Beta liorfe fi>tate CoIIese of Agriculture ^t Cornell ©nibersiitp Stljaca, i^. S' %ihvavp Cornell University Library SB 186.161 Wheat, oats, barley, rye, and buckwheat, 3 1924 000 349 252 The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924000349252 INTERNATIONAL LIBRARY OF TECHNOLOGY A SERIES OF TEXTBOOKS FOR PERSONS ENGAGED IN THE ENGINEERING PROFESSIONS AND TRADES OR FOR THOSE WHO DESIRE INFORMATION CONCERNING THEM. FULLY ILLUSTRATED AND CONTAINING NUMEROUS PRACTICAL EXAMPLES AND THEIR SOLUTIONS WHEAT OATS, BARLEY, RYE, AND BUCKWHEAT CORN HAY AND PASTURE CROPS POTATOES ROOT CROPS TOBACCO SOILING CROPS 57309X SCRANTON: INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY 121 Wheat: Copyrigrht. 1910, by Interna tionai. Textbook Company. Entered at Stationers* Hall, London. Oats, Barley, Rye, and Buckwheat: Copyright, 1910, by International Textbook Company. Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. Corn: Copyright, 1911, by International Textbook Company. Entered at Sta- tioners' Hall, London. Hay and Pasture Crops: Copyright, 1911, by International Textbook Company. Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. Potatoes: Copyright, 1911, by International Textbook Company. Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. Root Crops: Copyright, 1911, by International Textbook Company. Entered at Stationers' Hall. London. Tobacco: Copyright, 1911, by International Textbook Company. Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. Soiling Crops: Copyright, 1911, by International Textbook Company. Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. All rights reserved. PREFACE The International Library of Technology is the outgrowth of a large and increasing demand that has arisen for the Reference Libraries of the International Correspondence Schools on the part of those who are not students of the Schools. As the volumes composing this Library are all printed from the same plates used in printing the Reference Libraries above mentioned, a few words are necessary regarding the scope and purpose of the instruction imparted to the students of — and the class of students taught by — these Schools, in order to afford a clear understanding of their salient and unique features. The only requirement for admission to any of the courses offered by the International Correspondence Schools, is that the applicant shall be able to read the English language and to write it sufficiently well to make his written answers to the questions asked him intelligible. Each course is complete in itself, and no textbooks are required other than those pre- pared by the Schools for the particular course selected. The students themselves are from every class, trade, and profession and from every country ; they are, almost without exception, busily engaged in some vocation, and can spare but little time for study, and that usually outside of their regular working hours. The information desired is such as can be immediately applied in practice, so that the student may be enabled to exchange his present vocation for a more con- genial one, or to rise to a higher level in the one he now pursues. Furthermore, he wishes to obtain a good working knowledge of the subjects treated in the shortest time and in the most direct manner possible. iii iv PREFACE In meeting these requirements, we have produced a set of books that in many respects, and particularly in the general plan followed, are absolutely unique. In the majority of subjects treated the knowledge of mathematics required is limited to the simplest principles of arithmetic and mensu- ration, and in no case is any greater knowledge of mathe- matics needed than the simplest elementary principles of algebra, geometry, and trigonometry, with a thorough, practical acquaintance with the use of the logarithmic table. To effect this result, derivations of rules and formulas are omitted, but thorough and complete instructions are given regarding how, when, and under what circumstances any particular rule, formula, or process should be applied; and whenever possible one or more examples, such as would be likely to arise in actual practice — together with their solu- tions — are given to illustrate and explain its application. In preparing these textbooks, it has been our constant endeavor to view the matter from the student's standpoint, and to try and anticipate everything that would cause him trouble. The utmost pains have been taken to avoid and correct any and all ambiguous expressions — both those due to faulty rhetoric and those due to insufficiency of statement or explanation. As, the best way to make a statement, explanation, or description clear, is to give a picture or a diagram in connection with it, illustrations have been used almost without limit. The illustrations have in all cases been adapted to the requirements of the text, and projec- tions and sections or outline, partially shaded, or full-shaded perspectives, have been used, according to which will best produce the desired results. Half-tones have been used rather sparingly, except in those cases where the general effect is desired rather than the actual details. It is obvious that books prepared along the lines men- tioned must not only be clear and concise beyond anything heretofore attempted, but thev must also oossess unenualeH PREFACE V indexes axe so full and complete, that it can at once be made available to the reader. The numerous examples and explan- atory remarks, together with the absence of long demonstra- tions and abstruse mathematical calculations, are of great assistance in helping one to select the proper