireh ihr Opfer I?j'> ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS classes of men, as the sky is beyond the reach of mortal hands. ^^^ Bhumanyu succeeded his father Bharata in the kingdom. After Bhumanyu came his eldest son, the great monarch Suhotra, who conquered the whole world up to the sea, and who, according to one tradition was the father of A jamldha, while according to another he was his great-grand- father. Ajamldha had six sons by his three wives Dhumini, Nilr and Kesini . Rksa was the eldest and succeeded his father as king, while from Dusmanta and Paramesthin, the two sons of Nili, are said to have descended all the Paiicalas.^ ^ In the time of Sa-iiivaranu, the son of Eksa, a fearful famine broke ' ' See Aitareya-Brahmam, YIII, 23 ; also H.T. Colebrooke's Miscellaneous Essays, Vol. I, pp. 37, 39 in his article " On the Vedas, or sacred writinga of the Hindus." See Mahnhharata, Adiparvan, XCIV, 17—19 ; and XCV : 17. Itathantaryam sutan paiica paficabhiitopamamstatalj Ilino janayam asa Dusmantaprabhrtiu nrpan ; 18. Dusmantam Siirabhfmau ca Pravasum Vasnm eva ca tesam jycstho' bhavad r.nja Dusmanto Janamejaya. 19. l.usmantad Bharato jajne vidvan Sakuntalo nrpali tasniad Bliaratavarbsasya vipratasthe mahad yasah. Ibidem, XGV, 28, 29, 31. 2y : Dusmantal; khalu Viivamitraduhitaram Sakuntalam namopayome, yasyam asya jajne Bharatah. 29 : Atrauuvarn- saslokau bhavatoh : Bhastra mata pitul.i putro yena jatah sa eva sah bharas\a putram DuMuanta mavamamsthah Sakuntalam. . . 31. Talo'aya bharatatvam This sloka contains another explanation of the word Bharata. Sakuntala is called an apsaras in Sathapatha-Brahmana, XIII, 5, -t, 18. See p. 6U2. = » According to the Adiparvan, XCIV, 30—33, Suhotra is the father of Aj am id ha. 30. Aiksvaki jauayam asa Suhotrat prthivipate Ajamidham Sumidhaiica Purumidhanca Bharata. 31. Ajamidhu varas tesam tasmin vathsah pratisthitah 5at putran so' pyajanayat tisrsu strisu Bharata. 32. Bksam Dhuminyatho Nlli Dusmanta-Paramesthinau Kesiinyajanayaj Jalinum sutan ca Jala-Rnpinau. 33. Tatheme sarvapaucala Dusmanta-Paramesthinoh anvayah Kusika rajan Jahnor amitatejasah. In XCV, 33—35, it is stated, that Suhotra's sou Ilastin was the father of Vikuptaua, who in his turn became the father of Ajamidha. OF BHARATAVAE8A OR INDIA. 607 out and many people died from pestilence, drought and other calamities. To crown all, enemies invaded the country, and the Bharatas were beaten. At last the king of the Pancalas set out with his enormous armies to subdue the whole world, and directing his attack against Saihva- rana, he utterly defeated and compelled him to leave his country, together with his wife, children, relations and ministers, obliging them to seek shelter on the banks of the Sindhu where they remained for a thousand years. ^^ Most probably it is this invasion of the Pancala king Durmukha to which the Aitareyabrahmaija refers, when it reports that the Pancala Durmukha was consecrated by the sage Brhaduktha, and through the knowledge which he thus acquired became king, a position not previously oc- cupied by him, and went conquering the whole earth. '^^ Lassen who comments on these passages, points out the remarkable fact that Durmukha is mentioned in the Brah- mana immediately after Bharata.*' " See Adiparvan, XCIV • 34. Jala-Biipiuayor jyestham fiksarti ahur janadhipam JRksat Sarin varaao jajiie rajaTatiisakaralj eiitah. 35. Arkse Sarmvaraae rajan prasasati vasundharam saiiksayah sumahan asit prajanam iti nalj srutam. 36. Vyasiryata tato rastram ksayair nanavidhais tada ksunmrtyubhyamauavTStya vyadhibhisca samahatam. 37. Abhyaghnan Bharatamscaiva sapatnanam balani ca calayan vasudhanoemam balena caturangiaa. 38. Abhyayat tafica Panoalo vijitya tarasa mahim aksauhinibhir dasabhis sa enam samare'jayat. 39. Tatas sadaras samatyas saputras sasuhijjanah raja SaruTaraiias tasmat palayata mahabhayat. 40. Sindhor nadasya mabato nikunje nyavasat tada nadivisayaparyante parvatasya samipatah. 41. Tatravasan bahiin kalan Bharata durgam asritah tesam nivasatam tatra sahasram parivatsai-an. '° See Aitareya-Brah^nana, VIII, 23 : " Aiiidram mahabhisesam Brhad. uktba rsir Durmukhaya Pancalaya provaca, tasmad Durmukhalj Pancalo raja samvidyaya sammatam sarvatah prtMvIm jayan parfyaya.'' "■ See Indische Alterthumslcunde, Vol. I, p. 735. 78 608 ON THE OEiaiNAL INHABITANTS Sarhvarana was then visited, so relates the Mahabharata, by the great sage Vasistha, and after appointing him his family priest, regained his country, became the supreme lord of the earth, and taking as his wife Tapati, the daughter of the sun, became through her, the father of Kuru. As Kuru was very righteous, he was made king by the people, and conferred fame on the country called after him Kurujangala, and sanctified Kuruksetra by his penance. The whole story as told in the Mahabharata is very im- probable, especially the introduction of Vasistha and the retreat of Saiiivarana to the Indus. This Samvarana, most likely the last of the Bharatas in the direct line of suc- cession, was expelled by the Pancalas, and the Bharata king- dom thus came to an end."^ Then followed a long time of anarchy during which the Pancalas retained their power. The Granges separated the Pancalas into Northern and Southern Pancalas. In the commentary to Paqini the Eastern and Western Pancalas are mentioned.^ ^ The Pancalas were nearly connected with the Paiidavas, who in fact became later on their representatives and were even called Paiacalas, an appellation to which the fact of their being five in number have contributed. They became also by Draupadl's choice, the sons-in-law of Drupada, king of the Pancalas. The term Paucdla is differently explained, but contains most probably the number five {panca). The descent of the Pancalas given in the Harivarhsa and Puraijas differs from that quoted above from the Mahabharata. The five Pancalas are in the former the sons of Haiyaiva, sixth in descent from Ajamidha. Their father is said to have 02 See Adiparvan, XOV, 42—49. About Samvarana compare also ibidem, XGV, 37, and chapters XOIV, CLXXIII— CLXXV. 0^ See Bhdgaiiataparan.a, IV, 25, 50, 51 i and Paijini, II, 103. OF BHABATAVAESA OE INDI. 609 originated their name by declaring that his five sons were sufficient for the protectionof the country {parlca + alam).^'^ The name may have also been so called from the country consisting of five districts^ similarly as the Panjab obtained name from five rivers (Pancanada) . ^ ^ The word PaScala appears grammatically to be formed by the addition of the primitive affix ala to the cardinal number pauca. ^ ^ It is possible too that the name may have been formed by means of the Gauda-Dravidian dlan, like Vellala, Ballala, Bhillala, Bangala, etc.^' The Pancalas were not unknown to the Greek and Roman geographers and historians, for we find them mentioned by Ptolemy, Arrian, Pliny and others. ^^ With respect to my derivation of the name of the town of Benares or Varaijasi, I think it not amiss to mention that it is reported to have been founded by the Pancala °* See Hariramio, XXXII, 63— 66 : 63. Ajamidho' paro vamsalj srayatam puruaotta-ma Ajamidliasya Nilinyam Susantir udapadyata. 64. Purnjatili Susantes tu Bahyasvah purujatitah Bahyasvatauayah pafica babhuvur amaropamah. 65. Mudgalas Srnjayaeoaiva raja Brliadi§us smrtah Yavinarasca vikrautah Krimilasvasoa pauoamah. 66. Pancaite raksanayalam desanam iti visrutah panoanam viddhi Pancalan sphltair janapadair vrtan. Aooording to the Visnupurana, IV, 19, Ajamidha had by hia wife Nllini a son Nila, whose son was Santi, whose son was Susanti, whose son was Purajanu, whose son was Caksus, whose son was Haryasva (the Bahyasya oftheHarivaraea and Agnipurajia) and whose five sons wereMudgala, Srnja- ya, Bihadiau, Pravira and Kampilya. There are great rariations in these names in the vaiions Puraaas. Compare H. H. Wilson's Vishnupurana, edited by Pitzedward Hall, Vol. V, pp. 14,1, 145. ° = See Bhdgavatapuram, IV, 29, 7 ; Panoalah panoa visaya yanmadhye Navakham puram. "" See Theodor Benfey's Hajidbttc/i der Sanskritsprache, -p. 161, •' See a6ow, pp. 104, 105. » ' See Ptolemy's Geograpkia, VII, 1, 51, where the town Tla(Tcroi\a is mentioned ; Arriani Uistoria Indica, II, 6, 7 ; C. Pliuii Secundi Historia Naturalis, VI, 22. 610 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS king Divodasaj the son of Sudeva, who through his grand- father Haryasva^ king of the Xasi and Ajamidha, was a direct descendant of Bharata^ and by nationality a Bharata.«9 The Pancalas were ultimately ousted by the Kurus. To connect Saiiivaranawith the Kurus superhuman influence was required^ and this is intimated by making Tapati, a daughter of the god Vivasvat and the younger sister of Savitrl.^" Kuru became the reputed ancestor of the Kurus. The Mahabharata contains two genealogies of the Candra or Lunar dynasty, the first ends with Devapi, Santanu and Bahlika, the sons of Pratipa, and the other with Asvame- dhadatta, the son of Satanika.'' For the first table '" See above, p. 41, also Mahahharata, Anuinsanaparvan, XIII, 9 — 15: 9. Kasisvapi nrpo rajan Divodasapitamahali Haryasva iti vikhyato babhiiva jayatamvarah. 10. Sa vitahavyadayadair agatya purusarsabha Gangayamunayor madhye saiigrame vinipatitalj. 11. Tantu hatva narapatim Haihayas te maharathah pratijagmiih purim ramyam vatsya namakutobhayah. 12. Haryasvasya oa dayadah Kasirajo 'bhyasicyata Sudevo devasankasah saksad dbarma ivaparali. 13. Sa palayam asa mahim dharmatma kasinandanah tair vitahayyairagatya yudhi sarvair vinirjitah. 14. Tam athajan vinirjitya pratijagmur yathagatam Saadevaa tvatha Kasiso Divodaso' bhyasicyata. 15. Divodasas tu vijuaya viryam tesam mahatmanam yaranaslm mahateja nirmame sakrasasautit. In the Harivamsa, Viaimparana and elsewhere Divodasa is the son of Badhryasva, the son of Mudgala, the sou of Haryasva (or Bahyasva) In figveda, VI, 61, 1, is mentioned a Divoda.sa, a son of the sage Vadhryasva. '" See Indische Altertlnimshmde, Xo\. I, pp. 734,_736; Adiparvan CLXXIII, 7. '1 See Ailiparvan, XCIV and XCV. According to the !J4th chapter Kuru had five sons, Aviksit, Abhisyanta, Caitraratha, Muni and Janame- jaya. Aviksit's sons were Parikrfit, Sabalasva, Adiraja, Viraja, Salmala Ucoaissravas, Bhangakara and Jitari. Pariksit had six sons, Kaksasena Dgrasena, Citrasena, Indrasena, Susena and Bhimasena. Janamejaya's sons were Dhitarastra, Pawilu, Balilika, Nisadha, Jambnuada, Kiiudodara Padati and "Vasati. Dhrtanistra's sons were Hastin, Vitarka Kratha OF BflABATAVARSA OR INDIA. 61 1 Dhrfcarastra and Pandu are the sons of Janamejaya, the grandson of Kuru, in the latter Dhrtarastra, Pandu and Vidura are the grandsons of Sautanu, the brother of Devapi and son of Pratipa. The genuine line of Kuru seems to have ended with Devapi and his brothers. Of the genea- Kupdina, Havissravas, Indrabha and Bhumanyn, and ot his grandsons are mentioned Pratipa, Dharmanetra and Sunetra. Pratipa had three sons. Devapi, Santanu and Bahlika. Devapi retired into the forest and Santauu, the youngest of the three brothers, suceeded to the throne. According to the 95th chapter Kuru married andhadasonVidiiratha, who married Madhavi and had Anasvan, who by Amrta had Pariksit, who by Suyasas had Bhimasena, who by Kaikeyi had Pratisravas, whose son was Pratipa, who by Sunanda had Devapi, Santanu and Bahlika. Devapi went as a boy into the forest and Santanu became king, who by Ganga had Devavrata also called Bhisma. Bhisma out of kindness married his father Santanu to Satyavati, known else as Gandhakali. Satyavati had by a previous connexion with the sage Parasara a son Dvaipayana, the cele- brated Vyasa. Santanu had by Satyavati two sons, VioitraviryaandCitraii- gada ; the latter was killed by a Gandharva and Vicitravlrya becoming king married Ambika and Ambalika, the daughters of the king of Ka^i, but dying childless Satyavati asked her son Vyasa Dvaipayana to beget offspring for his brother, and he, obeying his mother, begat Dhrtariistra, Pandu and Vidura. Dhrtarastra had 100 sons by his wife Gaudharl, of whom the most renowned are Duryodhana, Eustiisana, Vikaraa and Citra- sena. Pandu had two illustrious wives, Kunti or Pitha and iMadri. Pandu while hunting killed a deer which was playing with his mate, and this deer being a sage, cursed him so that he might experience the pame feelings as he had felt. Out of horror Paiidu became pale, and not being able to ap- proach his wives, he asked them to raise offspring for him, and KuntI had thus by Dharma a son Yudhisthira, by M.iruta Bhima (Vrkodara) and by Sakra Arjuna, while Madri had Nakula and Sahadeva by the two Asvins. When Pandu had died and Madri burnt herself with him, Kunti brought up the children, who went to Hastinapura and were introduced to Bhisma and Vidura. Draupadi became their common wife and Yudhisthira had from her a son Prativindha, BhIma a son Sutasoma, Arjuna Srutaklrti, Nakula Satanika, and Sahadeva Srutakarman. Yudhisthira had besides by Devika a son Taudheya, Bhima by Valandhari Sarvaga and by Hidimba Ghatotka- ca, Arjuna by Snbhadra, Vasudeva's sweet-speaking sister, Abhimanyu, Nakula by Karenumati Niramitra, and Sahadeva by Vij ay a Suhotra. These were the eleven sons of the five Pandavas. Abhimanyu had by Uttara a, stillborn child who was revived by Kunti and called Pariksit. Pariksit married MadravatI and had by her Janamejaya, who had by Vapusthama two sons Satanika and Saukukariia. Satanika married a Vaidehi and her son was Asvamedhadatta. 612 ON THE OKIGINAL INHABITANTS logics contained in the Adiparvan of the Mahabharata, the first which ends in the 94th chapter appears on the whole more trustworthy;, yet it does not altogether inspire confidence. The genealogical account in prose contained in the 95th chapter is no doubt extracted from the previous pedigree to which are joined some additions, for it gives as a rule only one son, the successor to the throne, but it names on the other hand the wives of the kings. It is arranged with the avowed intention to fix and to strengthen the position of the Pandavas, by introducing into the pedigree several mythical personages. The Puraijas supply a third pedigree which much resembles the latter. ^^ It is hardly imaginable that Janamejaya, to whom Vai- sampayana relates the pedigree of the royal race to which the king himself belonged, would have listened quietly to an account, the untrustworthiness of which especially with regard to the more recent times was so manifest, and the incorrectness of which no one could know better than the king himself. Peculiai'ly enough the only Janamejaya who occurs in the first genealogical table is the father of Dhrta- rastra and Pandu, while in the other account Janamejaya, to whom the events of the past are told, is the great-great- grandson of Pandu. This contradiction is too apparent to require further comment. After these cursory remarks about the descent of the Kurus and Pancillas, I may mention that at a subsequent period both tribes dwelt as neighbours iu Madhyadesa, the Kurus living north-east of the Paficalas. Both are often mentioned together. Thus the Aitareya-Brahmaija'^ '- See ludische Alterthiitiiskimde, Vol. I, pp. 737, 738. " See Aitareya-Brdhmanu, VIII, 14: " Ye ye ca Kurupaficalanam raja- nah savasosinaranam I'ajyayaiva te'bhiBicyanfce, rajebyenan abhisiktan aoaksata.'' Compare also Salapatha-Brnhmana, V, 7, 2, 8 ; III, 2, 3, 15; V, 5, 2, 5, etc. i Vajasaneyi Samhita (Kaava receneion), XI, 3, 3; 6, 3. About OF BHARATAVAESA OB INDIA. 613 reports tiat the kings of the Kuru-Pancalas were conse- crated to the kingship together with the Vasas and Uslna- ras and got the title of king. In such a vast country as India is, it must happen that in the course of time kindred individuals and tribes became settled in different districts, and were for the sake of distinc- tion called by such names as express these differences. These distinctive appellations can be likewise used for marking periods in the history of those to whom they apply, if once their origin is known and their significance is accepted. And this is not rare in India where it still not unfrequently occurs that whole villages, and even smaller districts, are in times of war, famine or other cala- mities deserted by their inhabitants who settling in another place, apply the name of their old habitations to the new home, distinguishing the old from the modern, by adding to it the necessary local distinctions. We have thus an East, a North, a West, and a South Madura. One section of the Ka- narese is known as the Badagas or Northerners, while among the Vaisnavas the two main sects are designed Northerners (Vadakalai) and (Southerners) Tenkalai. Instances of this kind exist also in Sanskrit, where we meet such expressions as TJttarakuravah, northern Kurus, Daksinahuravah, south- ern KuruSj Uttaramadreih, northern Madras, JJttarakdsalah, northern Kosalas, PrakMsalah, eastern Kosalas, Uttarajjail- calam (rastram) North Pancala, Daksinapancalam, South Pancala, etc. The ancestors of the Gauda-Dravidians lived, as I have already pointed out, on both sides of the Himalaya, and Professor Lassen had good reason for fixing the abode of the Uttarakurus beyond this great mountain chain. In Knrn-Pancalas see also Profeesor Julius Eggeling's introduction to the translation of the Satapatha-Brahmana, Vol. XII, pp. XLI— XLIII of the Sacred Books of the East. r 614 ON THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS like manner bhe BaUikas, and other kindred tribes of the Bharatas, the Pahlavas and Pallavas^ li^ed beyond the abode of snow. Those Gauda-Dravidiaus who resided in India remembered of course quite well at the beginning their fa distant relatives, but the longer the separation continued, the dimmer became the recollection, till the existence of these people lived only in the legend, and was looked upon as a matter of mere imagination possessing no real foundation. Peculiarly enough we find this very opinion expressed in two different places in one and the same work. In the Aitareya-Brahmana it is contended that the various nations who live in the northern region beyond the Hima- laya, such as the Uttarakurus and Uttaramadras, are conse- crated to glorious rule ; but a little further on it is said that the land of the Uttarakurus is the realm of the gods, which no mortal can conquer. ' * The Mahabharata, Ramayana, Paranas and other Sanskrit works contain repeated allusions to the Uttarakurus. The fame of this country had spread even to foreign nations, and Ptolemy speaks of the town, mountains and people of the Ottorokorrha. Plinius and Ammianus Marcellinus, and other classical writers mention them also.''