(Qornell Inineraitg Hihrata 
 
 BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME ©F THE 
 
 SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND 
 
 THE GIFT OF 
 
 HENRY W. SAGE 
 
 1891 
 
Cornell University Library 
 MT 821. M64 
 
 3 1924 021 787 837 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tiiis bool< is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924021787837 
 
VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 By 
 FRANK E. MILLER 
 
Vocal Art-Science 
 
 AND ITS APPLICATION 
 
 By 
 FRANK E. MILLER, A. M., M. D. 
 
 WITH A FOREWORD BY 
 
 GUSTAV KOBBE 
 
 G. SCHIRMER 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 LONDON 
 
 BOSTON 
 
Copyright, 1917, by 
 
 G. SCHIRMEB 
 
Dedicated 
 
 TO 
 
 MISS ADELAIDE GESCHEIDT 
 The First Exponent of Miller Vocal Art-science 
 
 IN grateful recognition 
 
 of the service she has rendered to 
 
 Vocal Art-Science 
 
 by the practical and successful application 
 
 of its principles 
 
 with her individual pupils and her classes 
 
 IN Voice 
 
FOREWORD 
 
 Of the making of books there is no end. Especially 
 does this apply to the making of books on voice-culture. 
 As a result, any new book on voice, to command attention, 
 must either have a strong raison d'etre, or bear the signa- 
 ture of an authority so well known as to make his name a 
 guarantee that the work is a valuable contribution to the 
 literature of the subtlest of all arts. 
 
 "Vocal Art-Science" meets both requirements. In 
 matter and plan of presentation it is wholly novel — much 
 of its matter is, in fact, discovery. Dr. Frank E. Miller, 
 its author, long has been recognized as an authority in 
 the art-science of vocal utterance. An eminent American 
 throat specialist, he numbers many famous singers among 
 his patrons. Himself a trained vocalist, he is able to bring 
 to the diagnosis of a singer's condition a sympathetic un- 
 derstanding of temperament and disposition denied those 
 who approach the symptoms from the standpoint of the 
 specialist alone; while in the course of a professional career 
 of thirty-two years he has made a study of over 50,000 
 speaking and singing voices^a record probably unrivalled 
 in the annals of laryngology. 
 
 Dr. Miller's briefer work, "The Voice," is a standard 
 text-book. It professes, however, to be little more than a 
 general survey of the subject; a simple description of the 
 vocal mechanism, structurally and functionally consid- 
 ered; a clear enunciation of the broad principles underlying 
 voice-production, together with much sound advice on 
 hygiene for speakers and singers, and on the higher artistry. 
 
 The present work, as its title implies, is a compre- 
 hensive study of the voice, a scientific treatise on the art 
 of song; a work in which for the first time, it is believed, 
 the science and the art of vocal utterance are separately 
 developed and then shown in their combined effect upon 
 voice. For the author of "Vocal Art-Science" holds that, 
 for preeminence in singing, neither art nor science alone 
 
viii VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 suffices, but that art must be achieved through strict 
 adherence to scientific rules. "Vocal Art-Science" is an 
 exposition of the science which underlies the art, and of 
 orderly procedure hj which the art is evolved from the 
 science. Its plan of statement, the facts upon which it is 
 based, are discoveries of Dr. Miller. He is the discoverer, 
 the inventor of the science which removes the art involved 
 in the vocal act from the haphazard and replaces the un- 
 certain with the determinate. This book teems with 
 physiological facts; its statements of processes involved 
 in the formation of voice are many. But everything phy- 
 siological, everything scientific, is offered as an aid to art, 
 not as a substitute for it. Mind is the root, science the 
 stem, art the flower, of "Vocal Art-Science." 
 
 Empiricism in teaching voice still has its advocates; 
 nor is Dr. Miller an extremist who would ignore it. His 
 own professional association with the greatest singers of 
 the day has shown him that many great artists are such 
 by intuition; or, as one may say, that they are uncon- 
 sciously scientific, possessing a special gift by which, as 
 by an inborn critical faculty, they sense the desired effect 
 without perhaps being themselves aware of the processes 
 by which they arrive at it. Dr. Miller is also aware that 
 the great singers of the past were trained by masters who 
 taught empirically. But while the names of these few 
 famous singers live through the ages, what of their con- 
 temporaries who failed.'' For every Farinelli, sent forth 
 by a Porpora, how many thousands upon thousands of 
 vocal failures — tragic voice-wrecks — went down to ob- 
 livion.? Yet, while the old traditional methods should not 
 be unduly extolled, neither should they be ignored; nor 
 are they in the present book. On the contrary, it is grate- 
 fully recognized that through intuition and experience the 
 old masters acquired knowledge of most practical value in 
 the scientific use of parts of the vocal organs. To add 
 immeasurably to this fund of knowledge, to reduce it to 
 a system with absolute formulas both for correct tone- 
 production and for corrective treatment of all forms of 
 misplaced and crippled voices — that is the office of "Vocal 
 Art-Science" in its attitude toward empiricism. 
 
FOREWORD ix 
 
 Not for a moment must it be assumed that the author 
 serves up a full vocal course in tablet form, or proposes to 
 substitute mechanical routine for a well-rounded education 
 in vocal art. The formulas he has worked out are, like the 
 multiplication table, scientific time-savers. They are the 
 preparatory steps by which the student approaches the 
 artistic sanctum; the firm foundation on which the artistic 
 structure can be reared. Precise scientific tests are ap- 
 plied to voice, not to place it in a strait-jacket, but to 
 minimize the time usually wasted — and always at the 
 expense of the pupil — in determining a vocal aptitude. 
 By systematizing bodily discipline and adjustments the 
 author increases the time usually wasted — and again at 
 the expense of the pupil — that should be devoted to the 
 pure art of song. Above all, by establishing a codified 
 standard for a true Vocal Art-Science, Dr. Miller has ren- 
 dered a practical service to the singing world, the value 
 of which cannot be overestimated. 
 
 No person has the right to dogmatize about voice, 
 unsupported by scientific explanation according to natural 
 law. In preparing this work Dr. Miller has gone to the 
 very heart of things, to the dawn of creation when voice 
 was not; to the beginning of history, when voice was a 
 manifestation of the Divine. From libraries abroad he 
 has dug out original documents of priceless value to the 
 genuine professor of vocal art. So thorough has he been, 
 that he even organized a search for the famous "Three 
 Pages of Exercises" — with which Maestro Porpora was 
 said to have sent forth his pupil, the world's greatest 
 singer, Farinelli — only to find it a myth. Neither pains 
 nor money have been spared in the attempt to bring the 
 world's stock of knowledge within reach of the humblest 
 student of singing, and to add to it the results of original 
 research, observation and discovery. His system has been 
 constructed with careful heed to the best in the teachings 
 of the master-minds among his contemporaries no less than 
 of those who have preceded him. Nor is it a mere fantasy, 
 a mushroom growth that springs up in a single night and 
 fails on trial. It represents years of patient study not un- 
 attended with discouragements. But when it is stated that 
 
xii VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 expected with no uncertainty, assuming adherence to the 
 principles enunciated, and a conscientious observance of 
 the discipline prescribed in this work. 
 
 Self-criticism, without self-consciousness — when a 
 student has achieved this, he may know himself to be in 
 a fair way to success. 
 
 Summing up, let us say that the Miller Vocal 
 Art-Science is based on the natural laws that govern 
 normal tone-emission. It asserts, with scientific proof, 
 that this depends upon the perfect coordination of all the 
 muscles of the body, external as well as those hidden in 
 the recesses of the frame. Moreover, because the muscles 
 are treated from the standpoint of their nerve-supply, 
 direct from the brain, a part of the subject that seems 
 hopelessly physiological is tinged with the finer colors of 
 the psychical. 
 
 The book establishes atheoryof thepyramido-prismatic 
 forces at work within us, analogous to those that engender 
 light and energy, to give vocal utterance to the message of 
 the soul. Through an understanding of the five vocal units 
 or autonomies, it teaches how to turn the body into an 
 automaton, supple, poised, obedient to the dictates of the 
 mind. By correlating the five centres of force involved in 
 voice-production into one supreme centre, at the solar 
 plexus, it leads vocal art to the threshold of the kingdom 
 of psychology. By a wise direction of energy it saves the 
 pupil profitless labor; and while it definitely repudiates the 
 notion that there is any royal road to learning, it simplifies 
 the mechanism of vocal technique so that the student may 
 not be hampered in his aesthetic expression by cumbersome 
 machinery. Out of the chaos in which voice-teaching has 
 long been involved it has brought order and an efficient 
 organization based on the great fundamentals of life. 
 
 It has been found necessary for more definite detail 
 and technical information, also to save time for the reader 
 (In contemplation of new and mooted points that would 
 not be conducive to the purpose of this work), to add an 
 ample and complete Index, Glossary, Addenda and Bib- 
 liography. The author, by a system of Phonocraft and 
 voice-craft, gratefully acknowledges many suggestions 
 
FOREWORD xiii 
 
 drawn from the works in this list, which gave constructive 
 materials for this work. 
 
 The true student remains ever a student, an investi- 
 gator. The finer the artistic achievement, the more surely 
 he realizes how much there is still for him to learn.. The 
 fuller the measure of the world's applause that crowns his 
 effort, the more watchful does he grow, lest success shall 
 spell stagnation; the more zealous to eliminate his 
 faults — for who is faultless? — and to approach that per- 
 fection by which the human voice is indeed the instrument 
 of the Divine. It is not only for these, the great; but also 
 for the others, the brave of spirit, who have their way to 
 make through trial and privation, that Dr. Miller' has 
 written his illuminating work, the new "Vocal Art-Science," 
 in my opinion an epoch-making book. 
 
 I firmly believe that it will be possible some day to 
 obtain a real standard for voice by means of various appa- 
 ratus already in use but not yet sufficiently perfected for 
 the purpose. 
 
 "If," Dr. Miller has said to me on this very point, 
 "with the perfected Oscillograph and the Telegraphone, we 
 can record and reproduce, at will, all the tones of the 
 human voice with all its ramifications of timbre and over- 
 tone; if we can construct scales of perfect tones, such as 
 would be sung by a Melba or a Caruso; if we can combine 
 with this the kinetoscopic representations of the artists 
 singing these tones and the X-ray photograph when this has 
 been done — then, it seems, the millenium of Vocal Art- 
 Science will be at hand, for a real standard for voice- 
 production will have been established." 
 
 GUSTAV KOBBE. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Chapter II. 
 Chapter III. 
 Chapter IV. 
 Chapter V. 
 Chapter VI. 
 Chapter VII. 
 
 page 
 
 Foreword . . vii 
 
 List of Illustrations . xvii 
 
 Chapter I. Introductory Remarks 3 
 
 The Evolution of Voice IS 
 
 The Vocal Tract 26 
 
 The Vocal Autonomies, or Voice Units 41 
 
 The Muscle-Control of Voice S3 
 
 The Vocal Instrument ... 67 
 
 The Vocal Act • 8S 
 
 Chapter VIII. The Vocal A-B-C . 99 
 
 Chapter IX. The Vocal A-B-C (continued) .... 108 
 
 Chapter X. The Alphabet in Vocal Art-Science . . 114 
 
 Chapter XL Breath and Vocal Discipline . . . 126 
 
 Chapter XII. Vox Humana ... . . 129 
 
 Chapter XIII. Vocal Pathology .... . 139 
 
 Chapter XIV. Vocal Pathology (continued) .... 148 
 
 Chapter XV. Vocal Efficiency IS 7 
 
 Chapter XVI. Vocal Teacher and Pupil 188 
 
 Chapter XVII. Vocal Art-Science Exercises. . 200 
 
 Afterword ..... . 224 
 
 SUPPLEMENTS 
 
 Tuning-fork Tests with Miss Helen Kellar 231 
 
 When Caruso sings "High C" 233 
 
 Addenda 240 
 
 Glossary ■• 268 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Frontispiece (Inset) . . . iii 
 
 Glass Resonator . 2 
 
 1 Solar Plexus (Inset) . . 16 
 
 2 Bird Larynx (Inset) . 22 
 
 3 Period of Pendulum " . 27 
 
 4 Loops and Nodes 28 
 
 5 Pharynx — Eustachian Tube (Inset) . 32 
 
 6 Cartilages of Larynx . 33 
 
 7 Hyoid Bone, Anterior Surface . 34 
 
 8 Interior of Larynx .... . . 37 
 
 9 Oral Cavity '(Inset) 39 
 
 10 Vocatprium 46 
 
 11 Vowel Chart (Inset) . . . 46 
 
 12 Consonant Chart (Inset) . . . . . 47 
 
 13 Muscles of Vocatorium (Inset) . ... 48 
 
 14 Pneumatic Autonomy . . 48 
 
 15 " " . 48 
 
 16 Posterior View Pneumatic Autonomy 49 
 
 17 Poles of Power (Inset) .... 50 
 
 18 Muscles of Head and Trunk (Inset) 51 
 
 19 Muscles of Pharynx (Inset) . . 62 
 
 20 Equilateral Triangle . . .74 
 
 21 Zones for Primary Colors . . . . 75 
 
 22 Spheres of Complementary Colors . . 76 
 
 23 Hexalpha (Inset) .... ... . 76 
 
 24 The Star Potential (Inset) . . 77 
 
 25 Radiant Light 78 
 
 26 Dynamic Pyramid . .... . .79 
 
 27 Pyramidal Voice-Chart . . . . 80 
 
 28 The Kinetor (Inset) 84 
 
 29 Spiral .... . • ■ • 86 
 
 30 Pyramidal Vocal Cords (Inset) ... ... 87 
 
 31 Rule of Thumb .... 88 
 
 32 Overshot Wheel 92 
 
xviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 33 "E," "Oh," "Ah" Chart {Inset) Ill 
 
 34 Pyramidal Lip Chart 114 
 
 35 "Ah" Chart {Inset) 116 
 
 36 "EE" Chart {Inset) . . 118 
 
 37 Vocal Labyrinth {Inset) . 132 
 
 38 Muscles of Tongue . . . • 132 
 
 39 Pyramids .... . 160 
 
 40 " . . 160 
 
 41 " .... ... 160 
 
 42 Nodal Vibrations ... . ... 164 
 
 43 Poles of Vocal Organs . 165 
 
 44 Ventricle . . . . . 166 
 
 45 Parallelogram . ... 167 
 
 46 Parallelepiped. . . 167 
 
 47 Pathway of Kinesis . 167 
 
 48 Pythagorean Triangle . . ... . . 169 
 
 49 Prism 170 
 
 50 Pyramid . . : . . . . .170 
 
 51 Sphere . .' . . 170 
 
 52 Ellipse . . . 171 
 
 53 Helix . . .171 
 
 54 Conical Helix 172 
 
 55 Kinetic Receiver of Vocal Impulses upon the Ear {Inset) 186 
 
 56 Cu.spoid 187 
 
 Plates: 
 
 I, II Photographic Record, Caruso's "High C" . . . 234 
 
 III, IV " " " " " . . . 235 
 
 V, VI " " " " " . . . 236 
 
 VII, VIII " " " " " . . . 238 
 
VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
Glass Resonator. 
 
 The above cut illustrates a glass resonator, modeled 
 several years ago by the author after the vocal canal of 
 M. Jean de Reszke, used to demonstrate the direction 
 and spiral course taken by sound-waves for the pitch of 
 middle A through a smoke medium. 
 
 The reconstruction shows three cavities, nasal, oral and 
 laryngeal, in relation to each other and to the various 
 portions of the pharynx. 
 
 The area posterior to the ring demonstrates the position 
 of the pharyngeal dome with respect to the turbinate 
 bones. The small pyramids assume the role of the shock 
 absorbing sinuses, with their canals terminating in the 
 nasal cavity. The three shaded circles are the sphincteric 
 apertures (Epiglottis, Tongue and Palate) through which 
 glass slides are thrust to reproduce their various actions. 
 
 A model similar to the above was constructed after 
 the vocal canal of Mme. Marcella Sembrich during the 
 same year. 
 
 Owing to their efficiency for demonstrative work many 
 new models have since been constructed and from their 
 principles have evolved several interesting mechanical 
 devices. 
 
 To avoid complexity, all the sinuses and turbinated 
 bodies have not been shown. 
 
VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 Introductory Remarks 
 
 Voice, the Heaven-bestowed, is the mirror of the soul. Voice the 
 Speech, which is voice modified and adjusted, is the great greatest 
 articulator of all human relations and social life. Song, medium of 
 which is voice developed according to certain laws, and personal 
 wedded to poetic speech, is at once the most human of expression, 
 arts and the most divine. 
 
 In no way can personal expression find a medium so 
 effective as through the voice, whether in the actor's 
 interpretation of a great dramatist, a singer's rendering 
 of a glorious composition, a speaker's enunciation of the 
 moral law, or in the intercourse of daily life. 
 
 Yet, with the very burden of humanity resting on it, Good vocal 
 the science on which the art of speech and song, in com- teaching 
 mon with all arts, is based, has been too long neglected, all too rare. 
 Teaching synthetically and intelligently is conspicuous by 
 its rarity, while methods faulty and meretricious are gen- 
 erally prevalent in schools and universities, especially in Faulty 
 schools and universities which justly boast of their courses methods in 
 in scientific farming, practical draughtsmanship, pedagogy universities 
 and domestic science. and schools. 
 
 The art of speech and the art of song are, up to a 
 -certain point, essentially the same, being the product of 
 laws physical, mechanical, and at times mathematical — 
 laws which, consciously or unconsciously, must be em- 
 ployed in its exercise as surely as an observance of the 
 laws, governing the calculation of bridge-stress, the per- 
 fection of a picture, the balance of an aeroplane, or the 
 voluntary act of conception through forces operating 
 automatically in the production of the child, all of which 
 forces are by nature a necessity. 
 
 3 
 
VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 Wasted Does any one exclaim, "But all this is understood, 
 
 expenditure We already teach voice-production, and the art of speech 
 on prevailing and song, throughout the country in all its common 
 methods. schools. It is a matter in which we spare no expense!" 
 
 then of such I ask, "Where are the results.'' Why the 
 unrefined accent, the nasal twang, that far and wide mar 
 voices by nature not unmusical?" That no expense is 
 spared I am fully prepared to grant, but that the expend- 
 iture is well invested I emphatically deny. 
 
 Again another bids me, "Look at the conservatories. 
 Thinkof the number of well-known teachers engaged in this 
 uplifting work." And again I challenge: "Show me the 
 results. Where in large numbers are the native singers 
 of concert, choir, and opera, who do not depend on soniie 
 adventitious factor, such as personal vogue or advertise- 
 ment, for their popularity.'' Where are the graduates of 
 these institutions, the finished products of these private 
 teachers, who should in large numbers be honestly en- 
 titled to take their stand in the front rank, through the 
 exercise of a good organ faultlessly trained?" True in- 
 deed is it that, in more ways than one, many well-known 
 professors in all our large cities are engaged in filling 
 their own coffers at their pupils' expense. 
 Require- Wanted, good tone, freely emitted, with clear enun- 
 
 ments by ciation. When all the pupils put forth by any teacher 
 
 which to test ^not only the best or show pupils, but all — when such, 
 excellence of infallibly, conform to these requirements, then one may 
 teaching. rest assured that there has been nothing factitious or 
 
 haphazard in the vocal discipline to which they have been 
 subjected, but that it has been studied out, systematized 
 and based on natural law. To such teachers — all too 
 few! — I pay my homage. 
 Value of Is this annual pilgrimage of young vocal aspirants who 
 
 foreign can afford it, and of those who cannot without assuming 
 
 study dis- a heavy debt or obligation, worth the old-world methods 
 cussed. and the cachet of a foreign name? While in some respects 
 
 the glories are departing from France and Italy, and their 
 famous teachers of vocal art are fast becoming memories, 
 the traditions of their schools still linger. In countries 
 where a higher standard of musical excellence is the popular 
 
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS 
 
 heritage, the methods of voice-production, though by 
 no means faultless, may still be considered superior to 
 our own. 
 
 Great teachers and great artists there have always Vocal ex- 
 been and always will be, to the end *of time. To show cellence 
 to what degree of perfection vocal art can attain, the within 
 world will never lack a Garcia, a Melba, or a Caruso, reach of all. 
 The supreme gift that makes singers royal in their several 
 domains will always remain a something awarded by the 
 favor of the gods, the incalculable thing. But the great- 
 ness of Garcia, founded on exact science as applied to 
 vocal art, grows greater every day and it is within the 
 grasp of all painstaking teachers to emulate; while the 
 mechanism, with not a little of the subtle power of inspi- 
 ration by which the golden tones of the famous singers 
 are produced, can be acquired. 
 
 Never was there a day in our country's history when General 
 the musical awakening was more pronounced than at musical 
 present. This is evidenced ■ by the clubs, societies and awakening, 
 operatic ventures springing into life on every side. Nor 
 was there a day when our students realized more keenly 
 the folly of being forced to seek abroad what, in its initial 
 stages, should be better learned at home. 
 
 From all parts of the land comes the cry, Give me 
 knowledge! Show me the truth! Help me to a definite 
 procedure in the use of my voice in the Divine Art of 
 Speech and Song, that I may bring out the best within 
 me, and thereby enrich my own life as well as that of 
 others, and increase my service to the Creator of all things! 
 
 Whether opera, oratorio, concert, vaudeville, choir, 
 pulpit, lecture-platform or the home be the chosen field, 
 the desire is the same, and the demand incessant for some 
 plan not limited to school or special teacher, but for one 
 that, being founded on basic principles, must infallibly 
 command universal recognition and compel adoption. 
 
 The great teachers of Italy taught by methods that Old masters 
 modern research endorses as grounded, on an understand- taught 
 ing of physiology. Their methods were often empirical by sound 
 rather than synthetic, but it is to be noted that they had principles, 
 opportunities'for testing results that do not obtain under 
 
VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 New dis- 
 coveries 
 used to 
 perfect 
 o\6. ideas. 
 
 Present 
 diver- 
 gences 
 of opin- 
 ion as to 
 methods. 
 
 Lack of 
 coopera- 
 tion among 
 investiga- 
 tors cause 
 of poor 
 results. 
 
 the conditions of to-day. Tlie old classic traditional 
 methods handed down from generation to generation al- 
 ways underwent some modification due to observations and 
 discoveries; and whatever has persisted through centuries 
 of change remains *as a standard for to-day, and is based 
 on permanent principles whether consciously applied or 
 not. This is as certain as that the law of gravitation was 
 in operation before ever a Newton was born to formulate 
 it. As Salvatore Marchesi puts it, "We cannot throw 
 away all that constitutes the inheritance of the ages, but 
 must use the new ideas to complete and perfect the old." 
 The old masters who were great masters not only taught 
 on principles now recognized as physiologically sound, but 
 they also aimed for a s'tandard tone. It is for. us to-day, 
 with our great country and wealth of material for observa- 
 tion, with funds generally and generously available for re- 
 search, with new apparatus to test, corroborate and record, 
 and with the wonderful discoveries that science recently 
 advancing by gigantic strides has opened up to us, to 
 illuminate the wisdom of the past by the knowledge of the 
 present, all of which has been actually accomplished and 
 recorded in the annals of this Vocal Art-Science. 
 
 Why is it so difficult tO'get any twenty persons inter- 
 ested in the matter to agree as to what is good or bad for 
 each voice, so far as tone-production is concerned.? Is not 
 this lack of unanimity largely due to the wide divergences 
 of opinion as to how tone itself is produced? — divergences 
 attributable, as I think, to the fact that so far throat 
 specialists, physicists, teachers and singers, have seldom 
 worked together; each investigating independently, regard- 
 less of important factors found by others. To this, lack 
 of cooperation may, in turn, be attributed the inaccuracies 
 with which laryngo-pharyngeal observations are replete, 
 and which have rendered it Impossible for conclusions of 
 general value to be deduced. To my mind it is indispens- 
 able that thousands of individual cases should be pre- 
 sented to give scope for the widest observation in order 
 to furnish a solid foundation of fact on which we all can 
 take our stand, working, each on his own lines, yet in 
 general harmony, toward a common goal. 
 
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS 
 
 I hold that, while the actual production of voice is an 
 art, voice-training and examination may be made more 
 or less scientific by means of measuring and recording 
 devices which permit exact study and analysis of tone. 
 So far as I know at present there is no really scientific 
 method of such procedure. Wave-analysis, as at present 
 carried out, and tone-examination by resonators, cap- 
 sules, and rotating mirrors, are at best unsatisfactory, 
 nor does phonographic reproduction furnish an exact 
 reproduction of voice. Probably no device depending on 
 a mechanically operated vibrator will ever succeed in 
 precisely paralleling the human organ. 
 
 The scheme employed in Paris of locking up the rec- 
 ords of famous singers for future reference is undoubtedly 
 useful for purposes of comparison, but, considering the 
 errors incident to mechanical reproductions, they would 
 hardly serve as models on which to found a standard tone. 
 Examining the apparatus in the Carnegie Institute I find 
 that, in addition to indistinctness of tone from the imper- 
 fect transmission of the sound-waves, allowance must be 
 made for large loss in overtones. The stylette condition 
 of wax impression, the tube through which sounds are 
 emitted, the disk vibrations, and the character of the 
 receiver, all have to be taken into consideration. Large 
 sums have been spent by this foundation for exact and 
 delicate instruments for the production of graphic forms 
 of the human voice. Yet, after careful examination of 
 them, I find that they must be rejected, too many errors 
 having been allowed for. As- an instance of this, of the 
 thirteen high C's produced at my own expense by the 
 most sensitive instrument in their possession, none stood 
 the test. After carefully looking over the disk from which 
 these were taken, and then reducing the pitch from C to 
 A, it became apparent that what was heard at the rate of 
 512 vibrations a second, when brought down to 426% (A's 
 rate of vibration), was most unmusical and therefore ob- 
 viously useless as a standard tone. 
 
 None the less, since tone is the foundation of all sing- 
 ing, and as the character of tone is the very thing for which 
 our artists are generally criticized, it naturally follows that 
 
 Unsatis- 
 factory 
 results 
 in present 
 methods 
 of tone- 
 analysis. 
 
 Imperfec- 
 tions of 
 mechanical 
 records. 
 
VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 Standard 
 
 pitch 
 
 adopted 
 
 fororchestra ; 
 
 equally 
 
 necessary 
 
 for voice. 
 
 Idea of 
 mechanical 
 tone meas- 
 urer aban- 
 doned. 
 
 Ear of trained 
 teacher 
 the sole 
 criterion 
 owing to 
 idiosyn- 
 crasies of 
 overtone. 
 
 Records of 
 great singers 
 as templates 
 for sound- 
 waves pro- 
 duced by 
 pupils. 
 
 a scientific system of voice-building should be formulated. 
 But before the study of voice can be reduced to a science, 
 a standard or ideal tone must positively be established. A 
 standard pitch for orchestra was recognized as absolutely 
 necessary, in order that every combination of musical 
 instruments might produce harmonious results. By me- 
 chanical means this was achieved without great difiiculty, 
 and in a manner nearly perfect. Surely it is of no less 
 importance that the human organ should also be brought 
 within the scope of a universally adopted test. As the per- 
 fect tone is formed by a combination of vibrations, there 
 is no reason why it should not be standardized. 
 
 As long ago as 1891 I stated this necessity for a stand- 
 ard tone, and at the same time had the idea of construct- 
 ing a voice-measure, tone-tester — a phonometer, if you 
 please. This was to consist of a combination of phono- 
 graph and mechanical reproduction of the registration of 
 vocal sounds so arranged as to present a standard tone, 
 while able to measure and compare for all time every 
 voice in the world. After much deliberation and a thor- 
 ough discussion of the subject, the project was abandoned, 
 one definite conclusion having been reached — that for the 
 present the only criterion is the ear of the teacher, the 
 judgment of the tried and experienced maestro. 
 
 To-day it is generally admitted that a tone consists 
 of a fundamential, plus a series of overtones, each present 
 in and sounding with the fundamental, though with differ- 
 ent degrees of volume, and with organic modifications in 
 different voices. 
 
 Character, timbre and quality are imparted to the 
 fundamental by these idiosyncrasies of overtone, there- 
 fore it would be virtually impossible for two voices singing 
 the same tone to be compared without going into physical 
 measurements of sound-waves, while the trained hearing 
 can infallibly appraise results at the moment of utterance. 
 
 Granting that Melba and Caruso are the highest 
 exponents to-day of tone-production in woman and man, 
 correct records of the work of these artists would furnish 
 exact templates or models with which to compare records 
 of sound-waves produced by vocal students. Variations 
 
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS 
 
 could thus be ascertained, and corrections made accordingly, 
 while further records taken from time to time would mark 
 progress until the maximum of excellence had been 
 secured. 
 
 The measurements of time and space by the most AUmeas- 
 delicate instruments, that have engaged the intelligence urements 
 of the ages, are but an approximation of the truth, and onlyap- 
 even the period of the sun's revolution in the ecliptic, and proxima- 
 that of the earth about the sun, are not absolutely deter- tionsto 
 mined, yet so infinitesimal is the degree of error for which truth, 
 allowance must- be made, that, notwithstanding, a fixed 
 standard has been adopted and prevails universa41y. In 
 like manner let us strive for a world-tone, and by practical 
 mechanical illustrations, so far as these can demonstrate 
 how tone is produced, place the possibility of acquisition 
 at the public service. 
 
 Music is cosmic. The voice of nature, whether heard Music 
 in the thunder of Niagara or the hum of a bee, seems at- cosmic, 
 tuned somewhere about the key of F. So with our model natural, 
 voices, their natural key lies within their normally best 
 tones, which range from F to C. Following this lead, we 
 accordingly predict that our standard will be found, a 
 statement that experiment invariably verifies. Experi- c the 
 ment, no matter how often repeated, or on how many natural 
 subjects, invariably sets the natural pitch at C, as the human note 
 normal human note. 
 
 If one uses the tone V" » : (128) as fundamental reso- 
 nator, and builds on this a series of overtones, the result 
 will be as follows: That its first overtone is at 256, an 
 octave higher; that its next overtone is at 384, a twelfth 
 higher; that its next overtone is at c^ 512, the double- 
 octave above, with the following overtone at e'^, or 640; 
 then g^ or 768; then ^^b, or 912, until we come to c^ 
 1024. Beyond this they become inharmonic; that is, in 
 the order of c^ 1024 to d^ 1152, or Do to Re, a combina- 
 tion that the ear naturally rejects. Now this was a 
 splendid discovery, and although on a purely arbitrary 
 basis, it nevertheless established nature's pitch, which 
 must be taken as our universal standard. 
 
10 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 This demonstration is within the reach of every one. 
 By using tuning-forks with the mouth for resonator the 
 human overtones respond to c^ 256 as to no other funda- 
 mental. 
 Compass This understood and assented to, it logically follows 
 
 of voice that the human voice is limited from the C 64 below for 
 
 mathe- bass voices, to d 1024 above for soprano voices, each 
 
 matically kind having its special compass, whether these are tenor, 
 
 demon- contralto, or the intermediary classifications. Every tone 
 
 strated. above d 1024 then will be a fundamental, corresponding 
 
 to the harmonics of the violin in its extrerne high range, or 
 to the Jiigh tones of a piano, or to the flute throughout 
 its range, the voice-producing mechanism bearing this 
 out. 
 
 By natural law this standardization of pitch for the 
 male voice is c^ 256; while for that of the female it is at 
 c^ 512, an octave higher, according to the law of octaves 
 in pipes, or tubes stopped and unstopped. 
 
 When the overtones become inharmonic the voice is 
 not musical, because music is the science of combining 
 tones in melodic, rhythmic and harmonic order so as to 
 excite the emotions or convey intellectual appeal. 
 Tone-pro- With our Standard pitch established, with records of 
 
 duction a great artists as our models for comparison, our next ques- 
 
 mechanical tion concerns itself with the actual producing of tone, 
 operation What is tone-production ? The very name indicates that 
 
 according to it is sound generated by mechanism of some kind. Ob- 
 natural law. viously, then, this mechanism must be correctly operated 
 to ensure correct results; or, in other words, a normal 
 standard' tone. 
 
 What is the mechanism requisitioned in the produc- 
 tion of the human voice.'' Is it something mystical, so 
 that one person may be trained in one way and another 
 by methods radically different.? Is nature definite or in- 
 definite, irresponsible or law-abiding? To those familiar 
 with anatomy and physiology there is but one answer: 
 Nature intends tone to be produced by a precise and nor- 
 mal balance of all the parts involved. And as troubles 
 manifest themselves in other organs of the body when 
 maladjusted, just so it is with voice-producing agents. 
 
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS 
 
 11 
 
 Does not this point to the conclusion that all who 
 profess to train the voice should, to the last detail, thor- 
 oughly understand the mechanism of the larynx? When 
 we seek medical treatment we are guided in our selection Care in 
 of a physician by the reputation for knowledge, under- choice of 
 standing and experience, proved by successful results, teacher 
 and authenticated by special preparation. Should we be as essen- 
 less careful in our choice of a vocal teacher? I hold that tialasin 
 the master of tone-production should know his subject choice of 
 with such finality that even without looking at the singer, physician, 
 but simply by the sound of the voice, he should be able to 
 diagnose the case and determine the trouble, decide what The ear as 
 muscles have been interfered with, to render the tone faulty, true diag- 
 and so be in a position to prescribe corrective exercises. nostician. 
 
 It is not necessary for the average student to have a 
 knowledge of the structure and function of the vocal or- 
 gans, except in a general way, but the master must be an 
 adept in this respect, or be unworthy of the name. 
 
 By this time my readers will have gathered that Vocal 
 Art-Science presents nothing of a subversive nature; on the 
 contrary, it is a recognition of the eternal verities. It is 
 based, not on the unsupported theories of faddists, but on 
 the natural laws of cause and effect, founded on precise 
 observation, and coordinated systematically. Nor is it 
 the purpose of this work to discredit the empiricist, or to 
 deride any honest method or belief. Recognizing that the 
 old masters unconsciously evolved scientific principles and 
 an ideal tone, it aims to revive what of their teachings has 
 been lost, and to enrich the old ideas by the new. With- 
 out regard to special school or system it seeks to place 
 actual facts in anatomy, physiology, pedagogy and psy- 
 chology at the disposal of all, so that from chaos order 
 may spring, and a correct voice-synthesis be obtained. 
 
 Based on natural facts, and not merely on man's as- Voice 
 sumption, it deals with the laws of cause and effect; classi- produced 
 fying voice as the result of muscle contraction, under the bymuscle 
 stimulus of nerves of motion, nutrition, and inhibition, contrac- 
 working in automatism, in a series of units, the common tionswith 
 focal point of which will be found to coincide with the psychic 
 very heart and centre of vocal existence. attributes. 
 
 What 
 Vocal 
 
 Art-Science 
 is. 
 
12 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 Nine 
 muscle- 
 sets to 
 be studied 
 in voice- 
 producing. 
 
 Nerve-supply 
 the new 
 element 
 introduced. 
 
 On these grounds it insists that voice must be studied, 
 primarily, from the standpoint of mechanism, and that on 
 a perfectly controlled mechanism the inspirational side of 
 art depends for its expression, as well as for the indefinable 
 quality that reflects itself from the artist on the audience, 
 and realizes for him the fullest measure of personal 
 possibility. 
 
 It places the ear as the controlling sensory centre, and 
 requires of the teacher such expert use in diagnosing faulty 
 tone, simply by the sense of hearing, that any mechanical 
 device can only corroborate his findings. 
 
 In a single treatise it would be impossible to give a 
 detailed plan of voice-production applicable to every indi- 
 vidual singer, because of the many different conditions 
 existing in each case of tonal effort. But what can be 
 done is to give the correct position of head and larynx, 
 the special organs of voice, including its factor of reso- 
 nance, and the exact action of the larynx, the momentic 
 source of voice, as these appear to the careful observer, 
 unaided by the microscope or a course in the dissecting 
 room. 
 
 Concerned with voice-production there are nine muscle- 
 sets, each with its independent nerve-supply; the muscle- 
 sets and nerve-supply illustrating, in their cooperation, 
 the close union of physiology and psychology in muscular 
 action, which is determined by the mind, working through 
 innervation on the muscles. Each of the nine muscle-sets 
 is capable of upsetting the voice-mechanism; yet the 
 muscle-sets never appear to have been studied, for voice- 
 production, in the light of that most important factor, 
 their nerve-supply. In this light they have been investi- 
 gated by Vocal Art-Science, in which respect it is a 
 wholly new departure from methods now in use. 
 
 Vocal Art-Science insists that exercises for the devel- 
 opment of voice shall be prescribed only by some person 
 who has studied voice-mechanism in detail; one who, for 
 instance, for a pinch in the voice, the result of overwork- 
 ing the hyo-glossi, would not seek to overcome it with 
 exercises of the digastric, or vice versa. Also it reiterates 
 that its exercises for voice-development must be under- 
 
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS 
 
 13 
 
 taken by one whose musical knowledge is capable of 
 determining whether the vocal poises are absolutely 
 correct; for if these exercises are attempted with im- 
 proper tone-emission or focus they are worse than useless, 
 for the reason that no fault ever is cured by practising it. 
 
 While not advocating hypnotism in voice-cultivation, 
 yet as it can present cases of fine vocalization from aver-' 
 age, normal, non-musical persons under hypnotic influ- 
 ence, it deduces that every one can in some measure be 
 taught to sing. Moreover, as the subject under hypnotic 
 influence usually reproduces the record of some great singer, 
 this suggests that only perfect models be held up for 
 imitation. 
 
 The new science in Vocal Art holds forth hope that 
 before long musical notes may be caught at correct pitch, 
 with proper instrumentation, and with all their psycho- 
 logical embellishments, on the telegraphone, or some other 
 correct and approved recorder, which records overtones 
 as well as fundamentals, and thence transcribed by the 
 oscillograph, the only device that can register the graphic 
 forms of sound-waves including the klang-tint, the tonal 
 color by which beauty of voice is determined. With scales 
 built from notes so captured, with kinetoscope representa- 
 tions and skiagraphs of great artists producing these per- 
 fect notes, perfect models in every respect will be assured. 
 
 Vocal Art-Science states, not without pride, that it is 
 endorsed by the foremost singers. It offers the advantage 
 that the student's voice is put into working order imme- 
 diately. It promises that, after years of the accurate 
 vocalization enjoined by it, the success of the voice under 
 cultivation is assured, with effortless production of pure 
 and perfect tone. 
 
 It advises the earliest attention to voice-training, not 
 only by individual and standard set exercises, but also by 
 presenting good models of speech and song to the young, 
 by the avoidance of bad habits, and by that careful culti- 
 vation of clear enunciation that marks the well-trained 
 child. 
 
 Finally, Vocal Art-Science invites cooperation and dis- 
 cussion from all interested in good results on the lines of 
 
 The hyp- 
 notic 
 voice, 
 and what 
 it proves. 
 
 The 
 oscillograph. 
 
 Endorse- 
 ment of 
 Vocal 
 Art- 
 Science. 
 
 Early 
 
 training 
 
 through 
 
 habits 
 
 advised. 
 
14 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 voice. It calls for frequent conferences of throat-special- 
 ists, teachers, singers and speakers. It suggests a system 
 of marking by which at such gatherings comparisons can 
 be made most effectually, and the calculable factors in 
 tone-production scientifically registered with allowance for 
 personal equation, temperament, and the qualities of 
 individuality. 
 
 Based on the laws of nature and not on mere assump- 
 tion. Vocal Art-Science holds that voice from the stand- 
 point of evolution depends on its resonators, and that these 
 to the number of twenty-four must be trained and corre- 
 lated before initial tone can have full reinforcement. 
 Analogies Also it presents a few analogies between the phe- 
 
 and de- nomena of light, energy, sound and graphic form, with the 
 
 ductions. general deduction that not only is voice cosmic, but that 
 
 song is merely another guise for these material activities, 
 itself a manifestation of light and form, a color-interpreta- 
 tion of the divine nature which is none the less divine for 
 being susceptible of scientific analysis — indeed, for that 
 very reason all the more surely divine. 
 
 A singer myself before becoming a physician, and 
 after thirty-two years of practical, specialized work, not to 
 speak of association with leading investigators and great 
 artists, I feel that I have at least a fair idea of what does 
 and does not constitute good singing. Accordingly, to 
 all interested in good work on the lines of voice I offer 
 the result of my observations in the form of an attempt at 
 a tnle voice-synthesis, a Vocal Art-Science. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 The Evolution of Voice 
 
 Voice is first, last, and at all times, automatic, con- 
 sisting of detonations from a sphincteric aperture. 
 
 From the first, all natural processes were based on the 
 principle of automatism; that is to say, nature, as we 
 understand it, manifests itself in forms of motion, carried 
 on by self-acting machinery. 
 
 Let us examine the application of this to voice-pro- 
 duction by reviewing a few simple facts. Biology teaches 
 us that the vital cell presents two fundamental aspects; 
 one the power of taking in substance; the other the power 
 of ejecting substance. Also there is an inflow and an out- 
 flow of energy; in other words, an afferent mode and an 
 efferent. These two aspects form the foundation of the 
 two kinds of nervous systems found in the composite 
 organism of man: namely, the cerebro-spinal, and the 
 ganglionic or sympathetic. The former governs the volun- 
 tary muscles of the body. At its dictates they assume 
 relations and positions. It controls the actions of our 
 conscious life. Under the sympathetic nervous system 
 the involuntary muscles take entire charge of all bodily 
 functions, all vital processes. 
 
 The voluntary muscles, dominated by the brain, are 
 structurally external, while the involuntary are usually 
 hidden in the deep recesses of the organism, interpene- 
 trating the entire frame. Stiffness or suppleness is the 
 measure of the condition of the exterior muscles, whereas 
 our psychic energies, our rhythmic reactions, rest upon the 
 sympathetic. 
 
 In point of time the ganglionic system takes precedence 
 over the cerebro-spinal, being the first to appear in the 
 embryo and that from which, indeed, all others virtually are 
 formed. The various autonomies, functions, tissues, 
 structures, and processes, emanate from this psycho- 
 physiological life-centre. The vital point where the pas- 
 
16 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 sional nature comes into contact with the sensuous is 
 known to philosophers as the focal point of life and 
 death. 
 
 Even as it presided over the beginning of life-impulses, 
 so does this sympathetic nerve-system control the wear 
 and tear of the organism, all body-building and repairing 
 being under its supervision. Not only is it the chemist, 
 but also the laboratory of the human structure. William 
 Hanna Thompson tells us that "the Sympathetic actually 
 makes drugs or true medicine, whose presence in the blood 
 is essential to life." In animals, so this author states, the 
 extirpation of the solar plexus, the seat of the sympathetic 
 nervous system, causes death, preceded by profuse "rice 
 and water" discharges arid accompanied by other symp- 
 toms resembling Asiatic cholera. Working incessantly, 
 the sympathetic nervous system sustains the whole struc- 
 ture; were its activities to cease, the body could do no- 
 thing; the entire fabric would be wiped from the face of 
 nature. As it was first at birth, so it is last at death. 
 
 The cerebro-spinal system belongs to organic man, 
 being responsible for the activity of all senses, all mental 
 perception, everything, in fact, that deals with the outer, 
 conscious life. With its pole of power at the brain and 
 with the spinal cord, and tracts extending to every part 
 of the body, it deals with an exterior world, responding to 
 light, color and tone. Man has developed more strongly 
 along the lines of conscious activities, consequently he is 
 a one-sided being, viewing most things from an objective 
 standpoint. Not until he has failed repeatedly from pure 
 dependence on his brain, does man at last turn to other 
 sources of power and inspiration — to the subconscious self; 
 a source of power and Inspiration that, living as it does so 
 near to the realm of things unseen, holds the key to the 
 spiritual life, yet, notwithstanding, must ever use the 
 physical as the vehicle for its expression. 
 
 In Vocal Art-Science the Great Sympathetic system 
 gives soul and spirit to speech and song. Viewed from this 
 life-centre it proclaims that all directions, as to the man- 
 agement of the: voice, must be subsidiary to the expression 
 of feeling. 
 
Fig. 1. Solar Plexus. 
 
THE EVOLUTION OF VOICE 17 
 
 When Joseph Jefferson, the famous Rip Van Winkle, 
 was asked by a conservatory student, "Is it necessary to 
 feel keenly within one's own sympathetic system that 
 emotion which one is about to convey to another in song?" 
 he answered, "A warm heart and a cool head, my child, 
 so that the artistic rendition shall not be marred." 
 
 Pure art is not mechanical; pure art is not physical, 
 but metaphysical; pure art is inspiration. All art must 
 have its origin in the soul. Vocal Art deals essentially 
 with this aspect of tone-production, the intuitional, emo- 
 tional, affectional and passional features of speech and 
 song. It is under the domain of the primary or rhythmic 
 system of the human organism, close to the very founda- 
 tion of life. How shall we arrive at its lawful but unfet- 
 tered expression.? There is but one way: "The perfection 
 of an art consists in the employment of a comprehensive 
 system of laws, commensurate to every purpose within its 
 scope, but concealed from the eye of the spectator; a com- 
 prehensive system of laws producing efforts which seem to 
 flow spontaneously as though uncontrolled by the influ- 
 ence of these very laws — efforts which are equally excellent 
 whether regarded individually or in reference to the pro- 
 posed result!" In other words, there are definite laws by 
 which the outer being can express and convey the message 
 of the inner; laws so clearly established that by obeying 
 them the highest art will be attained, namely, that of con- 
 cealing art, and presenting a result with such perfection of 
 automatism as to seem unstudied, the child of inspiration, 
 in form no less than in spirit. 
 
 The formulation of these laws by which art is enabled 
 to find expression for the message of the soul lies in the 
 province of the scientist. Vocal Art-Science deals with 
 these laws from the standpoint of muscle-actions and 
 control, both voluntary and involuntary, in their relation 
 to the structures and functions of the organism; further, 
 it deals with the laws of sound, physically and mathemati- 
 cally recorded, which are involved in tone-production. 
 
 Combining the two. Vocal Art and Vocal Science, into 
 one system, that of Vocal Art-Science, this naturally in- 
 sists, as the nomenclature would imply, on the exact cor- 
 
18 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 relation between the physical and psychic in tone-produc- 
 tion — the scientific or mechanical on one hand, and the 
 artistic or inspirational on the other — and seeks to estab- 
 lish a union that exists between these apparent opposites. 
 
 In this harmony, through the perfect realization of 
 cooperation between the activities of the cerebro-spinal 
 and sympathetic nervous systems, it is believed will be 
 found an explanation of genius. 
 
 Such cooperation, bridging the chasm between the 
 two poles of power, joining positive pole with negative, 
 creates in the artist selfhood of the highest order, an 
 at-one-ment of the entire being, through the controlled 
 intellectual perceptions, diversified expressions, combined 
 with the adjustment of normal, emotional, and spiritual 
 forces. 
 
 It is unquestionably our want of knowledge, knowl- 
 edge of the world about us in its true meaning, and knowl- 
 edge of the forces locked within us, that forms the obstacle 
 between our ambitions and hopes and the full realization 
 of them. It is only as we develop a higher standard of 
 scientific and artistic training that we can begin to com- 
 prehend the marvellous agency existing between the im- 
 material principle and the physical operations of the 
 mechanism, resulting in tonal beauty. 
 
 Wordsworth writes, "Enter into the soul of things!" 
 So long as science was engaged only in investigating nat- 
 ural sequences and phenomena, it failed to arrive fat 
 the laws of causation. Formerly, science insisted that 
 there were only two things in the universe: matter and 
 force. To-day, with the discovery of radium, matter is 
 eliminated, or rather has become fluidic at the approach 
 of thought. What still appears as matter is but station- 
 ary force, or, in other words, lazy electricity. Mme. 
 Curie, following in the footsteps of her husband, reached 
 the soul of things when at the core of a substance she 
 found radio-active force. Tesla reached the soul of things 
 when he discovered that the behavior of energy depends 
 on the frequency to which the fluidic stationary force is 
 subjected. And in the same way every great discovery is 
 but a dim prophecy of greater things yet to be revealed in 
 
THE EVOLUTION OF VOICE 19 
 
 the life of man. Even as the telescope added to the natural 
 powers of eyesight, so clairvoyance develops the power to 
 penetrate the subtler regions of thought and spirit. The 
 materialism of a quarter of a century ago, that great wave 
 of agnosticism that swept over the intellectual world, has 
 receded before the new understanding of the constitution 
 of matter and the nature of energy. How can doubt exist 
 in the presence of a speck of radium, so small as easily to 
 drop through the eye of a needle, yet its radiations emanate 
 at a velocity forty thousand times greater than that of a 
 bullet in flight.? When one realizes that heat, light and 
 energy are produced night and day by such a speck, 
 without appreciable expenditure of substance, is it so 
 difficult to believe that we are on the borderland of fruitions 
 greater than all we have dared to dream.? 
 
 So through an understanding of the dual nature does 
 Vocal Art-Science seek to bring the earnest student nearer 
 the soul of things, believing, 
 
 Man as yet is being made, and, ere the crowning Age of Ages, 
 Shall not aeon and aeon pass and touch him into shape? 
 
 We are the results of the operations of unnumbered 
 ages, the sum and substance of evolutionary forces of 
 countless periods of time. Man is the end toward which 
 all animal creation has tended. As Dr. Oken said, "Man 
 is the sum total of all the animals!" Man is more 
 than this: He is the product of the workings of stellar and 
 solar worlds, and is closely associated with and related to 
 the universe to which he belongs. Carlyle truly remarked, 
 "On the hardest adamant some footprints of us are 
 stamped in, and the last rear of the host will read traces 
 of the earliest van." In our quest for initial voice, how^ 
 ever, we must retrace the steps of evolutionary progress, 
 until the day of the first man and woman are left far behind, 
 and we find ourselves as near as we may approach to the 
 beginning of things, in the rude workshop of the world. 
 Then, as now, creation was all motion, though we do not 
 understand it; all we know is what we see and hear, the 
 objective world. Here in the ooze of some pool we come 
 upon a tiny mass of floating protoplasm, a group of cell 
 
20 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 Amphibia : 
 The sala- 
 mander 
 shows the 
 first re- 
 sonator . 
 
 The frog 
 the first 
 vocal 
 folds. 
 
 life, the progenitor of the primordial globule and the an- 
 cestor of the amceba. One such form, from the readiness 
 with which it changes its contours, has been called the 
 Proteus. This may be regarded as an animalcule whose 
 sole occupation is self-nutrition, carried on by the usual 
 process of intake, digestion, and outgo. Of these the first 
 is achieved by sujrounding the desired particle with its 
 filmy mass, and absorbing this into its principal cell where 
 the life-activity is carried on. For the waste, or indi- 
 gestible substance, an outlet must be found, and this is 
 formed by an aperture capable of enlarging or diminishing 
 itself at need. In higher forms where muscular tissue is 
 present this would be a sphincter (derived from the Greek 
 verb "to bind"), but in this case it may be better de- 
 scribed as a contractile vacuole. Its action is automatic. 
 Gas, when expelled from its single chamber of life-activity, 
 causes a detonation, and this is the initial manifestation oj 
 sound in organic life. 
 
 Rising a step in creation's scale, we find the Sala- 
 mander as the next sound-producer. This is an am- 
 phibian, equipped with head and tail. A rudimentary 
 jaw forms a mouth, and for sound emitted from this, the 
 head serves as the resonator or sounding-board. As the 
 tail merely covers the posterior cell, and is not controllable 
 as is the jaw, this can hardly be classed as a resonating 
 influence. The Salamander presents the first structural 
 complexity capable of affording resonance to sound. 
 
 Our third step in this vocal quest brings us to the 
 common frog. Like his predecessor, the salamander, the 
 frog is an amphibian, but virtually a tailless one. In the 
 anatomy of the frog, however, we find the first creative 
 attempt at vocal folds, so all-important in voice-produc- 
 tion as we understand it. This trace occurs as a pair of 
 pyramido-prismic membranes, or folds of fibrous tissue, 
 slightly thickened, no larger than a pin's point, stationed low 
 down on either side of the sphincteric aperture. The presence 
 of these proves that the circular opening can be regulated 
 at fixed points. Translated into the terms of geometry, the 
 vacuole, or posterior cell of the Proteus, computed by the in- 
 cluded surface of a unit sphere, has its centre at the angle's 
 
THE EVOLUTION OF VOICE 
 
 21 
 
 vertex; or, in other words, the centre of the vacuole. But 
 the presence of these two stationary points establishes a 
 new basis of reckoning, that of the triangle. Later this 
 will be applied to the human mechanism, namely, to the 
 arytenoids that regulate the vocal sphincter. 
 
 The voice of the amphibian is of interest mainly from 
 the standpoint of evolution. It is present in but few of 
 the species, and in these is produced by an apparatus of 
 the simplest kind. 
 
 Reptiles present a new phase, that of a rudimentary 
 larynx. In some species of turtles we find the first appear- 
 ance of an individual cricoid cartilage. By this mutual 
 phenomenon the junction between the larynx of birds and 
 reptiles is established. Arytenoidal cartilages control the 
 laryngeal slit, but vocal folds in all cases are wanting. The 
 many windings in the tracheal tubes of certain species 
 produce the sounds that are sex-calls in the mating period. 
 
 Snakes are dumb, if we except the hissing with tongue 
 protruded that marks a condition of excitement with them. 
 The noise made by the rattlesnake, produced by a series 
 of loosely jointed bony rings, cannot be classed as a voice. 
 
 In captivity the crocodile is mute, but in his native 
 haunts he is possessed of a strong and penetrating call, at 
 times rising to a shriek. 
 
 The larynx of the crocodile calls for comment, for it 
 appears as a formation analogous to the human thyroid 
 cartilage in combination with the cricoid. Its interior is 
 furnished with a pair of septs or partitions, like shutters, 
 corresponding to the arytenoids in that they guard the 
 laryngeal opening. They are placed at the entrance 
 to the organs of respiration, and by advancing toward, 
 or retreating from one another they regulate air- 
 communication with the lungs. These septs are present 
 in all amphibia, even in those lacking a special larynx or 
 voice-chamber. In crocodiles they are stretched longi- 
 tudinally within their supporting ring, from front back- 
 ward, moving easily. Their unattached edge is pliable, 
 capable of thickening like a lip, representing the vocal folds. 
 
 Breath lightly expelled, as it strikes these septs, results 
 in sounds corresponding to falsetto in man; an accession of 
 
 Circle 
 
 and 
 
 triangle. 
 
 Reptiles. 
 Turtles. 
 
 Snakes 
 
 and 
 
 crocodiles. 
 
22 
 
 FOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 Young 
 alligators. 
 
 Lizards. 
 
 Birds. 
 
 The syrinx. 
 
 Thomas 
 
 Huxley 
 
 (182S-189S). 
 
 breath sets them flapping, probably hitting one another, 
 and so changing a deep tone to a harsh, forbidding growl. 
 But in young alligators as they leave the egg, where the 
 orifice is but small and the cartilage undeveloped, the 
 voice is high and piercing. 
 
 With lizards the laryngeal structure is not unlike that 
 of crocodiles. It appears as a ringed, cartilaginous pipe, 
 divided into sections, and furnished with septs. 
 
 Birds, from an evolutionary standpoint, are closer to 
 reptiles than is commonly recognized. On account of its 
 marked peculiarity the vocal organ of birds calls for special 
 consideration. (See Fig. 2.) 
 
 All birds have more than one larynx. One, corre- 
 sponding to the throat of mammals, lies at the base of the 
 tongue, at the top of the windpipe, but has nothing what- 
 ever to do with producing voice. It is an opening looking 
 backward, projecting inward, without vocal folds, being 
 nothing more than an elliptical slit, corresponding to our 
 glottis, formed by muscles and bones, that can be com- 
 pressed, dilated," and closed. Its office is to guard the 
 windpipe from invasion of food, water and alien sub- 
 stances. This slit, while it does not help make voice, yet 
 may modify its character, its closure causing the "gluck, 
 gluck," of the hen, and explosive "k" and "g" of other birds. 
 
 The true larynx, or voice-throat of birds, has been 
 named by Huxley the syrinx, from the Greek word for 
 shepherd's pipe, pipe of Pan, or reed. This alone pro- 
 duces voice, and is in some species found where the wind- 
 pipe splits into the bronchials. In others it appears in 
 duplicate, twin apparatus, so to speak, one in each bron- 
 chial duct. Ostriches and vultures are among the rare 
 exceptions in which it is entirely absent. Generally speak- 
 ing, the syrinx consists of several modified rings of which 
 the bird-windpipe is formed, and which, when continued 
 in the bronchial tubes, appear again as half-rings, the fis- 
 sures being closed by membranous tissue. Where this 
 joins the windpipe it projects into it some little way on 
 both sides, farming a pair of folds, supported by a bony 
 framework, and controlled by muscles which, by tighten- 
 ing or loosening their clutch, cause the size of the space 
 
mOlCRTO -FINCH 
 INDICO BIRO 
 
 UfTSlOE VIEW 
 
 mini V 
 
 INOICATO- fmCH 
 
 TRBCHtO- BRONCHIBU 
 
 SYRINX 
 
 ■niROUS MLROUl-ailCHWBIl 
 BMKCKIfltTMCHWL 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
THE EVOLUTION OF VOICE 
 
 23 
 
 between the folds to vary. Air rushing from the lungs 
 through the bronchi and into the trachea by way of this 
 variable opening furnishes the motive power to voice, and 
 the disturbances, interruptions, and modifications, to 
 which this sound-column is subjected on its outward 
 journey, form the bird quality. 
 
 The principal modification arises from the reverbera- Sparrow, 
 tion caused by the impingement of the air on the elastic Trumpeter 
 walls of the ducts. Special modifications in structure swan, 
 cause special qualities; certain ducks, for instance, are fur- 
 nished with an apparatus that produces drumming sounds, 
 consisting of a bony vesicle, or bladder-like formation, 
 covered with a tympanic membrane like a drum-head. 
 The number of rings composing the tracheal duct, as well William 
 as its relative strength, will qualify reverberation in bird- Beebe, 
 vocalism. Fifty annular formations, Beebe tells us, go to curator, 
 make up the windpipe of the young English sparrow, N. Y. 
 while the trumpeter swan boasts a windpipe four feet in Zoological 
 length, half of it coiled up within the breast. Park. 
 
 To reproduce bird-tones by a mechanical means is in 
 general not difficult. The hollow stem of a plant, cut 
 obliquely at one end, and the opening thus formed cov- 
 ered with a thin, skin-like texture, will give an elementary 
 syringeal apparatus in inverted position, when blown 
 through at the free end. By adding a pipe to the covered 
 end we now represent the tracheal reverberation. Nar- 
 rowing the vocal slit, while increasing the air-pressure, 
 lifts the tone. Shortening the additional pipe also effects 
 this on computable bases. The tension and quality of 
 the modifying tissue also must be taken into account. 
 A small piece of birch-bark, rolled into a tube, and covered 
 with a tender leaflet, makes a simple syrinx with which 
 any one can reproduce bird-voice. 
 
 Though the syrinx occurs in duplicate, the bird can 
 produce no more than one tone at a time. The adjust- 
 ment of vocal slits is probably uniform, and the two air- 
 columns meeting in the trachea become voice by the 
 momentum established at the pessulus. 
 
 To the great naturalist, Cuvier, we owe the most Baron Cuvier 
 searching and minute studies of the mechanismof bird-voice. (1769-1832). 
 
24 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 Johannes Savart and Johannes Miiller also are among those who 
 MuUer have contributed valuable data. 
 
 (1801-1858). With the conclusions drawn by some of these authori- 
 
 ties, however, I do not find myself always in accord. The 
 author's. theory, briefly stated, is that the bird organ of voice 
 is at no time to be compared to an open or flute-pipe, even 
 when it gives forth the shrillest twitterings and whistling 
 sounds, but must, at all times, be considered a mem- 
 branous reed-pipe. 
 Reed or In this connection let us note that the terin reed now 
 
 tympanic is applied to the structures that interrupt the passage of the 
 
 membrane. outrushing breath, though these structures are made of 
 metal. In the bird these reeds also are called tongues, 
 and again tympanic membranes, though the drum char- 
 acter usually associated with the latter word does not 
 apply here. Searching for another meaning, we find that 
 tympanum once was applied to a stringed instrument re- 
 sembling the ancient Irish fiddle, the crowth, played upon 
 with a bow, and from this the general idea of vibration 
 and reverberation were obtained. These tongues, as 
 Cuvier has pointed out, are susceptible of innumerable 
 changes in tension and form, and these changes account 
 for the infinite variety of sounds, cries and songs that are 
 the speech of bird-life. 
 Voice Therefore, bird-voice rests upon the same principle 
 
 automatic. as that of mammals. The vocal apparatus, in both, is a 
 membranous reed-pipe, though in the former, owing to 
 the smallness of the vocal membranes, the change in pitch 
 depends upon the force of the air-pressure, and the solid 
 elastic consistency of the additional tube. Such, as is well 
 known, is not the case in man. 
 Fonn We leave voice, from the evolutionary standpoint, 
 
 sphincter. where it Is conditioned not only by pitch and power, but 
 with the added factor of some resonance, as a result of a 
 membranous reed-pipe. The complexities of the human 
 organ are such that we must review this structurally 
 before analyzing the sounds it can produce. One thing, 
 however, must be noted, and that Is, that initial voice Is 
 from first to last automatic, made by an aperture, and that 
 that aperture is regulated by a sphincter, an automatically 
 
THE EVOLUTION OF VOICE 25 
 
 opening and closing muscle, as comparative anatomy- 
 shows conclusively. 
 
 And so from the two first makers of sound in organic 
 life — namely, the gaseous detonation from the contractile 
 vacuole of a protoplasmic cell, which, in its turn proto- 
 types the amphibian sphincter with its equally automatic 
 gaseous detonation, both sounds, however, merely pre- 
 senting a monotone pitch conditioned with some measure 
 of power but lacking in quality — we ascend in the scale to 
 the birds with their varied and wondrous songs, and thence 
 to the "Lyre of Seven Strings, the Lyre of God," that, 
 according to the old Orphic fragment, vibrates within the 
 human frame. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 The Vocal Tract 
 
 Voice Voice is sound; voice is what one hears. That is the 
 
 subjective subjective aspect of the phenomenon. Considered as an 
 and ob- effect on the brain, it is a sensation caused by some dis- 
 
 jective. turbance of the auditory nerve. Objectively, we speak of 
 
 voice or sound as the external source of such disturbance. 
 To a deaf person, one born with non-recording ear-drums, 
 sound subjective is a meaningless term. When the organ 
 cannot function, the mind cannot perceive the external 
 world in sound-manifestations. The door is closed and 
 locked, barring the cosmic message by word of mouth to 
 the soul — tone is dead. Voice objective, however, may be 
 as manifest and as clearly demonstrated, according to its 
 origin, to the wholly deaf as to those of acutest aural sensi- 
 bilities. Voice objective is physical, a thing occupying 
 space, that can be reckoned in terms of energy, computed 
 mathematically, photographed, analyzed into components, 
 and analogued with other natural phenomena, as for in- 
 stance light. Voice subjective also is physical, but is 
 computed by its effect upon the hearer. That it is pho- 
 netic is due to the fact that it appeals to the ear. Voice 
 kinetic is a form of motion, and can be realized by eye and 
 touch, as proved in the education of the deaf. 
 
 Voice, or sound, originates with some body in a state 
 of rapid vibration. These vibrations transmit their energy 
 in the form of wave-motions to the surrounding medium, 
 which in our present study is the air about us. 
 Vibrations. Vibrations are the small motions of the body, or its 
 
 motions within a restricted area, recurring at regular 
 intervals, back and forth, as with a pendulum. These 
 regular recurrences constitute the body's period of motion. 
 A period for a pendulum means the time it takes to 
 travel from the central point of its arc to each terminal 
 and back again. In the illustration we would have a 
 period for the pendulum represented by its swing from 
 "M" to "N," thence to "P," and back to "M." A period, 
 
 26 
 
THE VOCAL TRACT 
 
 27 
 
 ^ 
 
 E 
 
 Periods. 
 
 Amplitude. 
 
 Period of Pendulum. 
 
 accordingly, ^Sx^^^^sTn^ K 
 
 consists of a 
 double vibra- 
 tion, one in 
 each direction. 
 Half the swing 
 that is from 
 central point 
 of arc to either 
 terminal de- 
 scribes the vi- 
 bration's am- 
 plitude. The 
 number of pe- 
 riods or double 
 vibrations oc- 
 curring in each 
 
 second of time represents its frequency. A period of 
 one-tenth of a second means a frequency of ten double- 
 vibrations to the second. 
 
 Vibrations are described as transverse when the motion. Vibrations 
 or source of propagation of the motion, is at right angles to transverse 
 the greatest length of the body; and as longitudinal, when orlongi- 
 in the same direction as the greatest length of the body, tudinal. 
 
 Periodic vibrations affect the particles of the medium 
 about their source periodically, producing waves. A wave, 
 therefore, may be defined as periodic vibration in a me- 
 dium, caused by a periodically vibrating source. Any 
 body, such as a string, a membrane, or a mass of metal, 
 set vibrating, causes particles of air about it alternately 
 to condense and rarefy. Each particle thus energized 
 vibrates a short distance longitudinally, that is, in the 
 direction of the source of propagation, and in so doing 
 transmits its energy to other particles. Obviously, the 
 air as a mass does not move on, because of its elasticity; 
 regularity of this disturbance constitutes the wave, just 
 as the periodicity of movement at the source constitutes 
 the vibration. Putting the hand under the tablecloth and 
 drawing it along gives a crude idea of wave-motion. The 
 tablecloth as a whole remains stationary, but a local con- 
 
28 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 Motion 
 of wave- 
 particles. 
 
 figuration Is passed along its surface. When considering 
 vibrations we speak of the period, the time between similar 
 consecutive configurations; the frequency, or number of 
 periods in a unit of time; the amplitude, which may be 
 said to equal one-half of the maximum displacement; and 
 the distance between adjacent configurations, constituting 
 the length of one wave. 
 
 It must not be forgotten that the particles of the 
 transmitting medium have a motion Independent of that 
 of the. sound-wave Itself. The particles, condensed, move 
 forward In the direction of the force affecting them; rare- 
 fied, they move backward. Meanwhile, both condensa- 
 tion and rarefaction are traveling onward with a speed 
 
 Fig. 4. Loops and Nodes. 
 
 conditioned by the temperature of the air and the medium 
 Itself. 
 
 Harmonic Simple harmonic motion arises from a single series of 
 
 motion. vibrations with regular periodicity. "Phase" describes- 
 
 the vibrating body's return at any moment to the point 
 
 Phase. of the motion's origin, as, for Instance, the pendulum to 
 
 the centre of its arc. Vibrating bodies, otherwise identi- 
 cal, may differ In phase through not having been set in 
 motion simultaneously. A series of vibrations may produce 
 a complex wave, harmonious in results because composed 
 of factors In themselves harmonious. They are Illustrated 
 geometrically and computed In numbers. 
 
 Reflection. Reflection ensues when a sound-wave encounters an 
 
 obstacle In its path. Some of Its energy is transmitted 
 
THE VOCAL TRACT 
 
 29 
 
 to the new mechanism and some thrown back. When, 
 through such interference, a system of return waves 
 is created, no motion exists at the point where the two 
 series intersect. Such points are called nodes; and the Nodes, 
 points of widest divergence, loops. 
 
 The . difference between a musical sound and a noise. Musical 
 subjectively considered, is that the former affects the hearer sounds 
 with a sense of pleasure. Kinetically stated, musical sound and noise. 
 has its origin in vibrations that are regular, continuous 
 and uniform, while mere noise originates in an irregularly 
 vibrating source. The less continuous the vibrations causing 
 unmusical sounds, the more abrupt their changes and the 
 further from a sense of pleasure is their effect upon the 
 ear. Our concern is with the pleasurable only. 
 
 A musical sound received by a normally sensitive ear Musical 
 presents itself either as a simple tone, or one of a com- tones, 
 plex nature composed of several tones. The sound of a tun- 
 ing-fork exemplifies the former, while that of a violin, the 
 human voice, etc., exemplifies the latter. Even the clash 
 of cymbals cannot fail to strike one as capable of being 
 resolved into component strands. The pure tone is pro- 
 duced by a simple harmonious wave; all others have a 
 complex origin. The trained ear, hearing a tone, assigns 
 to it a place higher or lower, according to its pitch (vibra- 
 tion number) in an arbitrary scale. In the case of a com- 
 plex musical sound the pitch is always determined by the 
 predominating tone, which is invariably the lowest or 
 fundamental tone; all the other components are called 
 partials, or overtones. Pitch is determined by relative 
 frequency in the vibrating source; the greater the fre- 
 quency the higher the pitch. In a series of tones the pitch 
 of each is the relative frequency of its fundamental^ in a 
 single complex tone its pitch is the lowest frequency pres- 
 ent. When the overtones present frequencies that are ex- 
 act multiples of the fundamental they are called harmonics. 
 
 Loudness in a tone is a characteristic which affects its Loudness, 
 intensity and to a certain extent involves pitch. The 
 quality of a tone is a property that enables us to recognize 
 the source of the sound, whether stringed or wind-instru- 
 ment, horn or harp, inanimate or human, woman or man. 
 
30 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 Intensity. 
 
 Beats. 
 
 H. von 
 
 Helmholtz 
 
 (1821-1894). 
 
 Segmenta- 
 tion. 
 
 Resonance. 
 
 Soprano pitch, from the standpoint of the hearer, is a 
 position in the scale; loudness, the relative energy with 
 which the sound affects the ear; while quality or individu- 
 ality comprises everything not belonging to the other mem-_ 
 bers of the trinity. Physically stated, in terms of the 
 sound-waves, pitch depends upon their length, since wave- 
 length is inversely as frequency; loudness or power upon 
 their amplitude; and quality may be analyzed into the 
 number and relative intensities of the partial tones. 
 
 A distinction may be drawn between intensity and 
 loudness. Intensity results from the amplitude of both 
 fundamental tones and overtones; loudness, when the 
 amplitude of a single vibration is strongly predominant. 
 
 Beats occur when two sets of vibrations of almost the 
 same frequency affect the ear simultaneously, causing a 
 pulsation without harmonious relation in its components. 
 Helmholtz explains consonance and discord as an arbi- 
 trary preference of the human ear for effects resulting 
 from components in a definite mathematical relation from 
 which these pulses are absent. 
 
 Segmentation is a phenomenon that occurs when a 
 vibrating body for some cause is set vibrating in sections, 
 each section yielding tone in a definite ratio to the funda- 
 mental. Nodes and loops, as we have seen, result when 
 two trains of waves, traveling in opposite directions, tra- 
 verse a vibrating body. 
 
 Resonance is a soundTphenomenon to be studied in 
 connection with vibration. Any vibratory body that Is 
 disturbed, set in motion, plucked, swung, or blown upon, 
 executes what are called free vibrations; that Is, vibra- 
 tions that depend on its intrinsic period, since periodicity 
 is anorganic quality. These vibrations will gradually de- 
 crease in amplitude as the energy they represent is trans- 
 ferred to the surrounding medium, till finally they cease, 
 a process technically known as damping, yet the last slow 
 swing takes no less time than the first completed move- 
 ment of activation. Resonance requires the presence of a 
 second vibratory body, such as a string, a metal bar, or an 
 air-cavity, with a period In some definite correspondence 
 with that of the first. The vibrations of the first body are 
 
THE VOCAL TRACT 31 
 
 forced, upon the second through their relation in period- 
 icity. Reflection, as we have seen, is a bending back, with 
 loss of power; resonance is a sending back to rejoin, con- 
 sequently a reinforcement. Amplitude — power — may be 
 increased by this property which one body possesses in 
 exciting another of the same or similar vibratory period, 
 to a degree that at first seems to pass belief, so gigantic 
 are its possibilities. The destruction of a suspension 
 bridge, through the swinging step of a regiment coinciding 
 with the period of the metal, is an historical fact. In the 
 "Sunken Bell" a natural law may have played its part in 
 the poet's dream when Heinrich cries, "Hark how the 
 buried tones swell louder, louder, till they sound as thun- 
 der, flooding the world!" And to resonance we owe all 
 that is poignant and personal in the human voice. 
 
 Summing up, it will be seen that voice — what we 
 hear — is produced not only by air-waves excited by a 
 vibrating source, but is also the result of a corpuscular 
 theory; that a musical sound results from regularity in the 
 vibrating origin; that a musical tone presents three char- 
 acteristics: Power, quality, pitch; that power is referred 
 to wave-amplitude and corpuscular expansion; that qual- 
 ity is due to complexity caused by several tones in the 
 relation of the fundamental and harmonics, all being pres- 
 ent in one tone, the complexity exhibiting the combined 
 pitches and relative strength of these components in the 
 phenomenon of resonance; that pitch, the relative place 
 in an arbitrary scale, is physical, and determined by fre- 
 quency of vibration. 
 
 From this brief review of physics in relation to sound Evolution 
 it will be obvious that any simple sound must be condi- proceeds 
 tioned by some measure of power, and must be referable from 
 to some pitch, but that the second factor of musical tone, simple to 
 quality, depending on resonance, can be produced only by complex, 
 structural complexities capable of furnishing reverberating 
 systems for tone-components. Now, as nature progresses 
 in the scale of evolution from simple to complex, obviously 
 the development of the resonating apparatus will be the 
 measure of vocal advance, from the protozoic makers of 
 monotone pitch, conditioned with some power, but no 
 
32 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 quality, till we reach the twenty-four resonators in the 
 human frame. 
 