formula, method, or process and in teaching him how and when it should be used. The text of this volume deals with such general field crops as wheat, com, oats, rye, barley, buckwheat, legumes, grasses, potatoes, root crops, and tobacco. In addition, are given dis- cussions of crops used for soiling— that is, cutting and feeding green plants without curing them — and also directions for making sUage and how to construct different types of silos. Among the important features treated for each crop are : Selec- tion of the proper seed, methods of preparing the seed bed, proper kinds and quantities of fertilizer, methods of seeding, cultivation requirements, proper harvesting methods, and the pests and injuries of the crops, together with the most approved methods of combating these pests. The student of farming will find this volume intensely practical and the treatment such that the methods described and the principles discussed can be readily appHed to farm conditions in all sections of the country. The method of numbering the pages, cuts, articles, etc. is such that each subject or part, when the subject is divided into two or more parts, is complete in itself; hence, in order to make the index intelligible, it was necessary to give each subject or part a number. This mmiber is placed at the top of each page, on the headline, opposite the page number; and to distinguish it from the page number it is preceded by the printer's section mark (§). Consequently, a reference such as § 16, page 26, will be readily found by looking alo^g the inside edges of the headlines until § 16 is found, and then through § 16 until page 26 is found. International Textbook Company CONTENTS Section Wheat Page General Description of Wheat . . 12 1 Selection of Seed for Planting . 12 7 Preparation of Soil 12 8 Planting of Wheat . 12 10 Care of Wheat During Growth . . 12 20 Harvesting of Wheat 12 21 Storing of Wheat 12 31 Thrashing of Wheat . . 12 37 Enemies and Diseases of Wheat . 12 38 Oats, Barley, Rye, and Buckwheat General Description of Oats . 13 1 Oat Ctilttire . 13 4 Enemies and Diseases of Oats . . . . . 13 7 General Description of Barley . . 13 10 Barley Culture .... 13 13 Enemies and Diseases of Barley 13 15 General Description of Rye . . 13 17 Rye Culture . . 13 18 Enemies and Diseases of Rye 13 20 General Description, of Buckwheat 13 21 Buckwheat Cxilture . ... 13 24 Corn General Description of Com . . 14 1 Selection of Variety for Planting . . . 14 8 Seed Com . 14 12 Soil Requirements for Com .... 14 20 Planting of Com . . 14 25 111 CONTENTS Co RN — Continued Cultivation of Com During Growth Harvesting and Storing of Corn Com Judging Com Parasites Hay and Pasture Crops General Description of Grasses . Grass Culture . . . Harvesting of Grass Crops Perennial Grass Plants . . Annual Grass Plants General Description of Legumes . . , Legume Culture . . Harvesting of Legumes Clovers . .... Alfalfa . . . Cowpeas . Soybeans Peanuts Vetches . . . , Field Peas . , Miscellaneous Legumes ... Importance of Pastures Classes of Pastures . . . , Pasture Mixtures .... Care of Pastures Potatoes General Description of Potatoes Soil Requirements and Preparations Seed Potatoes . . Planting of Potatoes Cultivating the Crop Harvesting, Storage, and Marketing - Potatoes ... Potato Diseases Insect Enemies of Potatoes Spraying .... of Section Page 14 37 14 42 14 50 14 56 15 1 15 9 15 16 . 15 33 15 63 16 1 16 7 16 16 16 18 17 1 17 19 17 25 17 29 17 32 . 17 34 .■ 17 36 17 39 17 40 17 51 17 54 IS 1 18 5 IS 8 . IS 16 . IS 21 I IS 23 IS 2S 18 34 18 36 CONTENTS V Root Crops Section Page. General Description of Root Crops . 19 1 Mangel Wurzels ... . . 19 3 Sugar Beets ... 19 17 Half-Sugar Mangels . . 19 18 Common Turnips . . 19 19 Rutabagas . . .... 19 21 Hybrid Turnips . .' 19 26 Kohlrabi . . 19 28 Carrots .... 19 30 Parsnips 19 34 Jerusalem Artichokes . .... 19 36 Tobacco Remarks on Tobacco Growing .... 20 1 Cigar-Wrapper Tobacco Seedlings .... 20 8 Fertilization for Cigar- Wrapper Tobacco 20 14 Raising Cigar- Wrapper Tobacco ... 20 22 Harvesting of Cigar- Wrapper Tobacco 20 34 Curing Cigar- Wrapper Tobacco . 20 38 Storing of Cigar- Wrapper Tobacco 20 42 Care of Tobacco Field After Harvest . 20 45 Cigar-Filler Tobacco 20 46 Export and White Burley Tobacco Seed- lings .... . .21 1 Raising Export and White Burley Tobaccos 21 4 Harvesting of Export and White Burley Tobaccos 21 7 Curing of Export and White Burley Tobaccos 21 11 Bulking of Export and White Burley Tobaccos Raising Bright Yellow Tobacco . . Harvesting of Bright Yellow Tobacco Curing of Bright Yellow Tobacco Bulking of Bright Yellow Tobacco Sun-Cured Tobacco Perique Tobacco 21 12 21 15 21 16 21 17 21 18 21 18 21 19 VI CONTENTS Tobacco — Continued Diseases of Tobacco Enemies of Tobacco Tobacco Barns Soiling Crops The Practice of Soiling . . Partial Soiling Systems Complete Soiling Systems Cereal Crops for Soiling . . Grasses for Soiling . . Legumes for Soiling Cabbage and Rape for Soiling Combination Crops for Soiling Section Page 21 20 . 21 23 . 21 32 . 22 1 22 3 22 4 . 22 8 . 22 13 . 