-'^' Professor Lassen has sufficiently proved that the country named after the Uttarakurus was not a myth, '* &ee Aitare[in-Bmhmana,Yl\l,li: " TasmSd etasyam udicy.im disi yr ke ca paroaa Hiraavantam janapadah Uttarakurava Uttaramadra iti vairajyaya ("va te' bhiaicyante," and VIII, 23: " Yada brahinaaa uttara- kuriin jayeyam atha tvani u ha eraprthivyai rajasyas senapatir evate'ham syam iti. Sa hovaca Vasisthas Siityahavyo devaksetram vai tad na vai tad niartyo jetum arhatyadrukso me u'ta idam dada iti." Compare Haug's Aitareija-Brahmanam, Vol. I, pp. 203 and 211; Colebrooke's iViscellaiieoui Essays, Vol. I, pp. 38— 43 ; Professor Weber's Indische Stwdien, Vol.1, p. 218, and IX, pp. 341, 342 ; Muir's Ori.iiual Sanslrit Texts, Vol. I, pp. 492, 493, and Vol. II, pp. 324, 325. " See Claudii Ptolemaei Geographia edit. C. F. A, Nobbe Vol. II pp. 128, 129, 130, and 245, or VI, 16, 2, 3, &pos 'OrropoKo^^as ; VI, 16, 6, the people 'OTTopoKo^fiai, and VI, 16, 8 and Vlll, 21, 7 the town 'OrTopoKo^^a OF BHAEATAVABSA OR INDIA. 615 though the recollection of it had faded away and the people of India treated it afterwards as a divine fable land.'^ The Kurus and the Pancalas were the two principal tribes of the Bharatas, who alternately lived in close friendship with, or fought against, each other in fierce battles. Such a sanguinaiy and pernicious war forms the legendary subject of the Mahabharata, which has as its special theme the fortunes of the great Bharata family, but which includes within its voluminous pages an encyclopedia of ancient Hindu history, geography, diviuity and cosmology. This is not the place to enlarge on the age and authenticity of the grand Epic- Suffice it to say that some portions are evidently old and must undoubtedly have been written before the birth of Christ. It is, however, curious that no clear and distinct allusion to the Mahabharata is found in the older Sanskrit writings. The original Mahabharata, for it is pretty certain that the Epic in its present recension is of later date, sided, in the fight between the Kauravas and the Pancala-Pandavas, with the brave, honest and noble but ill-starred Kauravas who succumbed not to the valour but to the insidious tricks of their enemies. For to mean wiles fell victims the wise Bhisma, the confiding Drona, and the fierce Karna, while DuryOdhana, whose real name appears to have been Suyo- dhana, was disabled by an unfair blow on his thigh and then killed by Bhima. When the poem appeared in its original form, the deeds of the Kauravas were still fresh in the memory of the people, but when the older genera- tions had disappeared, the recollection of these deeds be- came gradually dimmer and dimmer, so that the infamous behaviour of the Paijdavas was entirely forgotten, and the two parties changed sides in the later literary works so far as '° See Lassen's Essay in the Zeitschrift fur die Kunde des Morgenlandes, II, 62 ff, and Indische Alterthumskimde, Vol. I, pp. 612 and 802 (512 and 654, first edition). 79 6l6 ON THE OEIGINAL INHABITANTS the moral character of both was concerned, the intriguing Pandavas being white-washed and extolled, while the upright Kauravas were blackened and calumniated. Yet though Brahman writers and revisers tried their best to pervert the tenor of the whole poem, representing the Pandavas as genuine Aryan warriors endowed with valour, candour and humanity, and to represent the Kauravas as vile tyrants ; the facts were too strong to make it possible for them to succeed in obliterating the whole past. In spite of all their endeav- ours to omit altogether, or to explain away all questionable incidents in the career of the Pandavas by introducing supernatural agencies or inventing religious motives, the case was too clearly against ihem to obtain their object, nor could they entirely silence the objections of pious critics. The genuine Kuru dynasty ended as we have seen with Santanu, because his sons Citrangada and \'icitravirya died without leaving any offspring. In this difficulty their mother Satyavati had recourse to her son Vyasa Dvaipa- yana, the son of Parasara, whom she persuaded to obtain issue from Ambika and Ambalika, the two widows of his deceased half-brother Vicitravirya. Through this con- nexion were born Dhrtarastra and Pandu, who could not however, be regarded as genuine Kauravas, as neither their reputed father nor their mothers had any Kuru-blood in their veins. It lias been suggested that in the older recen- sion Bhisma took the place of Vyasa, ' ■ in which case Dhrta- rastra and Pandu at least would belong to the Kuru-family, yet this objection is in reality of no importance. None of the wives of blind Dhrtarastra or of pale Pandu were Aryan ladies by birth, Gandhari" was a daughter of the king of the Gandharas, Kunti or Prtha was a Bhoja princess and Madri belonged to the non-Aryan Madras. The ' ' See Professor Adolf Holtzmann's Indische Salle. Cirajivin .. ... . 15,28/ Circle, holy (Sricakra) ... 417 Ciriiji 312 Cirpar ... ■•■ ■-. '''* Ciru 219 Cirnkaraikottai ... ... '44 Ciruman (Ceruman) ... 3 83 640 INDEX. Ciruppaya Cifcragupta Citrafenla Citralekha Citraigada Page. 478 ... 537,538 ... 134,401 449 35,011,616 Citraratha 396,401 (place), 466 Citrasena 610,611 Cittfir 59,236,502 Classifioatiou of Lan- guages ... 10,554 Clay horses ... ... 84 Olive 131 Cochin .. 57,69,75,77,226 (Kaja) Coda 113 133 Codayata 604 Codulu (Kodulu) . 113 Coil 125 Coila Mountain 133 Coimbatore ... 99,163,211 Coins of Greek and Scythian Kings .. 161 Cola ... 30,59,96,98,101,103,112, 113,123,12.5,133,134,138,168,24.5, 249,2,50,253,254,485 Colaimalai ... ... 16 Colair 12 Colakam 163 Colamandalam ... 250,252,254 Colanadu ... ... 247 Colanpedu ... ... 246 Colar ... 116,124,125,128,129 Colara ... 123,128 Colaria 121,12,5,132 Colari (Colair) 124 Colaurian 123,128 Colavnndrin ... 475,477,482 Cole, Capt. R 164 Cole 122,125,201 Oolebrooke, H. T. 83,117,118,280, 339,403,604,614 Coleman, !\[r. Ch. ... 340 Page. Coleman, Mr. Justice George 62,63 Colgong ... ... ... 124 CSiiya Vellala 247 Coflegal 181 Coller 125 Oolleries 123,131 CoUi-Corubaru 221 Collum 124 Colombo 124,301 colour applied in distin- guishing years ... 333 Colnbae 143 Colur 124 Coluta nada Raja ... 226 Comati (Comti) caste ... 55 Comorin, Cape ... ... 398 ComparatiTe Grammar of Dravidiau Languagfs 110,552 Computation of time ... 331 Condochates 114,S50 Congreve, Col. ... 1S1,184,1S0 Conjevaram ... 96,217,258 Connor, Lieut. ... ... 169 Coolee, (Cooly) ... 123,125,128,131 Coonoovar 210,211 Coorg ... 56,164,165,166,167, 207,218,265 {see Kurg) Cooroo, see Kuru. Coracias ludica ... 472 Coragoon ... ... 172 Corar 172,173 Coravar 172,179,180 Cory, M .Isaac Preston, 315,322,331 Cosmography ... ... 27 Cosmology, Indian ... 274,301 Oosoagus 114 Cossack ... ... ... 123 Cotaybutty 226 Coti Curubaru ... ... 211 Cotiote 226 Cow-killers ... ... \<;\\ iNbEk. 641 Page. Creative Force ... 404,405,439 Creator ... ... ... 524 Cremation ... ... 53 Crole, Mr. C. S 59 Cromleok ... 84,191,227,228 Csoma de Korosi ... 214 Cuddalore 253 Cuddapah ... ... 55 Culialu 131 Culiuga 124 Cultivation, dry and wet 106,107 Culiika 91 CamlyCarubaru... 219,224,230 Gunabi 231,232 Cuneiform inscription ... 110 Cuuha, Dr. J. Gerson ... 138 Cuimiimbu-Kurumba ... 232 Cunningham, Sir Alex.... 38,40,42, 43,80-84,86,105,114,115,134,143, 144,162,212,213 Curi 219 CuriBetta 225,237 Curubaru, see Kuruniba... 116,217, 219,221,222,223,224,225,226,232 Curumbal 225,233 Curumbara Nadu ... 225 Ouruvu Callu ... 116 Cutiga 221,223,224 Cuttack 145,149 Da(doi) 42,215 Dacikal .. 63 Dacre, Mr. Joseph ... 61 Badave 151 Dadhica ... ... ... 373 Dadhivahana ... ... 371 Dahika 449 Dahragbi... ... ... 24 Daitya ... 18,90,310,396,404,449, 515,516,519,520,521,524,525,533 Pago. Dakiui 456,571 SaKpu 17,28 Dakja 237,275,302 (serpent), 363, 369,372,419,446,489,522 Daksadhvaraharanavira.. 373 Daksiija 449 Daksinaoara ... 66,414,415 Daksinacari ... ... 66,411 Daksiwakuru ... ... 613 Daksinamiirti ... 371 Daksiuapaiacalam ... 613 Daksiuapatha ... ... 187 Dalpatram Eaya ... 559,560 Dalton, Col. ... 23,38,44,48,84, 121,1 22,130,141,149,152,153, 209,2 10,262,264,553,558,169 Damal, Eamala ... ... 26 L'amalaceruvu ... ... 26 Eamalapadi, Lamalapa- kam (Damarapakam)... 26 Damalavarubliayam ... 26 Damana ... ... ... 371 Damara (Damaru) ... 33,468,495 Damasalkida ... ... 126 Damaskios ... ... 326 Damayanti 449 Damila ... ... ... 26 Damirica (Dimirica) ... 27 Damodara (Salagrania)... 348 Damuda 214,215 danam ... ... ■■■ 195 Danava ...90,313,429,431,446,515, 516,519,524,525 Dance of Kurumbas ... 259 Dance of Devila ... 568,569 Daiidaka (king) 253,256 Dapdakanadu 253,255 Daindakaranya 255,256 Dandesh ... ... ••. 159 Dandin 398 Daniel 563 (U- INDEX. Dantir Dauu Daonoa Darada Darage Daring Hysfasi^es Darn Daruka Danviii's tlieory D.lsa Dasama ... Dasan Dasara Dasaratlia.. raaahuKi ... J-asaratba Kama rasatiUuieth JJaseri, row of Dasju iJattatreya (yalagrama) Dattoli Datura Eavkiua (Davkii. 327,398,554,565 Dnya 4i'J deatli ... ... 520-i!!* Decany iVluabahnana ... 232 Page. ... 368,369 41:1,560,576 317 ... 35,142 564 ... 110,113 51 ;2 371 311 12,13,51G,517,57t) b3 . 214.215 7.1,161 .307,310.377,524, 594,620 414 376 376 223,224 12,13,516,576 348 24 460 Eeda Maida 154 Dekhan ., 23,4N,49,142,571 rekhaiii ... 255 Delhi 118,120 ] elu3 12S Deluge ... 311-328,331 ,o3.5,358 De ma vend ij23 Le meter ... 364,545 Deinon 100,521,550-574 Demonworship (demon- olatry) ... 169,551 Demosthenes 128 1 cnlal 144 Deugarh (jauli chief ... 142 Deograh Aip$lK€S ... Demiokh desa Dararaja ... Page. 379 579 181 1.59,388 369 Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal, see Col. Daltor. Dfsikachari, Mr. N. v.... 296 Deussen, Prof. Paul ... 547,548 Deva 223,281,579 Iie\'adarLivaiia ... 401 Devadigar, ... ... 89 Devagiri ... ... 85,486 Devahilti 449 LSvaki 398,449,455 Deva Pithu (Eev Pithu),.. 125 Devala 592 Devallamma ... ... 502 Devaloka 302,552 Devamatr 398 devaiigana ... ... 439 Devapi 610,611 Devapniije ... ... 562 Dgvarata 592,593 Devarupa ... ... 369 Devasena 16,75,448 Levasravaa ... ,,. 593 Devavata 593 Devavrata (Bhisma) ... 611 Devayana ... 482,539 Devayaui ... ... 578 Devi ... 160,390,308,399,407,416, 425,426,429,433,435,436,438,450 Devaki 449 Devika 611 Dcvikatala ... 401 Devil ... 454,501,513,515,554,557, 558,560-62, (black female devil) 560,567 Devil dauce ... 563,569 Devil temple 571,572 INDEX. 643 Devlbhagavata 285,286,302,308, 851-54,303,364,366,387,388,391, 407,408,421,426,427,437-39,441, 444,446,448 Devimahatmya ... ... 338 Devlyamala ... 452,455,457,458 Devyaramai .. ... 502 Devyupanisad ... 423,425,427 Eewalur ... ... 954 Dhairyalaksmi ... 362 Ehanyalaksmi ... ... 362 Ehakur 153 Ehami 213 Uhanalaksmi ... ... 362 DhanaSjaya 393,397 Dhank ' 79 Dhanka (Dhakka) ... 33 Dhanusagrama ... 340 Dhannskoti 456 Dhanvantari ... 520 Dhara 369,424 Dharatala 302 Dhararia ... ... 411 Dharani ... ... ... 363 Lharkar tribe ... ... 46 Dharma 302,330,410,449,456,611, 617 Dharmadhvaja ... ... 352 Dharmanetra ... ... 611 Dharmaraja 97 (temple), 99,149, 222,237,— Salagrama, 348 Dharmasarhhita... -.• 346 Dbarmasastra ... ... 271 Dharma Zambdi... ... 57 Eharmesh ... ... 558 Dharmi ... ... ... 558 Lhalr (dhata) 287,360,435,541 Dbavaka ... ... ^2 Ehavalagiri ... ... 350 Dhed ^9 Dher 174,570 Page. dhfmal 29 dhol (wild dog) 147 Dhola (Dol) 33 Dholka 81 DhoUa Devi 154 Dliitaraslra 113,610-12,616,620, 621 Dlirti 429,430,448,449 Dhruva 302 dhiima ... ... ... 540 Dhiimavati ... ... 424,444 Ehumini 606 Dhiimraksin 429,430 Dhunba Zambdi.,, ... 57 Dhur, Dhurwa, Dorowa, Dhurwe or Naik-Gonds 149 Dhvani 399 dhyana ... ... ... 411 liigambara ... ... 367 die (aksa) 329 Digambara ... ... 367 Dikpala (Dikpalaka) 293,294,385 DiHpa 585 Dimirica ... ... ... 27 Dindigul ... 54 Eiiiga Pennu ... ... 153 Dio (Deya Pithu) ... 127 Diodorus Siculus .. 562 Dionysius ... ... 382,545 Dio Pithus 125 Dio Pithusa, Diopithuse.. 125-29 liioskuroi ... ... 276 Dipa Zambdi ' 511 Eipti 429,430 Dirghatamas ... ... 605 Dirkish ... 182,186,192 Diti 118,449,516,520 div 275 Diva 281,449 Divodasa 610 Doddamaliacaiya ,,, 309 G41. INDEX. Page. Dodda Virajeudra Baja 168,170 dog (wild) 147 Dokhala 82 Dome 136 Don 321 Dongur Devi ... ... 154 Donigar 201 Donda 254,255,256,257 Dora(Doralu) 148,149 Do weon. Prof. John ... 80 I.ramala ... ... ... 26 Dramida, dramila ... 2f,26 Draupi 187 Draupadi... 07-00,449,456,457, 471,477,608,611,617 Dravida 22-26,28,84,114,119,134, 214,320,324,325 Dravida- Brahman 21,117,118,605 Dra vidian 5,6,13,17,27,2S,31, 14,50, 55,57,69-72,03,94,101,105-7,100, 110,116,117,119,122,137,155,164, 168,180,182,207,216,220,237,558, 550,568,.576,603,605,621,623 ; — dance, 44; — grammar 27,28,31, .'io ; — languages 106,107,110, 164;— race 13,168,180,237, Ac. Dibhika 579 Drimila ... ... ... 26 Didna 187,615 Druiiiaparvan ... ... 187 Drsadvan ... ,,, 454 druh 517,518 Druhin 285,287 Druhyu 577,578 drum 33 Drupada 60S,617 Drybaktai 114 Diibner, Pr 127 Dubois, Abbe 226,248 Dudh Kaur 210 Duka, Dr. Theodor ... 37 Dokiilikii 456 Dnndubhi 482,473 Durandhari ... ... 471 Durga 188,197,237,268,368,369, 371,374,414-16,418,420, 422-24,428-30,443,444, 446,449,452,156,464,495-98 Durgamba (Durgamma) 237,456, 496,497 Durgapnja .398,402,414,415 DurgSstava ... 424,430 Dugawa 225 Durga ... 368,369,371,374 Dargi ... 368,424 Darniukha 607 Dnrvasaputri 456 Duryodhana 187,611,615 Dussasana 611 Dusyanta 101,133,594,602,605,606 Duthoit, Jlr. 41 Dvaipayana .. 589,611 Dvandva 396 Dvaparayiiga . 307,328,329, 330,337,584 dvara 338 Dvaravati 401 Dvija 543 Dwara llath 213 Dyaus 402 Pymock, I'r. 268 Ea (Eakin) ...283,318,319,326 (fish), 327,398,554 Earth (goddess of) 154,402,452, 453,457,468,554,573 Eda-Kurumba ... 229,230 Edda 454 Egatta(KgaUil) 52,55,499 INDEX. 645 Page. Egg (golden) 284 Eggeling, Prof . Julius ... 613 Egypt 80,315,316,381,382,545,546 Egyptian ... 283,307,315,316,318, 327,331,333,381,542-40 Eivurmalay ... ... 226 Ejuruppa , 224,237 Ekaksaropanisad ... 361 Ekavirika 602 Ekamatr 456,499 EkambaresTarasvamikovil 95 Ekanatha 449 ekintabhakti 409,410 Ekaparna ... ... 419 Ekapatala 419 Ekavira 399 EkaTirika 502 Ekim 556 Ek5ji 263 ela 6 Elamattichi ... ... 502 Blankajiyamina ... 502 Ellaicatti 402 BUaikaramma ... ... 501 Bllaippidari 422,491 Blapur ... ... ... 7 BlattaJ 52 Elavur 7 Eljudi ... 323 elephant electing a king 266 eUa(vella) 6,29 Ellamma, Ellammai, Bllam- man.. .52,73,461,464,465-69,471, 472,489 Ellanmttammai ... 464 EUapar 7 Elliot, Mr. C. A 41 Elliot, Sir Henry 38,80,82,119, 264,600 Ellis, Mr. F. M. ... 57,217,244,252, 260 P.ige. 5 502 5 29 186 Elora (Teliu'a, Verul) ... Bhigolamma Blur (Velur, Yelur) emu (inenui) En Energy, principle of Fe- male, 368,388,398,402,414,428, 436-447,450, 45 1 ,457,550,554 Bnnamma ... ... 502 enu (npnu) ... ... 29 Eranoboas ... ... 114 Ereoh ... ... ... 317 Eridu 315,327 erika, eruka, eruku ... 208 Erikelavaclu, Erikeladi, Erikelaeani ... ... 208 Eriwan ... ... 321 Ernada (or Tamuri) ... 226 Erode ... ... ... 296 erra 205,206,207 ; Erra Golla, 207,228; Erraraudlu 202 eragu 20.5 Eruka (Eruku) 208,209 Ernkuvadu ... ... 2OI esa (vesa) ,., ... 29 Etliiop, Ethiopian ... 180 Ethnology of IJengal, see Col. Dalton, 23,209-11,266,558, 569,575 Ettiyamman ... ... 501,502 Baedorachos ... ... 317 Euphony .. ... 4 Eup'iorbia 460 Euphrates ... 12,126,322,558 Europe ... 86,101,129,313 European ... 34,122,547 Eurotas 126 Evalkarappey ... ... 496 Everest, Rev. R 340 Evil Spirit 558 exorcist .,. ... ... 567 646 INDEX. Eyirkottai eyata (vpynta) .. Page. 244 29 Pammada ... ■•. 166 Fawcett, Mr. Fr. 475,497,409, 500 FazlGhSzi 4^ Female Energy, principle o', see Energy. FergusBon, Mr. F. ... 81,177 Feridun... 279 Ficus Beligiosa -. 492 Fiend ... 513,515,510-26 fifth caste 64 Fire-race "*^ Fire-walking ... ■.■ 9° Fire-worship ... •.• '^^ Fishermen made Brahmans 165, 107 Fl.avius Josephus ... 315 Fleet, Mr. 81 Flood, (inundation) 107, see deluge. Forces of nature ... 553 Foulkes, Rev. Thomas ... 73 Franks, Mountain of the, (Farangimalai) ... 7 Friday, worship on ... 469,483,492 Fryc, Lieut. J. P. ... 155 Funzha ... ■•. ■.■ 315 G. Gabhastimat 524 Gadaphara (Gudaphara). 160,161 Gadhin ... 591,592 Gajamukha ... ... 521 Gajanana ... ... 367 GSl 125 Galagalamma ... ... 502 Galava Gam Devi Garia Gaiiambika Gananatha Ganapata Page. 592 154 522 369 389 158 Ganap.ati ... 137,295,375,390,455, 466,482 Gaud (Gauda) 144,146 Gand (Gond) 350 Gandaci, see Gaidaki. gandaka (rhinoceros) ... 114 Gandhakala ... ... 611 Gandaki (Gandak) 114,339,340, 347-51,356-58,360,383,384,385 Gandakipuraua ... ... 353 Gandaphares ... ... 161 Gandara, Gandari ... 113 Gandarai ... ... '114 Gandaris, Gaudaritis '.. 113 Gandha 405 Gandhamadaua ... ... 400 Gandhara, Gandhara, Gandliari ... ll;i,364,449,606,616 Gaudhari 579 Gandharva .. 396,424,467,514, 510,477,611 Gandophares ... ... 161 Gaaesa ... 157,339,371,389, 390,444,446,419 Ganesa (Salagrama) ... 348 Gaijeaajananl ... ... 444 Gaiga (Ganges).. 34,45,83,90,117, 120,125,126,129,130,138,143,144, 214,307,312,350,367,370,373,376, 396,419,448,456,601,608,610,611 Gaiigabhrt 456 GaiigSdikara ... 222,223,231 Gai'igSdvara 370,401 GaiigSkulatar ... 100,107,212 Gaigamma ... 97,498,502 INDEX. 647 Page. Gaiganamma ... ... 502 Gafigappattana ... ... 502 Gaiigaputra ... ... 