 With this in mind, let us consider the human organism 
 structurally, in the special parts assigned to the actual 
 work of sound-making, in the special parts assigned to 
 reverberating tone-components, and as a general struc- 
 ture designed for automatic voice-production. 
 Pharynx. The first structure to be considered is the pharynx. 
 
 The word comes from the Greek word "to plow," and 
 means a furrow, a channel. The pharynx is a pouch of 
 membrane and muscle forming, a joint opening for the 
 windpipe and gullet; in other words, the trachea and 
 esophagus. The pharynx extends from the base of the 
 skull down to a point between the fourth and fifth cervical 
 vertebrae, and is in length about five inches, with a maxi- 
 mum diameter of one and three-fifths inches. It con- 
 tinues from below with the esophagus above; it connects 
 Bartolomeo with the middle ear by the Eustachian canal, and in front 
 Eustachio extends into oral and nasal cavities. Of these the 
 (died 1574). pharyngo-nasal is concerned in respiration and in modifi- 
 cation of voice, while the pharyngo-oral in connection 
 with the pharyngo-laryngeal has to do with respiration 
 and deglutition. 
 
 The pharynx is the upper opening for trachea and 
 esophagus. The upper portion of the trachea, enlarged 
 and modified, is the larynx. 
 Trachea. The windpipe received the name trachea from two 
 
 Greek words signifying rugged air-duct. A tube of muscle 
 and membrane, stiffened and held open by a series of 
 cartilaginous rings, it splits at the base into the bronchii, 
 and spreads at the top into the larynx. 
 Larynx. Larynx is Greek for throat. The larynx is a compli- 
 
 cated structure, designed for two purposes; to serve as 
 transmitter of air, and as the organ of phonation, or the 
 sound-producer. It is a box, a chamber, with a frame- 
 work of cartilaginous formations, bound by. ligaments, 
 lined with mucous membrane, supplied with blood-vessels 
 and lymphatics, and controlled by muscles with their 
 special innervations. It is bounded above by the hyoid 
 bone or tongue-bone; laterally by the great vessels of 
 
OPENING ef 
 EUSTACHIAN TUBt 
 
 Fig. S. Pharynx; Eustachian Tube. 
 
THE VOCAL TRACT 
 
 33 
 
 EPIGLOTTIS 
 
 head and neck; and in front by the oral cavity. Its pos- 
 terior surface is formed by the anterior pharyngeal wall. 
 Below, it continues with the windpipe. 
 
 The cartilages 
 of the larynx are to 
 be considered as 
 three single and 
 three pairs. The 
 former, or single 
 cartilages, are the 
 cricoid, thyroid, 
 and epiglottis; the 
 latter, or the car- 
 tilages occurring in 
 pairs, are the ary- 
 tenoids, the car- 
 tilages of Wrisberg, 
 and the cartilages 
 of Santorini. Thy- 
 roid and cricoid 
 cartilages are an- 
 nular, being modi- 
 fications of the 
 tracheal tube, the 
 lowerof thesebeing 
 the cricoid. 
 
 The name cri- 
 coid is derived from 
 the Greek krikos, 
 which in Latin is 
 circus; literally it 
 means ring-like, a 
 description em- 
 phasized by the 
 way this structure 
 expands at the 
 back into an oval 
 causing it to re- 
 semble a signet-ring. At the back it serves as base for 
 the thyroid; in front there is a slight space between the 
 
 THYROID 
 
 CftRT of SANTORINI 
 Cuneiforrt) Cartilage^ y^ / \ 
 
 ^ J ^- 
 ARYTENOID 
 
 Insertion of 
 
 CRICO-ARVTi^NOI 
 POSTICLC CT LATERKLIS 
 
 ARTICULBH FACET- 
 for ARYTEMOIO CRRTimet 
 
 AICTICULAH fACET 
 for Infer. Cornu 
 6f Thyroid C. 
 
 Fig. 6. The Cartilages of the Larynx. 
 
 nVTENOrD .CARTILAGES, baa^ 
 
 Cricoid. 
 
34 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 thyroid and cricoid, a depression that may be felt with 
 the finger below the Adam's apple. 
 
 The name thyroid comes from the Greek thureos, a 
 shield, which in turn is derived from thura, a door, folding 
 doors or valves, as of a shell. The thyroid, which is the 
 largest portion of the laryngeal chamber, consists of the 
 two squarish shield-like plates, joined in front along their 
 edges, and projecting at the upper part of this junction in 
 the Adam's apple. The included angle of about ninety 
 degrees is inclined somewhat obliquely, looking forward 
 and down, toward the cricoid. Spreading apart as they 
 retreat, these shields or wings {alae) rest their bases at the 
 back, without meeting, upon the cricoid oval. Their su- 
 perior edges, in retreat, rise in an upward prolongation, 
 like the horns of an animal, to form points of attachment 
 by means of ligaments for the hyoid bone. 
 
 Body 
 
 THYRO-HYOIO 
 STYLO-HYOID 
 OMO -HYOID 
 MYLO-HYOID 
 <3EAIIO-HYOID STERNO-HYOiD 
 
 Fig. 7. Hyoid Bone, Anterior Surface (enlarged). 
 
 Hyoid bone, Hyoid comes from the Greek huo-eides, U-shaped. 
 
 This is the tongue-bone. Lying well above the Adam's 
 apple, about level with the lower jaw, its horseshoe curve 
 to the fore, and its prongs running horizontally, the hyoid 
 bone forms the basis of the tongue structure and the su- 
 perior attachment of the larynx, the muscles moving it 
 being common to both these, constructions. 
 
THE VOCAL TRACT 
 
 35 
 
 But to return to the laryngeal cartilages; epiglottis 
 comes from the Greek epi, upon, and glottis, the mouth, in 
 this connection meaning the mouth of the trachea, the 
 glottis. The epiglottis is a flexible, fibro-cartilaginous 
 formation, somewhat leaflike in shape,, with dimensions 
 that vary with individuals, but always with the stalk 
 below, at its junction with the base of the tongue, and the 
 expansion above where it is seen as a cushion with a lip. 
 At rest it stands erect, allowing air to pass freely over its 
 well-mucoused surface, but the slightest excitement, as the 
 act of swallowing, causes it to incline automatically back- 
 ward so as to serve at once as lid to windpipe and bridge 
 to esophagus. 
 
 The principal pair of laryngeal cartilages are the ary- 
 tenoidal. Arutaina.\s Greek for cup, pitcher, any vessel 
 for taking up liquid. The arytenoids are two small, 
 slightly cupped, pyramidal cartilages with triangular 
 bases, set within the thyroid area, upon the cricoid oval, 
 on which they are freely movable under muscular control. 
 From the base of each projects a small spur, the -processus 
 vocalis, or vocal process. These form the posterior points 
 of attachment for the vocal folds. 
 
 Another small projection from the arytenoids is the 
 muscular process, on which are borne the cartilages of 
 Santorini. 
 
 The remaining cartilaginous pairs occur within the 
 aryteno-epiglottidean folds. As these folds approach the 
 arytenoids they show a pair of small, wedge-shaped promi- 
 nences, somewhat like pyramids with apex directed outward, 
 the cuneiform cartilages or cartilages of Wrisberg, and 
 beyond these, borne on the arytenoids, are found the 
 small conical formations called the horns of the larynx 
 (cornicula laryngis) or cartilages of Santorini. 
 
 There are three pairs of laryngeal folds, all with their 
 posterior base of attachment at the arytenoids; namely, 
 . the aryteno-epiglottidean, ventricular, and vocal. The 
 aryteno-epiglottidean form the lateral boundaries of the 
 upper laryngeal opening. They extend, one on each side, 
 from the epiglottis downward and backward to the ary- 
 tenoids. Their dimensions vary with individuals, and also 
 
 Vocal 
 
 process 
 
 and 
 
 muscular 
 
 process. 
 
36 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 with different states of the larynx, being broad when re- 
 laxed, as in inspiration, and narrowing with tension when 
 the vocal folds are approximated. 
 
 The ventricular bands, as Dr. Mackenzie aptly named 
 the "false vocal cords," lie below the aryteno-epiglottidean 
 folds. They are thick, rather prominent folds of mucous 
 membrane. 
 
 The vocal folds, erroneously described as cords, are 
 two strong bands of elastic tissue, inserted anteriorly, one 
 on each side of the thyroid angle and passing in a posterior 
 direction to the bases of the arytenoids. At the front their 
 fibres are collected into one formation. Posteriorly these 
 separate into three divisions, with several subdivisions, 
 spreading the area of insertion from its principal point of 
 attachment at the vocal process upwardj some of the fibres 
 also reaching the cricoid cartilage at its superior margin. 
 In length they are slightly over the half-inch for men 
 and somewhat under it for women. A side view of these 
 folds and a vertical section parallel with the anterior 
 portion of the spine show them to be pyramidal in form; 
 two of the lateral spaces of this pyramid being free, one 
 directed toward the ventricular -band, the other down- 
 ward and inward, and the third being the attached face. 
 At inspiration they almost meet in front, while posteriorly 
 they are separated by a span from a quarter to half an 
 inch. The space between them is the rima (Latin for fis- 
 sure, chink) or glottis. 
 
 The glottis is bounded by these vocal lips for two- 
 thirds of its extension, the remaining and posterior third 
 lying between the arytenoids. Rima vocalis describes the 
 former, rima respiratoria the latter, while the whole forms 
 the rima glottidis. (See Fig. 8.) 
 
 On inspiration a diagram would show the glottis as a 
 lozenge-shaped aperture, the angle at the back being 
 pushed outwards. Another diagram giving the vocal 
 folds approximated, or brought close one to the other 
 during phonation, shows this glottis angle turned Inward, 
 the space enclosed forming a truncated V. 
 Laryngeal Between the sets of laryngeal folds are small cavities 
 
 cavities. or pockets. Those between aryteno-epiglottidean folds 
 
THE VOCAL TRACT 
 
 37 
 
 above and ventricles below appear as small depressions 
 during the approximation of the vocal folds. They are 
 called by Mackenzie "fossa innominata," the pockets 
 without a name, and by Vocal Art-Science universal, ac- 
 cessory, adjustable, auxiliary resonators. 
 
 Between the false vocal cords above and the vocal lips 
 below are the ventricles, from the Latin venter, -the belly, 
 stomach, or any kind of cavity. 
 
 So far as phonation is concerned the larynx may be 
 said to exist for the sake of the glottic opening. Its carti- 
 
 Fig. 8. Interior of the Larynx. Seen from above (erilarged). 
 
 lages form points of attachment, and, in the case of the 
 arytenoids, pivots for the vocal folds. These, under 
 muscle control, vary the size and shape of the opening 
 according to need; and as this mouth of the windpipe is 
 
38 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 shaped in sound-producing, so is the individual character 
 of the sound produced. 
 Position Freely movable, the larynx ascends and descends dur- 
 
 of larynx. ing the processes of respiration, phonation, and degluti- 
 tion. When it is at rest, with the head held erect, its posi- 
 tion brings the middle of the. thyroid cartilage opposite 
 the fifth cervical vertebra, and the whole organ from the 
 tip of the epiglottis to the lower border of the cricoid 
 corresponds in position to the third, fourth, fifth and sixth 
 cervical vertebrae. 
 Laryngo- A laryngoscopic examination of the larynx during quiet 
 
 scopic ob- in-breathing shows the epiglottis with a dull pink upper sur- 
 servation face, the lip inclining to yellow, the cushion red; the ary- 
 
 of color . teno-epiglottidean fold the same color as the gums, with 
 
 scheme. the cartilages of Wrisberg rising from them in pinkish 
 
 prominence; next, the cartilages of Santorini; then the 
 ventricles below the ventricular bands, which are of a 
 deeper red than the aryteno-epiglottldean folds; the pearly 
 white bands of the vocal lips, and below these the broad 
 yellow of the cricoid; and at greater depth the tracheal 
 With tube with its annular cartilages, the mucous membrane be- 
 
 psycho- tween them showing a pale pink — a color scheme which 
 
 physical has a psycho-physiological bearing, as we shall see later, 
 
 bearing. Meanwhile, the larynx as an organ of phonation must be 
 
 considered with these associated parts. 
 
 Supra- Oral and nasal cavities comprise the supra-laryngeal 
 
 laryngeal section of the vocal tract. The laryngeal section forms the 
 
 section actual organ of phonation or sound-making, yet sound 
 
 of vocal would be neither speech nor song without the enhance- 
 
 tract. ment and modifications aiforded by supra-laryngeal aid. 
 
 Air passed on from the larynx is detonated into the upper 
 
 chambers of the vocal tract, by way of the pharyngeal 
 
 hood, into the nose and mouth. Before it can enter the 
 
 latter it must pass between two sets of pillars, one after 
 
 another, and under a hanging curtain. The narrowed 
 
 passage between the two pillars of each pair is the isthmus; 
 
 the space included by the two sets, the fauces. The fauces 
 
 may be regarded equally as vestibule to the pharynx, and 
 
 back chamber to the buccal cavity or cheek enclosure. 
 
 Regarded from the latter point of view (that is, of one 
 
uVala 
 
 arcus 
 
 pharyngopalatinus 
 tonsilla 
 
 '^*^^us fauci^ 
 
 Fig. 9. Oral Cavity. 
 
THE VOCAL TRACT 
 
 39 
 
 person looking down the throat of another), the pillar-sets 
 are named respectively anterior and posterior. They are 
 seen to be slight prominences formed by projecting longi- 
 tudinal folds of mucous membrane, the anterior in the 
 palato-glossal muscles, the posterior in the palato-pharyn- 
 geal muscles. Their office is to afford support to the 
 palatal arch. Air passing by way of the isthmus through 
 the fauces impinges upon a pair of ovoid bodies, stationed 
 sentinel-like, one on each side in the faucal recesses — the 
 tonsils. Tonsa is Latin for a stake, tonsilla for an oar, a 
 stick stuck in the ground as mooring for a boat. The Tonsils. 
 tonsils, however, contribute less of an anchorage than an 
 easement to vocal mechanism. Dr. Faulkner describes Dr. Richard 
 the anatomical and functional advantages of the firmness B. Faulkner, 
 they impart to the pharyngeal wall, by calling attention Columbia 
 to the fact that the muscles of the pharyngeal wall insert University, 
 fibrous fingers into these compressible formations and, 
 playing upon them, knead their spongy substances as if 
 they were cushions, thus markedly affecting the shape of 
 the cavities in which they lie, and so affecting voice. 
 
 Stretched from one anterior pillar to the other hangs Uvula, 
 the curtain of membrane and muscle, the velum palati, 
 the palatal veil, also called the soft palate. In the middle Hard 
 of the free border of this its substance thickens into a palate. 
 small, grape-like formation, the uvula, the diminutive for 
 the Latin uva, a grape. The soft palate is but an exten- 
 sion of the hard palate, the bony structure which serves at 
 once as floor to the nasal, and arched roof to the buccal, 
 cavity. 
 
 Lying on the floor of the mouth, firmly anchored at Oral cavity, 
 its root to the hyoid bone, but freely movable as to the 
 rest of its fleshy, flexible mass, is the tongue, over and 
 about which air must pass before finding egress at the 
 rima oris, the mouth-chink. Tongue,, teeth, lips and 
 cheeks all have their office in phonatioh, as modifiers. 
 
 The pharyngo-nasal domain is a construction of many Choanae 
 chambers. The pharyngeal arch, or dome, communicates and nasal 
 with the nose by way of the choana, or funnels. The cavity, 
 nose itself is divided by the nasal septum, an extension of 
 the vomer, from the Latin for plowshare, consisting of a 
 
40 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 pair of thin plates, joined as they project from the basi- 
 cranial formation. The whole nasal cavity is subdivided 
 by the turbinates, three pairs of small, slightly whorled 
 bones, respectively called superior, middle and inferior, 
 which are important to resonance, though without being 
 muscularly acted on. (See Fig. lo.) 
 
 Structurally, the vocal tract consists of laryngeal and 
 supra-laryngeal apparatus, extending from the glottis, the 
 momentic source of sound, to nose-tip and lips, the final 
 resonantic vocalic influence. Functionally it must be studied 
 in connection with the muscles, with their innervations, 
 which control its valves and cavities, so that sound and 
 voice may fulfill the initial condition of automatism, modi- 
 fied by power, quality and pitch. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 The Vocal Autonomies, or Voice Units 
 
 Voice, the divine, is automatic. Voice, what we hear, 
 is a form of energy produced by a series of coordinated 
 muscle-actions. 
 
 The vocal apparatus may be influenced by seventy- 
 four muscles and sixteen nerves. Granting to these 
 individual and conjoint action, and assuming that they do 
 operate also in pairs, we have a possibility of alterations in 
 the vocal mechanism to the number of some 74,682,000, 
 and calculating the mental impulses, we have 14,000,000, 
 000,000. Those who insist on conscious muscular control 
 in the production of tone in its last analysis, hardly can have 
 contemplated how many such conscious muscular controls 
 are requisitioned in a single intoned syllable. 
 
 Fortunately, however, for the purpose of study, these 
 muscle-actions can be massed in groups, each of which 
 contributes a clearly defined act to the act of phonation. 
 
 Muscles, generally speaking, are organs of motion. 
 A muscle consists of a bundle of fibres attached by their 
 extremities to parts of the body that require to be moved. 
 These fibres have the property of contractility under 
 stimulation, the contraction being determined by a nerve 
 proceeding to the fibres from some nerve-centre, either 
 cerebral or sub-cerebral. If the will calls upon a certain 
 muscle to perform a definite action, or again, inhibits that 
 muscle from proceeding with the act, the muscle under 
 control is called voluntary; while a muscle that automati- 
 cally serves the ends of animal life independent of the will, 
 is called involuntary. The former, or voluntary muscles, 
 appear as streaked, or striated; the latter, or involuntary, 
 as unstriated, or unstreaked. 
 
 There are times when, functionally speaking, the de- 
 marcation between the two kinds cannot be drawn with 
 absolute precision. There are times when voluntary 
 
 Muscles, 
 voluntary 
 and invol- 
 untary. 
 
 Line of 
 demarcation 
 not always 
 to be drawn 
 precisely. 
 
42 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 and involuntary muscles working in concert, impart to the 
 resultant act something of the characteristics of both. And, 
 again, voluntary acts that the will could inhibit, should it 
 choose to exercise its power, or excite, may be performed 
 automatically, as happens with breathing during sleep. 
 
 Muscles and muscle-groups therefore must be con- 
 sidered in the light of the power which governs their 
 motor-activity, the structure by which this power mani- 
 fests itself in action, and the product of the special act in 
 relation to the desired result. 
 
 Voice, the product, is the result desired. The will 
 accordingly stimulates its nerve-transmitters on the lines 
 of voice; these in turn rouse to action the muscular system 
 of levers and locks, valves and gauges, by which air is 
 transformed into sound; and the act of breathing, organic, 
 automatic, or involuntary, resolves itself into the deliberate, 
 voluntary, and conscious art of speech and song. 
 
 So complex is this system that it can be approached 
 only in sections, or determined by the separate acts each 
 factor contributes to the desired result. 
 
 In the vocal series, each of these muscle-action groups 
 is to be treated as an autonomy. Auto is Greek for self, 
 and nomos for law. An autonomy is a self-governing insti- 
 tution or community. In phonation, then, autonomies, or 
 (as they may be called) centres of force, are divisions of 
 the vocal tract, comprising factors in the vocal mech- 
 anism, each consisting of a distinct physical construction 
 that contributes a definite act to the series necessary 
 to produce voice. These centres of force are also capable 
 of acting under the direction of both the intellect and 
 will, and through education or habits of culture may 
 respond automatically, according to the laws of expression. 
 As parts of the body, they must of necessity be considered 
 anatomically and physiologically. As physical construc- 
 tions, they are subject to the laws of mechanics; yet for 
 the reason that the effect of their combined forces results 
 in a personal expression, it carries them into the kingdom 
 of psychology. 
 
 Here let it be noted that physiologically these autono- 
 mies have duties other than purely that of voice-produc- 
 
THE VOCAL AUTONOMIES, OR VOICE UNITS 43 
 
 tion. Breathi.ng, bronchial protection and swallowing, 
 coughing and sneezing, all lie within their 'province. But 
 as they inhibit one function while performing another, 
 these may be dissociated in order to consider them simply 
 as factors in voice-production or song. 
 
 Every cell in a living organism is polarized. That is 
 to say, it lives by maintaining a balance of power between 
 two working antagonisms, two different qualities, or two 
 manifestations of force acting one in opposition to the 
 other. Its poles are the points at which these two oppos- 
 ing energies are concentrated. They are the regional 
 forces of the two bases, the central points of action and 
 resistance. In this respect the vocal autonomies are cell- 
 like; they have polarity. Each may be considered a huge 
 cell, with a mechanical centre of resistance which is related 
 to the unit's physiological function. This also may be 
 called its point of poise. Poise in each member of the 
 group secures poise in the whole machine. 
 
 Named from the region of the body in which they lie, 
 these units, five in number, are the Oral, Nasal, Laryn- 
 geal, Thoracic, and Abdominal. 
 
 The Abdominal or Dynamic Unit is the foundation of 
 the vocal temple. It lies between the diaphragm and the 
 sphincter ani, the large, fan-like muscle drawn about 
 the posterior orifice, and includes the end of the spine. 
 Diaphragm and sphincter ani form its poles of power, with 
 their contrapuntal points at the umbilicus, or navel, and 
 the third lumbar vertebra. The point of poise of this 
 autonomy, its mechanical centre of resistance, is at the 
 navel. Its muscles, with their nerve-supplies, must be 
 considered in connection with those of the unit above. 
 Because of the character of the support it affords the 
 voice, it may be called the Semi-Solid, the Supportive. 
 Because of the function it contributes to the series, it may 
 be called the Dynamic. 
 
 The Thoracic Unit lies between the vocal folds and the 
 diaphragm, with the upper section of the rib-chamber en- 
 closing lungs and heart. Diaphragm and vocal folds fur- 
 nish its poles of power, with their contrapuntals at the 
 fifth dorsal vertebra and the manubrium (from the Latin 
 
 Polarity 
 of units. 
 
 Point 
 of poise. 
 
 Karnes of 
 autonomies. 
 
 Abdominal 
 unit. 
 
 Supportive 
 or dynamic 
 unit. 
 
 Thoracic 
 or pneu- 
 matic. 
 
44 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 manubrium, a handle), which is the upper segment of the 
 sternum or breastbone. Its point of poise is at the sternum. 
 This gaseous, bellows-like construction is the region of air- 
 control, whence Its name of Pneumatic Unit arises. 
 Laryngeal The Laryngeal Unit lies between the vocal folds and 
 
 or the structure formed by the base of the tongue, the 
 
 momentic palate, epiglottis and pharyngeal walls. In this the physio- 
 
 unit, logical control is exerted by poles of power with contra- 
 
 puntals, the influence of which is felt between the crico- 
 thyroid membrane and the fifth cervical vertebra. Its 
 point of poise is at the crico-thyroid notch. This auton- 
 omy is the central region of phonation, where air-strokes 
 are converted into sound, or voice. Air detonated from 
 the spaces below into this cavity, between the ever-resist- 
 ing vocal folds, develops a moment of force (from the 
 Latin momentum, for movimentum), giving this Unit the 
 name of Momentic. 
 The oral The Oral or Vocalic Unit is the chamber formed by 
 
 or articu- the mouth-cavity. It extends from the lips to the pharyn- 
 
 lateunit. geal walls. Its poles of power with their contrapuntals 
 
 exert their influence between the lips and the structure 
 formed by tongue, soft palate, and epiglottis. These fan- 
 like sphincter muscles with their valvular action determine 
 the unit's physiological control. Its mechanical centre of 
 resistance is at the arch of the hard palate, on a level with 
 the eye-teeth. Since this is the region where sound de- 
 tonated from below is converted fully into the tone- 
 shapes that form speech-elements, it is called the Vocalic 
 or Articulate Unit. 
 Nasal The Nasal or Resonantic Unit includes the nose- 
 
 orreso- cavity, and that formed by the superior portion of the 
 
 nantic unit. pharyngeal pouch or dome. Its poles of power with 
 their contrapuntals are found at nostril openings and palate 
 closure. Its point of poise is at the bridge of the nose. 
 This is the special region of resonance, every cavity furnish- 
 ing a reverberating system for some portion of sound. 
 
 The Oral Unit presents, with the other supra-laryn- 
 geal units of the vocatorium, the greatest complexities of 
 structure favorable to sound-modification. From an evo- 
 lutionary standpoint, accordingly, it fulfills the last con- 
 
THE VOCAL AUTONOMIES, OR VOICE UNITS 45 
 
 dition in voice-production by adding to pitch and power 
 the completing member of the trinity: Quality. 
 
 In seeking the special reverberating system furnished 
 by these supra-laryngeal units, we find the highest struc- 
 ture formed by a hollow, bony basin between the eyes, 
 called the frontal sinus, and surmise what later we shall 
 prove by mechanical demonstration, that this forms the 
 resonator for the highest overtone, or is the highest place 
 an echo can reach from the fundamental. This laby- 
 rinthian structure called the frontal sinus we already know 
 as a place of many chambers, and as these chambers fur- 
 nish reverberating systems for tone-components, the Unit 
 also is called the Resonantic. Going down a step, we firjd 
 that the next resonators, the turbinates, take charge of the 
 lower overtones, reflecting their sound as it strikes them, 
 while at the same time directing them into the frontal, 
 antral, mastoidal and sphenoidal sinuses. 
 
 The seven overtone forming spaces are controlled 
 in the following sequence by 
 
 (i) Epiglottis 
 
 (2) Palate 
 
 (3) Mouth and tongue 
 
 (4) Palate, tongue and dome 
 
 (5) Middle turbinated bones 
 
 (6) Inferior turbinated bones 
 
 (7) Superior turbinated bones and frontal sinus. 
 Having thus added to tone-components the third 
 
 physical attribute, the completing member of the trinity 
 formed by pitch, power and quality, we may now recall 
 the physiological attribute that the dual nature of hu- 
 manity demands. About these supra-laryngeal units 
 centre the five special psycho-physical senses: Touch, taste, 
 smell, hearing, and sight. Voice, automatically produced, 
 rises to the floor of the brain which controls the function 
 of these senses, being thus borne to the very throne of 
 the kingdom of psychology. 
 
 Ever since the days of Porpora, the teacher has in- 
 sisted, "Sing through the nose!" To-day the wisdom of 
 the old Italian masters is still with us, but with our 
 wider scientific knowledge we are able to add certain 
 
 Niccolo 
 Antonio 
 Porpora 
 (1686-1766] 
 
46 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 pitch-values and metaphysical developments to the truths 
 they taught. 
 
 Fig. ID shows the Vocatorium, the united organs of 
 voice where pressure of compressed air at the lungs creates 
 momentic strokes or spiral sound-thrusts upon the vocal 
 valves. Thus larynx and spaces below. the hyoid form the 
 Momentic region. 
 
 Above the Momentic, surrounded by lower pharynx, 
 
 Fig. 10. Vocatorium. 
 
 tongue and under side of soft palate, is the Sonoric region, 
 where these spiral tone-thrusts are modified by resonators 
 into tone components. 
 
 Above the Sonoric is the Resonantic, closable from 
 below by soft palate and mid-pharynx muscles. 
 
Fig. 11. 
 Vowel Chart 
 
Fig. 12. 
 Consonant Chart 
 
THE VOCAL AUTONOMIES, OR VOICE UNITS 47 
 
 In the nose is the space of Nasal Resonance, and over- 
 tones, where the speech elements M, N and Ng are 
 produced. 
 
 Above the tongue is the Vocalic Region, while the 
 lips, teeth and tongue form the Nonsonantic moulders of 
 positions for vowel-elements when affected by the so- 
 called vocal labyrinth. 
 
 Fig. II shows the exact location where each speech- 
 element of vowel-value is forrhed, by the positions of the 
 organs. 
 
 Fig. 12 shows where initial consonant-sounds are made 
 by the action of the organs. Both these illustrations show 
 that speech-elements are not adventitious, but organic, de- 
 pending on the structure for their functioning. 
 
 Fig. 13 gives an external view of the chief muscles of 
 the Vocatorium, or Vocalion. 
 
 These muscles, it must be remembered, have many 
 duties. To aid in mastication and swallowing they must 
 act mutually with muscles of face, throat, and thorax. 
 They must also act with these as well as with muscles of 
 abdomen and diaphragm, to aid in breathing in phonation. 
 
 None of these muscles of the Vocatorium are involun- 
 tary. They either act voluntarily, or from habits, and in 
 groups as autonomies, to carry on their functions, as we 
 have already shown. 
 
 The voice being absolutely automatic, it is not alone 
 an unnecessary but a wrong principle, to describe indi- 
 vidual action of muscles, unless they govern the vocal 
 autonomies, for vocal art is based on the explanation of- 
 its autonomous action by its nerve-supply and not in its 
 muscular action per se. 
 
 Figs. 14 and 15 give different views of the Pneumatic 
 Autonomy. In the first, a front view of the normal lung- 
 expansion is shown, the lobes of the lungs falling tent-like 
 over the heart, with the diaphragm separating them from 
 the stomach, liver, etc. 
 
 The next illustration presents a deeper front view of 
 the lungs, with the edges of the diaphragm in two posi- 
 tions representing its different curves, the upper or double 
 arch of normal exhalation, and the lower, single arch or 
 
48 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 dome of normal inhalation. Diagrammatic outlines repre- 
 sent the rib cartilages. 
 
 In normal inhalation all the ribs expand, enlarging the 
 
 chest cage, while at 
 the same time the 
 diaphragm contracts, 
 moving downward, 
 and slightly distend- 
 ing the abdomen. 
 
 In normal exhala- 
 tion the entire thora- 
 cic cage diminishes 
 somewhat, while the 
 diaphragm regulates 
 and is pressed upward 
 by: abdominal and 
 lumbar muscles. 
 
 In the latter case 
 it is a passive organ; 
 in the former, active. 
 There are several 
 localized forms of 
 breathing, as, for in- 
 stance, clavicular, 
 when during exhala- 
 tion the upper rib- 
 region is relaxed while 
 the lower, with the 
 diaphragm, is held 
 firmly. Thoracic 
 breathing occurs when 
 during exhalation the 
 entire rib-region re- 
 laxes, bowing the ribs 
 obliquely downward, 
 the diaphragm re- 
 maining inactive. 
 When during exhala- 
 '^' ■ tion the entire rib- 
 
 region is held firm and the diaphragm suffered to relax. 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
Fig. 13. 
 Muscles of Vocatorium 
 
THE VOCAL AUTONOMIES, OR VOICE UNITS 49 
 
 its arches rising, and the pressure of abdominal muscles is 
 exerted on the viscera, diaphragmatic breathing will ensue. 
 
 Breathing adjusted to voice-production will be pre- 
 sented later. Meanwhile it is well to note that breath- 
 control cannot be gained through any parts above the 
 vocatorium. It is a matter entirely for infra-laryngeal 
 units. 
 
 The phrenic nerve governs the diaphragm and is its 
 principal nerve-supply, by which it receives its stimulation. 
 The phrenic nerve has a most important functioning with 
 the abdominal muscles which have positive control of the 
 energy of greatest-magnitude, yet this nerve is the greatest 
 of all afRliators, synchronizing every function of nutrition, 
 inhibition and sympathetic relationship of the chest where 
 our pneumatic unit is situated. 
 
 Therefore, the clutch which is produced (namely, by 
 the abdominal muscles) plus the action of the lower inter- 
 costals and the dipahragm for the muscular regulation, gives 
 a sympathetic control over everything, and logically is the 
 only natural way for harmonizing breath. 
 
 Fig. i6 is a back 
 view of the Pneumatic 
 Autonomy with the 
 ribs, spinal column, and 
 part of the lungs dis- 
 sected away, revealing 
 trachea, bronchi, pul- 
 monary veins andheart. 
 Also the contours of the 
 diaphragm in the deep 
 back are shown. 
 
 Combining our five 
 cell-like units into one 
 giant cell, we find that 
 this extends from the 
 naso-oral sphincter to 
 the sphincter ani, with 
 a physiological control 
 
 that depends on poles with their contrapuntals at five 
 points of poise: at the bridge of the nose; at arch of hard 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 
50 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 Nerve- 
 government 
 of voice in 
 autonomies. 
 
 Pneumatic 
 
 and 
 
 momentic. 
 
 palate; at crico-thyroid notch; at breast-bone; and at 
 navel. These offer a combined point of poise, a mechani- 
 cal centre of resistance, between the diaphragm and the 
 umbilicus over the great sympathetic plexus. 
 
 Fig. 17 shows this combina,tion, the long arrows indi- 
 cating the poles, or axes of power. These are regional 
 bases of forces, while the short arrows crossing these, point 
 the direction of the thrust, or momentum, the focuses 
 being at the zero signs. 
 
 The first o-arrow is the Resonantic pole, equated by 
 Meckel's and Otic ganglion, and the spinal accessory nerve. 
 The second is the Oral or Vocalic, governing the vocalic 
 region and aperture by the pharyngeal plexus and spinal 
 accessory. Third is the Momentic and Sonoric pole, gov- 
 erning these regions and apertures by superior and re • 
 current laryngeal and pneumogastric nerves. The fourth 
 shows the Pneumatic pole, centering in cardiac and bron- 
 chial plexuses. Fifth comes the Dynamic Resistance pole, 
 governed by lumbar nerves, and the pelvic -and sacral 
 plexuses. 
 
 Passing obliquely downward from the upper part of 
 the shoulder through the solar plexus to the lower part of 
 the abdomen is the axis of Resistance. The poise of the 
 torso swings on this. Normal poise is the perfect balance 
 between pneumatic region and that of Dynamic Resistance. 
 
 Fig. 18 shows the great external muscles of the 
 head and trunk, and these exert a strong influence on the 
 autonomies. 
 
 The nerve-government of phonation, considered by 
 autonomies, begins with the sympathetic plexuses of the 
 abdominal viscera and the control of the anus. The 
 phrenic nerve is the controller of the diaphragm. In its 
 course it passes to the pneumogastric nerve, and receives 
 branches from the spinal accessory, hypo-glossal, cervical 
 and thoracic nerves, of the Pneumatic Autonomy. 
 
 The Momentic Autonomy, in its relation to voice, is 
 so absolutely under the control of the spinal accessory 
 nerve that when this nerve is severed tone stops, although 
 the laryngeal actions of respiration still go on under the 
 influence of nerves derived from the facial, hypo-glossal, 
 
Fig. 17. Poles of Power. 
 
mi 
 
 Fig. 18. Muscles of Head and Trunk. 
 
THE VOCAL AUTONOMIES, OR VOICE UNITS 51 
 
 and cervical nerves through the pneumogastric, which is a 
 nerve of the first magnitude concerned in motion, sensa- 
 tion, nutrition and inhibition. This pneumogastric is 
 joined with the internal, or anastomotic branch of the 
 spinal accessory, a portion of which appears as a part of 
 the inferior, or recurrent laryngeal nerve. 
 
 The vagus or pneumogastric nerve arises from the The inferior 
 tenth cervical, originating at the fourth ventricle of the laryngeal, 
 brain belonging to pons and medulla, and is distributed the nerve 
 to the ear, pharynx, larynx, heart, esophagus and stomach, source 
 At present it is of supreme importance to us in its appear- of voice, 
 ance in the inferior laryngeal, -since this is the source of 
 energy that manifests itself in voice. This supplies all 
 laryngeal muscles, excepting the crico-thyroid and laryn- 
 geal mucous membrane. It positively governs that posi- 
 tion of the arytenoids which holds the glottis open for 
 vocal use. Sensation, however, is supplied to the mucous 
 membrane of the vocal folds by the superior laryngeal 
 nerve. It is also the inferior laryngeal nerve that inner- 
 vates the thyro-arytenoids. 
 
 Widely governed also are Sonoric and Resonantic 
 autonomies in their nerve-controls. 
 
 Communicating with facial and pneumogastric, the 
 glosso-pharyngeal nerve sends one branch to the back 
 part of the tongue, the pillars, and soft palate; another to 
 diagastric, stylo-pharyngeus, and stylo-glossus; while an- 
 other branch, together with branches of the pneumo- 
 gastric, run to superior and middle constrictors. The in- 
 ferior constrictor is in the province of the Momentic 
 autonomy. The muscles governed by these nerves draw 
 the tongue backward and upward, and elevate larynx and 
 pharynx, closing, opening and governing the Sonoric and 
 Resonantic regions as two separate autonomies. Although 
 the glosso-pharyngeal is chiefly a nerve of sensation and 
 not of motion, branches of it received from the facial, 
 spinal accessory, and cervical nerves, act as motor nerves, 
 either under the suggestion from sensation, or under the 
 command of intellect or will. 
 
 In Vocalic and Non-Sonantic Autonomies, the hypo- Vocalic and 
 glossal nerve sends branches to the stylo-hyoid, hyo-glossus, non-sonantic. 
 
52 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 and infra-hyoid muscles, and to other muscles beneath 
 the tongue. Arising from the medulla, it enters the sub- 
 stance of the tongue as control, between mylo-hyoid and 
 hyo-glossal muscles, governing articulate speech in associ- 
 ation with the faciaL nerve which acts on cheeks and lips. 
 The hypo-glossal also acts, through the great superficial 
 petrossal nerve, on the soft palate and uvula, through the 
 levatores palati muscles. By its communication with the 
 pneumogastric and glosso-pharyngeal nerves, the mouth 
 and tongue are brought into vocalic relations with the 
 lungs and the rest of the all-inclusive organ of voice. 
 
 With this regional distribution of labor established 
 through autonomies, the muscle-controls of voice, as these 
 occur in groups, must next be studied. 
 Fulfillment From this general survey it will be seen that our 
 
 of premises, premises are fulfilled in so far as voice is automatic, through 
 this series of coordinated units; sphincteric, from anus to 
 lips, and based on the laws of nature. It is analogous to 
 the principle of thought, of life, in the intake, digestion 
 and outgo of human conception. If followed out, it will be 
 seen that the voice idea is like unto conception; that, by 
 automatic contraction, the formless and unborn mass of 
 breath is fashioned in the vocal womb into a human repro- 
 duction of a divine image — voice! 
 
CHAPTER V 
 The Muscle-Control of Voice 
 
 Voice is a form of energy, produced by a series of 
 coordinated muscle-actions, under nerve-control, and oper- 
 ating in autonomies so as to produce sound according to 
 the laws of kinesis (motion). 
 
 Vocal Art-Science demands a detailed study of these 
 muscle-groups with their innervation, so as to show where 
 the energy concerned in producing voice is developed. 
 
 The vocatorium, including laryngeal and supra-laryn- 
 geal apparatus, with its relation to all associated parts, 
 and the muscle-controls that implicate the whole body as 
 an organ of voice, must be taken Into account, and will 
 now be considered in this light. 
 
 We have spoken of muscles as organs of voluntary Muscles, 
 and involuntary motion, of the origin of the nerve stimu- 
 lus under. which muscle power is exerted; and of the act 
 this activity is required to perform. We have considered 
 the muscles in groups when concerned in the act of phona- 
 tion. It now is necessary to examine these groups indi- 
 vidually, and to consider the several muscle-members of 
 which they are composed. 
 
 Muscles must be observed from the standpoint of 
 mechanics, with reference to the parts of the body that, 
 by contraction, they are required to move. Where they 
 are attached to two different points, the one where the 
 fibres are more spread is called the origin; the other, 
 where the fibres are more closely bound, the insertion. 
 Usually the greater movability is at the latter point. The 
 swell of the muscle is called its belly. Two such enlarge- 
 ments in one muscle separated by a tendon causes this to 
 be termed digastric. Muscles generally do their work in 
 pairs, symmetrically employed. Two pairs working in oppo- 
 sition to bring about a motion are said to be antagonistic. 
 Muscles near the surface are called extrinsic or external; 
 those hidden within a construction, intrinsic, or Internal. 
 
 53 
 
54 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 Certain muscles send fibre-branches to two points of 
 insertion, external and internal, thus governing two move- 
 ments, one relating to a whole construction, the other to 
 a part. Consideration must also be given to whether 
 muscles belong to a single construction, or whether they 
 are common to more than one. 
 
 Muscles are named for their form and configuration, 
 as, for instance, serratus, toothed, like a saw; they may be 
 named for their office as are the rib-raisers, levatores cos- 
 tarum; and for their bases of attachment, as are sterno- 
 hyoid, crico-artyenoid. 
 
 Organs of motion, or work accomplished by move- 
 ments, these must be referred to nerve-centres either cere- 
 bral or sub-cerebral. 
 
 Sub-cerebral centres initiate movements connected 
 with animal existence and organic life, such as automatic 
 breathing; and in phonation all manifestations of sound 
 that, express emotions common to humanity, such as 
 moaning, shrieking, and shouting,, are likewise of sub- 
 cerebral origin. The particular movements requisitioned 
 in speech and song are primarily voluntary, and therefore 
 to be referred to cerebral centres. 
 
 The correlation of forces which results in the stand- 
 ardization of Vocal Art-Science is difficult to understand, 
 because it requires a lifetime of specialism to determine 
 the accuracy with which these forces sympathize with 
 each other. In fact, it has been impossible for one 
 person to do this; but with the wonderful data that have 
 been gathered from all parts of the world, the writer 
 has formulated his conclusions regarding the nature of 
 these forces into positive rules of procedure, from which 
 he has developed a true and definite standard of Vocal 
 Art-Science. It can be shown that the empiricism of the 
 old masters was very nearly perfect. It can be proved to 
 what degree it was correct and how far it went wrong. In 
 other words. Vocal Art-Science takes the rules of empiri- 
 cism and verifies or disproves them by synthesis. Vocal 
 Art-Science is a codified standard for voice-production; 
 and with an answer to every question, even the latest, the 
 stumbling-block of all investigators who have been trying 
 
THE MUSCLE-CONTROL OF VOICE 55 
 
 to substantiate the relationship between physical and 
 psychic voice, namely: 
 
 What is the medium between the volition and the activa- 
 tion of the cortex? 
 
 It will be found on the left side of. the parietal-tem- 
 poral lobe, where are located the several speech-centres — 
 motor, sensory, and visual; their point of kinesis being the 
 same for pitch, the same for resonance, and the same for 
 power or energy throughout the entire body. The cells in 
 the speech-centres are activated by associated neurons, 
 which bring to the tracts the impetus needed to carry the 
 required power from the primary cell to the lateral tract. 
 It is a well-known fact that you can cut one of these lateral 
 tracts of the larynx, yet not check the voice, but if you cut 
 both tracts you will surely, check it. Thus the impetus 
 from the brain seems to act by sympathy; so that this 
 impetus (or idea, if you prefer that term) forms the link 
 between the volition and the activation of the cortex. 
 
 To recapitulate this important phase of Vocal Art- 
 Science: In the brain, and situated on the left side of the 
 temporal-parietal lobe, is the musical centre — the voice- 
 nucleus — in which reside every movement and- motion 
 that make voice arise. The initial impulse occurs in the 
 brain and from there it is carried by neurons (cells with 
 little tentacles attached to them) throughout the entire 
 body. These cells of the brain radiate energy through the 
 neurons by their tentacles which connect up all sides 
 through activation of the cortex, especially on the left 
 side, where the musical centre is situated. By analogy it 
 becomes clear how every part of the body concerned in 
 voice-production and every physical sense of voice joins 
 in the act. It is by their response, through kinesis, to the 
 originating impulse, which may be said to move along 
 the boundary line between violition and activation, that 
 voice is developed. 
 
 Breathing in itself is a natural and automatic act, for 
 we breathe by the mere fact of being alive; yet in phona- 
 tion it is deliberate and studied — in other words, the 
 welding of art and science. It is the regulation of auto- 
 
56 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 matic breathing, first by the will, then from force of habit. 
 To acquire the art we must study the mechanics of the 
 organic, the natural and automatic act, in order to regulate 
 it so that it may become the motor power of song. 
 
 Breathing or respiration, as such, consists of two auto- 
 matic movements-, the intake and the output of air; inspi- 
 ration or inhalation, and expiration or exhalation. The 
 intake comes about by atmospheric pressure, by way of 
 mouth and nose. Expiration is merely passive, produced 
 by the elasticity of the lungs and the resilience of the ribs, 
 the air passing through trachea and larynx, past the epi- 
 glottis into the pharynx, where the current of air is divided 
 and conveyed out, partly by the mouth and partly through 
 the nasal cavity, by way of the nostrils. 
 
 The inspiratory movement consists in the contrac- 
 tion and lowering of the diaphragm, and in the expansion 
 of the ribs, and retraction of the abdomen. 
 
 Inspiratory 
 
 Muscles Nerve-Supply 
 
 Diaphragm Phrenic nerve. 
 
 Intercostals Intercostal nerve. 
 
 Lavatores costarum a. Intercostal nerve. 
 
 Cervicalis-ascendens 
 
 serratus-posticus-superior Exterior branches of posterior divisions 
 
 of cervical nerves. 
 
 Scalenus anticus 
 
 Scalenus medius ■ Lower cervical nerve. 
 
 Scalenus posticus 
 
 Levator-anguli-scapuli Fifth cervical nerve and deep branches 
 
 from the cervical plexus. 
 Trapezius Spinal accessory nerve, or eleventh 
 
 cranial, and deep branches from 
 
 cervical plexus. 
 Serratus-magnus From the posterior or long thoracic 
 
 nerve. 
 
 Pectoralis minor \ From the anterior thoracic branches 
 
 Pectoralis major / of the brachial plexus. 
 
 Latissimus-dorsi .■ Long subscapular nerve. 
 
 Expiratory 
 
 Muscles Nerve-Supply 
 
 Intercostals Intercostal nerve. 
 
 Obliquus-abdominis^externus Lower intercostal nerve. 
 
 Obliquus-abdominis-internus Ilio-hypogastric and ilio-inguinal 
 
 nerves. 
 Rectus-abdominis Lower intercostal ilio-hypogastric and 
 
 ilio-inguinal. 
 
THE MUSCLE-CONTROL OF VOICE 57 
 
 Expiratory — Continued 
 
 Muscles Nerve-Supply 
 
 Transversalis-abdominis Lower intercostal nerve. 
 
 Triangularis-sterni Intercostal nerves. 
 
 Quadratus-inferior Filament from anterior branches lum- 
 bar nerves. 
 
 Serratus-posticus-inferior External branches of posterior division 
 
 of lower dorsal nerves. 
 
 Sacro-lumbalis. ) 
 
 Portions of erector spinali. I External branches of posterior division 
 
 Ilio-costalis. [ of lumbar and dorsal nerves. 
 
 Accessorius-ad-ilia-costalis. J 
 
 The muscles proper to the larynx alone have two 
 offices: To control the laryngeal entrance, and to provide 
 for tensing the vocal folds. These two offices are not 
 wholly independent one of the other. Our main concern, 
 however, is with their lat'ter function. Muscles that asso- 
 ciate the larynx with other parts of the body are required 
 to hold it in the best possible position for the vocal act, 
 namely, against the fifth cervical vertebra, at which point 
 the longus colli muscles divide to make a place for it. 
 
 These muscles of fixation are the stylo-pharyngeus, 
 sterno-hyoid, and omo-hyoid, all in pairs. 
 
 The omo-hyoid (from the Greek omos, a shoulder) 
 extends from underneath the body of the hyoid or tongue- 
 bone, and passes downward under a muscular loop which 
 secures it to the clavicle. This muscle aids strongly in 
 pulling the larynx down and backward. 
 
 When the tongue and chin muscles overact, this muscle 
 will not be able to do its part in keeping the larynx in place. 
 
 Chorda Tympani, 
 branch of facial or 
 seventh cranial 
 nerve. 
 
 1. Lingualis. 
 
 2. Post belly of digastric. ■, rp, , 
 
 3. Stylo-hyoid. 1 ^^l?"^'' 
 
 4. Levator palati Vidian 
 
 (elevator of palate). > ^"''^■ 
 
 5. Azygos uvulae. 
 
 Function: To depress side and extremities of tongue, 
 giving it a convex outline; or depressing the dorsum, giv- 
 ing a concave outline, thereby influencing the voice. Nos. 
 4 and 5 lift soft palate and give firmess to converging 
 muscles. 
 
 The sterno-thyroid anchors the larynx to the breast- 
 bone through its attachment to the thyroid cartilage 
 
58 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 above, and below to the posterior portion of the first bone 
 of the sternum. 
 
 The muscles of fixation, by contacting the larynx 
 or voice-chamber with the spine and sternum, impress the 
 whole framework of the body, as a resonator, into the 
 service of voice, by incorporating sympathetic vibrations. 
 The muscles of the larynx proper control the vocal 
 lips and valve as tensors and relaxers; in other words, as 
 closers and openers. These are the factors that, by re- 
 sponding with opposition to air-pressure from below, pro- 
 duce the vibrations that are the physical cause of voice. 
 
 Tensors. The tensors or cord-stretchers are the crico-thyroids. 
 
 Each of this pair appears as a triangular muscle with its 
 origin in the anterior surface of the larynx at the cricoid 
 cartilage, and running obliquely to insertions both inter- 
 nally and laterally, at the anterior margin of the thyroid 
 wing on the corresponding side. 
 
 Relaxers. The relaxers are the thyro-arytenoids. This pair pre- 
 
 sents the largest muscles of the larynx proper. Each ap- 
 pears in two layers, external and internal. The external is 
 in three divisions, with bases of attachment at the thyroid 
 cartilage and the arytenoid. The internal is pyramidal 
 in form, having its origin in the angle of the thyroid, and 
 insertions at the apex, with the upper and lower surface of 
 the vocal process on the corresponding side. These mus- 
 cles border both inferior and superior vocal folds, and form 
 a large proportion of the substance of them. 
 
 The glottic valve-openers are the crico-arytenoids 
 (postici), a pair of triangular muscles with origin at the 
 posterior surface of the cricoid, and insertion at the pos- 
 terior lower margin of the arytenoid on the corresponding 
 side. 
 
 Valve- The principal agent in closing the glottis is the single 
 
 closers. muscle, the arytenoideus, with fibres running transversely 
 
 in three directions, rendering it a tripartite muscle, with 
 points of attachment at the arytenoids. 
 
 Aiding this in valve-closing is a pair, the crico-ary- 
 tenoids (laterals), which are the smallest muscles of the 
 larynx proper, with origin at the cricoid, ascending ob- 
 liquely to insertion at the arytenoid. 
 
THE MUSCLE-CONTROL OF VOICE 
 
 59 
 
 Tensing or cord-stretching may be resolved into three 
 parts: The adjustment of the relation between thyroid 
 and cricoid cartilages; the consequent change of position 
 of the arytenoids; and the specific tensing of the vocal 
 folds required for vocal pitch. This last aspect may for 
 the present be waived. Tensing for phonation regardless 
 of pitch is affected by the upward pull of the cricoid carti- 
 lage, and the downward and inward pull of the thyroid 
 cartilage, by the crico-thyroid muscles. This upward tilt 
 of the cricoid ring in front causes its posterior portion, 
 with the superimposed arytenoids, to tilt back and down, 
 stretching and lengthening the vocal folds. 
 
 The glottic valve-closer, the arytenoid muscle, by con- Valve- 
 traction, draws back the muscular process of the arytenoid, closing 
 bringing the vocal processes nearer together, closing the action of 
 rima. the ary- 
 
 The movement of the arytenoids upon the cricoid is tenoids. 
 in three parts: A rotation that brings the vocal processes 
 close together; a hinge-action that moves these processes 
 up and out, raising and opening the glottis, or down and 
 in, with contrary effect; and last, a sliding action by which 
 the two cartilages approach each other. 
 
 All these intrinsic muscles of the larynx save two are 
 adductors; that is, they tend more or less to contract the 
 space in the glottis. Two, the crico-arytenoids (posticus) 
 are abductors tending to open it. The adductors are nine 
 in number: Two crico- thyroids ; two lateral crico-ary- 
 tenoids; the threefold arytenoid, and the two thyro-ary- 
 tenoids. This anatomical arrangement is easily remem- 
 bered by recalling that in a state of rest the glottis is open, 
 while in phonation it is more or less closed. Nine muscles, 
 therefore, control the glottis in its working periods and 
 two in its state of rest, as the prisms of the eye do for 
 sight. 
 
 To this group of larynx muscles we must now add 
 those which close or narrow the upper laryngeal opening, 
 by attachments with the epiglottis, and which concern 
 themselves mainly with deglutition. They are the aryteno- 
 epiglottideus, superior and inferior, in pairs, and the thyro- Seven 
 epiglottideus, in pairs. pairs. 
 
 Abductors 
 
 and 
 
 adductors. 
 
 The nine 
 controllers 
 of glottic 
 space in 
 action. 
 
60 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 One Considered with regard to their nerve-supply the full 
 
 single. quota of larynx muscles is as follows: 
 
 Muscles of Larynx 
 
 
 
 
 Nerve-Supply 
 
 
 
 
 Acting on 
 
 f 1- 
 
 Crico-thyroid. 
 
 ■ 1. 
 
 Crico-arytenoid 
 
 
 vocal cords; 
 
 2. 
 
 Crico-arytenoid 
 
 
 posticus. 
 
 Seven 
 
 four pairs 
 
 
 posticus. 
 
 2. 
 
 Crico-arytenoid 
 
 Pairs. 
 
 and one 
 
 3. 
 
 Crico-arytenoid 
 
 
 lateralis. 
 
 
 single 
 
 
 lateralis. 
 
 3. 
 
 Thyro-arytenoid. 
 
 
 muscle. 
 
 4. 
 
 Thyro- 
 arytenoid. 
 
 Recur- 
 rent 
 laryn- 
 geal 
 nerve. 
 
 
 
 
 
 5. 
 
 Arytenoideus 
 
 4. 
 
 Aryteno-epiglot- 
 
 
 ' Acting on 
 
 
 (single). ^ 
 
 
 tideus superior. 
 
 One 
 
 'epiglottis; 
 
 1. 
 
 Aryteno-epiglot- 
 
 
 
 Single. 
 
 three pairs 
 
 
 tideus superior. 
 
 S. 
 
 Aryteno-epiglot- 
 
 
 of muscles. 
 
 2. 
 
 Aryteno-epiglot- 
 
 
 tideus inferior. 
 
 
 
 
 tideus inferior. 
 
 6. 
 
 Thyro-epiglottideus 
 
 
 
 3. 
 
 Thyro-epiglot- 
 tideus. 
 
 7. 
 8. 
 
 Crico- Also by 
 thyroid. 1 supeiior 
 Aryten- j laryngea 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 oideus. 
 
 Function: The former group being attached to the 
 vocal cords control phonation, and the latter being at- 
 tached to the epiglottis causes the epiglottis to be com- 
 pressed or raised. 
 
 Individual action given below: 
 
 Muscles which stretch the vocal cords. The crico-thyroid muscles. 
 
 Muscles which relax the vocal cords. . .The thyro-arytenoid muscles. 
 
 Muscles which open the glottis The crico-arytenoid posticus 
 
 (crico arytenoid laterales). 
 
 Muscles which close the glottis The arytenoideus. 
 
 Muscles compressing superior opening 
 
 of the larynx in deglutition Aryteno-epiglottideus superioris. 
 
 Muscles depressing the epiglottis dur- 
 ing the act of deglutition Thyro-epiglottideus. 
 
 Muscles compressing the sacculus 
 
 laryngis Aryteno-epiglottideus inferioris. 
 
THE MUSCLE-CONTROL OF VOICE 
 
 61 
 
 External larynx 
 muscles causing 
 fixation. 
 
 External larynx 
 muscles causing 
 cord-stretching. 
 
 Name of Muscle 
 
 1. Sterno-thyroid. 
 
 2. Stylo-pharyngeus. 
 
 1. Palato-pharyngeus. 
 
 2. Sterno-hyoid. 
 
 Newe-Supp ly 
 
 1. Infra-hyoid group 
 
 descendeus noni 
 (loop). 
 
 2. Glosso-pharyngeal 
 
 branches of 
 pharyngeal plexus. 
 
 1. Palatal branches 
 
 of Meckel's 
 ganglion. 
 
 2. Descendeus noni 
 
 (loop) infra-hyoid 
 group. 
 
 Functions: Muscles causing fixation of the larynx hold 
 the larynx against the fifth cervical vertebra, where the 
 longus colli muscles lie apart to make room for the close 
 contact of the larynx with the spine. This position of the 
 larynx imparts the greatest resonance to the voice, since 
 the vibrating larynx is in close contact with the bony 
 frame of the body. 
 
 The muscles of cord-stretching pull the thyroid carti- 
 lage from the back upward and forward, and from the front 
 down and backward, swinging the thyroid cartilage in its 
 socket on the cricoid cartilage below, thus stretching the 
 vocal bands from the arytenoid to the thyroid, and the 
 latter action gives great spontaneity of delivery. 
 
 When these two actions, fixation and cord-stretching, 
 are well adjusted a voice has the principal requisites for 
 fine use. 
 
 The palato-pharyngei, extending to uvula and soft 
 palate from the thyroid at its upper posterior edge, pull 
 this up and forward. The levatores-palati, rising from 
 the uvula to petrous bone above, maintain this laryn- 
 geal position. By this up-and-forward pull the palato- 
 pharyngei, working in antagonism to the sterno-hyoidei, 
 as noted, anchored the larynx by the anterior portion 
 of the thyroid below, tilts the thyroid in its cricoidal 
 socket, tensing the vocal folds, and changing the bounda- 
 ries of pharyngeal spaces throughout the entire voice 
 range. 
 
 The pharynx muscles are in part agents in deglutition. 
 In phonation the superior constrictor affects resonance, as 
 it forms the posterior wall of nasal and oral cavities. This 
 
 Pharynx 
 Muscles. 
 
62 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 brings us to the muscle-controls of the Articulate and Re- 
 sonantic Units. 
 
 The vocatorium may be divided into laryngeal and 
 supra-laryngeal areas. So far we have discussed muscle- 
 controls belonging exclusively to the former. It now is in 
 order to consider these in relation to the supra-laryngeal 
 influences, the nasal, oral, maxillary, hyoid, pharyngeal 
 and palate groups. The palate muscles assist the pro- 
 cesses of deglutition and of swallowing. In phonation 
 they are concerned in changing the boundaries of air- 
 chambers, and cooperatively in cord-stretching. These 
 muscles are: 
 
 Muscles of Palate 
 
 Five 
 Pairs. 
 
 1. Tensor palati. 
 
 2. Levator palati. 
 
 3. Palato-glossus. 
 
 4. Palato-pharyngeus. 
 . 5. Azygos uvulae. 
 
 Nerve-Supply 
 Glosso- 
 pharyngeal; 
 also external 
 and recurrent 
 laryngeal nerve. 
 
 Inferior constrictor. 
 
 Functions: Besides assisting in the process of degluti- 
 tion, they cause changes in size of opening buccal and 
 pharyngeal cavities. The palate group as a whole forms 
 the upward influence which swings the thyroid cartilage 
 forward on the cricoid cartilage for stretching the vocal 
 cords. 
 
 Muscles of Pharynx 
 
 Three Pairs. 
 
 1. Superior constrictor. 
 
 2. Middle constrictor. 
 
 3. Inferior constrictor. 
 
 Nerve-Supply 
 Glosso-pharyngeal, branch 
 of ninth cranial nerve and 
 pharyngeal plexus. 
 
 Functions: In part, muscles of deglutition; the su- 
 perior constrictor being an important agent in singing, 
 since it forms the posterior wall of the nasal and oral 
 hollow space, or resonance-chamber of the voice. 
 Muscles The substance of the tongue is composed of five 
 
 of the muscles. Its intrinsic fibres are derived from the Unguals; 
 
 tongue. the extrinsic fibres, connecting it with other structures, are 
 
 the hyo-glossus, genio-glossus, stylo-glossus, all in pairs. 
 The hyo-glossus, which fastens the tongue at the back to the 
 
Fig. 19. Muscles of the pharynx. External view. 
 
THE MUSCLE-CONTROL OF VOICE 
 
 63 
 
 hyoid bone, may seriously aifect cord-stretching, as any 
 tightness in it prevents the thyroid's swing upon the 
 cricoid. 
 
 The tongue muscles must also be studied in connec- 
 tion with those of the palate and the chin. Grouped ac- 
 cording to their nerve-supply the former are: 
 
 Sub-Maxillary or Stylo-Hyoid Group 
 
 Three 
 Pairs. 
 
 (Posterior belly) 
 or (digastric) 
 stylo-hyoid. 
 
 2. Stylo-glossus. 
 
 3. Stylo-pharyn- 
 geus. 
 
 Branch from the otic ganglion. 
 
 Nerve-Supply 
 
 Glosso- 
 pharyngeal 
 branch of 
 ninth cranial 
 nerve and 
 pharyngeal 
 plexus. 
 
 1. Stylo-pharyngeus. 
 
 2. Superior constrictor. 
 
 3. Middle constrictor. 
 
 4. Inferior constrictor. 
 
 1. Tensor palati (stretcher of palate).. . . 
 Palatine branches of Meckel's ganglion [\ Palato-^'har" n eus 
 
 Function: Changes position of the tongue and en- 
 larges the cavity of the pharynx. The latter change, is 
 brought about by the stylo-pharyngeus. Both groups 
 govern deglutition, the process of propelling food and 
 liquid into oesophagus and preventing their entrance into 
 larynx. 
 
 The muscle-groups involving tongue and chin, and 
 also raisers of the soft-palate, are the genio-hyoids (from 
 the Greek geneion, chin). 
 
 Six Pairs. 
 
 Supra or Genio-Hyoid Group 
 
 Nerve-Supply 
 
 1. Anterior belly 
 of digastric. 
 
 2. Mylo-hyoid. 
 
 3. Genio-hyoid. 
 
 4. Genio-hyo- 
 
 glossus. 
 
 5. Hyo-glossus. 
 
 6. Lingualis. 
 
 Mylo-hyoid 
 
 Hypo-glossal 
 oi- twelfth 
 cranial 
 
 1. Digastric, anterior 
 
 belly (double-bellied). 
 
 2. Mylo-hyoid. 
 
 1. Genio-hyoid. 
 
 2. Genio-hyo-glossus. 
 
 3. Hyo-glossus. 
 
 4. Stylo-glossus. 
 
 Of these the mylo-hyoid demands special attention in 
 phonation. This pair of muscles form the floor of the 
 mouth, and fastening from the whole edge of the lower 
 
64 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 jaw to the body of the hyoid bone, the fibres meet in the 
 centre of the chin. 
 
 These muscles influence voice-production by changing 
 the outline of the tongue, rendering it concave by depress- 
 ing its ridge or dorsum; or, by depressing it at sides and 
 extremity, convexing its form. The palate-raisers have 
 already been mentioned as important in fold-stretching. 
 
 Under this heading the principal fact to bear in mind 
 is that the palato-pharyngeus bears to the voice the same 
 relation that the piano-frame does to the piano. 
 
 The jaw muscles are the maxillaries, from the Greek 
 maxa, a kneaded mass. 
 
 Maxillary Group 
 
 Four Pairs. 
 
 
 Nerve-Supply 
 
 1 
 
 Temporal. 
 
 Inferior 
 
 2 
 
 Masseter. 
 
 maxillary 
 
 3 
 
 External 
 
 division 
 
 
 pterygoid. 
 
 of the fifth 
 
 4. 
 
 Internal 
 
 cranial 
 
 
 pterygoid. 
 
 nerve. 
 
 ' 1. Temporal. 
 
 2. Masseter (masticator). 
 
 3. External pterygoid. 
 ^ 4. Internal pterygoid. 
 
 Function: Mastication. The external and internal 
 pterygoids alternately carry the lower jaw from side to 
 side, and all conjointly cause the lower jaw to move for- 
 ward and backward on the upper jaw, as in chewing food. 
 These muscles are not supports for the singing voice. 
 Sometimes resorted to with disastrous results. 
 
 The muscle-controls of Articulate and Resonantic 
 Units are the nasal and labial. 
 
 
 Labial Group 
 
 
 Upper Lip. 
 
 
 1. Levator labii superioris proprius 
 
 2. Levator anguli oris. 
 
 3. Zygomaticus major. 
 
 Nine Pairs. 
 
 Angle. 
 
 4. Zygomaticus minor. 
 
 5. Buccinator. 
 
 6. Risorius santorini. 
 
 
 Lower Lip. 
 
 7. Levator menti. 
 
 8. Depressor labii inferioris. 
 
 9. Depressor anguli oris. 
 
 One Single. 
 
 
 
 
 rbicularis oris (1 single). 
 
THE MUSCLE-CONTROL OF VOICE 
 
 65 
 
 The function of these may be considered with those 
 of the nasals. 
 
 Nasal Group 
 
 Four Pairs 
 
 Pyramidalis 
 
 nasi. 
 Levator labii 
 
 superioris. 
 Alaequae nasi. 
 Compressor 
 
 naris. 
 Depressor labii 
 
 superioris et 
 
 nasi. 
 
 Nerve-Supply 
 Infra Orbital, branch of the 
 facial or seventh cranial nerve. 
 
 1. Pyramidalis (dilator of the nose). 
 
 2. Levator labii superioris alaequae nasi 
 (elevator of upper lip and ala of nose). 
 
 3. Compressor naris (compressor of the 
 alae of nose). 
 
 4. Depressor labii superioris et nasi (de- 
 pressor of upper lip and nose). 
 
 5. Levator labii superioris (proprius) (ele- 
 vator of upper lip). 
 
 6. Levator anguH oris (elevator of the 
 angle of the mouth). 
 
 7. Zygomaticus major (greater cheek 
 muscle). 
 
 8. Zygomaticus minor (lesser cheek 
 muscle). 
 
 9. Levator menti (elevator of upper 
 lip). 
 
 10. Depressor labii inferioris (depressor of 
 lower lip). 
 
 11. Depressor anguli oris (depressor of 
 angle of mouth). 
 
 12. Orbicularis oris (constrictor) circular 
 muscle of mouth. 
 
 13. Buccinator (trumpeter compressor of 
 cheek). Also by buccal branch of the in- 
 ferior maxillary nerve. 
 
 14. Risoifius santorini (smiling muscle). 
 Also by superior maxillary branch of the 
 facial. 
 
 Function: Give expression and assist in mastication, 
 talking and singing. Particularly are these muscles useful 
 to the singer in enunciation. The buccinator, pressing the 
 cheeks inward,assists in these functions; also in the acts of 
 blowing and sucking. 
 
 In addition to these special-muscle-sets, all the great 
 external muscles influence phonation. 
 
 If the muscles which support head and shoulders are 
 overtensed they will constrain the vessels and organs of 
 the vocatorium and defeat pure tone-production. Dispro- 
 portionate contraction of the muscles which move or fix 
 the hyoid bone will swing the Momentic Autonomy out 
 of normal alignment. If these same muscles are devital- 
 ized and flaccid they may so yield to the influence of the 
 styloid and palatal muscles as to throw the vocal organs 
 into wrong relations. 
 
66 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 The great muscles that play on ribs, sternum, clavicle, 
 and shoulder girdle, directly affect the Pneumatic Auton- 
 omy. The abdominal muscles, as we know, are all im- 
 portant in exhalation. 
 Balance Bodily poise causes the external muscles of the back 
 
 of the to aid the deep throat muscles in contacting the larynx 
 
 body: with the fifth cervical vertebra, increasing vocal volume, 
 
 poise. and enhancing quality. 
 
 The balance of the body on the pelvic frame, the flex- 
 ible normal curves of the column, curves that give ease 
 and grace to the body, are chiefly sustained by the erector 
 spinali. Moreover, on the tonicity of the muscles depends 
 the relative altitude of the whole rib-cage; if allowed to 
 become relaxed and habitually elongated, the freedom and 
 responsiveness of the chest will be proportionately dimin- 
 ished, the normal balance of the parts swinging on the axis 
 of resistance will be destroyed, and beautiful, expressive 
 poise will be Impossible. 
 Muscular Muscular tonicity and normal poise, these are prl- 
 
 tonicity. mary requisites In Vocal Art-Science. 
 
 Voice, analyzed into special muscle-controls, and syn- 
 John thetlzed Into an automatically produced form of energy, 
 
 Tyndall must next be considered as an expression of what Tyndall 
 
 (1820-1893). has called "the most perfect, the most beautiful, of mu- 
 sical Instruments." 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 The Vocal Instrument 
 
 Voice is the product of "the most perfect, the most 
 beautiful, of musical instruments." -The precise nature of 
 this instrument has formed the quest of truth-seekers, 
 whether empiricists or scientists, from Hippocrates, four ffippocrates, 
 hundred years before the Christian era, to such contempo- 400 B.C. 
 raneous authority as Dr. Marage, of Paris; Oertel, in- 
 ventor of the stroboscope; Garcia, of laryngoscope fame, 
 and others. . 
 
 In 1869, in the memoirs of the Paris Academy of Franjois A. 
 Science, Dr. Longet published an abstract of the several Longet, 
 theories put forth during the century preceding Helm- 1869. 
 holtz as to the cause of voice. 
 
 Briefly enumerated from his text, these begin with Dennis 
 Dodart, who between 1700 and 1707 published two or Dodart 
 three treatises on the subject, in some respects self-con- (1684-1707). 
 fiicting. None the less, to him belongs the credit of under- 
 standing the general trend of vocal phenomena, and of 
 having clearly indicated points still awaiting solution. 
 
 Ferrein in 18 14 advances on Dodart by attributing Antoine 
 tonal changes not alone to change in the tension of the Ferrein 
 glottis lips. Also to him belongs the credit of being first (i693-i769). 
 to support assertion by precise experiment, and to claim 
 for the larynx the properties of both a stringed and a 
 wind-instrument. 
 
 Only Cuvier's great name permits a mention of his Georges 
 theory put forth in 1807, in effect that the glottis sways Cuvier 
 like a reed, determining the harmonics of fundamentals _ (1769-1832). 
 which are produced as in the tube of a wind-instrument. 
 In addition to this he states that the larynx falls as we 
 sing an ascending scale, whereas, as can readily be shown, 
 it rises; while a voice can make all the sounds within .Its 
 compass, not all these are harmonics of the fundamental 
 tones. _ Rene J. 
 
 About the samie time, Dutrochet enunciated a theory Dutrochet 
 closely resembling that of Ferrein; but a denial of all (1776-1847). 
 
68 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 supra-laryngeal influence is difficult to understand in so 
 competent an observer. 
 
 Liscovins, in 1814, explained voice as vibration from 
 molecular friction through the compression of air in the 
 glottis passage. Later he attributed to the ventricles 
 the principal part in voice-production. 
 
 Magendie, in 18 16, propounded a theory adopted by 
 Biot, comparing the vocal apparatus to a reed-instru- 
 ment; but, with all consideration for these distin- 
 guished names, physiology repudiates this. In an organ, 
 the shorter the valve the higher the tone, while in the 
 larynx the width of the folds which would correspond to 
 this, increases with a rise of tone. 
 Marie G. A. Savard, in 1825, formulated an entirely new theory, 
 
 Savard uniting larynx, pharynx and mouth into a conical pipe, 
 
 (1814-1881) with the glottis for valve, the ventricular bands function- 
 ing like the organ-pipe beveling, and the sound produced 
 / in the ventricles being reinforced above, but including the 
 
 whole vocal gamut. The lack of similarity between the 
 superior laryngeal ligaments, and the requisite beveling, 
 however, renders this view untenable. 
 
 Gerdy, in 1830, offered another theory which experi- 
 ment fails to support. Nevertheless, to him is due the 
 credit of being first to describe the form assumed by the 
 isthmus of the gullet, during phonation, through the lifting, 
 stretching and arching of the soft palate by muscular 
 control. 
 
 In spite of certain errors, Malaigne, in 183 1, made 
 valuable contributions to vocal science by assigning to the 
 ventricles the function of securing freedom to the glottis 
 lips by their curvature upward, like the lips of a horn- 
 , player, during phonation. He also described the varia- 
 tions in form occuring in tongue and soft palate in the 
 production of high sounds. 
 
 In the year following, Bennati published a theory of 
 vocal mechanism which in part reproduced an idea uttered 
 somewhat earlier by Delau, namely, limiting laryngeal 
 agency to the making of low tones, except possibly in a 
 secondary sense, and attributing the higher tones to the 
 muscles of the tongue, hyoid bone, and soft palate. While 
 
THE VOCAL INSTRUMENT 
 
 69 
 
 his observations on the action of tongue and soft palate 
 
 are exact, these organs had not wholly escaped the notice A. von 
 
 of such earlier physiologists as Haller, and the simplest Haller 
 
 experiments utterly disprove Delau's view of the com- ' (1708-1777). 
 
 plete inaction of the larynx for the production of any 
 
 tone, be this high or low. 
 
 Lehfeldt, in 1835, was first to maintain that in fal- 
 setto voice only the free edges of the vocal folds vibrate, 
 although affected throughout their length in chest pro- 
 duction, a theory adopted by J. Mueller and other inves- 
 tigators. He also held that, with all parts of the vocal 
 apparatus keeping an unchanged position, the sound in 
 falsetto is higher than in chest production. Battaille, 
 however, by means of the laryngoscope proved that the 
 glottis immediately changes shape when passing from 
 chest to falsetto production, without interruption of 
 sound. 
 
 In 1875 Tyndall, following Helmholtz, states that ^ 
 
 "the vocal organ in man is a reed-instrument, the vibrat- 
 ing reed being elastic bands placed at the top of the 
 trachea, and capable of various degrees of tension." 
 