22 17 22 19 22 22 WHEAT INTRODUCTION 1. Wheat is the most widely distributed of the cultivated plants, being grown in nearly all countries having temperate climates. Flour made from its grain is used more largely than any other for the making of bread. The flour is used also for making macaroni and other paste foods. The by- products obtained in the milling of wheat are extensively used as food for livestock, and the grain itself is also valu- able as stock food. The wheat plant, like all grains and grasses, has a tall, slender stem, or stalk. In different varieties the height of the plant varies from 2^ to 4 feet. Long sheath-like leaves extend from several places along the side of the stalk, and on the top of the stalk there is found, when the plant is mature, the head, or part in which the wheat grains ripen. Wheat, according to the time of the year it is planted, is known as winter wheat or as spring wheat. The seed for winter wheat is planted in the fall, the resulting plants remain- ing in the ground over the winter and developing early the next summer ; the seed of spring wheat is planted in the spring, the plants ripening during the summer of the same year. 2. The grains of the different kinds of wheat vary in color from those that are nearly white to those that have a reddish tinge. The former are known as white wheats and the latter as red wheats. In hardness of grain there is much difference in wheats; the grains of some wheats are very hard while those of others COPYRIGHTED BY INTERNATtONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY. ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL, LONDON §12 234—2 2 WHEAT § 12 are comparatively soft. For making bread, flours of both hard and soft wheats are blended, while for making macaroni and other similar pastes, hard-wheat flour is used alone. 3. The markets of the United States recognize four types of wheat, which grow in four different areas, although the boundaries are not distinctly drawn. The four tj'pes, regions where grown, and the color of grain produced, are as fol- lows: (1) Soft winter wheat; grown in the eastern part of the United States; grains vary from white to Hght red. (2) Hard winter wheat ; grown south of Minnesota and South Dakota, between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Moun- tains; grains are red. (3) Hard spring wheat; grown in Minnesota, North and South Dakota, Northern Wisconsin, Iowa, Nebraska, and in the central and western part of Canada; grains are red. (4) Soft white wheat; grown on the Pacific Coast and in the Rocky Mountain States; grains are white. 4. BotanicaUy, there are many kinds of wheat, several of which are illustrated in Figs. 1 and 2. Those illustrated in Fig. 1 are only a few of the so-caUed common wheats, which are shown three-quarters of their actual size. These are: (a), Fultz; (b). Blue Stem; (c), Mammoth Red; (d), Purple Straw; (e), Glyndon Fife; (/), Galgalos; and (g), Kharkov. The species illustrated in Fig. 2 are wheats that are not com- mon. They are shown one-half of their actual size, and are: (a), Club wheat; (b), Red Winter spelt; (c), Black Winter emmer; (d), Spring emmer; (e), Einkom; (/), Polish wheat; (g). Seven-headed wheat; and (h), Durum wheat. 5. Common wheat, as its name implies, is the kind com- monly grown throughout the wheat-growing districts of the world. There are common wheats for all regions, some wheats being especially adapted for certain conditions of cUmate and others for different conditions. The special qual- ities that have made the common wheats the leading cul- tivated kinds are large yields and excellence for making bread. Fultz wheat, shown in Fig. 1 (a) is a beardless soft winter wheat. It is extensively grown in the eastern part of the § 12 WHEAT 5 United States and Canada, and is noted for producing large yields. It is probably the most widely grown variety of wheat in the United States. Blue Stem wheat, shown in Fig. 1 (b), is a beardless hard spring wheat. It is extensively grown in Minnesota, where it has been found to give large yields of good quahty. Mammoth Red wheat, shown in Fig. 1 (c) , is a bearded soft winter wheat. It is grown in the eastern part of the United States and Canada. Purple Straw wheat, shown in Fig. 1 ((i), is a beardless soft winter wheat. It is grown in the eastern and the southern part of the United States, particularly in the states south and west of North Carolina. Glyndon Fife wheat, shown in Fig. 1 (e), is a beardless hard spring wheat. It is extensively grown in Minnesota, and, like Blue Stem wheat, has been found to give large yields of good quality. Galgalos wheat, shown in Fig. 1 (/), is a beardless semihard wheat. It was introduced into the United States by the Department of Agriculture, about 1900, from the Caucasus, Asiatic Russia, where it is generally grown as a winter wheat, although it is sometimes sown in the spring. In the United States it is grown as a spring wheat in the South, particularly in Oklahoma and New Mexico. Kharkov wheat, shown in Fig. 1 (g), is a bearded hard winter wheat. It is extensively grown in Kansas, Nebraska, and Oklahoma. 6. Club wheat, shown in Fig. 2 (a), has a short, compact head, and is the wheat most widely grown in California, Oregon, Washington, and Idaho. The grain is white and exceedingly soft. Spelt, shown in Fig. 2 (&) , of which there are both spring and winter varieties, is a very ancient form of wheat that has been cultivated for centuries in Europe and Africa. It was intro- duced into the United States only a few years ago from Russia. One difference between spelt and other wheats is in the manner in which the grain separates from the hull 6 WHEAT § 12 when thrashed. In thrashing most other kinds of wheat all the chaff is removed, while in thrashing spelt a part of it remains on the grain. Emmer, shown in Fig. 2 (c) and (d), is similar to spelt in that the chaff adheres to the grain after thrashing. The heads of the plant are flattened and bearded and the grains are arranged in two rows. Both emmer and spelt are adapted to the semiarid regions of the western part of the United States. They are cultivated in America for stock food only, and hence, although botan- ically