136 Gangayya 502 Ganges, see Ganga. Gangotri 376 Ganjam ... 8,99,144,145,147 Ganoba ... ... .. 157 Gansam ... ... ... 569 Ganteramma ... . S02 Gaonka Korawa... ... 199 Gar 119 Garbhhagrha 249 Gardner, Mr. Percy ... 161,179 Garigadevara ... ... 503 gariman ... ... ... 502 Garuda 346,368,369 Garudapuraaa ... 341,351,526, 531,536-38,541,542 GatMn 556,591 Gauda (Dravidian) ... 362,364,370 Gauda (molasses) ... 119 Gauda (town) ... 117,121,148 Gauda ... 22,112-17,119,120, 141,144,221,223 Gauda-Brahman ... 21,117-21,605 Gauda-Dravidian... 9-11,21,52 109-11,131,134,177,189,193: 207,237,256,282,287,805,308; 318,328,336,398,412,421,422, 451-54,458,463,464, 504,505 509,552,553,575,576,601,603 604,606,613,614 Gauda-Golla 220 Gauda king. Eastern ... 120 Gaudaka 113 Gaudadesa 119,120 Gaudapada ... ... 403 Gaude 116 Gaudian ... 13,32,72,109,112, 115-19,130,132,134,140,142,155, Page. 1 56,159,160,164,179,261,453,603, 605,621,623 — , derivation from ko, 109 Gauh (Sarasvati) ... 286 Gaukarna... ... ... 138 Gaula 114,116,142 Gauli 116,141,142 Gaunda ... ... ... 12 Gaundal, Gaundan ... 99 Gaur 117 Gaur Brahman ... ... 119 Gaurtaga... ... ... 119 Gaura, 113,114,117 (town), 118,119 Gauresvara ... ... 117 Ganri .. 368,369,399,421,424,426, 447,448 Gautama ... 371,403,4fl4,449, 562,584 Gautamesalinga ... ... 380 Gautami .. 434 Gautamiya ... ... 413 Gaya 291,400,401 Gayakup .. ... 291 Gayatri ... 275,289,290,368,369, 378,397,399,423,424,585 Gayelliutty pass .. ... 181 Gaynigara ... ... 173 Genealogy of the Malabar Gods 375 Genesis ... 319,322,332,333,336, 548,558 gentlemen gintlemen ... 604 Gerard, Dr. J. G. ... 340 Germann, Kev. Dr. 340,374,375, 379,467,507 Gesenins, Wilhelm ... 11 Ghat (ghaut) ... 135,140,149,150_ 172,226,353,254 Ghatodbhava ... 24 Ghatotkaoa ... 455,456,611 Ghelote race ... ... 79 83 648 INDEX. Ghost ... 422,509,510,513,526-550 GhraiTia 405 Ghurry 553 Gigim ... ... 655,556,561,564. Gincle ... ... ... 562 Girijakalyaaa ... ... 370 Girlsa (Girisa) 365,450 Gisrlhubar ... ... 3lV Glasfurd, Mr, C. L. R. ... 149,153 Gnostic ... ... ... 558 g5 109,113,116,135 Go (Oow).Brahmin ... S9 Goa 135,377 Goalaru 219,224 Goallies 142,143 Goanda 144 Gods ... 273 (vedic), 375 (Genea- logy of Malabar), 382,522,540, 550,552,557,560 (Great Black God), 5S2 Goda 114 Godaphara ... ... 161 Godavary ... 146,14'',1 49,151,187 Goddess of Earth, 398,452-54,554, 555, (—of Truth) r,i3 Goddina Bakada ... 161 Godu 144 Goetz, Kev. Jacob ... 303 goggodi ... ... ... 146 gohatya ... ... ... 195 Gojar, Bev. Oh 297 Gokarna ... 137,138,269,370,375_ 379,380,400,401 Golden book of Venice ... 581 Goldsmith caste ... 61,68 GoUa 219,220 golladu, goUavadu ... 218 GoUata 219 G516ka 302,351,354,447 Gomanta Mountain . . . 268,401 (Gomedhavalli 522 Page, GomatI 399 Gonand 375 Gond 32,68,81 ,82,109,115,132,134, 142,143-61,187,210, 211,364,436 Goiida,Goijda... 13,111,112, 113,114 Gondu 115,116,148 Goudu 112 Gondal (Gondhal, Gondhul) 14S, 160,161 Gondala (Gondhala) cere- mony 159,160 Gondali (Gondhali, Gondhi), 156, 160 Gondaloi 113 Gondana worship ... 159,160 Gondhal, Gondhala, Gond- hali, see Gondal, Gon- dala, Gondali. Gondaphares .., 161 Goarjavaua ... 113 Gopdavara , 113 Gondi 109,110 Gondish affinity ... 214 Gondii 160 Gondophares 160-62 Gondu 144,145 Gondvana ... 148,149,150 Gooddine, report of Mr. B. N. 48, 49 Gopa 382 Gopaladesikahnikam ... 364 Gopala-Salagrama ... 349 Gopalatangai ... ... 474 Gopi 268 Gopikapati ... ... 443 Gor 115 GorakhpBr ... 38,40,45,263 Gor-Brahman ... ... 46 Goroha 201 INDEX. 649 Page. Page. gorre (sheep) 218 Gudaphara ... 160-62 Gorys 113 gudda 110 Goaavi 291 giidu ... 189,193 Gossa Pennu 152,153 Guduvafioeri 105 Gotes 148 Gudwa 153 Goth 598 Guha (SalagrSma) 348 Gottingen 372 Guhavasin 371 Government Oriental Guhyaka ... 514 MSS. Libran 7 65,176 Guhyakall 399 GoTinda 241,361 Grahay Sthapayutha pa... 456 Gramacandala ... ... 62 Gramadevata .. 327,378,398,413, 449-504,508,513,554 Gramadevatapratistha... 453,455, 458,460,462 Grant, Mr. Charles ... 141,142, 146,148,149,153 grantha (kirantam) ... 3 Graasmann, Prof. ... 519 Graul, Dr 561 Great Bear 276 Great Father, Great Mother 554 Grecian influence ... 381 Greece ... 382 Greek 3,11,12,17,28,128-31,144, 160,161,275,276,278,313, 315-17,331,334,381,545, 562,609 Greenlander ... ... 314 Grhalaksmi 363 Gxhyasiitra ... ... 541 Gribble, M. J 55 Griffith, Mr. K. ... 527,529,588, 597,599 Grigg, Mr. H. B. 183,185,186,196, 217,225,228,230,269 Grimm, Prof. Jacob ... 527 Guda ... 117,119 GudalSr ... 182,193,253 Gujarat (Guzerat, Guza- rat) ... 117,118,124,135,186, 139,196,262,373,571 Gnjar's daughter ... 290 Gnjarati ... 61,504, — deities 571 Gujjara ... ... ... 117 Gulige 562 Gumsur ... ... ... 153 gunas, three ... 284 Gnnd 150 Gundert, Dr. .. 107,110,111,134, 163 Gundoforus ... ... 161 Gnndophares ... ... 161 Gmidn 110 Gunnybag-weaver ... 7 Guntur 293 Gupta era ... ... 81 Gur (molasses) ... ... 117 Guroari ... ... ... 112 Gurh-gajni ... ... 81 Gurjara ... ... ... 22 gurramu girramu ... 604 Gursee ... 142,143 Guru ... 59,60,61,236, 373 (gurava), 456 Gurumarle ... ... 562 Gurunatha ... 200,235,236,454 Gutsohmld, Prof. ... 161 gutla ... 110 Gutta-Koi ... 146 Gutturals, interchange of 111 650 INDEX. Page. 376 Guzarat, see Gujarat. Gwala H. Habashi ... .. ... 175 Haiga ... ... •.• 172 Haihaya ... 610 Haimavati ... ... 418,419 Hakki-korama, Hakki- koraw. 201 haia 29 hale ... 36 Halepaiki ... ... ISl Hall, Dr. Fitzedward ...23,36,144, 152,257,268,331,379,542,609 Hal (Halu, Pal) Curuba.. 221,224, 230,232 halla ... ... 106 halli 100 hambatar ... ... 156 Hamilton's bridge in Madras 7 Hamirpur ... ... 40 Harasa 297 Hariisavahana .. ... 2S7 Hauday Eavalar... ... 225 Hande (Handi, Handy) Kurumba ...218,219,221,224, 230,232 Hanti 334 Hanuman (Hauumanta) 161,224, 456 Hara 307,509 narapunyalmlly ... 224,225 Hari ... 285,313,324,338,355,363, 390,427,443 Harida 593 Haridwar ... ... 376 Harihai- 196 Page. 509 ... 506,513 502 400,401,594 592 367 19,35,36,38,39, 59,125,419,420,429-32,434, 591,592,594,600,604,609,610 Harihara ... Hariharaputra Harinahalli Hariscandra Harita Harivaktra Harivariiia Harkness, Capt. A. Harlajhnri Harran Haryasva Hasalar ... Hasdo, source of Hasisu-adra Hassamnr Hastigiricampii ... Hastin Hastinapura Hastipa ... Hastisaila Hathayoga, hathayogin hatya 185 376 557 ... 608-10 156 150 317 181 253 ... 606,610 120,210,401,611 82 29d 412 136 Hang, Dr. M, .279,330,592,593, 599,614 Haughton havanu ... Haveli Haviga Brahman havirbha ... Havisravas Havyaka Gotra .. Hayagriva Hayyangavina . . Hea, see Ea Heaven (god of).. Hebrew . Hebros Hegodu devana cotay Hektenes... 268 3 42 166 24 611 234 813,324 456 565 402,539,554 3,10,11,33,318,381,558 126 224 814 INDEX. 651 Heliopolis Hell Helote Hemaoandra Hemad Pant Hemaknta Hendley, M. J. H. Henotbeism hera (seeker) Hera Hercher, Mr. Rud. Hermaeus Page. ... 318,543 285,529,539 122 268 142 402 84,85 273 44 398 127 179 Hermaic (Hermetic) book 318 Hermes (Trismegistos) 331,335 Herodotas ... 8(3,129,383,545 Hervay Samudra ... 222 Hewitt, Mr. J. F. 139,579,586, 601 Hibiscus .. 418 Hidimba ... ... ... 611 Highlanders 70 Hikkoduwe Samangala Terunamse ... ... 301 hima ... ... ... 421 Himadri ... ... ... 401 Himalaya ... 17,20,142,143, 213,311 ,312,324,325,326,336, 340.370,377,379,396,398,340, 601,613,614 Himalayan ... 539,576,622 Himavat ... 311,324,401,419,446 Hindi 211,214,261 Hindia ... ... ... 157 Hindu ... 1,2,21,49,60,64,67,69, 70,76,77,91,93-95,102,140,144, 147, 150-52, 154-59, 170, 194,195, 200,204,209,210,221,235,241,282, (caste), 287, (worship), 301 (cos- mology), 303, (god), 361,365,372, 381,392,414,453,490,514,553,559, 604,606,615 Page. Hinduism ... ... 258 Hindustan ...118,201,264,282, 504 Hindustani ...10,43,49,157,255, 268 Hinglaz (goddess) ... 139 Hiugula 399 Hippokura ... ... 81 Hiram 10,11 Hiraayagarbha 280,287 Hiraiiyaksa ... ... 310,592 Hiraayaksi ... 399,429,430 Hislop, Kev. Steph. ... 150,209 Historia Naturalis, see Pliny. hita 29 Hitopadesa ... ... 120 Hiven Taang ... 37,81,83,117 Hlaiurn 191 Ho 130,214 Hoaugho... ... ... 315 Hodgson, Mr. B. H. 8,29,214 Hokran 291 hola (field) 156 hole (pollution) 56 Holeya ... 14,32,50,53,54,56,85, 156,164,169,171,173,175,207,299, 380,502,562 Holey aramma ... ... 502 Holsteiu 192 Holtzmann, Prof. Adolf.. 616 holy thread 58 Hoobashee, see Hubashica. Hooerkes 177 Horus 283,316,543,544 Hoshalli 475 Hosur 501 Hotr priest 272 Hri 429,430 Hubasika (Hubushica, Hoobashee) ... 171-73,175-78 Hughes, Mr. A. W. ... 37 652 INDEX. Hujinz ... ... ... 225 Hulikal drug 192,227 Hultzsch, Dr. E 81 human sacrifices to Bura Deo and Tari Pennu 153, among Todas to Bhumidevi ... ... 453 Hunter, Sir W. W. ., 48,123,124, 145,146,155,216 Hurlipal 500 Hnttagar 196 Huviska (Hooerkes) 177,178,179 Huzvaresh ... ... 110 Hwen Tsang, see Hiven Tsang. Hydaspes 126,129,140 Hyder 226 Hyderabad ... 200-21,209 Hymns, Tedic 274,372 lamblichos . . 331 Ibu Batuta 134 Ibu Khurdadba ... SO locha (pur) 401 Ichthyophage 126 Ida 311,324 Idaippen ... 483 Idaiyan ... 218,230,232,237,239 Idavida 87 Idungcaiyar ... ... 57 Ijyamana... ... ... 224 Ikkattukottai 244 Ik3vaku ... 256,403,584,785,594 Ilavaniyar ... ... 63 IJankattukottai ... ... 244 liar .., 64 Ilavan (Yilavan)... ... 5 niapur ... ... ... 7 Hvala 89 Imperial Gazetteer of India (see Sir W. Hun- ter) i8 Inachos 126 incantations 567 Incarnations of Visnu ... 310 Indhu 280 India 1,9,15,19-21,29,32-36,39,42, 43,46,58,61,62,67,68,84-6,88-90, 92-98,100,101,104,107-9,112-16, 118,120,121,123-26,128-32,134, 139,142,143,147,148,156,160-62, 174,177,179,180,187,189,192,198, 199,201,207,209-12,214,215,225, 231,255,256,260,261,263,268,269 271 (Aryan invaders of), 283, 284, 289 (Brahman's worship in India), 291 (caste), 303,327, 328,359,363,364 (Brahmanic community of), 370,371,373, 374,375,377,379,381,382, 386, 485,552,553,559,575,603 Indian Antiquary ... 47,49,54 55,57,58,81,82,85-88,98-101,111, 130,140,142,146,148,155,157,174, 175,185,187,190,206,234,261,265, 314,335,370 (—pantheon,— po- pulation) Indira ... ... ■.• 456 Indisclie Alterthumskunde, •see Lassen. 130,310,374,610, 612 Indische Studies of Prof. Weber 72,369,380,412 Indoe 114 Indo-Scythian ... 79,80,177,178 Indore 187 IndrSni . ... 290,398,457 Indra ... 12,14,18,90,273,275-281, 289,306,358,398,418,425,427,430, 433,447,449,517,518,525,541,587- 89,617 Indrabha 611 ludradyumna ... ... 54,55 INDEX. 653 Indrajit ... Indraknlatar Indranagaram Indrasena Indrasiidra Indravati Indnkuru . . . Page, 322 107 475 610 222 151 502 Indus ... 20,35,78,86,125,126,128, 129,139,608 InsigBia of Vellalas and Pariahs ... ■■. 51 Iranian ... ... ... 36 Iranic ... 275,279 Iravat ... ... ... 97 Irbitoi 35 Irioiyamman ... ... 502 iron cow of hell ... 148 Irula 64,191 Irulatamman ... .. 502 Isa 159,456 laa khan ... ... ... 44 Isana ...279,361,368,385,386,449 Isatva 502 Isis 283,383 Ismenos ... ... ... 126 Istadevata 389,464 Islar 317 Istnhar 317 Isvara ... 225,366,403,408,409, 419,457,489,508 levari 438,471 ita 29 Itaiyar (Idaiyar), Vatnka 63 Italy 382 Itaikai 62,95 Ivu (niTii) .. ... 29 J. Jacani 225 21,22 Page. Jagadaniba . . , 416 Jagajampina sattige ... 223 Jagannatha 54,55,76 Jagat 387 Jagatsrastr 287 Jahnavi ... ... ... 396 Jahnu 59*,606 Jaigisavya 371 Jain Missionaries... 67,100,236, 245 Jaina ... 60,62,241,245,248 ;—baBti 245,248;— priests, 245;— rites, 241 Jainism ... 47,67,235-37 Jaiyata ... 604 Jakaneri grama ... ... 229 Jakkedaknlu 300 Jala 406,607 Jaladurga 455,456 Jalaja 340 Jalalpur ... .., 40 Jalamiirti... .. ... 45g Jalandhara ... 143,355,401 Jalandharaharapa ... 371 Jalamma ... .,, 502 Jamadagui ... 456,466-69,593 449 429,430 429 117,353 385 379 610 399 289 279 577 404,584 340 302 Jambavati Jambhanl Jambn Jambudvipa Jambnkesvara . . . J ambukesvaram .. . Jambunada Jambunades"? ari James, Lieut. -Col. Jamshid ... Janah, panca Janaka Janakapura Janaloka (Januloka) Janamejaya 120,606,610-12 654 INDEX. Page. Janaigama ... ... 17,19 Janappar ... ... 63 Janardana ... ...312,358,361 .laupur (Janupur) ... 38,40 Jaatravar ... ... 63 Japa ... 396 Japamala ... 297 Japeivara... ... ... 4O0 Jara ... ... ... i-t9 Jarasandha ... ... 43 Jarandaye ... ... 562 Jarutha ... ... ... 517 Jas 401 Jashpur ... ... ... 210 .Jatadhara ... 134 Jaaka, see Yaska. Jatamalin 371 Jatavedaa,-si ... 429,430 Jatharagni 24 Jati 456 Jatibhedannl 95 Jatimala ... 117 Jatindramatadipi ia ... 309 Jatisaii grahasa ra ... 62,71,95 Java 131 Javadu 233 Javumadimalu .. 502 Jaya 399,429,430,448 Jayabrole... 294 Jayadhvaja 38,39 Jayanti 399 .Jayantipura ... 265,266 .Tayapuram 292,293,295 Jejuri 158 Jenkins, Sir B. . 152 Jensen, Rev. J. . 55 Jpnu Kurumba .. ... 223,226 Jeremiah... 322 Jew ... . 180,313 Jeypore . 34,35,147,151 Jesirah ibn Omar 323 Jhansi 141 Jhurias ... , 149,154 Jihva 405 Jikkini 562 Jilla-Court decision 58 Jiraga chapagodu 223 Jitari 610 Jnana 449 JnanaprakaSa matam . 244 Jinanavetti 51 Jflanambika 296 Jnanin ... 287 (Brahman), 540 Jodhpnr ... ... 47 Jognlamba ... ... 502 JoriPennu ... ... 152 Josephns, Flavius 315,318,322, 332 Joshimath ... ... 213 Journal of Bengal Asiatic Society, see Asiatic Society Journal, Bombay Asiatic Society. 138 Journal of the R. A. So- ciety of Great Britain and Ireland ... ... 372 Juang 82,83 Jubbalpnr ... ... 122 Jugah Pennu ... ... 152 Jugdulpur ... .. 154 Juhu Zambdi ... 571 Jumadi... .. ... 562 Jumadibante ... ... 562 Jumna ... ... ... 34 Juno 398 Jupiter . 276,334,366,398, 557 Jvalamnkhi ... ... 399 Jyeshet Pushkar ,., 290 Jyoti 456 Jyotilinga 373 INDEX. 655 K. Page. Ka (Egyptian) 284,287,543 Kabbala 555 Kabul 179 Kaoa 475 Kacohapa 592 Kacoipadiyal, Kaooippatiyal 471, 501 KaoM 350 Kadalai 478 Kadaliir 245 Kadamba, Kadamba 176-79,259, 264-69 Kadambatree ... 264-66,268 Kadamban, Kadambu (flower tree) ... ... 267,268 Kadamban (unruly fellow) 269 Kadambara ... ... 268 Kadamban ... ... 268 Kadambariyamman . . . 502 Kadambatavl ... ... 267 Kadambavanam ... 267 Kadambu 267,268 Kadapbes 179 Kadiri ... ... ... 54 KadKurumba 269 Kadphises 177,179 Kadru 435,449 Kadu-GoUa 220 Kadu-Kurumba... 223,224,225,230 Kadukal, Kadukalammai. 471 Kadumpadi ,., ... 475 Kadumbadiyammal ... 501 Kaf 11 Kahasuma ... ... 196 Kaikeyi 611 Kaikkolar . ... 64 Kaikos 126 Page. Kailasa 16,137,225,236,295,368, 375,433,435 Kaimaron ... 129 Kairavinl ... ... 16 Kaitabha ... 427,437,438 KaitabhanasinI ... ... 430 Kaivalya ... ... 411 Kai valyopanisad . . . 419 Kaiyata ... ... 601 Kaiyanar ... ... 509 Kaiyo 135 Kak§asena ... ... 610 kal (theft) 257 kala 205,209 kala (liar) 257 Kala 350,365,449 Kala 399,429,430 Kalabria 128 Kalacukilrar ... ... 64 Kaladgi 234 Kalagandika ... ... 350 kalage ... ... ... 191 Kalagninidra ... ... 449 Kalahandi ... ... 151 Kalahasti ...253,254,295,380,385 kalam . ... ... 480 Kalamardaua ... ... 370 Kalamma ... ... 495 Kalanjara ... 130,400,401 KalanoB (Kalyana) .. 129 Kalar 124 kalaris 129 Kalam sariipinl ... ... 448 Kalaratri .. ... ... 434 Kalariipiiil 430,448 kalasa ... ... ... 481 Kalatiai (Kalantini) ... 129 KalatturkoUai 244 Kalauer 129 Kalanreates . . ... 128 Kalauria, nymph 126,128-30,133 65fi INDEX. Page. Kalauroa 128 Kaii 52,130,154,196,200,203,233, 237,393,399,415,416,421,420,444, 448,449,452,457,467, 495,496,49S Krill-Kurumba ... 233 Kalidasa... ... ... 17 Kalighatta ... ... )46 Kalikai 19fi Kalikapurana ,., ... 415 Kalikatantra ... ... 413 Kalima ... ... ... 196 Kalinda 129,130 Kilindi 129,449;— Bhedana 130 — Karsana ... ... 130 KSlindlsil 130 Kalinga . 84,133,191,370,366 Kaliyamma ... .. JOS Kaliyuga ... 118,307,328,329,330, 334,337,465,100,472 Kaliynrkoltai 244 Kalki 307,309,444 Kalkude 502 kajla (lie) •;S7 Kfijla (r) 54,89,257-00,207 Kalla, Kalhawa, Kahlana 72 KaHa Bantra 199 Knlla Kuruniba(Koranna) 123, 131,132,201,221 (kolli), 232, 233,257 kalJam (theft) ... 257 kalian (thief) ... 257 kallajjatitalaiyan 269 kallakkfttn 259 Kallisthenes ... 129 Kallolini 500 Kalmnsnpada ... 583,584 Kalpa .. 302,312,313,324,325,365, 539,543 Kalriitti 562 Kalyauapattana ... ... 222 Kalyani 399 Kama Kamacarinl Kamadeva Kani idh enu Kamadhuk Kamagama Kamakala Kamakhya Kautaksi Kaniala Kamalalaj a Eanialamba Kamalasana Kamalaydni Page. ... 196,410 399 198 ... 289,584 396 484 424 399,413,446 ... 196,471 399,442,444 ... 400,401 296 287 287 Kanianda (Knrumba) prabhu 244,245 Kainamma ... ... 502 Kamatanu ... ... 196 Kamataraya ... ... 194,196 Kambala ... 399 Kambali (Cumly) Knrum- ba, 2ls.219,224.229,230,232, 233,259 Kamban 250,252 Kamboja . ... 35,36 Kamm.ilar .. 5S,59,65,94 Kammiira ... ... 65 Kamma'arnkal ... 63 Kanipjla ... 018-21 Kampilya ... ... 009 Kamrup ... .. 44 Kamsa 429,430 Kamsalajati .. 61,62 Kamtctatka ... 559 Kamuka 399 Ivanakammal ... ... 489 Kanaka (Kanakka) Pillai- kal 211,255 Kanakavatr ... ... 176 Kanakavalli ... 17 Kanakhala ... ... 400 INDEX. 657 Page. Kanara 105,138,168,173,178,247, 304,379,539,570 Kanarese ... 3,4,10,27,28,32,36,51, 66,84,97,105-7,224,231,255,257, 110,131,133,163,169,218-20,258, 265,503,504,511,613 Kanauj (Kanoj) 117-19 Kanaujia ... ... ■•■ 119 Kanaveriyan ... ... 485 Kanberln ... ... 562 Kanci,Kancipuram ... 53,59,62,95, 216,217,222,236,250,251,256,258, 296,379,385,394,399,456,475 Kanoiyar... ... ... 63 Kand ... 143-161 Kanda ... 112,161 (god), 303 Kandahar... ... .■ 113 Kandala 15.5,156 Katidali 156 Kacdaloi 32,80,82,84,113 Kandappa . ... ... 161 Kapdara 112 Kandaroi 113,114 Kandarpa 369,396 Kandarpa Narayana Eai 44 Kandasvami ... ... 303 KandehEao ... ... 158,306 Kandesh ... ... ... 80 Kaodh ... 149 Kandipatna ... ... 114 Kandiya ... ■■ ■•• 1^9 Kandoba ... ... 157,158,306,507 Kandola ... 113 kandoli, kaijdolaviua ... 32 kandy •■■ 301 Kanerkes 177,179 Kanet ... 213 Kangra ... ... 145 Kangiandi... ... ■•■ ^31 Kanh 160 Kanh-Desh ... •■ 159 Page- Kani-Kurumba ... 229 Kaniaka 177-79,375,381 Kanjai 303 Kaiijagiri 475 Kaflj a veriyan 485 Kanka 291 KaiikaladViara ... 371 Kankaija... ... 248,371 Kanmalar .. 479 Kannadiyar 60 Kannadi Golla ... 220 Kanijaniir ... 474,475 Kainnapuram 475 Kannar ... 64 Kannimar 477,500,611 Kaanitaiya Ceniy ar ... 63 Kanoj 118 KanpiiriS... 46 Kantadesh 159 kantam ... 