 In a word, from the days of Hippocrates to the 
 present, the mechanism of voice has been likened to that 
 of reed, stringed instrument, horn, pipe, and even to a 
 combination of reed, horn, and strings; yet no one has 
 solved the problem of half-steps to which the voice is 
 capable of adjusting itself, or indeed of anything except 
 harmonics. When doctors differ thus among themselves, 
 how shall the laity decide.'' 
 
 Through the noted surgical anatomist. Dr. McAllister, Dr. John 
 I have been able to obtain material almost living, from McAllister, 
 which the equally noted instrument-maker, Edmund Otto, Bellevue 
 has constructed for me a manikin reproducing the human Hospital, 
 throat in its natural form and consistency, meanwhile N. Y. c, 
 permitting- certain psychological laws to be brought into 
 play. By an adjustment of uvula and soft palate, half- Edmund 
 steps were readily produced, which result leads me to con- Otto, 
 elude — and I believe I am the first to state it — that the 
 human vocal organ is best compared to a cornet, in that 
 the action of the lips, or cords, is absolutely pyramidal. 
 
70 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 Mechan- 
 ical repro- 
 duction of 
 semitones. 
 
 In examining the. vocal folds one seems to see the lip 
 of the player applied to the mouthpiece of the cornet. 
 The muscles of the vocal folds are capable of innumerable 
 positions, as are the fibres of the oral sphincter, or muscle 
 of the lips, running circularly, vertically, and horizontally, 
 in small bundles or fasciculi to upper and lower lips, draw- 
 ing them up or down and compelling circular contraction 
 as well as raising their corners or depressing them. The 
 muscles leading to the apertures of the nose, eyes and ears 
 are web-like attachments that weave a beautiful correlation 
 and coordination, as well as automatic action, with every 
 one of our special senses. The vocal folds being the player's 
 lips, the ventricular bands form the base of the cup into 
 which they pour their song. 
 
 While considering the statement that the instrument 
 of voice resembles the cornet, let us go into it a little more 
 in detail for correct comparison. 
 
 The aperture of the mouth is like the cornet. 
 
 The action of the lips against the aperture of the 
 cornet very strikingly calls attention to the action of the 
 lips and the eventuation of the final components of song, 
 namely, enunciation, and diction. For sound alone in the 
 cornet, one uses the lips exactly the same as the vocal 
 cords are used in singing. 
 
 Upper lip is the factor in cornet playing. As one ap- 
 plies the lips to the cornet, one practically employs the 
 same movements as in the vocal effort. 
 
 By unwinding a cornet's curves and adding its valve- 
 scope, a tube of fourteen feet is the result. Manipulation 
 of the valves and adjustments of the mouth can shorten 
 the sound-waves in this tube so as to obtain a range of 
 four and one-half octaves. In the shaft of a cornet there 
 are three or four small cylinders, controlled by valves 
 that can alter tones by half-steps. In like manner, with 
 tongue, soft palate and uvula for valves, stirred to action 
 by the epiglottis just above the vocal folds, the singer can 
 alter tonal pitch by semitones. Progressing further, the 
 soft palate, dividing the sound-waves as they leave the 
 throat, is capable of producing tones at intervals of half- 
 steps; the tongue also works in conjunction with this. In a 
 
THE VOCAL INSTRUMENT 71 
 
 reproduction of the human mechanism by the construction 
 of three oval spaces thus: From nose to soft palate; from 
 mouth to base of tongue; soft palate to pharyngeal wall; 
 and from base of tongue and epiglottis to the vocal folds 
 themselves, valvular action can produce many half-steps, 
 thereby developing the old idea of a horn, or bugle, for 
 the vocal instrument into that of a cornet. 
 
 This scheme is deduced from a model of the human 
 vocal apparatus, with unimportant parts eliminated. The 
 upper hollow space represents the actual form of the skull 
 with the septum and turbinates removed as far as the 
 hard palate which forms the base of the cavity. The 
 second chamber is roofed by the hard palate and sup- 
 ported by the hyoid bone. The third, including the epi- 
 glottis and full laryngeal apparatus, ends where the ary- 
 tenoids are contacted at the fifth cervical vertebra with 
 the spine. Special attention is invited to this position of 
 the arytenoids and to the constructive work of the hyoid 
 and hard palate, for the purpose of resonance. 
 
 These analogies, however, apply to the vocal instru- Six organs 
 ment only as a laryngeal and supra-laryngeal structure, included 
 When we include the whole body we find that it belongs . in vocal 
 to the breathing system, and is operated automatically by Instrument, 
 five units, acting simultaneously, though each is subject 
 to a law of intake and outgo. Its mechanism contains 
 six organs: Abdomen, to furnish dynamic power for com- 
 pression of lungs; lungs, to furnish and compress air 
 for momentum; larynx, to generate sound; mouth, for 
 articulation, overtone and resonance; pharyngeal dome, for 
 reverberation and overtone; and nose, for resonance and 
 overtone. In the nose and dome the breaking up and the 
 subdivision of cyclones takes place, and the subsequent 
 and safe conduction of the sympathetic and final vibra- 
 tions is performed In a manner tending to preserve the 
 last singing vibrations in the sinuses with a further 
 conduction by sympathy, into the finality of disappear- 
 ance. 
 
 This system is controlled by the jaw, which is the 
 first unit in vocal procedure. It is expressed by the 
 mouth, which reflects and regulates every eventuated 
 
72 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 First 
 
 principles 
 applied to 
 the vocal 
 instrument. 
 
 The 
 pyramid. 
 
 The 
 triangle. 
 
 Square 
 and cube. 
 
 sense of motion of all other parts of the body concerned in 
 speech and song. 
 
 All the vocal valves of which the mouth is the ulti- 
 mate and visible representative, are composed of eight 
 parts, and, being sphincteric, they are controlled by mus- 
 cular action which either opens or closes the tube. They are 
 five in number: (The anus) the dynamic control; (the dia- 
 phragm) the pneumatic control; (the glottis) the momentic 
 control; (the palate, tongue and epiglottis) the sonoric con- 
 trol; (the mouth) the vocalic control. Seven organs are 
 under their domination: Abdomen, thorax, larynx, pha- 
 rynx, dome, nose and mouth. The kinetic unit, or sense 
 of motion, in these controls is the first law of vocal pro- 
 cedure, the jaw regulating the vocalic sphincter for the 
 utterance of language, either spoken or sung. 
 
 Having arrived at so much understanding of this 
 vocal instrument from a study of procedure and effects, 
 in the light of anatomico-physiological observation, let us 
 go back to first principles for a closer knowledge of its 
 inception, development, and possibilities. 
 
 Imagine one's self an observer, stationed at the 
 centre of the universe at creation's dawn; then would one 
 see a ray of sunlight, the source of all light, motion, and 
 energy, strike the earth. The angle of the ray determines 
 the energy it can impart and the amount of life and mo- 
 tion it will sustain. The light has also within itself a 
 motion, due to the movement of its particles, according 
 to the law of pyramids. What more natural than that this 
 pyramidal principle, the very beginning of things, should 
 occur in all phases of creation, even voice-manifestation? 
 
 Following this up, we find that a general cross-section 
 of the simplest pyramid is a triangle; the two triangles of 
 suitable shape together form a square. 
 
 Another form in which nature works is the circle. 
 Regarded as a zero it bespeaks negation, the condition of 
 the earth till animated by the light. A dot or point is the 
 least division of space. The dot prolonged gives the line, 
 in one form, in another the arc or circumference, which is 
 the only measure of the angle that exists. Extended in- 
 definitely beyond human comprehension, the circle typifies 
 
THE VOCAL INSTRUMENT 
 
 73 
 
 infinity. Given solidity, the circle becomes the sphere. 
 Similarly, in its least form the drop is the smallest physical 
 division of liquids. Expanded, it represents the earth, 
 moon, sun, or the universe. 
 
 From nature's own forms, then, pyramid and sphere 
 with their derivatives, the triangles, cubes, circles, and all 
 the rest, we must .work to understand our subject in its 
 geometrical aspect. 
 
 We must also consider the movements of the parts 
 among themselves, as in the pyramidal ray of sunlight, ac- 
 cording to the laws of kinetics. Kineo is Greek for "I 
 move"; kinetic motion describes changes in position; 
 kinetic evolution describes everything in motion through 
 impulse of its individual or pyramidal energy. 
 
 Vocal kinetics must account for relative changes in 
 the position of the parts of the machine made up of solids, 
 liquids, gases, and possibly finer substances, materials 
 either rigid or more or less elastic, so controlled as to 
 utilize energy with the highest possible efficiency in tone- 
 production. 
 
 The geometric and kinetic aspects, with their involu- 
 tion of the science of numbers and Its mysteries, though 
 too little regarded to-day, were diligently investigated by 
 such wise men as Pythagoras and Euclid. 
 
 Thus far it is plainly evident that all the mysteries of 
 the universe can be interpreted by the forty-seventh prob- 
 lem of Euclid, with a triangle the sides of which are in the 
 relation of 3, 4, and 5, or the measurements of the human 
 jaw. These numbers, which, in their several relations and 
 combinations, enter into vocal science, govern the cord- 
 forms and the correspondences in the laws of color as well 
 as those of voice. 
 
 In the light of .first principles we shall find that voice- 
 mechanism is subject to the laws of these three funda- 
 mentals that we have briefly outlined — geometry, kine- 
 metria, and number-relations. Geometrically, It begins 
 with matter-forms at rest; circles, cubes, and the like. 
 Then evolution develops it on the lines of pyramidal forma- 
 tions, according to the laws of kinetic motion, the devel- 
 oper of energy. And finally, these pyramido-prlsmal parts 
 
 Pyramidal 
 forms. 
 
 Science of 
 numbers. 
 
74 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 are all related in ordinates of three planes, proportioned 
 as three, four, and five, and are subject to inherent forces. 
 Three, four, and five. The sum of these numbers is 
 Twelve twelve, the governmental number of creation, the emblem 
 
 the gov- of the Holy City with its twelve gates and twenty-four 
 
 ernmental elders sitting about the throne. It will likewise prove the 
 number of key to our understanding of the vocal instrument and 
 creation. unlock the voice of the divine within us. 
 
 Fig. 20. Equilateral Triangle. 
 
 Geometrically considered, the vocal mechanism begins 
 with the circle, symbolizing generation and renascence, 
 
 William F. with their endless completeness, processes and eternities. 
 
 Fraetas The circle, with its central dot, divided into 360 de- 
 
 grees, is the foundation for a study of the essential unity 
 
THE FOCAL INSTRUMENT 
 
 75 
 
 and infinite variety of phenomena in vocal architecture. Not 
 only is it considered, the foundation, but it is also regarded 
 as the guiding compass for measuring the scale of the voice. 
 
 PITCH 
 
 Fig. 21. Zones for Primary Colors. 
 
 Inscribing an equilateral triangle in the circle, each 
 point of contact becomes a unit of force, a centre for tone 
 and color. 
 
76 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 About these we draw three new circles, zones for the 
 primary color forces as found everywhere in nature; 
 namely, red = heat; yellow =. light; and blue = electricity. 
 Later we shall show that voice is a dynamo, producing 
 air-currents that correspond to the vibrations of musical 
 tones and the undulations of color and light. 
 
 REINFORCEMENT 
 
 POWEK 
 
 PRESSURE 
 
 RESBTJINCE 
 
 Fig. 22. Spheres of Complementary Color. 
 
 These zones or spheres which represent the outer 
 aspects of voice correspond to as many inward or psycho- 
 logical states, roughly classed thus: Red, power, pas- 
 sionate, dominating and exciting; yellow, the momentic, 
 
CENTtR OF VOICE hBSSmO 
 _«»oTO«E REFlECTIOll 
 
 CENTMo, VOICE 
 
 FORMATION ..i, 
 TONE 
 INTENSIFICATION 
 
 CENTER o> VOICE 
 BUI LOINS a.oTDNE' 
 
 coNSTitucTiarl 
 
 'CEITERor VOICE 
 
 'fltJU5TnB«T...T0N£ 
 
 OlSCRiniNATM 
 
 CENTER <» VOICE nOLDINC 
 fiND TONE 
 CONTIrtUIT/ 
 
 Fig. 23. Hexalpha: Sex-Dynamic. 
 
Fig. 24. The Star Potential. 
 
THE FOCAL INSTRUMENT 77 
 
 sentimental, spiritual and sympathetic; blue, the reso- 
 nantic, thoughtful, meditative, contemplative. As interior 
 spheres they have a direct and important bearing upon 
 pure tone and vocal beauty, determining the very moods 
 of the soul as these are reflected at the vocal folds. Red 
 is pitched at C; yellow at E; and blue at G. 
 
 With these zones in operation, the triangle of tone 
 begins to act, and our circle-compass develops new figures. 
 We shall show later that this actually happens and is 
 proved by physical experiment, namely, with sand-shapes 
 created on stretched membranes by vibrations of voice or 
 other instrument. 
 
 The second triangle is developed by the action of the 
 vocal apparatus, and the stress of vibratory force due to 
 the inertia of the points of force, that is to say, the sta- 
 tionary relationship of power, resonance, and pitch; or the 
 red, blue, and yellow of the voice. It stands in inverted 
 relation to its predecessor, and presents the secondary 
 aspect of tone and color; orange pitched at D; green at F; 
 and violet at A — the exact tone and color complements 
 of the former scheme. 
 
 This hexalpha formed by the two triangles; this six- 
 pointed star is the Sex-Dynamic-Centre of the human 
 voice, the Energy star, and upon the understanding of its 
 power the whole life and structure of vocal mechanism rests. 
 
 Let us not forget, however, the twelve pillars of our 
 temple, the number that governs all creative effort. Where 
 shall we find the other correspondence to add to our En- 
 ergia? Where indeed but by harking back to Genesis, and 
 fulfilling the destiny of man by woman. 
 
 Another hexalpha, accordingly, must be developed 
 with tones and colors — the Star of Potential. 
 
 This results naturally from anastomosis, through the 
 interaction of the six points of our first star; power (C) 
 red; pressure (D) orange; pitch (E) yellow; resistance 
 (F) green; resonance (G) blue; and reinforcement (A) 
 violet. 
 
 Two stars of six colors, points, and tones. Energy, 
 the masculine, and Potential, the feminine. Combined, 
 they present the twelve points of the vocal compass, the 
 
78 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 perfect union typified by the circle. Voice at once creator 
 and creative, and colors blended into radiant light. 
 
 Fig. IS. Radiant Light. 
 
 Vocal Studying the vocal instrument from its kinetic aspect, 
 
 kinetics. in other words, from a sense of motion in voice, we revert 
 
 to our pyramido-prismo-helico-conico-spherical relationship 
 
THE VOCAL INSTRUMENT 
 
 79 
 
 and find Its correspondences in the human structure. Voice 
 then appears as force, the action of the kinetic energy on 
 prisms and pyramids solid, flexible, and hollow spaces in 
 the human frame.' 
 
 Fig. 26. Dynamic Pyramid. 
 
 'In general the similarity to geometrical forms is expressed by likening 
 the parts to pyramids; the pyramids and prisms are closely related, mathe- 
 matically, as the prism may be considered a pyramid whose apex is at 
 infinity, and whose lateral edges, therefore, become parallel. The dihedral 
 
80 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 Dynamic The first is the Dynamic pyramid (see Fig. 27), the 
 
 pyramid. source of energy. Its base is formed by the lower side of the 
 
 diaphragm with its sides enveloped in the great omentum, 
 the fatty tissue covering the intestines, the apex of the 
 pyramid pointing downward to the anus or posterior cell. 
 A semi-solid bag, its pressures are held in control by the 
 anus with the great omentum and diaphragm. Its own 
 force moves it down and out to evacuate its contents, 
 according to the laws of gravity and diaphragmatic com- 
 pression, but in singing its action is the reverse of this. In 
 the former its positive pole of power is at the diaphragm, 
 but in the latter the reverse is the case, the positive pole 
 being transferred to the posterior sphincter. The contra- 
 puntals also exchange qualities, the umbilicus or navel 
 receiving the negative state of the third lumbar vertebra, 
 and vice versa. 
 
 This geometrical formation, the abdominal pyra- 
 mid, is semi-solid, flexible and, though capable of many 
 movements, both separate and conjoint, it is the main 
 energizer and support of voice and the controller of 
 breath in action. To the lungs above, the diaphragm 
 offers a solid base, as it also does to the heart and roots of 
 the lungs, while its two crura or leaves support their ex- 
 panding bases. As an automatic dynamic force it equalizes 
 all forces of compression of atmosphere or gases in the 
 aerial lungs, with due regard to the chemistry of digestion, 
 circulation and generation, and a thousand and one other 
 offices. Any foreign element interfering with its ideal 
 pyramidal action, no matter how insignificant at first this 
 may appear, will sooner or later be recognized by its con- 
 science, the nervous system. 
 
 The Pneumatic pyramid finds its base at the upper 
 side of the diaphragm, its apex at the apex of the lungs, 
 while its sides are formed by the thoracic cage. Further- 
 more, every included organ is a pyramid. The heart, 
 gigantic and powerful, working incessantly; the lungs, 
 with the right having a third lobe to supply the loss 
 
 angles between the faces of prisms a ad pyramids are identical and may be 
 called the prismal angle. The action of light on the faces of pyramid and 
 prism is identical. 
 
Pronto/ Sinus Pi^ramitl 
 Rumbh'c or Nasat JPyremh 
 Su fierier Turbinate Pyramid 
 Aiiddlf Tuf'hinoie Pyramid- 
 Infe^'or Turbinate Pyramid 
 Vbcoiic Pyramid 
 Tongoe Pyramid 
 •Tatv Pyromiet 
 
 Pneamoiic 2^r-omid 
 Diaphragm Ptfr/rmid 
 
 Dyn 
 
 Pyramid 
 
 Antrum Pyramid 
 'fehenoidol pyramid 
 'Eustachian Pyramid 
 'astoidol Pyramid 
 ^ome or Resonance Pyramid 
 bronchia/ Pyrarnid 
 
 Sonorio Motor Pyra.mid 
 ffolloy/ Cricoidal PyramiJ 
 
 S/(etct) s/>oiYinij ffo\y iffe 
 Turhinote Pyramitis are 
 formed it) double fiyramids for 
 smell and sound aevelopmetst' 
 
 Fig. 27. Pyramidal Voice-Chart. 
 
THE VOCAL INSTRUMENT 81 
 
 of tissue in its fellow occasioned by the presence of the 
 heart as well as to balance the pressure of this on the left 
 side, are both pyramidal in form. Here, also, it is to be 
 noted that the measurements are as three, four and five. 
 
 Thirdly comes the Air-moulding pyramidal cricoid 
 cartilage. Around each tracheal ring is a pyramidal ruga 
 till we come to the cricoid with its circular orifice through 
 which the air, having been brought up to a focus, passes 
 to the vocal folds. These, on their underside, now form 
 the motor point, converting pneumatic power into mo- 
 mentic strokes or units of sound. Meanwhile the upper 
 surfaces, while resisting the pressure from below, receive 
 reverberations from the resonators above, making this 
 pyramid the initial controller of resonance. To this forma- 
 tion belongs pitch, also conditioned at the glottic lips by 
 their length, mass and tension. 
 
 The vocal folds attached to the thyroid angle by 
 their apices, with bases set in the arytenoids, are also 
 pyramidal; no less pyramidal in form are the arytenoid 
 cartilages, as are likewise the cornicula Santorini, set as 
 they are on their solid and bony bases. These are the 
 pyramids of indication, because the physician or 'trained 
 observer can see them, and from their location decide 
 whether anything is amiss in the intrinsic action of the 
 folds. A pyramidal shell is the enclosing thyroid. 
 
 The vocal folds are shaped as three planes, meeting 
 in an apex at the Adam's apple. Does this not give the 
 analogous kinetic position by which the Revelation of the 
 Rainbow in the phenomenon of light is possible.? False 
 vocal bands make the upper resonance plane possible as 
 regulators and balancers of true cordal actions in over- 
 tone formation. The meeting of three planes in an apex 
 makes the thyroid angle not only possible but absolutely 
 necessary to the accomplishment of the kinetic scale of 
 sound by the angle there formed. 
 
 Through their side of attachment the vocal folds 
 communicate their burden of power, namely resonance 
 and pitch, to the whole body, causing sympathetic vibra- 
 tions to thrill it; and conversely, if disease lurks anywhere 
 it will logically show its effect on tone. 
 
82 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 Color 
 analogies. 
 
 The 
 spectrum. 
 
 So far our pyramids have been semi-solid, though 
 flexible, forming three semi-solid, and three hard, but 
 adjustable, spaces. To the first belong the pyramidal 
 forms of the dynamic, the pneumatic, and the air-mould- 
 ing units; to the second, those of the arytenoids, carti- 
 lages of Santorini, and the vocal folds. We now have six 
 mechanical units, each arranged with a solid force and two 
 developing forces. 
 
 First: The Momentic Unit, the space between the vocal 
 folds and ventricles of the larynx, like the cup of the cornet 
 against which the player's lips move, regulating tone and 
 influencing resonance. (See Fig. Ii.) 
 
 Second: The Sonoric Unit, formed by the space 
 bounded by vocal folds, epiglottis, and posterior pharyn- 
 geal wall. Simple sound is formed here without color or 
 individuality. 
 
 Third: The Tonsillar Space, the first and auxiliary 
 resonator, the vestibule of the vocalic and resonantic 
 units, just as the ventricular space formed the vestibule to 
 the sonoric unit. 
 
 Fourth: The Lower Resonantic, between epiglottis, 
 tongue, "soft palate, pharyngeal dome, and choanse. 
 
 Fifth: The Vocalic, formed and controlled by palate, 
 tongue, cheeks, and lips. 
 
 Sixth: The Upper Resonantic, the nasal cavities 
 with their septal turbinated bony divisions; also sinuses 
 to conduct sympathetic vibrations to the surrounding 
 and adjacent hollow bony pyramidal sinuses, which act 
 as shock-absorbers. 
 
 Prismatic and pyramidal governments, to the number 
 of twelve, make the study of pyramidal analogy between 
 sound and light necessary. In the production of the mo- 
 mentum of sound, double pyramidal forces are at work, 
 and, through the arytenoids and vocal folds, offer an 
 anchorage which control tension, and with the aid of 
 outside muscles, condition power, quality and pitch. Turn 
 an ordinary crystal prism to the light, and white light 
 ensues. When turned another way, the beam is dispersed 
 into the spectrum. When again turned a third way toward 
 the light, darkness supervenes. 
 
THE VOCAL INSTRUMENT 
 
 83 
 
 Let us consider the dispersed beam, comparing its Red rays 
 several rays to the tone produced by the human instru- correspond 
 ment. Red is hardest to refract, because of the length of to mouth 
 its wave. Direct tones come through the mouth and vi- emissions, 
 brate best at C — and the mouth is red. This is the longest 
 unobstructed passage from vocal folds to lips. 
 
 Taking basic C of any voice, the most readily intonated 
 sound or unit, we find its detonations come most freely from 
 the mouth because this offers the more direct and least 
 obstructed passage, while its higher components have to 
 find egress through the nasal complex. What more ob- 
 vious than that the long waves will seek the easier way.^ 
 The shorter waves, divided by the choanae, and subdivided Violet rays, 
 by the solid pyramids of the turbinates, are projected to nasal, due 
 by the forces of porosity and elasticity from the accessory to relative 
 sinuses that respond to the most delicate and vanishing wave- 
 vibrations, imparting to them the smooth-flowing, lyric lengths, 
 quality. 
 
 In the light-spectrum the red rays, due to the longer A vocal 
 waves, are harder to refract than the short-waved violet, tone a 
 Red, then, corresponds with our mouth-emitted sounds — pyramidal 
 and the mouth itself is red. Now can it be mere chance formed 
 that the nasal chamber, home of the short-waved tones, triad, 
 from its abundant venous supply is whitish lavender, the the com- 
 highest frequency of the solar spectrum.? Our vowel-tone ponents of 
 is a triad. It is formed in the sonoric and nasal resonators, which cor- 
 likewise the oral sphincter. With the latter representing the respond to 
 red end- of the spectrum and the nasal the blue, we should the three 
 expect our fundamental to be produced by a source corre- primary 
 sponding to the middle color; and so it is, the vocal bands colors, 
 being of a whitish yellow. Breath unacted on by mo- 
 mentum comes soundlessly through the glottic valve (the 
 rima), which is shaped in a state of rest like a pyramid, 
 and corresponds to the crystal turned toward the light, 
 when only darkness supervenes. Breath converted into 
 momentum, but undifferentiated into tone-components, 
 corresponds to white light, which contains all colors. 
 
 Newton, one of the greatest of physicists, found a con- Isaac 
 nection between the relative spaces occupied by each Newton 
 color, and the relative vibrations of the notes of the scale; (1642-1727). 
 
84 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 Relative 
 wave- 
 lengths 
 only true 
 basis of 
 comparison. 
 
 Eye and 
 ear com- 
 pared. 
 
 the only satisfactory basis of comparison, however, is in 
 the ratio of their wave-lengths respectively, particularly 
 as they are found within the limits that comprise the 
 range of our organic sensibilities through eye and ear. 
 
 The eye-prism, at once the smallest and finest organ 
 of the human mechanism, can take in only an octave and 
 a half of color, measured by vibrating frequencies; whereas, 
 the average ear detects over six octaves which, in the case 
 of acute aural sensibility, may extend to seven. Minute 
 differences also, not perceptible to the eye, can be detected 
 by the ear. — A table of relative wave-lengths of sound 
 color presents the following results: 
 
 Color 
 Red 
 Orange 
 Yellow 
 Green 
 Blue . 
 Indigo 
 Violet 
 Ultra-violet 
 Obscure 
 
 .69 
 .64 
 
 mean 
 
 latio 
 
 Note 
 
 Ratio 
 
 100 
 
 c" 
 
 100 
 
 89 
 
 D 
 
 89 
 
 81 
 
 E 
 
 81 
 
 75 
 
 F 
 
 75 
 
 67 
 
 G 
 
 67 
 
 60 
 
 A 
 
 60 
 
 S3 
 
 B 
 
 S3 
 
 SO 
 
 C 
 
 SO 
 
 The final By dividing the spectrum into twelve and placing 
 
 analogy these in as many segments of a circle, with the twelve 
 
 the gov- half-steps of which a musical scale is formed in their 
 
 ernmental. natural correspondences, then with a key-triangle as indi- 
 cator, we shall find that any three colors pointed out at the 
 same time by the vertices are always harmonious, while in 
 the musical scale the three notes indicated will form the 
 chord of either the major or the minor, according to which 
 side is used. Twelve, and "only twelve, possible combina- 
 tions for the major, and as many minor. Have we not now 
 our final governmental scheme, the rainbow of light and the 
 scale of sound, the harmony which is the soul of music, 
 brought about by the pyramido-prismatic forces that form 
 the Vocal Instrument, the twenty-four Elders that sit about 
 the Throne of Light, and its twin manifestation, Voice .^ 
 
Fig. 28. The Kinetor. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 The Vocal Act 
 
 Voice is a habit; the singing voice is a blend of brain 
 and body in a perfect balance of power, resonance and pitch. 
 
 The Vocal Act depends on an understanding of the 
 Vocal Instrument, with an application of the principles on 
 which this has been evolved, to the end of tone-production, 
 as achieved by vocal procedure. 
 
 The vocal instrument, as we have seen, comprises the 
 whole being, brain, body, and soul, energized automatically 
 for the creative effort of sound-generation according to laws 
 based on fundamental principles. 
 
 Aero-vibrations, analogous to those of light, are the 
 momentic source of voice. 
 
 The vibrating source of voice is In the larynx, and is 
 formed by that pair of ligamentous pyramidal muscular 
 lips erroneously called cords. Air in the ordinary process 
 of breathing is suffered to pass between these jealous 
 warders of the glottis unopposed, but air expelled with 
 voice-intention from infra-laryngeal units, activates them 
 into opposition, with a swing of their hinge-attachment that 
 draws them together through two-thirds of their extent. 
 The impact of the persistent breath sets them vibrating 
 along their free edges and throughout their mass. Lest 
 this impact should prove too violent a shock, the elastic 
 walls of trachea, larynx and crico-thyroid membrane 
 assist in regulating the blast from below. 
 
 Until recently the cord-stretching of a stringed instru- 
 ment was used as an example for the action of the vocal 
 folds; but Garcia, of laryngoscope fame, who was an inde- Garcia, 
 pendent investigator as well as teacher, advanced a theory 
 which later authorities, like Marage, have supported by Marage. 
 experimental proof, and to which others of note, includ- 
 ing John Howard and Charles Lunn, also subscribed. Howard. 
 Answering the question. What produces voice? Garcia 
 replies, "The two lips of the glottis, which are open during Lunn. 
 
 85 
 
86 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 breathing, but meet when there is preparation to produce 
 sound, .closing the passage with a degree of energy pro- 
 portioned to the nature of the sound and the power with 
 which this is to be emitted. Pushed upward by the air, 
 they give way, but immediately return to their contact, 
 and recommence their act of adjustment. The intermit- 
 tent explosions thus formed, when regular and rapid 
 enough, produce sound." And, illustrating this view, he 
 compares the action of the glottic lips to that of the lips 
 of a horn-player. My own theory of the cornet-player I 
 have already described. 
 
 While this theory of puffs and detonations has been 
 accepted widely — almost universally — yet the greatest 
 scientists agree that their work of research 
 on these lines is still in its incipiency. 
 We admit that the vocal folds themselves 
 vibrate, besides dividing the air-column 
 into explosions. But another highly im- 
 portant character of these vibrations is 
 that they are spiral in shape for any 
 given tone; and this has been determined 
 with a scientific accuracy that may be 
 regarded as ultimate. All this enables 
 us to formulate an orderly procedure by 
 which teacher and pupil may obtain the 
 best results in song. Fig. 29. 
 
 The vocal cords constitute the motor 
 function of the vocalion. As the mo- 
 mentic autonomy, they govern all move- 
 ments and momentum; and as this mo- 
 mentum is, in turn, the call to action for the resonantic or 
 sympathetic functions above, it is readily seen that the 
 movements of the vocal cords must be far more intricate 
 and complex than allowed for by any theory heretofore ad- 
 vanced, but now reasoned out and demonstrated in Vocal 
 Art-Science by the laws of kinesiology. In the course pf 
 analyzing these complexities and intricacies, and their 
 results, I have failed to find in writings on vocal cords, or 
 phonetics generally, any evidence of knowledge of the 
 following facts: 
 
 Fig. 29. Spiral. 
 
BEVELOrMENT OF THE CORD 
 
 THE MODEL FOLDED TO 
 REPRESENT THE VOCDL 
 CORD. NOTE THE SEGMENT 
 TO ALLOW FOR /iTTACHMENT 
 
 TO THE ARYTENOIDS. 
 
 THYROID END 
 
 THE POSITION OF 
 THE CORDS JN THE 
 
 LARYNX.. THE ARROWS 
 ' INDICATE THE DIRECTION 
 
 OF THE AIR CURRENT. 
 
 ARYTENOID END 
 
 Fig. 30. Pyramidal Vocal Cords 
 (Karl Kraft) 
 
THE VOCAL ACT 87 
 
 The vocal cords arise from the thyroid end of the 
 thyroid cartilage at an absolute point and spread in three 
 planes to the arytenoids. 
 
 Taking these three planes and placing them on each 
 other, we find them all equal. But, on adjusting them for 
 tone-production, we find that the dark plane (the side of 
 the pyramid without light), the one which is attached to 
 the muscles and tissues of the thyroid, will have to be 
 longer by one-sixth of its space from the linear measure- 
 ments to fulfill its obligation of equalization of force of the 
 other planes. As we turn back this blank plane above, it 
 perfectly fulfills the demand of the dimensions of the 
 true vocal cord of its control. The under plane is the 
 power plane; the upper plane is the resonance plane; the 
 third plane, which is attached to the thyroid, is the mus- 
 cular or motor plane. These three planes meet the three 
 planes of arytenoids at a certain angle. Their planes 
 coalesce and end in an apex at the point of the cartilage 
 of Santorini. 
 
 If, in our observation, we project the planes of the 
 vocal cords from where they coalesce with the three 
 planes of the arytenoids back again toward the thyroid, 
 they will be found to meet in an apex also at a point on 
 that cartilage. This is also true of the false vocal cords. 
 
 This can be observed more readily with two of the 
 planes than with the third, for this is a blank plane, being 
 attached to the muscles and tissues of the thyroid carti- 
 lage; on extension in the same direction as the other two 
 planes it will be found to meet in a like apex at a definite 
 point of the thyroid. 
 
 Hitherto the action of the vocal cords has been 
 studied only from the laws of forces of one plane. What 
 I have said above, however, proves that vocal-cord action 
 is subject to the geometric laws of forces moving in three 
 planes — the pyramid — and must be studied, explained and 
 demonstrated in order to formulate a true system of Vocal 
 Art-Science. One might also find metaphysical relation- 
 ship in the law of the three planes of the vocal cords and 
 the triple alliance between psychology, physiology and 
 emotionalism — mind, body and soul — in voice-production. 
 
88 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 It is easy to deduce the function of the ventricles 
 between the true and false cords by the author's newly- 
 discovered law of the pyramid as applied to the action of 
 the vocal folds along three planes. Before proceeding fur- 
 ther it will be well to define a term hereafter to be used, 
 namely, "Rule of Thumb"; an analogy used for the first 
 time in history. 
 
 / Nl/LE "-i THUMB APPLIED « VOCAL CORDS. \ 
 
 Coriilaqe of Santorini 
 
 fa he ybca/_ 
 dor'd 
 
 Cricoid Cart//a^'c 
 
 Vfntricle of the lort^nx 
 Thi^ro/d CartHa^y 
 
 i 
 
 Corti/a^e of Santor/r/ 
 /irtften o/ d Cort/'/ao e ** 
 Cricoid Carti/i3^e " 
 
 The Mor^ho/oft^ of ^/je Hands and 
 Zori^nA />7 Comparative Jinatom(j. 
 
 Cartiic^e of Santorini 
 ^■'At>^tef7oid Cartilage 
 ^^Toise Vocai Cord 
 ,, Trae Vbco/ Cord 
 /T/ii/ro/d 
 C<3rti/a^€ 
 
 ^-Ventr/cie of 
 
 the iarunx. 
 
 , Cay am "'^/an/nx 
 ^^- /a/se Voce/ Cord 
 
 ---^ Ventnc/e of 
 
 ioranx. 
 
 =- True VocaJ 
 Cord. 
 
 ^ 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 
 The true and false vocal folds as well as the several 
 cartilages of the larynx may be graphically demonstrated 
 and in proper relation, one to the other, in the following 
 manner: 
 
 Place the hand of another person outside and around 
 your own in exact conformation, so that the thumbs and 
 forefingers are aligned and in opposition. We shall then 
 find that the first and second joint or phalanx of the thumb 
 
.THE VOCAL ACT 89 
 
 represents the cartilage of Santorini; the third phalanx or 
 metacarpal corresponds to the arytenoid bone; and the 
 mass composed of the carpal bones occupies the position 
 of the cricoid. 
 
 The web between thumb and forefinger is the pyra- 
 mid of the vocal cords; the web of the superimposed hand, 
 the false vocal cords; while the metacarpal phalanges of 
 the finger conform to the position of the thyroid. 
 
 It is a misnomer,, this term "false vocal cords," for the 
 structure is a pyramidal assisting companion and, as such, 
 should never be termed "false," for it is an absolutely 
 necessary directing pyram'id. The first member, the ary- 
 tenoid, is also just as necessary to definite and correct 
 action as is the cord itself, and probably the latter with 
 its associated fibres running above and into the apex end 
 of the cartilage of Santorini, and to the pharynx behind, 
 gives another force, namely, the consummation of direc- 
 tion of the vibrations (set in motion through the cordal 
 forces) which, deflected by the vocal pyramids and prisms, 
 result in a veritable helix of two and one-half turns; 
 which explains clearly the conico-helicoidal relationship of 
 voice. 
 
 The laws which have just been discussed, have a de- 
 cided influence on voice-mechanism and present an en- 
 tirely new basis for voice-production and scientific study. 
 
 The vocal act, on the singer's part, consists in a series 
 of adjustments of automatic forces which eventuates to- 
 ward a standard or ideal tone. The mechanism of this 
 consists in putting the whole body into sympathetic under- 
 standing of what is required, like that of a trained soldier 
 answering the command, "Attention!" At such command 
 the vocal units must operate in sequence, the extrinsic so 
 assembled for vocal action that the intrinsic may have 
 free play in automatic and unified action. 
 
 Breath, natural and automatic, must be subjected to 
 pressure in order to arouse glottic cooperative opposition, 
 and the larynx must be consciously left without interfer-- 
 ence from muscle-control in order that this procedure 
 may produce voice; furthermore, the supra-laryngeal units 
 must adjust themselves to resonance. Confined to the 
 
90 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 larynx, the vocal act may be described as fixation, ap- 
 proximation, fold-stretching, and attack. Fixation, as we 
 have already seen, means procedures by which the larynx 
 is placed in the right relation to the whole body. 
 
 Pitch, or voice-placing in the scale, occurs as a mental 
 concept simultaneously with voice-intention. The singer 
 seeks to produce a tone having a relative position in the 
 scale, aligning this by comparison with a tone sounded on 
 some instrument, or from experience gained by habits of 
 accuracy, and accordingly materializes the breath into the 
 reproduction of a tone conjured up by the brain and 
 audited by the true authority, the inner ear, as distin- 
 guished from the outer ear that hears like the ear of an 
 audience. 
 
 Pitch, physically referred to as length of sound-wave, 
 or frequency of vibration, is the generating source, and is, 
 in the vox humana, conditioned by the length, weight, 
 shape, and tension of the fleshy mass forming the pyra- 
 midal vocal folds. Voluntary control transfers to the auto- 
 matic pyramidal regulators the special adjustments needed 
 to measure up the pitch of the tone produced to that of the 
 tone conceived. 
 
 Power or intensity in a musical tone, physically re- 
 ferred to, is the maximum height of a wave, and depends 
 in part on the extent of the swing of the glottal gates, the 
 reinforcement offered by the resonating systems, and the 
 character of the curves instilled by its helix of two and 
 one-half turns. The former is brought about by increase 
 of air-pressure and proportionate outlay of energy, yet it 
 can amplify the wave only from twenty-five to thirtyfold, 
 while resonance,, an inherent faculty, has in it the gift to 
 raise wave-height some hundredfold. Resonance, there- 
 fore, is the important factor in power or intensity, the 
 second characteristic of a musical tone. 
 
 The third characteristic quality is contributed in its 
 entirety by resonance. The helix of two and one-half turns 
 gives to power and resonance the momentic fundamental 
 direction. 
 
 The pitch of a tone, as vocal physics teaches us, is 
 that of its fundamental, with a harmonic relationship 
 
THE VOCAL ACT 91 
 
 existing between it and the overtone present. That these 
 overtones are found in the human voice is due to the phe- 
 nomenon of segmentation in the vocal folds, according to 
 the law of sectional vibration, when the generating force 
 is damped in computable sequences, and sympathetically 
 connected by muscles to the harmonious overtone reso- 
 nators. The amplitude of these partlals or overtones, as 
 they leave the glottic lips, is very small; and it is to syn- 
 chronous vibration that they must look for reinforcement, 
 as well as for the quality that conditions beauty in song. 
 Reinforcement obtained by a sounding-board, as in the 
 case of a violin, is more than duplicated in the human 
 vocal instrument, for while textures of the body lack the 
 essential characteristics of dryness and homogeneity, these 
 are more than compensated for by the mucous mem- 
 branes that conduct sound. These membranes are wet, and 
 form the wet resonators for reinforcement of tone. True, 
 the whole bodily frame is, as we have said, a resonator, 
 but we are now discussing special, technical reinforcements 
 of the several components of a tone. These are formed by 
 pharyngeal, nasal, and oral chambers. It is just here that 
 our new discovery of a helix of two and one-half turns 
 occurs with a fleshy cord for correlating quality. Thus 
 incorporating a hard, bony arytenoidal pyramid for co- 
 ordination of cords for reinforcement of cordal segmenta- 
 tion, with the object of increasing its cooperative capacity 
 in the formation of air-vibrations of like period in the 
 supra-laryngeal cavities. 
 
 Evidently, the vocal act demands absolute freedom 
 for the correct swing of the laryngeal cartilages; absolute 
 freedom for the glottic lips, that they may initiate the 
 proper combination of fundamental and overtones; and 
 absolute freedom for resonating influences to amplify tone 
 while enriching it with quality. Any muscle-contraction 
 hostile to such freedom constitutes that arch-enemy to 
 good vocalism: Interference. 
 
 In procedure, the position of the body must be estab- 
 lished. As all parts go to make up the singing-machine, 
 their relations to the vocal act are definite. According to 
 the kinetic principle based on the pyramid, the sides of 
 
92 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 whose faces, expanded to the circle, are in the relation of 
 150°, 120°, and 90°, or five, four, and three; according to 
 my observation, the motion necessary to produce musical 
 voice consumes a constant fractional part of the space 
 occupied in producing sound; in fact, a constant fractional 
 part of all the necessary constituent compound parts is 
 utilized in the stress, torsion and recoil of vocal kinesis. 
 
 The angle of opening of the mouth which governs the 
 output of voice in diction and style would conform to the 
 same principle. Thus we shall have a longitude of move- 
 ment of the lower against the upper jaw of 42° to 54°, 
 dependent on opening of jaw; this is called the kinetic 
 scalescope voice-sector, or rainbow of its kinesis, and is the 
 measuring scale of the balanced scales of power, quality 
 or resonance, and pitch. 
 
 This scale is to sound what the spectrum is to light. 
 If the action of the jaw, regulating the mouth in the 
 emission of musical sound, is the last point of regulating 
 voice, then what changes the position of the mouth in any 
 way, as regards its content and capacity, causes correct 
 voice-production or otherwise, for the reason that lips, 
 tongue, palate, and even the cords (by the way of the thy- 
 roids), are all attached to the jaw and govern voice-form. 
 
 overshot wheel of water 
 illustrat/ng^the:^ ancles 
 or- 
 
 RESONANCE 
 
 uoMimvm 
 
 VOICE 
 
 Fig. 32. 
 
 It will be noticed that when one is at rest, with the 
 jaw closed, the vocal parts are placed at right angles. In 
 
THE VOCAL ACT 93 
 
 action the jaw should drop 12 to 15 degrees, according to 
 the law of kinesis; for the jaw is constructed on the same 
 principle as the overshot wheel, and is the overshot wheel 
 of voice which forms the kinetic pyramid; in like manner 
 one can truly say that the nose is the overshot wheel of 
 resonance, and the Adam's apple the overshot wheel section 
 of vocal momentum. Were the cleats slanted, the wheel 
 would not revolve. 
 
 Nature indicates that more air-pressure should be put 
 on the right side than the left, because of the compensat- 
 ing third lobe of the lung with which it balances the heart. 
 The same may be said of the abdomen, where liver and 
 appendix are on the right, while the left contains the 
 large sigmoid flexure of the colon, the pancreas, stomach, 
 and spleen, organs that are separated and not easily 
 balanced and controlled, therefore more likely to be injured. 
 
 The crus, or leaf, of right side of the diaphragm has 
 an excursion or movement up and down of two to three 
 inches; hence, for support of tone, the major burden of 
 weight is on the right foot; the left, while assuming its 
 share, acts as a rudder to prevent swaying and to hold the 
 body in a position favorable for the next vocal effort. 
 
 As before stated, the relation of right foot to left 
 should be in an angle, the sides of which are as three, four, 
 and five, or 90°, 120° and 150° — the pyramidal measure- 
 ment. By raising the arm in the same relative position 
 and at the same time dropping the jaw, the latter will 
 through auto-suggestion assume the proper opening for the 
 perfect "ah," or likewise the perfect tone-form for any 
 other vowel that the emotion and the correct form of 
 sphincterization demands. 
 
 Breathing must be normal, spontaneous, the diaphragm 
 acting not as in governing defecation, but with the re- 
 versal of poles of power, as hereinbefore mentioned, the 
 upper part of the chest heaving rhythmically outward 
 both in inspiration and expiration. In inspiration this is 
 caused by natural expansion of the lungs. In expiration, 
 through the indrawing of the ribs by means of the inter- 
 costals and abdominal muscles, aided by the diaphragm, 
 an upward pressure is exerted upon the lungs, with a 
 
94 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 resultant outward movement of the chest. For this, spe- 
 cial tests and exercises will be given. 
 
 Support of tone requires the dynamic force of the 
 abdominal unit to be sustained in order to prevent vocal 
 wavering and tremolo. The great central automatic 
 sphincter, the diaphragm, must retain its hold of the ab- 
 dominal contents so as to regulate the upward pressure of 
 the semi-solid mass. Adjusted to the roots of the lungs, 
 the unit uses the residual breath, the life-giving force, as 
 the starting-point for the pneumatic action, and at the 
 same time utilizes the air that is left at the bottom of the 
 lungs from myriads of wet resonance cells, like ball-bear- 
 ings, to ease heart and ribs, while rhythmic helical puffs at 
 the glottic lips are forming tone. More air can be pumped 
 into the lungs than they can hold because of the expiration 
 that is always going on. This residual air, as a force, is 
 measured by the pyramidal angle of the jaw. 
 
 The initial tone, in its output, must have a centre or 
 point of resistance; also there must be another point for 
 breath-control, to ensure contrapuntal action. For the 
 tone, the point of resistance is on a direct line with the 
 roof of the mouth, and is sensed against the gums of the 
 upper incisors. 
 
 In addition, even on the outside of this place of tone- 
 impingement there is united with it, as a covering, the 
 upper lip. It is only necessary to observe at this point 
 the coalescence of breath emitted through the nostrils and 
 through the mouth, to discover that here is located the 
 bridge between vocalism and resonance and the working 
 and union of all the senses — ■ the great psycho-physical 
 link — the sixth sense of voice-production. 
 
 Tone must be directed forward. The law of vocal 
 acoustics demands that a certain wet, flexible mechanism 
 should not only develop tone, but that this should be pro- 
 jected, then reverberated from wall-structures, only to be 
 again projected by resonance, the two forces combining to 
 make pitch, which passes through the entire body by sym- 
 pathetic vibrations. Vocalises follow, but without refer- 
 ence to the artistic production of tone, which is taken up 
 under Vox Humana. 
 
THE VOCAL ACT 95 
 
 "Put the tone forward," all good teachers insist. 
 "Sing toward and through the face," is another expression 
 as frequently quoted. From our description of tone-direc- 
 tion you may draw your own conclusions. More particu- 
 larly will this subject be dealt with in subsequent works 
 by the author upon Polarization and Orientation. 
 
 With "Ah" for the initial individual unit, with the 
 pyramidal angle of position taken, certain tests can cor- 
 roborate the correctness of this procedure. Jaw, at the 
 right individual angle, as described later; lips, free upon 
 the teeth, and not restricted at the sides; tongue, flat on 
 the floor of the mouth, its tip and margins touching the 
 back of the lower front teeth; with the base of the tongue 
 level and free, so that back of throat is visible from the 
 front; palate free, so that breath passes naturally into the 
 nose; all without conscious effort, and always under the 
 direction of the teacher. 
 
 This position has the form of a double resonator, with 
 two principal resonance-chambers uniting in the middle 
 at right angles, where they are joined by a third accessory 
 chamber, the nose. Its additional resonance is obtained 
 by the expansion of the neck, due to the erect head, raised 
 ribs, and larynx adjusted to "Ah." 
 
 The double nature of this resonator can be learned by 
 introducing tuning-forks of the right pitch into the throat, 
 until a strong reinforcement is found in that position, indi- 
 cating a node at the junction of the two chambers. 
 
 The way to establish the individual or initial unit for 
 opening of the mouth is to place a tuning-fork in front of 
 it, pitched at either A^ or C^, and when the best balance 
 of power, resonance and pitch is produced as judged by 
 the ear, it will be found that the mouth is opened and jaw 
 drops at exactly the correct angle for that particular 
 singer, and that all the parts are properly adjusted, with- 
 out undue relaxation, strain, or interference. This com- 
 pletes the personal unit of procedure for the vocal act. 
 
 The usual explanation is that the attack {coup de 
 glotte, or glottic stroke) is the automatic action by which 
 momentum is converted into sound, with all its conditions 
 combined in one unit; but this is not correct. 
 
96 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 The glottis is free and at vital attention, the same as 
 the orbicularis oris, or binding lip-muscles. It is placed 
 on the same working elements as the mouth. The rima 
 (or rim) of the glottis corresponds with the orbicularis oris. 
 It has an aperture the same as the mouth. A series of 
 binding muscular filaments go up to the arytenoids from 
 the edges of the vocal bands and epiglottis, resembling the 
 overcasting of a buttonhole. The adjustments, in con- 
 junction with the air upon it, correspond with the opening 
 of the mouth in the production of "Ah," to which the 
 teeth and folds of the orbicularis oris, at the position of 
 vital attention for tone, give the proper aperture for the 
 individual and initial "Ah." 
 
 We have made our analogy and described the tone 
 "Ah" at the vocal cords. As the jaw controls with its 
 opening and shutting the operating elements of the mouth- 
 aperture, so the arytenoid end of the cord acts as a bal- 
 ancing and operating force, in the same manner as the jaw. 
 Consequently, in examining the arytenoid, we find that 
 the angle of the arytenoid upon the cricoid compels certain 
 angulations elsewhere. In the thyroid these angulations 
 refer to its position in relation to the fifth cervical vertebra 
 of the spine; also its position of reinforcement and adjust- 
 ment in its movements as a perpendicular arc (up and 
 down) from the hyoid to the cricoid, giving the kinesis of 
 adjustment for intensity and amplification. 
 
 Furthermore, as the false cords are attached to the 
 upper portion of the arytenoid and around the sides of the 
 thyroid, we have the arytenoid acting as an adjuster of 
 every motor force applied to the under side of the cords, 
 regulating them in every direction and manner, creating 
 resonance-space for the many diversified currents (arising 
 from the overcasting of epiglottis, cords, and arytenoids) 
 that come and go in spiral ray thrusts from such a source. 
 It also controls and regulates the return of these reflected 
 and reverberated sound rays or thrusts to the sonoric 
 cavity and determines the manner in which their force 
 shall be moulded when regulated on their return by the 
 upper or resonance side of the vocal band, which they 
 contact. 
 
THE VOCAL ACT 97 
 
 Thus we have explained the three planes of the cords 
 terminating in an apex in the anterior portion of the thy- 
 roid at a single point. Nothing could be more accurate 
 than this adjustment from a scientific standpoint, for it 
 explains the peculiar pyramidal form of the cricoid with 
 its circular aperture in its horizontal situation terminating 
 in a circular aperture of an' entirely different angle of 
 exit; and at the same time this explains the peculiar 
 placement and angulation of the parts above; also, the 
 intricacies of the resonators and pyramids, hollow, flexible, 
 hard, and movable, which so long have mystified the stu- 
 dent of Vocal Art-Science. 
 
 We have explained the complexities of the apparatus 
 to which the rima glottidis is attached as it is by its own 
 system of overcasting fibres, which bind its elements. 
 Acting automatically as does the mouth, we can apply the 
 identical rules for its operation as employed for the mouth 
 at "Ah." In other words, it forms a natural opening and 
 closing sphincteric aperture. 
 
 When it is closed in an attempt to make sound, you 
 will see from its structure, that it acts like one-half of the 
 mouth for its under surface. This act of closing causes a 
 joining of the arytenoids, and as the arytenoids join we 
 have also the closure of the false vocal cords. Anything 
 in the nature of a sound that will start vibration in the 
 body, opens the glottis as for "Ah." 
 
 As our whole system is based upon automatic muscular 
 combination of the nerves, guided by the initial impulse of 
 the vocal nucleus in the brain, we shall find by further 
 study the diaphragm has a sympathetic nerve-control 
 over the entire respiratory or pneumatic region, and also 
 a motor nerve-control of the dynamic unit. So closely 
 wedded is this to the great sympathetic system, that the 
 initial force to produce voice must come from this region. 
 In other words, that which makes a vibration with the 
 glottis in a free position and at attention, produces sound; 
 and thus is the very essence and inception of voice. 
 
 Singing, not merely vocalizing, refers to the precision 
 with which the artist places a perfectly conditioned tone in 
 the exact place it belongs in the musical composition — on 
 
98 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 the beat, so to speak. Breath-leakage spoils attack. 
 Treating a consonantal value as a vowel spoils attack. 
 Ignorance of dipthongal analysis spoils attack. Unreadi- 
 ness, uncertainty, over-eagerness, spoil attack. All the 
 singing-exercises in the world will not build a voice cor- 
 rectly unless used as technique, after Vocal Art-Science 
 development. In a word, attack means unifying all the 
 elements of which a tone is composed — thought, feeling, 
 breath-control, phonic utterance, everything — into one 
 pyramidally created effort, which, as this whole work goes 
 to show, is nothing more than a definite breath-clutch and 
 tone-impingement centre. 
 
 This constitutes the vocal act, in its elementary 
 analysis, a mental concept, materially expressed in sound, 
 according to the fundamental laws which govern light, 
 the source of life. 
 
 Such an attack is a perfectly logical and correct 
 procedure. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 The Vocal A-B-C 
 
 In singing, the voice is an interpreter of human con- 
 sciousness by means of different sounds. 
 
 All would-be singers, arid no less all would-be 
 speakers, however mature — indeed the more mature 
 the more surely — must again go to school to learn their 
 A-B-C. 
 
 Little do we dream as children, when memorizing the 
 alphabet, that its twenty-six components are the material 
 from which the whole structure of organized language is 
 created; that combinations of these components, with the 
 modifications found in other tongues, carry the whole bur- 
 den of thought and feeling possible to humanity. 
 
 The written alphabet may be defined as a series of The 
 signs or symbols by means of which the eye receives the written 
 sounds employed in articulate speech and song. The com- alphabet, 
 binations that can be formed from these sound-signs are 
 as- innumerable as are the objects they describe, the phases 
 of human experience they relate, and the states of human 
 consciousness of which they are the record. 
 
 A perfect alphabet would include all simple sound- 
 symbols that can be conceived. None such exists, because 
 not one expresses or presents pictorially all the sounds 
 that occur in nature's language. 
 
 As students of the alphabet are aware, no nation re- 
 tains in perpetuity the same sounds in its vocabulary or 
 the same grammar-forms in speech-structure. Conquest, 
 revision of boundaries, enforced speech, alterations in na- 
 tional habits, climatic changes. Increased facilities for 
 transportation, and improved methods for communicating 
 and recording, developments on the line of science and art — ■ 
 all these are potent factors In altering the subtle qualities 
 
100 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 Phono- 
 graphic 
 record of 
 speech- 
 vibrations. 
 
 The vocal 
 lips as 
 factors in 
 speech. 
 
 of letters and the fashion that in different ages the word 
 itself assumes. Compare, for instance, the poetry of 
 Tennyson with that of Chaucer! Suppose the defiance 
 hurled at the Roman conquerors of Britain by the na- 
 tional hero Caractacus could have been preserved in 
 sound as it has in effect, it would be as alien, as incom- 
 prehensible, as an Indian dialect beside the periods put 
 into the mouth of the lyric Caractacus in the Elgar can- 
 tata of the same name. So great are these changes that 
 those who search the records have to translate the past 
 into the present in order that the two may be compared. 
 Or, to go less far afield, compare the King's English on the 
 lips of Yorkshire with that of Dorset, Devon, and Pall 
 Mall, and then Glasgow and Dublin! Recall seriatim the 
 accents of Boston, Georgia and Kansas City. Place the 
 living speech of a Mr. Balfour, for instance, beside the no 
 less living speech of a Mr. Dooley! Ask any ten persons 
 in a cultivated gathering to pronounce the five vowels, and 
 hear how many can produce a faultless mould. All these 
 points are important in voice-building, because on the ab- 
 solute precision with which the elements of speech are 
 sounded, depends the perfection of the entire word, the 
 completed utterance. 
 
 As sound originates in vibration, each letter, being a 
 representative of a special sound-form, may be considered 
 a vocal centre or a speech centre of vibrating force. Fur- 
 thermore, each letter, according to its sound-property or 
 tone-quality, possesses the power to generate a specific 
 form of vibration. A microscopic examination of a phono- 
 graph record exhibits a great variety in depths, widths, 
 and contours throughout the tiny continuous spiral track 
 with which the disc is furrowed. These variations mark 
 the several vibration-origins of the different sounds from 
 which speech is built. 
 
 The vocal mechanism is at one and the same time a 
 sound-maker and shaper. The vocal bands, the lips of 
 voice, initiate the song and its burthen, in one live thought, 
 one concept, one conscious activation of automatic breath, 
 leaving tongue and lips to carry out and perfect the design. 
 The tongue is so poised, adjusted and balanced that it is 
 
THE VOCAL A-B-C 
 
 101 
 
 capable of an endless variety of complicated movements. 
 The genio-glossi muscles, which are the chief architects of 
 sound-forms, are marvels of dexterity and speed, lengthen- 
 ing and shortening their fibres, during the delivery of the 
 simplest speech, in ways that for number and intricacy 
 almost baffle comprehension. The lips, also — let any one 
 watch lip-action before a mirror while reciting the alpha- 
 bet, and note the changes they undergo, from the orbicular 
 adjustment that produces 0, to the elliptical slit that mani- 
 fests the sound-form E. On the outside of the face, the jaw, 
 with its up-and-down hinge-action and its lateral swing, 
 with its wonderful series of muscles about the mouth, is an 
 important assistant in determining the precision of pure 
 sounds, and of sound-combinations. 
 
 From the contour of nose, mouth, throat and face 
 generally, the expert can predicate with certainty if a 
 person be a singer, and whether the singing voice in a 
 marked way is either low or high. This is because certain 
 anatomical characteristics are found to accompany certain 
 types of face, while the face itself is an index of the 
 voice. 
 
 As the alphabet can be referred to geometry, so also 
 can it be translated into terms of light. About two and a 
 half years ago in England an instrument was invented — 
 the Optophone. This instrument resembles a hand-camera 
 with a telephone receiver, and, as its name denotes, regis- 
 ters the phenomena of both light and sound. By direct- 
 ing this doubly gifted and sensitive instrument toward an 
 open window it transmits to the experimenter, through the 
 sense of hearing, the light rays as distributed by passers-by. 
 In a word, what the Optophone sees, it enables you to 
 hear, a discovery that translates the alphabet into terms 
 of light, presenting this to the ear through the several 
 vibration-groups that its elements emit. This feat is actu- 
 ally accomplished through the law that every letter has its 
 own tone-shape or vibrating quality, whether uttered by 
 the living voice or, no less surely, pronounced by the 
 silent light-rays as they pass through sound-figures on the 
 delicately adjusted Optophone. In the initial experiments 
 many interesting discoveries were made, as, for example, 
 
 Lips and 
 tongue 
 as 
 
 factors in 
 speech. 
 
 The jaw 
 as a 
 
 factor in 
 speech. 
 
 The face 
 an index 
 of voice. 
 
 The 
 Opto- 
 phone. 
 
 The blind 
 taught by 
 light-rays 
 to read. 
 
102 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 that the letter iV gives forth a peculiarly dismal sound, 
 most disturbing to the ear, while the sound-symbol E, 
 acted upon by light, sounds a perfect chord of music. The 
 wide differences in letter-vibration make it possible for the 
 blind to master the alphabet in a few hours. Whole books 
 may thus be presented automatically by running a ribbon 
 of letter-symbols through a machine, as with a moving- 
 picture film, and interpreted by this wonderful Optophone 
 in the language of sound-light. 
 Musical Then there are the phenomena of singing flames, 
 
 flames. which must not in this connection be neglected. A flame 
 
 enclosed in an open tube affects the air passing over it 
 vibratorily and thus lifts its voice in song. The sympathy 
 of an exposed flame with music can be of such keenness 
 that, as Le Conte remarked, describing the reaction of a 
 'cello selection on a gas jet, "Even the trills were reflected 
 on the flame-sheet. A deaf man might have seen the har- 
 mony!" That flames are sympathetically sensitive with a 
 selective faculty to the elements of speech, is rejponsible 
 for most important observations. A photograph of a 
 flame that has been talked or sung to exhibits a kind of 
 inverted shorthand record of the speech or song, a record in 
 which, contrary to written procedure, the articulates com- 
 monly called consonants are suppressed, a syllable being 
 represented by its unimpeded or vowel sound alone. 
 
 Vowel-waves reach a velocity of 1170 feet a second; 
 consonants are only little puffs of air preceding or follow- 
 ing them. 
 
 With this wonder-tale before us, is it too much for 
 
 Vocal Art-Science to insist that its disciples shall learn their 
 
 A-B-C? Only by intoning and pronouncing with accuracy 
 
 each letter can we "pluck the heart out of its mystery" ! 
 
 From the elements of speech we lay the foundation of 
 
 voice-rhythm, on which we build beauty of tone in speech 
 
 and song. 
 
 Alphabet The alphabet, mechanically considered, consists of 
 
 mechanically breath-emissions, modified by muscular control. A very 
 
 considered. slight approximation of the glottic lips gives a faint, 
 
 whispered aspirate. A further approximation yields the 
 
 hoarse utterance of fear and the sinister emotions. The 
 
THE VOCAL J-B-C 
 
 103 
 
 completed vocal act makes voice, at the same time shaping 
 it into the elements of speech. 
 
 These speech-elements are commonly divided into 
 vowels (from the Latin vox, wcis, "voice") and consonants 
 (from the Latin con, "together with," and sono, "I sound"), 
 the former being defined as simple elementary sounds ca- 
 pable of being uttered alone, while consonants, as their name 
 implies, depend on vowel-assistance to make themselves 
 heard. The classification is misleading and the definition 
 in one instance wide of the truth. Certain consonants 
 have a vowel-value as such in certain combinations; and 
 all speech-elements by their very nature are vowels, in 
 that each is capable of producing its own sound alone. 
 Alexander Melville Bell rechristens consonants as articula- 
 tions, because they at once separate and join, or articulate, 
 the vowel-sounds which are the fabric from which speech 
 is made. However, traditional names will serve, provided 
 these are accepted as names, and not as exact differentia- 
 tion and description. 
 
 Vowels may be defined as sounds that pass freely 
 through the open mouth in some position or another; 
 while consonants are breath rendered audible by some 
 action on the part of lips, palate, or tongue. A vowel, 
 again to quote Professor Bell, is due to the open position 
 of the oral organs; an articulation, or consonant, is the 
 result of an open action on their part. 
 
 The subdivisions in which these speech-elements have 
 been arranged by various writers are many and conflicting. 
 One fact, however, has been proved beyond peradventure 
 or dispute; whatever their classification, their vocal re- 
 gions or autonomies are organic and fundamental. Never 
 may these be treated as arbitrary or adventitious. Never 
 may they be regarded as extraneous matters, to be studied 
 apart from pure voice. Voice and vowel are identical. 
 Speech-elements are integral and are as much a part of 
 the creature make-up as hands, heart.and brain. Voice it- 
 self is speech. 
 
 In a detailed study of these alphabet-components, 
 vowels must come first, for the reason that they consti- 
 tute the elemental utterance, the sound-vehicle of the 
 
 Vowels 
 and con- 
 sonants. 
 
 Alexander 
 
 Melville 
 
 Bell. 
 
 Speech- 
 elements 
 defined. 
 
 Speech- 
 elements 
 funda- 
 mental. 
 
 Speech- 
 elements 
 integral. 
 
104 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 emotions. They also come first in tiie natural process 
 of life. Does not the infant cry upon a vowel.? "A hint," 
 sapiently observes Prof. Wesley Mills, "to all teachers of 
 voice-production." 
 Various To account for the formation of vowels, three theories 
 
 theories have been from time to time advanced, yet only to be dis- 
 
 of vowel- proved in the light of later investigations. Briefly to enu- 
 
 formation. merate them, they are that of Helmholtz, which is classic; 
 Hermann's, a modification of Helmholtz's, and the cy- 
 clonic theory of Dr. Guillemin. The first theory finds, in 
 effect, that each vowel demands for its production a fixed 
 and unvarying position of the supra-laryngeal organs of 
 Dr. voice. Dr. Marage, however, has demonstrated that the 
 
 Marage. buccal cavity is capable of assuming many forms for the 
 
 making of the same vowel, so that this view may be aban- 
 doned. Hermann concludes that a vowel is an oral tone 
 intermittent and oscillating. Here logic exposes one fal- 
 lacy, since, to support such a conclusion, part of the 
 sought-for proof must be assumed in the premises. A fur- 
 ther fallacy is brought to light by means of an apparatus 
 modeled on the plan of the human labyrinth of sound- 
 making, which shows that a vowel cannot be recon- 
 structed from the components into which Hermann's con- 
 clusions have resolved it. "While from a mathematical 
 point of view his method is objectionable," says Dr. Ma- 
 rage, "so much cannot be said for it acoustically." Dr. 
 Guillemin propounds the theory that "vowels are due to 
 the whirling air-currents, or cyclones; formed during phona- 
 tion in superior laryngeal cavities." 
 Vowels Following up the explosions that force their way through 
 
 and re- the resisting larynx, we find that they disperse themselves 
 
 sonators. in the cavities above. Thereupon, the oral unit, formed 
 
 from the sonoric region of the voice-tract, adjusts itself 
 sympathetically with the laryngeal vibrations in order to 
 perfect the vowel born below. By the number of inter- 
 mittencies, the tone, consisting of a fundamental and har- 
 monics, has. been created, and put forth in vowel-shape. 
 By the selective quality of air-cavities, these components 
 will be reinforced by organisms capable of vibrations syn- 
 chronous with their own. Such an organism is the buccal 
 
THE VOCAL A-B-C 
 
 105 
 
 cavity, which, with its elaborate equipment of lips and 
 tongue, its manifold devices for transforming its hollows 
 into innumerable contours, now becomes the matrix in 
 which the plastic vowel-shape finally is cast, but not, 
 however, without resonance in kinesis. An active, con- 
 scious resonator, under muscle-control, such as the buccal 
 cavity, decides the success or failure of the vowel put 
 forth into the world of sound. Its mechanical adjust- 
 ments must conform to the requirements of the laryngeal 
 tone with its vowel-burden. If the latter is registered 
 by one vibration-period, then must the buccal cavity 
 reinforce it by putting itself in unison with the fun- 
 damental tone. A vowel of two periods will call for 
 resonance in the second harmonic of the tone, while 
 experiment proves that nothing but the third harmonic 
 will satisfy the resonantic claim of "ah," the child of three 
 periods. 
 
 "If the buccal cavity places itself in unison with the 
 sum of the vibrations, the vowel is well rendered; other- 
 wise, though it still exists, It is disagreeable to the ear," 
 says Dr. Marage; while Lefort phrases it, "A vowel badly 
 emitted Is a false vowel for which the mouth has not 
 the proper form." 
 
 Expanding our definition so as to include both laryn- 
 geal, vocalic and resonantic agencies in the formation of 
 vowels, it may be said that vowels "are produced by a 
 series of intermittent aero-laryngeal vibrations, reinforced 
 by the buccal cavity through adjustments, by which this 
 puts itself into unison with the sum of the vibrations, this 
 sum giving the fundamental of the note on which the 
 vowel is emitted, but not without nasal resonance in kinesis. 
 
 If the buccal cavity operates alone we have the whis- 
 pered vowel. The larynx operating alone produces the 
 sung but unresonated vowel. Together the two yield the 
 desideratum, the enunciated YO^e\, in a condition to be 
 articulated with others, whether in the speech of social 
 intercourse, of oratory, or in the secondary speech of song. 
 
 Vowels originate at the glottis and eventuate upon the 
 lips, while the articulates or consonants are supra-laryngeal 
 modifiers of sound. The office of the consonant is to define 
 
 Harmonics 
 
 and 
 
 vowels. 
 
 Lefort. 
 
106 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 boundaries, to mark outlines in a congeries of vowel-sounds, 
 and at times adding to sound and imparting a value similar 
 to the instruments of percussion in an orchestra. With 
 their fellows in the alphabet their regions are organically 
 placed by evolutionary processes that have brought com- 
 plexities and subtleties to the primitive utterances of ani- 
 mal life. The emotional office of the consonants and their 
 psychic quality cannot be dissociated from that of vowels. 
 Vowel and consonant, in Vocal Art-Science, must be studied 
 from the standpoint of adjustments through muscular con- 
 trol; adjustments for position, adjustments for action, and 
 adjustments of the body in its parts, so as to become auto- 
 matically balanced. 
 
 Following up the pyramidal and prismal principle 
 which we have established as governing all creative effort, 
 and all utilization of life-energy, we find that this is carried 
 out in the formation of speech-elements, each of which in 
 form is referable to sectional cutting of the cube. 
 
 The centres of speech, we find, are automatic. The 
 first part of formation begins with the direction assumed 
 by the upper lip, and the depressed movement of the 
 lower. Every vowel-formation is the base of a pyramid, as 
 it issues from the oral sphincter, and, if its projection was 
 visualized, it would appear to eventuate in the apex. 
 
 Consonants give an indentation of the vowel-form by 
 which it is recognized in singing. Air cyclones begin with 
 a consonant. If measured by the draughts of air they 
 create, the sizes of these would give the indentation on the 
 vowel-element which distinguishes them one from an- 
 other. This indentation should precede the actual tone- 
 emission, as far as the adjustment is concerned. Many 
 singers forget that there is a danger of lingering on the 
 initial consonant, the _ effect being to keep the mouth 
 opened, or to leave it opened imperfectly, on the vowel. 
 Singers therefore are advised to bound off the initial 
 consonant, and to get the mouth open in vowel-position 
 at the actual phonic effort, and furthermore, not to antici- 
 pate the final consonant. 
 
 In singing, the vowels are the union of the senses, the 
 conveyors of emotion. By their relation, muscularly, they 
 
THE VOCAL A-B-C 107 
 
 are sensory tell-tales toward eyes, ears, and nostrils. 
 Vowels and emotions', formed in the mouth and in the 
 oral sphincter, are correlated. 
 
 It is through the alphabet, with its combination of 
 vowels and consonants, with correlation of the autono- 
 mies or centres of force and muscular coordination of the 
 mechanism, that expression in speech and song is possible. 
 
 Vowels are resonators. The geographic location in 
 the human structure shown in our chapter on autono- 
 mies, defines the natural order in which their inherent 
 pitch-property occurs. This is susceptible of definite 
 acoustic proof and of physical demonstration. With the 
 fingertip on the Adam's apple one feels the vibration in 
 singing our glottic unit "Ah"; but if this be changed to 
 "E," for instance, the thrill is minimized at that point, 
 while the nose, the highest reverberator, is found in 
 active response. Deaf mutes, deprived of the phonetic 
 appeal, but taught largely through eye and touch, at first 
 pronounce each vowel on a separate tone. 
 
 Language, through the alphabet, incorporated into the 
 pyramidal scheme of automatic action by which voice-in- 
 tention (mental concept) becomes song, calls for absolute 
 perfection of mechanism in order that the ends of pho- 
 nation may be achieved. 
 
 Language, speech-elements, articulated into words, 
 sentences, or thoughts, persist in unseen forms about us. 
 As Professor Babbage has truly sard, "The air is one vast 
 library on whose pages are forever written all that man 
 has ever said or woman whispered!" 
 
 It takes the higher consciousness of the senses to 
 comprehend the alphabet, but when used in vocalism, as 
 a series of sound-media, it must conform to the demands 
 of a standard capable of being inspired by the soul, rea- 
 soned out by the mind, and practised by the body. This 
 standard is the inner ear of the singer, which automatic- 
 ally combines power, resonance and pitch so as to make 
 voice a living fact. Our Vocal A-B-C is the series of human 
 prisms and pyramids measured by the circle of eternity. 
 For, "I am the Alpha and Omega, saith the Lord God, 
 the beginning and the end." 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 The Vocal A-B-C 
 
 {Continued) 
 
 To reiterate, vowels and consonants eventuate at the 
 lips. Vowel-sounds have a maximum velocity of about 
 1 1 70 feet per second; consonants or articulates are little 
 puffs which precede or follow the vowel. 
 
 It is through the alphabet, with its combination of 
 vowels and consonants, depending upon the breath after 
 its passage through the entire physical apparatus con- 
 cerned with voice-production, that the definite training of 
 muscles in coordination and the correlation of the autono- 
 mies or centres of force become practical. For the alpha- 
 bet, as employed in Vocal Art-Science, shows us the co- 
 ordination, correlation, connection and purpose of every 
 muscle and of all muscles employed to produce communi- 
 cation through the voice, whether in speech or song. 
 
 Does it not seem that for the alphabet to have been 
 given us as it is constitutes a divine miracle; although a 
 renowned author says that our alphabet is irrational and 
 illogical and should be replaced by a new word-alphabet.? 
 For here, as elsewhere in our theory and practice of voice, 
 we find a demonstration of the union of the function of 
 psycho-physical elements so essential to Art and Science. 
 Everything of emotional nature is corroborated by mus- 
 cular effort governing the organs of the senses. Such are 
 the tell-tale muscles toward the eyes and ears — muscles 
 which are also visibly used in vowel-formation. These 
 muscles furnish a capital instance of the correlation of 
 the physical and the emotional, so that one may state 
 that, as vowels and consonants eventuate at the lips in 
 voice, so, through the same or part of the same kinesis, do 
 the emotions become manifest. 
 