they are similar to wheat, they may be considered economically with oats and barley. In feeding value they have been found equal to barley. Einkorn, shown in Fig. 2 (e), is interesting from the fact that it most nearly approaches the supposed original wild form of wheat from which all cultivated forms originated. The head in einkorn is much flattened and is heavily bearded, and the grains are somewhat angular in form. Polish wheat, shown in Fig. 2 (/), differs from the other species in that there is a long husk on each grain. The grains are large and somewhat resemble rye. It is cultivated to some extent in Southern Europe, but not in America. Seven-headed wheat, shown in Fig. 2 (g), is a species that is distinguished from the others by the branched head. It is known also by the names Egyptian, Mummy, Hundredfold, and Alaska. Agriculturally it is unimportant. Durum wheat, shown in Fig. 2 (h) , is a species that has been grown in the United States since 1901. This wheat was intro- duced by the Department of Agriculture. Samples were dis- tributed to the various state experiment stations of the great- plains region, where the conditions are similar to those in Russia, from which country the seed was procured. The wheat proved to be well adapted for regions where the sum- mers are hot and the atmosphere is dry. Experience has shown that it is particularly adapted to the Dakotas, although in many of the other western states it is now grown rather extensively. The two most valuable qualities of durum wheat are that it is able to withstand much drought and is § 12 WHEAT 7 practically free from rust, an enemy to wheat that is described later on in these pages. Durum wheat is very hard and is used extensively for the making of macaroni. It is used also for mixing with the softer wheats in making flour. At first, when introduced into the United States, it was condemned by millers on account of its hardness, but in recent years, since modern machinery has been used in the mills, its use for the making of flour has become extensive. WHEAT CULTURE SELECTION OF SEED FOB PliANTING 7. One of the first things that a farmer should consider in wheat culture is what variety he will plant, and then he should be sure that he gets the best seed of this variety. The grains should be hard, sound, and true to the variety. Obviously, also, the seed should be free from weed seeds. The variety should be one suited to the climatic and soil con- dition of the region. As a rule, this means the selection of seed grown in the same locality where it is to be planted, or at least seed grown in the same kind of soil and where the growing season is of about the same duration. Thus, a Maryland or a Virginia wheat grower should not select for general planting seed grown in California or in North Dakota. Seed from difEerent localities is often planted, however, for experimental purposes in the hope of finding a variety that, after several years of selection and planting of new seed, will be useful in improving the local varieties. Such practice is to be commended, but this experimenting does not mean the planting of the whole wheat area with new varieties. The variety selected for general planting should be one from which large yields may be expected. Experimenters have found that varieties having large kernels do not always give the largest crops, for wheat plants bearing comparatively small grains in a long head will produce a larger yield than varieties having large grains in short heads. 8 WHEAT § 12 8. After a farmer has been growing wheat for a season or more it is a good plan for him to establish a seed plot where he can practice the selection of the best heads for the planting of the subsequent crop. The size of the plot should, of course, be governed by the acreage of wheat to be planted; as a rule, 1 or 2 acres will be large enough. It is well, also, to locate the plot apart from the regular wheat fields. The season before the plot is established the farmer should pass through his wheat field and gather by hand a number of the best heads of wheat and from the grain in these heads the best should be selected and used to plant the seed plot the next year. The crop of grain from the plot should be harvested sep- arately from the rest of the wheat of the farm, and a careful selection from this grain made, the very best being saved to plant the plot the next year. The rest of the selected grain can be used as seed for the regular wheat fields of the farm. By continuing in this manner to select the best grains for seed, the farmer will, in a few years, get wheat seed that possesses excellent qualities. PBEPAKATION OF SOIL FERTILIZER FOR WHEAT 9. Stable Manure. — Wheat, like other cereals, requires much plant-food, and for this reason it is necessary to supply fertilizer of some kind. Stable manure, when used, is gen- erally applied to some other crop of the rotation than wheat. For example, if the rotation consists of corn, oats, wheat, and timothy and clover, most farmers would apply a Uberal quantity of stable manure to the ground before the com was planted. Stable manure is, however, sometimes used just before the wheat is planted, but experience shows that a small application is better than a large one. Too large a quantity of manure is likely to supply so much fertility that the wheat stalks will grow so rapidly that they may fall over, or lodge, as it is termed, before harvest. The quantity of manure to use and the time to apply it will depend largely § 12 WHEAT 9 on the condition of the soil and the method of farming practiced. 