110 Kantaniitrijamadibante 562 Kantarijumadi , 562 Kaiitippidan 491 Kanva recension of the white Yajnr Veda ... 621 Kanyii ... 500,522 Kanyakubja ... 22,117,118,133, 385,401 Kanyakumari 52,368 Kapalamocana 402 Kapali ... 429,471,494 Kapalika .. 458 Kapalin ... 390 Kapi 11,403 Kapila 67,68,307,384,392,396,399, 403-6,429, 449,469,539,553,550 KapiU ■.• 399,429 Kapilar 67,68 Kapilasntra ... 529,539,553 Kapil.avastu 308,403 Kappal taccar ... ... 64 658 INDEX. Kappal Vadiikar Kappata Koraga KSppu kapn Kavaiyar... Karajar .. karakam ... Karall Karamani Karamara Karanasaundari .. Karandoo Batia . Karani Karatoya... Karavira Karduchian Kardama... Kardu Kareiiumati Kari (Kali) Karikkattammiil .. . Karinkali 61 156,172,175 52 106 64 156 463,494,503 ... 429,430 478 ... 173-75 471 560 471 45,48 401 323 ... 449,464 323 611 230 501 ... 230,237 Karkal ...151,399,303,304,305,562 Kaikotaka 302 Karmadiya Kurumba ... 229 Karmania... .. ... 35 karmavrtta ... ... 301 karmasiddhi ... ... 369 Karniin ... ... 552 Kama ... ... ... 615 KanjaGoUa 220 Karijam 459,490 Karuata ... 22,117,134,221,223-25, 230,269 Kariiata Kurumba ... 243 Karnatic .. ... ... 201 Karniil 379 Kartavlryarjuna (Salagrania) 348 Kavttikai (Kartik) ... 290,4-17 Karttikeya ... ... 15,401 Karttiki 157 karu Karuppan Karuppanina Karuppamanusarkal Karur karvi Karwi Karya Themamin Kasbar ... Kashmir (Kasmira) Kasi, King of the, 604 482 488 327 296 604 115 323 161 1,117,144,381 610 265,293,345,475,610,611 Kasi Kasikhaada Kasinatha . Kasiyatra.. Kasmir ... Kasmiramandala Kaspar Kastha ... Kastiiri ... Kasyapa (Kasyapa) Kata Katampan, Katambu, etc., see Kadamban, etc. Katheiiotheism Kathi Kathiawar (Kattywar) Kati Katikaikottai Kattan ... Katfcayi ... Katteri .. kafcti gitti Katfiyam .. Katu Katulya ... Katuradu... Katwar Katyayana KatyayanI 369,418,429,430,434, 437 413 414 74 ... 375,381 401 161 ... 429,430 286,362,513 516,520,524 171 273 82 78,136,148 592 244 ,. 482,483 499 .. 489,571 604 259 269 151 147 129 104,368,424,592 INDEX. 659 Page. Page. Kantirya... 434 Kera 133 Kauberi ... ... 426,447 Kerala, 69 (Keralam) 101,133, Kauberlu 562 163,165,169 kaufe 110 Keri (street) 193 Kaula 416 Kern, Prof. 83 KauUagireya 134 kesara .. 341 Kaulubha 142 Kesava 361 Kauliita ... ... 142,143 Kesini 87,606 Kanmari ... 447 Kesurbai... 571 Kanmarila 19 Kpsuryogini 571 Kaundar ... ... 99,116 Ketaki (flower) 288 Kauninda ... 144,145 Ketrale ... 562 Kaur ...123,201,209-11,239,241 Khade Pathar 158 Kaurava ... 35,210,211,615-17 kbadga ... 157 Kam-avl ... 449 Khadgaravana 456 Kausalya ... 4 ♦9,619 Khagesvari 351 Kansambi 120 Khairwara 85 Kausika ... 589,591,592 Khamam (district) ... 147 Kansiki ... 399,429-31 Khand people ...32,140,144,157 kavaca ... ... 354,355 Khaada ... .. 100,112,113,159 Kavas 579 khanda ... 157 Eaveri ... 221,850,296 khaada, khanda khaude, Kaveripattanam... ... 68,245 (sword) ... 157 Kaverya ... 134 Khanda-desa 159 Kavilal ... 105,186 Khandagiri 148 Kavilkar ... 258 Khandala 148 Kavunda ... 112 Khandapara 148 Kayankula. 124 Khaijdava 113 Kayavarohana ... 401 Khaiidavaprasth a ... 113 Kazak (Oossak) ... 123 khande (sword) see Tchanda 157 Kearns, Rev. J. F. 104 Khande Rao 157,168,306 Kedara ... ... 400,401 Khande Rava 157 Kedaramma 502 Khandesa(Khandesh)142,144,148, Kedarelaliriga 379 157,159,191 Kedar Rai 44 Khandesvara 371 Kedu 453 Khandoba ... 14,137,140,157-60, Keikadi ... 12,170 306 kel (to ask) 191 Khandoji ,. 157 Kelu 497 Khandwa 148 Kenna 181 Khapar YoginJ 571 Kenopanisad 419 Khar (Khor) 123 660 INDEX. Page. Page. Kharond ... 151 klesavrfcta 301 Khas 214 Knee 146 Khasa 213 ko 110 Khasa 524 ko (cow ?) 19G Khecara ... 531 Koand 144 Khem 381 Koar 123 Kheper ... 283 Kobalirathabali ... 470 Khizrpur 44 Kocoh 29 Khodala (pickaxe), wor- Koch tribes 214 sbip of £92 Kocclii 44 Khodiyal 571 Koda ... 190,191 Khol 131 koda 111 Khoiid ... 83,110,111,113,189,453 Koda 112 Khoiida ... 112 KcDcladabbu 562 Khondistan 110 Kodaga ... 112 183,162-69,179 kidatu 191 Ko(l agu ... 162-164 Kiggatnad 207 Kodaku (Kudakii) 111 Kikata 579 Kodam (monkey) 191,192 Klla Valuttnr ... 296 Kodamauataye ... 562 kilnadu ... 258 Kodanad ... ... 184,191 kil§ 191 Kodatha ... 192 Kilu 562 Kodatha betta ... 192 Kijiycndnnayaki 471 Koda^ar ... 191 Kimidin ... 516 Koddi 471 Kings, book of, ... ... 10,322 Kuije 191 Kinnara ... . 424,514 Kocli-idai nayaki.. 249 Kinnibagge 562 Kodu (kodalu) ... 13,109,111,145 Kira 144 koda (steep) 111 Kirata 17,19,455,456 Kodumudi 296 Kiratamma 502 Koel river 124 Kirati 435 Koeri 141 Kirna(-Sabara) ... 83 koh ... 110,151 Kirti 449 Kohatur ... 195 Kirtipiisaija Pandya 24 Kob-i-nuh 320 Kiskindha parvata 401 Kohitur ... 148 Kistna district . . . 293,490 Kohri ... 134,141 Kitanatha 456 Koi ... 109,112 113,141,143-161 Kittel, Rev. F. 28,87,111,163,170, Koidhora 148 190,196,297,305,375,376,377,380 Koikopal... 151 Klambi Pennu ... 153 Koil prince 131 Kleitophon 129 Koilabhutal 151 INDEX. 661 Page. Page. koinga (pi. of koi) ... 145,146 Kole .. 122,149 Koiri (Koeri) 141 Koler .. 122,123 Koital 112 Koleroon 258 Koitor 147 Kolhapnr... 134 Koitur ... 115,148,149,151 Koli ... 34,112,121,124,130-59 Koiwar ... 148 Koli city ... 134 Kokal 183 Kolies Mahadey . . . 160 Kokauiir ... 179 Kolikkodiyon 513 Kokvali ... 136 Kolikod 124 Kol 121-24.,129 -35,141,192,209 Koliearpalj 121,133 Kola (Kola) 101,112,113,121,123, Kolish (dialect) ,. 214 124.,132 -34,201,205,209 Koliyaniir .. 475,477 Kola 298,300,303 Koliyapparai . . 57 Kola 495 KoUa 199 Kolaohi ... 124 Kolladam 258 Koladesamu 134 KoUagira 134 Koladya 124 KoUagiri ... ... 133,134 Kolagiri (KoUagiri) 113,133, Kollaka .. 133 134,187 KoUar' 64 Kolahala ... ... 113,133,134 KoUapati Aikamtiia 486 Kolam 133,134,148,151 Kollapura 134 Kolamauiyamma 499 Kollegal 221 Kolami ... l-:i4 kolli 233 Kolauada 134 Kollimalai 194 Kolanca ... ... 133,131 Kolnar 154 Kolapura... ... 124,399 Koloslies ... 314 Kolar 123,124,501 Kolpur 134 Kolaiamma 501 Kol Ilka ... 142,143 Kolarees ... ... 132,134 Kolurnalai 475 Kolaria (name of India). 123 Kolilta ... 142,143 Kolarian . 9,121-24,128,130, KoWa 187 132,134,209,213,215,579,601 Kolvagireya ... 113,187 Kolaries ... ... 123,131 Kolvagiri 133 Kolaris ... 129 Kolwan ... 135 Kolarun ... 124 KoraalaTalli 17 Kolaspnr ... 124 komattikal 63 Kolaswariipam .. 134 Kommalamma ... 147 Kola-tiri (Kolattiri) ... 131, Kommamma 502 Kolattatiadu ... 133,131, Koua 109 Kolavatidlu 209 Konamma 502 Kolbarejv ... 124 Konaraya 461 662 INDEX. Page. Kond 143-161 Konda ... 13,110,112,150,151 konda 111,112 Konda(iianieof Candalas) 156,157 Kondaikaiti VeJlala ... 247 Kondalamma ... 502 Kondali 82-84 Kondaloi 113 Kondamma 502 Koudarudu 112,145 Kondh 144,142 Kondoohates ... .. 350 Kondota 114,191 Konelamba ... •■■ 502 Konem - 293,294 Konga (Kongu) 134 (king), 163 insoiiption, ... ... 164,170 Koiigani, Kongini, Konguui 163 Konkan ... ... ■■• 138 Koikana ... ... ... 377 Konkanapura ... ■•■ 179 KoiiBU ■•• 113 konta 114 Kontakossyla-emporium... 114 Kontala ... 13,113,156 Kontajavarkal ... ... 63 konu 182 Kouva ... -.. ■• 113 Konvasira ••■ -.. 113 Koolee, see Kiili. Kopais lake 314 koph . 11 Kopkes ... ... ... 113 Koorshe wanloo, see Kor- ea 201,232 kora 13,110 Koraca (Koraoha, Koracaru Koracharu) ... 34,110,112,180, 201,207 Koraga ... 112,132,156,158,159, 162,168-180,562 Koragatanige ... ... 562 Korama ... 112,180,201,209,257 Koramaravan ... ... 201 Koran 323,557 Koraiigini (Koranginiyam- man) 475,477 koracgu ... ... ... 191 Korankaloi ... ... 114 Korano 177,178 Korapolu ... ... ... 562 Korati ... ... 562 Korava, Koravanu, Kora- varu, Koravara, Korawa ... 110, 112,160,162,180,199,201,202, 205,208-10,214,217 Koravanji ... ... 84 Koravaramiyam ... 84 Koriiwa-dih ... ... 134 Korba (Zamindar of) ... 210,211 Korea (Korcaru, Koroliar, Korchara) ... 112,180,201 Kordyan mountain ... 322 Korea 210,211 Koreiir ... ... ... 114 Kori (Kohri) 134,141 Korindiur ... 114 Koron ... 34 Korondih 134 Korrazalu . . . 147 Korsaru (Korcaru) 112,180,201 Koruba 230 KorubaGolla 219 Korunkala ... 114 Koruviavasayar ... 201 Korvaru .. 201 Korvi .. 201 Korwa ... ... ... 130 Korygaza ... ... 114 Kosala 114,115,120,613 (Uttarakosala) ... 114,115 kota (fort) Ill INDEX. 663 Kota ... 33,112,132,162,182,113, 190-96,227 Kotagiri ...183,191,192,194 Kotahenu, . . ... ... 30I Kotaka ... ... ... 194 Kotamalai ... ... 194 Kofcamma 502 Kotaya I94 Koten 185,192,193 koti (end) Ill koti (monkey) 233 Koti-Knrumba 233 Kotitirtha 401 Kottam ... 260 Kottliara ... ... 194 Kotti toadar ... ... 255 Kottumelam ... ... 494 kotu (sleep) 163 Kotyaksi 399 Koya (Koyavadu) 109,145-47 Koyambattnr ... ... 168 Koyana ... ... ... 110 Koyi 13,109,112 Kraivya ... 604 Kramer, Mr, G 113 Kratha 610 Krauncadvipa ... ... 134 Kreta 330 Krimilalva ... ... 609 Krishna district . . . 292 Krishna river 136-38,187,225,261 Krishnamaoharyulu, Mr. N. 31 Krishnasvami Iyer, A., e.a. 63 Krivi 603,604 KriyS 449 Krodhabhairava ... ... 507 Kronos 318 krs (to plough) 261 kisna 261 Krsna ...97,137,159,160,309,310, 348 (Salagrama), 351,352,355,363, 365,366,392,417,419,430,443,444, 446,447,449,474,519,626 Kiaiaapiigala 429 Krsnaraja ... ... 260 Krsnarayamaratappa Devar 257 KrSHa-SalagTama ... 348 Krsnayajnrveda . . 272,360 krstayah (pafioa) ... 577 krta 330 Krtamala ... 312,313,324 Krtasooa 401 Krtayuga ...307,328,329,330, 331,337,377 Krtya 456 Ksaikayata 604 Ksatriya ... 39,90,103,152,167, 169,226,261,262,310,383,450,467, 527,552,591 Ksetra 342 Ksetradevata 398,451 Ksetrakanda 158 Kaetrapala 507,508 Ksetra Varma ... ... 178 ksitayalj (pafioa) ... 577 ksudh ... ... ,.. 449 Ksudradevata ... ... 499 ku (ko) ... 109-12,141,144,191,214 Knbera 87,279,368,449 Kubjamraka 401 Kuca Kanakkar 63 Kuoavar (Vadaka) ... 63 Kud 163 Kuda 161,164,190,230 Kudaga 146,219 Kudaman, Kudavan ... 23 kuderi kideri .. ... 604 kudirai (kuradai) ... 5 Kudum 268 Kudumba, see Kurumba . . . 231,261, 264, 267 Kudumbi 261,262 85 664 INDEX. kudumi ... Kuhn, Prof. Kui Kui Dina .. Kui Pmti Kukila mountain Kukkendaye Kukkatamba Kukkutesvari kula Kulaba ... ... 247,262 577 110,112,144 146 146 111 562 501 501 140,206,209 138 Kuladevata ...448,463,464,487 501 Kulalpur 124 Kulambi 261,262 Kulau (or Kola) Fort ... 124 Kulandan, Knlandai ... 75 Kularnava 413,416 Kulasaiiikaramala ... 51 Kulavara... ... ... 209 Kulataye ... ... ... 562 Kulbunga 124 Kuldah 124 Ki31i ... 131,135,136,139,140 Kulianpur (Kalyajjapura) 124 Kuleh 131 Kulesvari 399 Kuligadu 131 Kulika (serpent) ... 302 Kulin-Briihman ... ... 496 Kulina ... 416 Kulinda ... 123,142-45,213,214 Knlindopatyaka ... ... 145 Kulindrine ... ... 144 Kulinga ... ... ... 145 Kulippajrai 57 Kulkeri 124 KuUavakurti ... ... 124 KuUer-kaher 124 KuUevar 205 KuUn ... 145 KuUukabhatta Kullum . . . KuUung river KuUunji .. Kulna Kulodvaha Kulottunga 413 124 124 124 124 449 , 236,250-52,255 Kulpac, Kulpani, Kulpi ... 124 Kulra, Kulsi 124 Kulu 112,124,143-45,209 Knlumai ... ... 75 Ku lung Mora ... ... 154 Kulnntiyamman... ... 499 Kuluta 142-44 Kuluvuru 201,206 Kulvadi 53 Kumaon ... ... ... 136 Kumara 365,513 Kumaranna ... ... 179 Kumarapaika ... ... 187 Kumarasambhava . . . 420 Kumari... ... 399,429,456 Kumbha ... 481 Kumbhakonum ... 9,17,53,87,124, 236,296 Kumbhamata ... .,, 503 Kumbhasambhava ... 24 Kumbhattal 503 Kumbi 141,231,261-64 Kumuda... 302 (elepliant), 402 Kunabi ... ... ... 261 Knnalamma ... .., 502 Kuuara ... ... ... 517 Kunawar ... ... ... I44 Kunawari 216,618 Kuubi (Kuuabi) .. 137,189,231, 260-64,305 Kunda 112,113,183,192 Kundabhedin 113 Kundadhara ... ... 113 Kundagui ... ... 113 INDEX. 665 Page. Kuadaka 113 Kundakara ... .. 82 Kundala (Kundala), Kujidali 113 Kuadalini ... 348,349,358 Kuadaprastha 113 Kundapur ... ... 179 Kunda Eana ... ... 158 Kuadasayiu ... ... 113 Kundaye 562 Kundika 113 Kundika 456 Kundilpur ... ... 40 Kundinapura ... 113,156,611 Kundiyamman ... ... 502 Kuadoda 113 kundu 110 Kimet 144,145,213,214 Kvmmda ... ... ... 144 Kunjaladdi ... ... 582 Kufljar (Kanjar) ... 298 Kunjara ... . ... 24 kuikuma ... ... 478 Knnnapur ... ... 149 kunnu, kuianam ... ... 110,214 Kunnnva ... 77,210-15,216 Kuimuva Vellala ... 211 kuara, kuaram ... ... 110,211 Kunrapattirakottai . . . 244 Knntala 113 Kuatliaka 113 Kunti. 113,393-95,449,611,616,617 Kuntika 113 Kuniibi 262 Kunnuvar ... ... 212 Kunyagulige ... ... 562 Knof 195,196 kiipli 110 kuppa ... ... ... 23 kuppam ... ... ... 258 Kuppamma ... ... 502 Kuppayya ... .,. 23 Page. Knppepanjiirli 562 Kfir 151,209 Kura ... 201 Kural .. 55,57,66 Kurandala 400 Kuraaga ... 113 Kurapergade ... 562 Kurata . . . 113 Kurava ... 64,68,201,205,207 Km-avaSji (Koravanji) 111 Kurohi ... 230 Kurd 323 Kurdistan 323,558 Kurg ...162-176,191,202,207,226, 229-33,237,265 Kurgi 110 Kuri 214,218 Kuribettaraya 228,229,236 Kurloci ... 220 Kuri Kurumba 280,232,236 Kuriyaddaye 562 Karma ... .. 260,261,281,348 (-salagrama), 444 Kurmapurana 301 Kurmavafcara 367 Kurmi 112,141,231,260-64 Kurpuli ... 186 Kurru (Kuru) ...134,202,203,219 kuru 113,110,217,219,236 kuru (short;) 219 Kuru (king, people) ...112,211, 260,603,604,605,608,610-13,615, 616 (blood), 621,623 Kuru 201 Kuruba (Kurumba) ...133,218, 231,239,260 Kuruba (sheph 3rd) ... 218 Kuruoiyar 84,112,201 Knrujangala 608 Kuru-krivi 602,603,605 Kurnksetra ... 210,400,608 666 INDEX. Page. Page. Kuruma ... 112,201,261 kutakam 163 Kurumba .56 (robber), 112, kutakau 162 164,188,190-94, (—village) 192, kutakku ... 163 215-18,223 (peaoock-catolier), Kutakou (Kutako), Kuta. 228,229 (eacrifiee), 261,269 (mis- nathau 163 chief), 305,623, see Kuruba 228, Kutamau, Kutavan 163 269 Kutukutuppaikaral 64 Kummbabhumi . 216,244,247, kuti 163 225,255 Kutiyan ... 163 Kurambadu 218 Kntra 154 Kurnmba (Kuruba) Golla 218,232 Kntta 230 Kummba Idaiyar ... 232,239 Kuttadamma 230,237 Kurumba Kovil . . ... 229,235 Kiitalamma 502 Kurumbanadu , . 216 Kuttan 181 Kurumba Okkaligar ... 231 Kuttanur 296 Kurumbaranadu.. . 216,217,220,223 Kuttara, Kuttira 111 Kurumba Tecjar 232,242,243,257 kutumbi, see kudumbi ... 262 Kurumbi ... 220,244,261,262,268, Ku varaikal 62 269 Kuvena ... 110 Kurumi ... 261 Kuyava ... 517 Kurunga ... 605 Kuy avak 5l7 Kuru-Panoala . . . 603,605,613,620 Kylindrine 142,143 kuruppu ... 220 Kuruva ... 13,112,180,209,238 I,. Kui'uvaudlu 201,208-10 Knrwai 201 Kurymena 190 L, interchange between Kusa 120 I and d 17 Kusadvipa 402 lacryma ... 17,19,28 Kusamba... 120 Ladak ... 340 Kuean 177 Laghusyamala ... 424 Kusbi Korawa ... 200 Lahada ... 144 Kusbhawampur . . . 40 Laira 146 KuBika 431,587-89,511 Lajhuri ... 376 Kusinagara 19 Lajja 449 Kiismaacja 15,455,456 Lakenwara 188 Kusodakl 399 Lakhau Manik of Bhaluah 44 Kusti Pennu 153 Lakulin ... 371 kuta (mountain) 111 Lalita 401 Kuta 111 Lalitavistara 19 Kutapa ... 163 LakkaBaia, Lakkarasnpui lie 562 INDBX. 667 lak?ana 384 Lalyogini .. 571 Laksmana ... ... 449,485 LaksmT ... 288,290,296,338,348, 356,362,363,364,369,399,412,416, 424,438,442,446,456,482,502 Laksminarayaaasaiiivada 342,357, 382-84 Lalitadevi 399 Lalitasahasranamastotra 417 Landowning classes ... 62 Langalin ... ... ... 371 Langlois, M 133 Languages, classification ot, ... 422,554 Lanka ... 87,88,102,136,375,376 Lankhini ... ... 455,456 Larka Kols (Coles) ... 122,130 Lassen, (Prof. Christian) 14,21,24, 34, 80, 81 ,84,86, 88, 92,102-4, 113, 126,130,135,143,152,161,187,310, 350,374,518,519,581,595,601,604, 607,612,613,615, see ludische Alterthumskunde. Latin 10,17,28,98,101 Lanth, Prof. Joseph ... 316,333 Lava (father of Balla) ... 79 Lawbooks 271,549 Layard, Sir Austin H. ... 557 Layayoga ... ... 410 Left and right hand castes 57-66,95 Lavie, Mr. William ... 173-76 Lele (goddess) ... ... 147 Lenormant, M. F. 326,545,555,463 Let 313 letters 3,4 ; interchange of 27 life after death ... 239 Lilas of Siva 370 Limyrike ... ... 27 Linga ... 136-38,170,222,229, 232,235,246-48,286,292,294, Page. 295,296,343,371-86 Lingadharini ... ... 399 LiigapurSna ... 368,370,271, 372,373,424 Liiigapuja ... ... 382 Liigasaila ... ... 385 Litiga-worship ... ... 371-386 Liigayat ...162,169,170,196, 205,234,238,373 Lingesvarasvami. ... 294,295 Linguals and dentals, in- terchange between 110,111,144 Lithuanian god ... ... 277 Lobha 449 Logan, Mr. W 219 Loha Pennu 152,153 Lohitic tribes ... ... 44 Loiseleur-Deslongchamps, M, 83 Lokaditya ... 172,176,178 Lokadiraya ... ... l75 Lokakartr, Lokakrt ... 287 Lokaksi 371 Lokapaladhyaya in the Vaijayanti ... ... 541 Lokesa 287 Lola 399 Lopamudra ... ... 449 Louvre ... .. ... 560 Loventhal, Eev. ... ... 65,99 Lowlanders ... ... 70 Ludwig, Prof. Alf. .. 597 Lnnar dynasty ... 610 Luni river ... ... 291 Lykormas ... ... 126 Iff. Ma ... 399,543 Mablesvar ... 79,136 Macavati Nagari 91 MaoCrindle, Mr. 93,145,179 668 INDEX. Macedonian 78,128 Macintosh, Capt. A. 138,142,160 Mackenzie, Mr. G. ... 293,295 Mackenzie, Major J. S. T. 55,59 Mackenzie, MSS, Collection of Col., ... 176,221,224,232, 237,239,241-43,250,252, 254,257,260,265,269 Maclean, Dr 56 Macpherson, Major... 145,149,152, 1.53 Miida 471 Madakox-ati 562 Madan 76 Madandai ... ... 3 Maddalarama ... ... 502 Madhava, Madhavan ...260,353, 354,447,450 M5dhavi 352,356,399,611 iladha 436,437,438 Madhnkesvara ... 265 MadhasSdana .. .. 351 Madhvacarya 387 Madyadesa ... 604,612,619 Madhyama 400 madhyama bhiimi ... 275 Madi no MSdiga, Madigavadu 66,156,461, 474,498,500 Madira 268,434 Madotkata 399 Madra 144,613,616 Madras ... 7,15,34,52,54,55,57,67, 75,89,94-96,99,102,103,113, 1 28, 138-40,151,161,170,175,183,194, 196,201,202,206,209,221,236,242, 248,252,256,262,375,421,474,500; Census Report 34,99; — Journal of Literature and Science 102, 103 Madravati ... ... 611 Madri 611,616,617 Madukkndam 510 Madura, Madurai (Marndai). 5,8, 9,54,55,57,65,66,77,95,102-4, 107,108,199,212,217,226,244,258, 267,361,367,379,381,475,477,613; —District Manual, 103,107,212, 217,226,244 Maduranayaka Pillai, T. C. 191 Madurapawdiyan ... 103 Madarasi ... .. 171 Madura virau ... ... 482 madya ... ... ... 414 Madyal 151 Magadha kings ... ... 125 Magadhavana ... ... 401 Magi, three 161 Magyars of Hungary ... 93 Magnus, Mr. Francis ... 339 Mahabala 137 Mahabalesrara 79,110,132,136,137 Mahabalesvaraliiiga ... 379,380 Mahabali ... ... 15 Mahabalipnram ... 