 If vowel-formation eventuates at the lips in the final- 
 ity of artistic tone-production, then to understand the 
 material mechanism of the artistic tone-finality is the 
 
 108 
 
THE VOCAL A-B-C 109 
 
 solution of what we wish to discover. The voice's own 
 portrayal of its manifold emotions, will unfold the story of 
 the relation of vowels and emotions in the aerial world of 
 sound. Our problem deals with the skin of the face, the 
 aperture, muscles, nerves and blood-vessels of the mouth, 
 and their adjacent interested companions, namely, the 
 jaw, teeth, cheeks, palate, nose, eyes and ears. Every 
 nerve, blood-vessel and muscle is in some way involved in 
 its final action, and either manifests itself in the magic 
 crowning wreath of final artistic vocal expression, or is 
 expressed by it. As Fulgentius declared of Apollo, so we 
 say, for example, of the teeth: What better sounding-board 
 than they.? And what of the lips that cover the teeth as 
 flexible and adjustable regulators of reaonance.'' 
 
 Repeat the seven vowels, e, a, i, ah, ooh, awe, oh, and 
 watch the action of the moistened lips and tongue upon 
 the solid bony resonators — the teeth. Observe the four 
 median raphes, or spliced central muscles, work, especially 
 on the upper lip; namely, those that join the orbicularis 
 oris to the aperture of the nose, that in so doing unite the 
 senses of taste, smell and sound as a psycho-physical whole 
 at the arch. 
 
 A vowel-form is always concave upon the lips. Watch 
 the other single muscles of the lips working in pairs, sym- 
 metrically and conjointly as they make the consonants, 
 but always in convexities as they clothe the vowel with its 
 psychic wreath of projections in the correlation of our five 
 special senses. The very nature of it all is revealed at once 
 in the cohsonantic puff, on the contour of the lips, or the 
 dimpled raphe or spliced muscles at the centre and corners 
 of the mouth in vowel-production. Without these move- 
 ments of the lips, dropping of the jaw creates "Ah," or the 
 unit of initial procedure of voice. This first unit, "Ah," 
 put in action, reveals the natural, vital, blood-and-nerve- 
 supplied- lips, parted and ready for action with absolute 
 lack of muscular lip-control. The next vowel is "A." 
 Here the upper raphe or spliced muscle, composed of the 
 two central pyramids of the upper lip, is drawn up. 
 
 Before dropping the jaw everything concerned in the 
 process of speech-formation is at right angles; when the 
 
110 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 jaw is dropped it alters these spaces into hollow adjustable 
 resonant pyramids capable of meeting all the demands 
 of the laws of acoustics. 
 
 In the next chapter every letter of the alphabet is 
 analyzed. Because of the importance of "ah" as the 
 initial unit, and the action and adjustments necessary in 
 its formation, from aperture of lips to aperture of the 
 vocal cords, it demands special study. 
 
 In Vocal Art-Science, the alphabet, instead of being a 
 mere sequence of determinate symbols, thus becomes a 
 living, breathing scheme for communication of man to 
 man through speech or song. However specific the in- 
 vestigations of those who have attempted to deal with 
 this subject, the results obtained are incomplete, for the 
 reason that they were unaware of the formation and 
 method of functioning of the human vocal apparatus. 
 Vocal Art-Science has opened a pathway of discovery 
 of these fundamental factors in voice-production, and is 
 able to apply the knowledge thus gained with definite 
 results. What hitherto has been obscure, now becomes 
 plain. This science especially illumines the subject by 
 taking into account its discoveries of the sphincteric 
 formation of voice and the coordination and correlation 
 of all other parts of the vocal apparatus engaged in 
 voice-production; nor does it rest here, but reckons as 
 well with the pyramido-spherical formation of the letters 
 with eight definite actions of the vocal cords based on 
 absolute laws of kinesis along the planes of a pyramid. 
 These discoveries make it possible to standardize the scale 
 of letters in voice-production. 
 
 To determine the sequence in pitch of vowels and con- 
 sonants in scales, it is necessary to know the capacity and 
 content of that space in the vocal apparatus governed by 
 the lips, teeth, tongue, palate, and vocal cords. The size 
 of the aperture of the mouth, so mobile and capable of 
 many adjustments, affects by correlation and coordination 
 the adjustment of every part of the space from sphincter 
 of mouth to sphincter of cords. This latter statement can 
 easily be proved by holding a tuning-fork in front of the 
 aperture of the mouth. 
 
mc rosiTioN or the vocal organs 
 
 DURING THE FRONUNCIATIon 
 or THE VOWEL "0 ' 
 Fig. 33. 
 (Karl Kraft.) 
 
THE VOCAL A-B-C 111 
 
 ^^As one says "E," "Oh," "Ah," he will feel that for 
 "E" the adjustment of pyramidal spaces from lips to cords 
 is smallest; for "Oh" largest; "Ah" is the middle measure- 
 ment between "E" and "Oh,'' so that "Ah" may be called 
 the unit of balance of measurement in the alphabet scale. 
 As a matter of fact, we find that any deviation from 
 "Ah" is progressively smaller toward "E," or progressively 
 larger toward "Oh." Thus we have three letters, three 
 vowel-tones, upon which all other combinations of letters 
 depend; three factors for measuring content and capacity 
 of the vocal instrument and from which can be derived 
 its proportionate content and capacity, and with these 
 its effectiveness in all other combinations. For example, 
 "Ah" being the balance between "E" and "Oh," if the 
 scale of G is used, "Ah" produces a much fuller and 
 more easily adjustable tone at the middle of that scale 
 than would either "E" or "Oh," and can be used as the 
 regulating unit up and down that scale for adjustment. 
 Progressing upward we shall find as we reach the higher 
 notes that "E" is the best vowel-sound upon which to 
 produce the notes of higher pitch both for resonance and 
 compass. Descending, we find that the vowel-sound "Oh" 
 makes the lower tones larger, deeper and more resonant. 
 For as "E" shortens up the sonoric, vocalic, resonantic and 
 pyramidal units, and results in vibrations of higher pitch, 
 so "Oh" extends and enlarges the content and capacity of 
 these units, with the result already noted. In other words, 
 there is a natural progression for vowel-sounds which by 
 their own construction,, enable us to take the three that 
 have been named, and, from them easily to mould all other 
 vowels by grading them as follows: For high tones, from 
 "Ah" toward "E"; for low tones, from "Ah" toward "Oh." 
 For "E" is highest pitch, "Ah" is middle pitch, and "Oh" 
 is lowest pitch. 
 
 "Ah" being the intuitive and initial unit of pro- 
 cedure for the reason that it is the balance between the 
 two extremes of vowel-sounding, will now be considered 
 in detail. When it is sounded, the lower jaw drops at the 
 angle already stated in vocal procedure. The upper lip 
 curves like an archer's bow. The lower lip adjusts the 
 
112 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 orbicularis like a bowstring. All pyramids— solid, hollow, 
 flexible — from palate to lips, adjust themselves according 
 to the law of the aperture, and form a solid, closed lower 
 space. There is also a space, pyramidal in form, along the 
 roof of the mouth, which would be solidly filled by the 
 tongue, did not the dropping of the lower jaw cause a 
 hollow pyramidal space to be formed between roof and 
 tongue. The tongue changes its adjustments downward 
 by the dropping of the jaw and forms, from uvula to lower 
 teeth, the hypothenuse of a pyramid; the base of which is 
 represented by the space open between the two rows of 
 teeth, while its lateral walls are the buccal muscles. In 
 fine, palate, and tongue are so adjusted as to give an equal- 
 ized arrangement of palate, dome and sonoric pyramids. 
 
 The unit "Ah" of each person is dependent upon the 
 content of the spaces and aperture of the mouth. Besides 
 the pyramidal adjustment to the aperture, there is a circle 
 of which the lips may be conceived as forming the radii; 
 the tongue furnishes the radii of another circle from its 
 attachment to the genial tubercle of the chin. At the 
 palate is a circle or double circle, the centres being at the 
 palate itself; the pillars, anterior and posterior, delimit the 
 circumferences; while thyroid. cartilage and hyoid bone, in 
 their pyramidal and circular relationship (too technical to 
 be described in detail) combine to produce a hard, bony 
 sector. The next point arrived at in this working out of 
 circles, is the vocal cords where they meet the thyroid in 
 an apex, thus determining their radii of operation. The 
 arytenoid also operates in a circle. The centre of this 
 circle is the tip of the cartilage of Santorini, its point of 
 attachment to the cricoid indicating the circumference. 
 This flexible mass of vocal cord being pyramidal, is there- 
 fore in three planes, which also is true of the arytenoid; 
 consequently, both will have three radii. As each is cap- 
 able of operating for one octave of tone in eight move- 
 ments, the latter must conform in adjustment for every 
 tone to the aperture of the mouth, where, as we have 
 demonstrated, all spiral thrusts of breath for tone eventuate. 
 
 Below this is the cricoid, triangular in form, with cir- 
 cular orifice which by its very shape gives permanent 
 
THE VOCAL A-B-C 113 
 
 spiral form to every column of vitalized breath that passes 
 through it. 
 
 When we realize the true nature and formation of the 
 cricoid-arytenoid-vocal'cord section of the voice-apparatus, 
 and bear in mind that they are built to operate automatic- 
 ally, and in fact are hollow, compact, flexible forms in 
 automatic action, we have simplified what at first may 
 have seemed a highly complex detail of Vocal Art-Science. 
 Each automatic action consists of eight movements, deter- 
 mined by its proportionate kinetic force working in helical 
 ray-thrusts from pyramids and prisms, which cause the 
 spiral ray-thrusts to move in the geometric dimension of 
 two and a half turns and become perfected in the octave 
 in the ninth evolution of the completed circle. Therefore, 
 it is only necessary to consider each autonomy under its 
 own laws. Thus, considering our cricoid pyramid both 
 compact and hollow, we have breath for tone issuing in 
 helical form from the circular aperture of this cartilage, 
 converted into momentum at the glottis by the bony pyra- 
 mids of the arytenoid, and developed into pure sonoric 
 sound by the action of the flexible pyramids of the remain- 
 ing part of the vocal cords. All of the parts just men- 
 tioned have voluntary and involuntary power action, some 
 of it antagonistic, but not here analyzed in detail, because in 
 Vocal Art-Science the action of these parts is properly 
 classed as automatic and the parts themselves as autono- 
 mies. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 The Alphabet in Vocal Art-Science 
 
 Observing human articulation in speech and song, it 
 is found that from lips to glottis (lips-pharynx-glottis) the 
 action is automatic, synchronous, correlative, coordinate 
 and adjustable. For pharynx, substitute tongue and 
 palate, and we have the correlated actions of all these 
 
 "BETA PyR/lMID 
 DEPRESSOR ALAE 
 NASI MU5CLE 
 
 C"PyRAMIO. RiqHf 
 LEVATOR LABI 
 PR0PRIU5 MUSCLE 
 
 DELTAPyRAMID. FHQHT; 
 LLVATOPNQULIORISMUSCLEJ 
 
 EP5IL0N'PyRflMID5,RI(illI 
 ZyQOMATIC nUSCLL 
 
 Fig. 34. F Pyramid. Left 
 
 Note. — Only the triangular bases 
 
 ^ fflLPHfl PYRAMID. 
 ^ '/DEPRESSOR 
 'I SEPTUM Nfl5l 
 
 [muscle 
 
 QAMMA PYRAMID 
 DEPRESSOf?flN60LIORl5 
 [LflBIIINFERlORISj MUSCLE 
 
 i[ PyRAMID5. THE QUADRflTUS oR 
 ' PEPRESSOR LABII INFERIOKlS 
 [ PR0PRIU5 MUSCLE 
 
 Depressor Anguli Oris Muscle. 
 
 of the lip pyramids are shown here. 
 
 parts mentioned, eventuating at the lips in articulate 
 speech and song. 
 
 These three separate divisions are, as has been shown 
 by the descripton of their circular formation, sphincteric. 
 They function on the principle of sphincterization — opening 
 and closing muscular process — as follows: 
 
 114 
 
THE ALPHABET IN VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 115 
 
 I. The lips form the first sphincteric aperture which 
 governs the vocalic unit, and are especially active in the 
 first eight letters or octave of the alphabet. 
 
 II. The tongue and palate (the pharynx) form the 
 second sphincteric aperture, giving the articular index for 
 the lingual-sonoric and palato-resonantic units in forming 
 the letters of the alphabet. 
 
 III. The glottic sphincter (glotto-voco-resonantic) is 
 the controller for momentum of all the sphincters, supply- 
 ing their fundamentals, and participates in all vowel-forms. 
 
 These sphincters, acting iri different planes, yet com- 
 pletely coordinated and correlated as regards their action, 
 combine to form a proper articulation of speech and song. 
 
 I. The first sphincter (the lips) works in a perpendic- 
 ular plane. Its action is divided into that of upper and 
 lower lip pyramid. The combined seven movements of 
 these pyramids control the sonoric, resonantic and vocalic 
 units in their interrelated articulate effort. The four upper 
 lip pyramids index and direct the forms of vowels in corre- 
 lation. The three lower lip pyramids act for coordination, 
 or are motor controllers. 
 
 II. The tongue and palate form the plane of the 
 second sphincter, which is diagonal and inverted as 
 regards the first sphincter. The palate assumes the motor 
 office of three moving forces for coordination, and the 
 pillars and tongue for each for correlation. 
 
 III. The glottic or third sphincter acts in a horizontal 
 plane toward the first sphincter and has its three 
 motor actions represented by the arytenoids "and its five 
 by the flexible cordal pyramids from arytenoids to the 
 meeting-point or apex at the thyroid. The arytenoids are 
 the posterior terminals of the cords, furnishing the three 
 motor functions for coordination analogous to the lower 
 
 lip- 
 
 Below is the hard bony cricoid with its circular orifice 
 
 and pronounced pyramidal shape. In the cricoid Is gradu- 
 ally compressed the air which has been collected from 
 below, gathering an ever-Increasing dynamic power In its 
 outgo through the pyramidal trachea and right and left 
 bronchial cartilaginous tubes. Then coming through the 
 
116 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 hard, unburstable circular aperture of the cricoid it is 
 ready for its immediate conversion into articulate and 
 momentic tone in the hollow adjustable pyramidal notch 
 between the solid, bony cricoid and thyroid, the only cor- 
 rect location possible for the safe, accurate and kinetic 
 development of the scale of the glottic sphincter. 
 
 It will be observed in the development of the alphabet 
 that, in the vertical plane in which sound travels, three 
 consonants exist between "A" and "E" and "E" and "I," 
 and five between "I" and "O" and "O" and "U." 
 
 The first of these, BCD inclusive, may be designated 
 as fulfilling the purpose of correlation; the second, F G H 
 inclusive, that of coordination; the third, J K L M N in- 
 clusive, that of articulation; and the fourth, P Q R S T, 
 relate to the breath; V W X Y Z, containing the near-vowel 
 W, and the lingual lateral Y, close the cycle. 
 
 12 3 4 5 
 
 A (BCD) E (FGH) I (JKLMN) O (PQRST) U (VWXYZ) 
 
 From the viewpoint of articulate speech and song the 
 letters of the alphabet are divided into 
 
 Vowels, or self-sounders; 
 Consonants, or co-sounders; 
 Nonsonants, or non-tones. 
 
 Taking up the letters of the alphabet in their regular 
 sequence, we find the following to be true in regard to the 
 action of the units, from lips to glottis, as the letters are 
 articulated; and if what is here stated appears ultra-tech- 
 nical, it is only necessary to articulate the letters to make 
 the concurrent action of the units perfectly plain and in- 
 telligible, for the simple reason that it can easily be 
 felt. 
 
 For "A" or "Ah," the entire soft palate hangs so far 
 in its middle position, that by means of the palatal ele- 
 vator it is pulled upwards and backwards. As a result 
 there is left between the posterior pharynx and uvula only 
 a narrow slit, so that the nasal duct is almost entirely cut 
 off from the air-current. 
 
Tm POSITION OF THE VoCAL ORGANS 
 DURING THC PRONUNCMTION OF 'AH" 
 Fig. 35. 
 (Karl Kraft.) 
 
THE ALPHABET IN VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 117 
 
 ■'A" (a) is made by the slight drawing up of the 
 naso-labial muscles or raphe pyramids. The tip or anterior 
 pyramid of the tongue presses against the lower front 
 teeth. A hollow pyramid is formed by the posterior part 
 of the tongue in connection with the palate pyramid. 
 There is a slight upward movement of the glottic pyramids 
 or vocal cords and of the epiglottis. 
 
 "B" is a sonoric consonant and closed mouth vowel, 
 whose explosive utterance is checked by the lips. It 
 draws in and lifts up the lower lip under the upper teeth, 
 especially at the outer edge, while a contact of spine and 
 larynx is accomplished by the protruding centre of both 
 lips from teeth. 
 
 "B" is formed by the smelling muscles, commencing 
 with the naso-labial muscles pulling the double raphe pyra- 
 mids of the upper lip, gathering both lips, slightly together 
 and influencing the buccal muscles and tip of tongue. For 
 the latter divides the progress of sound out of the mouth 
 and is known as the levator anguli oris, because it lifts 
 the upper lip. 
 
 "C" is controlled by the muscle leading from the eye, 
 along the nose to upper portion of lips as in smiling. The 
 tip of the tongue presses against the upper front teeth. 
 It is the second lip pyramid beyond the median raphe, 
 and is symmetrically placed on each side of it and cor- 
 relates to the eyes. 
 
 "D" is a sonoric consonant whose explosive utterance 
 is checked by the firm pressure of the tip of the tongue 
 against the dental arch. It influences the buccal or cheek 
 muscles and tip of tongue. The mechanism for "D" in- 
 volves the molar processes which are concerned in re- 
 sonance. The "D" pyramid, the third beyond middle 
 raphe, correlates with the ear and is an index of the sense of 
 hearing. It is a closed mouth vowel. 
 
 "E" is a major vowel. It stretches or draws out- 
 wards the lip or spliced raphe at the corners to the zygo- 
 matic process, forms a hollow pyramid at each side of the 
 mouth, and divides the vocalic unit into two pyramids. Of 
 these the anterior is smaller, with base against the teeth and 
 two sides meeting, while the anterior third of the tongue 
 
118 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 meets the hard palate. The posterior pyramid is formed 
 with base against the pharynx and the two sides meeting . 
 at the same place at the anterior third of the tongue. 
 
 With "E" the soft palate pyramid is drawn up and 
 back, thus reducing this flexible pyramid to the smallest 
 degree, while the two vocal pyramids or cords are elevated 
 to their highest degree, thus shortening the sonoric pyra- 
 mid. "E" as in "eve," "feet," etc., is the highest vowel; 
 it gives convexed tongue, going up at the back, tip for- 
 ward; again the buccal cavities are involved because "E," 
 being a vowel, is engaged in resonance. "E" as in "these" 
 has feeble octave and intense twelfth overtone; double- 
 octave mechanism intensity; third medium intensity; and 
 a mere trace of seventh partial. "E" involves special use 
 of the levator palati posterior fasciculi. 
 
 "F" is a labial-dental nonsonant. It involves the 
 first pyramid beyond and toward the centre of the mouth 
 on lower lip, progressing from the double "E" pyramid. 
 "F" draws in and lifts up the entire lower lip in coordina- 
 tion with the side masseter muscles; lower lip also drawn 
 under upper teeth; tip of tongue against lower teeth. 
 
 Hard "G" is a sonoric consonant whose explosive ut- 
 terance is checked by the meeting of the back of the tongue 
 and palate, completing the first sphincter combination. A 
 depression of the anguli oris, or labial inferior muscle, 
 moves the fiexible pyramid of the palate downwards, and 
 involving the glottis as well as the tongue, brings up the 
 articulation from far below, as can be felt by pronouncing 
 hard "G" as in "get." 
 
 Soft "G" protrudes the lips, spreads the sides of the 
 tongue, and involves the glottis by contacting the larynx 
 with the spine. Thus "G," whether hard or soft, focusses 
 the whole mechanism for another action, namely, that of 
 the second sphincter, or palate and tongue. "G" hard or 
 soft has the attributes of a closed mouth vowel. 
 
 "H" is the index of the spiritus asper and spiritus lenis. 
 The creation of "H" comes through the mere fact of taking 
 breath (indicated in Greek by a breath-mark). It is a 
 combination of "Ay" and "Ch" soft. Under pyramidal 
 action the psycho-physical breath over the tongue is made 
 
BRAIN 
 
 , FRONTAL SINUS 
 
 SPHENOIDAL 
 TURBINATED BONES 
 
 EPICLOTTIS 
 
 fAL5£\C0RD\f}flis£j) 
 TRUE CO^D J 
 
 THE POSITION or THE VOCAL ORGANS 
 DURING THE PRONUNCmTlON OP "EE' 
 Fig. 36. 
 (Karl Kraft.) 
 
THE ALPHABET IN FOCAL ART-SCIENCE 119 
 
 manifest by the lateral action of the tongue pyramid, the 
 broadest sides of the tongue touching the teeth. Breath 
 can be rough, or soft and gentle (spiritus asper, or spiritus 
 lenis). With "H" ends the first octave of the alphabet. 
 
 "I" is generally assumed to be a mixed vowel formed 
 of "Ah" and "E". This conception of it is made by the 
 whole base of the tongue; the united action of both lips 
 coordinated with the compound action of double pyramids 
 for "Ah" and "E" and the compound action of tongue 
 and jaw. The double hollow, flexible pyramid made by 
 "Ah" and "E" is compounded by palate and tongue. 
 Diphthongal "I," as in "ice," runs from "Ah," the middle, 
 or balance vowel-tone, to "E," the highest vowel; con- 
 vexed gives thin "E" as in "feet." The primary action of 
 the first sphincter is exhausted at "I"; the jaw drops in 
 position from "Ah" to "E," which gives voice only to the 
 first octave in the scale of letter articulation. No overtone 
 is detected. On the contrary, this science proves and 
 teaches that there is a definite and separate position for 
 the tongue on the vowel "I"; and develops a shallow 
 groove in the anterior pyramid of the tongue, unlike the 
 arch as in "E." The buccal cavity is enlarged to its 
 highest capacity for tone and overtone. Lips apart; "I" 
 Is the intensifier and amplifier of the vocalic and resonantic 
 units and also intensifies the union and action of both 
 pyramids of the tongue by drawing them downward and 
 upward in its adjustments. 
 
 "J" initiates a new combination in the use of the two 
 forward sphincters of vocal mechanism for propulsion of 
 consonants, breath being forced out by these two sphincters; 
 it having already been stated, categorically, that the 
 first sphincter is made by the lips, the second sphincter 
 by the palate and tongue. Unlike the hard and soft 
 G, it balances the two sphincters by the mylo-hyoid 
 muscle, which divides the anterior and posterior pyramid 
 of the tongue, and in this manner it allows the vibrating 
 consonantic breath to rush through the two closed sphinc- 
 ters mentioned in the beginning of a new automatic 
 mechanism, which dominates the second octave of our 
 alphabet. 
 
120 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 "K" involves the use of the palate and the lift of the 
 base of the tongue, with tip of tongue against lower teeth 
 and pressing forward. The spreading sides form a hollow, 
 flexible pyramid. The base of this is toward the teeth. 
 The anterior and posterior tongue pyramids come together 
 at the junction of hard and soft palate. "K" is back 
 tongue (post-vocalic) second sphincteric articulation. "K" 
 dominates the closure of the resonantic articulation and 
 coordinates it with the vocalic, and correlates resonance. 
 
 The indexing of the letters of the alphabet begins with 
 the upper part of the first sphincter, namely, the median 
 raphe of the upper lip; then couples, in sequence of down- 
 ward coordination and correlating sympathetic autono- 
 mies — arriving at the lip pyramids. This procedure is con- 
 tinued until exhausted in light geometrical forms or move- 
 ments. Because of similar sound-values between certain 
 letters, the eight movements cover the eleven letters, and 
 bring us to the twelfth letter of the alphabet, "L," where 
 we reach the great primary pyramid of the tongue, which 
 gives us a dual sympathetic combination of autonomies of 
 articulation for the rest of the alphabet. 
 
 "L" is an upper vocalic consonant, a near-vowel. "L" 
 is the great sympathetic vibration conductor and director. 
 The delicate contact of the tip of the tongue with the 
 dental palate, divides Its current of tone and gives it liquid 
 quality. As stated, "L" is the turning-point of the sympa- 
 thetic mechanism, the middle part of the alphabet, being 
 the twelfth letter and the index of the combination of the 
 sphincters that are to follow and are governed by it. 
 
 "L" divides or separates the short "E" from the "L"; 
 for "L" is in the uppermost part of the vowel-space, situ- 
 ated in the roof of the mouth, and seems to be the means 
 of combining the first and second sphincteric action. 
 
 "L" starts the use of the second sphincter; and espe- 
 cially the use of the valves of palate and tongue in con- 
 junction with the first sphincter. So far, then, there seem- 
 ingly has been a play with sonoric and vocalic forces, more 
 than with resonantic. But from now on development of 
 nose and head resonance in the alphabet becomes the 
 chief operation. 
 
THE ALPHABET IN VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 111 
 
 "L" presents the tip and whole of the tongue moving 
 forward to the roof of the mouth and resting at the roots 
 of the upper front teeth. All letters following this are 
 formed by dual combinations actually measured by the 
 tongue and controlling vocalic, resonantic and sonoric 
 units as well as the air-currents in vibration. 
 
 "M" is a near-vowel, resonantic and capable of con- 
 tinued tone; a pure fore-nasal consonant. The lips are 
 closed, the momentic, sonoric and resonantic regions well 
 opened. In resonance beginning with M the labial and 
 nasal regions are employed. The articulation of this letter 
 shows the lips forwar-d, alae of nose affected by rumblic 
 resonator beyond the vomer, where the tongue, at the 
 junction of the tip or anterior pyramid with the posterior 
 pyramid of base of tongue, touches the arch at the region 
 of the eye-teeth, and also creates in conjunction with the 
 vowels "ah-oh-e" a sympathetic resonance directed through 
 the pyramidal resonator at the tip of the nose. 
 
 "N" is a direct impingement of the vocal cyclones 
 against the turbinated bones, and involves in its actions 
 their superior, middle and inferior pyramids at their pos- 
 terior tips. This letter is a mid-nasal consonant. The 
 momentic, sonoric and resonantic regions are open. The 
 lifted tongue serves as a damper regulating the vocalic 
 aperture. "N" involves the mouth and turbinated reso- 
 nators by means of the tip of the tongue, which, by its con- 
 tact with the roots of the front upper teeth, carries sym- 
 pathetic resonance to the turbinated bones, to the bridge 
 of the nose, and even to the frontal sinuses. 
 
 "O" differs from all other vowels in that it causes an 
 inversion of all the lip pyramids. 
 
 The "O" pyramid is the quadratus or depressor labii in- 
 ferioris muscle. It draws the centre raphe pyramid of upper, 
 lower and Inverted lip downward and puckers the rest of 
 the raphe downward like a gathering-string. "O" is the con- 
 traction toward the centre of the mouth of all the pyramids 
 with an inversion of all the pyramids, both vowel and con- 
 sonantic, and includes the contraction of the orbicularis oris. 
 
 The tongue is hollow; as if the arch had been inverted; 
 the palate drops in consequence and the vibrations pass 
 
122 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 through the dome at their fullest capacity. The epiglottis 
 lengthens forward, the glottis is depressed and the vocal 
 pyramids everted. In fact, all pyramido-prismic auton- 
 omies are subject to eversion, lengthening and deepening. 
 
 The automatic action of the vocal cords or folds at 
 "O" is due to the fact that the arytenoids dip down and 
 out or are inverted to their greatest degree. This lowers 
 the whole vocal-cord-arytenoid formation to the lowest 
 position of pitch; so that, from it, pitch progresses 
 upward. 
 
 In position for "O," the second sphincteric combina- 
 tion depresses the pyramid of the palate and the base of 
 the tongue, and is distinguished from "Ah," in which the 
 second sphincteric aperture attains its greatest capacity. 
 This distinction is pointed out here, because "O's" capacity 
 for lowest pitch is due to great length of breath and column, 
 and should not be confused with the amplifying capacity 
 for vowel-breadth due to a greater circumference of breath- 
 column, as for "Awe." 
 
 "P" is an explosive labial consonant. Its articulation 
 presses the entire orbicularis oris muscle outward with the 
 use of palate and tongue. It has no sound save that created 
 by the forcing of air from the second sphincter through the 
 first. In forcing the air into the vocalic resonator against 
 the lips, puckered at the two upper and lower raphes, the 
 motor forces, as they always do, precede the air-column 
 and "P" moves direct from pneumatic to raphe pyramids, 
 activating the second and first sphincters in all their pyra- 
 midal forms and connecting up all these in the puckering 
 string of orbicularis oris. 
 
 "Q" is a combination of "K" and "U," with lip-shape 
 for "U." The pyramid of the palate is drawn inward, the 
 back pyramid of the tongue is restrained, the dome un- 
 affected, "Q" being a post-vocalic nonsonant. It is made 
 by the second sphincter, the back of the tongue grooved, 
 the tip pressing forward against the lower front teeth and 
 the first sphincter. The lips are slightly contracted. 
 
 "R" is a sonoric lingual consonant and a near-vowel. 
 A flexible play of tongue gives it its liquid quality. It is 
 made by the air rushing over the palate, vibrating it and 
 
THE ALPHABET IN VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 123 
 
 rolling the tip of the tongue by forcing the current of air 
 under the tip against the upper front teeth, thus localizing 
 vibration of palate and tip of tongue in which the palatal 
 pyramid and the tip of tongue pyramid are vibrated by 
 the air. 
 
 "S" is a lingual dental nonsonant frequently diph- 
 thongal with "H" and correlative with "C" and "Z." It 
 starts at the posterior and base of tongue pyramid. The 
 sound brings all the sphincters Into action. This can be 
 readily understood with the sound of hard "C" and "Z." 
 The tip of the tongue then hollows to admit air, but the 
 sides touch the edge of the upper eye-teeth, so that the 
 air, forced through or between this hollow and the teeth, 
 will cause a hissing sound. "S" is made with a puckering 
 string of mouth like short "E." 
 
 "T" is a fore-tongue, checked post-dental nonsonant. 
 From "T" on, commences the use of tip of tongue and 
 glottis in a new process of eversion of all the pyramids. "T" 
 also requires first the upper, and then the lower front teeth, 
 and causes a compression of air against the gums of the 
 upper teeth by the tip of the tongue. 
 
 "U" is a combination of lips and tongue pyramids, the 
 lips turning outward and tongue scooping forward. The 
 teeth and gums act as a prop or point of resistance to the 
 tip of the tongue In the formation of this letter. It occu- 
 pies part of the palatal hollow pyramid. Involving special 
 action of tensor palatl. It Is also a combination of "Y" 
 and "Ooh," according to geometrical regression. 
 
 "V" is a sonoric labial consonant whose utterance Is 
 checked by contact of the under lip with the edge of the 
 upper teeth. It Is made by the inward and upward move- 
 ment of the raphe of the lower lip, and ends in an inverted 
 motion of the lower lip raphe pyramid, the motor portion 
 of the cord closing In Inversion. It Is also a closed mouth 
 vowel. 
 
 "W" is a vocalic-labial consonant — a near-vowel. It 
 Is a slIgLtly closed "Ooh" preceded by air sound. It Is 
 "U" Intensified with hollowed and humped tongue pyra- 
 mids with mechanism as for "U". It requires three move- 
 ments, with the tongue and lips Involved. The tongue-tip Is 
 
124 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 pressed forward against the gums of the upper front teeth; 
 the lips are as for "B" until they form as for "Ooh," with' 
 the tip of the tongue against the lower teeth. It compels 
 combined synchronous action of all coordinating and cor- 
 relating forces of the vocal cords or glottis. It is a con- 
 sonant for controlling sphincterization. 
 
 "X" is a short sound "E," with the clutch of palate and 
 hiss as for "S." It requires a combined action of palate 
 and tongue and a clutching of the second sphincter, and 
 finally the palate, bringing tip of tongue forward at upper 
 teeth while the air escapes between them and the tongue. 
 
 "Y" is a lingual lateral and begins with "Ooh-I" and 
 "E." There is an inversion of all pyramids of raphe as for 
 "Ooh"; the tip of the tongue pressing against the lower 
 teeth with the vocal pyramids drawn up in the mid-posi- 
 tion between "Oh" and "Ah," and the palatal flexible 
 pyramid drawn upwards and outwards. There is an in- 
 creasing expansion of the sides of the hollow dome and 
 pyramids. "I" and "Y" are coordinative reciprocal and 
 not equivalent. "Y" sounds a substitute for "I," on the 
 same basis. It requires three movements sirriultaneously: 
 Lips, drop of jaw, and lift of base of tongue, viz.: Forma- 
 tion for "Ooh" with lips; dfop of jaw as for "I"; lift of 
 tongue upward and forward as for "E." 
 
 "Z" is a sonoric consonant. Its utterance is modu- 
 lated by the tone being driven through the nearly closed 
 teeth, the tongue pressing against the lower set, and thus 
 blocking the dental pyramids. As with "E" it accomplishes 
 the highest convexity of tongue, blocking off the dome 
 cavity or hollow pyramid; and also elevates the cord pyra- 
 mids the same as for "E," thus ending the geometrical 
 possibilities for regression. 
 
 "Ng" is a digraph — not a diphthong. It is an ele- 
 mentary sound, a post-nasal, vocalic consonant of the 
 velar regions. All the vocal regions are open; the posterior 
 tongue and palate serve as dampers between the resonantic 
 and vocalic regions. Taken as sound these two letters 
 represent pitch an octave apart. "N" is high, "G," low. 
 Made entirely with second sphincter and is negative to 
 correlation and coordination. 
 
THE ALPHABET IN VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 125 
 
 "Th" also is a digraph. It is a linguo-dental con- 
 sonant as "Th" in "them," and a linguo-dental nonsonant 
 as in "thin"; but it is not related to "T" or "H." It is 
 produced by the- tip of the anterior pyramid of the tongue 
 projected through the upper and lower teeth. 
 
 "Sh" is a digraph. It is a vocalic nonsonant, or 
 breath sound, a mutual diphthong of S and Y (C and I) 
 SY, CH, SC, and SCH. "Sh" is sometimes also a sound 
 substitute in proportion as it is correlatively reciprocal 
 for CE, CI, SI, SE, TI, XI, XN, SCI, having the vanishing 
 "E" or "U" sounds. 
 
 A closed mouth vowel is a sound modified by resonance 
 in a closed oral passage. Distinguished from a consonant 
 in that it has sonoric vibration due to arousing the latent 
 air into activity by means of compression directed toward 
 certain points. It is capable of direction in the vocalic. 
 
 The closed mouth vowels are B, D, G and V. 
 
 "Aw" gives width and breadth of sphincter, and pro- 
 vides the means of contact with spine. "OOh": — Both 
 pyramids of tongue press forward and are concave and lips 
 evert and contract in sphincterization. (Ah with Aw.) 
 
 "Oh," capable of both the gentle and rough breath 
 and having the quality of the sigh, has the greatest depth. 
 
 "Oh" as developed by a contraction of anterior pillars 
 of the palate, and tip of tongue pyamid, is concave. Lips 
 are inverted with contraction of all pyramids. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 Breath and Vocal Discipline 
 
 Inspiration. 
 
 Expiration. 
 
 Voice is atmosphere vitalized, breath made audible 
 and articulate. 
 
 Breathing, or in other words respiration, is the sign 
 and manifestation of life. Breath may be suspended, but 
 when it stops man dies. 
 
 In the ordinary process of existence we breathe auto- 
 matically, without being aware of it. Breathing in song 
 calls for special adjustment of the infra-laryngeal autono- 
 mies, in order to sustain a well-regulated pressure at the 
 glottic lips. Correct habits must render this adjustment 
 automatic, but until these habits are so established as to 
 be second nature the will, in phonation, must control 
 breath by discipline. 
 
 Breathing, or respiration, consists in the intake and 
 outgo of the air about us, constituted by two acts, namely, 
 inspiration and expiration. Inspiration in voice-production 
 must acquire the power of taking in as quickly as possible 
 as large a volume of air as needed. Expiration husbands 
 the supply, doles it out with carefully regulated force, and 
 upon this controlled action voice depends. 
 
 The lungs must be filled with air whenever occasion 
 offers, the amount taken in depending on the amount 
 exhausted. More air can be pumped into the lungs than 
 their actual capacity, since there always is some outgo. 
 They always contain some residual air, a life-maintaining 
 store, the last vestige of vitality. 
 
 The initial mechanism of vocal respiration being es- 
 tablished by definite training and rendered automatic, it 
 must be brought into harmonious cooperation with the 
 sympathetic system which governs the emotions. This is 
 accomplished by the breath-clutch, a simple automatic act 
 consisting of a slight grip or contraction of the diaphragm 
 and a slight abdominal retraction. 
 
BREATH AND VOCAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 127 
 
 The breath-clutch reminds us first of all that in 
 normal inhalation breathing involves the act of smelling, 
 the olfactory nerve being so situated that it can increase 
 or decrease respiration, and even enable one to pause in 
 expiration, proving that breath is psycho-physical in its 
 secondary use. 
 
 After such inhalation, the exhalation that produces 
 the clutch is practised by pressing the right hand, firmly 
 closed, against the upper lip, puffing out the cheeks, while 
 allowing the air-stream to force passage through the closed 
 mouth against the fist, with a sound as of escaping steam. 
 Meanwhile the chest walls must be allowed to take care of 
 themselves, and all other conscious muscular effort must 
 be done away with. As the cheeks swell the expansion of 
 the thorax will be noticed, as well as the obvious clutch 
 below the diaphragm. It is this which regulates the entire 
 breathing tract as well as the vocal organ. The value of it 
 will be felt through voice-training, after free action of 
 tongue, jaw and throat have been secured. 
 
 To acquire , praictical use of the breath-clutch pro- 
 nounce the word "Hook!" in a decided whisper, twice 
 short, the final "K" very distinct. Again pronounce it, 
 this time holding the "K" a few seconds, then letting go; 
 the centre where the clutch is felt should be between dia- 
 phragm and umbilicus. After this is released you will ex- 
 perience a marked inward clutch, with a rebound of the 
 abdomen. These two motions, the clutch and the re- 
 bound, develop definite control and support of voice at all 
 times. 
 
 It is here that the effort of breath establishes its final 
 automatism necessary to free tone-emission, and the stu- 
 dent learns to make the attack that finds its point of re- 
 sistance at the gums of the front teeth. 
 
 The breath-clutch assumes all the burden of the vocal 
 act; it is the centre of emotional control, and at all times 
 the unfailing mainstay of the singer. By it, psychical at- 
 tributes are added to physical function, and all these, with 
 the sympathetic vibrations, form the telling power of voice. 
 
 "By this act of inspiration the psycho-physical senses, 
 touch, taste, smell, hearing and sight, are activated, and 
 
 The auto- 
 matic 
 breath- 
 clutch. 
 
128 FOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 re-activated by expiration. Here again we have that 
 combination of the physical and the psychical that is one 
 of the marvels of Vocal Art-Science and which, truly prac- 
 tised, results in a voice-production that is a genuine union 
 of art and science — a correlation of body, mind and soul; 
 the physical, mental and emotional — the three sensitized 
 surfaces of the world-pyramid. 
 
CHAPER XII 
 Vox Humana 
 
 Voice is cosmic utterance. According to the law of 
 life, the human voice is a manifestation of universal en- 
 ergy and puts the material nature in harmony with the 
 divine. 
 
 The law of life, as we understand it, is nature's primal Vibration 
 law, from which nothing is exempt. Sunlight, the prismic the law 
 force, the energy by vibration, quickeris the potential, 
 the natural elements which compose the universe. Sun- 
 light sheds its nine rays on the octave of nature's vibra- 
 tory scale, in rates that range from ten trillions a second 
 for infra-red, to a frequency of about one hundred trillions 
 for ultra-violet. The pendulum that measures the swing 
 of the sunlight's influence shows how it reaches to the 
 extremes of self-vibration, attracting all to its own key, 
 the central point of its arc. 
 
 This, the point of rest for the pendulum, is the 
 key of vibration for composite sunlight, and marks the 
 vibration of normal health for men. 
 
 An understanding of the law of vibration simplifies 
 our study of all things; it teaches us that light and life vi- 
 brate in the same key, and that by putting ourselves in 
 tune with nature's laws we shall absorb true knowledge. 
 
 The law of harmonics is simply an amplification of 
 the law of vibration. Nature is one harmonic whole, and 
 vibrates in one harmonious key. 
 
 The metrical motion of the celestial bodies called the Music 
 "music of the spheres" is a fact that might be sensed by of the 
 the ear had this not lost its primal keenness. Spheres. 
 
 There is not the smallest orb which thou behold'st. 
 
 But in his motion like an angel sings 
 
 Such harmony is in immortal souls; 
 But whilst this muddy vesture of decay 
 Doth grossly close it in, we cannot hear it. 
 
 129 
 
130 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 Cosmic So far as can be ascertained, nature places her eternal 
 
 pitch and voice at F, while for humanity, as by experiment we have 
 
 human shown, the normal note is C. 
 
 pitch. In the most difficult of scales, that of C, without 
 
 sharps or flats, lies every perplexity that training must 
 overcome. Should it not therefore be recognized as the 
 standard pitch; this tone of human nature that makes the 
 whole world kin? 
 Piano and On the piano the scale of C shows correspondences 
 
 vocal or- with the human mechanism that cannot be dismissed as 
 
 gancom- wholly fanciful; for they are truly exigencies of a basic 
 
 pared in law. After the first three notes the thumb must change 
 
 the scale position for the fourth, and again when about to strike the 
 
 of C. eighth. We find, this is what the voice has to do, to bridge 
 
 a natural break at those same points, without change 
 of quality. These points in singing mark the closure of 
 the soft palate against the pharyngeal wall, and a change 
 and blending of upper resonance. Here the posterior fasci- 
 culus of the palato-pharyngeus glides up, associating itself 
 with levatores and tensores palati, so as to allow air to 
 pass under and on each side of the velum. Meanwhile, 
 the velum, with the palate-raisers, has bunched itself 
 against the posterior wall, forming an air-space on either 
 side of the raphe which regulates nasal resonance, or pro- 
 duces nasality; the palate-stretchers arranging this space 
 accurately for the overtones belonging to this region, 
 the remainder undergoes a further arrangement, manipu- 
 lated by the palato-pharyngeus, as if it were a thumb. 
 
 This palato-pharyngeus is the longest muscle in the 
 vocal mechanism, and further corresponds to the piano, 
 with its three breaks, governed by the long, eight-foot 
 tone, as every tuner knows. The problem is how to 
 temper a scale of thirteen tones so that the intervals 
 between them are relatively equal in pitch, and at the 
 same time procure an acceptable progression in all keys. 
 Being a voluntary muscle, and with the sterno-hyoid 
 forming the external agent in fold-stretching, the palato- 
 pharyngeus works in automatic harmony to this end 
 with the crico-thyroids, maintaining pitch. Anything out 
 of order with it, such as cleft palate, destroys fineness 
 
vox HUMANA 
 
 131 
 
 of overtones, changes the entire feature of articulation and 
 demoralizes the whole mechanism, just as the piano loses 
 regulation when its pitch-setting string is out of tune. 
 Truly, it may be called the human C-string, this palato- 
 pharyngeus. 
 
 The vocal folds are stretched a little more strongly for 
 each higher tone, and a little less for each lower. But this 
 is not enough; at their octave- tensing, the regulation must 
 be tested to ensure balance of power, resonance and pitch. 
 This is effected by relaxing either or both of two thyroid- 
 tilting, fold-stretching chains of forces, reaching from the 
 base of the skull to the breast-bone. These two systems 
 originate, as we have seen, at the styloid. One, formed 
 of stylo-glossus and stylo-hyoid, we have traced to tongue 
 and tongue-bone respectively. Thence, by the infr.a-hyoid 
 group (sterno-hyoid, thyro-hyoid, sterno-thyroid, omo- 
 hyoid), they extend their influence to the sternum. The 
 stylo-pharyngeus forms the other system and passes down 
 to three insertions, as follows: 
 
 (i) Some of its fibres coalesce with the superior and 
 middle constrictor muscles of the pharynx. (2) Others join 
 with the palato-pharyngeus. (3) The remainder are inserted 
 into the posterior border of the thyroid cartilage. Thence 
 also, by the thyroidal attachment to the sternum, its in- 
 fluence is extended to this lower anchorage. Each group 
 has its own nerve-supply, as the tables show. Sometimes 
 one muscle has a nerve all its own, it being one either of 
 sensation or motion; yet all members of a system must 
 work with the community spirit, in automatic harmony. 
 Vocalists who use tongue or jaw at each change of tone 
 use the former muscle-chain, while those who choose the 
 better plan employ the route by palate and larynx to 
 breast-bone. In either case the voice at the relaxing in- 
 stant drops to a lower pitch, the mechanism being per- 
 ceptible in slow movement, but obliterated by rapidity. 
 
 The adjustment of mechanism required at different 
 points in the voice-range breaks this into divisions com- 
 monly known as registers, a phenomenon to be referred to 
 vocal evolution. Evolution shows that in birds, where the 
 syrinx is at the base of the tracheal tube, or duplicated in 
 
 Registers. 
 
 How- 
 caused. 
 
132 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 the bronchi, the vocal mechanism is anchored at the 
 breast-bone, which accordingly is the centre- of sympa- 
 thetic vibration. In man, with the jaw controlling the 
 resonance-chamber of the mouth, and attached by muscle- 
 sets in groups of three to the head, all sympathetic vibra- 
 tions are directed thither, so that regionally and acoustic- 
 ally nature presents us with two clearly-defined examples 
 of chest and head resonances. 
 
 As the singer experiences three distinct physical sensa- 
 tions in producing tones low, middle and high, and as these 
 sensations are records of physical adjustments, three reso- 
 nances are generally enumerated: Chest, middle, and head. 
 These are controlled by sympathetic correlation and co- 
 ordination, special training for which should begin at the 
 outset, .in order to render the process automatic. The 
 
 L nq 
 
 ~ — f*--^ ■ 
 
 ^^ 77' 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 Fig. 38. Muscles of Tongue 
 
 danger lies in forming habits by which the part of one 
 vocal autonomy may be amalgamated with that of an- 
 other, to the disturbance of the entire machine. 
 
 Anatomically, resonance can best be explained by 
 reference to the chart of the vocal labyrinth. (See Fig. 
 37.) Here, at the top of the sonoric cavity, we see a tri- 
 partite muscle, forming with the stylo-pharyngeus (which 
 we know as a muscle of fixation), and, what now concerns 
 us, the stylo-glossus and stylo-hyoid. These pass as fol- 
 lows (see Fig. 38): The stylo-glossus from an anterior 
 
Fig. 37 shows a view of the vocal labyrinth. Attention is 
 here called to the relative positions of larynx and spine. 
 
vox HUMANA 
 
 133 
 
 outside origin, and the stylo-hyoid from a posterior out- 
 side origin, to insertions thus: The stylo-glossus at the 
 stylo-maxillary ligament, longitudinally and obliquely in 
 the fibres of the tongue;, and the stylo-hyoid at the hyoid- 
 bone. It is this muscle-split that accounts mechanically 
 for adjustments necessary to cover breaks. The terms 
 head voice, chest voice and middle voice {voce di testa, 
 voce di petto, and voce di mezzo) are usually applied to these 
 divisions, and to these, falsetto often is added. Falsetto is 
 in reality a bad habit, probably induced by too much ten- 
 sion of the vocal folds, and by displacement of the larynx 
 from its position on the fifth cervical vertebra. As the 
 tension of these folds may be relieved by extrinsic muscles, 
 this false voice could undoubtedly be developed into true 
 tone. 
 
 Power, resonance and pitch, the essential trinity in 
 the singing human voice, have previously been described. 
 To these a few other definitions must be added. 
 
 Range means voice-extent, scope, compass, up and Range. 
 down the scales. Some voices climb far, while others have 
 but a restricted reach. The true high tone requires in- 
 creased tension with the development of breath-power and 
 control, as is necessary in all other tone-production. It 
 would be better were singers to refrain from undue com- 
 pression, and rest satisfied with effortless reach. High tones 
 would be of better quality. 
 
 Volume is the encompassing power of voice; the space Volume, 
 it fills. 
 
 Flexibility executes rapid or difficult passages with Flexibility. 
 ease, swells and diminishes no less readily, and gives the 
 subtle accent to style, while a stiff voice can only manage 
 slower, heavier work, and is incapable of manoeuvres that 
 call for elasticity. 
 
 Agility (trills, flourishes) is at home in florid work Agility. 
 generally. 
 
 Style includes diction and expression, and discrimi- Style, 
 nates between text and voice-production, the understand- 
 ing of the relative value of vowels and consonants, while 
 discovering the singer's grasp and his ability to convey. 
 By his style we approach most nearly to his mentality. 
 
134 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 Timbre or Timbre is klangfarbe, klangtint, tone-color. It is gen- 
 
 klangtint. erally referred to as white timbre, to describe lack of nasal 
 
 resonance; dark timbre is the hollow pretense which is the 
 
 besetting sin of the contralto; sympathetic timbre, when 
 
 affected as by a glorious color-sensation. 
 
 Timbre, klangfarbe, depends in part on the mechan- 
 ical idiosyncrasies of the artist, and again on the control 
 of resonating influences. It confers individuality on 
 style. 
 
 Tremolo and Vibrato are familiar expressions in the 
 Tremolo. terminology of voice. Mr. H. C. Deacon, writing of the 
 
 singer Rubini, described him as the originator of the lat- 
 Vibrato. ter, an effect irritating to many people, yet to others so 
 
 attractive that it was widely copied, especially among the 
 French, thence spreading over the entire singing world. 
 Unfortunately for the artist, however, the violence with 
 which he used it caused his collar-bone to break on one 
 occasion while rendering his famous high C. By a coin- 
 cidence another singer, Ferri, appearing about the same 
 time in opera, sang with a tremolo which was described 
 as a "ludicrous and incessant wabble"! In spite of this, 
 and though often off pitch, he was nevertheless a reliable 
 artist, always equal to his evening without damage to his 
 bones. Ferri also was widely imitated. 
 Vibrato Illustrating the two effects with a violin, we find that 
 
 and vibrato is a quick oscillation, caused by a rapid movement 
 
 tremolo of hand and finger, or forefinger, on the strings at a certain 
 
 defined. spot or division of the bpard. Tremolo is a rapid reitera- 
 
 tion of the same tone by an up-and-down stroke of the 
 bow with the right hand. Again, tremolo is produced by 
 an irregular movement of the right arm, hand or fingers, 
 communicated by the bow to the string at some point distant 
 from the bowing spot. This is controlled by left-hand pres- 
 sure, which therefore governs the entire resonance of the 
 the instrument. Obviously, resonance and pitch can be 
 accurately regulated by the touch of the left hand at any 
 spot, while power residing in the bowing right hand, at some 
 distance from the string, and with a wide range between 
 fret and bridge to play on, is larger in proportion, though 
 less accurately measured. Vibrato, then. Is shown as a 
 
vox HUMANA 
 
 135 
 
 resonance and pitch mechanism, directly produced without 
 predominance of power, while tremolo is a power mech- 
 anism, indirectly conditioning pitch, but without predom- 
 inance of resonance. From this we may draw conclusions 
 that apply to the vocal instrument, as follows: 
 
 Vibrato ensues when voice reiterates a tone with 
 overdraught on resonance for overtone in any consonance 
 or sequence, this being above or below consonance with its 
 fundamental. It is, in effect, altered pitch, with irregu- 
 larities in overtone, while tremolo is altered power with 
 pitch irregularities. 
 
 The irritating qualities noticed in Rubini's voice came 
 from this undue tax on resonance which reflected itself on 
 the vocal lips. As his was a high voice and no beats were 
 ever detected in his octave-emissions, or in his consonances 
 with accompanying instruments, we may infer that his vi- 
 brato was sharp, and that in forcing resonance beyond its 
 capacity he broke his collar-bone. 
 
 Ferri was a heavy, depressing singer, probably be- 
 cause he applied breath-support and muscular coordina- 
 tions irregularly, sometimes balancing power and pitch, 
 but in general summoning breath slowly and tensing the 
 muscle-control of power, yet falling away before the bal- 
 ance was completed. His being a low voice, the beats 
 complained of in his octave-emissions and consonances 
 with accompaniments, could be more readily detected than 
 in the case of a high voice. That his tremolo was flat 
 came from the lack of breath-support necessary to main- 
 tain unvarying pitch. 
 
 Vibrato is more common in high voices, and is the 
 more irregular, its own frequency being greater because 
 of its higher pitch. As its mechanism governs resonance, 
 it is apt to be sharp on stress and attack, and flat on 
 finish, with sharpness of overtone through overdraught on 
 resonance. Originating directly at the glottis, the rapidity 
 of its vibrations irritates through irregularity in intensity. 
 Being affected by momentum of both resonance and pitch, 
 it is more common when colds occur in the world of 
 song, or other troubles in laryngeal and supra-laryngeal 
 parts. 
 
 Definitely 
 applied 
 to human 
 voice. 
 
 Rubini's 
 
 vibrato 
 
 analyzed. 
 
 Ferri's 
 
 tremolo 
 
 analyzed. 
 
 Patholog- 
 ical condi- 
 tions of 
 vibrato 
 and 
 tremolo. 
 
136 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 Dual 
 
 forces in 
 
 perfect 
 
 singing: 
 
 practical 
 
 and 
 
 esthetic. 
 
 Tremolo is more common in low voices ; it is slower and 
 heavier because produced by power-mechanism, which, if 
 indirect, results in further slowness and irregularity of vibra- 
 tion. Ailments in infra-laryngeal parts tend to produce it. 
 
 Vibrato is local and specific, while tremolo is constitu- 
 tional and general, a chronic affection in vocalism. 
 
 As the two hands of the violinist, the one, as it does, 
 governing resonance and pitch, the other through the bow 
 supplying power, cooperate to produce a. single tone, it is 
 conceivable that, at the psychological moment, a subtle 
 communication will pass between the two hands that unite 
 the tremolo of the oscillating finger-tips with the vibrato 
 of the up-and-down swinging arm into one all-harmoniz- 
 ing thrill, enhancing tonal beauty and sympathy. So in 
 vocalism is the effect produced by an emotion which im- 
 parts a tremor, or undulating motion to the entire body 
 of the singer. This being refiected on the audience pro- 
 duces a muscular coordination of power, resonance and 
 pitch, balanced for action, control and sympathy, and 
 affects, at some vital moment, producer and hearer alike 
 with a psychological sensation, a veritable thrill. 
 
 Noticing a tried and true singer of education, above 
 all one who has had experience abroad, it is seen that 
 before singing there is increase of breathing, either in 
 rapid respirations, or full long ones, as if the atmosphere, 
 the very essence of sound, were acquiring fresh life and 
 energy in order to be vitalized for voice. A new force 
 possesses the singer, the outward expression of which is 
 one of auto-s-uggestion, conveyed by a tremor over the 
 entire body. Then, when perfect control is attained, and 
 the artist is exercising a proper psychic influence upon the 
 listener, there will be a spontaneous, regular vibration, as 
 if dual forces perfectly mated were blending the voice 
 practical with the voice beautiful. 
 
 Many persons, recognizing this dual force in voice, 
 have proclaimed it mysterious or spiritual, as indeed it is; 
 but that it can be referred in its workings to a mechanism 
 is but nature's law, the law of life. 
 
 After the mechanism of voice is under full control, 
 interpretation comes with the ability to identify one's self 
 
vox HUMANA 
 
 137 
 
 in thought and feeling with the composer, to reproduce 
 the tones of the musician, the words of the poet, in the 
 spirit in which these were conceived. In this the intelli- 
 gence and common-sense, plus temperament, of the artist, 
 are involved. 
 
 Singing, then, presents a tone-picture, through the 
 emotions; the variety of colors, and their depths, depend- 
 ing on the anatomical structures of the resonators, and on 
 the intensity in feeling of which the singer is capable. 
 
 No coaching, however admirable, can ever result in 
 anything better than imitation; interpretation is creative 
 and artistic only when achieved by the voice itself. 
 
 The most striking example of structural conditions 
 favorable to resonance is found in Caruso, whom we have 
 cited more than once as the living model for standard 
 tone in man. Dr. R. J. Lloyd, the noted specialist in 
 London, writing in the "Daily Mail," describes him as 
 "unique as a singing machine." The exceptional length 
 of the vocal tube is one cause of this, the distance from 
 front teeth to cords being at least half an inch longer than 
 in any other singer observed, the folds themselves being 
 an eighth of an inch longer than any others measured. 
 Also these folds possess extraordinary vibratile qualities, 
 at his wonderful C# the vibrations reaching the phenom- 
 enal frequency of 550 to the second. The wealth of tone 
 is accounted for by the unusual mouth-cavity; the volume 
 and roundness, usually appropriated by the basso, are de- 
 rived from the epiglottis, thick at the base, but in its 
 upper third exquisitely fine and delicate. The chest ca- 
 pacity also is unusual. But possibly the most extraordi- 
 nary of all the great artist's endowments is found in the 
 resonance quality of his whole anatomy. "If you tap 
 one of his knuckles smartly," continues Dr. Lloyd, "it 
 gives a higher-pitched, more strongly resonant sound than 
 in ordinary persons, while the material of which larynx 
 and supra-laryngeal structures are built is as that of a 
 Stradivarius violin." Always, keenly intelligent in his inter- 
 pretation, possibly the great secret of the well-nigh magical 
 power Caruso can exert over an audience in his happiest 
 moments is expressed in his own words to the author on 
 
 Dr. R. J. 
 
 Lloyd, 
 
 London. 
 
 Caruso 
 unique 
 as a 
 singing 
 machine. 
 
138 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 being asked to what he attributes his success: "I sing 
 from the head and heart. When I sing with the h6ad 
 alone I do not sing; I go through the opera like a ma- 
 chine. But with the heart also, I feel happy in my singing 
 all over. I make everybody glad." What a supreme gift, 
 to add to nature's equipment such a perfect training as 
 to be able to make "everybody glad." 
 Tempera- Temperament is a much abused term, but Vocal Art- 
 
 ment and Science must rescue it from the disrepute into which it 
 
 radio- has fallen. Those who have studied deeply the invisible 
 
 activity. potencies of nature know that every being emits radia- 
 
 tions under mental or emotional activation. It is a well- 
 known fact that all thought and feeling are registered in 
 the subtle medium by forms, numbers and colors. 
 
 The Creator is a great painter: He colors the races, 
 the animals, birds, flowers. Scripture is full of colors, 
 from the coat of Syrian blue that Mary made for Jesus to 
 the flashing of the stones in the Temple. Life has its 
 Universality colors, from the blue days of depression to the red-letter 
 of Color. days when we first learn the meaning of love, reconcilia- 
 
 tion, triumph, or sacrifice. Just as In the British army 
 and navy there is the consecration of the colors to the 
 services of the king, so there is in all nations the conse- 
 cration of life's colors to the services of the King of kings. 
 Guide of When brought to its highest point of efficiency let the 
 
 Arezzo, vox humana be lifted up in praise, singing the Aretinian 
 
 9SS-10S0. syllables which Guido the Benedictine monk adapted 
 from the hymn addressed, according to some authorities, 
 to Saint John the Baptist; according to others, to God: 
 Ut (now changed to Do), Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Si. 
 
 1 Ut queant laxis 2 Resonare fibris 
 
 3 Mira gestorum 4 Famuli tuorum, 
 
 5 Solve polluti 6 Labil reatum, 
 
 7 Sancte Joannes! 
 
 (Holy Lord, O Father of mercy, cleanse the stain of their 
 polluted lips, that, freed from their bonds, Thy servants may be 
 able to sing the wonder of Thy deeds.) 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 Vocal Pathology 
 
 Voice, in singing, depends on the sympathetic coor- 
 dination and correlation of five units or autonomies gov- 
 erned by the medulla and brain. 
 
 These five autonomies must be adjusted so as prop- Automatic 
 
 erly to shape themselves for voice with every requisite adjustment 
 
 condition, including that of pitch, before laryngeal action necessary 
 
 can be taken to produce it. before 
 
 Depression, general or particular, in any of the hollow laryngeal 
 
 spaces that comprise these autonomies, modifying them action, 
 in size or form, will change the character of the sound 
 produced. 
 
 Anything which occurs within these autonomies to Trouble 
 prevent proper functioning of nerve or muscle, or tends to in auton- 
 induce an unhealthy condition of the rnucous membrane, omiesthe 
 such as abnormal growths or formations, inflammations cause of 
 and obstructions, false teeth, swollen uvula, tumors of the voice- 
 epiglottis, or trouble of the nasal septum and turbinated failure, 
 tissues, etc., will interfere with voice-production. 
 
 Years of practical observation have convinced me Mem- 
 that nearly all, if indeed not all, defective voice-production branes 
 depends on the relationship of these autonomies to the andmus- 
 vocal folds. The membranes and muscles of these autono- clesof 
 mies are the first in the human organism to be afflicted, autono- 
 and resultant sicknesses are registered in the larynx, at mies first- 
 the vocal folds, in a manner as systematic as it is unique, to be 
 From the appearance of the vocal folds a physician often affected, 
 can form a diagnosis, locating the trouble in the autono- Their con- 
 mies. From this I conclude that these autonomies have dition re- 
 far more to do with actual tone-building than is generally fleeted 
 understood. • on vocal 
 
 There is now a new discovery by science, in the way folds, 
 of a system within the human body composed of a chain 
 of five organs; the only system that has as its primary 
 
140 
 
 FOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 Instance 
 of influ- 
 ence of 
 autono- 
 mies on 
 tone- 
 building. 
 Tones 
 added by 
 removal of 
 growth. 
 
 purpose the transformation of potential or latent energy 
 into heat and motion. This is called the. kinetic chain. 
 According to Vocal Art-Science, this chain would be in- 
 volved in what is termed the correlation of the autono- 
 mies of the body that come into the system for the train- 
 ing of the instrument for singing and health. Without 
 this correlation, the organs included in this chain are im- 
 paired in their functions or development; therefore, an 
 important part is the training of perfect correlation in the 
 child from seven years up. 
 
 Deficiency in one of the organs of the kinetic chain 
 causes alike loss of heat, loss of muscular and emotional 
 action, of mental power and the power of combating in- 
 fection; showing that a chain is no stronger than its 
 weakest link. This again is in corroboration of the prin- 
 ciples of Vocal Art-Science. 
 
 Coordination of the muscles, according to the Vocal 
 Art-Science system, brings about every possible chance of 
 keeping in proper adjustment every muscle of the body, 
 thereby preventing this kinetic chain from getting any 
 unnatural disturbance or strain and making correlation of 
 the kinetic chain more possible. A balance of both con- 
 ditions, correlation and coordination, makes harmony 
 throughout the entire body. All voice is subject to the 
 entrance of this principle of kinetic force or energy. Voice, 
 then, is force, or the action of this kinetic pyramido- 
 prismal energy on pyramids solid, hollow, and flexible. 
 
 As an example of the influence of autonomies no 
 actual tone-building I may cite the case of a well-known 
 operatic tenor who showed a tendency to break in scale- 
 singing, particularly at c^ and e^i n the medium voice, 
 with a reprehensible catarrhal quality in all tones above 
 the latter note. The cause was found to be an adenoid 
 growth fringed with stalactite forms of mucous that com- 
 pletely blocked up the pharyngeal dome. The patient's 
 reluctancy to adenotomy was overcome, a little cocaine 
 applied, and with a single sweep of the curette the ob- 
 struction was removed. The result was that in ten days 
 the voice had risen from b^ to the high d^ with a possible 
 high e". This fact proved to me that, if supra-laryngeal 
 
rOCJL PATHOLOGY 
 
 141 
 
 treatment will add five or six half-steps to the range, 
 not only vibrations in the glottis must be responsible for 
 resonance, but the spaces themselves, drawn by muscle 
 and membrane, also play their part in actual tone- 
 formation, however contrary this may be to general 
 opinion. 
 
 It must be added that autonomies, even more than 
 vocal folds, account for changes in quality, including 
 timbre or klangfarbe, in the human voice. Since disturb- 
 ance on the surface of these are invariably reflected on the 
 vocal folds, it follows that membranous troubles and lack 
 of harmony in muscular action occurring in them must 
 seriously damage production of tone. 
 
 So great is the influence of the autonomies on laryn- 
 geal vibration that the very nature of this appears to 
 differ in individuals. At times in the production of so- 
 called falsetto only two-thirds of the folds are activated, 
 proving that while fold segmentation has yet to be ac- 
 counted for with precision, the ultimate solution will lie 
 in the autonomies. In this connection I may note that 
 several baritone voices which have come under my ob- 
 servation exhibit a shortening of the vocal bands for pro- 
 duction of the very lowest tones; this is another contra- 
 diction of prevalent theories concerning voice. 
 
 A pathological condition in the septum of the nose 
 can cause trouble in voice-production, as was shown by 
 the case of a patient who consulted me with regard to a 
 disagreeable nasality of which he was conscious in singing 
 all words ending in ng, such as "morning." Examination 
 revealed a tubercle of the septum impinging against the 
 right turbinate, causing considerable catarrh, and greatly 
 aggravating coryza, if not at times inducing it. Removal 
 of the trouble immediately transformed the offending 
 nasality into the desired resonance of tone. 
 
 At this point it is well to introduce a topic which to 
 singers is of vital importance. Much has been written 
 upon the subject of nodes on the vocal cords, yet I will 
 in a few brief words endeavor to elucidate the salient 
 factors relating to this too frequent pathological con- 
 dition. 
 
 Autonomies 
 rather than 
 folds ac- 
 countable 
 for timbre. 
 
 Autono- 
 mies ac- 
 countable 
 for seg- 
 mentation. 
 
 Case of 
 nasality 
 from tu- 
 bercle of 
 septum. 
 
142 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 Nodes: My own experience is in direct contradiction to the 
 
 Usual teaching of many writers who state that these small drop- 
 
 theories sical swellings occur only at the junction of the anterior 
 
 contra- one-third and posterior two-thirds of the vocal lips where 
 
 dieted. octave segmentation occurs. Observation has shown me 
 
 that nodes occur in the following order: First, at C sharp; 
 second, at G sharp; third, at F sharp; and fourth, at B 
 flat. These keep a relative position in ascending the scale, 
 proving that the tension and increased muscular energy 
 brought to bear in the autonomies in producing the upper 
 tone reflect themselves in the folds, from the arytenoid to 
 the thyroid end. In a word, the higher the break in the 
 voice, the more anterior the nodal development. 
 Autono- It is virtually an axiom, that troubles in the higher re- 
 
 mies' senator, the nasal cavity, reflect themselves in the anterior 
 
 troubles portion of the vocal folds. Improper use of this cavity regis- 
 
 localized ters itself in anterior nodal irritation. Disturbances in the 
 
 by folds. second automatic hollow space, the oral or vocalic unit, 
 
 are reflected in weaknesses occurring at the middle of the 
 folds. The posterior end of the folds records disturbances 
 in the lowest hollow space of the larynx, especially if any- 
 thing interferes with its normal position in pressing on the 
 spinal column. Axiomatic also is it in my experience, that 
 troubles in the lower part of the body reflect themselves on 
 the anterior portion of the vocal apparatus, and vice versa. 
 Nerve, To these we may add another axiom: That disturb- 
 
 muscle ances in nerves, mucous membranes and muscles neces- 
 
 and mucous sary to automatic action of the larynx will be recorded 
 membrane accordingly, at the sensitive folds; the severity of such 
 troubles disturbance preventing the laryngeal vibrations necessary 
 
 precede for proper voice-production. 
 
 laryngeal The method of node reduction by using "maw" or 
 
 action "mah" falsetto focused "dans la masque" while plucking 
 
 and inter- the lips, is, in the author's opinion, impotent to rectify 
 fere with these troubles in the anterior third of vocal folds in which 
 
 voice. the node occurs, the common bane of singers. 
 
 The advocates of the above method proceed to re- 
 duce the nodes by phrasing, having patients sing arpeggios, 
 scales and notes or syllables as just mentioned. As 
 anything above c' involves only a portion of the. vocal 
 
VOCAL PATHOLOGY 
 
 143 
 
 folds in vibration, it naturally causes a falsetto which, as 
 its name implies, is a bad habit. 
 
 Nodes of themselves can be cured without use of a Various 
 knife, and often by rest; but, even so, this is no guarantee methods 
 that there will be no recurrence. The only logical way to ofreduc- 
 prevent nodes is to train the vocal adjustments to such ing nodal 
 perfection that there can be no frictional trauma of the growths 
 cords from any cause. discussed. 
 
 This brings us to the question: Is there a possibility Forin- 
 of singing by a method, either correctly or incorrectly, flamma- 
 which would cause nodal formation.^ Does false tone-pro- tion, rest 
 duction disarrange a natural sequence of nodes that can the only 
 be restored by suitable exercise.? Or shall we employ perma- 
 astringents, adrenaline, cocaine, zinc, tannin, argyrol, nent cure. 
 hsemopixine, calcium preparations, all of which have been 
 known apparently to absorb fresh nodal appearances on 
 the folds.? All the methods cited have their advocates. 
 One thing, however, is positive: When acute inflammation 
 exists, combined with infectious colds, and the like, the 
 patient must sacrifice everything to absolute rest. For a 
 stated period specific vocal exercises must be given for the 
 individual case, to correct this condition, and followed by 
 a period of rest. For instance, one case may require stronger 
 palate action; another, positive exercising of the ventricu- 
 lar and base of tongue regions, in order to gain balance of 
 laryngeal pulling and perfect cord-stretching. The organ- 
 ization of a nodal formation, indicated by its size and 
 redness, is the danger-signal that voice. cannot be used 
 without great injury to the vocal folds. 
 
 Node-forming may best be described by citing a Typical 
 typical instance. The patient was conscious of only a instance 
 weakness on the left side of the throat, near the folds, of node 
 with a tendency to clear mucous which, however, could forming. 
 not be expelled. Examination revealed a white, cheesy 
 deposit in the atrophied tonsil, several thickened papillae 
 on the mucous surface of the anterior pillar, with a thick- 
 ness and redness of the circumvallate papillae or digestive 
 glands at base of tongue; several papules on the mucous 
 membrane over the palato-pharyngeal fold were observed, 
 and one or more over the ary-epiglottic fold. In such a 
 
144 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 condition, when the secretions cease and these papules be- 
 come irritated through lack of moisture, a sudden tickling 
 is felt, the palato-pharyngeus contracts irregularly, affect- 
 ing that part of the palate concerned in forming the super- 
 structural, or partial overtones. A sudden spasm ensues, 
 with relaxation of the whole voice apparatus on the 
 affected side, the larynx presenting an akinesis, or sub- 
 luxation of all parts entering into the formation of the 
 glottis. An experiment made some years ago upon a dog 
 showed that tying off the inferior fasciculus of the thyro- 
 arytenoid muscle caused the middle third of the fold to 
 bulge; yet not at once, but after repeated paroxysms with 
 effort to clear the throat while barking. It was then seen 
 that both inferior and superior cords bulged, and that all 
 intrinsic muscles were in a state of akinesis. Attempted 
 phonation at such times shows that, as if to protect its 
 injured fellow, the sound arytenoid will be drawn across to 
 the opposite side, carrying the fold itself at the arytenoid 
 end, and by so doing furnishing an interesting example of 
 nature's compensations. Oddly, the node appears on the 
 well side more often than on the weakened. In this con- 
 nection the difference must be pointed out between the 
 tissue of fibroma and papilloma, and of fibrinous develop- 
 ment in node-formation. While tonsillar degeneration may 
 not cause nodes, yet I never have seen nodes form without 
 some expression of cheesy deposits from the tonsils. 
 
 Careful diagnosis having determined the nature of the 
 tumescent body, the cure, in my opinion, will be brought 
 about by surgery, hygiene, rest, and corrective voice-func- 
 tioning, singly, or in combination. A Victor record in my 
 possession presents the work of a patient who had been 
 singing two years with a papilloma the size of a pea be- 
 tween his superior and inferior laryngeal folds, extending 
 out of the ventricle. Without resorting to emollients, 
 without taking one drop of medicine, but with carefully 
 regulated hygiene and proper vocalization, the artist was 
 rewarded by the disappearance of the tumor without the 
 sacrifice of a single performance. In his own words, "I 
 formerly abused my voice; I now use it with greatest 
 
 care 
 
 I" 
 
VOCAL PATHOLOGY 
 
 145 
 
 An instance of the evils of mere palliatives, occurs in Instance 
 the case of another patient, a prominent singer who is a of evils, 
 firm believer in my theories. An acute attack of laryngeal 
 inflammation while on tour caused him to seek aid from a 
 local practitioner, who, with more zeal than understanding, 
 applied a spray of menthol and eucalyptus (much affected 
 by a certain class), which gives the throat a delightful 
 sense of coolness — for a time; but, in this case, cost its 
 victim nearly a thousand dollars in engagements, that 
 could have been- saved by sending him to bed for a week 
 or so, and carefully watching his temperature. 
 
 A word may not be inappropriate with regard to the 
 promiscuous use of the spray. Since the superior laryn- 
 geal nerve supplies motor impulse to the larynx and also 
 sensation through its mucous membrane, the application 
 of sprays to the mucous membrane will first increase rhus- 
 cular tension, and later cause a collapse of the machine to 
 the permanent injury of voice-production. 
 
 Rest as the proper cure is further instanced by the Harm 
 case of another patient, a singer in a Catholic church, who done by 
 suffered so from incense smoke during a holiday season as sprays, 
 to be unable to correlate the autonomies needed for upper 
 tones, her voice stopping short at /^. After a six days' 
 rest an attempt to sing only augmented the trouble, but 
 by adding another secular week to the first, absolutely 
 without vocalizing, the irritation disappeared entirely. 
 