10. Commercial Fertilizer. — Commercial fertilizer is some- times used for a wheat crop, especially where land has been farmed for a long time. The fertilizer most commonly used contains 4 per cent, of nitrogen, 12 per cent, of phosphoric acid, and 4 per cent, of potash. Of this mixture, from 250 to 400 pounds per acre is the quantity usually applied. The proportion of phosphoric acid to nitrogen and potash is large because wheat, like other similar crops, requires much phos- phoric acid for the development of the grain. Of course, the fertilizer formula referred to above can be used only as a gen- eral one, and the farmer will find it necessary to change the proportion of the fertilizer ingredients according to the con- dition and fertility of his soil. Fertilizer for wheat is gen- erally applied by means of a fertilizer attachment on the machine used to plant the seed, and is, therefore, placed in the soil at the same time the wheat is sown. Sometimes, how- ever, it is sown broadcast just ahead of the implement. TILIiAGB FOR WHEAT 1 1 . Plowing. — It has been found by experience that early plowing for wheat is better than late. The wheat crop seems to need a settled plowed field, and this condition is secured by plowing the soil early. To be sure of a good seed-bed, it is the practice in some neighborhoods, provided stable manure is used for the wheat crop, to manure the field before the plowing is done, and then after the soil has settled for 4 or 5 weeks, to plow the field again, this time an inch deeper than when the manure was turned under. This double plowing brings the manure close to the top of the soil where it will be within easy reach of the crop. One objection to this practice, however, is that of expense. 12. Rolling and Harrowing. — Soon after ground for wheat has been plowed, it should be rolled to make a firm seed-bed. 10 • WHEAT § 12 This settling of the ground is particularly beneficial in wheat culture. If it is found necessary to plant the seed very soon after plowing the field, a corruguated roller is a better imple- ment to use than a smooth-cylinder roller, as it packs the soil more firmly. The field, after having been made firm by the roller, should be well harrowed. The number of times that it is harrowed depends largely on the soil and on the climate of the locality. In one field two or three harrowings may be sufficient, while in another four or five may be necessary. The farmer's eye and knowledge of conditions must be his guide in deciding how much harrowing the soil needs. The main consideration when harrowing ground for wheat is to get the soil fine. If it is found that one type of harrow will not do the work, others should be substituted. In some sections farmers roll the wheat ground after it is harrowed, sometimes both just before and just after the grain is planted. A word of caution in regard to this practice is here offered. The settling of the soil tends to improve the con- ditions necessary for capillary attraction, and as a result there is an undue loss of water. If, however, it is desired to level the field just before planting the seed, a roller may be used, but it should be followed by a light harrow that will scuff the surface. The mulch thus formed on the surface Will prevent the excessive loss of water. PLANTING OF WHEAT 13. Time for Planting. — The time for the seeding of wheat varies with the climate and with the local conditions. In this matter it is generally safe to follow the custom of the neighborhood. 14. Depth of Planting. — The depth at which wheat seed is planted depends somewhat on the condition of the soil. If the soil has been well prepared and is not exceedingly dry, experienced farmers claim that from 1 inch to 1^ inches is about the right depth. But where the soil is exceedingly dry they claim 3 inches to be a better depth. § 12 WHEAT 11 15. Quantity of Seed. — The quantity of seed to be planted depends largely on the size of the grains; a bushel of wheat composed of small grains may have from two to three times the number of seeds that a bushel of large grains will have. The quantity is influenced also by the time of seeding; early sowing requires less seed than late sowing, because if grain is sown early it starts better than if sown late. From 1^ to 2 bushels of seed per acre is an average planting. 16. Methods of Planting.— Grass seed is often planted with wheat at the same time the wheat is sown, the grass being desired for hay after the wheat crop is removed. To Fig. 3 improve the hay, the practice in most sections where winter wheat is grown is to sow clover seed in with the growing wheat and grass plants during the early part of the spring following the planting of the wheat and grass. The clover seed is broadcasted over the ground and harrowed into the soil. The planting of the wheat and grass seed is done in one of three ways; (1) By means of a grain drill, (2) by broadcasting the seed with what is known as a broadcast seeder, and (3) by sowing by hand. 17. Perhaps the largest part of wheat planting is done by grain driUs. There are several types of these implements. 12 WHEAT § 12 two of the most common being illustrated in Figs. 3 and 4. The one shown in Fig. 3 is known as a hoe drill. This name is applied from the fact that seeds pass through so-called hoes at the base of the drill. Wheat seed and fertilizer, provided fertilizer is used, are placed in separate compartments in the long box at the top. In front of this box there is a separate box for grass seed. As the drill is being driven across the field the wheat seed, grass seed, and fertilizer feed into the tubes that connect the box with the hoes. Each hoe makes a slight furrow or groove in the earth and into this the seeds and fer- tilizer drop. • After the hoes have passed, 'some of the earth at the sides of the furrows drops on the seeds and fertilizer 'V: -£,*■;.;.