15,98 Mahabharata 19,34,35,39,73,81 ,86, 89,97,142,144,145,156,187,201, 271,285,311,324-26,353,392,393, 404,429,552,578,581,582,583,590, 594,595,605,606,608,610,611,614, 615,617,621 Mahabhiita 405 Mahabrahmaraja ... 301 Mahadeva79,158,170,.307,352,365, 420,369,375,376,377420,443 Mahadeva Hills ... 209 Mahadeva Ravanesvara 137 Wahadev Kolis ... 142,143,160 Mahadevale 302,303 MahSdgvi ... 349,399,430,456 Mahakala ... 365,366,399,401 Mahakaialiiiga 379 INDEX. 669 Page. Mahakali ... 349,429 MahSkaya 371 Mahals, Tributary 210 Mahalai, Mata ... 500 Mahalaksmi 204,362,363,399,423 Mahalasa 399 Mahalaya ... ... 401 Mahalinga ... 371,382 Mahamallapura ... ... 98,99 Mahamayi ... ... 471 Mahamanda ... .. 456 Mahambika 369 Mabamdi 40 Mahamem 302 Mahamoha 310,437 Maianadi 145,149 Mahanadu 492 Mahananda 45,399 Mahanidra 429 Mahanirvaaa ... ... 413 Mahantaka 399 Mahapadma ... .., 302 Mahapallipuram ... 98 Mahar, Mahara ... 13,21-3,33, 47,66,68,85,86,93 Maharasi 471 Maharastra 21-3,47,49,117,156,379 Maharastri ... ... 456 Maharatta 22 Mabarloka 302 Maharsi 286,519,520,595 Mahasaha 374 Mahasena 368,369 Malta Sohon 665 Mahasthan 44,46 Mabatala 302,525 Mahatandava ... ... 370 Mabatavi 134 MabaTallipuram ... 98 Mahavidya 444 Mabavirat 444 Page. Mahavisnu ... ... 456 Maheudra 385,400 Mabesa ... ... ... 456 Mabesvara . . . 187,348,365,366,889, 401,447,522 Mabesvari 399,447 Mabbar 158 Mabi Kaata Hill 34 Mabiman 502 Mabfsa, Mabisaka, Mabi- saka 461,187,138 Mabieadbvaja 189 Mabisagbni 374 Mabisaka, Mabisaka 187,138,461 Mabisanana ... ... 189 Mabisardana 189 Mabisastbali 189 Mabisasura ...187,188,436,437, 496 Mabisasuramardani ... 188 Mabisavahana ,.. ... 189 Mabisi 618,620,621 Mabisika 189,160 Mabismat 187 MabismatI 187 Mahisya (mixed caste) ... 189 Mahominedaii 39 (invasion), 200, 558 Mahotpala 401 Mabratta country ... 306,496 Mabsoba 157,188 Maila ... .-■ ... 7 Mailapur 67,68,99,160,161 Mailla 173,175 Maiandros ... ... 126 Mair 19,47,48,139 Mairwara 19 Maisur 99 Maitbila 22,117 maitbuna ... 414 Maitravarnni ... ... 24 670 INDEX. Maiwar Bhil 84,85 Majhi 44 Makkala santanam ... 172 Makara ... ... 396,414,417 Makota 400 Makuta 401 Makuteavari ... ... 399 mal ... ... ... 6 mal ... 6,30 Mal, Mala... 13,14,18,20,21,23,37, 38,56,304,465,474,553 mala (stain) 6,56,248 mala, malai (hill) ... 6,13 Mala (sacred) 13,26,30 mala 6,56 mala ... ... • 6,18 Mala 304 Mala Arayan ... ... 14,21 Malabar ,. 8,15,21,25,34,75,77,116, 124,134,138,172,185,191,212,220, 221,225,226,233,235,312,324,336, 559,570 Malabar Hill 138 Malaca, Malacar ...14,21,180 Malada 18 malai ... ... ... 6 malai (hiU) 6, see mala ; Malaiarasn ... ... 21 Malair " ... 14,21 Malaita 93 Malaiyalam ... ... 212 Malaiyali 212 Malaiyaman ... ... 63 Malaiyanur ... ... 482 Malaja 18 Malaka 18 Malakiita 18 Malalu 21 malam, malamu ... ... 6 Malamma... ... ... 502 Malanadu . . . ... ... 30 Malanga ... 17 malar 6 Malar 56 Malasir ... 20 Malava ... ... 13,14,18,21,38 Malavadesa 18 Malavadu 21,32 Malavaka 18 Malavarti 18 Malavi ... 18 Malaviir ... 7 Malawa . . . 263 Malaya ... 31,56,435 Malaya ... 13,18,56 (people); 25 'mountain); 324,325,329(conntry). Malayabhumi ... 18,19,20,350 Malay acala ... ... 18,401 Malayadesa ... ... 18 Malay adeva 225,235 Malayadhvaja ... ... 18 Malayadhvajapaiidiyan... 102 Malayadri ... ... 18 Malay adruma ... ... 18 Malayagandhini .. .. 18 Malayaja ... ... 18 Malayaketu 18,20 Malaya Kurnmbaru . , . 224 Malay ala 172,226 Malayalam 4,10,24-7,30-3,36,53, 69,99,100,104,106,107,110, 133,162,163,167,169,191, 208,218,257,258 iMalayaparvata ... 401 Malayan ... 14,17,19,21,163 Malayan (Malaiyan) ... 13 Malayanarapati ... 18,20 Malayaparvata ... ... 18 Malayaprabha 18,20 Malayapura ... ... 18 Malayasimha ... ... 18,20 MalayavasinI ... ... 18 INDEX. 671 Page. Page. Malayodbhava ... 18 Mallikarjunalinga 379 Malcolm, Sir John ... 135,158 MalKnatha 134 Maldah 117 Malloi 14,82 male 6,7 Mallu 6 Maledeva . . 506 Malliiietti 469 Male Kurumba ... ... 217,229 Malliar 30 Maler 14,21,32,33,34,38 Malsara ... 157,158 Males vara ... 230,235 Malu 6 I^Ialesvaramale .. 192 Malva ... 37,38,54,135,146, JIalhar Eao Holkar 158 187,379 Malhari ... ...14,72,158 Malra 14,21 Mall 6,146 Malvah Kois 146 Maliah Koinga .. ... 146 Maly avail 18 Maligava-temple 301 Mamallapuram ... 605 Malijumade 562 MamUi ... 147 Malika 6 Mamillamma 502 Malini 18 Maiiisa ... 414 Malkiy'or 16 man (to oonaider) 213 Malla ...6,7,13,14,16,18,19,21,30, mail 212 31,35,36,47,51,56,57,70, manaiyatti. 107 72,75,78,98,158,104,188 Manam ... 3 Malla, Malhana, MaUaiia 72 Manasa ... 400 MaUabagge 562 manavah, panca... 577 Malla (bhami) ... 18,19 JI anavadharmasastra 156,413,519 Malladu 23 Manavarkottai ... 244 MaUah 19 Mand 186 Mallaja ... 18 -Maudakr ... 399 Mallaka ... 18,21,22 -Mandakini 130 mallam, mallam... 4,6 mandala ... 298,303 Mallan 13,30,31,75 Mao-dala ... 422,518,527 Mallani ... 34 Mandalesa.. ... 399,400 Mallaprastha 18 -Mandara ... 429 Mallapur, Mallapnra ... 7,18,99 JIandara 401 Mallar 3,14,21,31,70 -MandaravasinI ... 429 Mallarastra ... 1S,19,22 .Maadavya . ... 144,401 Mallari 14,72 Mandayam Taluk 233 Mallasthana 20 .Mandha ... 40 Mallava ... 3,18 JIandlick, Hon. Visvanath Mallavastu 18 Narayan 375 Mallayy a 23 Mandodari . 449 Malli 6,14,20,82,113 Manetho ... 86 315,318,331 672 INDEX. Manes Mang Manga Maiigai ... -Maiigala ... Maiigalabhiipa ... Mangalaoapdika .. Maigalatesi MaBgalavinodi .., Mangaliyanima ... Mangalore mango Mani Maniohaean Manichnda 527,540,541 66 17 47 399 446 448 521 471 502 156,173-75 562 158 558 158 Manifestation of the Forces of Nature ... ... 553 Manika 456 Manikaraikesvara ... 296 AlanilalNabubhaiDvivedi 406,411 Manimahaninni ... ... 95 Alani-mal... ... ... 158 Maaimantrasekhari ... 471,484 Maninatha ... ... 399 .\ranipura... ... ... 102 Manjarabad ... ... 181 Manjeshvar ... ... 173,175 maiijal ... ... ... 487 Manjuvagdevi ... ... 357,358 Aiankulatar 107,212 Manmathadahana . . . 370 MannSdi 210-12,214 Mannadu (monntain country) 202 Mannamma ... ... 500 Mannargudi ... ... 17 Mannarsvami ., ... 249 Mannedora .. 212 mannenm... ... ... 212 MannepSvandlu ... ... 212 Manner, Rev. Mr. ... 562 Mannevaru (hill-people). 212 mannu ManomaRi Mansurwar Mantamma Mantchu iM antiyamman . . . Mantra Mantratnahodadhi Mantrayoga 212 471 289 600 333 502 344 413 410 Mann 14,94,155,282,311-13,323-26, 328,329,336,445,449,517, 519,542,549,584 Mann .Siaddhadeva ... 313 Manusarovaram (Mansur- war) 289,290 i\[anvantara 24, (Oaksusa) 312, 325,328 Manya, Manyadu 212 manyamn .. ... ... 212 .Manya Snltan .. ... 213 Maolee - 151 Maowi 213,214 Mapuri ... 502 mar, marai ... ... 19 liar (Mhar), Mara 13,14,18,19,21, 22,23,30,32,33,37,47-49,50,83 mara ... . ... 6 Maraka ... ... ... 18 Marakatavalli 522 MSraki 502 marakkanam ... .. 246 n^aram ,.. ... ... 50 ilaramma ... ... 502 marang ... ... ... 141 MarStha country ... 308 Marathi 10,17,19,21,22,31,32,37,49, 56,72,86,93,142,151,154,157-59, 160,225,231,260-62,264,266,373 Mararar ... 13,19,21,49,50,89,102, 257,481 -Marco Polo ... ... 566 INDEX. 673 Warees ... 154 -\i arellamma 502 Maremma 502 MargaciliBa 540 Margadayim 399 Margasiraa .. 158,397 Margammariyammai . 471 Margoea ... 22,475,476,477,492 Mari 13,12 Mari 471 Maria (Maria) ...148,149,153,154 Mariamma (Mariyamma) 52,64,68, 169,200,203,205,407,464, 474,476-78,483,485,560 marica, marica ... ... 18 Marioi 18,396 Maridimahalaksmi . . . 147 Marika 471 Marimau... ... ... 175 Marimuttu 471,475 Maritay 471 Mariyamma, see Mariamma. Mariyamman talattu 472,475,482 -Mariyattal ... ... 5'2,471 Markandeya Parana 83,144,188, 436,438,445 Markata 456 MarlaJTimadi ... ... 562 Marriage customs of Ku- rumbas... ... ... 241 Marshall, Col. W. E. ... 183,190, 196,563,573 Marshman, Eev. Mr. ... 620 Marsyas 126 JJartin, Montgomery ... 34,43,45 Maru 18,47 Marubhii 18 JJarukaccha ... ... 3 Marusthalam ... ... 91 Marut 277,279,365,372,395,424,518 Maruta 611 Page. Marutam Kotfai 260 Marutta ... 495 Marvar (Marwar).. 14,18,19,35,47, 79,80,196,292 Masa 384 Masadikar 189 Masillamaiii 248,249 Masippattiri ... ... 484 Maskim 556,563,564 mason ... ... ... 58 Masson, Mr. C 37 Mastang ... 350 masu (flesh) ... ... 44 Masurika 456 Mata 399 Matanga ... ... ... 17,66 .Matangagiri ... ... 465 Mataigi ... 17,52,424 455,406, 469,471,482 Matarah, (Matrs, Matikah) 447 Matarievan 277 Mateer, Rev. S. ... 21,77,559,572 matha ... ... ... 341 Matha Devi ... ... 154 Mathura 401 Mathnra Chaubes . 292 Mathura Paadya ... 102 Mtitrs, Matrkas 447 Matsya ... ... ... 414,444 Matsyagandhi ... ... 35 Matsyapuraija 15,312,313,324,345, 398,420 mattai .. •■. ... 3 Matuhpura 399 Maturapuri ... ... 103 Mania vi AUi Bax ... 37 Manrya ... ... ... 183 Mansolos 126,130 llaussacos. Ph. Jac. ... 126,127 Mavaftiyar ... 64 Mavallipuram ... ... 92 674 INDEX. Page. Page. Mavella (Mavellaka) 14 msmbras (bembras) ... 3 Maxwell, Dr. 113 Memo on the Village God- M ay a 346,387,390,392,429,430,434, desseo in India 463 521 Mena 316 Mayadevi ... 134 Mena ... 419,420 Mayakarasiiri 511 Aii~naka ... ... 449,594 Mayandaln . 562 Menander ... 16,162 Mayapitha 361 Meudai ... 558 Mayapnri 401 Mer 38,47,183 Mayaaahodari 474 Mera 19,20 May ava ... ... 226,237 Merar 156 Mayavaram 296 Mercara ... ... 164,305 Mayelu ... 562 M ercaaera 222 Mayi 471 Mercury 557 Mayil 161 Meria 151 (-sacrificing May ura ... 266 aborigines), ,. 453 Mayura Varma 172,178,266 merku 163 MaynrI ... 456 JJerkokal ... 183,192 Meda 82 Meru 395,485,521,583 Medarar ... 156 Meruka ... 144 Medha 399,448,449 Meruiigu 3 mediae (literae)... 4 Merutantra 342 Meena 135 Mesopotamia 336,545,549,557,573 Megalloi 14 meta 3 Megaloros 317 Metempsychosis ... 545,546 Megasthenea 14,88 Metensomatosis 545 Meiaandaye 562 metta 106 mel 6 Metz, Rev. F. .. 181-83,186,189, Melnada 258 190.194,195,225,226,232,242,243 Meladi ... 571 Mewar 79,81 Mejakkarar 163 Mexican ... 314 Melampus .382 ileyyiir ... 245 melamu 7 Mhair 47 Melchior 161 Mhairwara 47,48 Melek el Kout ... 557 Mhalaa 159 Melek Taous ... 557,558 Mhar (Mar) 13,18,19,21,22, Melkattai 502 47-49,73,85,269 Melkota 53,62,7.5,290 Migrating races o e India. 200 mella, melu 7 JUihirasviimi 456 Melnr ... 253,259 Milakutaaiii (pepj 3er-water) 241 Melluraparam ... 67 Alinakotanapandy a ... 252 ItlDEX, 676 Minas Milchang dialect Minerva Minos Mirae 48 214 398 330,331 172 Mirasi right 217,242,252,253,260 Mirasidar ... ... 96 Mirzapur ... 38,40,41,122 Misalu 476 Mithila 117 Mithya ... ... 449 Mithra 275 Mitra 273,275,425,582 Mitrasaha ... ... 585 Mitravinda 449 Mleooha 80,179,519 Moccai 478 Moch tribes .. ... 214 Modnbai 143 Modugalinga ... ... 191 Mogling, Dr. H. R. ... 164-66 Moghul Geographers ... 150 Moha 449 Moherry district . . . 149 Mohini ...347,360,420,429,434, 455,456,509 Moksa 410,411,543 Moleswortli, Mr. J. T. ... 23,157 Molindae 143 Men 213,214 Mona ... ... ■•• 213 Monagiri ... ... 214 Monede .. 214 Mongir ... ... •■■ 214 Mongol ... ... ... 333 Mongolia ... •■■ 559 Mongoloid ... ■. 576 Mongy Pottun ... -.• 79 Monier Williams, Sir ... 412 monkey ... ■•■ ■■- ^^ Monpa 214 MonYul Monze, Cape Moon Moondah Moon-worship ... M oor, Mr. Edward Moracamman Morasa Okkaliga Mordurdes Mordvin 214 34 539,557 122 188 157 502 232 79 110 Mori (branch of Pramaras) 92 Moore, Rev. M. D. ... 135 Morgan, Major-General. . . 191 Moria 183 Morioard mane . ... 183 Mosaic record ... ... 321 Mosaul 323 Motan 213 Motta Kurumba... 228,229,243 Mottapparai ... ... 57 Monuda Pennu ... 153 Mountaineer, Gauda-Dra- vidian ... ... 13 Mowa 213 Mrcchatatika 21 Mrgadhara ... ... 369 Migavati 399 Mrtapa ... 82 Mrttikavati 466 Mrtyu 449,827 Mrtyur bandhu... ... 526 mu 110 Muasi 209 Mnccandiyamman ... 500 Mucoiyar 63 Mudadaye ... ... 562 Mudali 99,239,240 Mudar 300,304 Mndgala 609,610 Mudgeway ... ... 553 mudra 340,414 676 INDEX. Page. Mudraraksasa ... 20,142,143 miidn ... ... ... 110 Miiduocattal 502 Mudukuturai 221 Muhammadau ... 45,64,115,212, 320,557,562 Muir (Dr. J.), Original Texts of, 156,325,329,369,375-77,379,419, 421,423,527,529,581,585,594,598, 602,614 maji mul, mulju Milkamb.T Mnkkarasu mukta IXaktamba Mukundiyamman Mukutesvari Miilaprakrti Miilaatliana mule Miili Malkher mullai Mullaro Miiller, Prof. Max Mulli Mullittmnangiliyamman. mujlu (thorn) Mullu Kurumba... Multan ... mulu (mulln) Mumba ... mund MuHcla jMnnda Pennu . Munda (people) , 110 6 456,502 502 541 450 502 399 ... 418,444 20 7 194 81 6,246,248 146 1U4,527,5S0 227 502 225 12,24,29, 21-29,233 20,78,82 3 110 436 152 130,213,214 Mundakkaamiyamman ... 499 Mundal (Mundale) ... 173,175 Mandam&la tautra ... 444 Jlundisvara Mundpadi Kurumba mundu Mungaranna 37 230,233 110 179 Muni AJunisvara Muunadiyar Munnuary mimnu ... .Muuukkattal mijnru miinu Muppar ... .. 302,371,373,610 456 492,511 553 110 502 110 110 89 Muraoapparai ... ... 57 Murea (Moorea) ... 153,154 Miirhiadina Kurumba ... 233 Murli 159 Miirti 340,348,449 muru ... ... ... 110 Murugan, Murugesan ... 75 Jlurugu ... ... ... 479 Mnsahar 43,44 Musali 456 Musarnaisi ... .. 35 Mushera ... ... ... 44 Mushti GoUa 220 Musni (wife of Siva) ... 229,237, 237 Mussulman 159 (writer), 225,237 Miitiba ... 86,592,593,600 .Muttelamma ... ... 147 Muttumariyamma ... 471,475 Mutyalamma ... ... 471,475 Mutyalu 482 •Mysore 3, 15,50,53, 54,59,78,1 1 5, 116,138,160,164,167,172,176,187, 188,194,196,201,207,217,218,229, 232,236,253,263,265,268,269,377, 464,486,499 -Mysorean ... ... 169 Mythology of the Hindus 340 INDEX. 677 N. Naooiar ... ... 502 Naohohu ... ... ... ".I8 Naohdjevan (Nakidjevan) 320,321 Nadavar ... ... ... 176 Nadir Shah 321 Nadole ... ... 79 nadu ... 212,260 Nadzu Peunu 152,153 Naga .. 181,299,300,303 (derarul, 305,524,579 Nagabrahma ... , 299 Nagakanya ... ... 471 Nagalamma .. ... 502 Nagaloka 465,474 Nagamamba ... ... £02 Naganna... ... ... 72 Nagapatam .", . ... 17 Nagappa Malavarayan ... 98 nagara (nagarnka) ... 97,386 Nagara ... ... ,., 33 Nagar Kha s ... ... 41 Nagarijpa ... ... 456 Nagastone 298,805 Nagpur ... 142,150,170,211,559 Nagattal ... 52 Nagattay 499 Nagesvari ... ... 448 Ifagkand... ... 291 uagna 83 Nagnajit ... ... ... 364 NagnajitI 364,449 Naguika ... ... ... 456 Nagpahar 291 Nahal 151 Naiok 67,85,95,136 Naikra ... ... ... 86 Naikude 124 Nair 167,169,207,219 Page. Naimisha forest... ... 158,400 Nak 86 N akad a ... 86 Nakidjevan 320 Nakaatra... 431 Nakula .. 97,400,611,617 nal 106 Nalanda ... 40 Nalangu 493 Nalkeitaye 562 Nallamnttu ... 471,475 Nallasevakar 513 Nallatatigal 482 Nalldtta 499 Nallavaudlu 327 Nambalakod 186 Nambilioofce 182 Namburi priest ... 77 Nammalvar 501 Namuci ... 517 Nanaguna 82 Nanakrandapura 535 Nanavetti 68 naficey ... 106 Nanchari 294 Nand 291 Nanda 56,291,399,429 Nandagopa ... 482,434 Nandair ... 161 Nandi ... 368,369,375,376,378 Nandigone 562 Nandini ... 399 Nandolige 298-300,304 Nankolye 662 Nara 348 NSrada . , . 16,353,396,439,448, 526 Narak 560 Narasim ha ... 888,363,447 Narasimhi ... 426,447 Narasingpur 149 678 INDEX. Page. Narayapa ... 284,299,345,348 (Nfi- ray ana S alagrama) , 352,353,356, 357,368,369,433,443 Narayaiaabali ... ... 533,534 Narayanartaigai ... 474 Narayaiii,.. 45,350,352,399,431,435, 437 Narayaniyajnikl Upanisad 386 Narayaniyopanisad 368,424 Narayanpur 154 Narbada (Narmada) 142,151,187, 209,214,215,256,339,,310,379,383, 386 Naricokiyar ... ... 63 Narmada, see Narbada. Narmadalinga ... ... 383 Narvem ... ■.- ... 377 Naaik 379 Nasikya ... ... ... 134 Natesa 371 Nattaman ... ... 63 Nattambadi ... ... 89 Nattavar.. ... ... 63 Naturalia Historia (of Pliny) 114,143,609 Nature, Forces of ... 553 Naubandhana ... 312,324,325 Navadhanya .. ... 478 Navakha 609 Navaratri ...75,73,500 Navasakti ... 464 Navitar .. 64 Naya (Nayaka) Kurum- ba 217,223,225-28 Nayadu (Nayudu, Naida) 67,99 Nayak ... ... ... 8.5 Nayaka 67,99 Nayakanar ... ... 67 Nayanar ... ... ... 67 Nayar 67,99,106 Nayika ... ... ... 417 Nebo Nebukadnezar Neokygida (Nekki) Nectar Neddiwattum ... Neeshad ... nekhel (plough) Nelli Kurumba ... Nelliyakallyapi Nellore (Nelliir},.. Nellu Page. 563 321 174,175 519 234 140 196 221,233 471 134,203,253 478 Nelson, Mr. J. H ...50,57,65,66,103, 107,199,211,212,225, 217,225,226,244,258 Neolatin .. ... ... 10 Nepal, Nepala 43,349,350,385,399 Neru Nerumpur Nedfield, .Mr. nets Nhami ni Nicholson, Jlr. B. A. E. Nicolson, Mr. Nidra Nidrakalariipini Nila Nila 494 239,240 44 540 37 67 81 37 ... 430,439 429 ... 187,609 363,364,456 Nilagiri ... 172,180,182-85,187, 190,192-95,216,218,220,225,226, 228-31,233,235,242,243,269,453 Nilagriva .. Nilakantha Nilamba Nilasarasvati Nilavalli Nilavxsa Nile (Nilos) Nili Nilinl Nimar 365 365,367 399 399 522 533 ... 126,161 471,494,606 609 85 INDEX. 679 Nimb tree Nimi . . Nineveh ... Ninip Niramitra Mrguna ., Nirgufidika Nirisvarasiiiikhja Nirmalamaid Nirmul Nirnayasindhu ... Nirrti Nirukta, (Yaska's) ... 460,484 ... 582,584 ... 557,563 318 611 ... 407,539 456 409 248 151 389 ... 279,369 ... 371,372, 577,588,589 411 456 369 Nirvikalpa Niryasa ... Nisacara ... Nisada (Nishada) 17,19,86,210,010 Nisnmbha 430,431,434,436,437 Nitala 302,524 Nitiyappan ... 67 Nitya ... 364 Niyama ... 410 Nizam's dominions 124,137,147, 160,225 Nizir .. ... .•■ 318 Noachian deluge ... 321, .338 Noah 317,319,320,322,323,332,335 Nobbe, Mr. C. F. A. ... 113,614 Nonaba Okkaliga ... 231 Nonangul Marnsthali, Nokote Maroosthulli ... ... 91 Non-Aryan 94,110,271,362,370, 371,372,375,378,406,416,422, 436,450,434,455,458,504,508, 613,520,526,533,552,554,556, 573,576,578,579,600,601,605, 607,621,622 North India, aryanised ... 10 North-West Provinces 45,118,141, 194,200,211 Novaguddha Nrsimha ... Nubia Nilkalamtna Nuliga Number, importance of Numerals, ancient Dravi dian Nunjinagodu Nurse (Dhatr) NuUiavar Nyungti 0,0 (r), (one) Cannes ... Ocean Ociiramma Oddy Odin O'Donnell, Mr. C. J. Ogha (iiood) Ogyges Ojhyal Okeanos ... Okka Okkalafcana Okkaliga Kurumba Okkalu Olamma ... Old Testament ... Oleander Olympian dm Omattal Omgunda omma (oppu) on Unam 150 144,348,390,444. 161 502 156 555 110,111 224 447 63 214 110 323,326 312,396 501 565 277 44 314 314 151 318 110 231 229-32 231 502 320 459 519 284 502 485 3 110 15 87 680 INDEX. Page. Ondru 110 Ondu, see onru, ondru, ondu, ondu, oflji, onnu, or, or, om, on, ottu 110,111 Onkarakall ... .. 