 My method of diagnosing may here be described; a 
 method as simple as deciding by the sense of hearing from 
 which direction a train of cars is approaching. To the 
 expert ear, I find, the debility of the patient will localize 
 itself, both in speech and song, often with a reaction on 
 the corresponding muscles of the examiner. The patient 
 placed opposite me, I ask him to sing in single tones the 
 scale of E, as this brings in G sharp and C sharp, points 
 vital in changing the autonomies, and therefore indices of 
 breaks (by which I mean perceptible alterations of timbre, 
 in a cultivated singer). A break at either of these points 
 shows whether injury exists at the base of the tongue, at 
 its junction with the pharynx, or with the epiglottis, and 
 whether this has been severe enough to cause a G sharp 
 
146 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 Valves of 
 reson- 
 ators. 
 
 Aego- 
 phony. 
 
 Case of 
 removal 
 of tur- 
 binates. 
 
 node. A break at C sharp indicates possible injury in the 
 region of the soft palate, in the pharyngeal pillars, or at 
 the tongue-base, or else that some follicular enlargement 
 interferes with the reflexes in the posterior pharyngeal 
 wall. A blowing sound in the down-scale between G 
 sharp and E warns us of the thickening of the arytenoid 
 or inter-arytenoidal spaces. In a high voice, the G-sharp 
 scale then is tried, and if the notes above the first octave 
 cannot be reached there is certainly trouble with the 
 pharynx, possibly a post-nasal growth or- secretion which 
 interferes with the action of the soft palate. Should the 
 quality of high G sharp be forced, the patient is directed 
 to sing through the nose, and if, by pinching this, nasality 
 cannot be produced, we know that some growth or con- 
 striction of the cavity, or calibre, of the nares is interfering 
 with the auxiliary autonomies of the nasal passage. A 
 trained ear, with a knowledge of the units of strength and 
 the autonomies in their structure and function of such 
 absolute precision that muscular reaction can be mentally 
 diagrammed, are indispensable to the diagnostician in vocal 
 pathology. 
 
 The cause influencing the resonance-spaces of the in- 
 strument of voice is found in the action of its three con- 
 trolling valves — palate, tongue and epiglottis. About these 
 most medical questions are centred. 
 
 When, as often done formerly, the palate has been 
 removed, so as to form a perfect arch, the ability to form 
 overtones is greatly diminished, and the tone-character is 
 marked by segophony (from the Greek, aiga, a goat), or 
 bleating quality. Even thus handicapped, a singer has 
 been known to pursue his artistic career, though not with- 
 out impaired success and extreme mental suffering. I 
 submit that there should be a more general agreement as 
 to when such ablations are imperative. 
 
 A case in my experience, of trouble in left frontal 
 sinus and antrum, demanded the removal of the hyper- 
 trophied turbinates on the same side for relief. Three 
 days after the operation (as has occurred in my practice 
 under similar circumstances), the whole left side of the 
 face and laryngeal folds became partially paralyzed. Three 
 
VOCAL PATHOLOGY 147 
 
 months showed marked diminution of all discharges, with 
 full restoration to normal conditions as to face and larynx, 
 and the patient sang In perfect voice, with gain in over- 
 tone through the opening up of a new resonance-cavity, 
 with clear breathing-space on the formerly affected side. 
 The facial disturbance following the operation I attribute 
 to the temporary injury to Meckel's ganglion above, 
 through its association with the turbinal innervation. 
 But the nerve-supply of the larynx being remote from 
 this, a fuller explanation than I am prepared to offer is 
 needed for the temporary akinesis of the vocal apparatus. 
 Tentatively I suggest that the answer lies In the disturb- 
 ance to the kinetic system, recently outlined by Dr. Crile, 
 through Its station at the thyroid. This case presents 
 another question: Granting that the closing of the post- 
 nasal space by the velum causes the four overtones to 
 disappear, coupled with observations made upon 40,000 
 removed turbinated bones I believe that the turbinates 
 must be controllers of partial resonance for the glottic 
 fundamental, the superior turbinate responding to J^, the 
 middle to g^, and the inferior turbinate to e"^. Obviously, 
 from the case under discussion, one set of sub-chambers Is 
 capable of assuming the duties usually left to two. When 
 then should the turbinate tissue of singers be removed.'' 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 The Vocal Pathology 
 
 (Continued) 
 
 Surgical The question of surgical interference is, probably, the 
 
 interfer- most delicate which the voice-physician has to decide, 
 
 ence a Take, for example, the matter of tonsils. Recent research, 
 
 most with its wonderful enrichment of our knowledge of vocal 
 
 delicate mechanism, has set an obdurate face against what our 
 
 question ablest investigators have branded as the "startling on- 
 
 for the slaught upon the tonsils." Tonsils, be It understood, in- 
 
 voice- elude the fauclal pair, and the pharyngeal tonsils generally 
 
 physician called adenoids. Adenoids are not, as commonly stated, 
 to decide. pathological; they are as much a part of the normal 
 structure as are the teeth and eyes. The name comes 
 Adenoids. from the Greek words aden ("gland") and eidos ("like"), 
 and they belong to the glandular bodies which act as 
 Organs, filters to the lymphatic system, receiving germs and other 
 
 not an poisonous deposits, and detaining these for the lymph- 
 
 ailment, cells to attack, digest and destroy. Are such health offi- 
 
 cers lightly to be spared? Yet the swollen condition that 
 marks the normal functioning of the adenoid is sometimes 
 mistaken for unnatural enlargement, and treated accord- 
 ingly by the crassly ignorant, with results always disas- 
 Tonsillot- trous, too often fatal. To quote Dr. R. B. Faulkner, the 
 omy a recognized authority on the subject, operations for the 
 
 fad. removal of adenoids have been followed by "the most 
 
 appalling list of accidents in the history of surgery." 
 Normal fauclal tonsils, no less than the pharyngeal, are 
 necessary anatomical presences. They lubricate the ad- 
 joining muscles and offer mechanical compensation and 
 invaluable support to phonation in modifying and bal- 
 ancing the three supra-laryngeal cavities. The tonsils 
 also act as safety-valves for undue secretions developed 
 by the digestive tract. Are such sentinels of the vocal 
 penetralia, such acoustic agents, to be removed without due 
 
 148 
 
FOCAL PATHOLOGY 
 
 149 
 
 consideration? Never, indeed, unless the last word in 
 diagnosis finds them so diseased, from the atrophic side 
 especially, as to harbor germs and to beget specific infec- 
 tions of a character so menacing that operation is the 
 only remedy. 
 
 As Alexander Graham Bell says, "Every change in Case of 
 the passage through which the voice travels occasions a pennanent 
 corresponding change in voice quality." One case of many monotone 
 may be cited of a child with a permanent monotone, due from care- 
 to an operation for tonsillotomy where the surgeon, dis- less ton- 
 concerted by the effect of the ether given, cut off the sillotomy. 
 entire posterior pillar. In time the patient recovered a 
 fair speaking- voice, but without phonetic "values, the voice 
 being confined to a single pitch. Bungling execution does 
 not invalidate the truth of a principle. However, this 
 instance is presented to emphasize how often the task of 
 tonsillotomy, calling as it does for the master's hand, is 
 entrusted to a journeyman and results in the ruination of 
 a vocal career, if not worse. As a general observation, 
 tonsillotomy, with a properly constructed Mackenzie 
 tonsillotome, even if applied with force, should not injure 
 capsule and supplementary pillars on which the conserva- 
 tion of phonetic values depends. Injury to these, through 
 the palato-pharyngeus and palato-glossi muscles, is most 
 serious, impairing the action of palate and tongue in speech, 
 and tongue-action in speech and song, and furthermore 
 destroying overtone. In adenoid removals, the post-pha- 
 ryngeal wall, if dragged off, can be replaced; but should 
 the superior constrictor, the large swallowing muscle, be 
 injured, it would affect the upper register of the voice 
 through the middle and inferior constrictors, which are 
 regulated by the palato-pharyngeus. Take any group of 
 children — patients whose abnormalities have been treated 
 with intelligently regulated corrective vocalism — and com- 
 pare them with their fellows who have been subjected to 
 a ruthless tonsillotomy. In the former, careful vocalizing Dental arch 
 has located the trouble, whether in dental arch, enlarged trouble 
 turbinate, or overworked pharyngeal tonsil, and prescribed corrected 
 for accordingly. In the latter, a permanent weakness re- by vocal- 
 cords itself in nasal and oral mucous membrane, especially izing. 
 
ISO VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 at the three turbinates, through lack of development and 
 from loss of voice-vibrations on them. 
 
 Septum, dome, hard palate, teeth, epiglottis, and thy- 
 roid cartilage, are of special value in the production of the 
 overtones of the fundamental. Exercises, particularly in 
 childhood, will correct abnormalities in them, and develop 
 their resonantic office. 
 
 To enumerate the high authorities who have put 
 themselves on record as opposed to vocal surgery, except 
 as an extreme measure, would be to invoke all the import- 
 ant investigators, scientific teachers, and singers no less 
 scientific, known to contemporaneous history. 
 
 It has been widely circulated among physicians that 
 Adelina Patti had her tonsils removed at the age of twelve. 
 Mrs. Richard Van Anden has stated that she remembers 
 the day when this was done. The late Thomas W. White, 
 President of the Board of Council of the N. Y. Herald, 
 and also its musical critic for many years, informed me that 
 Mme. Patti's New York physician, the late Dr. Ceccarini, 
 personally told him that it was true that Patti's tonsils had 
 been removed. Dr. Richard B. Faulkner, in search of 
 authentic information, took up the subject with Patti her- 
 self, and, after some correspondence, secured a written 
 statement from her that one-half her right tonsil had been 
 removed, but she was not aware whether the other one 
 had been touched. 
 
 This only goes to illustrate the necessity of knowing 
 and remembering, either by personal observation or by 
 information from the physician, the exact condition of 
 things. The physician who removes tonsils should be one 
 competent in scientific knowledge of voice as well as of 
 medical efficiency. 
 
 On many occasions it has been my privilege to be 
 brought, by those in authority, in consultation to singers 
 needing medical attention. In order not to err, I have in 
 many instances been granted permission, by my own 
 request, to investigate the history of facts in the vocal and 
 physical condition of singers. During the regime of Mau- 
 rice Grau, Heinrich Conried and Gatti-Casazza at the Met- 
 ropolitan Opera House such opportunities were frequent. 
 
VOCAL PATHOLOGY 151 
 
 Similar opportunities came through many other New York 
 managers, Henry W. Savage, Shubert Bros., Klaw and Er- 
 langer, Oscar Hammerstein, or their representatives, who, 
 one and all, reposed the utmost confidence in the author's 
 charge of, and advice to, their singers. I made untiring 
 efforts to secure proper reports for record, but almost in- 
 variably the conditions as described by the singers them- 
 selves were wholly at variance with what I knew to be the 
 case. Often such difficulty is due to confusion resulting 
 from a singer's being under treatment by several physi- 
 cians at the same time; but there is a general belief among 
 managers, on account of the reluctance of artists to have a 
 report made, that a truthful record cannot be obtained. 
 
 The underlying reason for this reluctance is fear — a 
 dread that if any weakness were disclosed it would injure 
 their careers, and if famous, that it might be handed down 
 to their detriment in history. Then artists fear that an 
 examination might be made for the purpose of enabling 
 the management to get rid of them, and the record, is made 
 favorable to the management's purpose. In the many 
 times the author has been called in consultation by man- 
 agers in order to endorse or accentuate the treatment of 
 well-known artists by other medical experts, he can truth- 
 fully say that he has faithfully performed his duty both to 
 the patient and the management, and to the advantage of 
 both, by completely submerging his own individuality. 
 The author has been able to do this through his threefold 
 capacity of musician, singer and scientist of voice, which 
 has rendered him capable of judging the exact require- 
 ments of the singer. Incidentally, few public statements 
 regarding voice-condition of artists can be relied upon, 
 as they are unauthentic and colored to suit popular 
 taste. 
 
 In referring to the function of the tonsil I liken it to 
 a tufted button of old-fashioned furniture. In fact, I 
 consider, from a pathological standpoint, that the func- 
 tion of the tonsil is similar to the tufted button of 
 upholstery. 
 
 We all remember how solid and firm was the old 
 tufted-button seat of our Grandmother's chair, and in 
 
152 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 what an incredibly short time the old seat went to pieces 
 when we cut out the germ-laden little woolen tuft, answer- 
 ing to the bug-collecting tonsil. This is practically how I 
 look upon the tonsil, and just what I meant to convey 
 when I wrote to Dr. Faulkner on the subject, namely, that 
 the tonsil is the regulator of pillar action, function, and 
 adjustment. To reiterate, the tonsil answers the purpose 
 of a tufted button, and if it becomes loose and frowsy, or 
 buggy, amygdelokelphine the button, but the purse-string 
 and capsule should always be left intact, else the adjust- 
 ment and function of the human upholstery will be ruined 
 and disorganized or switched into undreamt-of positions 
 by infection, suppuration and cicatrization. 
 
 Tonsillar enlargement and other disease, mechanically 
 induced, may be prevented by perfecting the vocal mech- 
 anism. Let us hesitate to remove that which cannot be 
 restored; for, as Lilli Lehmann puts it, "Every bad stand- 
 ard of health In the throat can be cured by learning how 
 to use all the muscles properly. Singers who sing will never 
 be troubled by anything." A sage maxim this, and one to 
 be applied to pathological conditions. For all other condi- 
 tions let us apply the words of Mme. Nordica, "I would let 
 normal organs alone." My advice is, be sure of disease 
 before the tonsil Is removed, and, moreover, let us operate 
 and not mutilate. 
 
 One of the great demonstrations of Vocal Art- 
 Science is shown by the results accomplished with Miss 
 Lilian Kiel — the cleft-palate case with only a portion of 
 a vomer bone in the nose. 
 
 Previous to the practice of the principles of Vocal 
 Art-Science, Miss Kiel was unable to articulate or enunciate 
 In an intelligible way. By careful and definite procedure 
 the cleft-palate speech was in twenty lessons almost entirely 
 obliterated. Both Miss Kiel and Miss Helen Kellar were 
 brought before the Academy of Medicine in New York 
 City in 191 2 for purposes of demonstration. The re- 
 sults that were accomplished with Miss Kiel were nothing 
 less than marvelous when it is considered that she was 
 thirty-one years of age before adopting the principles laid 
 down in Vocal Art-Science. She appeared before the New 
 
VOCAL PATHOLOGY 153 
 
 York Dental Association in New York, and again at the 
 New Jersey Dental Convention at Asbury Park, and yet 
 again before the New York State Dental Association at 
 Albany. 
 
 All these demonstrations were conducted before vast 
 audiences of scientists, physicians, and dentists. 
 
 In June, J914, Miss Kiel was taken to Fairweather 
 Hall, Columbia University, New York City, to be tested 
 by the Miller-Hall voice-recording apparatus, one of the 
 most delicate machines known for photographing the rela- 
 tive frequency and intensities of tone and overtone. 
 
 Phonetic values were demonstrated and established 
 in each and every test of resonators. 
 
 Each resonator was taken up separately and then 
 combined. From the sinuses, the turbinated bones and 
 epiglottis, the register of every resonance was distinctly 
 heard and demonstrated with wonderful clearness. The 
 following most -remarkable results were obtained, which 
 would not have been possible in a normal case. Namely, 
 a curved rubber tube was placed over the glottis to ob- 
 tain the direct momentic sound when all other spaces were 
 shut off, the tube being the only "catch-all" for the first 
 sound. 
 
 On examination, after one year's instruction, nothing 
 could be more beautiful than the progress of this case. 
 
 The little narrow edges of undeveloped pillars and 
 palate, that heretofore hung so helplessly, were strong, 
 active and without constriction, holding the mechanical 
 appliance in position, which was utterly impossible at the 
 beginning. More than this, a healthy condition of the 
 mucous membranes had been established. 
 
 It is through this case that an enormous amount of 
 accurate investigation has been possible, showing how 
 most vital results of correct phonation have been gained 
 for Vocal Art-Science. 
 
 Much that could not otherwise be proved in a normal 
 mouth and nose has been definitely established, in a mar- 
 velous way, through Miss Kiel. For instance, it has been 
 possible because of the absence of the vomer bone in the 
 nose to show what the resonance through the nose is, when 
 
154 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 there is no obstruction. By blocking up the nasal cavities 
 with wax, attached to a false vomer bone on the Mitchell 
 mechanical appliance, now worn by the young lady, sup- 
 plying artificially that which nature did not, has proved 
 conclusively by the complete lack of nasal resonance what 
 the nose, clear and free in its passage, means for reinforce- 
 ment to quality of tone. 
 
 In a similar manner false tonsils were inserted in this 
 person's throat and a tone sung. By removing these arti- 
 ficial tonsils, voice was again produced, and the change of 
 added resonance that was lacking with the false tonsils 
 placed in the ventricular pockets was apparent to the 
 hearers, and registered by the machine as correct. 
 
 With the assistance of the Mitchell mechanical plate 
 device Miss Kiel is able to hold responsible positions that 
 require use of the voice constantly, and no one hearing her 
 would note there was any deficiency in.speech or in quality 
 of voice. Her singing ability is marked •by musical flexi- 
 bility and legato, and she sings with expression and splen- 
 did diction. 
 
 Another case of cleft palate calls for description, since 
 this went far to upsetting the author's theories of autono- 
 mies. In a patient this deformity was so fully expressed 
 as to allow the nares to be seen in all detail. Her speech 
 was . blurred by the usual shortcomings incident to her 
 deficiency, and while breaks to some extent were notice- 
 able, in singing from c^ to e^, at the so-called register 
 changes, yet she was able to sing from a^ flat. to high e^ 
 without perceptible break, even before a false palate had 
 been introduced, an apparent contradiction that baffled 
 the author till Mr. Wangeman suggested a solution that 
 restored his faith, namely, that the thickened wall which 
 is so prominent a feature in these cases divided the air- 
 chamber in a way to produce the same result as in the 
 normal structure. 
 
 In children, during mutation, that is to say, between 
 the ages of twelve and fourteen, the bones of the nose 
 take on a special growth, particularly at the vomer bridge, 
 and likewise all other bones influenced by the pituitary 
 body. For this reason I strongly advise against any 
 
VOCAL PATHOLOGY 
 
 ISS 
 
 operation involving these parts during this entire period 
 for fear of arresting their development. 
 
 A disturbing influence in resonance often arises from 
 the deviation toward the left of the nasal septum which is 
 found in seventy-five per cent of adults and which is liable 
 to occur from childhood up. It is accounted for, accord- 
 ing to Sir Frederick Trevis, by the habit of blowing the 
 nose with the right hand action; according to Dr. Robert 
 Frothingham by pressure of nostrils against the breast of 
 the mother in childhood. This could easily be avoided by 
 early training. Indeed, early habits of cleanliness and care 
 would do away with many nose-troubles that specialists 
 are called upon to relieve in singers. 
 
 I have called falsetto a bad habit. Certain conclusions 
 regarding it were brought home to me at a demonstration 
 in didactic vocalism before a group of musical supervisors 
 at a university concourse. The director sang falsetto and 
 remained on pitch. When he sang full voice he was off 
 pitch with poor balance; the pitch mechanism was too 
 strong, and the resonance limited to a stiff, post-palatine 
 direction, probably the result of tonsillotomy, which he 
 told me he had undergone. In falsetto, the fundamental is 
 acted on sufficiently to fulfill the minimum capacity of the 
 resonance-chamber; it requires but a third or fourth of 
 the energy needed for full voice, and controls but one- 
 fourth of resonance, and therefore can easily be held to 
 pitch. 
 
 When the crowning gift, the voice divine, loses its 
 power, then the singer seeks the specialist, imploring to be 
 saved from ruthless fate. But generally it is too late. 
 Either unsound organs that, if initially attended to, could 
 have been saved, are irrevocably damaged, or else organs 
 originally sound have been injured, sometimes beyond aid, 
 through exercise in faulty methods. 
 
 Hygiene for singers and speakers Involves the entire 
 being. As Dr. Horsford truly says, "Train the body; 
 physical fitness is essential. Vocal deficiency often means 
 mental deficiency; train the mind." 
 
 Equally true is It that good vocalism means good 
 hygiene through which singers generally become robust. 
 
 Dr. Cyril 
 
 Horsford, 
 
 Kensington 
 
 Gen'l 
 
 Hospital 
 
 and 
 
156 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 Central Vocal discipline, breathing and correct vocal procedure 
 
 London cannot help but make for health of body, mind and soul. 
 
 Throat Not till standards shall have been established and 
 
 and Ear universally adopted by specialists, physicists, teachers and 
 
 Hospital. singers, working together for a common good, will Science 
 
 wedded to Art produce the perfect voice. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 Vocal Efficiency 
 
 Everything that exists has motion. The earth is in a 
 constant state of vibration, subject to forces of the sun, 
 which answers the same law of impulses. The earth vi- 
 brates in one plane, while the sun vibrates in another. The 
 two vibrations unite in the apex of a triangle, thereby form- 
 ing a point of equilibrium. 
 
 Conception, gestation, and birth of the individual are 
 all governed by this law of vibration. The vibratory 
 waves of the child at birth are parallel to those of the 
 earth, but it gradually raises itself, through different vi- 
 bratory influences, to an upright position. ^ 
 
 We will liken these triangles to a state of efficiency 
 because of its completeness and comprehensiveness. There 
 had to be one, two and three forces before the triangle was 
 completed. 
 
 Efficiency thus creates the necessity for a standard 
 Vocal system. Therefore we must recognize three vibratory 
 forces as the basis of this efficiency. Hence the knowledge 
 of physiological, anatomical (vocal autonomies and units 
 of strength), and finally synthetic laws, must form the 
 "Triangle of Efficiency" in voice-building or tone-making. 
 The production of a tone is a science, and of necessity 
 based on fundamental laws. How can the vocal student 
 have an intelligent understanding of the true production 
 and emission of a tone, or how can lasting results be at- 
 tained, unless we accept a definite point of beginning.? 
 
 The examination of light and voice are analogous. 
 Light may be polarized by reflection, refraction or 
 
 'As a plane placed on the side would fall unless supported by a third 
 force to keep it in balance, the pyramid of vocal efficiency cannot fail of its 
 purpose. The pyramid of vocal efficiency is more than a mere symbol; it is 
 an absolute replica of the vocal cord by itself which performs and determines 
 the swinging periods of each and every vocal vibration, thus forming the 
 base of a triangle pyramid. 
 
158 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 transmission similarly with sound (tone). Polarized light is 
 altered or rotated by its passage through quartz crystal by 
 refraction from a magnetic pole. This is called rotary 
 polarization. Light reflected from metallic mirrors ex- 
 hibits phenomena which make it probable that its vibra- 
 tions are in closed curves rather than straight lines. Its 
 polarization is then said to be circular or elliptic. 
 
 Vocal tone, in an analogous way, is regulated by a 
 system of polarity or equilibrium similar to that of light. 
 This would confirm the theory that the phenomena of light 
 and voice must be analogous, when one considers that light 
 and voice are both the result of electro-magnetic forces. 
 Light and sound work in different media but function 
 the same way through similar forces. 
 
 Light is etheric and vertical; sound is atmospheric and 
 travels longitudinally in its existence. We have two eyes 
 set side by side and two ears widely separated but as sym- 
 metrically placed as the eyes. The anatomy of the mouth 
 gives the physical expression of vocal sound, the ears 
 the mental. 
 
 Before a clear and concise knowledge of sound pro- 
 duction can be obtained the pathway of its development 
 must be considered more in detail. 
 
 Vocal Art-Science has established that all sciences 
 (Mathematics, Chemistry, Astronomy, Geology, Biology, 
 Physiology, Philology, Psychology, Sociology, etc.) are 
 built upon a kinetic foundation and are subject in their 
 various and individual forms of evolution to a sevenfold 
 pathway of progression. 
 
 Mathematics advances by Arithmetic, Algebra, Ge- 
 ometry, Trigonometry, Analytical Geometry, Conic Sec- 
 tions and Calculus. 
 
 Vocal Art-Science develops by a Physico-Biologico- 
 Mento-Psychical process, or a sevenfold progression neces- 
 sary for perfect tone-formation, as follows: 
 
 Coordination — The perfect adjustment of all the mus- 
 cular efforts connected with the vocal mechanism, i. e., 
 the perfected or specialized static power possessed by each 
 individual muscle-cell and their combination into a physico- 
 biologico-chemical machine. 
 
VOCAL EFFICIENCY 159 
 
 Correlation — The awakening of the static powers of 
 each individual muscle or autonomies through the control- 
 ling and governing action of the mind, which allows dis- 
 tinctive and definite sequential combinations of kinetic 
 muscular forces to come into action. Or, a physico-biolo- 
 gico-chemical-mental kinetic machine resulting in activity, 
 flexibility, and agility of the singing voice. 
 
 Equilibration — The resultant adjustment of the op- 
 posing coordinative and correlative processes, whereby the 
 various kinetic forces are brought into a physico-mental 
 balance. 
 
 Polarization — Vocal polarization or polanization is 
 that physico-mental equilibrated force whereby the vocal 
 sound that is to be orientated assumes a centralized field, 
 having the power of attracting sympathetic vibrations of 
 the voice, to a point which is created, controlled and 
 directed about the tongue the greatest polarizer of the 
 voice. 
 
 Orientation — Refers to the position occupied in cosmic 
 space, of the physico-mental equilibrated and polarized 
 vocal sound. 
 
 SyncBsthetization — The pre-union of the psychical ele- 
 ments with the physico-mental polarized forces (i. e., each 
 of the two elements exists, but as yet they have not con- 
 verged to a vertex). 
 
 Oriento-pancesthetization — The final summation and 
 perception of the physico-mental with the psychical or 
 aesthetic processes that create voice, at the vertex or centre 
 of its entity, built up in the laboratory of the perfectly 
 functioning soul forces, embracing to the fullest extent of 
 its content and capacity the psychology of the individual, 
 the psychology of aesthetic feeling in musical appreciation, 
 and expression. This process embodies as well the psychol- 
 ogy of the pedagogy of vocal and all musical function 
 related thereto, resulting in the beautiful technico-soul- 
 perfectlon of the God-given PERFECT voice. 
 
 With the "Pyramid of Efficiency" as a foundation, 
 and the sevenfold pathway as the structural framework, 
 more graphic description of the body of the Vocal Temple, 
 must now be considered. 
 
160 
 
 FOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 HypQthemise of 
 .Basic Tr/enfie. 
 
 Fig. 39. 
 
 The tissues of the vocal instrument are all pyramidal 
 in form and the expression of their force oc- 
 curs ty way of an aperture at the hypothenuse 
 of the triangular base. (Fig. 39.) 
 
 Even the brain-cell has bipolar proper- 
 ties; that is, it has two poles on each side 
 which operate in sympathy, bilaterally and 
 symmetrically. They are superimposed in -graduated 
 duplicate form, diverge definitely from their apices and 
 are -so controlled that all parts act synchronously and 
 in equilibrium. By means of this governing control or 
 polarization the path and direction of the tone have been 
 given, the resonance perfectly adjusted, and all parts are 
 kept in balance, and ready for articulation. 
 
 Fig. 40. 
 
 The pyramids of voice, or the hollow chambers of 
 sound, may be many-sided, with sides and bases triangular 
 in conformation, as below: 
 
 Fig. 41. — First forms of pyramids of vocal efficiency. 
 
 These pyramids must be so arranged that the mass of 
 air, when brought in contact with them, develops voice. 
 This requires for perfect development and mechanism the 
 symmetrical placement and arrangement of each auton- 
 omy, which in turn controls each individual unit, so that a 
 
VOCAL EFFICIENCY 161 
 
 mass of air coming in contact with them develops a mo- 
 mentum of a certain speed regulated by the proper ad- 
 justment of these parts. Even the mass of cord acted on by 
 the compressed air from the lungs below, must of necessity 
 be regulated by forces made on the same basis from its 
 structure-producing functions, so as to develop, at the 
 glottic -pyramido-prismic aperture, forces that act on the 
 same principle and give rise to phenomena analogous to 
 those found in the spectrum analysis of metallic sub- 
 stances, viz.: 
 
 First. Intensity of thermal mass, or body of vocal 
 cords; that is, a special thermal activity in the mass, 
 known as intensification of the processes of circulation 
 of the blood in the body-tissues, also to those processes 
 regulated by the chemical combination of the blood, blood- 
 vessels and tissues of the body by pressure, oxidization and 
 friction. 
 
 Second. In like analogy we speak of the intensity of 
 luminosity of the mass, or body; that is, the intensification 
 of the process (of interpreting the force or light, altered 
 until it produces the impression) of being equally light 
 with the color, whose luminosity is to be determined and 
 which measures the living force of the altered light relatively 
 as its standard intensity, it then being taken as the 
 luminosity of color; in other words, it is the force in the 
 tissues that alters their action in the matter of position 
 so as to cause it to be perceived in the same manner as it 
 would in terms of light, that is, it produces a sight-form 
 in the voice-producing apparatus that creates a certain 
 ability in the sound-apparatus to detonate pitch sound. 
 
 Third. Chemical intensity of the mass, or body; in 
 uniting with the power, resonance and pitch, causes the 
 sonority of voice and its subsequent polarity, direction, 
 and balance or equilibrium to produce vocal sounds at the 
 mouth. By analogy we arrive at the best understanding 
 of the whole question of voice, and find that it depends ' 
 upon a conception of the correspondences indicated in the 
 nerve and adjacent cellular elements. Each individual cell 
 to functionate properly must have polarity and equili- 
 brium. The summation of these simple cells, and the 
 
162 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 extended and united controlling powers of polarization 
 and equilibrium, is then the essence of vocal tone-pro- 
 duction. 
 
 Therefore, as it is a correct and natural sequence for 
 the brain to so discharge its energy that way in its own 
 perfect system, a correspondence to that correct, natural 
 expression of force, will be a satisfactory system of pro- 
 cedure in Voice-Production. 
 
 This particular principle of voice seems to have been 
 overlooked in every system other than that of Vocal Art- 
 Science; and this is the pivotal point of standardization of 
 the vocal system. 
 
 From the beginning we have made audible our initial 
 voice-sound, through nature, brought about by the nat- 
 ural expression of the contents of the polarized air-cells, 
 set in action by the breath passing over the true and false 
 cords, and sustained by the epiglottis. The epiglottis, 
 in conjunction with its co-planers (the true and false vocal 
 cords, tongue and palate and coordinated pyramidal ary- 
 tenoids which equilibrate and polarize the very first vocal 
 expiratory sound), affords the efficient means of polari- 
 zation and balance for vocal tone-production. The next 
 step is to bring the tone out into the vocalic unit — the 
 mouth. 
 
 This may be accomplished by creating the intensity 
 of the vibration of the sound of the consonant "M" on the 
 lips by means of the polarizing director, the tongue, which 
 touches the lower jaw where it is joined by the lower teeth 
 to carry sympathetic resonance to the mandible or jaw. 
 For "N" this intensity is created in the same way: by 
 touching the roof of the mouth with the tip of the tongue 
 where the vomer bone is aligned with the turbinated bones, 
 so as to direct the sympathetic resonance in polarizing for 
 "N." By these means "M" becomes progressively coordi- 
 nate and correlative, arid "N" remains stationary and cor- 
 relative; hence, we designate "M" as positive and "N" as 
 negative progression. By means of "M," sympathetic 
 vocal vibration is conveyed forward to the mandible or 
 jaw; it is carried and directed to upper teeth and the tip 
 of nose by "N". Vocal sound depends for its production 
 
VOCAL EFFICIENCY 163 
 
 on the sound-momentum established by the dIflFerential 
 angle of polarization in its operating sound path. The action 
 of these consonants brings our initial voice-sound forward, 
 both into the nose and the throat. Then, by virtue of de- 
 flection, or, for instance, by the transmutation of the 
 sound-waves around the posterior end of one of the turbi- 
 nated bones (these act as a pole around which the voice- 
 waves turn), they turn and take another and different 
 direction, notwithstanding the fact, that the direction of 
 sound rarefactions and condensations is always longitudinal 
 to the power producing them, or to th.&'vis a tergo in mechan- 
 ical sound phenomena. 
 
 Resonance is now wholly established. 
 
 The overtone and partial tone-forming space, bounded 
 by the choanse, dome and posterior wall of the pharynx 
 down to the palate, is utilized in the articulation of the 
 vowel-sounds. The latter process is again governed by 
 the palate and polarized by the tongue, and does not 
 include the turbinated bones, as do the overtones and par- 
 tials which follow. 
 
 The syllabic combination "ng-oh" will give the fourth 
 overtone space. 
 
 When the tone is made and its resonance established, 
 its amplification is the next step to be considered. To 
 accomplish this, use the consonant "N" and the sounds 
 "ol," "noi," "gaw," swelling the tone from the "noi" into 
 the "gaw," beginning with the mezza voce and amplifying 
 into the forte or crescendo. The term "falsetto" must not 
 be confused with "mezza voce" — they are widely different. 
 "Elson's Music Dictionary" defines them as follows: 
 
 Mezza Voce — Half the power of the voice; that is, 
 softly. 
 
 Crescendo — A word denoting an increasing power of 
 tone. It is often indicated by the sign -==. 
 
 Diminuendo — Diminishing gradually the intensity of 
 power of tone (==-). 
 
 Decrescendo — Gradually diminishing in power of tone. 
 
 Falsetto — A false or artificial voice; that part of a 
 person's voice that lies above its natural compass. 
 
164 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 Thus amplitude or power is coupled with resonance. 
 Theresultant of power and resonance is pitch. 
 
 In order to appreciate the action of the arytenoid 
 cartilage and its influence in polarization, it is well first to 
 study the action of free nodal vibration in connection with 
 the laws of sound-production, since sound is produced in 
 three dimensions. In the above figure, we raise a per- 
 pendicular, A C, and at right angles to it draw B C. Let 
 B C represent a nodal vibration, and when started in 
 motion at a given impulse, it vibrates from B to G in a 
 single vibration, moving in one plane. The same nodal 
 vibration in sound would vibrate in the plane C F D in 
 its perpendicular aspect, in C E F in its horizontal aspect, 
 and in C D G E in its diagonal aspect. Hence, it will be 
 seen that the periphery of its nodal vibration is represented 
 by the triangle D F E, which will be the basis of the forma- 
 tion of the positive pole of this triangular pyramidal nodal 
 vibration. 
 
 Assuming the above as the basis and operating pole 
 of one nodal vibration (using this as centre of develop- 
 ment), we shall have described accurately the operation of 
 the element of articulation of our voice-producing organ, 
 the vocal cord, taking the latter as our positive pole of 
 the hemispherical sector with its bipolar vibration for 
 voice-production. The negative pole is the pharyngeal 
 pole. It is the pharyngeal extremity of the ligament at- 
 tached to the cartilage of Santorini which surmounts the 
 arytenoid cartilage which constitutes this negative pole. 
 (See Fig. 43.) 
 
VOCAL EFFICIENCY 165 
 
 - ANTEMOR 
 POLE 
 
 i VX^ POSITIVE POLE 
 
 '■PHflRYN)i\-.. NEGATIVE POLE 
 Fig. 43. 
 
 If these two poles are placed in the hemispherical 
 sectors and the natural law which marks the force of the 
 sun, gives the universally recognized dextral gyration, we 
 shall have a point where the double polarization will cause 
 an equal adjustment in the satisfaction of the operation 
 of the three sides of this polarization, at the coordinated 
 intervals of two and a half steps (which would be between 
 mi and fa in the musical scale), and also at the four 
 correlated major and minor intersections (which would be 
 between si and do as well as at mi ^nd fa). Consequently, 
 we should have a scale tempered to the ear-drum. 
 
 It will be observed that by putting in the angle of the 
 free nodal edges with the arytenoid, as the positive pole, 
 and superimposing on it the pyramidal arytenoid, the 
 whole apparatus is converted into one, similar to the 
 structure of a brain-cell. The free nodal edges are dis- 
 tributed by this arytenoid angle which measures the com- 
 bined nodal vibrations, instead of transmuting the free 
 nodal vibrations by the hypothenuse of the two planes. 
 The angle is so arranged that the same nodal vibrations in 
 two planes discharge themselves in one common hypothe- 
 nuse. Such, in the author's estimation, is the solution of 
 the articulation, pitch and balance and polarized elements 
 in voice-work, accomplished by the arytenoid. 
 
 When the action of the arytenoids has been finished, 
 and also the mental operation and its physical application 
 of energized breath, we shall find our vocal cords not only 
 hemispherical sectors, pyramidal when in action, but by 
 
166 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 the furtherance and completion of this action in spherical 
 relationship we shall find them cuspoidal-laryngeal halves, 
 or hemispherical sectors. 
 
 The true and false cords are pyramidal in form; the 
 upper plane of the true cord pyramid with the inferior 
 plane of the false cord pyramid form a hollow pyramidal 
 resonance-chamber or ventricle. The base extends between 
 the free lips of the true and false cords, and its apex, on 
 a line with the external larger arm of the arytenoid, 
 extends forward about the middle of the base of the 
 cords, to the thyroid shield terminating in an appendix 
 of true cuspoidal shape (Fig. 44). Thus explaining the func- 
 tion of the ventricle, in greatly amplifying the 
 tones by this added power to assume greater pro- 
 portions with the increase of sound, connected 
 with the external sides of the larynx, as noted in 
 '^' ■ the process of vocalization in certain animals. 
 
 When the cuspoidal laryngeal halves or vocal cords 
 are united through the actionof their regulating autonomies, 
 and their free edges drawn together, the right cord is 
 smaller, more compact and of sharper delineation than the 
 left; this condition being due to a stronger muscular control 
 upon the right, necessitated by a stronger air-whirl or 
 spiral-thrust produced upon this side. 
 
 This hollow pyramido ventricle, then, has within it 
 the requisites of force coupled, with the function of the 
 crico-thyroid membrane, to create the initial form of the mo- 
 mentum of power, resonance and pitch for perfect voice. 
 From the author's repeated observations the cords begin 
 to close at one end and finish at the other, in tones or 
 voice-production, and the ventricle furnishes the necessary 
 apparatus for the greatest amplification and intensity of the 
 voice. This shows that voice as produced on inspiration 
 begins at the thyroid end of the vocal cord and finishes at 
 the arytenoid end, and, on expiration begins at the aryte- 
 noids and ends at the thyroid. Hence, the only true way to 
 produce a tone by the true cord or fundamental is by 
 voice produced on inspiration. 
 
 As both roof and floor of these hollow pryamids, in 
 their finished form, are helically and conically related and 
 
EWMOIB CELLS 
 RNTRVM 
 
 FmNTAL SINUS 
 
 TimnMaTED SON£S 
 
 SHOCK JIRSORBim SINUSES 
 FI/SmCHlAN OEIFICE 
 
 \ 
 
 
 \ 
 
 cufsuu 
 
 
 n 
 I 
 
 \ 
 
 msnmR FULBR 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 airmoR fillar 
 
 
 
 MYLO-HYOIB 
 
 HYom 
 
 THYRO-HYOW 
 
 Fig. 47. Pathway of Kinesis. 
 (Karl Kraft.) 
 
VOCAL EFFICIENCY 167 
 
 used as units, in hemispheres, tend, when subjected to pol- 
 arization and equilibration to establish the path of voice. 
 The positive direction of polarization will be in a line 
 with the balanced polarized centre of both arytenoids, 
 and the balanced polarized centre of both thyroid ends 
 of the cords; this will develop a true parallelogram of 
 forces, as follows: 
 
 Fig. 45. 
 
 The arytenoids, being placed bilaterally and sym- 
 metrically on an immovable, solid cricoid, would cause a 
 comparatively perfect alignment of the arytenoid carti- 
 lages with the true and false cords in their arrangement as 
 positive poles, and the ligament binding the arytenoid to 
 the cartilage of Santorini and the negative poles in the 
 thyroid ends of the cords; hence, by their structure and 
 situation, they are the only organs that can equalize 
 the polarization and equilibrium of the cords, since the 
 thyroid ends meet in an apex or abscissa. This is plainly a 
 proposition in analytical geometry; the result would be 
 the parallelopiped arrangement of forces, as follows: 
 
 Fig. 46. 
 
 After further consideration of the vibratory sound- 
 producing factors, it is essential for a further understanding 
 of the vocal mechanism to turn to an explanation of the 
 Kinetic Pathway. 
 
 The Pathway of Kinesis (Fig. 47) is the diagrammatic 
 outline of the vocal tract intended to show the voice- 
 producing mechanism, from lungs to brain. The action of 
 the air from the lungs, its spiral path, its vibration, and 
 finally its reinforcement, all take place within the limit 
 of this "Endless Kinetic Chain" running from the lungs 
 
168 FOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 (which are continuous via the trachea with the laryngeal 
 cavity) to the palate, the tongue, and even to the re- 
 sonatic chamber. 
 
 In voice-production all the members of the chain are 
 active. The fact that they are so systematically arranged 
 and connected, shows that there must be some definite 
 relation between the various members. This is true, and 
 is proved by the fact that any minor pathological condition 
 in any part of this tract will materially affect the beauty 
 of the voice, the extent of the defect depending upon the 
 seriousness of the pathological affection. 
 
 The centre pathway adjacent to the cricoid, as shown 
 in the diagram, is Pitch, the path nearest the vocal cords. 
 The path immediately adjacent to the foregoing represents 
 Power, while the outside path represents Resonance; the 
 union of the three, Pitch, Power and Resonance, form voice. 
 Nowhere from the power to the upper shock-absorbing 
 sinus region is there a break in the endless chain, proving 
 once more that for perfect voice-production there must be 
 positive connections of the vocal autonomies. 
 
 This varied physical structure can be made to mus- 
 cularly assume and hold, at the direction of the will, a 
 perfectly proportioned structural form, capable of pro- 
 ducing the perfect voice. The first essential to perfect 
 voice is the two and a half spiral turns given to the air 
 from the lungs. These two and a half spiral turns are the 
 means by which the polarization of voice is determined. 
 The reason for the triangular shape of the cricoid and the 
 circular aperture at the base is, that the cylindrical column 
 can be best and seemingly only, given a cyclonic vertical 
 or spiral movement by the circular walls of the cricoid. 
 
 Modifications of the primal sound must occur as other 
 organs come into play; these modifications are cumulative 
 as the sounds become more complex and varied in their 
 progressive refinement of pitch and tone. Air forced up- 
 ward from the trachea through the ringed aperture at 
 the base of the cricoid is compelled by the angular walls 
 of the cricoid to assume a motion, regulated by the crico- 
 thyroid muscles, which gives the combined effect of the circle 
 and the angle, and therefore can only be spiral in form. 
 
FOCAL EFFICIENCY 169 
 
 Perfect voice is produced in the human throat by 
 the cyclonic rotation of air, impelled by spiral rays or 
 thrusts of energy muscularly put in motion and controlled 
 in amplitude and intensity by the physical organs of the 
 throat. The pure tone is produced by the dexter spiral 
 or the cylonic movement, the overtone by the sinister or 
 anticyclonic movement of the air. 
 
 Pure tone is entirely cyclonic, that is, composed- of 
 all dexter or right spiral rays; the human voice (tone and 
 overtones combined) is composed of both dexter and sinis- 
 ter rays, or centrifugal and centripetal, which in turn cor- 
 respond to vowel and consonant sound. 
 
 From the supply reservoir of the lungs, air is forced 
 up from the large containers through a spirally constructed 
 supply-pipe, the trachea, to a circularly apertured final 
 container, the cricoid. Constantly lessening diameters of 
 orifice from the upper lungs to the cricoid in combination 
 with the ring-structure of the organs, give the upward 
 forced air a cyclonic movement. 
 
 In dealing with the subject of Vocal Art-Science it is 
 necessary to use various expressions drawn from mathe- 
 matical science; hence, that there may be no misunder- 
 standing of terms, several of these expressions are eluci- 
 dated, as follows: 
 
 Hypothenuse is the term indicating the side of a right 
 triangle which is opposite the right angle. Pythagoras 
 many centuries ago proved that the sum of the squares 
 of the arms of a right triangle equals the square of the 
 hypothenuse. The perpendicular cathetus (b) represents 
 the line drawn at right angles from the base or horizontal 
 cathetus or arm (a), which gives the direction; or, in other 
 words, the arm (b) will represent the height of a wave or 
 its point of greatest intensity, (a) represents its ampli- 
 fication, and the line (c) the quality or hypothenuse line. 
 
 orm(b) 
 
170 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 A prism is a solid whose bases are similar and parallel 
 plane figures and whose lateral surfaces are parallelo- 
 grams. 
 
 <A> 
 
 ,^ 
 
 Fig. 49. Prism. 
 
 A pyramid is a solid having a polygonal base and 
 triangular sides meeting in a point called the vertex. 
 
 Fig. SO. Pyramid. 
 
 A Sphere is a solid every part of whose surface is 
 equidistant from a point within, called the centre. 
 
 Fig. 51. Sphere. 
 
VOCAL EFFICIENCY 
 
 171 
 
 An ellipse is a plane curve such that the sums of the 
 distances of every point in its periphery from two fixed 
 points, called the foci, is a constant. 
 
 Fig. 52. Ellipse. 
 
 A helix is' a curve generated by a point which moves 
 along the surface of a cylinder in such a way that a con- 
 stant ratio is maintained between the measure, of its 
 rotation and ascent; that is to say, for example, that for 
 every complete turn about the cylinder the point travels 
 an equal distance along the cylinder parallel to its axis, 
 and for every fractional turn, it moves a corresponding 
 fraction parallel to the axis. The screw-thread and the 
 spiral staircase are examples of the application of this curve. 
 
172 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 When a point moves along the surface of a cone in 
 this manner a conical helix is generated. In nature we 
 
 Axis. 
 Fig. 54. Conical Helix. 
 
 have manifestations which are very closely related to this 
 type of helix in the shell of the gastropods or snails and 
 the helix of the ear. We see it also in the whirl of an 
 air-current deflected by the surface of a building or other 
 obstruction, in the water-spout, etc. Surfaces or volumes 
 coiled in this manner might be described as of conico- 
 helicoidal form. 
 
 Polarization and Equilibration^ 
 
 Polarization is necessary for tone-making, because it 
 defines the pathway of voice. 
 
 The author has discovered that the air-cyclones in 
 voice are centralized or "focussed," as it were, at a point 
 before they are emitted at the mouth. This new phe- 
 nomenon is best described by the word "polarization." It 
 must be understood that voice, not sound, is polarized. 
 Neither must this be confused with polarity, for the voice 
 possesses polarity, inasmuch as the mechanism producing 
 it is bipolar. The voice is therefore polarized. 
 
 'See Glossary. 
 
VOCAL EFFICIENCY 173 
 
 Everything in nature shows the polarizing tendency. 
 The earth is polarized, the north and south poles repre- 
 senting positive and negative forces, with the equator as 
 the balancing power of equilibrium. Every individual 
 may be likened to a miniature planet. The two poles of 
 the human body are represented, first, by the region in 
 the brain dominated by the activities of the pineal gland 
 and held in balance and equilibrium by the pituitary 
 body; this region is separated from the real vocal parts 
 by the floor of the skull, and is the great inspirational 
 and intuitional pole that dominates the mental activities 
 of the vocal effort in their relation with spiritual forces, 
 and corresponds with its sexual analogue below the viscus, 
 held in equilibrium by the solar plexus representing the 
 physical relationship according to the laws of cosmos. 
 Secondly, by the cavity containing the genitals, with 
 the epigastrium or solar plexus as the balancing power. 
 Everything in nature is dual; there is always a right and 
 a left, or positive and negative polarity of being. The 
 positive or right side represents the stronger, while the 
 negative or left is the weaker. This accounts for the fact 
 that the organs on the right side of the body are placed 
 lower and are more powerful than those of the left side. 
 Everything is polarized. Yet there are scientists who deny 
 that polarization of vocal sound exists, and who cannot even 
 see the analogy of polarization of voice and light. If a 
 Nicol's prism creates a straight pathway for crooked light- 
 rays to pass through different media, what does a phone do 
 to sound when it carries the sound through such different 
 media as air, water and stone-wall to the top of a house as 
 well as the bottom, and allows the voice to be tapped at 
 innumerable points.'' 
 
 Similarly, if a beani of light is passed through a 
 crystal of Iceland spar it is divided into two distinct rays 
 known as the ordinary and the extraordinary, or polarized, 
 ray. The light-waves of these two beams are at right 
 angles to each other. 
 
 In ordinary rays of light, the light travels in various 
 different transverse directions, and is called heterogeneous. 
 This is best shown by a section of a light-ray. When the 
 
174 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 light-waves are all in the same direction, the light is said 
 to have been polarized. 
 
 To simplify, assume several vertical stakes in the 
 ground just far enough apart to allow a ring to pass between 
 them. Try to roll rings through them. Only the rings 
 vertical to the ground will pass through. The rings 
 rolled to the stakes correspond to the heterogeneous light, 
 while those which pass through the stakes correspond to 
 the polarized or extraordinary ray. 
 
 In other words, as a ray of light, so a thrust of the 
 vocal sound. Besides the main polarization of the body, 
 there are lesser polarizations in all its component parts. 
 Each of the five vocal autonomies contains its poles and 
 balancing factor; even the nerve-cells answer to the same 
 law. 
 
 When every part of the vocal mechanism is operating 
 coordinately and automatically and when each of the five 
 autonomies acts in perfect correlation, then, and only 
 then, can perfect tone be made. 
 
 One of the greatest poles of domination of activity, 
 in the human voice, is at the region of the base of the 
 tongue, from the middle portion of the tongue to the 
 epiglottis, which is governed and controlled by this pos- 
 terior part of the tongue; or, to grasp the subject by 
 autonomies, the posterior pyramid of the tongue extends 
 from where the mylo-hyoid muscle is attached, at the side 
 of the middle of the tongue, to the hyoid bone, then on to 
 the epiglottis; the hypothenuse of the basic right-angled tri- 
 angle of this pyramid extending from the lateral union of 
 the mylo-hyoid with the tongue to the epiglottis. tj'*^':] 
 
 This pyramid is of prime importance, not only in its 
 connection with the acts of swallowing and the many and 
 various acts of digestion, showing as it does the intimate 
 relations existing between many bodily functions, but also 
 in the polarizing, and equilibrated control of voice-structure. 
 Or, in other words, we have a double pyramid functionating; 
 a coordinating larynx with a correlating pharynx, mouth 
 and dome. Were it absent from the human voice-mech- 
 anism, there would be no sonoric or vocalic units, nor 
 could the three great hollow pyramids of voice-structure 
 
VOCAL EFFICIENCY 175 
 
 be possible; no intensification of glottal emitted tone; no 
 thrill of emotion centralized, amplified and intensified at 
 the glottis opening, by means of the ventricle and its 
 appendix. At this part of the tongue there is created, by 
 pressing down the epiglottis, the first resonator, an over- 
 tone space, and the first control and intensification, also 
 compression of the ventricle, the hollow pyramidal space 
 between the true and false cords and the appendix, seldom 
 spoken of or alluded to in voice matters. They are all 
 organs, which are controlled by the relationship of the 
 epiglottis to the hyoid, in the order of the one-two-three 
 movement of the vocal box, or where solidity, weight and 
 density of the static solid vocal cord can best mould 
 energy into voice. By this movement is meant, first, the 
 coordinated action to establish momentum of fundamental 
 tone at the true cord or band; second, the action of the 
 false vocal cord or overtone-producer; third, the action 
 of the epiglottis as the regulator of form or quality, or 
 the cover of the immovable sound-conductor as resonator. 
 All these organs are coplaners moving in the same plane 
 to produce, by their united individual and conjoined 
 action, the sonoric unit or first vocal sound-tone-form 
 and resonance space. 
 
 The vocal autonomies of pyramidal shape have been 
 anatomically outlined previously. Between the sonoric 
 and vocalic units lies the resonance and voice-actuating 
 pyramid. From here the sound may be deflected up to 
 the choanse onto the posterior tips of the turbinated bones. 
 The sound cyclone strikes the posterior tips of these bones 
 and creates by its contact an intensification of vibratory 
 sound at these points, and, in accordance with the physical 
 laws of sound, is carried, by deflection refined by diffraction 
 and sympathetic transmission through, and transmutation 
 around another body, through the nostrils. This first 
 pyramid is the great controlling factor, not only opening 
 up the air-passages, but also controlling the action of 
 the pyramids above. Air sent up from the sonoric unit 
 may be deflected up to the choanse and turbinated bones, 
 or may be sent out through the vocalic unit, by the ad- 
 justment of this pyramid. 
 
176 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 Without this pyramid, voice would be sent from the 
 sohoric unit up to the pharyngeal pouch or dome, only to 
 be deflected back. However, since this pyramid brings 
 into coordination the palate and in correlation all the other 
 portions of the tongue and mouth, the seeming difficulties of 
 explanation in this matter, are overcome. The palate 
 divides the voice-current into two streams, one going 
 through the vocalic unit, the other deflected to the pos- 
 terior tips of either inferior, mi'ddle or superior turbinated 
 bones to form the third, fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh 
 overtone spaces respectively. It is the action of the apex 
 or pole of this pyramid that plays such an important 
 part in voice-production. 
 
 If these sound-pyramids were not placed at a common 
 pole, as they are in nature, polarization could be effected 
 only with great difficulty, if at all; but with the common 
 pole it is accomplished automatically. 
 
 The hollow-spaced air-pyramids of the resonance-unit 
 of tone in its passage downward, after being deflected by 
 the choanse, joins the deflected and refracted sonoric 
 hollow pyramid of air in mutual polarization. Thus we 
 have the greatest potentiality of voice at the palatal orifice 
 of the mouth, where it is combined into graduating diver- 
 gent sound-waves, with all the component parts of pyra- 
 mido-prismo-conico-helico-cuspoidal-spherical relationship. 
 
 The pyramids of the oral cavity or Vocalic Unit exist 
 in a horizontal position, and are the structures which 
 control the amplitude of the voice; while the nasal of 
 Resonantic Unit, which is the only immovable pyramid, 
 occupies a vertical plane and makes possible the intensity 
 and resonance of the vocal tone. 
 
 That portion or pyramid anterior to the turbinate 
 bones is, then, the smallest pyramid of the vocal instru- 
 ment, and always remains the same, as it is a fixed pyramid. 
 
 The vocal pyramid giving rise to the amplitude is 
 variable, as its bony structure is under muscular control 
 and contains muscular units incorporated in the tongue 
 and soft palate. 
 
 As the vocal cords are adjusted for a certain tone and 
 the pneumatic sets them in vibration by its current of 
 
VOCAL EFFICIENCY 177 
 
 air, we have, with the jaw and tongue in a fixed position, 
 a tone of definite amplitude and intensity. Now, as any 
 of the factors are changed in the least way, so too will 
 the amplitude, intensity and quality change to suit the 
 new conditions. 
 
 The pyramid of negative polarity is situated at the 
 lower end of the abdomen, from the demarcation made 
 by the lesser omentum, and embraces bladder, genitals, 
 everything, to the posterior, inferior plane or sphincter 
 ani. Its function is to control and dispose of the results of 
 the activities, of the solid and liquid elements of the body 
 and govern the polarity of all these functions, which are 
 subject to the same law of activation of static force with 
 its own sevenfold Kinetic Pathway of forces (see p. 167), as 
 shown by the order and arrangement of the organs contained 
 in its boundaries. These are specially separated from the 
 sound-producing functions. The dynamic pyramid which 
 is above, is controlled and enveloped exclusively by the 
 greater omentum. This pyramid of negative polarity has 
 as its analogue in the head the pineal body, with whose 
 assistance the brain is supplied by the acts or functions of 
 cerebrum and cerebellum separately; thus these organs, 
 contained in both autonomies or kinetic centres, govern 
 the very impulse, both physical and mental, in polarity, 
 or equilibrium, in the pineal and pituitary bodies, in 
 combination with the physiognomic senses, as does the 
 _ lesser omental pyramid, in caring for the result of the 
 processes of digestion, nutrition, defecation, and sexation. 
 
 It is fitting here to make some reference to the polari- 
 zation necessary for vowels and consonants. Let us take 
 radium as an illustration. We find that the initial, kinetic 
 force manifested through this precious substance has three 
 rays, the alpha, beta and gamma rays, all of which are 
 polarized and radiate in the same line. The alpha and 
 beta may be deviated and bent back from their path of 
 reflection and refraction by means of electro-magnetic 
 force; but the gamma cannot. This means that the 
 polarization of the gamma ray is stronger than that of 
 the others. Now, it is found that if one can break up 
 this force by interposing various shutters, so as to 
 
178 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 develop a certain momentum with interruptions, it is ao 
 longer deadly in its action upon human tissues. It is also 
 found that the alpha and beta rays are not harmful when 
 deflected. 
 
 The vowel is like the gamma ray, and this is quite in 
 accord with the latest and best scientific reasoning on the 
 phenomena of voice. The polarized vowel-sound proceeds 
 directly up to the dome, although altered in its course by 
 the epiglottis, and never desists from turning to the right, 
 which furnishes it the centrifugal combination which 
 makes it the centre of the voice-stream. This is what 
 furnishes the first or sonoric sound as it strikes the epi- 
 glottis; and it is what supplies the vocalic or audible 
 sound as it passes through the mouth. 
 
 The centrifugal stream is carried up to the delta, or 
 palate, which divides it into a stream through the mouth 
 and another through the back of the nose; with it is the 
 companion stream or centripetal current which follows and 
 gives us consonant-forming power coordinated by the palate 
 and tongue, but correlated by the lips and soft palate. The 
 position of these organs controls the air-stream, but the 
 centrifugal stream can be thrown up through the nose 
 sympathetically and can also be separated. 
 
 Having considered the matter of the pyramids and 
 the polarization concerned with vowels and consonants, 
 let us take up for investigation the vocal stream and its 
 relationship. 
 
 First, the one-two-three of the voice, (that is, the 
 co-planar movement of voice,) begins where the dynamic 
 and pneumatic portion of the voice is fully prepared and 
 perfected for the momentic part of the voice by the pri- 
 mary physical forces of solidity, weight and density, acted 
 upon by the dynamic and pneumatic units, in the solid 
 formed cricoid cartilage. Within its hollow cavity this force 
 is ready to be discharged upon the two vocal cords. If we 
 look upon the vocal cords from above, we find that they 
 are the exact replica of a double polarized brain-cell, and 
 each cord, like the brain-cell, is subject to two polarizations. 
 The arytenoid cartilages, acting together, represent the 
 positive pole, with the ligament binding the cartilage of 
 
VOCAL EFFICIENCY 179 
 
 Santorini to the pharynx, the anchorage of this pole. The 
 negative pole is at' the thyroid end of the cords, and can 
 be demonstrated by singing a tone on inspiration. 
 
 If we observe the same law as governs the brain-cell, 
 we shall also find that when two cords are brought together 
 to produce a sound, the right cord polarization (positive) 
 is superior in its directing influence to the left vocal cord, 
 leaving the discharge of the momentum directed toward 
 the right. This force is not disturbed in momentum (except 
 by the resiliency of the crico-thyroid membrajie) until 
 it reaches the epiglottis, which then is put into position 
 to create sonority. 
 
 This gives us another point of polarization, which we 
 shall have to call the sonoric unit of voice, because it 
 catches the momentum made by the vocal cords and 
 compels it to assume a certain sound-form or quality, 
 therefore it is a sound-tone-form and is formed at the 
 epiglottis, which polarizes it at this point. We see this 
 special point emphasized in the shape of the upper edge 
 or border of the thyroid cartilage, and also in the triple 
 curve of the epiglottis as it covers the thyroid in carrying 
 out the design and pattern of nature. 
 
 The direction of this polarized sound or voice-stream 
 is now in a curved line upwards; it meets the delta or 
 palate, which divides or cleaves it into the sound, which 
 passes back of the uvula; here it is polarized by the uvula 
 (and palate also) into resonance as it enters the dome, and 
 is reflected back by it as resonance with inter-polarization 
 between the soft (regulating) palate and the dome itself 
 with its choanse, establishing the peculiar quality and 
 character of tone called, by some authors, resonance. 
 This is the sound assumed by many singers as pure voice 
 and its correct production. In reality it is neither resonance 
 nor the correct polarized pathway of voice, therefore 
 cannot be correct voice-emission. It lacks the sympathetic 
 vibrating sound of the turbinated bones; hence, I call it 
 the choanse tone-production — affected by many sopranos 
 as the correct method of singing. Also resorted to by 
 worn out sopranos who have lost the power to produce 
 that scintillating quality of tone that I liken to the radiating 
 
180 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 sparkle from the diamond when it catches the rays of the 
 sun. 
 
 The tongue, the ever-present officer of polarity and 
 direction, enters into this action of polarization of resonance, 
 because it is attached to the palate and is necessary to pol- 
 arize the sound for the mouth, the oral or vocalic unit. This 
 sound is reflected back by the mouth or buccal cavity, with 
 interchanged poles, at the arch of the eye-teeth, but not by 
 the tongue. The mandible or lower jaw does not have 
 so much to do with the polarization from the standpoint 
 of this unit, except as a pole of sympathetic resonance, 
 because it regulates the buccal muscles, which form the 
 resonating cavity, and helps control the arching of the 
 tongue, which can polarize sound either at the back or 
 front of the mouth and accommodate and control polari- 
 zation of both larynx and pharyngeal dome in an at-one- 
 ment that borders on the marvellous. 
 
 It will be observed that we have similar polarizations, 
 interchanging, in both the resonantic unit and the vocalic 
 unit; in other words, we have had resonance, reflection 
 and refraction (detonations deflected, transmitted or trans- 
 muted) established in all, and all polarized, thoroughly 
 in accordance with the laws that govern a brain-cell, a 
 blood-cell, a lung-cell or a muscle-cell; and the discharge 
 of force from these difi"erent tissue-cells has been carried 
 out in the same manner, namely, by the way of the hypo- 
 thenuse. 
 
 There is another phase of polarization common to 
 both in the dome. In the front part are the two funnels 
 or apertures already mentioned, called choanse. It will 
 be easily seen that, as the pyramidal cyclone of resonance 
 travels back of the dome, it meets with no resistance 
 where the two funnels or choanse are; but on each side 
 project the pointed tips of the turbinated bones, pre- 
 sented at the very mouth of the choanse as it opens into 
 the dome. As the vocal pyramidal cyclone previously 
 described strikes each one of these turbinated bone tips (if 
 the bones are normal at the posterior angle) it intensifies 
 the resonance. 
 
VOCAL EFFICIENCY 181 
 
 The law of this intensity of resonance would be as 
 the discharge of the momentum, which is represented by 
 the posterior linear portion of this pyramid of the tur- 
 binates, plus their lower border, which represents the am- 
 plitude of this resonance caused by the oncoming cyclone 
 which was thus divided into sympathetic force transmitted 
 through the turbinated bone and the waves transmuted 
 about it. In consequence of this created intensification of 
 all forces concerned, there would develop through momen- 
 tum and amplitude of the vocal vibration of the discharge of 
 this sound, real physical energy of dangerous proportions, 
 that would harm the tissues involved, as is seen in certain 
 cases of diseased nasal bone, when vibrations are induced by 
 a tuning-fork placed upon the teeth, which causes intense 
 pain as the dead bone vibrates to the fork in the healthy 
 marginal tissue about the diseased bone. To obviate this 
 and also to prolong and carry out the proper quality of the 
 tone to a perfect finish without deadening it, hollow aerial 
 spaces are created at these points in the bones of the skull, 
 called sinuses, to absorb the shock and take care of various 
 other phenomena caused by voice-production of this physi- 
 cal momentum. Other fine comminutions of sound which 
 are not absorbed in the impact and are necessary to the cor- 
 rect balance, or equilibrium and polarization of tone, are 
 carried out through the nose, and through the apertures 
 underneath these sinuses; each pyramidal sinus cutting out 
 and using its own tonal vibration to assist the forces of 
 sound. They are collected in the vestibule of the nose, and 
 thence join the stream of voice coming from the mouth, 
 carrying out the true idea of regulation and plan of forces 
 of the "overshot wheel" of resonance of the nose, in direct 
 proportion as it relates to the mouth, in its relationship with 
 the overshot wheel of voice, or with the Adam's apple, 
 which is the only true regulating angle for momentum and 
 pitch at the vocal cords. 
 
 Having described in detail this phenomenon through- 
 out the nose, we may say that the same phenomenon is 
 indicated and carried out with the teeth and lower jaw, in 
 coordination and correlation by the vocal stream, which 
 has been directed by the tongue through the mouth. 
 
182 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 Polarization is carried out directly and indirectly through 
 the entire voice by the tongue, which is the great polarizing 
 director. 
 
 The understanding of polarization as applied to voice, 
 enables the scientific teaching of voice, in either speech 
 or song, to begin with units and the standardization of 
 fundamentals, and advance little by little, wisely eradi- 
 cating or correcting at the same time the errors by former 
 experiments, until the course is completed. 
 
 The importance of this understanding will be seen 
 when it is realized that, for polarization of voice, every 
 autonomy must be balanced in equilibrium, and without 
 this balance there can be no true and perfect production 
 of voice. If a tonsil, plica, septum, palate, turbinated 
 bone, antrum, sinus, or any tissue concerned in the mecha- 
 nism or in paralysis or akinesis; intercurrent adventitious 
 or even circumstantial disease of tissues, concerned in 
 voice-production, be removed or changed without regard 
 to phonetic values, the sympathetic conduction is lost; 
 this destroys the balance and beauty of the voice, as stated 
 above. The same applies to the removal of a turbinated 
 bone without cause, which means loss of deflected reson- 
 ance, for various tones. The inferior, middle and superior 
 turbinated bones are the conductors of deflected resonance 
 for the fifth, sixth and seventh overtones, respectively. 
 Thus, if the inferior turbinate be removed on one side, the 
 . fifth overtone on that side will be lacking in refracted 
 resonance. The other side, which has the inferior turbin- 
 ated bone, will possess that deflected resonance of the fifth 
 overtone, so that the sound emitted at the nostrils will be 
 out of balance, and not in harmony, hence will not be a 
 true one. These instances further show the necessity of 
 polarization and balance in equilibrium, for true voice- 
 production. 
 
 The voice-units, and autonomies of the human body, 
 as they are called in Vocal Art-Science, are under the 
 will of the trained student or artist. It is a matter of 
 consciousness — perception and sensation. Each has its 
 group of resistant (bony) and elastic (muscular) parts, and 
 is known as a group to the singer who has been trained 
 
VOCAL EFFICIENCY 183 
 
 according to the fundamentally scientific principles of Vocal 
 Art-Science. Strakosch said the Italians believed in training 
 voice by imagination — not muscles — to avoid muscular 
 effort. He really meant conscious muscular effort; avoided 
 by Vocal Art-Science training, because groups are trained 
 (as autonomies) in such a way as to render their action auto- 
 matic. Therefore, why not train by autonomies, and avoid 
 the physical effort of blending fundamental overtones, par- 
 tials and harmonics? Train the balanced (grouped) muscles, 
 as autonomies, the imagery of sensation — Imagination or 
 reasoning quality, when the apperception will balance in 
 the relationship of Power, Resonance, and Pitch — as per- 
 ception of consciousness and sensation. 
 
 It is a fact acknowledged the world over that phy- 
 sicians and singing-teachers have much to learn of the 
 human voice and its operation. For instance, there are 
 about seventy different methods of removing tonsils. The 
 fact that there has not hitherto been a standard operation 
 established, argues a gross lack of knowledge among the 
 so-called throat specialists. Many great surgeons admit 
 that the world is in need of some definite standardization 
 of this operation; and with this must be formulated a 
 series of after-treatments suited to each individual case. 
 In some cases of tonsil-removal the ignorance is so lamen- 
 table that the surgeon removes by tonsillotomy a large 
 part of the alphabet of the patient. That is to say, the 
 improper removal causes the voice to lose all or most of 
 its resonance and sympathetic conduction, and, worst of 
 all, its polarization and balance or equilibrium. If a tonsil 
 is thus removed, the polarization of that side is lost, 
 which in turn means that the adjustment- of perfect 
 balance no longer exists; and of course, as soon as bal- 
 ance goes, the beauty of the voice goes with it. For 
 without a tonsil and its capsule or a plica of the same, there 
 is little chance 'for any sympathetic conduction of vocal 
 sound to other parts of our vocal anatomy. And what is 
 voice without sympathetic conduction, without the proper 
 resonance quality, or without that beauty which makes it 
 so superior to man-made instruments.'' It is about as 
 
184 VOCAL ART'SCIENCE 
 
 useless, so far as singing-value is concerned, as a water- 
 wheel without paddles in which to catch the water. 
 
 This loss of a tonsil, with capsule and plica, according 
 to the usual surgical procedure, should be a cause for 
 worry to singers, for the improper removal of tonsils 
 means not only a lowering of voice-value, but also physical 
 and mental affliction. This being true, Vocal Art-Science, 
 by its standardization of surgical operations rendered nec- 
 essary by disease of the vocal apparatus, affords a means 
 of not only producing better singers, but also of improving 
 the health of the community in general and preventing 
 further voice destroying operations. 
 
 The Board of Health regulates our actions — compelling 
 us to follow certain rules in regard to body cleanliness; 
 and, in our schools, specifies the best bodily position or 
 posture for the child. This is all very proper and right. 
 But, along with these physiological requirements, and of 
 really vastly more importance for the child's advancement, 
 would be a deeper study of the faculties and operations 
 of the MIND. Statistics show that, out of 800,000 chil- 
 dren in New York City, 200,000 either stammer, stutter, 
 lisp, mutter or mumble. 
 
 From the detailed study of the vocal mechanism and 
 its governing mental faculties, it will be of interest to note 
 how Vocal Art-Science can discriminate between the vari- 
 eties of speech abnormalities. 
 
 First, let us consider the choice of the terms Stammer- 
 ing and Stuttering as means in themselves of differentiating 
 these two types of vocal anomalies. It will be seen in the 
 spelling, first of all, that a decidedly different mechanism 
 comes into play in Stuttering from that in Stammering. 
 Spell "S-t-u-t-t;" the tongue against the teeth tends to 
 produce an exciting effect extending even to the diaphragm, 
 giving a sensation of physical effort. On the other hand, 
 as we spell "S-t-a-m-m-e-r," the "M-M" immediately con- 
 centrates your attention on the lips, i. e., the word to be ex- 
 pressed is completely formed and about to be completed by 
 the lips, but, owing to a lack of proper mental adjustment, the 
 muscles are not properly brought into balance through the 
 nervous mechanism, and an improper correlation results. 
 
VOCAL EFFICIENCY 185 
 
 In the case of stuttering the mental control necessary 
 for perfect voca-lization is efficient, but the proper adjusting 
 powers of the muscular autonomies necessary for verbal 
 expression are lacking. The subject has a clear conception' 
 of what he wants to say, but at the moment he endeavors 
 to express himself finds that the automatic adjustment of 
 the muscles has failed to respond properly. 
 
 Here the defect lies in a physical failure of muscular 
 action which normally takes place automatically, upon 
 the formation of a mental picture of the verbal expression. 
 We all hesitate and stutter over words new and difficult 
 to pronounce, because we are unable to adjust our muscular 
 apparatus quickly enough. This restraint disappears after 
 a few trials. 
 
 Thus it is that the deficiency to be considered in the case 
 of stuttering exists in the lack of proper muscular coordina- 
 tion of some definite set of muscles, each case varying ac- 
 cording to the series of muscular autonomies affected. 
 Hence, by formulating a series of syllables, words and 
 phrases, these muscles can be toned up to their normal 
 reaction. 
 
 The pyramids and muscles of the face are shown to 
 have a physical connection with all the physiognomic 
 senses. Nature, to make this correlation possible, pro- 
 vides muscles which reach from lip to nose, from lip to 
 eye, and from lip to ear. 
 
 In stammering we recognize the lack of mental or gov- 
 erning control. Here the word to be spoken has given rise 
 to a mental picture, and the automatic adjustment of the 
 muscles necessary for that special word has taken place; but 
 in this case the brain fails to send down the stimuli in the 
 proper sequence, and the coordinate action of the muscles 
 is retarded. 
 
 It is to be understood that the foregoing statements 
 are offered to demonstrate, not the pathology of the con- 
 ditions themselves, but the manner in which Vocal Art- 
 Science formulates its diagnostic principles from the living, 
 breathing being, or life in its concrete form. 
 
 We know that the development of intelligence results 
 from the definite modifications upon the framework of 
 
186 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 fundamental functions, in the central nervous system, 
 produced by perfecting the sense-organs, and hy establishing 
 •paths of association between them. We know that the brain- 
 power depends, chiefly, upon the complexity of these asso- 
 ciations. We also know that lack of development in one part 
 of the brain weakens the whole structure. 
 
 Our efforts, then, should be to establish, in the brain 
 of the child, the greatest possible number of functions, 
 and of associative reactions between them. 
 
 No true man of science thinks that things "happen." 
 Every result must have an antecedent cause; and this 
 cause, in turn, may be the result of another cause. Back of 
 the created is the Creator. And this applies just as much 
 to the Universe and the Systems that compose it as It 
 does to an engine and its human designer. 
 
 It is apropos at this point to bring out the relationship 
 of the auditory mechanism to vocal perfection. 
 
 As yet no mechanical device has been perfected to 
 take the place of the human ear in voice standardization. 
 Through the application of Vocal Art-Science methods, the 
 tympanum or eardrum has been found to be cuspoidal 
 instead of disk-shaped, thus proving the inefficiency of a 
 disk-like (flat) diaphragm in reproducing pure tones and 
 overtones. It is hoped that with this added factor much 
 new apparatus will be constructed which will fill this 
 long cherished desire. 
 