->• ■^::. ;.i«;> .-=<'■■ ■■■- •■•>:>■ Fig. 4 and covers them. The quantity of wheat seed, grass seed, and fertilizer dropped is regulated by levers and cogs on the drill, the method of regulation differing on drills made by different manufacturers. On most implements there is, in addition to the regulating devices, an indicator that shows the number of acres and fractional parts planted. 18. In Fig. 4 is shown the disk type of drill. The principal difference between this and the hoe type is that, instead of hoes, there are cutting disks that open furrows. The seed and fertilizer pass to the ground just back of these disks. The small wheels shown at the rear are covering wheels that press the earth over the seed and fertilizer. § 12 WHEAT 13 Some manufacturers provide seats on the implement so that the operator can ride as shown in Fig. 4, while others make the drills without seats, as shown in Fig. 3. 19. The farmer should be familiar with the workings of all parts of the drill in use on his farm. The directions that come with the implement should be carefully studied, but it should be remembered that these directions are for the particular make of drill with which they are sent, and that there is always a difference in the parts of drills of different makes. Since wheat grains vary considerably in size, it is next to impossible for the manufacturer to make an imple- ment that will, without changing the feed of the drill, sow the same quantity of large seed to the acre as will be sown of small seed. The farmer, therefore, needs to regulate the feed by the size of seed he plants. 20. The planting of the seed with a drill is such-an impor- tant operation that many experienced farmers have two men or a man and a boy to do the work. The horses should be hitched rather short, as the drill will then be more likely to keep steady while running. Before going to the field the drill should be carefully examined, and all parts adjusted to operate with smoothness and accuracy. All bearings need to be well oiled, and the farmer should be sure that the tool box on the implement is well provided with tools. One or two wrenches, a few washers, bolts, nuts, wooden pins, some wire, a punch, and a pair of pincers, are the tools most com- monly needed to repair slight damages to a drill. It is well, also, to provide a hatchet, saw, chisel, file, and one or two boards. Such things are often useful while in the field, and may be the means of saving considerable time -that would be required were it necessary to take the implement back to the machinery house for repairs. In addition to the materials mentioned, it is a good plan to provide two metal half-bushel baskets, a quart measure with a lip or a spout on it, and a piece of rubber sheeting. The baskets are to hold the seed and fertilizer after the truck reaches the field, and the quart cup will be found handy for pouring grass seed into the seed 14 WHEAT § 12 box on the drill. The piece of rubber sheeting is useful to prevent the waste of seed. If the sheet is spread on the ground it will catch any seeds or fertilizer that may fall while the materials are being poured from the bags into the measures. A careless farmer will often waste a bushel of seed or fertilizer by not making use of such a cloth. 21. When about to take the drill to the field, it is a good plan to fasten with a rope or wire the lever that is used to regulate the height of the planting attachment. If this precaution is not taken, sudden jars such as will be caused by driving over rough, stony places may release the lever and as a result the parts may be broken. In farm practice, more injury is often done to machines and implements during transportation to and from the field than while using them. Another precaution that should be taken is not to load a number of miscellaneous articles on the drill. Some farmers have the habit of using the implement as a- conveyance, and will load it with an abundance of materials needed in the field, such as bags of seed and fertilizer, buckets, etc. A farmer will do well to use a wagon to convey the needed materials to the field. To facilitate the work of seeding, it is well to dis- tribute the bags of seed and fertilizer at points about the field where they are likely to be needed. It is not necessary to provide a team for both the drill and the wagon, as one may be hitched behind the other and both taken to the field at one trip. After reaching the field, the drill should be examined to see that all parts are in good working order. Special care should be exercised to have all thumbscrews tight and all levers in place. It is a good plan, also, to remove from the seed and fertilizer compartments any rubbish that may be in them. With the foregoing precautions taken, the farmer is ready to place the seed and the fertilizer in their respective boxes. The quantity of seed it is desired to plant is first measured and placed in the box provided for the grain, after which the quantity of fertilizer needed is measured and placed in the compartment for fertilizer. The measuring, however, should § 12 WHEAT 15 not be done in the same basket used for the wheat. The grass seed, which is measured in the quart cup, is next placed in the box for grass seed, and the drill is ready to be started. 