494 Onkaraliijga ... 379 Onpatu 256 Onpa.tukuppatar .. 25S Onrn (oru, onnu) ... 110 Onti 110 Onti erutn Vapiyar ... fi3 Oodeypur ... ... 211 Ondh 148 Oppert, Prof. Jnlius 317,331,332 Oraon 122,558 Orchoe 317 Oriental MSS. Library, Govt. 102, 103 Orisaa ...110,117,146,151,153,155 Orte 562 Ortbnceratite 340 Orumasattan ... ... 513 Orxulae 143 Oryza ... ... ... 11 Osadhi 399 Osadbigvari ... ... 456 Oairis ... 283,284,316 333,381, 543-45 Osis 515 Osmanli ... 93,131 Otiartes ... 317 Ottar 64 Ottorokorrha ... ... 614 Ottu 26,28 Ota 28 Oucbterlony, Col. (Capt.) J 181,182,227,230 Oiide (Gadh) 34,39,41,42,4.'5,,I7, 103,104,116,120,148 Oxyalkoa 126 Oxydrai'ikai ... ... 114 Paccaiy amma ... 499 Pactolos ... 126 pada 405 padai 99 Padaivlttamman 501 Pailaiyacc-i 89,99 Padal 147,151 Padati 610 padati 3 Padavldu 475 Pad-da 214 Padinayirankaiinudayal. 471 pcidma 236 Padrnii 363,448 Padmacaliyar ... 63 padmaja ... 287 Padmanabba, "worship of 76,77 Padmaupa 237 Padmapuraua ... 86,290,345,351, 357 Padmarasu '236 Padmasana 287 Padmodbhana ... 369 paduka, padukaaahasra 191 padukkaiyarai ... 101 padya 344 pagadamu (pacadamu. coral) 163 pabiir 33 Pahar, Paharia ... 14,21,30,32-34, 50,553 Pahla 72 Pahlav, Pahlava, Palhava Plava ... 14,36,70,^ 1,73,619 Pahlavi 36 Pabnava ... 14,71 pai (above) 183 Paikera ... 210 Paiki 183 INDEX. 681 Page. Paijavana ... ... 588 Paintiyamma ... ... 499 Paiyiirkottai 244 Paksitirthatn lOV Paktha 579 pal, pal 6 Pal Kurumba . . . 229,232,233 pala (flesh) 6,7,56,89 pala(old) 17,19,36 Pala ... •■ ... 14,45 PSlaRaja ... . 117 Palasimundu ... ... 88 Palagauri ... ... 502 palai, pajai ... ... 6 Palaiogonoi ... ... 88 Palaiyakkaran ... ... 96 Palaiyam (palayam) ... 96 Palakall 618,620 Palal 105,186,191,192 palam, palam, palam ... 4,5,6 Palamaneri ... 3 Palaman ... .. ... 23,37 Palani (mountain) 61,— Andi orindavar ...77,105,211,212 Paianikal (Pavuniyar)... 64 palar ... ... ... 6 Palar 251,254 Palasa ... ... ... 14 Palavaneri ... ... 3 Palavfir ... .. ... 7 • Palaya (Paraya) ... 34 palayam (palaiyam) ... 6,96 Palayam 480 palci ... ... 188 Palconda, Zemindary of, 149 pale ... ... ... 36 Palegadu 96,108 Palegar 257 Paleisimundu ... ... 88 palemu ... 96,108 Palghat 106,255 Palha Palhava . . Pali pali, pali, pali Pali Palikai ... Pdlikarpal Paliyarnman Palkunrakottai Page. 72 ... 14,70,71 ... 14,101 6 22 ... 478,479 186 602 244 6 Palla ... 3,5,6,7,14,16,30,31,36,56, 57,62,65,66,68,69,70,72-77, 85,86,89,96,98,99,101,104, 105,107,108,210,623 palladu 3,7 pallaicci ... ... ... 6 Pallalamma ... ... 502 pallam (paljam) ... 6,106 Pallanceri ■... ... 105 PallSndi, Paliandiyan ... 104,108 Pallapur ... ... 7 pallai- ... ... ... 6 Pallar, see Palla. paliava ... ... ... 6 Pallava 59 (Paliava king), 87 (dynasty), 92,98,101,220,614 Pallavaka ... ... 87 Pallavaraya ... ... 73 Pallavaram ... ... 105 pallayam (pa,llaiyam) ... 6 palle, (palli) ... 4,5,6,97,100 pallein (ballein) .. 3 paljemu .. ... ... 6 Pallevandlu ... ... 35 palli, palli, pay... 4,5,6,56,97,100, 101, see palle (town). palli 53,220 palli, pali (temple) ... 101 palli (royal) 100 Palli ... 65,73,85,94-101,237, 477 682 INDEX. pallikovilakam . . . Palinadu pallival ... pallimetta pallivetta Pajliyar (Palliar) palliyara pallu Pal poiigal palu palvala Patabai ... Pampapura Panaiveriyamma Panaiyattal (Panaiyat- tamma) Pauar panoa Panoadasakaari ... Panca dravidah ... Panoa gand ah ... Pancaksara Page. 100 254 100 100 53,100 ,14,77,100 100 68,71 370 6 6 491 40 501 502 156 577 424 21,22 21,22 484 Panoaia... 603-13,615,617,620,623 Panoalar ...58,59,196 pancaloha •-. ... 207 pancamajati (Pariah) ... 51 Panoam Banijiga 232 PaScami ... ... ... 423 Paucamnkha 360,523 Panoanada ... .. 609 Paficanana ... ... 366 Paucaratragania 337 PaScaaika 403,104 Paucasya... ... ... 366 pauoatva ... ... ... 543 Panoavaktra ... ... 366 Paiicayatana . . 346,378,383,380, 390,464 pafioikrtabhuta ... ... 405 Panel amaiigalain ... 26 Paudaram 04 (— Vaduka), 469 Paiidava ... 35,45,76,81,97-99,102, 118-20,146,147,166,210, 211,392,397,603-5,608, 611,612,615,617,621 Papdellamma ... ... 502 Pandl 104 Pandiau king ... ... 184 Paudion ... ... ... 104 Pandit, Tamil 509 Papdiyan ... 103,104,108 Paudiyamandalam 103,250 papdu 17,104 Papdu . 610-12,616-18,620,621 P.^pdn-^^akya 102 PapduTamSadeva ... 102 Paudya ... 14,20,30,90,101-5,125, 133,245,252 Pandyan potentates ... 96 papi 405 pani (work) ... ... 233 Pania, 226,228 ;—Kuruniba 2.33 Papioeyvorkal .. ... 64 19,71,104,120,602,608 383 Papini .. Panipitha paniya ... ... ... 344 Pai3Ja ... ... 562 Panjab . ... 118,124,264,609 Pafijadaye ... ... 503 Panjara Terava ... 207 Paijjurli (Paiijurlibante). 562 Pankajavalli ... 17 Pannagabhiisana ... 369 Pautaparaiyar ... 64 Pan tar ... ... ... 64 Pantha 531 Pantheon, Hindu ... 2/3 Panwarijaitpur ... 40 Papaiya 68 Pape, Dr. W 128 PJpiKitti 483 pSr, parai ... 13,18,19,33 INDEX. 683 Page. Par (Phar), parn (mountain) 33 para (old) 6,36 para (drum), parai ,..82,33,160 Para 424,428 Parabrahman ... 386,391,424,457 Parada ... 18,32,.S4-36,93 parai, para (drum) ... 33,160 parai, see par, Paraiceri ... ... 7 Paraiyar (Pariah) .. 64,299 Parama bhnmi ... ... 275 Paramara . . ... 91,92 Pararaatman ... 282,386-97,407 ParamestWn . . . 281,287,606 Paramesvara 19,237,298,301 Paramesvari ... ... 899 Paranganad . . . 191 Paraigi Malai ... ... 7 Paranjodi ... ... 471 Parapamisos ... ... 86 Parasa ... ... ... 37 Parasakti 399,418,424,471 Parasara 35,292,861,450,584, 611,616 Parasarapaddhati . . 82 Parasurama 90,164,165,167,307, 310,340,348 (Salagrama), 368, 377,444,467-69,591 Parata ... . 13,30,32,35,87 Paratar (Paratavar) ... 34 Paratman 282,284,386-97 Parava ... 13,32,34,37,93,156,207 Paravara ... ... 92 Paravaratata ... ... 401 Paravari ...13,22,31,32,37,98 Pardhi 62 Parheya 13,82,37,50,83 Pari aduppu ... ... 510 Paria (Pariah, Paraiya) 13,16, 21-3,30-4,50,57-66,69,76,89,93, 99,11 2,155, 159,193,212,225,45 1 , Page. 460,466,469,488,487,502,503 ;— derivation of the term Pariah (Pariah) 34 ; elder brother of the Brahman, 51 ,- Pariah-insig- nia 51; — religion ... 50 Pariaria ... ... ... 34 Parihar, Parihara... 90,91,93 Pariksit 120,610 Pariksit 611 parimaua... ... ... 340 Parisada ... ... 455 Parisiene ... ... 35 paritodikam ... ... 53 Pariraram 89,93 Pariveltai 53,73 Parivrkti 618,620 Parjanya 277,435 Parjat 14,84 parna ... ... 83 Parna Gauija ... ... 82 Paipa Sahara 82,389 Parnian ... ... .. 36 Farnoi 36 paropta .. ... ... 527 Parraona . . . 263 Parrot, Dr 321 Parrot play ... ... 488 Parsada ... .. ... 456 Parsi 110 Parsia, Parsiana, Parsiene 36 Parsidai (Parsirai) ... 35,36 Parsyetai ... ... 36 Parthasarathi ... ... 17 Parthian, 86,160 (king), 162 (Do- minion) . Parthva ... ... 36 paru ... ... ... 33 Paruspi 578 Pariitai ... ... ... 13,36 Parvataka ... ... 20 684 INDEX. Page. Parvatpyl ■■■ ■■■ 84 Parvati ... 17,52,157,159,167,188, 196,265,263,287,288,290,296,209, 392,412,413,418,422,482,501,509, 522 Parwari 23,49,57 Paryankavasini ... 456 Pasi chowkidar ... 46 Pasapala ... ... 144 Pasupati . . . 201,281,365,446 Pasuvatsapa .■ ... 456 pata ... ... ... 17 Patala ... 15,301,302,376,399,401, 520,624-26 Patilaponuiyamman ... 562 PStalf 456 Patanawar tribe... ... 263 Patanjali 406,409 patein (batein) ... ... 3 Pathak, Mr. K. B. ... 265 Patitapavanaksetra ... 62 Patriarch, Armenian ... 321 pattai ... ... ... 3 Pattanavar ... ... 64 Pattipulam 245 Pattnul .. ,. 94 Pattoridaye 562 Pattucaliyar ... .. 63 Patuviirkotlai ... ... -j-ll. Paulastya 137,378 Paurava ... ... 93 Pansivalli 522 PSvadairayan ... ... 482,485 Pavadaiviran ... 489 Pavaka ... ... ... 3gg Pf^^ana 290,427 pavann ... ... .. g Pavaniyar .. .. 04 Payosija ... 4QJ Payu 405 Page. 10,265,266,267 557,559 (king Peacock ... (legend about) Peacock). Peak, Mr. Adams peda Peddaci ... Peddamma Peddeti GoUa Pegn Peiki Pekkan Pen Deva Peniiai peptatfi ,. Perambiir Peranganad Peramma PernScarakan Periplus maris Erythraei Periyakulam Periyammai Periyangudi Periyapalayam ... Periy atambiran ... Perkunas Persia Persian 31- (Gulf), (new), 134,142,151,160 (old), 279,309 (Gulf), 320,321,327 Perumal .. .. 30,69,153,362 Perumpayar ... ... 478 Peteri Peunu ... ... 153 Perumburapa (Cochi Baja) 226 Peruiikajam (asafoetida) Peshawar Pey (covil) Peyodadi Phala Phalagauri phalani Phallic proceesion 301 3 502 171,472,474 220 ... 212,214 181 181 ... 153,154 ... 253,254 107 ... 52,499 184 502 67 475,477 502 98 475,477 489 277 36,37 109,110 242 160 559,573 495 6 456 4,5 382 INDEX. 685 Page. Page. Phallus ... 374,379,381,382,397 pogu (povu, earring) 163 Phasis 126 Pokhar, Pokhama 292 Phemer ... 158 Pokhra ... 41 Phillitai ... 14 Polaiyar ... 14 Philologist, difficnlt task of, 6 Pdlakamnia ... 97,502 Phcenioian .. 314,381 Polaperamma ... ... 204,205 Phrygian ... 318,381 Poleramma 97,471,502 phulla 6 Poleya 87 Phullalocana 456 Poliar ... 212,225 Phnlmari 188 Poligar ... 95,96 phyllinos 83 polls 97 Phyllitai 80-84,156 politikos 97 phyllon 81 Polyandry,.. 145,166,169,189, Piooawdisannidhi 475 214,210,617 Pidari ... 464,482,491-95 Polyhistor, Alexander 322 Pidzn Pennu 153 Polynesia 313 Pil oamundi 562 Polytheism 273 pilla, pilli 6 Pondicherry 95 Pinakini 253 Pongal 15,370,484 Pinches, Mr. 317 Ponniyammai 502 pinda ... 531 -36,539,542,543 Ponniir ... 293 PiiigalavatT 399 Poole, Mr. R. S. ... 161,179 Pipal, Pippal tree ... 241,492 Pooua 140,157 (Brahman), 158,225 Pipasa 449 Pope, Rev. Dr. 190,195,196 Pipru ... 517,518 Porteons, Col. 463 piranku . . . 3 Poruari, Poruaroi ... 13,92,93 Pisaoa 225,455,512,514,534, Portuguese 377 559, see Pey. Porus 113 Pitabdhi 24 Porvara, Porvaroi (F or- Pitr 396,449,529,531,534 uari) ... 92,92 Pitiloka ... 540 Posa 562 Pitiyana ... 539,552 Poseidon ... 128,314 Place, Mr. 96 Potail 116 Plato^ 315 Potappa ... 97,461 Plava ... 14,17,70 Potaraja, Potnraja, Potu- Pleiades 584 laraja ... 97,147 ,461,469,476 Plemyrion 113 Potiyam ... 25 PHniuB (Pliny) ... 114,143,191, Pottelu 562 214,609,614, see Xaturalis potu 97,147,461 Historia. Poyakharries 96 Plutarch ... ., 125.30,333 Poyi 64 686 INDEX. Page. Prabha, PrabhSvati ... 449 prabandha (pirabandham) 5 Prabhasa 400,401 prabhiTtabali ... . . 533 Pracanda ... 399 Praohi 29^ Pradhaua, pradhanamsa. 404.,448 Pradyumna ... ... 391,429 Prahiada 396,515 Prajapati... 18,21,278,280,281, 283,284,287,307,312, 368,425,518,519,584 prajas ... ... 34 Prajvara 449 prakamya ... .. 502 Prakkosala ... 613 Prakrit idiom 71,72 Prakfti ... 352,364,388,405-7, 413,418,425 441, 444,452,553,556 Pralaya 411 pramana ... ... ... 3,340 Pramara 79,90-93 Praraatha 234,455 Praaa 411,412 Praiialltiga ... ... 137,375 pranayiima ... ... 410 Prapti 502 praaada ... ... ... 46), 478 Prastha 456 prasiiti ... ... ... 449 Pratapachandra Ghosha.. 414 pratiloma ... 459 Pratipa 610,611 I'ratistha . 449 Pratisravas ... ... 611 PratiBthana 129 Pratitika ... ... ... 456 Prativindha ... . 611 pratyahara ... ... 114 Pratyangira ... ,., 424 622 600 609 129,401 582,617 Page Pravalavalli PraTasu ... Pravira ... Prayaga . prayascitta prehistoric stage ... g Presbyter Johannes, (Prester John) 161,162,2u7,333 Prestwich, Professor ... 335 Preta 455,531-36 primogeniture 192 Principle, worship of fe- male 4X6 Prinsep, Mr. T igi Pftlii" 539 Prithihara, Prithiha-dvara 91 Pnti 24,449 Priyapattana ... ,., 221 Probyn, Captain ... 135 Prometheus 278 PxBni ... ... ^ . 277 Pitlia 393,394,396 P?tba 611,616 Prthivi, Pithvi ...24,275,379,402, 405-7,449 Ptolemaoos Philadelphos. 315 Ptolemy 23,27,35,37,40,80-84, 87,92,93,104,105,113,114,121, 142-45,153,156,178 170,191, 315,609,614 Pucarikal... ... ... (34 Pudukota 132 (Raja of), 233, 239,259 Piaja-GoUa ... ... 220 Pujaikkurati,Pujakkurati 471, 182 Pujari ... 17,98,106,459,460,469, 477,479,480,483,492,570 Pukhasa ... ... ... 17 Pul 6,56,87,106 I'ula 76,87 Pula 76 (corruption of Pallal, 89 INDEX. 687 Page. Pulacci, (Palaicci) ... 67,76 Pnlaha 18,87,89 ptilai (pule, pole) ... 6,7,87 Pnlaiya, see Pnlaya. puliil . ... ... 6 Pulal ... 49,95,24-i (Raja of). Pulalkottai ... ... 244 pulas ... ... ... 87 Palastinagara ... 88 Palastipura ... . 88 Pulastya 18,24,87,377 Pnlaya ... 14,50,56,57,67,69-89,99 Piilayaking ... ... 77 puli 6 Pnli-tree 501 Palinda. ... 14,17,51,70,82,84,86, 87,145,431,436,592,593,600 Pulindadevi 85 Pnlindai agriophagoi . . . 86,87 Paliyarkottai ... ... 244 Paliyi-daiTaliyamman . 501 Pulkaea 140,459 palla ... ... 6 Pulla (Palla) 82 puUam ... 6 Pallamma ... ... 502 puUi 6 Pulliya 14 pulla 6 Puloman 18,87,89 pulu (pnllu) ... ... 6 Pulwar ... ... ... 46 Pnlyoginl ... ... 571 PulZambdi 571 punoey (puncai) 106 Pandarika 302 Pundavardhana ... ... 401 Pundra ... 14,51,86,592,593,600 Punjab 140 Punje 562 Puhkadalvannan ... 573 Page. Puiiganamman (Pungattal) 52 Puukotiyammal ... 502 PnnuSlamma ... ... 502 piinunnl (pimnl) . 68 Punvar ... ... ... 92 Punya ... ... ... 449 Purana ... 18,35,51,58,271,273, 325,326,327,372,398,413,414,498, 526,537,549 578,581,608,612,614 Piiranai, (Piiranaikelvan) 464,513 Puranasangraha .. ... 342 Puraniya... ... 43 puras ... ... ... 87 Purattiwan ... ... 513 Puravalan ... .. 71 Puri 55,290 Puri-Golla ... 220 Purika 83 Pilrtia (Pnranai) ... 464,511 piirnabhlseka ... ... 417 Purnaiakti ... ... 448 Purohita 278 purrn 4 Pnrsh 192 Piiru ... 577,578,601 Purubiita 399 Parujanu ... ... 609 Pnrumidlia 606 Puriiravas ... ... 372 Purusa ... 281,368,394, 404,406,407,425 Purusasiikta 279,280 Purusottama . ... 401 Piisau 273,306,370,425,518,530 Puskala 464,571 Puskara 289,291,292 (Pokhar),400, 401 Puskara Mahatmya ... 290,291 Pnskaravati ... ... 399 Puskareksana ... ... 399 Paapadanta ... ... 302 88 688 INDEX. Puspavati 266,267 pustakam gistakam . . . 004 Pusti ... 399,429,430,448,449 putkuli ... putta Puttalatnma (Puttamma) Putana ... 1S2 4 S01,502 455,456 Patkalai 464 Pntkalaimanalan 513 Puttiira ... 501 Pysachi, see Pisaca. Pythagoras Pyur 545 226 R. R older than 1, (aram, etc.) 50 Ba 283,544 Radha ... 351,352,399,416,44-2, 444,447,449 Kadhika 352,443 Biighanna ... ... 72 Raghavayy a, D. . . . ... 249 Raghuwal 147,151 Rahu ... ... ... 18 Rai-Bareli 39 Raigarh ... ... ... 146 Rainuka . . ... ... 456 Eaivataka forest ... 84 Baivati ... . . ... 214 Baja Kurun Solunkee ... 139 Bajalaksmi ... ... 363 Bajamandry ... ... 73 Baiatnataiigi ... ... 424 Bajatidagagile ... .. 562 KajaputSna Gazetteer ... 292 Eajaputra 90,92 Raja Raja.. ... ... 252 Rajarsi ... ... ... 595 R5.ias 285,393,406,407 Rajasthan 19,20,47,48, 90,91,93,289 (Annals of) Rajayoga... ... ... 410 Rajbhar 38,39,45 Raj endra Cola ... ... 252 Raj Gond 148,151 Bajmahali ... .. 553 Bajpnt 34,45,46 (pedigree), 48,49, S4,90 (non.Aryan), 93,94. 152,156,169,211,263 Rajputana ...47,80,118,135,239 Raj war ... ... ... 43,44 Raksas 517,518,524 Raksasa ... 18,24,87-9,137,278, 377,383,383,396,514-16, 518,519,523,524,526,583 Baksasi ... ... ... 455,456 Raktacamunda ... ... 51 Bama . . .15,39,41,50,78,80,87,83, 97,103,104,184,185,224,237, 307,310,348 I Salagrama;, 363, 396,41 7,444,485,524,585,594 Ramaoandra ... 446 Bamaliiga 377,379 Bamalingachari ... 61,62 Eamana ... ... 399 Ramanujacarya, Bhaga- vad 54,364,387,390 Raniappa Karnik 158,172,175 Rama Raj Sing ,. ... 79 Ratiiasanii Pillai ... 98 Bamata ... . 35 Ramatirtha ... . 401 Bamayana 19,73,86,120,140, 142,252,271,375,378,381,419,420, 524,581,584,594,595,614,617,623 Bambhri ... 399,571 (Zambdi). Eamesvaram ... 68,103,377 BSmgarh Gauda ... 115 Bamiah, .Mr 196 Baniiiad 259 INDEX. 689 Page. 142,155 142 79 489 16,474 294 229 187 46 114,350 36 405 302 351 22 40 93 399 399 390 522 489 R5tri 449,540 Katriparisista ... ... 422,423 Raudra ... ... ,., 535 Raudrani 456 Raudri 426,447,456 Rauhina ... ... ... 517 Bavana ... 24,49,50,86-88,137, 138 representative of wild mountaineerB, 184-86,375, 376,377,378,446,524 Ravanabhet ... ... 87 Ravana Siddhesvara ... 222,225 Ravanesvara ... ... 375,376 Ravanlya ... ... 88 Ravati .. .,, ... 215 Ravenna, geographer of 27 Ravi 36L Ravi river ... . 214 Bavuttan ... ... 482 Bamsay, Mr. W.... Ramtek Rana Hamir Ranaviran Ranganatha Rafiganathakula . . . Rangasvami Peak Baoji VasudevaTuUu ... Raotar Bapti rarata (lalata) .. rasa Basatala ... Rasesvari Rastravasinah Rath ratha (monolythic temple) Rati Ratipriya Ratnagarbha Ratnavalli Ratnaviran Page. Rawat ... ... ... 46 Rolka 591,592 Red Hills' Tank 248 Reddi Caste 104 (of Tin- nevelly) 232 Reddika.l 63 lledhouse, Mr. ... 131 Reeves, Rev. W 157 Reinaud, M. ... ... 80 Rekapalli 146 Religion 149,132, (of the Khonds) ; of the Hindus, 403,413 Renu 59-1 RenukS, ..349,449,455,466, 467,469,591 Benukaradhya (Eevana- siddha) Retassiras Rettiah Kaur R evanasiddhesvara Eevana sfitra ... R evati Rewa Rewa kanta Bgveda ... ... 234,236 456 214 236 234 ... 434,449 122 86 4,14,15,24,34, 111,271,272,279,280,306,328,329, 360,364,365,371,372,403,423,457, 516-8,526,527,530,541,547-49,577, 578-81,588,591,593,596,597,599 - 605,610,621 Rgvedaparisista ... 422,431 Rhamnai ... ... ... 35 Rhys Davids, Mr. T. W. . . 88 Bice, Mr. Lewis 71,164,166,168, 176,183,207,208,217,218,268,269 Ricinus communis ... 255 Eichter, Bev. G. 164,168,207,217, 218,230-33,237 Bight and left-hand castes 57-66, 95 Risley, Mr. H, H. ... 676,576 690 INDEX; Page. Ritter, Rev. G 297 Ekea 607 Road, signs of the (Mhr gacitina) 540 Rodasi 275 RohinI 431,-149 Rohita 592 Roman 598 (Empire), 602 (geographer) Rost, Dr. Reinhold 403 Roth, Prof. von ... 83,256,268,329, 330,372,38 1,527,529, 577-79,588,58 9,597,602 Royaporam 51 Rsabha 371 Rsyasxiiga ... ... 377,456 rtvij 278 Rudhikra ... ... 517 Rudra (and Rudras) 277,278,361, 364,365,366,368,369,372,373,396, 422,424,434,435,455,456,518,599 Rudrahrdayopanisad ... 361 Rudrakoti... Rudraksamala Riidranetra Rudraiii Rudrasaiighika Rudra vaktra Rudrayaniala Bukuiiui nlpa Rilpiua Rusamas ... Russia Sabaean Sabaeism Sabaliisva 401 371 369 390,435,456 456 369 413 363,399,449 405 607 579 105 568 557 610 Habara ... 17,38,51,54,55,81,82,86, 431,436,592,593,600 Sabari 455,456,501 sabda 405 Sabdaratnakara ... 209 Sabdastomamahanidhi.., 414 Sabdaratnavali ... ... 133 Sabhaparvan ... ... 134 Saoi 18,448,4411 Sa^a-Knrumba ... ... 