 At present we must rely upon methods of auditory 
 education and perception to establish methods of stan- 
 dardization. 
 
 The cuspoid alluded to in pyramido-prismo-conico- 
 helico-cuspoidal-spherical relationship . is the true cuspoid 
 of the ear-drum. Cuspoid is the egg-shaped globule repre- 
 senting the form of beginning of a sequence of segmenta- 
 tions of a new voice structure. It is on the same lines of 
 kinetic construction as has been used in making the sound- 
 tone-form, from which it arose. This occurs at the point at 
 which two curves terminate tangentially. It is the curve 
 made by the two planes on the inner side of the ear-drum 
 (tympanum), one of which is the plane governed by the 
 malleus and the other the plane governed by the incus in 
 
Fig. 55. Kinetic keceiver of Vocal Impulses upon the Human Ear. 
 (William F. Fraetas.) 
 
VOCAL EFFICIENCY 187 
 
 their toggle-joint arrangement, that creates a seemingly flat 
 surface or slightly oblique cone. From the apex of this 
 eccentric cup-shaped membrane the auditory body is cre- 
 ated. ^ It is cuspoidal in its evolution and has distinct ef- 
 fects in final determination of polarization of sound, of the 
 human voice. This cuspoid then leads to a sound-tone-form 
 that causes voice to progress en train, not en masse, without 
 pitch-period, with perfect balance, equilibrium and polari- 
 zation. The model of the cuspoid is obtained by laying out 
 a circle of a convenient radius. The radius (A B) is divided 
 
 Fig. 56. 
 
 into 5 equal parts. From B lay off B C 3/5 of A B on the 
 circumference. From B swing the arc B C. From C 
 swing an arc whose radius ^ 4/5 A B so that it cuts arc 
 A D. Then D B C is a 3, 4, 5 right triangle. Lay off E C 
 from C on B C equal to 1/6 of B C, triangle BED. Cut on 
 line A D. Bring B and C together so side B D touches side 
 D C. This will form the true cuspoid. 
 
 The above material has been incorporated to demon- 
 strate the many possibilities of advancement to be achieved, 
 as well as the innumerable obstacles overcome and ex- 
 plained, by Vocal Art-Science. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 
 No pana- 
 cea for 
 vocal 
 disorders. 
 
 Health 
 necessary 
 to voice. 
 
 Singing 
 based on 
 science. 
 
 Expert 
 testimony on 
 lack of trust- 
 worthy vocal 
 teachers. 
 
 Vocal Teacher and Pupil 
 
 Voice, In artistic singing, calls for complete control of 
 the vocal instrument, combined with the entire resources of 
 metaphysical art. 
 
 It would seem .that our chapter on vocal pathology 
 should, logically, be followed by one on vocal hygiene; but 
 as this subject is inseparable from that of the relation be- 
 tween vocal teacher and pupil, I present it for considera- 
 tion in the more direct, the more personal form. 
 
 Hygeia means the preservation and restoration of 
 health. Let us state at the outset that there is no panacea 
 for vocal disorders, nor any specific regime which ensures 
 vocal hygiene. The preservation of a voice under proper 
 control, is secured by exercise, air, diet, clothing, rest, 
 recreation, cleanliness, and morality, all regulated to the 
 creature's needs according to the laws of life. 
 
 Without health, without soundness in the whole or- 
 ganism no less than in its special voice-producing mechan- 
 ism, there can be no perfection in the art of speech and 
 song. And conversely, under normal conditions, sound- 
 ness in the whole organism no less than in its special voice- 
 producing parts, should result from the exercise of an art 
 that involves the entire being, physical and psychical, so- 
 natic and spiritual. 
 
 Singing, like all other acts, is based on science accord- 
 ing to natural law. Artistic singing is science applied. 
 But "before there can be applied science, there must be 
 science to apply." Yet how many of the innumerable 
 teachers and writers who put themselves on record as 
 authorities can measure up to this obvious and elementary 
 requirement.'' 
 
 Listen to this testimony of eminent specialists along 
 these lines: "What becomes of all the vocal prodigies.?" 
 asks Dr. Horsford. "It is truly pathetic to note the 
 amount of beautiful material failing, the world over, for 
 want of knowledge and skill."' 
 
 188 
 
VOCAL TEACHER AND PtJPIL 
 
 189 
 
 "It produces an indescribably miserable feeling in 
 mind," says Dr. Wesley Mills, "to know that the methods 
 pursued by a young person of sound organs and naturally 
 good voice must inevitably lead to vocal ruin." Also he 
 adds that were he engaged in active practice he would 
 conceive it his duty to prescribe change not only of meth- 
 od, but of teacher, in such cases. 
 
 "A number of patients, voice-users," says Dr. Payson 
 Clark, "owe soreness of throat or hoarseness entirely 
 to improper use of the voice. My difficulty has been 
 to find teachers able to show the proper use of the 
 organ." 
 
 "The number of singers who come to us for relief and 
 health is very great, singers and speakers whose whole ca- 
 reer is in peril," attests Dr. D. Bryson Delavan, "and it is 
 very disappointing to believe that we have found teachers 
 properly qualified to aid our patients, only to find the re- 
 ■ suits no better, if not worse, than before." 
 
 "Ignorance of method," Mr. W. J. Henderson sums 
 up the matter, "and incorrect methods; these are the 
 prolific causes of voice failure." 
 
 Yet in the New York Public Library are works by 
 over "seventy authors, each of whom claims to be the ulti- 
 mate authority on voice-culture. One of these whose 
 book enjoys wide popularity recently said that "off. 
 pitch" was the only fault among singers. When quizzed 
 on resonance, volume, style, and a few other universally 
 conceded attributes of artistry, he stated that pitch in- 
 cluded all these — -everything. Now, while pitch is essen- 
 tial, consider the effect if a singer did nothing but "pitch 
 his voice" before an audience. Surely, the man's defini- 
 tion was at fault, not his understanding. Yet can he be 
 taken seriously as an authority.? 
 
 In 191 2, according to Pierre Keys, two and a half 
 million dollars were spent in and about New York on 
 voice-culture. Yet what of the harvest.? Where, in num- 
 bers proportionate to this enormous expenditure, are the 
 reliable singers on whom one may invariably 'depend for 
 good tone, correctly balanced power, resonance and pitch, 
 with clear enunciation.? Where are the speakers in pulpit 
 
 Number 
 of books 
 on vocal 
 art. 
 
 Example 
 of ignor- 
 ance in 
 well- 
 known 
 writer. 
 
190 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 Lack of 
 standards 
 and 
 models. 
 
 Governing 
 choice of 
 teachers. 
 
 All voice 
 physio- 
 logical. 
 
 Need of 
 certified 
 teachers. 
 
 Speech 
 and song 
 
 and on public lecture platform who know even the rudiments 
 of the mechanics of their profession.'' What are the natural 
 standards? Where the exemplars whom we may bid our 
 children copy.^ Beautiful voices are not uncommon in this 
 country, yet both in speech and song these appear to dis- 
 advantage from imitating wrong methods, if not from 
 cultivating them. 
 
 When one reflects and thinks of the great personal 
 and family sacrifices often made to obtain the needful 
 funds for voice-instruction, together with the hazard of a 
 life-career, one is amazed at the lightness with which per- 
 sons, even eliminating the conscious charlatans, announce 
 themselves as professors of the vocal art. Only less amazing 
 is it to reflect on the irresponsibility which generally gov- 
 erns the choice of a director. Often a popular pianist is 
 picked out, as if the human instrument offered no qualities 
 but those to be found in implastic metal, wood and ivory. 
 Too often the church-organist and choirmaster is favored 
 without the slightest inquiry into his fitness to give indi- 
 vidual instruction. Vogue, fashion, an agreeable person- 
 ality, all these are common factors in the selection of a 
 vocal teacher. True, any and all of these may be admis- 
 sible in teachers of voice, provided they also are scientific 
 and artistic to the last degree, but this latter must be posi- 
 tively established as a definite requirement, and not as a 
 possible accompaniment to other forms of preeminence. 
 In effect, precise knowledge of the vocal instrument, to- 
 gether with precise knowledge of the principles on which 
 Vocal Art-Science rests, is essential in its teachers. Since 
 all proper use of voice is physiological, all methods pro- 
 ductive of poor results artistically, are therefore physio- 
 logically unsound, and assuming intelligent coopera- 
 tion on the part of the pupil, must be set down to the 
 teacher's ignorance. The day will come, and may it be 
 not far distant, when people will no more entrust their 
 vocal organs to the care of an uncertified instructor than 
 they would call in the plumber to tune the piano, or 
 engage a piano-tuner as chauffeur. 
 
 From a certain group of teachers, so-called, we 
 hear much about the undesirability of voice-technique. 
 
VOCAL TEACHER AND PUPIL 
 
 191 
 
 "Breathe naturally!" cry these. "Speak naturally! Sing second 
 naturally!" Exactly what they mean it would be hard to nature, 
 say. Breathing, as we know, is an automatic act in the 
 natural process of merely keeping alive. Breath-control 
 in speech and song is an acquired art. People rarely speak 
 or sing naturally. Speech and song are developments of 
 natural forces, never achieved except by secondary pro- 
 cess, through imitation and association. The great object 
 of Vocal Art-Science is to establish a standard, to render 
 automatic the habit of perfect speech and song. 
 
 To train voices that have normal adjustment of ana- To heal 
 tomical parts, unspoiled by faulty methods, that is a crippled 
 minor detail of what we seek to accomplish, in the present, voices a 
 To take the failures and semi-failures already in the world, chief task 
 the ears deaf to musical requirements, the crippled voices, of Vocal 
 restoring these to normal functioning, that is the heavier Art- 
 burden we assume. Science. 
 
 The ideal teacher might conceivably combine in him- 
 self physiologist and artist, laryngologist and musician. The 
 For the present we insist on his being physiologist, artist ideal 
 and musician, and advise with all the emphasis of which teacher, 
 we are capable his frequent cooperation, in general ses- 
 sions at least, with the laryngologist, and the medical spe- Need of 
 cialists of voice. Auto-laryngology is to be discouraged in a coopera- 
 student. Nothing is worse than to induce super-conscious- tion. 
 ness in an organ. Singers must learn to sing, not alone 
 naturally, but as if it were natural to them to express 
 thought and emotion in this way, as if by second nature: 
 A correct automaton. 
 
 In understanding the training of a pupil the voice- First duty 
 teacher should first be assured of physical soundness in of teacher 
 his subject. Careers have frequently been ruined, not to to ascer- 
 speak of voices, by the necessity of some operation, which tain physi- 
 should have been attended to with allowance for com- cal condi- 
 plete recuperation before training began. Also it is to tion of 
 be remembered that certain types of voice present feat- pupil, 
 ures that are the results of some abnormal condition- in 
 the vocal apparatus or elsewhere. Exercising the voice- 
 organ under such circumstances serves only to accentuate 
 its faults, to fix its habits. A correct diagnosis should be 
 
192 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 formulated and the trouble removed before any attempt 
 at routine work Is made. In this matter the teacher is 
 warned not to trust to his ear alone, as this, however infal- 
 lible in normal cases, is no guide for the exceptional. 
 There are vocal faults, and many curable by vocal meth- 
 ods alone; also there are not a few that are the province 
 of the medical specialist, especially when abnormality of 
 any kind exists. It should be an article of faith with a 
 teacher of voice not only to be assured generally of a 
 pupil's well-being, but to have this positively guaranteed 
 by competent medical authority before accepting the re- 
 sponsibility of a would-be artist's career, not to say a 
 fellow-worker's livelihood. 
 Knowl- Let the teacher of Vocal Art-Science, then, under- 
 
 edge of stand that it Is impossible to dissociate the artistic from 
 
 machine the physical. He must know by heart the machine as it 
 
 the duty should be, inside and out, before advertising his qualifica- 
 
 of tions to direct it. After that, every pupil must be con- 
 
 teachers, sidered individually, to ascertain what conformities to 
 
 type and what divergencies from It this special machine 
 presents, In order that time and money may be well in- 
 vested on both sides; that no steps may be taken at random; 
 that everything from first to last may be done rightly. 
 Specific Specifically, such a teacher, once satisfied that the 
 
 instruction subject In hand is in condition to respond to all legitimate 
 to vocal demands upon Its powers. Is advised to instill into the pupil 
 
 teachers. the principles to procure freedom of action by preliminary 
 
 — specially Individualized — exercises. In the well-trained 
 voice, the glottic folds are poised by air-pressure, or, in 
 other words, become vocally vitalized; this balances breath 
 so as to allow muscular activity full sway. However, we 
 now are speaking of raw material, or of those trained 
 faultily. The tendency even with singers of experience Is 
 Inter- to constrict spaces, to obstruct the vocal channel, for the 
 
 ference. simple reason that It Is human nature to want to take 
 
 some active part, to do something positive when a desired 
 end is to be achieved, and never to let well enough alone. 
 In a word, they Interfere. 
 
 So great is this tendency, that interference may be 
 termed the arch-foe of good vocalism, nor Is this surprising 
 
FOCAL TEACHER AND PUPIL 
 
 193 
 
 when we recall that Vocal Art-Science rests on proper 
 muscular control. 
 
 There are no halfway measures about this. People 
 either use their muscles according to correct automatic 
 procedure, or they use them wrongly. If the latter, they 
 must unlearn by tedious processes before attempting one 
 forward step. 
 
 With the master's ear as criterion, and with progress The 
 corroborated by photography, vocometer, or whatever master's 
 appliances science can devise, the entire muscular system ear the 
 must be prepared, loosened and rendered supple, and the only test, 
 intrinsic muscles unhampered by external constriction. 
 
 The muscles of the throat have a typical natural 
 quality. When they are deranged, they produce false 
 sounds readily detected by an expert ear. 
 
 The principal muscles which by contraction affect the 
 voice are those of soft palate, the pharyngeals, muscles of 
 tongue and chin, fibres of ventricular bands, and those 
 surrounding the ventricles; and, above all, all extrinsic 
 muscles attached directly or indirectly to the thyroid 
 cartilage and likewise the adjustments of uvula, lips, palate, 
 tongue and vocal cords. If by undue muscular contrac- Interfer- 
 tion the thyroid cartilage is pulled upwards and forwards ence with 
 away from the cricoid, the little arytenoids will be fixed cord- 
 so firmly that the vocal bands will be unable to rotate stretching, 
 and the necessary equilibration for proper pitch is im- 
 possible. Without this rotation we lose two factors that 
 condition pitch, namely, by the lessening in length and 
 weight of the vibrating folds, thus throwing the entire 
 burden on the third factor which increases tension. Not 
 only does this mean undue strain on vocal muscles and 
 folds for the high tones, with forced expenditure of breath 
 to combat the interference, but also fewer segmentations 
 of the cords, with consequent depreciation of quality. 
 
 Interference from the muscles of the ventricular bands Special 
 and ventricles can best be understood by referring to the interfer- 
 office of these parts. Thesuperior laryngeal bands, it will be ences. 
 recalled, have no share in inspiratory phonation; they sim- 
 ply, by their automatic closure, guard the larynx during the 
 act of swallowing. The ventricles afford a space in which 
 
194 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 the vocal folds may vibrate with freedom, and also lubricate 
 them from the mucous glands with which they are equipped. 
 When muscular contraction takes place, the walls are 
 drawn inward upon the vocal cords by the ventricular 
 bands, the height of the air-waves is cut down at the 
 source, and loss of power resujt«, together with deprecia- 
 tion of quality and a certain unmistakable roughness of 
 tone. Any contraction of the pharyngeal constrictors also 
 narrows this space, pulling down the back of the tongue so 
 as to force the epiglottis backward and downward. Con- 
 traction of the palato-pharyngeus makes tone hollow. 
 Tongue A grooved or lowered tongue gives tone a hollow 
 
 interfer- sound; an uplifted tongue muffles tone; and drawing back 
 
 ence. the tongue-tip, thereby enlarging it, thickens tone-quality. 
 
 These interferences are reflected on the palate, which in 
 turn communicates them to the vocal folds, resulting in 
 serious disorders. 
 
 The jaw, being a hinge-joint, should work up and 
 
 down in phonation. If allowed to slip back, to protrude, 
 
 or work laterally, it disturbs the equilibrium of both 
 
 larynx-holders and fold-stretchers, and overworks the 
 
 sterno-cleido-mastoids, which are head-holders and con- 
 
 ductors of sympathetic vocal vibrations. This, a common 
 
 fault, makes the tone short of range and shrill. 
 
 Chin If the mylo-hyoid, which forms the floor of the mouth, 
 
 inter- overworks, the chin swells on tone-emission and becomes 
 
 ference. Stiff, bringing the larynx forward and producing a shaky 
 
 tone with sharpened pitch. 
 
 Holding the head stiffly strangles nerves and blood- 
 vessels, and kills all beauty of tone. Quality, it will be 
 noted, is always first to go. 
 Soft A pernicious interference with resonance, and corre- 
 
 palatal spondingly with carrying power, comes from the soft palate, 
 
 inter- Drawn upward and backward against the pharyngeal wall 
 
 ference. it shuts off the superior resonating chamber, destroying 
 
 the four upper partials, and leaving the fundamental weak 
 and poor owing to insufflcient area for amplification. This 
 is the only interference that can be ascertained otherwise 
 than by the ear. If by closing nostrils with thumb and fore- 
 finger in singing a tone, the tone-quality does not change, 
 
VOCAL TEACHER AND PUPIL 
 
 195 
 
 then one has a true nasal resonance. If a change is felt 
 or heard, then something is wrong and nasality is the result, 
 not nasal resonance. No fault is so common as this, 
 even great singers being rarely exempt therefrom. 
 
 Deficiency or excess in resonance are signs of imper- 
 fect balance at the vocal folds, or the vibrations are pre- 
 vented free access to the cavities above. 
 
 Ministerial sore-throat means ministerial ignorance of 
 the need to relax the extrinsic muscles. These muscles 
 should be enumerated among the faithful servants ex- 
 empted from labor on the seventh day, and indeed all 
 others. The harsh tone and the unnatural high pitch 
 heard in public speaking, mean public speakers' ignorance 
 of the first principles governing the mechanism of the 
 instrument of their profession. 
 
 This process of muscle-loosening, and changing of the 
 cavities, demands minute watching and great care. Not 
 till all muscles are under full control, though this be in- 
 voluntary and unconscious, can the pupil change the 
 hollow spaces in their proportions, so as to add half-steps, 
 higher or lower, with free emission. By decreasing the 
 area of muscular action in these combinations, the teacher 
 not only extends the range, but also the circumference of 
 the pupil's voice; and the vocal folds, under this improved 
 impulse, are able to intonate to the limit of muscle-action 
 within these hollow spaces. 
 
 Several teachers can add their testimony that many 
 pupils, especially women, when using the head voice or 
 upper octave resonance after acquiring perfect use of these 
 hollow spaces, sometimes experience while singing a buzzing 
 in the head or watering of the eyes. This I attribute to a 
 sympathetic nerve and muscle action between the con- 
 trols of hollow spaces, laryngeal and pulmonary cavities, 
 with reflex action on nerve-centres and muscles. These 
 sensations, to my mind, will be felt only when the tone 
 produced is perfect, of fine timbre, and full of sympathy; 
 when, in other words, _ this one tone suddenly and exactly 
 realizes the fullest intention, perception, and expression of 
 the singer. The pupils of a voice-builder who can bring 
 about such results have small occasion to consult the 
 
 Ministe- 
 rial sore- 
 throat. 
 High 
 pitch. 
 
 Cavity 
 shaping. 
 
 Sensation 
 experi- 
 enced by 
 singers on 
 production 
 of perfect 
 tone. 
 
196 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 Secre- 
 tions. 
 
 Cultiva- 
 tion of 
 the ear. 
 
 Interest- 
 ing case 
 of voice- 
 placing by 
 ear and 
 touch. 
 
 Inability 
 
 to 
 
 vocalize. 
 
 Voice- 
 using 
 hygienic. 
 
 specialist, and are, indeed, generally to be congratu- 
 lated. 
 
 The matter of secretions must not escape the teacher. 
 In singers the throat is better constructed than in the 
 average individual, and is relatively dry. When a tena- 
 cious secretion interferes with voice the specialist should 
 be consulted. 
 
 As the ear of the master is the criterion and tribunal 
 of vocal excellence, so must pupils learn, by hearing, to 
 judge of their deficiencies. One must discriminate be- 
 tween musical and unmusical sounds, good tone and bad, 
 before going through the muscular movements that pro- 
 duce the desired results. People become accustomed to 
 their own voices, are uncritical of themselves, and self- 
 satisfied. A phonographic reproduction of a voice often 
 amazes and startles the vocalist. 
 
 A young man was brought to me for operation, on 
 account of a very high voice that had never undergone the 
 usual change. The first step was by imitating the patient 
 to make him realize, as he had never done before, that he 
 spoke differently from other persons of his age. Then, hav- 
 ing told him to hold his larynx down, a lower pitch was 
 muscularly induced with such good results that after a 
 few weeks' training he was able to deliver his class vale- 
 dictory with much credit, and in normal tone. It is only 
 patients, pupils and singers of the finest type who really 
 thoroughly estimate their own shortcomings. 
 
 In the lexicon of teacher and pupil of Vocal Art- 
 Science there is no such word as fail. Singers often com- 
 plain of inability to sing a pure vowel all the way up the 
 scale. This means either that their method is at fault or 
 that they have not mastered the art of concentrated listen- 
 ing. A good way to hear one's self as others hear us is to 
 close the ears with the fingers and vocalize. The result 
 is like seeing one's self in a looking-glass for the first 
 time. 
 
 Voice-using is hygienic. The vocal organs are by 
 nature strong, the folds themselves being, perhaps, the 
 strongest organs in the body. Proper use adds to their 
 strength, while acting as a body cleanser, vitalizer, and a 
 
VOCAL TEACHER AND PUPIL 
 
 197 
 
 builder of tissues. Faulty methods tend to produce venous 
 congestion, to starve tissues and poison them. 
 
 Fatigue on the pupil's part is sympathetic. It is for Fatigue 
 the teacher to set the pace, restraining over-enthusiasm, a symptom, 
 showing how energy should be conserved. 
 
 To tax the immature voice, or that of the untrained Danger 
 adult, with show-work, perhaps to please parents and of show- 
 guardians, or the pupils themselves, is a fatuous proceed- work, 
 ing. Never force a voice, never put a strain on it, nor any 
 burden that it cannot bear with ease. Song-singing is not 
 a part of preparation, it is a sequence of this, and should 
 not be admitted into the vocal curriculum until the voice- 
 mechanism has been trained to a good balance, so that 
 tone is easily emitted before clear enunciation is assured 
 and song-singing advisable. 
 
 As we have shown, all teaching worthy of the name 
 is based on physiology. Teaching also is largely psycho- 
 logical. Imitation and imagination as well as precept must 
 be impressed into its service. A hint may be drawn from 
 Professor Bell's way of educating the dumb: Teach the 
 pupil-patient to cultivate sight, as well as ear, and imitate 
 models of vocal perfection. Imitation and example — all 
 singers pay tribute to the benefit derived from these. In 
 her memoirs Mme. Kellogg states that she never heard 
 Adelina Patti without admiring and seeking to reproduce 
 the beautiful, forward production of her voice. 
 
 Abnormal conditions, according to V. A.-S., are for the 
 investigator and specialist with precise physiology on 
 which to base his findings, and psychology to furnish 
 Interpretation of the mental attitude. Pedagogy, the 
 teacher's profession, is the meeting-ground for all these, 
 for which reason the need of conference and cooperation, 
 on the part of all who have the welfare of Voice at heart, 
 cannot be too strongly urged. All who seek our aid are 
 potential singers; ours the task, rightly to direct them. 
 
 That all normal beings possess singing-voices only wait- A case of 
 ing to be liberated would seem to be a tenable hypothesis hypnotic 
 in view of a remarkable demonstration in my experience of voice and 
 hypnotism. A patient whose voice, tried in the usual its general 
 manner, showed very low rating, and who was absolutely application. 
 
 Teaching 
 largely 
 psycho- 
 logical. 
 
 Value of 
 copying. 
 
 Pedagogy 
 the scien- 
 tific 
 
 meeting- 
 ground. 
 
198 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 National 
 need of 
 good 
 speech. 
 
 without knowledge of music, produced, under tlie control 
 of a hypnotist, a phonographic record of several selections 
 of noted singers in a fine and finished form. However, 
 this case proves conclusively the dissociation of the mind 
 from the body, thereby adding another definite point for 
 scientific investigation of the facts already established 
 concerning the duality of voice. 
 
 When to begin voice-training is a frequent question. 
 My answer is, that the voice should be trained at the age 
 of seven. At this age the first set of teeth have been cast 
 off, and the second set erupted and the permanent set 
 begun. The accessory sinuses are also now in condition to 
 perform their functions and ready for the establishment 
 of the phonetic functions as well. 
 
 Coordination, correlation, equilibration, polarization 
 and orientation, especially along the lines of agility and 
 flexibility, are now developed, for from this time forth the 
 pituitary body and the thymus gland will, up to twelve or 
 fourteen years, functionate actively. Two sinuses are posi- 
 tively recognized at birth, namely, the frontal and the 
 maxillary sinuses, and the rest are finally formed at the 
 seventh year. 
 
 It would seem, these being the actual facts of ana- 
 tomical observations of the development of the natural 
 resonating chambers of the voice in the "Normal Human 
 Being," that a system in accord with nature's laws must 
 bring perfection when starting at seven years. At the age 
 of twenty-one the voice will have reached its height and 
 calibre, as it were, in evolution and together with the de- 
 veloping mind the future of the singer is guaranteed with- 
 out a doubt. He should then be prepared for the bright- 
 est prospects of artistic finish, with all embellishments that 
 an intelligent mind can give. 
 
 Simple vocal exercises, merely for the formation of 
 correct habits, may be attempted. The consensus of opin- 
 ion now is that during mutation there should be little if 
 any use of voice. This is not necessary; on the contrary, 
 kinetic exercise, vocal and physical, should be used through- 
 out this period to ensure the best possible route to maturity. 
 The chief factor in a young person's education is imitation, 
 
VOCAL TEACHER AND PUPIL 
 
 199 
 
 by cultivating taste, calling attention to the best models 
 in speech and song, and by the conscious influence of asso- 
 ciation, surroundings and atmosphere. It is greatly to be 
 deprecated that good speech is not taught in schools and 
 universities, that the rich are careless in respect to en- 
 gaging nurses and governesses for their children, and that 
 all, rich and poor alike, do not set higher value on refine- 
 ment of accent and an agreeable voice. 
 
 The throat-specialist, the laryngologist, should himself 
 be somewhat of a musician, most assuredly a student of 
 Vocal Art-Science, otherwise he will not have the greatest 
 knowledge for diagnosis and in effecting a cure. The 
 teacher of Vocal Art-Science need not be a laryngologist, 
 but must be par excellence a critic, to analyze voice prop- 
 erly, and also must be endowed with that greatest of 
 factors in producing good results: sympathy. Such a 
 teacher is himself an artist, a sculptor, who from the 
 rough marble shapes that ideal form of beauty, the perfect 
 voice. 
 
 Vocal Art-Science stands for the true and beautiful in 
 song. In it are united science, which is the exact knowl- 
 edge of cause and effect, and the God-given intuition we 
 call Art. Science plods its way by sure steps, every one 
 proved and tested, while -Art travels to the final tryst on 
 the magic carpet of the fairy tale. Art is to singing what 
 the body is to the soul. Science keeps watch when Art 
 is sleeping, making ready and perfecting conditions, yet 
 neither is sufficient in itself; together they can hold the 
 world in thrall. It is for the great singer to bring these 
 two into perfect union, and without great teachers great 
 singers cannot be! 
 
 To such teachers, then, to the brave of spirit, steady 
 of purpose, earnest of endeavor, these observations on 
 Vocal Art-Science are dedicated. 
 
 "Of all voice fashioned by the Great Creator the 
 human ranks supreme, because it is the chief organ of a 
 deathless soul!" 
 
 Teacher 
 
 as 
 
 critic. 
 
 What 
 Vocal 
 Art- 
 Science 
 stands 
 tor. 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 Vocal Art-Science Exercises 
 
 Natural laws prove that there are* psychic and psycho- 
 physical emotions. The latter involve the closest possible 
 relationship between the functions of mind and body. 
 Perhaps the most subtle correlation of the physical with 
 the mental, and the most exquisite result of- the united 
 action of the mechanism of the body with the sense of art- 
 perception in the brain, is the visualizing by the eye of the 
 ultra-violet ray. 
 
 The art-appreciation of the color by the brain, caused 
 by the Impulse conveyed thither from the eye, Is in turn 
 due to the regular and stated arrangement of the prisms of 
 the eye, which furnishes the kinesis, or senseof motion, of the 
 sunlight to these prisms. Every one knows that he can see 
 violet at the end of the spectrum. But he does not know 
 that he measures this vislbleness with the prisms of his eye 
 with the Incredible rapidity of i-90,ooo,ooo,ooo,oooth of a 
 second; and that, simultaneously and accurately, the 
 prisms are all automatically measuring the same color in 
 the same way. 
 
 As does color, so does sound, or rather the art-sense 
 for sound, Involve the psycho-physical emotions. Both 
 color and sound are due to kinesis; color to the effect of 
 vibration upon the eye, sound to the effect of vibration 
 upon the ear;- the artistic sound which we call "voice" is 
 due to vibrations originating within the body itself. The 
 kinesis is supplied by breath aided by the subtlest kind 
 of reflections and refractions within the prismatic and 
 pyramidal autonomies of the voice-tract due to the pris- 
 matic and pyramidal formations of Its autonomies. The 
 eventuation of voice-kinesis is at the lips, and, If perfect, 
 it should eventuate In what may be described as a com- 
 pleted circle of diction and expression, faultless In power, 
 resonance and pitch. 
 
VOCAL ART-SCIENCE EXERCISES 201 
 
 In preparing for its kinesis upon the organs of 
 voice, physical breath, after it is under way, takes up an 
 element of' the psychical and becomes psycho-physical. 
 Even omitting for the moment the consideration of the 
 origin in the brain of voice, thought, voice-conception, or 
 voice-impulse, there remains the fact that breath, after 
 its intake through the nostrils (usually in greater quantity 
 through the left nostril, where the psycho-physical sense 
 of smell is more acute), passes under the floor of the brain 
 immediately below the location of certain important senses. 
 This process tends to vitalize it psychically; therefore, 
 when it starts to act by kinesis upon the pyramids and 
 prisms of the voice-tract through the motion and vibration 
 it imparts, it has become psycho-physical. It is the 
 psycho-physical breath which forms the connecting-link 
 between the three forces of physiology, psychology and 
 emotionalism, to which Vocal Art-Science traces the 
 formation of tone as expressed in artistic voice. 
 
 This becomes even clearer when we recall, from pre- 
 vious statements, that the initial impulse to vocal tone 
 occurs in the brain at a certain point and Is carried by 
 neurons to the various parts of the body concerned in 
 voice-production. At the vocal cords, we have the pyra- 
 mids and prisms at which breath-kinesis begins, where the 
 actual conversion of breath into tone takes place; there- 
 fore, it may be claimed that at this point occurs the union 
 of the physical and the psychical, of the mental process 
 with the mechanical process of anatomy and physiology; 
 and as far as the production of tone is concerned, it may 
 be called the trysting-place of body and soul. May we not 
 also say, harking back to the violet ray, that what the 
 .prisms of the eye are to color, the pyramids of the cords 
 are to voice.? Incidentally, and by way of analogy, the 
 sense of hearing differs from the sense of sight in the 
 relation of i-io,ooo,oooth of an octave. Forms, num- 
 bers and colors are sense-impressions in terms of light. 
 Power, resonance and pitch are sense-Impressions in 
 terms of tone, and the coefficient between these, in 
 rapidity of vibration alone, is said to be i-io,ooo,oooth 
 octave. 
 
202 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 The Purpose of the Following System of 
 Vocal Art-Science Exercises 
 
 As regards the exercises which follow: The author 
 does not treat them as rigid units, never to be varied. 
 On the contrary, since it is impossible to bring out the 
 subtlest points in any written set of vocalises, careful diag- 
 nosis, with careful watchfulness over the development of 
 the pupil's voice, and slight changes to meet every new 
 condition that arises, are essential. 
 
 He is aware that at any moment the student's tone 
 may necessitate an immediate decision on the teacher's 
 part to change from one exercise to another, or even from 
 one kind of exercise to another, in order to meet a new phase 
 of development. For the oft-told anecdote of Porpora and 
 his greatest pupil, Farenelli, still applies. Porpora taught 
 him, it is said, from a single sheet of vocalises, and sent 
 him out into the world a great artist. 
 
 The story is perfectly logical. For though exercises 
 have been written by the thousand, it is only the simple 
 few with definite purpose and procedure that produce 
 results. They must be fundamental, and adaptable to 
 every phase of voice-development. 
 
 The author must not be charged with egotism if he 
 claims that his exercises are rich in results; for what he 
 has achieved with them must be attributed to the fact 
 that they rest upon the bed-rock of voice-production — 
 the principles of Vocal Art-Science. 
 
 By analysis and synthesis employed in this system of 
 simple vocalises, the author's associate. Miss Adelaide Ge- 
 scheidt, has accomplished the control of true fundamental 
 and proper overtones for each and every voice. Each exer- 
 cise refers, first, to the singing of the pure or first octave, 
 the rounding of "each note of the scale in perfect form; 
 then to the development of the other overtones in their 
 proper sequence with their fundamentals. 
 
 This system of vocalises is planned to bring about 
 coordination of units of strength and correlation of the 
 vocal autonomies in the functions which they perform in 
 voice-production. This requires a definite training of the 
 
FOCAL ART-SCIENCE EXERCISES 203 
 
 central and sympathetic nervous systems and the har- 
 monization of its centres. These are factors which Vocal 
 Art-Science was the first to recognize; and in teaching, 
 their definite training is accomplished by utilizing residual 
 breath that always is to be found in the body, even after 
 expiration. 
 
 The great nerve-centre for the adjustment of the sym- 
 pathetic system, the solar plexus, keeps this system in 
 perfect balance through the breath-clutch, as described 
 earlier in this work. Without this balance, there would 
 result hysteria, neurasthenia, and the kindred -thenias and 
 -phobias commonly known. The definite breath-clutch 
 governs the tone-centre, and balances all parts in ac- 
 complishing a perfect mechanical action of the vocal 
 organs. 
 
 The clutch maintaining an equal downward pull for 
 the larynx, the tone-centre or breath-resistance-point fur- 
 nishes the forward pull, and the contact of the spine the 
 up-pull. This produces perfect pyramido-prismatic action, 
 action in terms of three planes, for the entire part of the 
 body mechanically concerned in voice-production. With 
 an absolutely perfect tone-centre, there is an equalization 
 of tension throughout the vocal tract, and the tone auto- 
 matically reaches down to its own correct hold on the 
 breath-clutch. 
 
 The Artistic and Vital Breath the Automatic 
 Part of Voice 
 
 The breath, first of all, involves the act of smelling as 
 the normal inhalation, the deeper inspiration being by way 
 of the left nostril, because the kinesis of the left side of the 
 olfactory is much more finely developed, and is really the 
 centre and controlling element of kinesis of smell. 
 
 The olfactory nerve-centre being so situated can in- 
 crease or decrease respiration and even enable one to pause 
 in expiration. 
 
 This shows conclusively the importance of the con- 
 trol of the psycho-physical breath, which is all in evidence 
 
204 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 when the automatic breath-control has been established by 
 definite training. 
 
 The exhalation is accomplished after the inhalation 
 as above, by closing the right hand tightly and then in- 
 stantly pressing it firmly against the upper lip, and at 
 once puffing out the cheeks and allowing the breath-stream 
 to flow like a sound of escaping steam, quite rapidly, but 
 against the closed hand and through the closed mouth 
 and gathered lips. At the same time, when the cheeks 
 puff out, note the clutch that is evident just below the 
 diaphragm, and also the expansion of the thorax. This 
 development is accomplished aside from singing. 
 
 The definite way to control the automatic breath is 
 through what is termed the "breath-clutch," which regu- 
 lates and adjusts the whole breathing-tract, besides being 
 a superior aid in adjusting the vocal organ. It is active 
 throughout the training of the voice after free action of 
 the tongue, jaw and throat is established. 
 
 The "clutch" takes on all the effort of the singing act 
 and is the centre for controlling the emotions, as well as 
 he mainstay of the singer at all times. 
 
 Application in Teaching 
 
 To gain practical use of the breath-clutch, pronounce 
 the word "hook" in a decided whisper, twice short, pro- 
 nouncing the "k" very distinctly each time. The third 
 time hold the "k" a few seconds, then let go and at the 
 centre where the "k" is felt (which is between the dia- 
 phragm and umbilicus) there is a decided inward clutch. 
 Note also the rebound of the abdomen after the clutch is 
 released. 
 
 It is here that the effort of breath-control establishes 
 itself and one learns to make the attack for the tone that 
 finds its resistance-point at the gums of the front upper 
 teeth, after all constrictions of other muscular efforts are 
 removed- Close observation must be made so that the 
 chest-walls are allowed to take care of themselves through 
 the support underneath by the breath-clutch. All other 
 
VOCAL ART-SCIENCE EXERCISES 205 
 
 conscious muscular effort must be done away with on the 
 part of the student, as it would only mean constraint of 
 the voice and hindrance to free emission of tone. 
 
 Coordination of All Muscular Action Necessary 
 
 To establish perfect cooperation of the various units 
 of strength and autonomies as described in the foregoing 
 chapters, true adjusting of the vocal apparatus and co- 
 ordination of the entire respiratory tract are absolutely 
 essential, if one would mentally control the natural emis- 
 sion of tone and maintain all of its elements for artistic 
 singing. 
 
 There must be perfect coordination of every muscle 
 of the body to ensure the normal mechanical action of the 
 instrument, for the action of the tongue alone — the chief 
 organ governing articulation and enunciation — and the 
 direction of sound-current are simultaneous. 
 
 Activity and passivity of all muscles are essential to 
 develop spontaneity, but must be entirely governed by the 
 automatic breath-control. Inaccurate control of muscles 
 produces inaccurate results of tone-production. 
 
 The more perfectly and steadily the muscular func- 
 tioning on all sides of the to-rso, the more faultless will be 
 the resonance and power of control for the perfect tone- 
 emission. 
 
 Correlation means a harmonization of all autonomies 
 or centres of force throughout the nervous system. This 
 correlation is brought about by definite procedure through 
 the establishment of the automatic breath-clutch and its 
 controlling centre (the kinetic angle of distribution of 
 force). By this all the autonomies are brought into per- 
 fect relationship. 
 
 The Initial Tone 
 
 Tone in its output must have a centre or point of re- 
 sistance, and there must also be another centre of control 
 for the breath. This combination gives not only contra- 
 puntal action, but also definite support of voice. It insures 
 
206 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 security of the adjustments of the vocal apparatus, which 
 means perfect mechanical action. 
 
 A wise suggestion is to begin tone at its point of 
 resistance and not its point of departure. 
 
 The point of resistance for the initial tone in its out- 
 put is on a direct line with the roof of the mouth and is 
 sensed against the gums of the upper incisors. This is 
 therefore the natural place of resistance of the breath in 
 exhalation, and is the place of tone-impingement and the 
 mirror of the psycho-physical element of voice, and also 
 the correct position tq sustain the poise of the larynx, 
 mechanically speaking. 
 
 "Voice Direction" versus "Voice Placement" 
 
 Voice placement, having such a variety of conceptions, 
 is not countenanced in Vocal Art-Science, as it localizes and 
 fixes tone in the mind of the student as being in one place. 
 It is,- therefore, a suggestion that is misleading; for tone, 
 through the sevenfold pathway, operates through the 
 entire body and not at any one particular spot as so many 
 students regard it, in their knowledge of so-called voice 
 placement. "Voice Direction" is the correct term. 
 
 A Few More Points Regarding the Following Exercises 
 
 When a breath is required after a phrase, a simple 
 breath-clutch is all that is necessary to propel and support 
 voice. Nature prompts the filling of the lungs for vital 
 processes. An intentional inhalation is not correct for 
 perfect tone-emission. 
 
 Each figure must be vocalized in one key after an- 
 other, either ascending chromatically or skipping about 
 between the pitches designated. Low Bb is the best pitch 
 to begin on, as it gives maximum power and quality of 
 tone and overtone. It is the preparation for coordination 
 of the next octave above. 
 
 There is no steadfast rule for voca,lizIng any of the 
 following exercises. To ensure results, all vocalizing must 
 
VOCAL ART-SCIENCE EXERCISES 207 
 
 be done with ease and spontaneity. Working the mechan- 
 ism on only a few notes will bring quicker results than any 
 attempt to bring the whole range of voice at the start 
 into action. The latter might cause a strain, and in the 
 end miss the result which exercising in a reasonable way 
 is bound to bring. 
 
 By focusing_is meant to gather the lips well together 
 as in forming "O" or "65." 
 
 "Ah" preceded or followed by a consonant always 
 means the use of the broad "A" sound, as in father. 
 
 A teacher must be so keen in analyzing voice that he 
 will apply just the particular strengthening of an individual 
 unit necessary, or remove superfluous effort of a part or 
 unit in the mechanism, by use of the following vocalises. 
 
 The consonant is the "lead-out" for the vowel, and is 
 of vital importance. 
 
 Vocalises for Development of Voice in a General Way 
 and the Mechanical Action of Its Instrument 
 
 We find in nearly all cases that the student has little 
 or no freedom of the lower jaw. The same can be said of 
 the action of the tongue. These parts, especially the 
 latter, are the most important for articulation and enun- 
 ciation; therefore, the first step is to release stiffness and 
 constriction of the jaw and tongue, before attempting any- 
 thing else in vocal exercises. 
 
 These impediments removed, the path is cleared for 
 greater control of the points to follow; this ultimately re- 
 sults in a definite understanding of the natural and artistic 
 emission of tone. 
 
 Vocalises for General Use in Voice-Development. 
 Vocalise No. i 
 
 Use Figs. Nos. I, 2, 3 and 4 separately with syllables 
 as directed, in a medium tone of voice. 
 
 A definite drop of chin should be made for each syl- 
 lable, especially on the upper notes; and the tip of the 
 
208 
 
 FOCJL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 tongue must be allowed to rest against lower teeth when 
 not in use for pronouncing; lips flexible:* 
 
 Fla - fla - flay 
 Tha tha - tha 
 Spla - spla - spla 
 Maw - ma ma 
 
 Sproo - spro - spra 
 Splee spla - spla 
 Va - vo - va 
 
 No. I. Allegrettof 
 
 Lah lah-lay. 
 
 lah lah lay_ 
 
 No. 2. Allegrettof 
 
 Lah lah lay ay 
 
 No. 3. Andantef 
 
 Lah lay- lah lay_ ay 
 
 No. 4. Andantef 
 
 Lah lay lah lay lah lay lah lay lah 
 
 In the vocalises pitch is indicated as follows: 
 
 *Cojnmence as a rule on low h\>. For high voices continue to f or 
 i'b if as comfortable as singing at e^. For low voices continue to e^ if as 
 comfortable as singing at middle b^V. 
 
 fThe above combination must not be taken in a capricious manner; the 
 action of the jaw, lips and tongue should be carefully noticed in vocalizing. 
 
VOCAL ART-SCIENCE EXERCISES 205 
 
 Tongue-Exercises 
 
 The following tongue-exercises are to be used aside 
 from singing to get quick results. 
 
 I. Rest tip of tongue against lower teeth, and keep 
 mouth well open. In this position roll the tongue out of 
 mouth and press it forward, conscious of a good pulling 
 at the base; then let it slip back to its normal position, 
 without a deliberate jerk. Repeat four times. 
 
 II. Rest tip of tongue against first lower bicuspid 
 tooth on the left side of mouth, well opened. In this posi- 
 tion press the tongue forward and out of the left corner 
 of the mouth, and then allow it to slip back again, while 
 the mouth remains open. Repeat four times, and then 
 exercise from right corner of mouth as well. The number 
 of times may be measured, as stiffness begins to disappear. 
 This will be apparent when the pulling from the base and 
 side muscles of tongue ceases. 
 
 Use the following figures and combinations of conso- 
 nants and vowels for tongue-freeing in the singing-voice. 
 This combination is also excellent for centering of the tone 
 in its output. 
 
 f:*? For these exercises rest the tip of the tongue against 
 the lower teeth, then roll the tongue slightly forward until 
 sides are seen between jaws. 
 
 Vocalize No. 5 up to c^# if comfortable; then descend 
 chromatically, singing the same way on two scales below 
 this pitch on syllable "Nee" each time. Then No. 6 must 
 be vocalized in the same manner on combination "Nee-ay," 
 and descending chromatically on a few scales as noted for 
 No. 5. The tongue in same position as at the start through- 
 out figure. Low voices to vocalize a third lower. 
 
 No. 5. Andante No. 6. Andante 
 
 Nee e e e e Nee ay e ay 
 
210 
 
 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 To get quick response of tongue and also to train the 
 tone to centre, to fulfill its requirements in its true 'posi- 
 tion for emission, use the following figures and syllables: 
 
 No. 7- Allegro 
 
 Tee tay tee tay tee tay tee tay 
 
 No. 8. Allegro 
 
 Tee tay tee tay tee tay tee 
 
 The palate may now receive training for its function- 
 ing in voice-emission. This will strengthen the union be- 
 tween first and second octaves of resonance (sonoric vo- 
 calic- resonantic) . 
 
 No. 9. Andante 
 
 Koohkoohkoohkooh kooh 
 
 Sing the above figure up five steps in the key sung, 
 repeat fifth note, and descend. Five syllables on one note, 
 and so on up. Breathe between each group. 
 
 Sing thus chromatically as high as c^ or d^. 
 
 Pronounce "K" very decidedly and crisply. Feel 
 decided action of breath-clutch on the K. 
 
 No. 10. Andante 
 
 Key kay key kay key kay key 
 
 These figures are to be sung on the ascending scale 
 note by note chromatically up to d^ for high voices; and 
 for low voices a third lower, ascending to a.^ 
 
VOCAL ART-SCIENCE EXERCISES 211 
 
 No. II. Allegretto 
 
 Keykay key kay key kay key kay 
 
 No. 12. Andante 
 
 Kook kook kook kook kook kook 
 Hawk hawk hawk hawk hawk hawk 
 
 No. 12. Vocalize up to the fifth above; repeat fifth note 
 and descend. This must be done slowly enough to get a 
 strong palate sound with letter K, noting carefully the 
 action from the abdomen and clutch, especially with 
 No. 12. 
 
 No. 13. For strengthening the fauces, focus the 
 5 well into the lips. Use up to e^. 
 
 No. 13. Andante 
 
 Mingoh mingoh mlngoh mingoh mingoh mingoh mingoh 
 Hungoh hiuigoh hungoh hungoh hungoh hnngoh hungoh 
 
 The Centre of Resistance for Initial Tone 
 
 The student must constantly be reminded of the 
 point of resistance, or natural place of impingement or 
 centre for tone, as it goes forth and detonates into its 
 various resonators. 
 
 If the student will study a sigh {spiritus lenis, the 
 Latin for soft breath) that is more like a vital whisper, 
 directed against upper gums, pjonouncing first the vowel 
 "E" on a sigh, then vowel "A" also on a sigh, he will 
 consciously and mentally find the centre of resistance of 
 tone. Next, with the sensation of the sigh fresh in the 
 mind, and on the same rhythmic beat, direct with a sing- 
 
212 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 ing staccato tone the combination of Nee and Nay, sepa- 
 rately, at an easy pitch from e'^\> to g^ 
 
 At this same point of impingement or centre of resist- 
 ance, which really becomes a mental target, sustain "Nee- 
 ay-oh-ooh." 
 
 The jaws must be far enough apart to allow the 
 little finger to be placed between the teeth and remain 
 there throughout singing of the following figure, to ensure 
 a steady larynx, and suggest the mental direction of the 
 output of tone and flow of breath through mouth. 
 
 For example: 
 
 1. Sigh "Ee" and sigh "Ay." 
 
 2. Attack "Nee" and attack "Nay." 
 
 3. Then sustain "Nee-ay-oh-ooh." 
 
 No. 14. Andante 
 
 (attack Nee nay f»»«<in»J Nee ay oh ooh 
 \8taccatQ 
 
 To be used at various pitches not higher than c^^, 
 and not lower than e^ for high voices; a third lower for 
 low voices. 
 
 Through this conscious control of the resistance-point 
 of the initial tone, the student can train accurately and 
 definitely a balance of all resonators, and correlate sym- 
 pathetic vibrations. The latter are finally concentrated at 
 this one particular centre, and tone and word are as one. 
 The centre of tone-emission is then assured. 
 
 If the lips tremble during the training of centering of 
 the tone, it is only an indication of the correct focussing 
 of the voice. This will disappear when the muscular 
 strength manifests itself, and tension develops to the full- 
 est degrees in the lips and all the sphincters. 
 
VOCAL ART-SCIENCE EXERCISES 
 To Strengthen Resonantic Unit 
 
 213 
 
 No. 15. To concentrate the voice in the nose, and at 
 the same time to create activity of the upper resonators, 
 put the following into practice: 
 
 Hold the forward part of nostrils slightly together 
 with thumb and forefinger, or close off the "M" resonator, 
 with lips loosened from the teeth, and then thrust forward; 
 sing combination "Nee" with the tone centered and 
 directed forward, just where the nostrils are held by the 
 fingers. 
 
 Sing on the following figure and repeat on every note 
 below; vocalize up to e"^, or to middle e^ for high voices. 
 Low voices may begin and descend lower. 
 
 No. 15. Allegretto 
 
 No. 16. To concentrate voice and polarize the res- 
 onantic unit, sing syllable "Ming-o" directed entirely 
 through the nose, lips thrust forward and free from the 
 teeth. 
 
 To be sung as high as e^\^ for high voices, and a third 
 lower for low voices, if comfortable. No tightness or effort 
 of the throat should be apparent. 
 
 If the "breath-clutch" be accurate, all constriction 
 will finally disappear. 
 
 No. 16. 
 
 Mingoh-oh- 
 
 NoTE. A dovetailing with upper octaves, vocalic-resonantic; 
 double octave overtone forming spaces. 
 
214 
 
 FOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 No. 17. To sing through the resonantic unit, and 
 also cooperate with the forward vocalic resonance or 
 resonantic vocalic combined,, sing "Mo," — centering tone 
 against gums of front upper teeth. To be accurate in 
 the emission, always place middle finger between the 
 teeth when starting the tone, until the larynx is balanced 
 in its position and the direction for tone is perfected. 
 This prop can then be removed. 
 
 The tone thus directed will have such a clear free 
 ring that one will readily recognize his own nasal resonance. 
 
 Sing on following figure: 
 
 No. 17. 
 
 The following exercises are for the development of 
 the adjustable and divided octaves of resonance; also for 
 automatic blending of vocalic-resonantic units or adjus- 
 table octave by the tongue and the divided resonantic 
 octaves, divided by choanae into naso- and oro-pharynx. 
 
 Nos. 18-22. Generally speaking, it is best to train 
 the studeut to energize and open up the forward oral 
 and nasal resonators in preference to the lower and deeper 
 sonoric one. These exercises will also strengthen resonantic 
 and vocalic units. 
 
 Use the following figures and syllables to ensure above 
 results: 
 
 No. 18. Andante 
 
 ip in I III I II 
 
 No. 19. Andante sostenuto 
 
 Noh 00 oh 
 
 Mee ay e ay e ay e 
 
 Noh 00 o o ooh 
 
 Mee ay e ay e 
 
 No. 20. Andante 
 
 Noh ooh oh ooh oh 
 
 Mee ay e ay e ay e ay e ay e 
 
VOCAL ART-SCIENCE EXERCISES 215 
 
 No. 21. Andante 
 
 ay e ay 
 
 No. 22. Andante 
 
 Noh ooh oh_ oohoh ooh 
 
 Mee ay e ay e ay e ay e ay e ay e 
 
 Sing up to /2 for high voices after a certain time of 
 usage] low voices should start these exercises a third 
 lower. 
 
 To gain the best results with the above exercises the 
 following suggestions on the use of "No" and "o5" must 
 he observed: 
 
 The consonant "N," pronounced in its attack by 
 placing .tip of the tongue against gums of upper front 
 teeth, with a pause long enough to start a short hum there. 
 
 Mentally direct the "O" forward at this spot where 
 the hum is felt, and focus into the lips._ 
 
 The pronunciation of "N" and "O" must be simul- 
 taneous. 
 
 The tip of the tongue, immediately after the hum, 
 drops to its natural position against the lower front teeth. 
 "Oo" must be used here in singing the higher notes of 
 the figures, so as to cooperate with lower and higher 
 resonators, thereby also incorporating all the octaves of 
 the voice at the same instant. 
 
 This is accomplished after use of the above for a 
 short time by starting exercises on i?^ and going to /^ft 
 and on descending notes, thereby working directly into 
 the dome and head resonance and blending it with the 
 vocalic or sonoric." Not to be sung any higher except on 
 Ex. 22, which may be carried up to a^ with the best of 
 results, if it can be sung with perfect ease. 
 
2J6 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 Scales of Vowels and Consonants 
 
 At this juncture the use of the scale of twelve vowels 
 and twelve consonants and vowels must be put to prac- 
 tical use. These scales have been arranged with such dis- 
 crimination in their sequence in Vocal Art-Science, that by 
 their correct use each and every resonator from the tip of 
 the hose to the glottis is exercised, and finally all are 
 correlated. Perfect articulation is the natural result. 
 
 With the use of the scale of consonants and vowels 
 all the muscles for articulation and enunciation, namely, 
 the lips, tongue and palate, are exercised and developed, 
 and perfect pronunciation is the result. Correct diction 
 is a natural sequence. 
 
 For practical use, vocalize as follows: 
 
 No. 23. Scale of twelve vowels, to be sustained on 
 an easy middle pitch; F or G is suggested, as at these 
 pitches all the tone forces are assembled more perfectly. 
 
 So that there can be no varying of position of the 
 emission of tone, again use the finger between the teeth 
 in the initial attack of the vowel "E." This will hold the 
 vocal apparatus on as good balance as possible at this stage 
 of voice-development. 
 
 With the mind directing the sound-current at this 
 centre sustain the tone on an easy speaking pitch and 
 begin as follows : • 
 
 Scale of Vowels 
 
 Scale of 
 
 Consonants and 
 
 
 Vowels 
 
 e prone 
 i 
 
 unced as in eat 
 " " it 
 
 Pe prono 
 Bi 
 
 unced a 
 
 s in peek 
 ' " bit 
 
 e ' 
 
 " " end 
 
 Me 
 
 
 ' " met 
 
 a 
 
 " " at 
 
 Na 
 
 
 ' "nap 
 
 a 
 1 
 a 
 
 " " ate 
 " " eye 
 " " ah 
 
 Da 
 Ki 
 Ra 
 
 
 ' " day 
 ' " kite 
 ' " rah 
 
 
 
 " " ox 
 
 Lo 
 
 
 ' " lot 
 
 55 
 
 " " ooh 
 
 Too ' 
 
 
 ' " too 
 
 u 
 a 
 
 5 
 
 " " you 
 " " awe 
 " " oh 
 
 Ga 
 
 V5 
 
 
 ' " few 
 ' " gawk 
 ' " vote 
 
VOCAL ART-SCIENCE EXERCISES 217 
 
 No. 24. This scale of consonants and vowels should 
 be sung chromatically, beginning on the scale of Bb for 
 high voices and low "G" for low voices. At least 5 keys 
 above should be employed. The order of the scales of 
 vowels and consonants should be reversed on descending 
 scale; i. e., beginning on a high note with syllable "Pe" 
 instead of "Vo"; and descending in sequence as above, 
 scale after scale, to Bb again. ^ 
 
 "Aw," or Sonoric Resonator 
 
 The opening and exercising of the sonoric resonator 
 reinforces the tone and gives a deep and rich quality to it. 
 For the training of this space, note the following: 
 
 Take a breath through the open mouth, and the spot 
 at which the cold air strikes at the back of the tongue will 
 reveal its correct location. Another way is to produce the 
 vowel "Aw" aloud and note its vibration low in the throat. 
 
 No. 25. The following exercise is to develop the 
 sonoric unit for tone reenforcement: 
 
 With a very slight movement of the jaw and tongue, 
 without stiffness, sing and sustain the following on separate 
 notes chromatically up to ^^b or c^ for high voices, and 
 gi for low voices, beginning at low b\? for the former, and 
 low ^b for the latter (if tone comes without effort) ; other- 
 wise, to secure this development practice on a few notes 
 will suffice. 
 
 No. 25. Andante sostenuto 
 
 Hawng ay 
 
 'To prevent confusion in the arrangement of vowels and consonants 
 and their correct sound, the scales have been simplified by the use of syl- 
 lables or words to give correct pronunciation. This direct marking for 
 pronunciation will, it is believed, prove a great aid in establishing a cor- 
 rect vowel-system. 
 
218 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 Regardless of the singing position or articulation, 
 allow each vowel following "Hawng" to remain at the 
 location or vibration of the vowel "aw." This is not to 
 be confused with the correct singing position. The thought 
 of yawning will aid also to this location. 
 
 Nos. 26, 27, 28. To be used with the correct singing 
 position. Direct the tone through the vocalic and at the 
 point of impingement, each tone blending into the other. 
 A perfect legato should be used; while the position remains 
 the same as on the first note sung. The only change 
 manifested is that the lips close more for the vowel o and 
 protrude for vowel a. 
 
 No. 26. Andante No. 27. Andante 
 
 Hawe oh awe Hawe oh awe awe 
 
 No. 28. Andante 
 
 Hawe ooh oh 
 
 Note. Exercises 26, 27 and 28 may be used, after a period 
 of practice, on "Whoa" and 00 in place of ha and 0. 
 
 Arpeggios and Scales 
 
 These may be installed now as beneficial to the pro- 
 gression of the voice. Also slow melodious and legato 
 standard vocalises are suggested. 
 
 The idea at this stage of development is to apply the 
 voice as in the preceding exercises that designate the use 
 of the tone-centre, breath-clutch, and dropping of chin 
 for each new vowel and syllable; with tip of tongue resting 
 against lower teeth when not used in pronunciation. Use 
 the middle finger between teeth, or the "ah" index, so as 
 
VOCAL ART-SCIENCE EXERCISES 
 
 219 
 
 to assure a correct position for the larynx and direction 
 of tone forward on the start of each phrase. 
 
 The use of such syllables as "N5," "Ma" and "La" 
 for deeper resonance, and "Na," "La" and "Le," and 
 sometimes "Ne," for higher and forward resonance; also 
 the same vowels, beginning with "M" as the initial con- 
 sonant. 
 
 The following arpeggios are for general use: 
 No. 29. Adagio sostenuto. 
 
 Noh_ 
 Mawe- 
 
 No. 30. Andante 
 
 Noh oh- 
 
 Alternate with syllables "Maw," "Whoa," "No," 
 "Na" and "Va" on Nos. 29 and 30. 
 
 No. 31. Sing plain scales on the major vowels e, i, 
 a, 5, a, separately, starting on scale of low Bb, and ascend 
 in sequence of scales to middle F; then reverse order of 
 vowels, starting again on middle F, but using vowel "E" 
 instead of "Aw," and then in regular order again on the 
 Idecending scales to Bb- The low voices start at Ab or 
 ower, and ascend to fifth above. Then reverse order of 
 vowels, and descend scales to Bb again. 
 
 No. 31. Andante 
 
 Nos. 32, 33. For stretching vocal cords and general 
 loosening of throat, sing the following: 
 
220 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 No. 32. Andante 
 
 No. 33. Andante 
 
 The direct point of tone-resistance, or mental target, 
 must be always definite for every tone sung; i. e., directly 
 against gums of upper front teeth at all times. 
 
 Blending of Voice Resonance 
 
 No. 34. In order to train and test the balance of ad- 
 justments of the vocal apparatus and gain better poise of 
 tone, place little finger between teeth, tongud rolled 
 slightly over and forward. Then sing the following exer- 
 cise, alternating with syllables "Ne" and "Na." 
 
 No. 34. Andante 
 
 No. 35. To blend resonance, balance the voice- 
 quality and train the meiza voce, using the light attack 
 with easy mechanical action of the vocal instrument, the 
 following groups of vocalises are most important. 
 
 No. 35. Andante 
 
VOCAL ART-SCIENCE EXERCISES 
 
 221 
 
 Sing in any key that the voice will respond to. Use 
 very soft, mellow quality of tone. Round the vowel 
 5 by correctly gathering the lips. 
 
 No. 36. Andante 
 
 Laylahlay lah lay lalvlay lah loh 
 
 No. 37. 
 
 Laylah lay lah lay lah loh 
 
 Above to be sung lightly and purely, mezza voce. 
 
 No. 38. Sing up to the fifth above keynote. Repeat 
 fifth note, then descend; sing as much of the figure on one 
 breath and ascend as high as possible with ease. 
 
 No. 38. Allegro 
 
 Me me me me 
 
 me 
 
 me me me me 
 
 me 
 
 Nee nee nee nee 
 
 nee 
 
 nee nee nee hee 
 
 nee 
 
 Lah lay lee loh 
 
 looh 
 
 etc: 
 
 
 Dah day dee doh 
 
 do oh 
 
 » ■ 
 
 
 ^ah nay nee noh 
 
 no oh 
 
 )i 
 
 
 Mahmayme moh 
 
 mo oh 
 
 w 
 
 
 Do re mi fa 
 
 sol 
 
 » 
 
 
 These syllables must be sung lightly and softly, and 
 directed into the lips and through the nose by thought only. 
 This is a means to an end in perfecting the artistic quality," 
 and should be practiced only after the mechanical action 
 of the voice is good. 
 
 No. 39. Sing the following mezza voce, In soft, even, 
 mellow tone, with artistic feeling and phrasing. Very legato. 
 
 No. 39. 
 
 ritard. 
 
 jmolto iiatl. 
 
222 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 The Mechanical and Artistic Tone- Quality 
 
 To develop an understanding of the tone of Intensifi- 
 cation of resonance and the one of amplification of power, 
 Exercises. 1 8, 20 and 22 should be used on the combina- 
 tion "ne" and "na" (alternate these two syllables on these 
 figures). The tone must be quite accurately directed to 
 produce the best results, and should be started very defi- 
 nitely at its place of impingement against the gums of the 
 upper front teeth. This combines the tone-quality made 
 by a good vocal mechanism with the voice-box contacting 
 the spine — which establishes individual quality of voice. 
 This procedure is the open sesame to power. 
 
 Only the forward and upper resonators are in opera- 
 tion with the tone of intensification (resonantic, vocalic, and 
 non-sonantic), nose, mouth, teeth and lips. This tone 
 must be concentrated to the front in its output. 
 
 The quality of tone thus produced may be raw and 
 over-resonant in this procedure, but it means that if the 
 direction and resonance is accurate and the vowel pure, 
 a perfect mechanical action of the vocal apparatus is 
 assured in the course of time and practice. 
 
 The breath-clutch works very powerfully and surely, 
 the entire vocal apparatus is at its utmost tension, and 
 the most perfect adjustment is possible in the singing with 
 this mechanical tone-quality. 
 
 The development of the artistic or individual quality 
 of voice may now be considered. 
 
 This quality partakes of the tone of intensification 
 of resonance with its increased forward pressure at the 
 point of resistance against the gums of upper front 
 teeth. 
 
 To this is added an expansion at the back of tongue 
 in the "Aw" or sonoric resonator, at which instant the 
 fifth cervical vertebra of the spine is contacted. A posi- 
 tive forward pressure of the tone and a posterior expansion 
 in the throat is evident at this point. 
 
 The lowest and deepest resonator is incorporated in 
 this act, and a great feeling of freedom and openness 
 ensues in the throat, and vocal assurance is established. 
 
VOCAL ART-SCIENCE EXERCISES 223 
 
 The sympathetic vibrations of the body are now cor- 
 related with the sound. The individual quality or timbre 
 of voice can be operated with any degree of amplification. 
 The pure messa di voce is possible. Through mind and 
 emotion— thought and feeling — the singer is able to de- 
 liver, with the highest perfection, humanly attainable, the 
 finest expression of his artistic self in interpretation. 
 
 As a direct consequence of Vocal Art-Science prac- 
 tically applied, Bel Canto is naturally established, and 
 upon a basis so absolutely correct, that, were it acci- 
 dentally to be lost, it could be regained under instruction 
 by definite procedure. 
 
 The author has incorporated these exercises in his 
 book because Miss Gescheidt has applied to her teaching 
 of voice the principles of Vocal Art-Science, as set forth 
 in the foregoing pages. She has developed a complete 
 course of instruction based upon his theories, and has thus 
 demonstrated in actual practice with her pupils, and in the 
 remarkable results achieved, that Vocal Art-Science is no 
 individual fetich, but a living truth, because derived from 
 natural laws hitherto neglected. 
 
 By these added practical means to the author's efforts 
 the future of this Vocal Art-Science cannot possibly fail to 
 be perpetuated throughout posterity. 
 
AFTERWORD 
 
 In concluding my work I wish to reveal to the profes- 
 sion a few comparative facts drawn from the vocal temples 
 of three of our foremost living singers, which I have had 
 the great privilege to examine and to measure. Their names, 
 as well as measurements, are purposely withheld (as pa- 
 tients). The vocal structures under consideration are those 
 of two of our greatest tenors and our foremost soprano. 
 
 It is very difficult to compare structures, each of 
 which stands as our only existing models of physical, 
 mental and psychical vocal art. Therefore I can indicate 
 only some of their physical and structural variations. 
 
 Their vocal tracts are exquisitely built in their entire 
 extent — from the lower Dynamic unit to the Resonance- 
 chambers above — ^for translating, correlating and produc- 
 ing marvellous combinations of Power, Resonance and 
 Pitch of Vocal Tone. 
 
 Extraordinary and powerfully developed lung and 
 chest capacities afford mighty reservoirs of force, notable 
 in classing these artists among the superhuman. 
 
 The vocal cords show some interesting variations, one 
 set being very remarkable for the massive structure of the 
 vestibule between the true and false vocal cords. By this 
 unusual physical development the control of voice that is 
 demonstrated, enables the artist to electrify and thrill his 
 audience in a most astonishing way. The vibratory quali- 
 ties in this structure were truly wonderful. In one case 
 the cords were over one eighth of an inch longer than 
 those of any other artist I have ever observed. The other 
 pairs of cords having the same range are more finely 
 modeled and delicate in structure, those of the tenor being 
 slightly larger and heavier than the soprano's, but in each 
 case larger than normal and well marked. 
 
 The insertions of the cords upon the arytenoids are 
 interesting in the soprano, in that they demonstrate clearly 
 
 224 
 
AFTERWORD 225 
 
 a sharply-defined right-angled attachment to definitely- 
 pyramidal arytenoids. The arytenoids of the two tenors 
 stand out less sharply, owing to the attachment of heavier 
 cords. 
 
 Possibly the most notable and interesting contrast 
 exists in the types of epiglottidse. One massively propor- 
 tioned, with enlarged and rounded base tapering gracefully 
 to a thin scoop-shovel tip, the entire structure much 
 longer than normally observed, yet retaining remarkable 
 flexibility and pliancy. 
 
 The other two types are modeled more delicately, ter- 
 minating in the perfectly-formed triple-curved tip which I 
 have rarely observed so clearly in any other cases. 
 
 The muscular autonomies of the tongue and palate, 
 combined with the coordinated jaw, border upon faultless- 
 ness in their precision and adjustment. The oral and 
 nasal cavities of each are more extensively developed than 
 usually found, allowing an increase in the volume output. 
 
 Each vocal canal is lined throughout with a delicate 
 pink and unblemished mucous membrane, so perfect in 
 contrast with the cartilages in the pharynx of the soprano, 
 that they stand out like pearls in a sea of pink. 
 
 These ideal models of physical perfection, exquisitely 
 controlled and regulated by keen artistic mentalities, com- 
 bined with remarkable qualities, place these wonderful 
 artists as true sponsors of the God-given Voice Divine. 
 
 Another interesting type of vocal adjustment has been 
 brought to my attention recently by several artists pos- 
 sessing the "Bird" voice, or whistling, as many prefer to 
 style it. All of the qualities essential to the beautiful 
 voice were present, pathos, style and expression, without 
 the use of diction as supplied by the lips and jaw. The 
 unusually perfected ability for adjustment of the tongue 
 and palate, coupled with remarkable powers of tone-percep- 
 tion, all combine to add to the beauty, dexterity and fine- 
 ness of the tone-production. 
 
 The perfectly poised vocal tone of speech and song is 
 the open sesame to personality and temperament, or that 
 refined yet ever evasive soul-expression which every well- 
 organized personality craves and is ever responsive to. 
 
226 VOCAL ART-SCIENCE 
 
 Year upon year master and pupil have endeavored to 
 establish laws in explanation and development of pure 
 tone-formation. Much beautifully formulated knowledge 
 has been gleaned, but failure has crowned each effort, solely 
 because more attention was given the growth and nutri- 
 tion of the mighty material tree, without minutely study- 
 ing the acorn to which it owes its existence. 
 
 With the stimulus of 32 years of active medical experi- 
 ence, during which over 200,000 applicable cases have come 
 under my observation, as well as years of instructive per- 
 sonal experience in vocal art as a foundation, combined 
 with extensive reviewing of all vocal literature, it has been 
 my keenest desire to produce true Vocal Art-Science. 
 
 By incorporating the valuable knowledge gleaned from 
 Phonetics, Vocal Art and Medical Science into a true Vocal 
 Art-Science and demonstrating its wonderful scope I have 
 endeavored to establish for you the wonderful lineage of 
 voice-formation from its creator to the spellbound audience. 
 
 With this stretch of pathway ever in mind, I hope to 
 bring forth a new volume for further study relative to newly 
 established scientific facts and methods as well as explana- 
 tions of many recently perfected mechanical devices of 
 practical interest to both the student and the practitioner. 
 The materialization of the long cherished ideal for the 
 necessity of a method of voice standardization is in the 
 form of an Electro-Audion Sustained-Tone-Producer, a 
 device by which simple and complex sustained musical 
 tones may be produced at will. A telephone has also been 
 invented which will faithfully and reciprocally produce 
 the human voice entrain without a pitch period interfer- 
 ence; also In consonance and harmony. 
 
 By listening attentively to the song of the wheels of 
 progress we ascend to the ideal of perfection. It is perhaps 
 not within the compass of one short life to do aught but 
 firmly establish and build the structural framework, while 
 the completion and ornamentation of God's most beautiful 
 temple remains for those of you who, through inspiration 
 and keen insight, endeavor to carry ever higher and higher 
 the perfection of the knowledge of scientific Vocal Art for 
 the enlightenment and benefit of mankind to come. 
 
AFTERWORD 227 
 
 I wish to acknowledge the valuable assistance rendered 
 me in my research work by the following: 
 
 Mr. Frank X. Ahrens, Dr. Charles S. Bentley, Mrs. 
 Herbert F. Brown, Mr. and Mrs. Howard H. Brown, Dr. 
 William Sohier Bryant, Mr. Dudley Buck, Miss Eva J. 
 Brummer, Mr. William Courteney, Mr. Leonard Day, 
 Mr. L. Stewart Gatter, Mr. Frederick Shand Goucher, Mr. 
 Herbert Wilbur Greene, Mr. William J. Henderson, Mr. O. 
 E. Hagen, Mr. Victor Harris, Dr. CarlMartin, Mr. Holmes 
 W. Merton, Dr. James A. Moffat, Miss Eleanor McClel- 
 land, Mr. Edwin Fairfax Naulty, Professor Eglebert Neus, 
 Professor Frank R. Rix, Mr. Louis Arthur Russell, Pro- 
 fessor Carl E. Seashore, Mr. Edgar S. Werner, and Mr. 
 Clifford G. Weston. 
 
 For illustrations I am indebted to "Gray's Anatomy," 
 "Lehmann," "Lehfeldt," "MiUer-Merton Atlas," and "Mc- 
 Clelland's Anatomy." 
 
 Original drawings were made under my direction by 
 William Fraetas and Karl Kraft. 
 
SUPPLEMENTS 
 
TUNING-FORK TESTS 
 
 with 
 
 MISS HELEN KELLAR 
 
 by 
 
 Dr. William Sohier Bryant for Dr. Frank E. Miller 
 
 C- 128 
 C- 512 
 C- 256 
 C-1024 
 C-2048 
 C-4096 
 
 Felt vibration strongly on palms of hands. 
 
 Felt vibration strongly between lips, and on fingers. 
 
 Felt vibration strongly on knee, not on elbow. 
 
 Felt vibration faintly on fingers and lips. 
 
 Hard to tell; doubtful. 
 
 At first thought she had slight vibration; doubtful. 
 
 In Testing With and Without Tuning-Forks 
 
 With Without 
 
 2048: Yes (very positive). No (very positive). 
 
 4096: No. No (very positive). 
 
 Again: Upper lip. Doubtful. No (very positive). 
 Again: Upper lip. Quite sure. 
 
 C- 512 
 C-1024 
 C-2046 
 C-4096 
 
 On Index Finger of Right Hand 
 
 Very positive. 
 
 Quite sure. 
 
 Uncertain. 
 
 Same relation as on lips. 
 
 Tests for Harmony and Discord Through Fingers 
 
 G- 96 and C-128: Discord; very positive. 
 
 C-128 and G-212: Harmony; very positive. 
 