22. The direction of the grain rows is best governed by the slope of the land or the shape of the field. If water flows lengthwise of a field, make the rows crosswise; if the water flows across the short way of the field, make the rows length- wise; if the land is practically level, make the rows the long way of the field. When driving a drill toward a fence, the farmer should not attempt to turn the implement while the hoes or disks are down; he should drive out to the fence, and, after the team has stopped, raise the parts by means of the lever provided for the purpose, and then turn the team and proceed in the direction desired. Neither should an attempt to back a drill be made while the parts are down. As has been stated, some farmers employ two persons to operate a wheat drill, one to drive the team and the other, the helper, to attend to the levers. The helper should watch the parts of the drill to see that each is in good working order. If a tube becomes clogged the obstruction must be immediately removed, otherwise there will be an uneven distribution of grain or fertilizer. The seed and the fertilizer, as they come from the drill, are in view of the operator, and he should be sure that the same quantity of material is coming from each tube and at the right speed. The seed and fertilizer com- partments should be occasionally examined in order to see whether the regulators are working properly and the materials are being distributed in the desired quantities. If not, the necessary adjustments should be made. When ready to start the drill, the helper lets down the working parts by means of the lever, and the driver starts the team and drives in a straight line to the opposite side of the field. It is a good plan, when making the first row, to keep thp team in line with a stick or pole placed at the opposite side of the field. As soon as the team stops, the helper lifts the lever, and the driver turns the team and implement around 16 WHEAT § 12 and prepares for a return trip across the field. On this return trip and, in fact, on all other trips while planting is being done, the drill wheel should track in the last seeded row made on the previous trip. By keeping the wheel in this row the farmer will not be troubled by missed spaces on the field. When there are missed spaces on a field, not only is all the available soil not utilized for the growing of wheat, but weeds will soon be found growing there. Weeds not only present an unsightly appearance on the field but absorb plant-food that is needed by the wheat plants. 23. Since no seeding is done while the team is being turned, there will be spaces, known as headlands, left at the ends of the parallel rows. As a rule, these headlands are about the width of two drill rows. Different farmers employ different methods of seeding these parts of the field. Some leave the space of two drill rows along one side of the field, and then take the drill to the corner where the start was made, and drill a row across the end of the field and along the side where the rows are missing, and then across the other end. The drill is then turned and a row planted down the end, and along the side, and up the other end to the corner where the seeding was first started, this last row . finishing the seeding. Other farmers do not leave the space at the side of the field, but finish the seeding by making rows along the headlands a,cross the end of the field. The method employed for the finishing of the seeding depends largely on the shape of the field. 24. After the drilling is finished, the seed and fertilizer remaining in the compartments should be removed and saved and the drill taken to the implement shed, where it should be thoroughly cleaned; if some fertilizer still adheres to the sides and bottom of the compartment, it is a good plan to place the implement in the sunshine until the fertilizer becomes dry enough to be removed. Before storing the drill in the shed, all parts should be thoroughly brushed to remove particles of dust and fertilizer. The acid in fertilizer destroys metal castings. If the castings are loose, a good way to clean § 12 WHEAT 17 them is to remove them from the implement- and place them in a fire for a short time, as heat will remove all adhering particles. Since dampness will destroy both the metal and the wooden parts of the implement, the shed where the drill is stored should have a good dry floor and should be covered with a water-tight roof. 25. In some sections, especially where land is newly farmed, wheat seed is sown by broadcasting it over the surface by means of a seeder like that shown in Fig. 5. In this seeder the wheat, grass seed, and fertilizer are placed in the box. Pig. S and as the team is driven across the field, the seeds are scattered on the ground. The hoes at the rear of the seeder are for the purpose of digging up the surface of the ground to cover the seed. Some seeders are not provided with hoes, and it is therefore necessary to follow them with a harrow for the purpose of covering the seed. 26. The simplest type of seeder is a small implement that is attached to the end gate of a farm wagon, as shown in Fig. 6. The power for casting the seed is derived from a chain a, which is attached to cogs on the hub of the wheel of the wagon. The seed is scattered over an area several feet 234—3 18 WHEAT § 12 in width. A harrow is, of course, necessary for covering the seed. The farmer who uses a seeder instead of a drill for plant- ing his wheat, should be just as familiar with the working parts of his machine as is the man who uses a drill. The fertilizer attachment, if fertilizer is used, and the rate of planting of seed, should be as carefully watched in the one ease as in the other. The methods of planting with drills and