233 Sadanana .. 367 iSadasiva ... ... 366 Sadudagayanamasah ... 540 Siddaksanayanamasah . . . 540 Sidhaka ... ... ... 531 Sadhvl 449 Sadviiisa-Brahmana ... 582 Sadyodjata 3>)5,386 Sagar 39 Sagara 36,584 Sagaris 86,126 sagu 106 saguna 383 (Brahman), 390,407, 539 Sahadeva ... 97,611,617 Sahasraksi ... ... 399 Sahityadarpana... .. 84 Sahisuu ... ... ... 371 Sahsaram ... ... 43 Sahya mountain ... 265 Saibya ... ... ... 44'J Saikayata ... ... 604 Saila 339 Sailamaya 340,347 Sailamurti ... ... 351 Sailapur ... ... ... 350 St. Thomas 161 8t. Thomas' Mount ... 7,161 Sairindha ... ... 144 Saithawar tribe ... 263 S;iiv;i 17 (creed), 56 (saint), 58, 35,372, (system), 359,372,373, 378,392 INDEX. 691 Saivism ... Saivite Saka (era) Sakambari Sakapiini Sakini Sakkili Sakra Sakta . . . Page. 236 ... 227,260 35,36,117,375 . 399,429 306 451 ; 64 369,591,611 66,412,'tl4,416 (cere- monial) Sakti ... 237,295,349,352,353, 363,378,386-90,392,397,450, 452, 455-57,464,471,485,499, 504 Sakti or Saktr (son of Vasistha) 582-84 Saktisaiigama ... ... 413 Sakiona .. ... ... 456 Sakuni 434 Sakuntala .. 101,594,605,606 Sakya (race and princes). 20 Sakyamnni ... ... 20 Sal tree 337 SalagrSma ... 297,307,337-59, 360,362,401 Salagrfimalaksana. . . 342,351,357 Salagrama river ... 349 Salagramatlrtha ... 337,350 Salagrami ... ... 352 Salaknppam ... 245 Salapakkam ... ?39,244,245 Saldanha, Joseph .. 156,174 Salem (town, district) ...61,99,252 Salivahana Saka ... 62 Sallet, Alfred von ... 162 Salmala 610 Salokya 411 Saloonka ... ... 143 Salyamaiigalam ... 296 Samadhi 411,412 gama hymns ... ... 'iOii saman giman Samanodaka sanianta ... Samanta Kuramba samara Samaradhanai (picnic) Samas Samaveda Samayapuram .. SamayappurattaJ Sambalpur Sambira ... Page. 604 531 233 221,233 29 511 31S 60,272,396 474,475,477 471,474,501 146 517 Sambhii 355,366,369,427,521 Sambhugotra SaraharamSti Sami tree Samipya Sampatti samprajnata Sarii sara Samudrik.a Samuells, Captain Samvarana saravatsara Sanaka ... Sananda ... Sanandana Sanatana Sanatknniiira Sanatkumiirasamhita Sandaki ... Sandal Sanderai Sanderson, Dr. .. Sandhi, rule of ... Sandhya Sandhyavandana Sandika Saiga Saigamcsiii Sani 73 447 278,456,501 411 449 411 542 ... 455,456 569 606,608,610 ... 540,552 403 403 302 287 15S,403,413 372 399 478 79,80 157 4 ... 429,449 137 579 302 456 346 692 INDMX. Page. Sanjiva root ... ... 465 Sanjna ... ... ... 4-49 Saiikalpa ceremony ... 289 Saiikara 00,353,361,365,369,372, 396,427,447 Saiikaracarya ...387,390,403,540, 541,552,555 Saiikaravajaja ... ... 416 Saikari 899,471 sankarsana ... ... 391 sai'iklia ... ... ... 355,362 SJaiikhaoSda ... 354,355,356 Sankhadvara ... ... 402 eankhatoya . . . 355 Sahkhya .. 404,409,563,555 Sahkhyakariki ... 405,407_ — baehya ... 403,404,406 Saiikranti 304 Saikrti 592 Sanknkarria ... ... 400,611 Saijmukha .. 368,522,523 Sauna Kodaga ... 164 Sanskrit... 4,6, 10,11, 16-l«,25,27-9. 33-5,38,42,47,56,68,70-2,80,86,87, 89,93,101,104,105,109,111,112, 115,116,121,123,132-34,140-44, 145,152,156-158,163,177,179,101, 195,196,206,209,213,233,241,248, 255,256,261,262,266,268,314,374, 381,420,421,449,458,503,505,514, 515,552 Sauekritist ... 49,274,548 i^antals (Santhals) ... 130,214 Santanalaksmi ... ... 363 Santanu 35,610,611,616 SSnti 448,449,609 Santiparvan ... 381,382 Sanu ... ... ... 351 Sanyasi ... ... ... 539 Saphari (carp) ... 312,313,329 Sapiuija ... ... ... 531 Sappu Koraga ... ... 171 SaptakotTsvaralinga ... 377 Saptarei ... ... ... 377 SaptaSati ... .. 436,445 Saptasrngam 399 Sarabha ... ... ... 443 Sarabhendra ... ... 371 Saradamba ... ... 390 Saradatilaka .. ... 413 Saralajnmadi ... ... 562 Saranyii . . . 276,279,537 Saraavata ... 22,68,117,118 (Brahmans). Sarasvati (river) ... 117,118 Sarasvati ... 286,288,292,296, 360,373,401,412,429,430,432-34, 449,479 SSraveriyan ... 485 Saraya ... ... , 263 Savamane ... 229 Sardanapal . ... 316,562 Sarjuga 150 Sarira, 410 (Karana-S.) ; 533,542 (PretaS.) ; 306,410 (SthfilaS. ; 406,410 (Sfiksma S.) ; 533,535, 542 (YStana S.) •Sarlanima ... 146 Sarmistha ... ... 578 Sarpah (Kola) 133 Sarstitva 411 Sariipya ... ... 411 Sarur ... ... 222 ^arva . 365 Sarvabhauma 302 (elephant), 601 Sarvadamana ... ... 601 Sarvadarsauasangraha 366,386-88, 391,392,408 sarvadesika ... ... 386 Sarvaga ... , ... 611 Sarvalokakrt ... ... 287 INDEX. 693 Sarviim ba ... 4.56,464 Sarvaiii ... 399 Sarvapraiia 369 sarvasa ... 386 Sarvatomukha . . . 287 Sarveivara 369 Saskuli 456 SaBsi Dina 146 Sassi Koinga 146 Sasta (§astr) .. 451,456,504-6 Sastha 401 sastra 61 lastram giatram 604 Satadhrti 287 Satadru ... 143 Satiimpati 287 Satani 60 Satanika ... .. 610,611 Satapatha-Brahmana ... 278,281, 311,312,324,325,326,547,582,603, 606,612,613 Sathagopa ... ... 501 Satira (Sattara) 136 (Brahman), 263,264 {Kaja of S.) Satariipa 449 Sati 419,446,449 Satkonaoakra 483 Satlej ... 144,213 Sattan 513 Saturn ... 346,347,557 sattva 284 ,285,393,406,407 Sattvika ... 191,507 Satya 449 Satyabhama 449 Satyadri 401 Satyaloka ... 289,368 SatyavadiDi 399 SatyavatI ... 35 ,449,519,611,616 Satya vrata ... 313,324 Saubhadevi ... 455,456 S aubh a gyaratnakara 409 Page. Saudasa ... ... ... 585 Sauptikapar van . . . ... 381 Saugor ... ... ... 38 Saur, Saura, Savara, 54,76,81,83, 84,149,214,283 Saurastra 79,80 Sanri ... ... ... 83 Sava ... 531 Savanur ... 269 Savara, see Saur. Savarni ... ... ... 445 Savitr 273,275,276,518 Savitri 286,290,424,429,430,444, 446,448,610 savikalpa ... .. 411 Sawan 291 SSyaija 368,371,424,547,548, 582-84,588,590,592, 593,595,597-99,602,603 Sayujya 411,417 Scandinavian ... ... 313 Schafhirt . , . 218 Schaible, Rev. M. ... 299 Schiefner, Mr. A. ... 131 Schmidt, Prof. B. ... 576 Schwanzgotter ... 371 Scinde 135 Scindia (Sinthiya) ... 263 Scotch clans .. ... 580 Scythian, Scythic . . . 20,78,79, 86,94,99,161,172,177,188 Sebennytos ... ... 315 Sedil ' 481 Selani Jilla Tirmanavu . 62 Seleucus ... ... ... 331 ' Selvapillai 53,54,62 Sem.atfal 52,53 Semitic ...325,334,554,557 Senabi ... ... ... 571 SengodiyammSl ... 482 Senkannantahgai . . , 474 694 INDEX. Seoraj Sepharvaim eepher ... Serampore Seriadic columns Serpent Sesa (Oesai) Sesa Seshagiri Sastriyar, Mr. M. 330 Seshiah Sastriyar, Divan Begent... Sesvara Saiikhya Set, Seth 316 Settippen Settlements, Brahmanical Setupati Seven Pagodas Seven Seas 560 Shahabad 45,141 Shah Abbas 321 Shah Tamasp 321 Shamanite 552 Shanar of Tinnevelly ... 89,94 559,568,572 Shancia 152 Shaving among Kaurs and Kurumbas ... 210 Sherring, Rev. M. A . ...41,49,84 86,135,141,152,170^ 171,199,209,211,266 Shortt, Dr. John 150,171,176, 181,184,193,210, 212,228,230,234 Shungoony Menon, Mr. P. 104 Siberia ... ... 559 Siddha Bhyru (Siddha Pairn) 173,175 Siddha302,382,396,424,429,456,514 Siddhantakaumudi ... 19 Siddhapur ... ... 265 Siddhapurnsa ... ... 456 Page. Page. 145 Siddhasenani 429 318 Siddhavana 401 318 Siddhesvara 40 S3 Sidiviran 571 315,327 Sidrojoo Pennu 153 138,519 Sigra 579 241 Sikh 264 348,427 Sikhandabhrt 371 r. 330 Sikotar ... 571 Silada 378 258 Silla (Silhana, Sihlana).. 72 409 Silpa Sastra 59 327,544 sima 421 483 Sim hamukhasura. 496,497,523 373 Simhavaktra ... 521,522 49,259 Simhavahini 456 98 Siinhika ... 899 Simla hill ... 122,124,136 Simyu ., 579 Sinclair, Air. W. F. 142,159,160,234 Sind (Sindh) ... 48,50 Sindhi 37 Sindhu 125 Sindhnsaiigama 401 Singbhoom ... ... 122 Singhalese . . 88 Singraull ... ... 39 Sinivali ... 360 Sinjar hill 558 Sippara 3 18 sipru 318 Sirgiija 23,44,153,210 Siripolemios ... ... 81 sirsa (head) ... ... 241 Sirnngudi ... 258 Sir-va . 297 Sisapara ... ... 192 sisnadevah 371,372 Sita 363,399,449,455 Sitala, Sitaladevi 471,475 Sitalasaptami . ... 475 ItJDBX. 695 Sitadya ... ... ... 536 Sitaramacharyulu, Mr. ... 209 Siva ... 14,15,17,54,58-61, 68,81,85,90,91,99,137,157,167, 188,199,200,203,211,222,224,229, 232,234,236,237,246,248,249.277, 279,283,284,285,288,289,290,292, 296,299,302,317,318,339,346,352, 354,355,363-73,376,376,381-86, 389,390,410,413,416,417,419,420, 422,426,434,444,447,450,451,455, 465,466,469,472,473,491,501,507, 509,522,523,617 Siva (people) 579 Sivachari ... ... 170 Sivadharmottara . . . 384 Sivaji 231,261,263,264 Sivakunda ... ... 401 Sivaliiiga 384,401 §ivaloka 301,355 Sivanabha ... ... 385 Sivanandanilaya ... 295 Sivapriya ... 399 Sivapurata ... ... 225 Sivarahasya ... 360 Sivaratri ... ... 382 Sivalakti ... ... 456 Sivatantra ... ... 413 Sivavakya ... ... 382 Sixty years' Cycle ... 333 Skamandros . . . 126 Skanda ... 161,189,369,396,429,446 Skandapnrania ... 22,59,288 Slaves, 16 classes of ... 156 Sleeman, Mr 40,46 Smarta Brahman 61,295,360,361 Smith, Mr. George ... 317 Smith, Mr. V. A. ... 38,41 Smrti 59,399,449 SmrtipnraiiaBamuccaya... 458,459 Smrtiratnakara ... 533 snaniya . . . 342 Sodasi 424 Sogdia 114 Sogdiana 113 Solanki . . . 90,91 Solar deity 78,276 Solomon 11 Soma ...273,281,288,306, (Juice), 361,372,419,425,518,550 Somasarman ... ... 371 Somaskanda ... ... 371 Somesvara ... ... 401 Somavara Kurumba . 233 Somesvaraliiga ,,. 379 Somesvarasataka ... 51 Somnath 379 Son (river) ... ... 15 Sona 339 Sonda 173 Sonne ... ... ... 562 Sonnerat, M. ... 339 Sonung Mair ... ... 139 Sonus ... ... ... 114 Soppina Koraga ... 156 Soppu Koraga ... 172,176,179 Sora (Soro) Pennn ... 152,153 Sobs 332-34 Soul (purnsa) 404,405 Sounds, Tamil and Telugu 149 Sourahrace ... ... 149 Souradah 149 South-Arcot ... 85,475,477 South-Kanara ... ... 8 Southern Asia 559 Southern India 370,379,387,504, 509,515,559 Spanish ... ... ... 10 sparsa ... ... ... 405 383 sphatika sphota Sphotamba 392 456 89 696 INt)BX. Spirit (Supreme) 307,386-93, 395,396,407,410,417,419, 439,443,447,453,454,456, 463,515,564,657,558,573 — of Earth 555,564,565 — of Heaven ... 555,564,565 Sraddha ... ... 449 Sraddhadeva ... 313,325 Srastr 277,369 ' Sravana 475,536,552 Sraraati 115,120 Srbinda ... ... ,,. 517 §reni 499 Srenika ... ... ... 456 Sri 25,364,430 Sribhagavatapuraiia 346,347,539 Sricakra ... ... 417 Srldevlbliagavatapurana 351,356, 398,399 Srigiri 385,400 Srikrsma ... 391 SrlmahatripuraBundarl... 424 Srinmspam ,., ... 17 Srlnagara 399 Srinivasaoharya ... 309 SrTnivasa Rao Pantulu ... 6 Srlranavirabhaktiratnakara 342 ^riraiigam ... 95,296,379,474 Srisaila 236,379,385,401 Srivalliputtnr ... ... 53 Srivalumcode ... 104 Sriigarakala ... ... 424 Sriigeri, Srigerimatham. 377,390 §rfijaya 579,609 Sriikhalika . ... 456 Srotra ... ... ... 405 Srughna ... 145 Srutakarman ... 611 Srutakirti ... ,,, 611 Stars, tlie seven ... 275 Stein, l;r. Aurel 160,161,179 Page. Stephanus, Antonins ... 128 Stevenson, Mr. ... . 113 Stevenson, Kev. 158,372,374,379 sthalaja ... ... 340 Sthanesvara ... ... 401 Sthani 399 Sthanupriya 399 Sthanusanjuika ... 400 Sthanvlla 399 sthnlabhnta ... ... 405 sthiilasuksmavibheda ... 340 Sthnlasya 399 Stokes, Mr. H. E. ... 203,208 Stokes, Mr. H. J. ... 98 Stone-worsbip , ... 235 Strabo ... . ... 113 Straits Settlements ... 131 Strirajya... ... ... 144 Strymon ... ... ... 126 Stnrrock, Mr. J. 174 Suastos ... ... ... 114 Suba . ... ... 118 Subalaka 371 Subathu ... ... 340 Snbba Rao, Mr. J". ... 556 Subbanayakkan . . 98 Subbi 562 Snbboro ... ... ... 146 Subhadra, Snbhadrika... 399,449, 611,620 Subrabmanya ... 15,52,75,105, 161,170,303,370,482,522,523 Suda Bai 299 Subraya ... 98, — Devarn 303 Sadaman 352 Sudarsana Salagrama ... 348 Sndas ... 678,582,583,586,587,589, 590,598,603 Sudasa ... ... ... 583 Suddhi 399 Sudpva ... ... ... 610 INDEX. 697 Page. Sudha 291 Sadhivilocana . ... 533 Siidra ... 16,23,32,33,59,65,89,94, 120,147,155,169,232,241,2(31,262, 289,297,304,344 (should not touch a Salagrama), 373,380,383, 415,450,459,470,476 Sufued-Koh 323 Siigandha 399 Sugrlva 15,87,473 Sugu Pennu ... ... 153 Suhotra 606,613 Sukahasta ... ... 456 Sukarma ... ... 149 Sukasyamahl ... ... 424 Sukha 449 Sukhakalyana ... ... 62 Sukkumattadikkarar ... 483 Sukhamilrti ... ... 371 Suklapaksa 475 Saklayajurveda ... 272 Sukracarya 256,521,522 Sukrasiidra ... ... 223 Suksma ... 391 Silksma 399 Siiladharini ... . . 399 Siilavafci 592 Sillin 371 Sulindrine 144 Sulla, Sulhana, Suhlaija.. 72 Sultanpur ... ... 40 §umbha ... 430,431,434,436 437 Sumfirpur ... ... 40 Samidha... ... ... 606 Sun, worship of the, 78,79,188,557 Sunstatue ... ... 82 Sunahpuocha . ... 592-94 Sunaljsgpha 455,593,594 Sunanda ... . . 611 Sunanda ... ... 399 Siindaravalli ... ... 17 Sundaresvara ... ... Suudaresvarapadasekhara Snndarl ... Sunde Penmi Sun god ... Supuam ... Sunolangilla Suparsva ... 188 Suprabha Supratika Supreme Being, 407,557 ; 443 ; -Spirit, see Spirit. 248 252 399,444 152,153 283 479 592 ,268,401 291 302 -Sakti, Siira Sura Surabhandpsvari Surabhi Siiramma Siirapadnaa Siirapadmasura Surasa ... Surastra ... Surat Suratha ... Suredya ... Surippak Surpanakha Sarpika ... Surup Ghat Siirya Snry.'i Snryasiddhanta Silryavarasa Susanti ^ Susena Susiana ... Susila Susna Sutala Sutaptanagara Sutara Siitasairahita 275 275 520 ... 455,456 447,449,584,585 502 522 ... 521,523 121 379 78,79 445 386 .. 317,318 502 456 291 ,276,318,390,449 276 334 78,79 609 610 11 449 517 525 535 371 369 uro Page. CjA.* Page. Sutasoma 611 Tadikombu ... 475,477 Sutudri ... 588 Taittiriya-Aranyaka 368,419,547 Snvarloka (Svarloka) 802 Taittiriya-Brahmana ... 330,422, Suvarnaksa 400 619,621 SuvarnambS 456 TaittirT ya-Sarn hitii 583,618-20 Suvarnapaksa ... ... 368,369 Taittiriya-Upanisad 272 Suyajna 447 tal 191 Suyasas ... 611 tala 191 Snyodbana 615 Talabala 144 Svadha ... 429,430,449 Talaing ... 212,214 Svaha (Svahadevi) 399,429,448, U9 Talaiyari .,. 459,462 Svapaca 17 Talatala 302 Svapati . 456 Talavakara- Upanisad ... 418,419 Svar 281 Talavara 305 Svarga ... ... 363,560 Tali ... 54,74,212,241,242,480,486 Svargalaksmi 363 Tamala 26 Svarnalinga 383 Tamala ... 456 SvarBambika 248 tamalamu (tammalamu). 28 Svarocisa 445 tamara ... 28 Svastidevi 149 Tamarkottai 244 Svayambbii 287 tamas 285,393,406,407 Svayambhuvi 399 Tamasp, Shah ... 321 Svayamprakasavastu y88 Tambfilaimi 28 Svayath varakalyan i 424 Tamil ... 3,6,10,17,19,25-34,36, Sveta 37 1 ,429,430 52,57,65,66,75,76,89,95,96,99,101, Svetaghara 350 103,104,106,107,109,110,131,133, Svetaketii ... 617,618 145,146,161,163,181,190,191,199, Swiss 599 204,205,207,203,212,218,219,224, Syamala ... ... 455,456 238,242,243,248,252,255,257-59, Syamaladandaka 17 262,393,466,503,505,513,559,601; l^yamarahasya ... 413,414,416 explanation of the word, 25-27 Syria 35 tamma, tammi ... 28 Syrian 313 Tamrapami 294 T.amrasasanam ... 62 Tamulian... 29 T. Tamuri ... 226 Tanais 126 Taccar 64 Tanciyamman ... 499 Tadbhava 28 Tandesh ... 159,191 Taddbita affix ... 71 Tancji 377 Taddyadaiji 562 Tandra 449 INDEX. 699 Page. Tangana 84,144 Tanivenyan ... ... 485 Tanjore ... 26,95,99,217,246,247, 250,258-63 (Raja of), 296,379,475,477 Taujorean prince Taiikulaiiparai Tannarasu Nadu tanmatra Tantoniyamman Tantra ... Tapatr Tapoloka ... tappattai Tappedi Tapti tara Tara Taraba Tarakajfiana Taral Taralavalli taram 255 57 ... 258,259 ... 405,406 499 272,413,414 ... 608,610 302 ... 83,484 562 82,142,156,209 27 399,444,456 521 412 49 522 27 Taranatha Tarkavacaspati 348,414 taraTata, taruvata , 27 taravay. taravaya, see taruviiy, taruvaya. Taripi 529 Tari Pennu ... 150,152,153 Tareis 161 Tartar .. 203,321 Tartarus 56 Tartary ... 559 Taruksa 579 taruvay (taruvaya) 27 Tasa 33 Tatadesikatatacharyar, V. 337 Tatakesi 456 Tatapparai 57 Tatar, see Tartar. Tatpurusa . 368,c !69,385,386 Page. Tatpurusalinga ... 385 tatsamam ... ... 169 Tatta, Lord ot 78,79 Tattamma ... ... 502 Tattar ... ... 64 Tattvas, twenty -five ... 404 Tattvamuktakalapa ... 191 Taulava Brahman ... 165 Tavamnni ... ... 67 Tay 471,499 Tayaman Na.lli ... ]03 Tayilamman ... ... 494 Taylor, Rev. W. .. 102-4,113,237, 239,250,252,257,260 Tejas 379,406,449,539 Telal 556,561,564 Teling Koravas 199,200,302 Telinga ... 146,148,191 Teliiigana ... ... 212,214 Tellicherry 104,134,226 Telugu ... 3-6,10,12,17,21,26-9, 33-5,56,61,66,67,73,82,88,96,97, 99,110,111,131,133,148,150,151, 163,181,191,196,199,203-7,209, 212,218,219,238,241,255,257-59, 327,452,464,509,604 Tenampettai ... ... 469 Teigalai 613 ten moli ... ... 26 tenues ... ... 4 Terkosh 192 Tertiary period ... ... 335 Teser ... .. 544 Testament, Old 320,558 Tevanay 16,75 Tevar (title) 257 tharp 182 Tharf?hish ... 10,11 Tharus 263 Thautavar ... 183 Thebe 314 700 INDEX. Page. Thebes 314 Thermodon ... ... 126 Thiele, Dr. C. P. ... 545 ThilgamoB 317 Tholobana 93 Thomas, Mr. Edward ... 80 Thomas, ipostle of India 160 Thomssen, Rev. G. N. ... 490 Thoraton, Mr. ... 169 Thoth ... 315,316,318,327, 543,544 Thotyal 151 Thraetona, Thrita ... 279 thrane ... ... ... 28 Thug 496 Thurr 135 ti (water) 214 Tibet 214,289,290 Tibetan 131,213 Tigala 28 (derivation of 1. Tiger-camundi ... 562 Tigris 126,322 TikkudittammSl ... 490 tilaka ... 191 Tillavanam 475 tilodaka 532 TilokchandT Bai ... 46 Tiraaeos ... ... ... 315 Timappaya Karnika ... 166 Timma 28 Timmamma . . 502 Timuride 321 Tinnevelly ... 8,34,49,95,104, 12 1.,475,47 7,559,568,572 Tipparai 57 Tippn Sultan 168 tira 27 Tirahut 43 Tiraakarini ... ... 424 Tiriari ... 192 rpiridates ... ... 36 tirt Tirtha Tirtharanya tirn Tirakal (Trikal) Tirukaluku raram Tirukkandiyiir ... Tirnkovil (Trikovil) Tirumal Tirumala Tiramalapadi Tirumalapakam 191 376 385 25 26 107 296 26 30 ...24-29,362 26 26 Tirumalaraja, Tirumalaraya 26 Tirumalirnfloolai ... 17 Timmila 26 Tirnmudi Sevakar ... 512,513 Tirnmullai vasal . . . 247-49 Tirumullaivayal ... 248 Tirumnllaivayalpadikam. 246 Tirunirmalai . ... 16 Tiruniru 513 Tirupalapur (Tirupadapur). 77 Timpaii Alvar ... ... 56 TirupparaiikuiTan ... 16 Tirnvadi 296 Tiruvalangadu 104,105 TiruvaUaiikodu 26,104 Tiruvallur ... ... 17 Tirnvalluva Nayanar ... 55,66-8 Tiruvalnr 67,296 Tiruvanaikaval ... ... 380 Tirnvangadu ... ... 104 Tiruvankodii ... ... 104 Tiruvannamalai,., 296,380,475 Tiruvariir 68,380 Tiruvay 25,26,27 Tiruvay moji ... ... 26 Tiruverkattupuraija . . . 253,254 Tiruvldu (Tiramidn) ... 27 Tiruvidaikodu ... ... 104 Tivata 301 INDEX. 701 Page. Tod, Lieut. Col. James... 19,4Y, 48,85,91,92,135,289 Toda ...33,105,112,132,162,180-96, 226-29,242,243,453,553,573 Toddy 268 Todi 181 togai ... ... ... 