 C-128 and C-128 (one thrown off) : Recognized as "rough." 
 
 64 and 64 (one off): Feels discord on rising pitch of one 
 
 of them. 
 128 and 128 (one off): Same effect. 
 G-212: On ankle. Very perceptible. 
 G-212: Frontal sinus and vertex. Nothing. 
 G-212: Glabella. Very much. 
 G-212: Mastoid. Nothing. 
 G-212: Chin. Nothing. 
 
232 SUPPLEMENTS 
 
 With Adelmans-Galten Whistle 
 
 17 point, 3-pt. (by air force) : Very painful "pushing" in 
 
 ear. 
 
 18 point, 3-pt. (by air force) : Very painful. 
 21 point, 3-pt. (by air force): Very painful. 
 
 27 point, 3-pt. (by air force) : Very painful and disagree- 
 able. 
 IS point, 3-pt. (by air force) : Does not affect her at all. 
 
 High pitch sensations: Practically normal, but found that if 
 high pitches were made very loud, they were extremely disagree- 
 able. Perception of high vibrations in ear not gone. No sense 
 of vibration of low notes anywhere around the ear. {Very re- 
 markable.) Ordinarily deaf mutes are most susceptible to low 
 notes. Miss Kellar does not feel low notes at all. 
 
 Several minutes afterwards: Ears are decidedly uncom- 
 fortable from high pitch sounds. 
 
 Observation on Ears 
 
 Right Ear: Retraction of drum membrane, second degree. 
 
 Small light reflex. 
 
 Slight waxy color. 
 
 (In other words): Intact drum membrane. 
 Left Ear: Much like the right; reflex a little smaller. 
 
 Miss Kellar complains of speaking loud or "yelling in her 
 ear." Very disagreeable to her. 
 
 Miss Kellar also wanted to know "What makes the rattling 
 sensations when riding in a carriage over stones?" Was told it 
 was the jarring of the middle ear. 
 
 She has no sense of direction or equilibration. 
 
WHEN CARUSO SINGS "HIGH C" 
 
 6 1* 
 
 p 
 
 K. 
 
 ji-tt. *> 
 
 . > 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■J' F i ") 
 
 
 -"i— 
 
 r g 
 
 -P F » 
 
 
 fe-J— L^— 
 
 d 
 
 s^ 
 
 y=^^ ^ 
 
 -1— -' r F— — 
 
 -p — 
 
 ^ 
 
 rr: ■ 
 
 te 
 
 CO al 
 
 me 
 
 11 
 
 no 
 
 cor 
 
 ro a 
 
 4lJ 
 
 mo 
 
 l—i- 
 
 iir. 
 
 4 
 
 |v- r u u r ^ 
 
 ^— J U P 1^ 
 
 7u U P M 
 
 
 The eight plates which illustrate this article form a 
 photographic record of the vibrations of Caruso's voice, 
 when that distinguished tenor sings "o teco almeno corro 
 a morir" in "Trovatore." It is on the vowel "e" in "teco" 
 that the high C (c^) occurs, a note not written by Verdi, but 
 introduced and, when introduced, quickly established at 
 this point in the opera, a test of a robust, high tenor 
 voice. In point of fact, however, since it has become 
 necessary for tenors to sing the high C in "Trovatore," 
 or eschew the opera entirely, the number is often trans- 
 posed, so that the singer can deliver an alleged "high C" 
 on b^b, which is only half a tone higher than a^, the usual 
 boundary note of the upper range of the tenor; all of 
 which is not only interesting, but true. When the Caruso 
 record was made, however, the tenor sang high C. 
 
 The original records are on sheets that measure about 
 12 by 8 inches and on which the sequence of the vibra- 
 tions are shown in a series, which must be imagined as 
 pasted together and unrolled from a reel. Were this done, 
 it would be found that Caruso's high C was held so long 
 that, were the strips recording it pas.ted together, they 
 would measure fifty-eight feet. While one cannot say 
 that Caruso's high C in "Trovatore" is fifty-eight feet long, 
 the fact that its record required that length of strip proves 
 that it was superbly placed and held. 
 
 This fascinating record was made by Dr. W. E. 
 Scripture for the author. The explanation of the plates 
 and the notes that follow are supplied as the result of a 
 conference between himself. Dr. Scripture and others, the 
 author determining the phrase selected to be analyzed. 
 
234 SUPPLEMENTS 
 
 Plate I. This plate begins with a record of the vowel 
 "o" as the singer begins with "o teco almeno," etc. The 
 vibrations are seen to be arranged in groups of two. Each 
 group corresponds to one vibration of the singer's larynx; 
 such a group of vibrations will be termed a "vowel wave," 
 according to the best recording devices obtained from the 
 Carnegie Institute. The vowel waves at the start are very 
 faint; they gradually increase in loudness. This is a record 
 of the gentle beginning which is found In most of Caruso's 
 initial vowels. The vowel "o" lasts through the middle of 
 the eighth line. The height of the waves rises and falls, 
 Indicating that the vowel Is sometimes louder and sometimes 
 weaker. It swells to the maximum height just before it 
 closes, showing that Caruso ends the vowel loudly and 
 snappily. This is characteristic of most of his vowels, as 
 shown in the following plates. 
 
 The form of the vowel wave, I. e., its completion out 
 of minor vibrations, changes steadily. This indicates that 
 the sound of the vowel varies. The waves In line six, for 
 example, show different vibrations from the waves in line 
 one. On the other hand, certain similarity of the waves 
 throughout the whole vowel exists. It is noticed that at 
 nearly all points the wave group consists of one large vi- 
 bration and another a trifle smaller; this Indicates the 
 presence of the overtone produced by resonance, an essen- 
 tial in voice-production known to every advanced student 
 In vocal art-science, nearly but not quite an octave above 
 the tone of the larynx. The record thus shows that the 
 vowel has the sound throughout, but that its character 
 changes from time to time. 
 
 Following the "o" there should be a record of the 
 sound "t." For this sound the record should be an abso- 
 lutely straight line, because the larynx does not vibrate 
 during "t." It shows, however, fairly strong vibrations 
 from the middle of the eighth line to nearly the middle of 
 the ninth. These prove not only that the larynx vibrated 
 during this time, but also that the tongue did not closely 
 contact the teeth for the "t." The "t" with vibrations of 
 the larynx is termed a sonant "t," resembling rather a "d"; 
 and a "t" with a loose closure is termed a fricative "t," 
 
i 
 
 *■■•■*V'^''■■■>.'■,^^^|^jiu^(^I^[(SI'' ^ 
 
 9 ^_^^:. ....: .-. ,.- . -...v----^r-VVVnr-^'HrVVWWxA^ 
 
 »■ y.^'-/•VVV^.'v^^*■ 'v^^V^'"**^^"^'* *-i«>->-^-^v.'-v>'^^^"'^ 
 
 jins with vowel "O" of "O teco" etc. This continues to the eighth line, where the singer begins 
 to prepare for the high C, whicli begins about the middle of the ninth line 
 
 1 ^j^.jii.vYVYVW^.'V^''^"'^'^^ 
 
 3 ^^v^*yN^*y'y^^*y^^^^rV'V(*V''T^'^*^*^'''^*'^^''V""V'>?'^if'^^^»^*''V'^V^-/^^^V-^Y^ 
 
 5 r 
 
 
 9 ,,vv.v>*v>»W¥VV¥VVVWvHrt*'*VVv'VVVYyVVVVv*^^ 
 
 PLATE II 
 This entire plate shows the continuation of the high C 
 
PLATE III 
 The high C continues throughout this entire plate 
 
 6 l^yl,^,,^;,^,,^,A»^*vv-»■'w^<~»^'>•"'^■^-^^ ;■" '' f^'^^)'^'^^;'-^JY•,\V^^^V■^■^|^ 
 
 
 12 jfVVWvWS'^VN'VA'y/WyyVvVVVVvVvVv^^ 
 
 The first six lines continue and end the high C. Tlie remaining hnes 
 show the syllable "co" of "te-co'^ 
 
WHEN CARUSO SINGS "HIGH C" 235 
 
 resembling a "th." Thus the sound at this place was not 
 on a true "t," but a sonant fricative "t" resembling the 
 "th" In "there." 
 
 The reason for the substitution of this sound for a 
 true "t" is obvious. The larynx vibrates during the pre- 
 ceding vowel and during the following one. Moreover, the 
 singer is preparing for a supreme effort in the following 
 vowel on high C. It would be a more difficult adjustment 
 to interrupt the laryngeal vibrations for a moment to 
 make the "t." It is much easier to let the larynx continue 
 to vibrate during this short time, just as it is easier to slow 
 down a car for a moment than to suddenly stop it and start 
 it again. 
 
 The vowel waves beginning in the ninth line of Plate 
 I become shorter and shorter. The length of the vowel 
 wave registers the pitch of the tone from the larynx. The 
 voice thus rises rather rapidly to the high C, on which the 
 tone is sung. 
 
 Plate II. This continues the record of the vowel "e" 
 on high c^, from Plate I. The vowel wave is very con- 
 stant in form, indicating that the vocal quality remained 
 unchanged. It varies slightly in length, undergoing some 
 slight fluctuations in pitch. The high C was continued 
 for a long time, the record occupying over fifty feet of the 
 strips of paper on which it was obtained. 
 
 Plates III and IV. Of these two plates, the former 
 continues another portion of the vowel "e" on the high 
 c^; while Plate IV shows the close of the vowel on high C. 
 The vowel is followed by the consonant "c," which is the 
 sound of "k." The record here should be an absolutely 
 straight line because the larynx does not vibrate during 
 "k." Yet the vibrations recorded here, show that the 
 larynx did vibrate. The sound was thus a sonant "k," 
 made so doubtless for reasons similar to those that influ- 
 ence the vibrations on "t." 
 
 The vowel "o" occupies the next two and a half lines. 
 At the start it shows considerable resemblance to parts of 
 the vowel "o" of Plate I. The wave character rapidly 
 changes, however, showing that the "o" sound is altering 
 in character. The change becomes greater until we have 
 
236 SUPPLEMENTS 
 
 the typical vowel wave for "a" (pronounced "ah") In the 
 latter part of line ten. 
 
 Plate V. This begins with the vowel "a" of the word 
 "almeno." With the end of the second line the vowel 
 waves change to those for "1." These in turn change for 
 "m." Both of these are faint, short sounds. The vowel 
 "e" starts in with almost full intensity. Its waves for 
 a while resemble those of "e" in "teco." Beginning with 
 the end of the sixth line and extending to the end of the 
 eighth, a curious deformity of the vowel waves is noticed. 
 They no longer have the regularity of the ordinary vowel. 
 They rise and fall and have their shapes modified, just as 
 though some longer vibrations were interfering. The 
 other vibration has a length that varies with the first part 
 of the vowel "o." 
 
 Plate VI. The first four lines of this plate contain 
 the latter portion of the vowel "o" of "almeno." The 
 following lines are records of the accompaniment. 
 
 The latter portion of line eight shows vowel waves 
 which continue through a large part of line nine. There 
 are too few of them to be the record of even a short vowel 
 in song. By studying backward from the close of the 
 plate we can determine what they are. The last two and 
 a quarter lines of the plate are a record of the first vowel 
 "o" in the word "corro." This must be preceded by a 
 record of "c," which is pronounced like "k" just as in 
 Plate III. This "k" is sonant instead of silent. The 
 waves in lines eight and nine are, therefore, a record 
 of the short sound which preceded the "k." Carefully 
 listening to the disc enables the ear to detect a minute 
 vowel produced before the "k." 
 
 Plate VII. The first two lines of this plate give the 
 last part of the vowel "o." It has the loud, snappy end- 
 ing noticed in Plate I. The next line gives a record of the 
 rolled "r." The fourth and eighth lines give a record of 
 the final vowel "o" of "corro" with the vowel "a" of "a 
 morir." These two vowels are united into a diphthong. 
 This diphthong also has the strong, snappy ending al- 
 ready referred to. The vibrations of the "m" are seen in 
 this line. The last two lines show the vowel "o." 
 
1 M-..VVv,vH^K.,^VY't.WVA'V;\.fvn--»AAA,A^^ .w"^/Vs.A,AvV-V^: 
 
 6 Vy/ 
 
 8 ^A>/^'''vr->-•A^,J'^^^'■/■'V/■Av>^»/^V■w/.■-■.,-'■,,..,■'v^V,^>.^, r,-, ,,,,,, 
 
 9 /^^/^N'A'l^l\^/^Nv^AJ\^^^^'^/w-JA,v■A■■w^A>J'^'v^'vn.^v^M^ 
 
 PLATE V 
 This piate registers the word "almeno" 
 
 ' .AAMaA/'./'.-..-., __ _ 
 
 9 -, '-^''■■rr■J\:,\-\J\\^'J\xM^^^^ 
 
 '- )/V\AVWV#/WVWWVWW\^ 
 
 PLATE VI 
 The first nine lines give the vowel "o" of "o corro." The remaining lines give the "co" of "curro" 
 

 "■-^-'^^ A'X/^-.VVi^v^ ^ 
 
 - '^AAAA/vv\ViAAA/WW.WA/VWlMMMAAAWA/l'^^^ 
 
 10 K/\/\J\/\|\/\J\AA/VA//Vy-vAy^\^> AAA/\AJV\J\AA/^,fAaA/'^ 
 
 1 ) A<^A "VJA/W^^/VW^^WW^MAAAA^^ y-.v'\^''.l'AAAA/'JAA,A^V^./> ;^ufA«^<WVA/ VAA<\l 
 
 PLATE VII 
 
 The lirst line continues the "o,'' the ^ecijnj anj thirj lines gi\e the "rr." ;inj the fuurth, 
 
 Jifth anJ sixth lines gi\e the Jinal "u" of "corru." The remaining 
 
 lines gi\e the "a" and "mu" uf "a murir, " 
 
 1 ^i;Jv^>S>^/^7TXK/'A'^M7W*jvAfO\y\ 
 
 I ■"'* • ' ^ 1 
 
 PLATE VIII 
 This plate concludes the worj "morir." 
 
WHEN CARUSO SINGS "HIGH C" 237 
 
 Plate VIII. The first two and a half lines of this 
 plate belong to the vowel "o." The "r" appears as a 
 singular interruption in the middle of the third line. The 
 vowel "i" extends through the fifth line. The next line 
 
 Notes on Voice-Waves 
 
 The voice consists of the tone from the glottis modi- 
 fied by resonating cavities above and below it. 
 
 This tone, "the laryngeal tone," is produced by the 
 closure of the vocal lips across an air passage from the 
 lungs. The vocal lips are composed of two muscles, 
 namely, the thyro-arytenoid (externus) and the vocali 
 (usually called the vocal cords). The muscles on each 
 side form a triangular mass of flesh which in no way bears 
 any resemblance to a cord or membrane. It cannot pos- 
 sibly vibrate like a cord or membrane. It vibrates by 
 compression, yielding sidewise to emit puffs of air. This 
 has been directly observed by Musehold and Rothi with 
 the laryngostroboscope. 
 
 The glottis vibrating in this way emits a series of 
 puffs of air of the same nature as those emitted by a tube 
 opened and shut rapidly, as in the case of the well-known 
 instrument,- the "siren," which is a disc with a number of 
 holes rotating in a tube. These puffs of air are of the nature 
 of a sudden compression with succeeding vibrations of less- 
 ening strength. The musical character of a singer's laryn- 
 geal tone depends upon the form of these vibrations. 
 These forms depend in turn upon the manner in which the 
 vocal lips vibrate. In a voice where there is a good musical 
 quality these vibrations have a form that impresses the 
 ear pleasantly. Every change in the vocal muscle or the 
 thyro-arytenoid muscle will produce a difference in the 
 form of the puff and consequently in the musical quality. 
 Since the muscles of the vocal lips are a part of the musi- 
 cal apparatus of the larynx, their activity and adjustment 
 will depend not only on the way in which they themselves 
 are innervated, but also on the adjustment of the surround- 
 ing intrinsic or extrinsic muscles of the larynx. 
 
238 SUPPLEMENTS 
 
 The character of the vibrations from the larynx is 
 modified by the complicated resonance cavities of the 
 pharynx, mouth, and nose, and by the chest cavity. The 
 modification occurs according to the law governing the 
 action of resonating cavities with soft and semi-soft walls. 
 
 The resulting tone, as it issues from the mouth, con- 
 sists of vibrations produced in the way just described. 
 On the phonograph or the gramophone it can be studied 
 by the careful methods devised by Professor Hermann 
 and myself.i 
 
 A series of such curves of the voice of Caruso is 
 presented above. 
 
 When such a curve of the voice lies before us, we can 
 do several things. In the first place we can analyze it 
 into a series of curves with the wave lengths in the rela- 
 tion I, 2, 3, 4, etc., but with different amplitudes; such a 
 series is called a "harmonic series." We thus get a kind 
 of equation for the original curve in a series of arbitrary 
 quantities. We can do just the same thing with a straight 
 line or point, or a profile of a face, or part of a person's 
 signature. From the results we can even reconstruct the 
 original curve. This analysis — called a "Fourrier analy- 
 sis" — is a perfectly arbitrary one. It does not represent 
 in the least the manner in which the original curve was 
 produced by vibrating bodies or cavities. From a Four- 
 rier analysis we can reconstruct an arbitrary straight line 
 or a signature, but this does not imply that the straight 
 line or the signature was produced by a harmonic series. 
 We can analyze and reconstruct a voice curve in the same 
 way, but it is quite absurd to suppose that this analysis 
 has anything to do with the way in which the voice vibra- 
 tion was actually produced. 
 
 On the other hand, we can analyze a voice curve in 
 quite a different way. We can analyze the voice curve 
 into a series of elements that would conform to the known 
 laws of vibratory masses of muscles like those of the vocal 
 lips and of resonant soft walls like those of the larynx, the 
 floor of the mouth, and the chfeeks, and with semi-soft 
 
 'The author's description of vocal-cord action and the formation of the 
 vocal cyclone differs from all other authorities, as seen in preceding chapters. 
 
WHEN CARUSO SINGS "HIGH C" 239 
 
 walls like the hard palate. The method involves an im- 
 mense amount of work for each wave of the voice, but its 
 results are not arbitrary mathematical formulas with no 
 physical meaning, but are definitely established facts con- 
 cerning the nature of the tone of the voice and the manner 
 in which it is produced. 
 
 The results that have been established by these 
 methods prove that the vibration of the voice has not the 
 slightest resemblance to a combination of a series of tu- 
 ning-fork vibrations, as was supposed by Helmholtz. Helm- 
 holtz's theory served its purpose in stimulating research 
 work, but has now been abandoned by all the prominent 
 investigators. 
 
 An important deduction from the newer work is 
 found in the emphasis to be laid on the proper action of 
 the muscles of the larynx in order to produce a good tone. 
 If the original vibration from the glottis is not good, no 
 amount of modification of the vibration can make it so. 
 
ADDENDA 
 
 The papers that follow are given here, not always as confirming my views, for they 
 differ more than once, but as showing how others have been seeking for the solution of a 
 problem, which can besolved only as I have been the first to solve it, by a complete demon- 
 stration of the function of Art and the function of Science, in that perfect union of the two, 
 which I have denominated "Vocal Art-Science." 
 
 Fatigue of the Voice — Phonesthenia. 
 
 This term is analogous to the better known term "Neurasthenia." 
 It was first treated of by Flatau, in his celebrated article, "The Functional 
 Fatigue of the Voice, in Singers, Speakers, and Commanders" (1906). He 
 was the first to define the symptoms, and to offer an effective means of treat- 
 ment, of this affliction. Other authors on the same subject are Earth, 
 Gutzmann, Labeus, Kassel, HuUah, Michael, Gerhardt, Storch, Mackenzie, 
 Frankel, Kraus, Avellis, Hermann, Spiess, Lerin, and others. Dr. R. Imhofer, 
 of Wiirzburg, has written a most interesting and comprehensive book on 
 the subject of "The Fatigue of the Voice." 
 
 Avellis divides fatigue of the voice into two classes: organic andfunc- 
 tional; the former resulting from a diseased condition of the organs which 
 are involved in voice-production; the latter from improper use of the voice, 
 and in which there is no organic disease. Phonesthenia, therefore, belongs 
 to functional derangement. In "Vocal Art-Science" only normal voice- 
 organs (so far as their organic structure and nutrition are concerned) may 
 be considered as available for development to artistic excellence, and therefore 
 Phonesthenia is to be taken into account; while such "fatigue" as may result 
 from disease, is a question for the laryngologist, rather than for the vocal 
 teacher. (See Chapter XV.) "Voice-using is hygienic. The vocal organs are 
 by nature strong, the folds themselves being, perhaps, the strongest organs 
 in the body. Proper use adds to their strength, while acting as a body- 
 cleanser and vitalizer, a builder of tissues. Faulty methods tend to produce 
 venous congestion, starve tissues and poison them." To this might have 
 been added, that fatigue of voice quickly appears from improper vocalization. 
 Mosso says: "Fatigue consists (1) of a physical fact which we can measure 
 and compare, and (2) a psychic moment, which is impossible to measure 
 and compare." — Imhofer, in the work cited, says: "Without any pain, a 
 peculiar feeling appeals in the larynx, called in psychology 'feeling of dislike,' 
 and this is the first subjective symptom of approaching fatigue of the voice." 
 "Psychology" is correct, since you cannot feel a dislike physiologically. 
 
 Reciprocal Functional Relation of the Laryngeal Muscles. 
 
 The crico-thyroideus 
 
 Prof. M. Grossmann, of Vienna, in "Contributions to the Doctrine of 
 the Laj-yngeal Muscles," ("Archiv f. Laryngologie u. Rhinologie," Vol. XVIII, 
 p. 463 et seq.). "The crico-thyroid extends the vocal cords from front back- 
 wards, the cords changing from the angular position of rest into a linear 
 position; the contraction of the muscle causing extension, as well as adduc- 
 tion (approach) of the vocal cords. . . . By contraction of the crico- 
 thyroid, the anterior narrow part of the cricoid cartilage is moved toward 
 the thyroid cartilage; by the contraction of the vocal-cord muscle.s, the 
 
 240 • 
 
ADDENDA 241 
 
 opposite effect is produced. For this function, therefore, these two muscles 
 do not work in an alternating, but an antagnostic manner." 
 
 Drs. Moeller and Fischer, Copenhagen (Arch. f. Laryng. u. Rhin., 
 Vol. XV): 
 
 "It seems that for the functions of the crico-thyroid and the vocal-cord 
 muscles, there is no^ unity of opinion. All authors agree that they are the 
 proper voice-producing muscles; but while some are of the opinion that the 
 crico-thyroid regulates pitch by its contractions, others attribute this function 
 to the thyro-arytenoid (internal). There is, however, no difference of opinion 
 regarding the fact that the crico-thyroid moves the cricoid cartilages o,r 
 arytenoids towards each other." — Ewald says that the alteration in size 
 of the interspace between the two cartilages is too small to explain the wide 
 extension of tone-register of the human voice. . . . 
 
 "With the help of the x-ray, it has been ascertained that the higher the 
 tone, the narrower the interspace between the cricoid and thyroid cartilages 
 becomes; but the climax is not quite regular. The narrowing of the inter- 
 space is a consequence of the ascending motion of the cricoid cartilage." 
 
 Dr. Jellenffy, Pesth, "The Muse. Cricothyroideus" (Pflueger's Arch. f. 
 d. ges. Physiol., Vol. VII, 1873) : — "The crico-thyroid is the tensor muscle of 
 the vocal cords. This is the general opinion." On the ground of extensive 
 experiments, this author found: 
 
 (1) In scale-singing, the larynx is continuously raised with the continuously 
 ascending pitch; higher and higher till, with the highest head-tones, 
 which become already quite thin, it touches the convexity of the upper 
 rim of the thyroid, and the lower edge of the hyoid bone. Up to this 
 they are separated by a narrow distance. 
 
 (2) The angle of the thyroid diminishes with the ascension of the tones, and 
 grows with their descent. 
 
 (3) With the rise in pitch of tone, the arch of the cricoid rises higher and 
 higher to the thyroid; the distance separating it from the lower edge of 
 this cartilage diminishes more and more, but grows in the opposite case. 
 
 (4) The arch of the cricoid moves with ascending pitch, not only upwards, 
 but is also pulled backwards; its frontal point removes from the frontal 
 surface, and draws near the spine. With the descent of the tones, it 
 takes its former position. 
 
 (5) The diameter of the trachea appears larger with the deeper, and smaller 
 with the higher tones. . . . These are empiric facts. 
 
 The crico-thyroid muscle, whose functions are probably the most 
 complicated of any in the human body, has three offices, of which (a) one 
 acts in a vertical direction; {b) one in a horizontal plane from before back- 
 wards; (c) one acts in a horizontal direction from right to left. 
 
 These three act so much as individual forces, that it is impossible to 
 consider the functions of the crico-thyroid as a unit. Moreover, the author 
 finds that the cricoid is raised towards the lower edge of the thyroid, and 
 not the latter fulled down. In this way the plate of the cricoid is bent over 
 backwards, and the points of insertion of the vocal cords removed from each 
 other. This is a moment of passive tension in the mechanism of the vocal 
 cords; also, the conoid ligament is relaxed and moved from the previous 
 vertical into a more horizontal position. This alone causes the rise of the 
 cricoid. . . . That force which acts in a horizontal plane in the front to 
 back direction, pulls the thyroid forwards, and, at the same time, the cricoid 
 backwards, and thus strains the vocal cords in a direct way. . . . Having 
 reached a limit beyond which it can not go, the muscle has now to fix these 
 cartilages into the already gained position, one against the other. A jerking 
 of the ligaments is prevented by the inferior constrictor of the pharynx, 
 which is attached to both sides of the thyroid at its posterior edges and outer 
 surface, and makes impossible, by the same contraction, a farther forward 
 
242 SUPPLEMENTS 
 
 motion, as well as too wide backward motion of the cricoid. The inferior 
 constrictor of the pharynx, is the perfect antagonist of this force of the crico- 
 thyroid, which has no movable point of insertion, but only two extreme 
 points. . . . The third action of the crico-thyroid muscle, which takes 
 place from right to left in a horizontal plane, is to pull inward. It is mighty 
 in all its fibres, especially in those which insert at the inner surface of the 
 thyroid. This force has its fixed origin at the cricoid, for, since the latter is 
 pulled by the muscle of one side in one and by the muscle of the other side in 
 the opposite direction, it naturally remains (among the three offices of the 
 crico-thyroid) stationary, and presents for the forces of both sides, fixed 
 points of origin, while its movable point of insertion is at the thyroid. 
 
 When the thyroid cartilage, fixed by the thyro-hyoid muscle, becomes 
 immovable for the fore-and-back action; no force exists which would pull 
 the plates outwards, and by this, the function of the force in question would 
 be annulled. TJierefore, the latter may act undisturbed, bringing the plates 
 of the thyroid nearer to each other, for the following purposes: 
 
 The two elastic plates of the thyroid form an arch, which, for the low 
 tones, becomes flattened to almost a semicircle. When the tones rise, the 
 crico-thyroid muscle, with its three, offices, goes into action. By drawing the 
 plates toward each other, they flatten its wings more and more and give 
 them a straightened direction, by which they require less space in the right- 
 to-left, than in the fore-and-back, direction. This can have only one effect: 
 the angle of the thyroid moves farther forward from the posterior wall of 
 the larynx, separates the anterior insertions of the vocal cords from the 
 posterior ones — stretches the vocal cords. . . . Therefore, it is quite 
 correct to call the crico-thyroid muscle the tensor of the vocal cords; but 
 its function is different from the generally accepted one. For, by one and 
 the same muscle, the vocal cords are stretched in a trifle manner, inas- 
 much as their points of movable insertion are separated from each other: 
 
 (a) By the bending over of the cricoid backwards (the function of the 
 vertical force); 
 
 (b) By the mutual separation of the cricoid and thyroid from each other in 
 a horizontal plane in the fore-and-back direction (the second office of 
 the muscle); 
 
 (c) By forward motion of the angle of the thyroid cartilage (the third office 
 mentioned). 
 
 If the above be true, then an assistance to, or hampering of, the different 
 offices of the crico-thyroid action, should result in a rise or descent of the tone. 
 Jellanffy made the following tests: 
 
 (a) In a long-sustained tone, the lifting of the cricoid with the finger-tip 
 will always cause the tone to ascend; and if this is repeated at short 
 intervals, a trill is produced, the fundamental tone of which is the deeper 
 one. Thus, .a rise of the tone was produced by increasing the eject of the 
 vertical force. By pushing down the cricoid (which is somewhat difficult 
 to perform) the finest trills with higher fundamental tones can be pro- 
 duced; through weakening of the vertical force of the crico-thyroid muscle 
 the tone is made deeper. 
 
 (b) If a tone is struck, and a finger is put on the anterior surface of the 
 cricoid-arch, the tone is raised almost with the touch. The pitch of 
 both tones is raised with increased pressure. If the pressure is rapidly 
 intermittent, a trill with deep fundamental tone results; again a rise of' 
 the tone, but this time by helping the front-and-backward force. 
 
 (c) If a tone is sustained and the outer surfaces of the cricoid-plates are, 
 on both sides, pressed with two fingers, the slighest pressure will raise 
 the tone, and a trill with a deeper fundamental tone will be produced, 
 in the way shown above; frontal, in this case, by narrowing the angle 
 of the thyroid — i. e., by strengthening the right-to-left force. 
 
ADDENDA 243 
 
 Prof. A. Jurasz, Heidelberg (Arch. f. Laryngol, u. Rhin., Vol. XII, 
 1901), agrees with "most authors" that the principal function of the crico- 
 thyroid muscles is "to bring the cricoid and thyroid cartilages nearer together, 
 whereby the vocal cords are stretched." 
 
 Vowel and Register Question 
 
 A contribution to the subject by Dr. Th. E. ter Kuile, Amsterdam. 
 (Pflueger's Archiv. f. d. ges. Physiol., Vol. CLIII, 1913.) If an Edelmann C- 
 fork is brought into vibration, and its tip placed loosely in contact with a piece 
 of cardboard, or wood, a remarkably vowel-like sound will result. The 
 author took small cardboard boxes and pasted a piece of cork on the bottom, 
 outside. The vibrating fork was then placed against the cork, when a clear 
 vowel "Ah" was heard; the same with different- pitches when different forks 
 were used. The vowel U (00) could be produced only when the clang-box 
 (a larger one with smaller opening than for A) was pressed against the fork 
 near its handle. Between these extremes lie all modulations, and they can 
 be produced with the same box, by motion of the fork. . . . The pro- 
 duction of certain vowels depends on .the areas and quality of the bottom, 
 and on the size and form of the box. The areas of the boxes equal those of 
 the pharyngo-oral cavities; although he found this to be so, empirically. 
 
 As to the question of what parts the vocal clangs (which are heard 
 at a single stroke of the vocal clang-body) consist, the author could ascertain, 
 with his apparatus: That it is sometimes difficult" to say just what tone 
 a certain vocal-clang-body will give; or, in other words, the vocal body 
 produces no musical clangs, but only noises, because in them a definite pitch 
 is hard to discern. This is made somewhat easier when different clang- 
 bodies are struck successively; then the pitches can be more easily recognized. 
 It is wrong to think that a clang-body, which gives a good vowel, permits 
 its pitch at a stroke to be easily recognized. On the contrary, a clang-body 
 which produces an uncertainty as to pitch — even to the extent that the 
 exact pitch is a matter of doubt — yet, a splendid vowel may result from a 
 quick periodically induced frequency of any fundamental tone. — Later, this 
 author used, instead of a fork, an electric hammer, which, vibrating by an 
 alternate current, struck the clang-body in the frequency of the polar-change 
 of this current. On this principle the author constructed a vowel apparatus, 
 with which he can produce clearly some eight vowel-effects, while the modu- 
 lations between can be easily arranged. Although the apparatus works 
 without air, the imitation of the vowels is so' astonishing, that this way of 
 vowel-production, so different in principle from the physiological formation, 
 suggests important conclusions regarding the theory of vowel-production. 
 
 Where the timbre of the vowel is dependent on the hardness of the 
 hammer, there must be, besides the inherent tone-region of the clang-body, 
 another momentum of importance in vowel-formation. Hard hammers can, 
 on the one hand, possibly help, in a way, the production of higher accessory 
 tones, but, on the other hand, they may directly influence the timbre by a 
 sudden stroke of the hammer upon the clang-body, or a sudden rise of the 
 clang-curve, at every stroke. This the author calls acuity (sharpness). . . . 
 He arrives at three elements in vowel-formation: The approximate pitch 
 of the vocal sound; the quick ring-off; and the accurately given inherent 
 tone-pitch, through the damping of the clang-body, the sudden beginning 
 to sound by acuity. ... If the vowels are arranged horizontally (in a 
 diagram) by acuity, and vertically according to pitch of the inherent-tone, 
 then the so-called vocal-triangle originates automatically. It is the seven- 
 vowel figure of Du Bois Raymond: 
 
 e-i 
 
 a — 6-u 
 
 o-u 
 
244 SUPPLEMENTS 
 
 Phaenomenology — Positions and Motions 
 
 of the Larynx in Relation to Other Organs of Voice 
 
 and Speech; Articulation. 
 
 With open mouth, closed mouth, chest-tone, chest-register, timbres, 
 tables and measurements of different phonic positions of the larynx: straw- 
 bass, falsetto, crying (shouting), tone-degrees by means of ascent and 
 descent of the larynx and fixed larynx. — Merkel: Anatomy and Physiology 
 of the Human Organs of Voice and Speech, 1857. 
 
 Very rare are the cases where the phonic activity of the larynx could 
 be observed in the Hving body. Bell, Bickert, Dunglison, Malgaigne, Stilling, 
 and other observers have noted, in the cadaver, how the glottis was dilated 
 atinspiration (artificial, of course) and was compressed at expiration. Magendie 
 has experimented with living animals, laying open the glottis, and saw that 
 voice was produced by vibration of the vocal cords towards each other. 
 From all this we learn that in life the voice is produced by the same organs 
 by which tone is produced in an extirpated larynx. . . . The position 
 of the larynx in the middle of the neck during toneless respiration is not 
 perceptibly altered. During deep, forced inspiration it descends, because 
 the trachea is dilated and hereby also shortens, while at retarded expiration 
 (with compressed glottis — as in vocalization) the larynx rises proportionately 
 (though the trachea is apparently elongated in consequence of its compression). 
 . . . . The 'Throat Region' in Man is bounded by the mastoid processes 
 of the temporal bone; by the entire lower ridge of the lower jaw; by the 
 upper ridge of the 'handle' of the sternum (breast-bone); and the larger part 
 of both collar-bones (clavicles). . . . The lower ridge of the jaw and the 
 two sterno-cleido-mastoid muscles form a triangle, the base of which is directed 
 upwards and its apex downwards — the 'large throat-triangle.' The organs of 
 voice — phonation — are located about the middle of this space, or area. . . . 
 The position which the larynx holds is quiet and Indifferent — the 'static 
 zero-point' of the larynx — the index of which is the most prominent point 
 of the thyroid cartilage. . . . On opening the mouth, the larynx descends 
 a little, and when the mouth is opened wider, as at yawning, the larynx 
 descends so far that the lower edge of the cricoid cartilage and the sternal 
 edge are on the same level. . . . These motions of the larynx, without 
 tone-production, must be taken in close consideration, if one wants to be 
 in position to understand correctly its motions with the tone-phenomena. . . . 
 An important function of the human neck is to provide a free traveling space 
 for the larynx. . . At deep inspiration, and at production of the 
 
 deepest natural tones, the larynx descends so deep, that even of the cricoid 
 arch nothing can be felt; and at swallowing, it ascends so high, that the 
 Pomum Adami (Adam's apple) disappears behind the throat fold, which 
 makes room for free play of about two inches, or an elevation and depression 
 of one inch from the zero-point, in both directions. If we consider that the 
 entire trachea, in a state of relaxation, is only about four inches long, this 
 enormous movability would be incomprehensible, but for the fact that besides 
 the trachea, both bronchi also permit a comparative extension; leaving 
 apart the influence, which nivean changes of the diaphragm, under certain 
 conditions, may have on the trachea. Considering further the great difference 
 in the length of the neck in different individuals, the big difference in the 
 play-space of the larynx becomes apparent, also the importance which the 
 length of neck in a person has for phonic abilities. In a long neck, the larynx 
 transcends its zero point farther than in a short neck. Now, since the up and 
 down motion of the larynx is a means of tone-graduation, an individual 
 with a long neck has, other things being equal, the facilities for greater tone- 
 graduation than a person with a short neck. . . . The phonic position 
 
ADDENDA 245 
 
 of the larynx follows the phonic width of the glottis, and the number of 
 vibrations of the intended tone; its height is in general, and with the same 
 register, in straight proportion to the height or to the number of vibrations 
 of the tone. . . . The aerie position of the larynx is determined, in the 
 first place, by the quantity and tension of the inspired air moving towards 
 the glottis. The deeper the inspiration for a scale requiring much air-tension, 
 the deeper the larynx drops, regardless as to whether the first tone to be 
 produced is a deep or high one. On the other hand, the more air, during 
 phonation, has been used up and the more the tension sinks, the more the 
 larynx rises, even if the number of vibrations of tone to be produced diminishes 
 in this respect; therefore the aerie standpoint is independent of the phonie. . . 
 The aerie position of the larynx seems in the first place to be determined by 
 the position of the diaphragm, which, at deep inspiration, also drops, and 
 at expiration rises. The aerie position must, if possible, be measured; 
 starting from the palatal vault, because the sternum is always considerably 
 lifted with this phenomenon, when the inspiration is a deep one. With the 
 gradually leaving air, it naturally drops back to its zero or point of indifference, 
 and sometimes beyond it. . . . Finally, the position of the larynx at 
 the neck is, regardless as to height or depth, more or less lax oi fixed; that is, 
 the larynx can be either easily or hardly moved laterally from the median 
 line of the neck. This grade of fixation of the _larynx stands in general in 
 straight proportion with the grade of the tension of the expirative air-column, 
 while it -is to a large extent, independent, from the position of the larynx. 
 However, in general, high fixation-grades coincide with a deep position of 
 the larynx, because every copious activity of the muscles of the neck requires 
 a large volume of intonation-air, at the taking in of which the larynx has 
 always a deep position. 
 
 Experiments with living organs of voice — Tones with closed mouth; 
 
 chest-tones. 
 
 If a deep tone, possibly near the phonic zero-point, is produced very 
 piano with closed mouth and the usual respiratory action, the following can 
 be noticed: 
 
 The larynx, in the first place (the Pomum Adami, which we shall 
 always take as index), receives at intonation a sudden small push (jerk) 
 upwards and a little forward, without changing, to any extent, its static 
 zero-point. Both wings of the thyroid cartilage appear a little drawn to 
 each other. During the sounding, the covering of the excisura thyroidea 
 becomes a little inflated and transmits to the touching finger the vibrations 
 of the striking air-columns. The hyoid retains its median position towards 
 the pomum; the latter advancing a little toward the former when tone is 
 sustained. The larynx remains relaxed. Such a tone as, for instance, "As," 
 which means, in English, A-flat, could not be sustained longer than 10 or 12 
 seconds. If from this tone, at an equal tension of air and a new (not deeper) 
 inspiration, a gradual ascension of one octave in about two seconds' time is 
 made, the pomum also gradually ascends (about from 2 to 3 lines) and at the 
 same time a little forward. . . . The elevation of the thyroid cartilage 
 and the whole larynx is effected by the musculus hyothyreoideus. . . . 
 
 Tones with mouth open— Chest-tones ; chest-register. 
 
 The mechanism at the production of a toiie with an open mouth, 
 shows various differences from that at the production with a closed mouth. 
 At a sharp, distinct intonation, the expiration is, for a moment, disrupted; 
 that is, the glottis is closed, followed immediately by the vibration of the 
 vocal cords. ■ This closure of the larynx is not an absolute necessity for pho- 
 nation, for this closure can not only be continued at liberty before the tone 
 
246 SUPPLEMENTS 
 
 follows, butthe glottis can also be closed without a tone following its reopening; 
 closing the larynx and stopping the breath are not one and the same thing. 
 The glottis may be closed several times during one and the same expiration, 
 while breathing ceases after a completed inspiration before one expires, 
 whereby one may at will close the glottis, or leave it open. The position of 
 the larynx, at and for this closure of the glottis, depends oh whether an in- 
 tonation is intended or not. If, with a moderately opened mouth, as an 
 experiment, the glottis is closed, the larynx, as a rule, moves a little upward. 
 If this is repeated several times during one breath, the larynx takes, for 
 every new closure of the glottis, a higher position than the preceding one. . . . 
 If, however, the glottis is closed earnestly for the purpose of producing a 
 real tone of a certain number of vibrations, the larynx is already previously 
 put in the neck-zone requisite for the intended height and column of the 
 tone, and in the movement of the closure of the glottis, the larynx receives 
 a little jerk upwards, and as soon as phonation starts forward, remains in 
 this position as long as no alterations in the mechanism occur. If the closure 
 of the glottis is quick and energetic, the tone must be, at least for the first 
 moments, also strong — this process being indicated, in music, by the sign 
 > over the respective note. 
 
 While for the production of a dark timbre, the larynx generally has 
 a deep position, its position for a light timbre is higher. For the deepest 
 chest-tone, the position of the larynx is a little below zero; then it rises with 
 the tone gradually, and reaches, with the highest chest-note, the jaw; making, 
 at the same time, a distinct 'lever motion.' The higher position of the larynx 
 corresponds with the phonic zero-point of the light timbre {timbre clair). 
 The latter lies about 4-5 grades above the dark timbre. For example, if 
 the phonic zero-point of the latter rests on H(B natural), this point of ths 
 light timbre rests about on F. Further, while the static zero-point of the 
 larynx rests on D {piano) with dark timbre, for light timbre it is on G. 
 
 Falsetto-Register 
 
 The volume and area of the falsetto is as large as of the chest-register, 
 reaching about d' to c^-f^; it lies about an octave above the chest-register. 
 Women have a deeper falsetto than men. Falsetto is the common sound 
 of speech in children. If we compare the path of the free, movable, non-fixed 
 larynx of the chest-register with the falsetto-register, we shall find that the 
 path of this organ with the falsetto is generally only half as long as with 
 the chest-voice, comprising exactly the upper half, lying above zero; that the 
 larynx in general, for the falsetto-tones, is less movable than for chest-tones; 
 that the height of the larynx position does not depend on the number of 
 vibrations, as the highest falsetto-tone (the amount of vibrations being 
 doubled) does not require a higher larynx-position than the highest chest- 
 tone; that the deepest falsetto, with regard to its mechanism as well as to 
 its larynx-position, agrees with the equivalent chest-tone, produced pianis- 
 simo; while from this point on the difference of both registers becomes notice- 
 able gradually and in rising progression, until after reaching the last or highest 
 amphoteric tone, the falsetto-register becomes individual and shows, from 
 this point on, its characteristics clearest. . . . 
 
 At the highest falsetto-tones, the lower pit of the throat is very deeply 
 contracted inwards, the trachea with the cricoid backwards; the slit becoming 
 very narrow; the pomum, however, is still a little projecting. At the highest 
 chest-tones, the lower pit of the throat is not very much deepened, but the 
 levator muscles are very much exerted; the outer compressor muscles only 
 in proportion to the fullness of tone. The more piano the tone, the higher 
 the position of the larynx, although the exertions of the muscles are the same 
 (equal). With interspersed deep tones, the larynx drops in very marked 
 steps, and rises directly for new high tones. . . . 
 
ADDENDA 247 
 
 Throat-Voice 
 
 Older scientists and teachers of singing declare the throat-voice {voce 
 di testa), and falsetto, to be one and the same. Later a distinction was made. 
 Some consider the throat-voice a vafiety of the chest-voice; others, as a 
 higher falsetto; still others think that the throat-tones are the highest chest- 
 tones, produced by a special muscle mechanism. The truth is that not all 
 singers possess this register. Merkel is of the opinion that throat-voice is 
 nothing else than a continuation of the chest-voice upwards, produced by a 
 niechanism, which seems to require only a little tension of the air-column, and 
 no special tension of the cords. The larynx is fixed in a median position in 
 the throat. The throat-voice serves to intone high chest-tones piano. Hereby 
 the larynx does not descend so deep as when the same tones are intoned 
 forte; the lateral throat muscles being somewhat contracted. 
 
 The throat-basso register is to be distinguished from the straw-basso; the 
 mechanism being a different one. The position of the larynx is a little higher 
 than with the straw-basso, but it stands not over zero from the sternum. 
 With regard to the cavity of the mouth, it is higher than to be expected at 
 this degree of the scale. Only at a fine disposition of the larynx is this register 
 pleasant and may be used in chorus singing. In general all theories referring 
 to this register are unclear. 
 
 Straw-basso Register 
 
 The principal elements of this register are the following: The larynx 
 takes a position-in the throat higher than that which is required to produce 
 the same tone with the chest mechanism. Generally the position is a medium 
 one around the static zero-point. The downward motion of the larynx at 
 deepening of these tones, is by far not so remarkable as, other things being 
 equal, with the chest-register. With the straw-basso the descent of the 
 larynx seems not to be a means for deepening the tone; it even happens 
 that the larynx may somewhat rise when such deep tone is forced. The 
 muscular action is, in general, less with the straw-basso than at the pro- 
 duction of the next highest chest-tones (deepest basso tones). The hyoid is, 
 the deeper the tone, the closer drawn to the thyroid cartilage, while the levator 
 muscles, especially the geio-hyoids, seem not to be specially contracted. 
 In general, the throat shows very little deviation from the state of indiffer- 
 ence. The glottis narrows down, the more so the deeper the tone. The 
 production of tone ceases when the glottis is so narrow as to exclude breathing;. 
 the deeper the tone, the emptier and more reduced it becomes. . . . For the 
 intonation of the straw-basso requires very little air; a straw-basso can be 
 sustained ad libitum without renewed inspiration. In this regard the straw- 
 basso has some similarity with the falsetto-register. The highest falsettos 
 are as thin and small as the deepest straw-basso tones. 
 
 The Ontogenetic Development of the Voice 
 
 By Dr. Ernst Barth (Einfuhrung in die Physiol., Pathol, u. Hyg. der 
 menschlichen Stimme. 1912). 
 
 The Voice of the Infant. The voice of the new-born infant is not an 
 expression of physical mood (as claimed by the old schools and philosophers), 
 but purely a respiratory reflex. If respiration, which starts with the entry 
 into life, can develop without the cry, the latter (the cry — that is, the expiration 
 overcoming the closed glottis) will cause a more effective inflation of the 
 lungs, than if the expiratory air escapes without the resistance of the sounding 
 glottis. The cry of the new-born has, therefore, not the character of an 
 emotional expression, but is the physiological expedient which inflates the air- 
 passages of the lungs, and facilitates expiration. . . . Up to the fifth week, 
 
248 SUPPLEMENTS 
 
 the cry of the newly-born remains a reflectory modification of respiration, 
 which has nothing to do with emotion. From this time on, the cry may be 
 expressive of discomfort; but also a sense of pleasure — the babbling. At first 
 the. babbling is also a "cry," but it is more a singing cry in which the softer 
 vowel-sounds predominate. At the age of seven or eight weeks, it can be 
 clearly and with regularity observed that soft vowel-intonation expresses 
 pleasure; while the hard intonation may be considered as expressive of 
 displeasure. 
 
 The Development oj Speech appears independent of the development of 
 voice. The originally accidental expressions of pleasure, in the babbling, are 
 now voluntarily reproduced, as their hearing and repetition sustain the feeling 
 of pleasure. With the voluntary babbling, imitations of acoustic impressions 
 become associated — the imitation of its own babbling as well as of other 
 sounds. With the hard and reproduced vocal sound, conceptions become 
 associated: mama — papa (the first articulated syllables) become the expres- 
 sions for mother and father. The articulated vocal sounds become acoustic 
 signs for a person, an object, or, in short, the sum of associations, forming 
 at the conception of this person or object. Voice becomes speech! 
 
 The Break or Change of Voice at Puberty (Mutation). With the general 
 bodily development of an individual corresponds the development of the 
 voice. But in children it is followed by ■■< phase of development (puberty) 
 which means more than simple growth. The change into puberty carries 
 along the "break" of voice — mutation. It begins in boys with the 14th 
 or ISth year. This functional change of the voice is accompanied by certain 
 anatomical changes in the larynx. The vocal cords show an extraordinary 
 growth in length, breadth, and thickness, which explains the changes in the 
 column as well as in the "color" of the voice. This growth causes increased 
 blood-supply, a certain physiological inflammation, which makes a special 
 care of the organ necessary. 
 
 The vocal cords increase by about one-half in size. At the same time 
 an increased growth of the larnygeal cartilage tajces place. In the thirteenth 
 year of age, the average height of the angle of the thryoid cartilage is 12 to 
 13 millimetres. After mutation, it is about 20 millimetres. The lateral 
 wings of the cartilage have a horizontal breadth, at thirteen years, of 25 mm.; 
 after mutation, about 35 mm. All other laryngeal cartilages show corre- 
 sponding increased growth, and the Pomum Adami appears. On account of 
 this increased growth in the structural dimensions of the larynx, the mus- 
 culature is not yet quite strong enough for all the strain required. The vocal 
 muscles give out at the production of chest-tones, and the voice "jumps" 
 into falsetto. . . . While the increased growth of the larynx is completed 
 in six to twelve months, the development of the muscles requires much more 
 time, and therefore, professional singing should not commence much before 
 three or four years after the completion of the mutation. Hemorrhages, 
 atrophy, dilation of the joints, may cause a complete wreckage of the fine 
 mechanism of the larynx and the voice. 
 
 In girls, the change of voice occurs earlier and quicker, but in a much 
 less remarkable degree as regards the larynx, which grows only somewhat 
 in the vertical diameter, while the fore-and-back and the right-to-left dia- 
 meters hardly increase at all. From an accurate study of the measurements 
 of the cords in girls and boys, the general conclusion is drawn, that after 
 puberty the ratio is 2 for girls, 3 for boys. It is not true that a soprano in 
 a boy necessarily yields a basso or baritone, after puberty; and an alto a tenor. 
 
 The Voice of the Grown Person. After puberty, different changes take 
 place in woman, up to the 30th year, and in men up to the 36th to 38th year 
 (in power, volume, color, beauty). Peculiarities of voice and similarity of 
 color are hereditary to a certain extent. 
 
 Although every voice has its individual character, musical art has 
 fixed, for both sexes, three categories of voice, with reference to volume 
 and color: low, middle and high. (In man, basso, baritone, tenor. In woman, 
 alto, mezzo-soprano, soprano.) .... 
 
ADDENDA 249 
 
 The average range of a mature human voice is about two octaves, in 
 both sexes. Generally, the female voice is one octave higher than the male. 
 Consequently, the "orchestra" of the human voice is four octaves. There are 
 exceptions: The D of the basso (in oratorios and Mozart operas) has 74.25 
 vibrations; the P (Zauberflbte) has 1408 vibrations. These are extremes, as 
 are the deepest faultless tones observed, namely, FF, contra-octave (44 vi- 
 brations) in the basso, Fischer (eighteenth century), and, as the highest, 
 the d^ (1183 vibrations) of Lucrezia Ajugari (1770), confirmed by Mozart. 
 
 The covering of tone, as disclosed in an x-ray picture 
 
 Dr. ,R. SchiUing, (in the "Archiv. f. Exper. u. Klin. Phonetik," Bd. 
 I. H. 2) says: 
 
 Manuel Garcia detected certain differences in the timbre, or clang, of 
 the voice, resulting from a certain position of the epiglottis, producing what 
 is termed "covering" — the tone is veiled, suppressed, with the lifted epi- 
 glottis; while, when the epiglottis is lowered, the tone is brilliant. 
 
 In Dr. Schilling's work, "The Mechanism of Covering The Tone" 
 (1911), he claims to have proved that the theory of the lowering of the epi- 
 glottis, in producing the "covering" effect, is not correct. He experimented 
 with five vocal artists. He found that, with the vowels Ah and Aw, there 
 was always a lifting of the epiglottis in all registers, especially centrally. 
 With the other vowels, results were not clear. He affirms that "covering" 
 has to be considered from an esthetic and pedagogic standpoint. The un- 
 covered tones of an 'untrained, or hardly trained, voice, upwards from a 
 certain point, will show a flatj vulgar clang, lacking in noble quality. . . . 
 
 There is in existence a detailed description, by Gutzmann, of clang, which 
 shows that, with covered tones, certain constant differences exist in the 
 amplitude relationship of the partial tones; relative strength of the funda- 
 mental tone with the covered tone; of the partial tone with uncovered tones. 
 Also, further results show the relation of the covering to vocality; beginning 
 with a certain tone, most vowels retain their vocality when the tone is covered. 
 Furthermore, the arytenoid cartilages are, at the transition from open to 
 covered tonality, lifted backwards, and therefore appear narrowed and the 
 longitudinal extent of the vocal cords enlarged. The false cords, with covered 
 tonality, move somewhat outwards, so that the true cords appear, with the 
 open tone, somewhat narrower than with the covered. The laryngoscope 
 and endoscope yielded incomplete and unsatisfactory results; therefore x-ray 
 pictures (instantaneous pictures of 1-100 seconds duration) focus plate at a 
 distance of 60 centimetres, plate kept parallel to median plane of head close 
 to it — head not fixed — were tried. {Note. "Closed" and "open" refer to the 
 vocal character of two different vowels; while "covered" and "uncovered" 
 refer to the clang or color differences of one and the same vowel, which can 
 be produced with closed as well as open vowels.) 
 
 The skiagrams (x-ray pictures) secured by Schilling, show decided 
 alterations in the laryngeal s.pace (that is, the full space from the glottis 
 upward to the pharyngo-oral space);' and it is divided into two apartments: 
 An anterior, between the epiglottis and the area in front of it; a posterior, 
 measured by the distance from the epiglottis and the posterior wall of the 
 pharynx. This entire space, so difficult of laryngoscopic examination, has 
 been made a special study by Barth, Grunmach and Scheier; and it was 
 found that this space changes according to register, pitch and strength of 
 tone, and according to the vowels. In all cases they found the space was 
 smallest with A(Ah) and largest with the EngHsh EE. With the vowel 
 A(Ah) the laryngeal space was enlarged at the covered tonality, and the 
 epiglottis erect. The border line of the base of the tongue forms, at covering, 
 a more bent curve. It bends especially at the root of the tongue, into the 
 glosso-epiglottidean space. The larynx in general stands deeper with covered 
 
250 SUPPLEMENTS 
 
 tonality. In this lowering, of course, the hyoid bone moves, downward and a 
 little forward. The vertical distance of the hyoid-body from the hard palate, 
 in three cases examined, was about one centimetre larger than with the 
 uncovered tone. The line of the floor of the mouth, at covering, is always 
 a little lowered. . . . The soft palate is lifted higher at covered than at 
 uncovered tonality, its border stretching more upward into naso-pharynx. . . . 
 Referring to other vowels, it is noted that, as a matter of fact, the laryngeal 
 space is wider, proportionately, than with Ah. Therefore, the difference in 
 width of this space wUl, with these other vowels, be actually smaller. . . . 
 The descent of the larynx is expressed most strongly with Ah and Aw; less 
 with the other vowels; and not at all with (German umlaut). The soft 
 palate, where recognized in the pictures, is, at covering, clearly elevated. . . . 
 In the maxillary opening in general not much difference was found. With 
 closed EE, and 00 (U) it was at covering a little wider. . . . The opening 
 of the lips (measured in its vertical diameter) is always somewhat smaller 
 with covered tonality; the lips being (in the horizontal diameter) more pro- 
 truded. . . . The difference, compared with uncovered tonality, is especially 
 clear with the closed EE (German IE). Therefore he avers, that with "the 
 vowels with an eo ipso wider laryngeal space and erect epiglottis, the alteration 
 in the laryngeal space, at covering, is comparatively small. Nevertheless, 
 the author believes that the dilatation of the laryngeal space is characteristic 
 of the coYering position, as it appears strongest with those vowels which 
 possess, with respect to clang, the strongest covering differences. ... In the 
 covering adjustment, in the region of the laryngeal space, three principal 
 alterations participate: (a) descent of the larynx, (b) erection of the epi- 
 glottis, and (c) enlarging of the glosso-epiglottidean space. In general the 
 laryngeal space is dilated both in a vertical and horizontal direction. . . . 
 With the hyoid, the thyroid cartilage moves downwards, but not always to 
 the same extent. . . . It is of importance to ascertain whether the motions 
 of the epiglottis (at covering) are purely passive, caused by the displacement 
 of the neighboring organs, or whether they are active. Earth says the epi- 
 glottis is erected passively by the removal of the thyroid from the hyoid, 
 and the ensuing tension of the thyreo-epiglottic' ligaments and the hyo- 
 thyroideus, when other tensile forces are not influencing it. . . . Eijkman 
 says: The inclination of the epiglottis is influenced by the distance between 
 hyoid and thryoid. That is, if they are wide apart, the epiglottis is straight, 
 erect; if approaching, it inclines. . . . The phenomena at covering, as revealed 
 by the skiagrams, are based on a sum of single coordinate motions partly 
 produced by nature, partly by the practice of the singer, and then combined 
 by him for his purposes to a general coordination. The covered tone is 
 darker. . . with simple tones, the higher is always brighter. . . . Liebermann 
 says: The hypothesis is, that the "brightness" (Helligkeit) .of the clang is 
 determined by the brightness of the partial tones in such a way that each 
 partial tone contributes, in accordance with its intensity, to the total brightness. 
 From this it follows that the covered tone must sound darker than the un- 
 uncovered. Now, just as each partial tone of the clang has its brightness, 
 it has also its vocality, and the "vocality of the total clang is again determined 
 by the ^arhW intensity; this explains why a clang changes, with an alteration 
 in structure, its vocality also." Pielke contends that, in the high pitches of 
 the voice, most vowels can be produced correctly with covered tonality. 
 If a scale is sung upwards uncovered, -then, he says, every vowel is subject 
 (from a certain limit on) to alterations. Schilling's experiments (with the 
 x-ray) gave different results; so that he affirms Pielke's contention would 
 be changed to: The vocal character is easier to retain with covered tonality, 
 than with uncovered. 
 
 Electro-magnetic tone-treatment as cure for the Voice 
 
 Professor Flatau, Berlin ("Die Stimme"), describes a method of "treat- 
 ing" the voice by electro-magnetic tone-treatment. In the Berlin Klin. 
 
ADDENDA 251 
 
 Woch., No. 27, this method is described in detail. He claims to have pro- 
 duced excellent results in the treatment of functional disturbances. . . . 
 
 "Phonic compensations, perceivable disturbances of intonation can 
 be made to disappear by certain influences. . . . The most important 
 compensation appearances are those which are produced by some motions 
 (actions) of the patient — e. g., change in form of respiration. . . . Experience 
 has shown that the application (mechanical or electric) is best at the ratio 
 of 1:2 to the vibration number of the intended tone." 
 
 Professor Flatau gives a very detailed description of the machine he 
 has invented, with illustrations, claiming that by it he has solved the problem 
 of treatment, which in the first ^lace has to find external, mechanical means 
 for every heard tone, which would yield, easily and quickly, the compensating 
 action; and the mechanism of which would correspond exactly, in the number 
 of strokes, with the number of vibrations of the tone, or would at least stand 
 to it in octave-proportion. . . . Flatau claims to produce astonishing 
 results with this treatment — especially in serious cases of phonasthenia (voice- 
 fatigue). One of the features of the treatment is the promptness of results. 
 Flatau has also invented a new "laryngo-stroboscope," which he finds very 
 effective and much in demand. By it mirror-laryngoscopy and endoscopy 
 supplement and correct each other. It easily reveals the larynx in phonation. 
 
 "Loss of Correct Tone-Conception, in the Vocally Diseased." By 
 A. Schmitz (Teacher of Singing), Berlin ("Die Stimme," 7). 
 
 This author gives his observations from the standpoint of a voice- 
 builder. He has found that the most important symptom of the weakening 
 voice is the gradual extinction and final disappearance of feeling for normal 
 tone-attack, and adjustment of the vocal organs for tone-production. Only 
 in especially favorable hours will the sufferer be able, led by hazy remembrance, 
 to innervate a correct tone-placing; but this soon disappears again. In most 
 cases correct tone-placing is almost lost, especially in cases of wrong breathing. 
 These are the cases referred to by laymen as "loss of voice." . . . This, 
 to his mind, is the point where the art of the teacher is at an end, and where 
 the vocal physician must be consulted. (Vocal Art-Science, by forming 
 correct habits of all the autonomies of voice-production, prevents much 
 that otherwise interferes with functional integrity and maintenance of en- 
 during, artistic vocalization. There should be, in the singer who properly 
 controls all the autonomies, only that sense of "comfortable fatigue" which 
 physiologically follows normal physical effort, directed and controlled by 
 the correctly trained-mentality of the individual, to perform certain activities.) 
 
 "The Souljn Tone of the Human Voice." By.Wm. Howard. 
 
 To the question, among scientists and amateurs, whether the tone of 
 the human voice is preferable to the tone of mechanical instruments (es- 
 pecially stringed instruments), the frank reply is "No." If there was no text 
 to be sung, there would be no "song-reproductions." That which is called 
 the principal advantage of the human voice, is not present in the singing of 
 our artists. . . . The fact that the organ of voice is a fart of the human 
 organism, makes a direct transfer of the soul-vibrations of the artist to the 
 tone possible. ... If the soul is not expressed any more in singing, the 
 voice loses this advantage. This author says, "The vibrato (a subtle trembling 
 motion) has been killed by too much so-called artistic treatment of the voice. 
 We must go back again to nature and start anew." 
 
 More schooling iox feeling is necessary. 
 
 "Vibration of the Cranium, during Singing." By Dr. C. Zimmermann, 
 Mvinchen. A contribution to the doctrine of the objective resonance-symptoms. 
 
 There exists no objective method or means to determine the resonance 
 symptoms, with regard to voice-formation. All existing devices are faulty, 
 and we have to adhere to the subjective method of palpation and by the 
 
2S2 SUPPLEMENTS 
 
 phonendoscope: the hair serving as a medium of transmission. — Hopmann 
 (Pedag. Monatschr. f. d. ges. Sprachheilkunde, 1909) has made detailed 
 research with a craniometer by Kocher. . . . For the present researches, 
 which refer to the sounding of consonants and vowels under different con- 
 ditions, especially with regard to the pitch, a very thin satin cap was used, 
 covering the entire cranium. This cap was divided up into fields where the 
 two vertical seams serve as starting-points. The resulting segments were 
 subdivided by vertical lines, meeting at the seams of the cap, etc. It was 
 ascertained that the cap does not decrease the vibrations. But it is clear 
 that this method is also uncertain, requiring many control sessions;' the 
 principal difficulty being to place' and hold the tone in the same strength. 
 But practice overcomes this. All trials were made with middle strength of 
 voice, with proper adjustment for tone-production, prior to utterance of 
 voice, and correct utilization of all resonance chambers. . . With vowels, 
 Hopmann's results were confirmed. Without doubt, A(Ah) yields the 
 weakest vibrations, and therefore the most restricted region. EE (German 
 IE) are strongest (colored against O); and in the middle ground lies U (00) 
 which leans toward the EE. ... A well-trained soprano gave vibrations 
 of A, only in an indicative way. With the other vowels, also, at exactly 
 the same vocal strength, a considerable diminution was noted, as compared 
 with the male voice. ... In all cases, a more or less broad zone was 
 found in the occipital region, nearly or entirely free from vibration; pass- 
 ing over into the region of vibrations, coming from the neck. If A and O 
 were intoned nasally (that is, with a loosened velum palati) an enlarging of 
 the region of vibration took place, which, however (if the vowels under 
 comparison were previously intoned properly — that is, not light and flat), 
 was not considerable. . . All consonants yield a strong 'vibration; the 
 
 strongest and clearest being M; N being a little weaker; then follows the 
 labio-dental W, and last, the lingual, L. The palatal, R, showed further 
 diminution with decreasing vibration-region; which, however, does not move 
 backwards. The consonants were, at middle strength of voice, intoned at 
 the same pitch as the vowels. . . . When tabulating results, it should not 
 be forgotten that many excellently schooled singers are unable to produce 
 correctly sounded consonants, and others, with great difficulties and after 
 long practice, with correct direction of air-column. This refers not only 
 to the consonants M and N (much used for exercises in adjusting the vocal 
 organs for tone-production), but in a higher degree for the other consonants — 
 especially W and R. . . . With the crescendo, a gradual increase of vibra- 
 tion was noted, with a corresponding expanse of the vibration-region. But 
 the extension of the palpable vibration-region reaches a maximal limit, 
 defined for every vowel and every individual. Beyond this limit, the vibration- 
 region does not extend, even at the strongest crescendo of the voice. . . . 
 Insofar as the increase of vibration does not quite conform to the increase 
 in intensity of tone (as with respective vowels), a slight piano will produce 
 an appreciable, comparatively strong, vibration. . . . One is somewhat 
 surprised that the vibration of the roof of the cranium (especially with the 
 vowels Ay and EE) decreases when the tone is pressed (sforzando) only sHghtly, 
 which is proof that tonality alone is not the determining factor as to the degree 
 of vibration. . . . In this respect the results of the »oca/rfgjri^rj are of interest. 
 — Basso: Within the chest-register no special differences could be found. 
 . That is, the vibration-zone is the same for all tones within the chest-- 
 register, irrespective of the vowels intoned. But from the chest to the middle 
 register, a gradually weakening of the vibration was clearly perceivable. Within 
 down of the vibration-region, with corresponding decrease in intensity, which 
 the middle register proper, this appears in the form of concentric narrowing 
 becomes more and more clear with the increase in pitch. This is the more 
 remarkable if we contrast the fact that, according to general opinion, the 
 hitting point of the sound-waves at the palate moves, with increase of pitch, 
 more and more backwards. But, if the objective resonance-perceptions (as 
 far as they are represented in the cranial vibrations) are considered as an 
 
ADDENDA 253 
 
 expression of tone-placing, a general movement backwards of the entire 
 vibration-region should be expected. The opposite is shown to be actually 
 the case. Concerning the falsetto, in the lower portion of it (especially with 
 EE and 00[U]) clear, if weak, vibrations could still be detected. With Ah, 
 in many cases, nothing could be felt. With the head-tones (with all vowels) 
 all vibrations disappear completely. The same was recorded of the so-called 
 "straw-basso" register; the vibrations disappear with the deepest tones. 
 It is wrong, therefore, to say that the name "head-voice" has its origin properly 
 in the fact that the resonance-symptoms appear most clearly in the head. It is 
 much more the tone-region called the chest-register, in which, objectively, head- 
 resonance appears most clearly. 
 
 "The Functions of the Vocal Apparatus, Influenced by Training." By A. 
 Ritter (Stimme, Vol. V). Note. This article seems to have been written 
 more for the advanced than the amateur singer. — He says: "The ear is the 
 receptacle for tones sung to the pupil. The correctly-sung tone is, so to say, 
 the impetus for a successful innervation for the rendering of the desired tone." 
 Further, "The greatest successes in the field of vocal training have so far 
 been achieved by the method of imitation, and far less by methods based on 
 gradual progress after methodical principles." . . . (Vocal Art-Science 
 supplies standard principles whereby the pupil may receive, by physical and 
 psychical training, the fullest development of his individuality as an artist, 
 regardless of the accidental excellence of his teacher as a singer, whose vocal 
 execution alone may serve as the living model for imitation.) 
 
 "Cardinal Mistakes in Training the Voice." By Fr. Wohlbeer. — This 
 author is a singing-teacher, and, after rehashing all sorts of psychological 
 and other doctrines, finds that the cardinal mistake usually made by teachers 
 is that children are taught only tone "intuition" (Ton-Anschauung), and 
 not tone-conception (Ton-Vorstellung), by association of tone and tone- 
 names; so that the object, as soon as it enters the region of the organs of 
 sense, reproduces immediately the "name" — and vice versa. He thinks that 
 singing in the public schools is better taught in England than in Germany, 
 and mentions Dr. J. HuUah. 
 
 "Visible Tone Vibrations" (Die Stimme, Vol. 3). By F. Wethlo, 
 Berlin. — He has invented an apparatus for ascertaining what overtones a 
 sung tone has. The apparatus is quite complicated, and it is affirmed that 
 twenty or more overtones can be estimated with it. The apparatus of Mar- 
 tens and Struyken are probably more accurate in the work for whiJh they" 
 are designed. 
 
 "The Obliquely Pulled Uvula." By Jos. Gerhartz (Die Stimme, Vol. 
 6). — This author offers the results of his own practical observations. He 
 has often found singers who, when at rest, show the uvula bent sideways. 
 His conclusion is that this state is the result of over-exertion in singing. 
 He also observed that singers so afflicted were unable to drop the jaw easily; 
 they opened the mouth diagonally, and in such a manner as to indicate some 
 coordinate cause for both defects. They feel as though they sang on one side. 
 Training to overcome the rigor of the jaw (according to the Flatau-Imhofen 
 method) also effected a change in the position of the uvula. Singers who 
 sing with "forced tone" have mostly d. diagonally distorted mouth. 
 Naturally, such a deformity injures the clang, and may even ruin the voice. 
 
 "Voluntary Production of a Double-Tone, in Musical Intervals, in a 
 Singer." Professor Th. Flatau (Stimme, Vol. V) records a. singer able to 
 perform this unique physiological feat. Laryngoscopic examination shows 
 no alterations; the ordinary voice has no peculiarities; but the double-voices 
 have a peculiar timbre, resembling reed-instruments, when these two tones 
 are produced. Observation showed at the production, an adjustment of the 
 larynx, depending on a peculiar configuration of the nasal and oral cavities. 
 With an almost closed mouth the posterior portion of the lingual musculature 
 is lifted, vaulted forward, while at the same time the velum palati and palatal 
 
254 SUPPLEMENTS 
 
 arches approach closely. Further observation showed that the faculty of 
 production of these tones disappeared with laryngoscopic and endoscopic 
 examination, and, in fact, always when the connection between velum and 
 tongue was interrupted. Stroboscopic examination was impossible. Roent- 
 gen (x-ray) pictures revealed nothing new. Theoretically it must be 
 remembered that tones can be produced at specially separated points. The 
 possibility of the widest separation between the larynx and the upper cavities 
 (nasal and oral) takes place when, in addition to the laryngeal tone, a labial 
 tone is emitted (whistling). The possibility of a simultaneous whistling and 
 singing, in a perfectly polyphonic form (separate melodies) from a contra- 
 puntal viewpoint, may surprise, but it is a fact. It remains for us to discover 
 whether a laryngeal tone, in the narrow pass between tongue and velum, is 
 possible. Further examination and observation eliminated the possibility, 
 also, that the epiglottis and the posterior wall could form a narrow sounding 
 passage; also the possibility of a "phoning" action of the false glottis. The 
 explanation of the tones can come only from the tones themselves. They are 
 not in thirds, fourths or fifths; but in most of the melodies rendered, the 
 deeper tones referred to are those below the octave and the upper fifth. 
 The double-tone has regularly the volume of a twelfth; but there are other 
 peculiarities. The upper tones correspond in respiration, clang, adjustment 
 in the cavities (nasal and oral), with so-called ventriloquist tones (described 
 by the author in 1896). They are absolutely different, in clang, from the 
 isolated voice of the patient. We shall have to accept, therefore, that although 
 both successions of tones are produced at the vocal lips, the principal places 
 of vibration are separated in space. 
 
 "The Registers of the Human Voice and Some Results of Experimental 
 Investigation, Regarding the So-Called 'Covered' Singing of the Vowels." 
 By W. Pielke, Berlin (Stimme, Vol. V.) . . . "In antiquity the human 
 vocal organ was considered to be a flute-like instrument, the deep and high 
 tones of which were formed by lengthening and shortening the organ (in- 
 cluding the trachea); or by expansion and contraction of the laryngeal area. 
 This doctrine was in vogue from the time of Aristotle up to about 1740, 
 when Ferrein demonstrated the fallacy of this acceptation of the facts in 
 the case, by dissection of the larynx of a dog. He was the first to note the 
 vocal cords and their importance in phonation. Then came Eduard Weber, 
 in 1829, and Garcia in 18S4, with their epoch-making discoveries. 
 
 Upon the way in which the two vocal lips (cords), more or less stretched 
 by crico-thyroid muscles, resist and act upon the air-column, pressing against 
 th&m, 'depends what we call the register of the voice. By objective methods, 
 so far studied physiologically (only the chest-voice and falsetto being con- 
 sidered), it has been shown, that with the chest-voice the activity of the 
 contractor muscles predominates; and especially the so-called vocal muscle 
 with the falsetto in tenors. . . . The latest results are: For the chest- 
 voice, rounded vocal lip-edge; pressing the entire voice-body towards the 
 median line, through strong contraction of the thyro-arytenoid muscle, in 
 its entire course; a receding of the action of the tensor; therefore, on clear 
 approach of the thyroid- to the cricoid-cartilage at higher pitch. No conspicu- 
 ous elongation, but a widening of the vocal cords. Complete closure of the 
 glottis, alternating with an opening of from one to one and a half millimetres; 
 so that, at closure, the vocal cords flatten against each other, thus effecting 
 a complete separation of the respiratory column, passing the glottis; high 
 pressure below the glottis, vibrating the entire surface and body of the 
 vocal cords (length and width); vibration more a striking of the two vocal 
 lips against each other. 
 
 Falsetto: — No complete closure of the glottis, but only 4 contraction 
 and dilation, and therefore no complete separation of the passing air-column. 
 Small pressure below the glottis; the vibrations. occur at the edge only, the 
 outer parts of the cords remaining at rest, as well as the surface. Edges of 
 the cords pointed; especial contraction of the vocal tensors, with small con- 
 
ADDENDA 255 
 
 traction of the vocal muscle. In consequence of the strong action of the 
 tensor, clear approach of the cricoid and thyroid cartilages, with higher 
 pitch: elongation of the entire larynx-picture, from front backwards. The 
 greatest range of the chest-voice is C — ^c^. D is artistically acknowledged as 
 the deepest tone in opera. . _. . While the esthetic difference between the 
 chest-tone and falsetto tone is great, the physical process is analogous in 
 both._ The adjustment of the vocal cords is, in principle, the same; it differs 
 only in grade. In woman, the internal vocal muscle is more active than in 
 man. . . . The so-called head-voice is, by physiologists, included in the 
 falsetto; but not in practice. ... Of especial importance for artistic singing 
 is a point, known to singers, but still unexplained by physiological research. 
 It is the so-called voice-break in the middle and upper parts of the chest- 
 voice, and its compensation by so-called "covering" (Deckung). 
 
 New Discoveries Regarding the Human Voice 
 
 By Dr. O. RUTZ, Munich, 1907 
 
 Not the muscles of the face (the movements of which have to do with 
 mimics and physiognomies) are under consideration in Dr. Rutz's work; 
 but the movements of muscles so far entirely neglected in this connection. 
 They are the muscles of the trunk, which he considers as producers of 
 emotional qualities; emotional degrees of warmth and strength; relation 
 between temperament and action, etc. It is not a question of quick, changing 
 motions of muscles — -expressions of sorrow, exaltation, etc., produced by the 
 facial muscles; but of the adjustment of body-muscles which "may last 
 sometimes for life." Where there is motion, says Rutz, there is form (shape); 
 the motion of the body-muscles giving the human body an important and 
 significant form. To persons of different emotional qualities, this muscle- 
 motion will give different corporal shapes. Also, to continue in this line, 
 differing forms of body cause the voice to sound differently, showing degrees 
 in warmth, strength — revealing different clang-qualities and clang-pecu- 
 liarities, the explanation of which, so far, has never been satisfactory, and 
 which have been crowded into one category under the conception of "clang- 
 color" (Klangfarbe). 
 
 He holds that each and every emotional quality has its special expression 
 in the body-muscles; its special "expression-tonality" or phonetic clang, and 
 that no other expression-motion (of the muscles) or tonality exists for it. 
 Music, expressing emotion, must be sung in accordance with the same natural 
 laws of tonality, and with the same adjustment of the body-muscles, which 
 express the peculiarity of the emotions manifested in music. If this is neg- 
 lected — this natural law — -the artistic effect diminishes; all sorts of faults 
 appear, and the voice suffers in various degrees from slight deterioration to 
 its total loss. . . . He finds that, in musical and rhetorical art, the voluntary 
 and conscious control of this expression-position and tonality must be realized 
 by the artist; its involuntary and unconscious use being found among the 
 foremost singers and orators. But — one and the same person may, volun- 
 tarily and consciously, in addition to the body-motion and expression-tonality 
 of its own temperament, ada.pt foreign temperamental and emotional qualities, 
 and thus be enabled to fulfil the principal conditions for the best reproduction 
 (recital) of musical and rhetorical works. . . . He further affirms that the 
 old doctrine that the parts of the human tone-organ above the larynx produce 
 clang-color is untenable. "The parts below, the muscles of the trunk, give 
 softness, color, etc., to the voice. As the vowels are produced by" different 
 adjustments of the resonance-chambers of the upper vocal regions (Ansatz- 
 rohr), so the general clang-qualities of the voice result from different muscular 
 adjustments of the body, below. As in the matter of the general clang- 
 qualities of the voice, the doctrine of the general emotional qualities (warmth, 
 power, etc.) and of the temperament, require revision." . . . The new 
 doctrine can also be used as an instrumeiit for ctiticism. I makes it pos- 
 sible, according to a given case, to ascertain the author (from its rendition) 
 
256 . SUPPLEMENTS 
 
 of a musical or rhetorical work. The expression of the general emotion- 
 qualities of the temperament may be "read" from the peculiar diction of 
 the tone-lines — the melody — the "emotion-style." Thus, he claims, it is 
 possible to, discover the name of an Unknown author from the way his 
 music is interpreted, in accordance with the law of "expression-tonality and 
 expression-position" peculiar to the composer. . . . The new doctrine 
 begins with the individual person, and extends to nationalities (folk-songs) 
 requiring the same expression-tonality, body-position, etc. Furthermore, he 
 says: "The absolute necessity for reform in the production (rendering) of 
 tone- and word-poetry through the voice, is evidenced by the new doctrine. 
 It shows that even the most eminent singers are below the standard, and 
 are wrong. This reform can be accomplished only along the lines of the 
 new doctrine. This reform must, moreover, extend to the improvement 
 and elevation of taste of the public." . . . The relations of the muscle- 
 motions of the face and emotion, have always been a matter of research — 
 (how to ex-press emotions without feeling them). The essence of this relation 
 is that every emotion has a decidedly certain expression-motion, which any 
 person may adopt knowingly. . . . This peculiarity should always be 
 borne in mind, as it is necessary for the comprehension of the whole doctrine. 
 If an emotion is designated as "sorrow," it does not give expression to its 
 whole character. "Sorrow" is a name, expressing only one of the quaUties — 
 but says nothing of its warmth, strength, depth, movability, etc. Therefore, we 
 shall call the first the name-giving, and the second the general quality. Both 
 qualities possess muscle-motions: the first ones, face-muscle-motions; the 
 second, body-muscle-motions. . . . Every poem (sung or spoken) expresses 
 'the emotional life of the poet. The peculiarity of his emotion finds expres- 
 sion in a peculiar succession of words or tones. It is, in the emotional style' 
 of his works, in opposition to their artistic style. 'This style of the works, 
 conditioned by the warmth, strength, etc., of the expressed emotions, demands 
 from the voice different requirements, technically, for the accomplishment 
 of which always, only one mode of use of the vocal organ is fit. It is the whole 
 tone-organ influencing body-muscle-adjustment, which belongs to the general 
 emotion-qualities expressed in his work. 
 
 NOTE. — Throughout this work, "New Discoveries Regarding the 
 Human Voice," by Dr. O. Rutz, 1907, detailed and specific exercises are 
 given in order to carry out, in a practical manner, the new doctrine — a brief 
 exposition of which has here been submitted. 
 
 New Means of Demonstrating the Characteristics of 
 the Vocal Quality of the Overtones 
 
 By H. J. MOSER, Berlin 
 
 (Arch. f. Experimentelle u. Klinische Phonetik. 1914-15.) 
 
 The author has succeeded in discovering an acoustic phenomenon 
 whereby it is possible to demonstrate in an effective manner, to the pupil, 
 the vowel-forming quality of the overtones; and also a way of utilizing it 
 in the psychological and physical aspect of tone-production, while under 
 training. The method requires no apparatus. The author started with the 
 fact that the neutral vowel (or, better, the vocal lip- tone, not yet characterized 
 as a vowel — the wave-shape of which approaches pretty close to a full sine- 
 curve) receives, at its entrance into the oral and nasal cavity-system, through 
 the admixture of overtones, that clang-character of the human voice frequently 
 designated "primary" vowel. This is finally to be moulded into an especial 
 vocal clang by the fact that the oral cavity assumes, through certain adjust- 
 ments (especially of tongue and lips), the size which corresponds respectively 
 to each individual tone with its own resonance. Just as each individual 
 
ADDENDA 257 
 
 tone corresponds with the absolute pitch of one of the overtones contained 
 in the sung tone, ,it increases, as resonator, this overtone to such an extent 
 that it becomes a vocally characteristic clang common to both (Beiklang). 
 
 If such a vowel is formed at medium tone-height and tone-strength, 
 under that adjustment of the oral and nasal cavities (Ansatzrohr) which is 
 best for utilization of the resonance of the oral cavities, and which is the 
 final goal in tone-formation of all artistic singers, every person more or less 
 able to analyze clang-complexes by mere estimate, will be able clearly to 
 distinguish the overtone determining the peculiarity of the respective vowel- 
 clang from the total clang, if not for all vowels, certainly for some — especially 
 the closed vowels. . . . With some practice, it is possible to produce these 
 phenomena voluntarily. 
 
 Tartini, as early as 1754, recommended the employment of the lower 
 combination tones (Differenztone) discovered by him, as a means of control 
 for the clear intonation of double-stops, in violin-playing. Moser raises the 
 question whether such an overtone, through the proper formation of the 
 self-tuning oral cavity, could be increased to such an extent that the average 
 or untrained ear could distinguish it from the complex of the clang as a separ- 
 ately audible part. It was found that the ear could easily be directed toward 
 the overtone to be discovered, if several next-neighbor, harmonious partial 
 tones could be produced in immediate succession. The conditions for making 
 audible the vocally characteristic overtone are especially favorable with the 
 vowel-succession of open oo (as in cool); closed oo (as in cook); open ee, and 
 closed ee (probably because of the smallness of the anterior oral cavity, 
 acting as resonator). ... In accordance with the foregoing production 
 of our vowel-series (equal strength and height of the vocal lip-tone always 
 provided), it is nothing else than an increase (assuming constant relations of 
 the other clang-factors) of all the partial tones of the sung tone (or at least 
 those of a certain connecting section of its overtone series), successively 
 from deeper to higher vocally characteristic effect by the fact that the specially 
 decreasing cavity of the mouth, for each of them, for the time being, forms 
 the resonator: in fact, is the proper resonance-tone (Eigenton) through the 
 greater dilation of the oral cavity. 
 
 The fact that the resounding oral cavity does not produce the overtone, 
 and afterwards admixes with the vocal lip-tone, but only increases resonatori- 
 cally an already existing partial tone, is shown by the fact that at the above- 
 described continuous transformation of vowel-adjustment, the proper reso- 
 nance-tone, corresponding to each respective form of the oral cavity, ascends 
 continuously, while the changing partial tone should ascend in interval leaps 
 (peculiar to the overtone-series), that is, in the form of a stopped (abge- 
 brochen) chord. 
 
 A new phenomenon. That the series of overtones contained in the 
 sung tone, sound in the shape of a chord-succession (immediate) as clearly 
 as if one would analyse, with the prism, the sun-ray into its spectrum, 
 appears as soon as the sung tone of the 00-clang is gradually transferred in 
 the well-known way to the EE-clang. If, for example, a baritone sings the 
 tone g, then, with the 00-adjustment (a full oral resonance provided), 
 the third overtone (quint d^) will be clearly audible. If the oral cavity 
 is gradually diminished in the way stated above, the overtone will not 
 rise continuously with the same acceleration, but will jump suddenly to 
 the fourth overtone, g^ while at the same time the open 00 has narrowed 
 down to the closed 00. Now, while this vowel is gradually changing its 
 form toward EE (German ie), the overtone jumps suddenly from g^ to b^; 
 which means that the oral cavity has meanwhile become so small, that its 
 proper resonance-tone cannot react any more on the fourth, but only on 
 the fifth overtone of the fundamental sung tone, g, and increases the latter 
 to a vowel-characterizing overtone. With the jump to the sixth overtone, 
 d', the closed 00 is reached, and at the natural seventh, P (discernible with 
 especial clearness because of its small blending quality), the closed 00 be- 
 comes audible. 
 
258 SUPPLEMENTS 
 
 NOTE. The above is indicative of the manner in which Moser works 
 out his proposition, and, in the before-mentioned article, from which the 
 foregoing is extracted, much more along the same lines is elaborated with 
 much detail and exhaustive care. 
 
 Harmony and Complication 
 
 By Dr. VICTOR GOLDSCHMIDT, Heidelberg. 1901. 
 
 Harmony is concordance between the outer world and our feeling 
 (Gemijt), connected by concordance with the senses and the mind. Such con- 
 cordance brings us joy; we desire it, and this desire is the motive power for our 
 creative activity in harmonious production. . . . Harmony is the key which 
 unlocks Nature to our understanding. Each one of the senses comprehends 
 more or less harmony; the most perfect being the sense of hearing in the 
 enjoyment and creation of music — that is, the harmonious grouping of 
 agreeable tones. Then, the sense of sight, in choosing and arranging har- 
 monious colors, and masses in space, into formative art-products. But the 
 
 mind (Geist) and feeling (Gemiit) show Harmony — creating and enjoying 
 
 Now, Harmony, in all its varied forms, is governed by a simple law of appear- 
 ance and development, the Law of Complication; by which is meant the 
 law of developing the complex (complicated) from what appears, at first, to 
 be simple: or, variants from the basic fundamental. This law we find objec- 
 tively in the differentiation of the products of Nature, from the simple to 
 the finely divided (articulated); similarly in tones and colors — and especially 
 in the precise formation of crystals. . . . Know thyself! is the goal of all 
 science. All things exist for us only in so far as our senses can receive, and 
 our reasoning faculty can absorb (assimilate). Our' ability to understand 
 the outer world may be explained in this way: In our mind (microcosmos) 
 processes take place which are analogous to processes in Nature (macrocomos). 
 Those phenomena of the mind which, in their operation, are analogous to 
 those in Nature, we call "Laws oj Nature." The laws of Nature exist for 
 us only in so far as they, at the same time, are recognized by us as laws of 
 the senses and of the mind. When a law of Nature is seen to be universal 
 in its application, it becomes a recognized fundamental law of science. Such 
 a law (Goldschmidt believes and promulgates) is the Law of Complication, 
 whereby manifold crystalline forms develop from simple structures. The entire 
 development of crystalline forms, emanating from certain primary surfaces, 
 is governed by the Law of Complication. This law, at the same time, includes 
 the law oj rationality of the indices; the law of zones; and the law of constancy 
 of angles. . . So far, it has been held that the law of rationality of the 
 indices is something special, referring only to crystals. But this is not the 
 case. It is clear that the law of complication (of which the law of the ration- 
 ality of the indices is only a part) points to other, larger grounds, and that 
 it is the law of Harmony which imprints its mark on music. If this conclusion 
 be correct, it explains certain structures of the ear. It is present objectively 
 in the spectrum-lines; subjectively, in colors; and enables us to understand 
 the eye. . . . The crystallographic law of complication appears as a far- 
 reaching law of development of manifold nature-forms, and even of the 
 human senses and mind. Without a knowledge of the Harmony of Tones, 
 the Harmony of Crystalline Forms remains unintelligible; and, on the other 
 hand. Harmony in Tone and Color can be perfectly explained only with the 
 help of Crystallography. 
 
 (For a full treatment of this subject by Goldschmidt, see his articles 
 in the Zeitschr. f. Kryst., 1896, 26: 7; 1897, 28: 25. Only a brief outline of 
 the principles may be given here.) 
 
 "Crystals are covered by even planes of different forms and systems 
 and various numbers. Some of these planes are of more, and some of less, 
 importance on account of their size as well as their number. With increasing 
 size, number, as well as accuracy of observation, diminish. The planes of a 
 
ADDENDA 
 
 259 
 
 certain kind have their gradations: principal planes, primary planes (also 
 called primary knots); this latter having reference to reproduction by pro- 
 jection, in which these planes have tlie shape of points or knots. 
 
 Now, it appears that the weaker, derivative, planes insert between the 
 principal, primary planes in a certain manner. 
 
 Fig. I. 
 
 In the above Figure, Harmonious numbers, 0, ]/2, 1> 2, to infinity (00), 
 are equivalent to diagram line, A — E 
 
 Fig. II. 
 
 If AB, Fig. 2, represent primary planes, then, according to the Law 
 of Complication, producing differentiation, plane C will be formed, which 
 truncates the parallel-edged planes, AB. Under a certain angle, C is weaker, 
 lower in grade, than AB. Still further progression of the law of complication, 
 and we have the planes DE which truncate the parallel-edges, AC, BC. The 
 planes D and C are weaker than C. Further progression produces the weak 
 obtuse edges F. G. H. J. We have here three stages of regular, progressive 
 development. . . . Explanation: — NO (Fig. 1) equals AB (Fig. 2); NI 
 (Fig. 1) equals A C B (Fig. 2): N3^ (Fig. 1) equals A D C E B (Fig. 2); N 2 
 (Fig. 1) equals AFDGCHEJB. . . . The derivative planes form with 
 them a primary zone, characterized by parallel edges. The first derivative 
 plane, C, is called the Dominant; when located between two-primary planes, 
 Primary-Dominant. The same development may take place at the edge 
 between two other primary planes, for example, between A K, or B K (Fig. 2). 
 We say primary zones — -AB, AK, BK — span between primary planes (primary 
 knots), ABK. Further progressive differentiation yields zones between each 
 primary plane, and a primary-dominant. For example, CK, secondary zones 
 — then between every two Primary-Dominant (tertiary zones). The two 
 planes between which a zone stretches, is called the end-knot of the zone. 
 The zones, also, having their gradations, with this development a great 
 wealth of form is created — especially if the number of Primary-planes is 
 large, and if the differentiation in zones reaches far: say, to N 2 or beyond. 
 In every zone, the arrangement of planes follows a certain numerical law, 
 which is the same for all zones, and all crystals. This is called the Law of 
 Complication. It regulates the place and inclination of the planes, their 
 size and gradation, and permits the prediction of unobserved planes as 
 
260 
 
 SUPPLEMENTS 
 
 probable; also examination as to their probability of observed ones. (See 
 Zeitschr. f. Kryst., 1897-1900.) 
 
 In Music, Harmony is the selection of harmonious groups of tones. 
 It is the work of Man, is a reflection of the human mind, is something common 
 to humanity. Unlike the formation of crystalline forms in one respect. 
 Musical Harmony is the result of voluntary selection of its elements; while 
 the formation of crystalline forms is the result of natural forces, unaided or 
 acted upon in any way by man. Yet the fact remains clear, that the same 
 general Law of Complication operates in both realms; and tone-groups are 
 subject to the same Law of Complication. From this law emanate the 
 elements of musical harmony; the composition of musical chords, scales, 
 key, etc. (As early as 1818, Chr. S. Weiss demonstrated the relation between 
 crystalline forms and harmonious tones. He compared, in the regular cube, 
 octahedron, tetrahedron, dodecahedron, etc., the length from centre-point 
 to corners, with the edge- and plane-centres, and draws an analogy between 
 their ratio, 3:2:4:3, and the vibration-ratio, 3:2:4:3, of the tones.) Scale 
 is the series of tones within an octave, with ascending vibration-number. 
 Of all possible tones used in music, within an octave, only a limited number 
 are selected for scales. Depending on this selection, we distinguish three 
 kinds of scales: Diatonic, Chromatic, and Enharmonic. Let the letter Z 
 represent the fundamental tone (the Key-tone), for example, C (this may 
 as well be A, or G, or D), then the general form of a scale is, in numbers: 
 Z=... 4/3. 3/2. 5/3... 2. etc. 
 
 "This interesting, if somewhat abstruse, subject is continued, by Gold- 
 schmidt, to show the similarity between the crystallographic numeral laws, 
 and the analogous laws by which the several scales and chords are derived — 
 in accordance with the progressive differentiation of the Law of Complication. 
 In a treatise of the present scope, little more than a brief, though, we hope, 
 comprehensive statement of the law, with a few illustrations, can be offered." 
 
 Acoustics and Mechanics of the Human Voice 
 
 By Dr. ALBERT MUSEHOLD 
 
 TONE is not primary, but is made up of many separate "tones": its 
 predominating /«Miamif«te/ (which determines the height of the tone, proper), 
 and a varying number of so-called "overtones." These "harmonics" (as they 
 are usually called), or overtones, stand in a positive ratio to the fundamental, 
 so that the number of their vibrations is 2:3:4: etc. 
 
 There are, for example, the overtones of C: 
 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 
 — 8 
 
 — 9 
 — 10 
 
 — 12 
 
 (a) The Octave 
 
 (b) The Fifth 
 
 (c) 2d Octave 
 
 (d) The Third 
 
 (e) The Fifth (octave) 
 
 (f) 3d Octave 
 
 (g) The Second 
 (h) The Third (octave) ■ 
 (i) The Fifth (2d octave) ■ 
 
 Dr. Musehold speaks of the usual sine-curve: 
 
 -c' 
 -e' 
 
 -e2- 
 
 (1/2 length of sti 
 
 ing) 
 
 (1/3. " 
 
 
 
 (1/4 " 
 
 
 < ■\ 
 
 (1/5 " 
 
 
 ' ) 
 
 (1/6 " 
 
 
 
 (1/8 " 
 
 
 * J 
 
 (1/9 " 
 
 
 
 (1/10 " 
 
 
 * \ 
 
 (1/12 " 
 
 
 
 Fig. III. 
 
ADDENDA 
 
 261 
 
 and says that the curves of musical tones are essentially different from the 
 sine-curve shown. He draws his curve from several points, as shown at (A) 
 below: 
 
 Fig. IV. 
 
 From c to c' constitutes a half-wave length. At (B) he shows graphically, 
 from the "side view," so to speak, how condensation and rarefaction occur 
 in the production of tone: 
 
 (-S) 
 
 Fig. V. 
 
 The shaded section, at"K," shows condensation; the light portion, rarefaction. 
 Note the corresponding letters in both (A) and (B) for a clear exposition 
 of the question as Dr. Musehold describes it. "K" represents the node, or 
 place where the vibrating string is stopped. In the following diagram are 
 shown several divisions — 1, 2, 3, 4, S — representing the octave, fifth, second 
 octave, third, etc., as listed on the foregoing page. 
 
 "The author proceeds to show, by description and illustrations, the similarity 
 between the wind-instrument (musical) and the human voice machine: the 
 alterations in the mouth-cavity for the production of various vowel-sounds, 
 etc. He speaks of the importance of the tongue in its muscular attachments 
 by muscles from above and below, and describes various movements of the 
 larynx as influenced by the tongue, etc. He describes the arytenoid, to which 
 the forward end of the vocal cord is attached; acknowledges that the arytenoid 
 moves about its base, but does not give the action of the arytenoid for any 
 pronunciations, as is done in Vocal Art-Science." 
 
 It has been mentioned that the bottom thyroid horns are attached 
 to the cricoid. It can be seen, then, that both thyroid and cricoid may move 
 about an axis (see Fig. 32-a) which is common to both bodies. These move- 
 ments are accomplished by the crico-thyroid muscles. ... In a contraction 
 of these muscles, the thyroid and cricoid are brought closer together. In 
 general it is assumed that the cricoid remains stationary while the thyroid 
 moves down, in the arc of a circle. Referring to Fig. 31 (Dr. Musehold's 
 book), the muscular action of the crico-thyroid muscles is represented by 
 the arrows "pr" and "po." The resultant line of action is "ix" (principal 
 force) and the thyroid will be drawn downward and forward about the axis (a). 
 In this change of position, there occurs a lengthening (e, f) in the vocal cords. 
 The rear point (e) in vocalization, shows the arytenoid as remaining fixed 
 to the cricoid and stationary, while the front part (f), included in the angle 
 formed by both sides of the thyroid, must have, practically, the same move- 
 ment as the thyroid about the axis (a). Joining the point (a) with (f) by a 
 straight line — with (a) as a centre, and (a, f) as a radius — the arc of a circle 
 will be described which will represent the movement of the point (f) as it 
 moves with the thyroid about the axis (a). Now, if (f) is drawn downward 
 and forward, the point (f) will follow the arc of the circle to the vicinity of 
 
262 
 
 SUPPLEMENTS 
 
 the point (g). Now, the point (f) has not moved farther away from (f) 
 because "f-a" and "g-a" are radii of the same circle and therefore must be 
 equal; but "e-g" is longer than "e-f", since it is opposite the greater angle in 
 the triangle "e-f-g." Now, if "e-f" be projected on "e-g" to "h," there will 
 
 Fig. VI. 
 
 be a short segment, "h-g," overlapping, which will correspond to the elon- 
 gation or tension of the cord. This mechanical action of the thyroid resembles 
 a lever (a-f) fastened at (a) with one end at (f) on the horizontal vocal cords 
 to actuate them. 
 
 Examination of the glottis and surrounding parts by means 
 of the Stroboscope. 
 
 This optical .instrument, discovered in 1832 by Prof. Stampfer, of 
 Vienna, consists of a metallic disc with a number of slot-holes located regularly 
 around the outer edge. This disc may be revolved at any desired speed by 
 means of a driving-motor or clock-work attached to it. There is a slot in 
 the centre of the disc, and during rotation the eye peeps through this slot, 
 while the reverse side of the disc is illuminated. The principle of the instru- 
 ment rests upon the fact that the light-impression in our eyes exists for a 
 short interval of time, after the source of light has been removed. Thus, in 
 revolving the disc, the eye receives rapidly intermittent impressions of light, 
 alternated with darkness, as the slots pass and repass during the revolution, 
 Since the alternations from light to dark occupy but one-seventh of a second, 
 a person standing in front of the revolving disc, with light behind, it will 
 see through the rotary, perforated disc what appears to be a steady, unbroken 
 illumination of any object back of the disc. It appears a little darker than 
 if seen with uninterrupted light, but quite clear. The cut opposite gives 
 a simple outline of the stroboscope. (See Fig. VII.) 
 
 The stroboscope was designed and is used to observe, during illumin- 
 ation, bodies in motion. Oertel used his stroboscope to study the action of 
 the vocal cords which he had attached on an elastic membrane. Consequently, 
 his suspended cords led him to erroneous conclusions. ... As to the action 
 
ADDENDA 
 
 263 
 
 of the glottis, Oertel says only that it is smaller in chest-register than in 
 falsetto. . . . Dr. Musehold now proceeds to take flash-light photographs 
 through the stroboscope — "stroboscopy." He finds that, in the chest-register, 
 the vocal cords are close together — the glottis is always shut in this register. 
 On this account, he took stroboscopic photographs showing the opening 
 and closing of the glottis. He noted that, in singing (a baritone) c, the vocal 
 cords appeared to be pressed together. He noted that, in this case, the 
 position of the cords could be maintained fairly well. . . . He concludes, 
 from these observations, that the period of glottis-closing is longer than the 
 
 Fig. vn. 
 
 period of glottis-opening, and the vibration could be fairly well represented 
 as in the illustration below. 
 
 The horizontal lines show the closing of the glottis, while the triangular 
 lines show the opening. From an examination of curve A, it can be seen 
 that there is not a complete agreement of the tone sung, and the disc, 
 inasmuch as the disc always changes toward the point (a) as the glottis-closing 
 comes to light. Examining the point (b) however, which shows the maximum 
 
 Fig. vin. 
 
 proximity of the vocal cords, a small difference in both tones can be detected. 
 . . . The curve in the above illustration (A) (B) agrees in principle with 
 the curve which P. Gruetzner arrived at from a study of the vibration of 
 
264 SUPPLEMENTS 
 
 the raised tongue, by graphical and optic research methods. It is a fact 
 that the raised tongue and glottis (in chest-register) have the same duration 
 of vibrations, since they are both influenced by the same interruptions of 
 air-blasts. . . . The vocal cords close, by muscular action, so that they 
 are pressed together, more or less, and remain in this position until they are 
 pulled apart by a new blast of air. The stroboscopic photographs of Dr. 
 Musehold's interesting and valuable little treatise are in two sizes, and can 
 be seen in his work referred to above. 
 
 The Scientific Measurement of Musical Talent 
 By Professor CARL E. SEASHORE 
 
 The Tonoscope 
 
 An ingenious apparatus invented by Carl E. Seashore of the University 
 of Iowa, on entirely new principles, for the detection and measurement of 
 deviations of the voice-pitch. 
 
 In "The Psychological Monographs," Vol. 3, Jan., 1914, published by 
 the Psychological Review Co., Princeton, N. J., the inventor describes the 
 principle, construction and technique in detail. Outlining the description, 
 the Toiioscope works on the principle of Stroboscopic vision, the principle 
 of moving pictures. Auditory vibrations of air, caused by voice or musical 
 instrument, are converted directly and instantaneously into visual configura- 
 tions on a screen, and the vibration frequency which denotes the pitch of the 
 tone may be seen in plain figures on a scale. This enables us to measure the 
 pitch of any tone by direct inspection while singing, speaking or playing under 
 normal conditions. In moving pictures it is well known that successive 
 pictures which are alike, thrown on the screen in the same place and in rapid 
 succession, will form one continuous picture, which stands out clear and still. 
 This is the principle employed here. 
 
 The structure of the apparatus shows a revolving screen, rotating at 
 the rate of one revolution pej second, which carries rows of dots, regularly 
 spaced but varying in number for each row. When a tone is sounded, the 
 row which has the dot-frequency that corresponds to the vibration-frequency 
 of the tone will stand still and be clear, while all other dots move and tend to 
 blur. Each row runs under a number of the scale. The row which stands 
 still, therefore, points to a number which designates the pitch of the tone. 
 The screen contains a sufficient number of rows of dots, varying in number, to 
 correspond directly, or by multiple, to all tones within the range of the voice. 
 To see the pitch of the tone one has therefore only to see the number of the 
 line that stands still. A synchronous motor drives the drum (screen) at a 
 regulated speed, thus assuring accuracy in the control of the movement of 
 the exposed object. 
 
 A large 10 v. d. tuning-fork is used as an interrupter. It is energized 
 by primary cells, and is encased in a box which is kept out of the way in a 
 closet so that no noise shall come from it. 
 
 A 16 c. p. lamp is used for resistance in the motor circuit, and is mounted 
 between the prongs of the fork to assure a sufficiently constant temperature. 
 
 A 110-volt direct current is completed through the motor and a mercury 
 contact interrupted by the fork. The current is reduced by the lamp resist- 
 ance. The make and break is short circuited with a condensor to avoid the 
 forming of an arc. 
 
 A rheostat inside a tonoscope case, with a switch on the surface, serves 
 for the adjustment of current, as there may be fluctuations in the supply 
 main. A small detachable brake for starting fits the end of a main shaft 
 which comes out flush with the edge of the case on the side. 
 
 To start the tonoscope one has only to start the fork, give the drum a 
 turn up to approximately one revolution per second and close the switch. 
 Once started, the instrument will run indefinitely without special care. 
 
ADDENDA 265 
 
 In the Musical Quarterly for January, 191S, the inventor explains, 
 under the caption "The Measurement of Musical Talent," the problem to be 
 solved, and shows that "the psychology of music is now being built up in the 
 laboratory from three points of view, namely: The psychology of individual 
 talent, the psychology of aesthetic feeling in musical appreciation and ex- 
 pression, and the psychology of the pedagogy of music." The discussion is 
 limited to the first of the three aspects. 
 
 Musical talent being inherited, not acquired, is inborn, and can either 
 be developed or remain latent; that is, as the saying goes, talents may "die 
 with all their music in them." Both, the talent as well as the developed 
 talent, can be measured. "The measurement of musical capacity, therefore, 
 concerns itself chiefly with inborn psycho-physical and mental capacities as 
 distinguished from skill acquired in training." 
 
 Only as far back as 1842 it was considered impossible to measure the 
 speed of nerve-impulse or the "time of thought;" and yet not only has all this 
 been overcome, but to-day the science of individual psychology virtually 
 "dissects" the genius, analyzes and measures talents, sets out limitations, 
 diagnoses the possibilities, and directs the development of the individual. 
 
 Musical talent is complicated; it consists of groups, or hierarchies, of 
 different characteristics in different individuals. The analysis of musical 
 talent tries in the first place to locate the dominant traits and then determines 
 qualitatively and quantitatively the composition or characteristics of each 
 group, or hierarchy of traits. Therefore, the term musical talent is to be 
 used in a collective sense. 
 
 Then Seashore goes on to say: "The elements of musical sound are 
 really three, namely, pitch, time and intensity, of which pitch is the quality 
 and essence of a sound. This classification of the fundamehtal aspects of 
 musical sounds gives us a basis for the classification of musical talents into 
 the ability to appreciate and the ability to express respectively pitch, time and 
 intensity of tone. Each of these may be subdivided in great detail. 
 
 As to the human side of -music, capacity for the appreciation and expres- 
 sion of music may be divided into four fundamental capacities; namely, 
 seniority, the ability to hear music; motor, the ability to express music; asso- 
 ciational, the ability to understand music; and affective, the ability to feel 
 music and exprdss feeling in music. By combining these two classifications 
 (the elements of musical sounds and the capacity of the human individual) we 
 obtain the principal groups of musical talent. 
 
 Arranging the principal measurements now available in the psychology 
 of music laboratory on the above basis' of classification, we get a scheme like 
 the following list of measurements on a singer: 
 
 I. Sensory (ability to hear music). 
 
 A. Pitch. 
 
 1. Discrimination ("musical ear," tonal hearing). 
 
 2. Survey of register. 
 
 3. Tonal range: (a) upper limit, (b) lower limit. 
 
 4. Timbre (tone-color). 
 
 5. Consonance and dissonance (harmony). 
 
 B. Intensity (loudness). 
 
 1. Sensibility (hearing ability). 
 
 2. Discrimination (capacity for intellectual use). 
 
 C. Time. 
 
 1. Sense of time. 
 
 2. Sense of rhythm. 
 
266 SUPPLEMENTS 
 
 II. Motor (ability to sing). 
 
 A. Pitch. 
 
 1. Striking a tone. 
 
 2. Varying a tone. 
 
 3. Singing intervals. 
 
 4. Sustaining a tone. 
 
 5. Registers. 
 
 6. Timbre: (a) purity, (b) richness, (c) mellowness, (d) clearness, 
 
 (e) flexibility. 
 
 7. Plasticity: curves of learning. 
 
 B. Intensity. 
 
 1. Natural strength and volume of voice. 
 
 2. Voluntary control. 
 
 C. Time. 
 
 1. Motor ability. 
 
 2. Translation and attack. 
 
 3. Singing in time. 
 
 4. Singing in rhythm. 
 
 III. Associational (ability to imagine, remember and think in music). 
 
 A. Imagery. 
 
 1. Type. 
 
 2. Role of auditory and motor images. 
 
 B. Memory. 
 
 1. Memory span. 
 
 2. Retention. 
 
 3. Redintegration. 
 
 C. Ideation. 
 
 1. Association type and musical content. 
 
 2. Musical grasp. 
 
 3. Creative imagination. 
 
 4. Plasticity: curves of learning. 
 
 IV. Affective (ability to feel music). 
 
 A. Likes and dislikes: character of musical appeal. 
 
 1. Pitch, timbre, melody and harmony. 
 
 2. Intensity and volume. 
 
 3. Time and rhythm. 
 
 B. Emotional and reaction to music. 
 
 C. Power of aesthetic interpretation in singing. 
 
 For the method and technique of these measurements consult Sea- 
 shore's "Psychology in Daily Life," D. Appleton Co., 1913, Chapter VII; 
 also "Psychol. Rev.," Monog. No. 38. Special consideration was paid to 
 Individual Difference, Norm, Cognitive vs. Physiological Limit, Reliability 
 and Success, Illusion of Pitch, Absolute Pitch, Tone-deafness, Practice, Age, 
 Sex, Elemental Nature of the Test, Basal Nature of the Test, Theory, In- 
 telligence, Inheritance, Tonal Range, Evolution. 
 
 Then the mass of material and the numerical records obtained were 
 reduced to a sort of common denominator by a method of percental rank 
 which furnishes a common unit. 
 
ADDENDA 267 
 
 This system of measurements is unfortunately not adapted for general 
 use by musicians themselves, as it presupposes a technique, an equipment, 
 and a skill in psychological analysis which the musician does not possess; it 
 requires a specialist trained in music and in psychology, and opens a new 
 profession. Seashore recommends the establishment of laboratories in the 
 principal music-centres, as it is of the utmost interest to prospective singers 
 to secure a chart of their talents before adopting a life-work. But demand 
 for such services will also (and perhaps more) be among musicians who have 
 encountered some serious obstacle, to determine its nature and whether it is 
 reparable or not. 
 
 But there is also place for the measurement of musical talent outside 
 the laboratory; it can be adapted to the needs of teaching, as a means of 
 training. In singing, correction of pitch, timbre, time, etc., can be made 
 most eifectively if the pupil practices with an instrument which reveals to 
 the eye of the singer the actual pitch of the voice to a hundredth of a tone 
 on the principle of moving pictures, the pupil training his voice by his eye. 
 Such an instrument is the Tonoscope described above. 
 
 Finally, Seashore recommends the adoption of the Tonoscope in Ele- 
 mentary Schools, not only as a means to eliminate helplessly unmusical 
 pupils and to save them from an intolerable imposition of musical require- 
 ments, but also as an instrument to solve the "mysterious puzzles" sur- 
 rounding talent and the human mind in general. 
 
GLOSSARY 
 
 Abscissa — That part which is cut off. In mathematics, that part of 
 a transverse axis of a conic which lies between the vertex and the perpendicular 
 ordinate to it from a given point on the conic. In Vocal Art-Science it is 
 used to designate an apex such as is formed at the common point of inter- 
 section of three planes. 
 
 Activation — The act or process of rendering a thing active. 
 
 Adenoids — Normal, gland-hke bodies in the pharynx; the "pharyngeal" 
 tonsils; which, like the "faucial" tonsils, frequently become inflamed and 
 enlarged. 
 
 .^gophony — (Greek, aix — genitive aigos — a goat; and phone, voice). 
 A disagreeable vocal quality resembling the bleating of a goat. This voice 
 is frequently heard on the modern vaudeville stage, and is emphasized when 
 reproduced on the phonograph. 
 
 Akinesis — A condition opposed to motion. A static condition. (See 
 Kinesis.) 
 
 Amygdelokelphine — To shell out the tonsil without injury to its cap- 
 sule, so that all functions of voice due to capsule or other parts are preserved. 
 An original Vocal Art-Science term, invented to show how the tonsil should 
 be taken out. A term proposed by the author. 
 
 Antrum — A name of various cavities in the body, but when used alone 
 signifying the antrum of Highmore. 
 
 Aperture — (Latin, apertura, an opening). The mouth is an aperture; 
 also, the nostrils. Sphincteric aperture — an opening which is cldsed by a cir- 
 cular muscle, surrounding the opening, or aperture, c. g., the "orbicularis 
 oris." 
 
 Aperture at the hypothenuse — Assuming the cells of the body to be 
 pyramidal, the base being in the form of a 3, 4 and 5 triangle, the side 
 corresponding to the hypothenuse will be in the aperture. 
 
 Apex of a triangle — The intersection of the two sides, neither of them 
 being the base. It is the vertex or point of the triangle opposite the base 
 or side upon which the triangle is supposed to stand. 
 
 Aphonia — Privation, or loss of voice, or the sounds giving rise to it. 
 
 Appendix — That which is accessory to or dependent upon another. 
 
 Arytenoids — Articulating pyramids of the vocal cords. When the tail 
 disappears in the frog a small triangular pyramid of tissue, the arytenoids, 
 appears in the lower end of the glottic sphincter. Composed of cartilage. 
 Shaped like pyramids. Located at the base of the cartilage of Santorini, and 
 work on facets placed in an equally balanced position on each side of the 
 cricoid. Control the action of the true vocal cord. They polarize and 
 equilibrate the first expiratory vocal sound. Without the arytenoids there 
 would be no articulate sound. 
 
 Auto-Laryngology— The practice of examining one's own throat and 
 larynx; especially harmful in the case of an inexpert person. 
 
 Balance — A state of equilibrium or equipoise. 
 
 Bilateral — Two-sided; having two sides; the sides mayor may not be 
 symmetrical. 
 
 Bipolaiity — Where two poles connect an autonomy. In a brain-cell, 
 the two hemispheres are doubly polarized, two positive and two negative. 
 
 268 
 
GLOSSJRY 269 
 
 Breath-Clutch — A Vocal Art-Science expression to indicate the exact 
 control of breath. It is the synchronous, combined and triple action of the 
 diaphragm, lower intercostals and oblique abdominal muscles, compressing 
 the lungs and furnishing the true breath-power of the voice. A term pro- 
 posed by the author. 
 
 Bronchial — Referring to the bronchial tubes; the bronchi (plural of 
 bronchus); the lower division of the trachea, or wind-pipe, which becomes 
 the two bronchi, further dividing, tree-like, as they penetrate the lungs and 
 finally reach the air-cells. 
 
 Buccal Cavity — (Latin, bucca, cheek, when puffed out by speaking or 
 eating). The cavity of the mouth anterior to the line of the soft palate; 
 is the space where resonance (vocalic pitch) is determined. 
 
 Capsules — (Latin, capsula, a -little sac). A membranous sac or en- 
 velope, as the capsule of the crystalline lens of the eye; also, of the tonsil. 
 
 Cell (Vital) — The microscopically small vital element, which is the unit 
 of structure in all tissues — nerve, muscle, bone, etc., and contains a nucleus, 
 or vital centre of activity. 
 
 Centrifugal — The force tending to pull a rotating body away from its 
 centre. 
 
 Centripetal — The force tending to keep a rotating body intact; opposed 
 to centrifugal. 
 
 Cervical — (Latin, cervix — genitive cervicis — the neck). Referring to 
 the neck, as cervical vertebra (the first seven vertebrae, located in the neck); 
 the cervical muscles, also vessels and nerves. 
 
 Choanae — From the Greek, signifying a funnel, and refers to the form 
 of the two openings seen when looking above the soft palate, from behind. 
 These funnels contain the turbinated bones. The place where nasal reso- 
 nance begins. According to Vocal Art-Science, it gives to the hollow pyramid 
 in the dome a leeway for polarization and defraction without which the 
 resonance of the voice could not exist. 
 
 Chorditis Vocalis — Inflammation of the vocal cords. 
 
 Cicatrization — The act or process of inducing a cicatrix, or scar, in the 
 healing of a wound. 
 
 Contrapuntal — In Vocal Art-Science, a point of opposition or contrast 
 with another point. Two poles, balancing each other, having a different 
 effect, influencifig the positive and negative poles of every well-regulated 
 autonomy. Always at right angles to polarization. Lateral poles of power 
 as distinguished from the vertical poles. — For example: The positive pole, the 
 centre of the diaphragm; the negative pole, the centre of the glottis; con- 
 trapuntal poles, the third dorsal vertebra to the centre of the manubrium-j or 
 breast-bone. 
 
 Coordination — The automatic action of the various muscles through- 
 out the body, without the conscious direction.of the will; hence, a bodily or 
 physical attribute. 
 
 Cord-Stretching — The muscles of cord-stretching pull the thyroid carti- 
 lage from the back upward and forward, and from the front down and back- 
 ward; swinging the thyroid cartilage in its socket on the cricoid cartilage 
 below. Thus stretching the vocal bands from the arytenoid to the thyroid, 
 and the latter action gives the proper angle of momentum for its spontaneous 
 delivery. When fixation and cord-stretching are well adjusted, a voice has 
 the principal requisites for fine use. 
 
 Comicula — (From Latin, cornus.) Little horns; in anatomy, any small 
 projections like diminutive horns; such as exist on the hyoid bone — in addi- 
 tion to the two cornua, or horns. There are also cornicula of the larynx; 
 the horns or cornicula of the hyoid; also the corniculum or horn of the 
 thyroid. They hold the proper edges of the cords for their pyramidal office. 
 
270 SUPPLEMENTS 
 
 Correlation — The muscle autonomies, which have already done their 
 part automatically, are brought into a higher state of activity by the direc- 
 tion of the mind, through the power of the will; hence, a mental attribute. — 
 In Vocal Art-Science, refers to the macroscopic anatomical arid physiological 
 combination of automatic movements, as when one watches the lower lip in 
 stammering and stuttering; while correlation refers to the operation of higher 
 vibrations, as of the mind, with reference to the action of the upper lip when 
 each pyramid attached to each one of our senses correlates. 
 
 Cortex — (Latin, bark, or outer covering of plants). An outer rind on 
 any tissue or structure of the animal or human frame. (Adjective, cortical, 
 from genitive corticis.) In Vocal Art-Science, the outer covering of the brain 
 is meant. 
 
 Cricoid (Cartilage) — (Greek, krikos, ring; eidos, form.) One of the 
 cartilages of the larynx. It is a ring of gristle, forming the top of the trachea, 
 or wind-pipe. It is the concentrator of the energy of the voice; the immov- 
 able base of the momentic unit of the human mechanism. 
 
 Crura — (Plural of crus, Latin for leg). Term in anatomy applied to 
 some parts of the body from their resemblance to a leg or root. 
 
 Cusp — A conoidal disc-shaped membrane with its apex slightly off 
 centre; Tympanum or ear-drum. 
 
 Cuspoidal laryngeal halves — The two halves of the larynx formed by 
 the four vocal cords and the ventricle contained between them; so named 
 because they are hemispherical in plane and cuspoidal in vertical elevation. 
 
 Cyclones — (From Greek verb, to whirl). In Vocal Art-Science, refers 
 to the whirling of the air-currents made by the breath passing through the 
 several vocal apertures and avenues, in the formation of voice. 
 
 Deglutition — The act of swallowing. 
 
 Depressor Albii Inferioris — -The muscle which depresses the lower lip. 
 
 Dexter — Pertaining to the right hand or right side; right, as opposed 
 to left. 
 
 Diaphragm — Also called midriff; the dome-like musculo-membranous 
 partition which separates the thoracic from the abdominal cavity in mammals. 
 
 In Vocal Art-Science, used to designate the separation of the Pneu- 
 matic from the Dynamic unit. From its nftrve-supply it is found that the 
 motor fibres act only with the abdominal unit, consequently it will be best 
 understood that the action of the diaphragm is to 'grasp the. entire contents 
 of the abdomen, as a piston-rod does the contents of a cylinder. 
 
 The author has made over 6,000 X-ray examinations of human dia- 
 phragms, which have led to the discovery of this vital functioning of the 
 diaphragm in respiration for song and speech. 
 
 Differential — Discriminating; differing in amount or size. 
 
 Diplophonia — Double voice — acute and grave sounds; a term proposed 
 by the author as more expressive than Vox Convulsiva. 
 
 Dome — The hollow space back of the nose, existing between the choanse 
 and the soft palate. Post-nasal pyramid; the fourth pyramid of 3, 4,' 5. 
 
 Dorsal Vertebrae — The vertebra (or bones of the spine). Consist of 
 several sections: 1st, cervical (neck); 2d, dorsal (back); 3d, lumbar (waist 
 region), etc. Dorsal is derived from Latin dorsum, the back. 
 
 Dyspnoea — Difficulty of breathing, as in asthma. 
 
 Efferent-^Conveying or leading outward; as distinguished from afferent, 
 conveying inward. Used in connection with nerves and vessels of the body. 
 
 Empiricist (Empirical) — One who relies upon personal experience, 
 rather than upon scientific knowledge. Experience is apt to degenerate 
 into a vulgar and presumptuous "empiricism." 
 
 Energia — Another name for energy. 
 
GLOSSARY 271 
 
 Epiglottis — A lamella, or thin plate of cartilage, placed in front of the 
 superior opening of the larynx, and at ordinary times projecting upward 
 immediately behind the base of the tongue. During the act of deglutition, or 
 swallowing, it is carried downward and backward, so as to cover and protect 
 the entrance to the larynx. 
 
 Epiglottisation — The determination of the position of the epiglottis, by 
 an examination with the laryngoscope. 
 
 Equilibrium — That state or condition of a body in which all forces 
 acting upon it balance one another. The force or resultant tending to move 
 such a body is equal to zero. 
 
 Esophagus — The tube which conveys food and drink from the mouth 
 into the stomach. 
 
 Evolute — ^In mathematics, a curve which is the focus of the centre of 
 curvature of another curve, or the envelope of the normals to the latter. 
 In Vocal Art-Science is a place back of the soft palate where the sounds of 
 the voice are first made and carried to the inner ear, in contradistinction 
 from the final vocal sounds heard by the outer ear. 
 
 Expression of force — Mutual action of the two sides of a right tri- 
 angle, resulting in either a decrease or increase in the size of the hypothenuse. 
 For instance, in the pyramidal organs of the body, the right triangle is the 
 basic triangle, and by causing the sides to come closer together there is an 
 emission of energy, while the reverse action results in the energy being con- 
 sumed. 
 
 Falsetto — An unsuccessful attempt to combine a true fundamental of 
 the vocal cords with an overtone out of balance, so that the overtone pre- 
 dominates by its intensity. A frequent phenomenon about the age of pu- 
 berty, by some called "breaking" of the voice. An attempt to registrate 
 octaves without correct balance of fundamental with overtone. 
 
 Fauces (plural) — Back part of the mouth, terminated by the pharynx 
 and larynx. 
 
 Fibrinous — Relating to fibrin, the coagulating element of the blood; 
 and also of inflammation. 
 
 Fibroma — A fibrous tumor; a tumor composed largely of fibrous, or 
 connective, tissue. 
 
 Free nodal edges — Nodes formed on the edge of a vibrating body; 
 due to the conditions of stress, torsion and recoil, and not to the fact that 
 the body is brought into contact with the vibrating edge. 
 
 Fundamental (Tone) — ^The tone made by the true vocal cords, distin- 
 guished from vocal tones whose sonority is affected by means of the false 
 vocal cords, tongue, palate, and other portions of the vocal mechanism, in 
 creating overtones to balance the fundamental. In Vocal Art-Science it is 
 believed every fundamental is accompanied by overtones made in the seven 
 tone-forming spaces with which it must balance in power, resonance and 
 pitch, in consonance and harmony; in correlation and coordination; also 
 sympathetically, synchronously and automatically, if perfect. A perfect 
 fundamental is at-one-ment of all these processes. A true fundamental vocal 
 tone is produced only on inspiration, hence impossible on expiratory voice- 
 production except as stated above. Tone produced on .inspiration will give 
 the poise of breath for vocalization. 
 
 Gamut — The musical scale; a word now almost obsolete. According 
 to Brachet, Guy of Arezzo (A. D. 990) used to end the series of seven notes 
 of the ipusical scale with the Greek G^gamma. The notes he named a, b, 
 c, d, e, f, g — the last giving the name to the series. "Ut" is the Latin name 
 for the first note of the scale, now called "Do." 
 
272 SUPPLEMENTS 
 
 Ganglion (plural gangliaj^A small mass of tissue, situated in the 
 course of a nerve, and distinct from brain or spinal cord. The Sympathetic 
 Nervous System consists of a series of ganglia, extending along both sides 
 of the spinal (vertebral) column, connecting with all the other nerves of 
 the body. Each ganglion is a distinct centre, giving off branches in four 
 directions — superior, inferior, external, and internal. They are divided into 
 the cranial ganglia, cervical ganglia, thoracic ganglia, etc. The connecting-up 
 stations of the nerve-forces. 
 
 Gyration — The turning or whirling around a fixed centre or axis; spiral 
 or rotary motion. 
 
 Hexalpha — The six-pointed star in Vocal Art-Science, to show the 
 relationship of voice. 
 
 Hyo-Glossi (plural of hyo-glossus) — A flat, four-cornered muscle, con- 
 necting the hyoid bone with the tongue. 
 
 Hyoid Bone — The "tongue-bone" — a bony arch, giving support to the 
 tongue, and attachment to numerous muscles of the neck. It consists of » 
 body and two cornua (horns) projecting backwards, and two smaller cornua 
 ascending from the angles between the body and the two larger cornua. 
 It forms one of the chain of the seven true yokes that harness the voice. 
 
 Implastic — Incapable of being moulded into a desired form. 
 
 Infra-Laiyngeal — Located below the laxynx. 
 
 Infra-Red — Those vibrations below the red glow of color, in the spec- 
 trum, and invisible to the sense of sight. 
 
 Interference — In Vocal Art-Science, is where the adjusting moulder of 
 tone-form is not true to nature, and obstructs the natural laws of tone-form 
 in its evolution. In fact, any abnormal factor introduced to obstruct the 
 laws of tone-form. 
 
 Intrinsic Muscles — Muscles within a cavity, or part of the body, as 
 distinguished from extrinsic muscles, or those which are exterior to a part 
 or locality. 
 
 Kinesis — The force which imparts motion to bodies, or influences 
 motion already imparted to them. 
 
 Kinetoscope — A machine invented by Thomas A. Edison, which dis- 
 plays pictures (taken by the kinetograph) so rapidly that they all seem to 
 be one scene, in motion. Vulgarly known as "Moving Pictures." 
 
 Klang-Tint — The so-called color, or tint, of a sound-form. It is an 
 analogy of light and sound; e. g., powej and number; resonance and form; 
 pitch and color. 
 
 Laryngologist — One proficient in the art and science of laryngoscopy, 
 or the examination of the larynx, and the proper treatment of its diseases, 
 as well as its hygienic care and exercise. 
 
 Laryngo-Pharyngeal — Pertaining to that part of the throat located at 
 the junction of the larynx with the pharynx. 
 
 Larynx — The wind-pipe, the voice-box. It is built up of the cricoid 
 cartilage above the trachea, and contains the arytenoid cartilages and vocal 
 ligaments — pyramids and prisms (or shelves), terminating in the glottis and 
 epiglottis. It is the principal organ of voice. In Vocal Art-Science, it is 
 the organ for momentum of voice. 
 
 Ligament — A short band of inelastic tissue, for binding bony parts 
 together. 
 
 Macroscopic — (Greek, makros, large, long). Pertaining to the larger view 
 of the universe; or gross parts seen with the unaided eye. 
 
 Meckel's Ganglion — The spheno-palatine ganglioii, the largest of the 
 cranial ganglia. 
 
GLOSSARY 273 
 
 Momeatic — Pertaining to momentum, the force possessed by matter 
 in motion. Refers to the momentum or motion of air-columns, created in 
 the ventricle between the true and false cords, as they operate as pyramids to 
 produce vocal sounds. Pyramids creating prismatic relationship. 
 
 Muscle-Set — ^A group or set of muscles which act in such harmony, 
 or unity, as to form an autonomy. 
 
 Nasal-Complex — This is represented by the choanse or spaces sur- 
 rounding the turbinate bones. A certain amount of resonance, reflection and 
 refraction of sound is added to the voice by the deflection of the column of 
 air into this resonantic part of the vocal mechanism. The removal of the 
 turbinate bones which have hypertrophied or grown abnormally from one 
 side of the nasal cavity, has been known to add five or six tones to the range 
 of a singer, and also to materially assist the resonance of the singing and 
 speaking voice. 
 
 Nasal Duct — A small passage in the superior maxillary (upper jaw) 
 bone, and descending to the lower meatus (opening) of the nose; leading 
 from the inside of lower eyelid and corner of eye to the lower portion of the 
 middle turbinated bone. 
 
 Nasality — A disagreeable quality of voice. Not to be confounded with 
 nasal resonance, a requirement of proper tone-making. 
 
 Nasal Resonance — In Vocal Art-Science, refers to that specific quality 
 of voice that is dependent upon regulation of sound-cyclones, passing up 
 back of nose, into choan^ due to the action of the soft palate. 
 
 Naso-Labial — Relating to the nose and lip; as, naso-labial line. 
 
 Neurasthenia — From the Greek, signifying a weakened condition of 
 the nervous system; commonly called "nervous exhaustion." 
 
 Neuritis — Inflammation of the nerves. This may be general or cir- 
 cumscribed — confined to a part, the usual neuritis. 
 
 Neuron — A nerve-cell, with its fibrous attachments, considered as a 
 unit of structure. A neuron has a form somewhat like an oyster (of micro- 
 scopic dimensions), but with tentacles which contract, or touch and react 
 upon associated fibres, in a manner to convey sensations through the body 
 from some central nerve-point. 
 
 Nucleolus — Diminutive of Nucleus. In anatomy, one or two strongly 
 refracting particles within the nucleus of ii cell. 
 
 Nucleus — (From Latin, a small nut or kernel, from nux, nucis, a nut). 
 In anatomy, the nucleus is the central part of the cell, from which develop- 
 ment begitis. 
 
 Occiput — (Latin, ob caput). The back part of the head; the part oppo- 
 site to the front part, or sinciput. 
 
 Omentum — (Latin, omen, omen). The caul, mentioned in the Bible; 
 a fold or reflexion of the peritoneum. There are two main folds, called the 
 lesser omentum, which surrounds the liver and passes to the stomach, wraps 
 and separates the genitals on the outside from the area enveloped by the 
 greater omentum as a pyramid,- to cover and protect the inner structures of 
 the sexual poles, while the greater omentum covers the entire gross structures 
 of the abdomen in the fornl of a funnel pyramid, with its point downward, 
 while its base, turned upward, presents the supporting leaves of the dia- 
 phragm for the lungs; and the greater omentum, which surrounds the stom- 
 ach and returns to the transverse colon, etc. 
 
 Optophone — A mechanism by which light is thrown, by means of a 
 prism, upon printed letters and then reflected on selenium, which, in turn, 
 gives a responsive sound carried to the ear of the bUnd by means of a telephone. 
 
 Orbicularis Oris — The muscle which closes the mouth, entirely or in 
 part, as in the formation of vowel-sounds. A typical controller of lips. 
 
274 SUPPLEMENTS 
 
 Oriento-paasesthetization — Is the peculiar summation and perception 
 of the physico-mental coordinated and correlated faculties without physical 
 and emotional powers in pure vocal tone-expression at the apex of our tri- 
 angle of efficiency. 
 
 Oscillograph — An electro-magnetic machine constructed by Professor 
 Pupin, which is able under electric stimulus to measure the finest electrical 
 vibrations. 
 
 Overtones — Harmonics, or upper partials. In Vocal Art-Science, the 
 terms refers to tones whose vibrations are in excess of those of the fundamental, 
 yet that harmonize with it, that embellish its quality, and, finally, when 
 they exist in full complement and balance, insure perfect tone. If one at- 
 tempts to speak on inspired breath, it will at once be noted that there is 
 lacking a richness of intonation — caused by the absence of the overtones. 
 
 Palate (Soft) — (Latin, velum ■palati). The posterior limit of the Palate 
 (Hard), the upper wall of the mouth. 
 
 Palato-Glossal-^Relating to the tongue and palate. 
 
 Palato-Pharyngeal — Relating to the palate and pharynx. 
 
 Papilloma— A condition of the submucous tissues of the tongue, ren- 
 dered tough, brawny, coarsely papillary, and fissured, at times. General 
 cause, smoking. 
 
 Partials — Related to overtones; harmonics. 
 
 Penetralis (Vocal)— Penetrating. All voice is positive. Its action is 
 directly, progressively forward. 
 
 Pharyngo-Nasal — Relating to the pharynx and nose. 
 
 Pharynx — ^The dilated commencement of the gullet. 
 
 Phonation — The production of sound; voice. 
 
 Phonometer — An instrument designed to ascertain the number of 
 vibrations of a given sound in a given interval of time. Vocal Art-Science, 
 by its system of measurements, is able to establish a basis, through measure- 
 ments, of the capacity or content of every voice. 
 
 Pituitary Body — A small, reddish-gray, ductless gland, located in the 
 centre of the floor of the brain. It is divided into an anterior and a pos- 
 terior lobe, and occupies the sella turcica ("Turkish saddle") of the sphenoid 
 bone. Formerly called the pituitary gland, from the erroneous belief that 
 it discharged mucus into the nostrils. Vocal Art-Science regards the Pitui- 
 tary Body as the Balancer of brain and body. 
 
 Polarity — Having two poles. A magnet which has two poles is said to 
 possess polarity. 
 
 Polarization — A term applied by Vocal Art-Science to the phenomenon 
 of the power inherent in the tongue, which, owing to its position relative to 
 the three vocal cavities (the Momentic, Vocalic and Resonantlc) and its 
 possession of :> positive and negative pole (i. c, the base and tip), tends to 
 act as a concentrator, director and assimilator of vocal sound-cyclones; the 
 waves of .the various units assuming fields very similar to those about an 
 electro-magnet, and from here are projected. into space, as a perfected tone; 
 the application being more closely related to that of the electro-magnet than 
 to the polarization of light. If polarization has a tendency to establish a 
 wrong interpretation of the above processes, the coined term polanizaiion 
 may be substituted. 
 
 Polarized — Having polarization, or affected by polarization. 
 
 Pseudoscopist — One who copies or utilizes another man's ideas. One 
 who has not had time, by reason of his attention to his own duties, to enroll 
 such ideas in the Hall of Fame. 
 
 Raphe — A seam, or longitudinal line, dividing anything into two por- 
 tions or areas; as the raphe of the medulla oblongata, etc. 
 
GLOSS J RY 275 
 
 Reflection — The change in direction experienced by a wave of light, 
 sound or heat, when it strikes a surface and is thrown back into the same 
 space from which it came. 
 
 Registration — At definite points of the scale in natural -production the 
 resonators are correlated in the progression of the tone. The so-called break, 
 which acquires a registration at different points of the scale (as is generally 
 supposed) is entirely unnecessary in correct use of voice. At these points a 
 new octave of resonance is coordinated and correlated. 
 
 Resonator — Hollow receptacle so formed as to. correspond sympathet- 
 ically to one particular sound. Also used to measure the volume of sound. 
 The mouth is a resonator; the nose, also. 
 
 Rhomboid— The rhomboid muscles, major and minor, extend from the 
 fifth cervical to the fifth dorsal; pull scapula upward, inward and backward 
 or hold it firm against the downward or forward pulling of any of the inter- 
 secting muscles. Therefore, they polarize and balance the neck to spine, 
 shoulder to neck by scapula and arm, hence it is true that sympathetic 
 vibrations of voice are carried and sensed in the very knuckles and finger- 
 tips of Caruso, by his London physician. 
 
 Rima — A cleft, or rim; as the rima gloUidis, rim of the glottis. 
 
 Rotating Mirrors — A series of mirrors placed on a revolving stand, so 
 that they catch the reflected light-vibrations, used in making- graphic records 
 of sound as devised by Konig. It is not a good analytical method. 
 
 Ruga (plural, ruga) — Latin for wrinkle. Hence, ridges, as seen in 
 certain mucous membranes, e. g., the stomach. 
 
 Rumblic — Relating to a low, rumbling noise. Made by a trilling or 
 twirling of the tip of the tongue, in sympathetic movement or vibration with 
 the tip of the nose, and the vomer or partition-bone of the nasal resonating 
 space. It is usually heard in the Continental languages, when the letter 
 "r" is pronounced. In this country it is not so used — in fact, in certain parts 
 of the United States, this rugged little consonant is, for some reason, entirely 
 ignored, "are" being pronounced ah, and "sword," sawed. 
 
 It refers especially to the tongue's action in holding its basic pyramid 
 so as to produce a continuous sympathetic nasal resonance on the letter 
 "M," while the tip of the tongue is synchronously vibrated in the rolling of 
 the letter "R," as in the word itself, "rumblic." 
 
 Sector — A part of a circle, bounded by two radii and the included arc. 
 
 Segmentation — The act or process of dividing, or separating. 
 
 Sequence of Overtone Scale — The average voice covers a range of 
 three octaves: first, one octave of itself; second, a segmented octave; and 
 third, an undertone octave. Each octave contains two whole tones and a 
 half-tone, followed by three, whole tones and a half-tone. 
 
 This sequence makes up the diatonic scale. Each tone has its counter- 
 part or overtone above and its undertone below. A tone can never be prop- 
 erly balanced without its overtone. Each step of the diatonic or chromatic 
 scale has its own complement in its overtone and undertone, dependent upon 
 its power, which is developed according to 3, 4, 5. The overtone is due to 
 segmentation of the entire vocal apparatus that produces a sympathetic 
 higher resonance tone with its fundamental tone always in harmony, con- 
 sonance and entrain. 
 
 Sinister — Pertaining to the left hand or left side; left, as opposed to 
 . right." 
 
 Sinus — A hollow place. In the human body there are the antral sinus; 
 the frontal sinus; the mastoidal sinus; the sphenoidal sinus; etc. These 
 sinuses, though hollow spaces, are not resonators, for their orifices will not 
 allow of resonance; they are vocal shock-absorbers. 
 
 Sonantic — -Relating to vibrations producing definite tone, as distinct 
 from mere aspirates. 
 
276 SUPPLEMENTS 
 
 Sound-Form — That which is made for the purpose of collecting and 
 reflecting sound. Any device that will accomplish the purpose. 
 
 Spectrum Analysis — Determination of the elementary constituents of 
 a body by a study of their spectra. 
 
 Sphincteiic Aperture — An opening controlled by a sphincter — a muscle 
 with power to contract and close an aperture, or opening. (The lower parts 
 of the body are controlled by sphincters: sphincter ani.) 
 
 Spiral Tone-Ray — There are two columns of air, one from the right 
 and the other from the left of the lungs, sent up through the bronchial tubes 
 to the trachea. The right column is stronger and one-twelfth larger in every 
 way than the left, because the right side of the lung is composed of three 
 lobes, while the left is composed of but two — the heart taking the place of 
 the third lobe. The vowel-producing air-column is centrifugal or polarized to 
 the right; the companion air-column is centripetal, and is for consonant 
 production. 
 
 The trachea is shaped like a spiral cone. These two columns of air 
 forced up helically through the trachea, whirling around like the spire of a 
 winding staircase; ever increasing in concentrating power elements, that are 
 practically vocal by the time they reach the cord, and this vertical force is 
 the source of energy supplied to furnish vocal momentum, and vibrate the 
 true vocal cord. 
 
 Spiritus Asper; Spiritus Lenis — In Vocal Art-Science, this is the vital 
 residual breath — ever generated as long as life lasts. The first word of the 
 combination, "spiritus," signifies breath; the second, "asper," means rough; 
 "lenis," gentle. 
 
 Sub-chambers— In Vocal Art-Science, the unchangeable, bony cavities 
 with special orifices. The stationary unalterable openings which are at- 
 tached, as accessories and auxiliaries of sound-phenomena, to the nose — ■ 
 such as the antral and frontal sinuses. 
 
 Supra-Laryngeal — Above the larynx. 
 
 Synsesthetization-^-According to Vocal Art-Science, a term used to 
 designate the existence of a coordinated, correlated physico-mental process 
 on one hand and a physical power on the other. 
 
 Syrinx — The inferior larynx, a modification of the trachea where it 
 joins the bronchi; an organ peculiar to songbirds, their organ of voice. 
 
 Telegraphone — An instrument recently perfected by Poulsson for 
 magnetically recording and reproducing telephone conversation. 
 
 Tempered Scale — The system of compromises whereby (in such instru- 
 ments as the piano and organ) the "twelve tones in an octave are made to 
 do duty in place of about forty-eight which would be necessary to perfect 
 intonation in all keys." (Mathews.) In Vocal Art-Science, refers to the 
 correct cosmic impression of the sounds of a scale of tones on the tympanum 
 of the ear, which is a tented pyramidal drum. 
 
 Template — A mold or pattern used by machinists, etc. 
 
 Tensor Palati — -The tensor muscle of the palate. 
 
 Thyroid Body — A soft, reddish and highly vascular body situated over 
 the trachea, consisting of two lateral lobes, united at their lower ends by a 
 transverse portion called the isthmus. It forms a rounded projection upon 
 the trachea and larynx. 
 
 Thyroid Cartilage (briefly termed "thyroid") — Composed of two flat, 
 lateral plates, continuous in front, forming a narrow angle like the letter 
 "V." In the male it is called the "Adam's apple." 
 
 Tonality — Correctness of pitch — key-relationship; as when a- melody or 
 passage in harmony is said to be correctly related to the key. Also refers 
 to production of sounds "in tune, or out of tune"; and, again, to that quality 
 
GLOSSARY 277 
 
 wherein a singer or instrumentalist (violinist) is said to produce pure or 
 impure tones, with relation to key. 
 
 TonsUs — The round glands situated between the folds of the "velum 
 palati." Also Adenoids. 
 
 TonsiUotomy — The operation for removing a part, or whole, of the 
 tonsils, by cutting them out with a knife or tonsillotome. From the phonetic 
 (singer's) standpoint, little understood by the medical profession; because 
 of which, often many cases of "monotone" voice have been inflicted upon 
 the persons injudiciously and improperly operated upon. Further injuries 
 to perfect vpice have been due to cutting those parts that produce inter- 
 mediate vowels. 
 
 Trachea — The wind-pipe. Beginning above the larnyx, it extends below 
 to join, or divide into, the two main bronchi (bronchial tubes). The trachea 
 is nearly everywhere connected with loose areolar tissue, abounding in elastic 
 fibres, and readily moves on the surrounding parts; a part of the automatic 
 movement in voice-production, under proper training, as well as in other 
 unconscious movements of the throat in swallowing, etc. 
 
 Tracheostenosis — -Contracting or narrowing of the trachea. 
 
 Tracheotomy^ — The operation whereby the trachea is opened, in 
 inflammatory conditions (croup, etc.), in order to admit air to the lungs; 
 or in other cases of stoppage of the air-passage. 
 
 Transmission — The act of carrying from one point to another;, carry- 
 ing through or over a body. 
 
 Tremolo — Reiteration of vocal sounds, irregularly, with depressed 
 pitch. Generally a lowered vitality and physical depression accompanies this 
 phenomenon. 
 
 Tympanum — A drum. Technically, the drum or middle-ear chamber. 
 An irregular cavity in the petrous part of the temporal bone. It lies between 
 the inner end of the external auditory canal and the labyrinth. It is a hard, 
 bony chamber, and across its outer opening is stretched a thin, semitrans- 
 parent membrane — the membrana tympani — which forms the inner end of 
 the external auditory opening, or meatus. Vocal Art-Science holds that the 
 tympanum's construction determines the law of Kinesis of sound-phenomena, 
 in human beings, because it is a typical receiver of Pyramido-prismatic sound. 
 
 Ultra-VioIet — -Those vibrations of light, beyond the violet (visible)' 
 rays, and that are invisible to the sense of sight. The ultra-violet is also 
 the controller of all wireless wave-music phenomena, superseding audion. 
 
 Uvula — The soft, grape-like end of the soft palate. It hangs from the 
 hard palate and incorporates all the fasciculi (strands of muscle) that come 
 from above it, with one common raphe; so that their "spliced" and inter- 
 mingled ends resemble a grape (uvula being the diminutive of the Latin 
 uva, a grape). 
 
 Vacuole — A cavity, chiefly formed in the interior mass of protoplasm, 
 by filtering into it drops of water. The term is used, however, to signify a 
 small vacuum, or empty space. 
 
 Velum Palati — The veil of the palate; the soft palate. 
 
 Ventricle — Diminutive of venter (Latin for stomach); a small stomach. 
 Used to describe any cavity in the human body, smaller than the stomach; 
 as the several ventricles of the brain, and the larger ventricles of the heart. 
 The small cavity between the true and false vocal cords is called a ventricle. 
 In Vocal Art-Science, the ventricle of the larynx, between the true and false 
 vocal cords, furnishes the chief means of showing that the voice is the result 
 of the Pyramido-Prismo-Conico-Helico-Cuspoidal-Spherical relationship. 
 
 Vertebta (pi. Vertebrae) — Any joint of the spinal column. The several 
 series of vertebrae are (1) the cervical (neck) — seven; (2) the dorsal (back) — 
 twelve; (3) the lumbar (loins) — five; the sacral (from the part used in ancient 
 
278 SUPPLEMENTS 
 
 sacrifices), a firmly united, compact mass, of five segments; and tlie coccyx, 
 a caudal (tail-like) reminiscence of lower orders. 
 
 Vibrato — A strong, rapid, vibrating quality of tone, generally due to 
 over-excitement. Often sharp as regards pitch. 
 
 Vocal EflSciency — Effectiveness of the methods of Vocal Art-Science in 
 developing and correlating the physical, mental and psychical faculties into 
 the phenomena of vocal perfection. 
 
 Vocal Folds (Cords) — ^The ultimate organ of phonation — voice. 
 Located within the larynx, these folds, when closed, shut off the air-passage 
 entirely, the slit between them forming the glottis. Both cords are pyramids, 
 symmetrically placed and double. With them, equally doubled and sym- 
 metrically placed, is the cartilage of Santorini. Also, the bony arytenoid 
 cartilages, in conico-helicoidal curves, forming absolutely hollow pyramids — 
 double — and symmetrically placed; acted upon in their hollow pyramidal 
 forms, by means of the air from the concentrating, bony cricoid, by directing 
 the thyro-cricoid angle, with its elastic ligamentous, regulating notch. 
 
 Vocatorilun — Vocalion. Vocatorium, the universal place of vocal tone; 
 the vocal-former. Vocalion, the vocal instrument. 
 
 Vocometer — A measurer of voice, as distinct from Phonometer, a 
 measurer of sound. 
 
 Voice-Synthesis — The assembling of analogous parts of voice. 
 
 Vomer (Bone) — A small, thin bone in the median line of nostril, form- 
 ing the posterior and principal portion of the partition between the nostrils. 
 The bone is so named because, in man, it bears some appearance to a plow- 
 share (Latin, vomer, plowshare). 
 
 Vowel — A vowel is the beginning and end of voice; it is the thread 
 of the stream, the blood of the heart, the very soul of the voice, the core of 
 the consonant. It begins in silence and evolutes into the sound of voice. 
 It is the tone formed by the ventricles at the glottis, or first sphincter, into 
 momentum of sound developed from the force of compressed air. 
 
 A vowel is a polarized vocal-column or voice-stream of air, which may 
 be described as "a stream, always going forward." IT it were not for the 
 forward direction, we should have no voice. The vowel-stream is centrifugal 
 in its action. 
 
 Vox Convulsiva — Double voice; acute and grave sounds, involuntarily 
 produced in succession. 
 
 Zygomatic — (From Greek zugos, a yoke). The zygomatic process is <t 
 thin, narrow projection of bone, bounding the squamous (scale-like) portion 
 of the temporal bone at its base. It forms the upper boundary of the cheek.