10 toka, tokai .. ... 10,11 tolamu (herd) ... 190 Tolan 190 Tolii (cattlefold) ... 190 Toluvan 190 Tompuravar ... ... 64 Tonda 254 (flower plant), 255, 256 (population), tonda (creeper) ... 255 Tondalasatakam ... 244 ToudamSn 246,247,253,257,258,261 Tondamandalam 243,244,246,247, 249,250 (— Oakravarti), 251,252 Tondanadu 253 Towde, Tonde-kai ... 255 Tondei 254 Tondi 256 Tondiarpet ... .. 256 Tondota 191 tondu (feudal service) . . . 255 Tons (river) ... 144 Tora 190 ToranMalla 158 Toravam (toram, herd)... 190 Totabi 571 Toti 459 Tozer Pennu ... ... 153 Traigartha ... ... 145 Trailokamalla .. ... 21,22 Tramala ... ... ... 26 Transliteration of Tamil 3 Transmigration . 283,530,545 Travancore .. 20,26,75-7,104, 201,225,559 Trayi Tretayuga Tribhuvanamalla Tribhuvanesvari Trichinopoly 60 307,328-331 21,22 431 8,26,95,257-59, 380,475,476 Trident mark of Vellalas. 96 Trikalajiia ... ... 366 Trikaliiiga 191 Trikariisuri ... ... 511 Trikoijacakra ... ... 483 Trikiita 401 Trilocana 366 Trilifiga 191 Trilocana Kadamba .. 265 Trimiilanatha ... ... 248 Trimilrti ... 273,274,283,287,306, 348,359,36.5,370,444,466 366 366 176-78, 265,266 283 366 366 Triuayana Trinetra... Trinetra Kadamba Trinity Trioculus Triophthalmos Tripati ... Triplicane Tripuadra Tripura Tripurabhairavi Tripuraharaija Trisandhlsvari Trisandhya Trisariku trisiila Trisiila ... Trita Aptya Trivaktra Trivalur Trivandrum Trivikrama 26,200,204,205,258 17 367 ... 176,265,455,456 399 371 500 399 455,466,583,594 492 399 279 301 54 76,77,291 306 702 INDEX. Trivia ... ... ■.• 506 Trivrtta (trivrfc) ... 30 L Triiamba 456 Trfcsu ... 578,579,582,585,589,590, 596-98 Trampp, Dr. Tryaksa ... Tryambaka Tryambakalinga Tuar tribe Tnda Tugra Tukatteri Tukhara ... tukki Tulajapura Tulakkanamman Tulako|i Tulasi Tulava Tuljapnr ... 37 366 366 379 211 ... 190,196 579 562 144 10 399 502 456 307,351,448,456 ' ... 131,172 161 Tulu ...36,107,110,111,163,164 (priest), 169 (superstition), 191, 217,218,296,303,304,467,495 Tulukkanam 475 Tuluva, 167 (Brahman), 176,247 (-nadu), 269 Turn 283 tumbleru gimbleru 604 Tumkur ... 222 Turibina Bakadu 156 Tuiidu 256 Tuuijikera, Tandikeri .. . 255,256 Tuii(Jira, Tuijdiranadu.. 253,254, 256 Tuadirapuram 256 Tuneri 184 Tnppah ... 553 Turanian... 36,94,109,186,210,211, 318,333,334,370,398,457,556,559 Tiircalipparai 57 Turcoman Turk Tumebus... tiiruni Turuta Malay Page. 93 166 127 192 225 Turvaau 125,577,578,601 Tu?ti 429,430,449 Tvac 405 Tvasfr 360,425 Tyagarajasvami temple.. 290 Dbhayakulakilipaijdya ... 252 Ubhayam ... ... 26 Ubujmard 154 Uccaissravas . ... 396,610 Udaipur 210 Udayar ... ... ... 89 udaka ... ... ... 531 Udapi 297,305 Uddaiaka 617 Uddandakali 494 uddhita •.. 527 Udgati 272,620 Udiaalamma ... ... 502 Udyoga 449 TJdydgaparvan ... ... 187,595 Uggamma ... ... 502 Ugra 371 Ugra 399 Ugraaena ... ... 610 Uigur ... ... ... 333 Ujain (Ujjain) 91,92,159,263,379 uktha ... ... 582 Ullal Raghavendra Rao.. 170,175 UUapur 7 Uliikhalatmika ... ... 456 Ulundu 478 Ulupi 97 Index. 703 Page. Uma ... 361,370,399,413,418-21, 429,452 Umapati 250,369,370,419 Umbrella mark on agrahara boundary stones Umma, see Uma. Ummauna undi Unga Deo Unirerse Unkulamma Unmattamba Unne Upala Upamanyu upanayana upastha ... Uppai Upparavar Uppiliyar Uraiyijr Uranuua Uranos ... Urbanus Urbs Ur Chasdim Uriya ^rjja Urkakkuikali ... Urna (sheep wool) urthbini Urrnkatukottai ... Urn-GoUa Uruku TJruvai . . . Urvasi TJsa Usanas ... Usas Usinara ... Usivalanadu 96 421 110 154 454 502 499 234 456 352,377 27 405,620 68 64 89 67 499 275 97 97 557 146,149,150,155,157 584 471 234 196 244 220 555 68 24,51,372,399,582 449 397 276,278,281 579,613 475 Utkala ... UtpalakiSa Utpalaksi Utpalavartaka UttamarkoTil Uttankadu Uttara 22,117 401 399 401 296 475 611 Uttarakandaof theRamayana 375 378,381 613 ...613,614,617,622 613,614 Uttarakosala Uttaraknru Uttaramadra Uttaramalliir Uttarapancalam Uttukkattamman Utuq Uyirttundilkarar 244 613 499 555,556,561 ... 489,496 V. Vac 286,405 Vaca 369 Vaoaki 471 Vaohaspatya ... 348,540 Vadakalai 613 Vadakkuvaoalay ... 500 Vadaman... ... ... 3 Vadavndyamman ... 502 Vadhryasva .. ... 610 Vadugantay, Vadugi ... 471 Vagala 399 Vahlika, (see Bahl'ika). 611 vahni (fire) 90,369 vabni (tree) ... ... 53,73 Vahnikula 90 Vaidayata ... ... 604 Vaidehi ... 611 "^' aidikagama ... 361 Yaiduryavalli ... ... 522 Vaidyanatha ... ... 400,401 Vaidyanathaliiiga ... 379 Vaigai (river) ... ... 102 90 704 INDEX. Vaijayanti Page. 286,287,289,514, 519,523,541 265 ... 579,603 428 302,354,443 402 396 302 449 Vaijayantipnra Vaikarna vaikhari ... Vaikuatha Vaina Vairiateya Vairagi ... Tairagya Yai^akham, Vaisakhi (Vaikasam, Vaikasi) 5 TaiSampayana 436,612 Vaispava ... 16,17,26,27,54,56,120, 248,3 10,359,372,390,413,41 6,613 Vaiswavi ... 426,447,458 Vaianavism ... ... 306 Vaisravaaalaya ... ... 402 Valsvanara ... ... 368 Vaisya ... 59,156,383,445,460,552 Vaitaranl 535 vaitaaa ... 371,372 Vaivasvata Manvaotara.. 369,584 Vaiasaneyi-Samliita ... 422,612 Vajrakita 337,341,345,347,35] VajravalU ... ... 522 vaktra ... ... ... 301 Vakuppaltai ... 512 val 6 vala ... ... ... 7 Vala 15,516 Valadvis ... 15 Valahantr ... 15 valai .. ■ 29 valai, Talai ... ... 6 Valaiooi ... ... .. 67 valam, val am, vajamai ... 6 valan ... ... ... 6 Valaniidu, Valavauacjii ... 216 Valauasana ... ... 16 Valaudhaii ... ... 6J1 Valang-caiyar ... Valaikai Valaijkai mantapam Talamkamattar ... Valaikulattar ... Yalapan ... valappam Valapur ... Valarati ... valaaan ... Talavanadn, see Valanadu. Valavrtrahan Talasndana valaya (bracelet) valgu vali vali Vali 15, Valipparai ... * ... Valkel ■^alla Valla vallabha ... VaJIala vallam VaJlam ... Vallamanadu Vallamba Vallama ... Vallaiioeri Vallanmaikkari ... vallapan .. Vallapur ... vallar Vallari tadl Vallava ... vallavai ... Vallavanadu Vallavarikodu A'allavi Tails Page. 57 5 62 66 66 216 6 7 15 6 15 15 105 11 6 7 473,494 157 98 6,7 77,106 6 105 6 217 217 3,14 3,14 105 471 6 7 6 258 456 6 216 104 471,494 7 INDEX. 705 Page. Page. Valli 17,68,75,471 Vapusthama 611 valli (i) 6 Vara 287 valli (creeper) ... 17 Varadarajaavami.. ... 296 Val.limanalan 16 Varagunapandya ... 252 Vallirastra 23 Var.iha, 348 (Salagriima), 444,447 valliyam, (va.lliyatn 6,29 Varahamihira ...35,82,83,134,144, Valliyammai 482 334 Vallijru 7 Yarahapurana 357 Valjuva (Valluvar) 57,73,76 Varahasaila 401 VaUuvanadu ... 69,217 Varahi . . . 424,426,447 TaJJuvar... 14,64,66-70 Varanil 41,456 Valmlki 140 Yaranasi ... ... 41,400,609,610 Valmikinl ... 456,501 Vararoha .. 399 Valpannr 477 vai'Sta 386 vain, valu 6,7 VaravarninI 429 Villumuni... 482 Yariai ... 186 Valiiru .. 7 varwa 338,340,576 valiiti 6 Yaruna 24,25,268,273,275,277-79, Vamacara 66,414,415 396,399,425,427,442,443, Yamacilri 16,414,416 518,541,582 Vamadeva 385 Yarunani... ...398,442,443,449 Viimana 15,302,348 'Siilagrama), Yaruni ...268,426,456,520 414 Yarvara 38,611 Vanacarini 511 Yasa 613 Vanadnrga ... 455,456 Yasati 610 Vanakhastha 144 Vasava . . . 396,431 Tanam 3 Yasavi 426,447 Vanapalli .. 502 Yasireddi Raja Yenkatadri Vaoaparvan 312 Nayudu .. 292.95 VSnaPulal 248 Yasistha ... 24,25,51,90,91,449, Vanarastra 144 576,581-87,589,595,603,608,614 Vanavasi 265 Yasisthapurawa 59 Vanceri ... 105 vasitva ... 502 Vanoiirar 64 vasodaka 532 Taiiga ... 84,509 Vastra Koraga 171,179 Vani ... 286,442 Yastrapatlia 400 Vaniyar, Vanniyar 62,64,89-90, Yastresvari 399 94-96 Yastudevata 531 Vanstavern, Mr. 147 Yasu 8,278,365,396,425,434,435 Vantipanniyamm an 502 Yasudeva .. 348 (Salagrama), 368, Vantri 57J 369,391,397,611 706 XNDBX. Vasuki Vasundhara Vata Vatadvipa Vatalagundu Vatamoli VatapidTis Vatesvaralifiga ... VatBatai'i Vatuka Ceniyar . . . Vatuka Idaiyar ... Vatnkapparai . . . Vatnka Kucavar Vatuka Papdaram Vatnka VannSr , , . Vatuka Velalar . . . Vavata ^ay Viiyu Page. 302,367,396,519 ... 3i;4,449 277 522 475,477,481 25,42 24 375 533 63 63 57 63 64 64 63 618,620 27 275,277,279,281,369,379, 406,449,539,617 Vayupuraiia ... ... 524 Vi^da 25-28,58-61,65,91,271,273, 276, 278,281, 286-88,298,307, 310, 313,321,372,373,393,396,398,403, 413,415,429,486,516,527,537,546, 577-79,581,585-87,590,594-96,598 Vedamatii ... ... 43u Vrdanayakan . . ... 250 Vedanta ... 390,412,430,547,548 VedantadesikacSrya ... 191 Vedarapya 296,399 Veclar Palayam ... ... 243 Vedasiras 357,358 Vedasirsa ... ... 371 Vgdasruti 429,430 Vedavadana ... ... 402 Vedavaktra ... ... 369 Vedavalli 16,17 VedavallipnskarinI ... 16 Veda Vyasa ... 58,307 Vedhas 287 Vedic 30,71,273-77,279,360, 361,.368,4.54,520,528,541,549, 573,581 Vedika-liisa 361 Vedopakrama ... ... 27 Veer Walla 140 ve\, Tel ... ... 6 vel (benefit) ... 106 Vel 52 vela, vela .. ... 7 Velagalamma ... 502 Velal, see Vellala. velam ... ... ... 6 Velama (Vellama) 3,14,73,92,106, 108,149,212,213 velamu 96,108 Vejanadu 217 vejanmai ... ... 106 Velapur ... ... ... 7 Velattal ... 52,499 veli ... ... g Voli mountain ... ... gg Vejikkarnmar ... ... (34 Velikal taccar ... 54 "fella 5_6,77 veJlSda 3^7 VellaiyammaJ .. ... 502 VeJlaiyanaiyiirti ... 513 vellaja ... ... .. -^g ^«Uai ••■ ... ... 105,106 VeJlaJa (VeJlala). 4,5,14,51,57,59, 63-64,70,89,94-96,101-8,211,212, 239,240,247,255,262,609 Velia.laeoi ... ... 107 Vellaliir ... 258 vellam g Vellam 106,107 Vellama, see Valama. Vellamba... .. ... 73 Vellamma ... ... 502 vejjan (true man) .,. ]07 INDEX. 707 Page. Vellan 105 VeJJaijma, Ve]lanmai. 106,107,262 Vellanadu (valanadu) ... 217,258 Tellapur ... .. ... 7 Vellatti 107 Vellayma ... 106 vejli 6 Vellore 65,99 VeUiiru 7 velluva ... ... ... 7 VelJuva 107 relu 7 Velurkottai ... ... 214 Vembayya ... ... 23 Vembn ... ... 23 Vena 86 Tenatra 226 Yenetian ... ... ... 566 Venice 580 Veiikatacalacaryar, Mr. 51 Venkatachalla Naicker, A. 96 Venkatadri Nfiyudu ... 292-95 Veikatakottai ... 244 Veikatesa 362,509 VeBkatesvara ... 200,201,205 Vehkoba 362 Venkammal ... 502 Venn Gopalaavami ... 294 Venus ... ... 567 Venyanima ... ... 502 Vermin 563,564 Verul (VelBru, Elura) ... 5 Tesa (esa, yesa) ... ... 5 vesara ... ... ... 386 Vetakarar ... ... 63 Vetala ... 456 Vetasu 579 Vettakkarar 64 VettiySn ... 33,64,462 Vettiyarpparai ... Vibbava 57 390 Vibhisana . ... 575 vibhilti ... 308,367,371,511,513 Vioitravirya ... ... 611,616 Videha ... 404 Vidbatr 287 Vidhi ... 287 Vidnra 611 Viduratha 611 Vidya, trayi 281 Vidyadevi ... ... 444,447 Vidyadhara ... ... 514 VidyalaksmS 363 Vidyodaya College ... 301 vidynt 540 Vighnesvara ... 469,492,495, 496,511 vihara ... ... ... 41 Vijaya 102,429,430,448 Vijaya 611 Vijayadasami 73 VijayanagaraEaja 239,260,269, 475 Vijayavalli ... ... 17 vikara ... ... ... 405 Vikaraa 611 Vikramaditya ., ... 92 vil 6 Villa (Vilhaiaa, Vihlaua). 72 Village festivals ... 499 Villapur 7 villi 6 viloma ... ... ... 459 vilu, villu, vilu ... ... 7 VimalS 399 Vimalesvara ... 400 Vinata 449 Vinayaka ... 375,401,456,479 Vindaferna 160 Vindhya ... 22-24,34,374,401, 430,431,433,435 Vindhyakandara ... 400 708 Vindhyavasini ... Vindhyavali Vinoba Vinukonda Vipakavifcti Vipas, Vipasa ... 143,401,583,588 Vipula 401 Vipula 399 Tira, Tiralu, Virabhadra 99,237, 238,369,371,413,417,456,482,489, 495,496,507,508 Virabahu 522 Viradhira 522 Viraj 582 VirSja 610 VIrakesarin ... ... 522 Tiralaksmi. 239,259,362,484 Virali mountain... ... 67 Viramahendra ... ... 522 Viramaheivara ... ... 522 Viramapattanam . . . 475 \'Iramartanda ... ... 522 Viramba ... ... 456 Viramma ... ... 502 Viramusti ... ... 57 Virantaka 522 Vlrapandi ... 475,477,482 Virappa Vandyan ... 98 Vlrapurandara ... ... 522 Viraraksasa ... ... 522 Vira^aiva- worship . .. 59,414 Viratangal 482 Virataparyan ... ... 475 ViraVarma ... 173,175,176 Viraveain ... ... 459-61 Tirayaga ... ... 522 Virika 222,239 Virinoa ... ... '287 Virooana ... ... 15 Yinipaksa ... ... 361 Yirupaksi 429,430 INDEX. age. Page. 399 Visalaksi 399 449 Visanin 579 157 Visapana... 371 490 Visisipra .. 517 301 Visistadvaita Vedanta ... 390 Visnu 16,30,58,60,61,87, 90,91,137,188,232,276,283-87, 289, 292,295,296, 302,305-364, 365,368,369, 372,373,376, 382, 386,3.!v9, 390,392, 395,404,409, 410,417,422,424,425, 433-36 438,455, 446,447,450, 451,455, 465, 466, 472,473, 474,482, 496 508,509,520 Visnubhakti ... ... 448 Visnuloka 301 Visnumaya ... ... 355,443 Tisimpitha 361 Tisnuoranadhika ... 354 ViSnupnraMa ... 22,24,35,36,237, 238,256,268,302,309,328,331,420, 5 19,520,524,525,542,549,582,584, 593,609,610 Visnurupa ... ... 418 ViSHuyamala ... ... 413 Visravae 24,87,524 Visaoti ... 571 Tisva 399 VisTabrahman ... ... 58 Visvadevata ... ... 425 Visvaka 401 Visvakarman ... 58,280,365 Visvamukhi 399 7i3vamitra 51 ,473,578,581,582-98, 600,605,606 Visvauath Narayan Mund- liok 136-38 Visvauatha 592 Visvaretas ... ... 287 Visvasara ... ... 413 Visvasrj ,., .,. 287 INDKX. 709 Visvatman Visvesa ... Visvesvava Visvesvaralii'iga... Visvesyari Vitatha ... Vitala Vitarka ... Vitthala ... Tithoba (Vittobha) 287 399 379,400 379 437 404 302,524 610 157 157,362 Tivasvat ... 279,313,537,610 Vizagapatam District, Manual of ... 34,47,55,295 ■Voohan ... ... ... 566 Vodhu 403 Vokkaliga, see Okkaliya.. 230 Vopayata ... ... 604 Vorshal 573 Vrddhacalam 236 Viddhi 71 Vrhannaradlyapurapa ... 537,538 Vrhatsaman ... ... 396 Vrkodara ... ... 61 Vrnda 351,355 Vrndavana forest 1?0,268 Visa 869 Vrsabhanii ... 449 ViSibhesvara ... 59 Vrsadhvaja ... ... 361 Vrsasipra ... 517 Vrsoikesvari ... ... 601 Visjii 397 Vrsotsarjana ... ... 534 Vftra... . 1.5,276,306,516,517 Vrtti 411 Tunnia, see Vaniya. Yyaghresi ... ... 456 Vyasa, 35 ; 58,59 (bas his hand and arm cut off), 397,449, 584,611,616 Vyasana-tolu kalla ... 59 vyuha 391 w. Wadnera ... Wagbra ... Wagries ... Wainad, see Wynad. Walaga Koraniar Wales Walhouse, Mr. J. ... 42 159 571 201 4 ..54,99,185,559, 570,573 78 138 110 42 297 258 346,347,414,415 42 Walla Walukesvara wandi Warar Warasare Ward, Mr. Ward, Rev. W. Warda Wargai (Wargaon) Warha, Warhona warjhari ... Warka Warnera, Warora Watson, Dr. J. Forbes ... Wauuamar Weber, Professor Albreoht 42 42 42 317 42 255 226 . 72, 369,420,424,527,547,581 ,614,620 Wheeler, Mr. J. Talboys. 35 Wilford, Capt. (Col.) F., 121,124, 125,127,128,130,339,346,350 Williams, Sir Monier ... 547 Willmott, Mr. C. .. 137 Wilson, Professor H. H., 21,23,34, 36,85,102,103 1 18,131,133,144,145, 152,160,161,176,178,179,201,205, 206,238,252,250,260,264,265,268, 542,609 Wilson, Rev. Dr. John , . . 22,23,27, 118,140, 156,261,291,403,413,415 Winslow, Rev. Dr. ... 31,57,107, 190,212,259,267,269 710 INDEX. Page. Wise, Dr. James ... 44 Woouligaru, see Okkaliga. 223 Wodan, Wotan, Odin ... 277 Wodear 222 Wok 110 Worlda, npper and nether 302 Wotimeru 224 Wulleli , ... 80 Wtirdah 151 Wynaad ...169,186,201,207,226-28 Xenophon ... ... 323 Xisnthros 317,324,326,327,331, 332.335 Xylauder.Gul 126,127 Yacani . . . Taooamma Yaohi Yadava ... Yadu Yajnapati Yajiiavalkya Yajnopavita YajiiriaSi... 237 502 566 85,220,260,456 577,578,601 449 ... 542,548 29 272 Yajurveda 272,282,283, (619-21) Yakkaladevi 471,501 Yakkamma ... ... 471 Takkun Nattannawa ... 559,561, 565,568 Yaksa 396,466,514,519,524,579 Yaksani ... 237 Yaksariipa ... ... 45(5 Yalapetta ... ... 7 Yallapnr ... ... 7 Yama 130,189,279,801,369,396, 4 10,427,46 1 ,521,527,536,537 Yamaloka ... ... 302 Yami 279,537 Yamuna 34,129,130,143 Yanady ... 204 Yao .. 315 Yarkalwar 205 Yasaskari ... ... 399 Yaska's Nirukta 284,371,372,577, .588 Yasoda ... ... ... 449 Yatindramatadipika ... 391 yatra 461 Yata, Yatudhana, Yatu- dhanl 516,583 Yaudheya ... ... 611 Yavana 35,36,30 Yavinara ... ... 609 Yayati 578 Yedenalkad ... .. 207 YeM-khut-Avatara .. 158 Yekaterinoslaw ... ... 321 Yelagiri 7 Yelgi 265 Yellapur ... ... ... 7 Yelliirii ... 7 Yellama ... ... ... 73 Yelpadi (Betta Kurumba gotra) ... 230,233 Yerakala, Yerakalavaru, Yeratelloo, Yerukula Yerukkulavandlu, Yem- kuvaijdlu 112,134, 199,201-210,486 Yerava ... 164,207,208 Yerkelwauloo, see Yerakala. Yeskar ... ... . 49 Yevarix ... 202 Yezidi ... 557,658 Yima 279 INDEX. 711 YiidoplieiTL's Yoga Yojanagandha Yoganidra Yogasiltra... YogesvarT Yogi Yugi Yogini , . . Yoni Yonimaiidala Yosi Yudhisthira . Yueh-ohi Yugas, on the four Yule, Colonel Yunnan ... 97 ... 160-62 . 40!l,411 449 438 406,408,309,411 399 513 45G 455,456,571 ... 360,361 400 517 120,429,611,617 ... 177,179 ... 328-337 131,134,566 566 Page. Z- Zaba Zamorin ... Zambdi ... Zendavesta Zeus Ziegenbalg, Rev. Barth. 557 104 571 275,278 366,398 375,379, 463,467-69,471,4S3,489,491 , 495-97,.504,5C6,51], 513,561 Ziku 327 Zimmer, Prof. -..527,547,579,598, 603,604 Zodiac .. ... 334 Zoroasti'ian deities 161,179 I'll the xame Anihor have been piMished : Der Presbyter Johannes in Sage und Geschichte. Second Edition, Berlin, (/. Springer), 1870. Der Gral und die Gralritter in den Dichtungen Wolfram's von Eschen- bach. Berlin, 1870. Ueber die Entstehung der .ffira Dionysiana. Leipzig, 1866. On the Origin of the iEra Dionysiana, or ^ra Vulgaris. London, 1276. Index to 62 Ms- Volumes deposited in the Government Oriental Manuscripts Library. Madras, 1878. On the Ancient Commerce of India. Madras {Messrs. Higginbotlmut and Co.), 1879. On the Classification of Languages. A contribution to Comparative Philology. Madras (Messrs. Higginboiham Sf Co.) and London (Messrs. Tuibner ^- Co.), 1879. Lists of Sanskrit Manuscripts in Private Libraries of Southern India. Volume I, Madras, 1880 ; Part II, 1885. On the Weapons, Army Organisation, and Political Maxims of the Ancient Hindus- Madras (Messrs. EiiiijinhothamSf Co.) and Lon- don (Messrs. Triibner Sf Go-), 1880. Sukranitisara. Volume I, Madras, 1882. Nitiprakas'ika. Madras (Messrs. Hiijijiiibnthaw Sf Co.) and London (Messrs. Triibner S)' Co.), 1882. Contributions to the History of Southern India. Part I, iladras (Messrs. lligginbothum Sf Co.) and London (Messrs. Triibner ^5' Co.), 1SS2. Die Verschiedenheiten des Sprachcharacters und deren naturliche Ursache. Berlin (A. Asher), 1884. Eamarajiyamu or Narapativijayamu, a Telugu chronicle by Venkayya. Madras, 1893. Vaijayanti, a Sanskrit vocabulary by Yadavaprakas'a. IMadras, 1893. The Grammar of Sakatayana, Vol. I, Madras, 1893. Ill Pi't'iHi ration. y,f Sakatayana, Vol. II.