seeders are so similar that detailed instructions for using the seeder will not be necessary. Fig. 6 27. When a grain drill or a broadcasting machine is not available, a farmer can resort to the first method of sowing used by man, that of sowing by hand. To insure an even stand of grain when this method is used, care must be taken to scatter the seed evenly over the ground. It is best to have the sacks of seed grain at convenient places on both ends or sides of the field. Whether they are placed at the ends or sides will depend on the direction taken in sowing the seed. The farmer should then provide himself with two stakes long enough to be seen easily across the field when they are marked with a conspicuous piece of cloth such as a red handkerchief. § 12 WHEAT 19 One of the stakes is set up on the opposite side of the field from that at which the farmer intends starting to sow; it is placed 6 feet, or 2 paces, from that side of the field parallel to the direction of walking while sowing. The other stake is set up on the side of the field from which the start is to be made 18 feet, or 6 paces, from the corner of the field. 28. The grain for sowing may be carried in a basket, but a more convenient carrier is a 2-bushel grain sack, with one corner of the open end securely tied to the corner on the same side at the bottom of the sack. These two corners may be securely fastened together by placing a small apple or a pebble in the closed corner and tying a cord through the open corner and around the apple. Sufficient grain to sow a strip 12 feet wide across the field is then placed in the bag, which is hung over the head and on the right shoulder, the bag hanging under the left arm. The start is made 6 feet, or 2 paces, from the corner of the field, which is in line with the stake first set up on the opposite side of the field, and a handful of grain is sown at about every step while walking toward the stake. The grain is scattered as evenly as possible over a strip 6 feet wide on each side of the sower by a full and free swinging motion of the arm, the grain passing over the fingers in leaving the hand. When the stake is reached, the bag is replenished and carried along the side of the field and placed on the ground 12 feet, or 4 paces, from the stake, which position is opposite the second stake set up on the side from which the start was made. The stake first set up is then moved 24 feet, or 8 paces, along the side of the field for a guide on the next trip, and the return trip to the side of the field from which the start was made is commenced at the point where the bag was deposited. The same procedure is followed until the whole field has been seeded. 20 WHEAT § 12 CARE OF WHEAT DURING GROWTH 29. Caring for a field of wheat after the seed has been planted is an important part of farm work. Perhaps the most unfortunate occurrence in a wheat field is to have a heavy, beating rain come soon after the seeding has been finished. Such a rain will flatten the small ridges between the drill rows, if a drill has been used to do the planting, and cause silt to be deposited in the little depressions between the rows in which the seed has been planted. Sunshine, which, as a rule, fol- lows a heavy rain, causes this silt to bake, and a crust is formed over the seed. This crust will, to a certain extent, prevent the plants from getting above ground. In this case, if enough wheat plants for a good stand of crop do not appear, the farmer should reseed; or, if it is too late in the year for planting wheat, some other crop should be planted. Small patches covered with silt may be treated by loosening the ground, broadcasting wheat and grass seed by hand, and covering the seed by harrowing it into the ground. 30. Gullies are also often formed in wheat fields by storms. These washouts need attention, but not before the wheat plants are well above ground. If the gullies are small, they should be covered with sod placed grass side up. The grass from this sod will grow and produce hay and the sod will prevent the washouts from becoming larger and deeper. If sod is not available, corn-stub roots or coarse litter may be used to fill the gullies. The harrowing of winter- wheat ground in the spring just before or just after the sowing of the clover seed has been attended with various results. Whether the practice is bene- ficial or not depends largely on the soil. If the ground is in good condition, the harrowing is generally helpful to the grain and the grass. This working of the soil forms, also, a good seed-bed for the clover. The kind of harrow to use for this work is important. A spike-tooth smoothing harrow with sharp teeth set to slant back at an angle of about 45° is the best one to use. § 12 WPIEAT 21 HARVESTING AND STORING OF WHEAT TIME OF HAEVBSTING 31. The period of the year when wheat is harvested dif- fers with the climate, latitude, and altitude of the place where it is grown. The condition of the grain is an index of when to harvest. In the eastern part of the United States and of Canada, if the straw is just turning yellow the condition for cutting the grain is favorable. The grain at this period of growth is soft enough to be indented with the fingernail and at the same time it is hard enough not to be crushed by pressing it between the fingers. In other words, it has just passed the milk stage. Experiments have proved that there is a transfer of material from the straw to the grain after the cutting has taken place. Therefore, grain cut at what may seem an immature period will ripen sufficiently for all pur- poses if left unthrashed for a time. In the western part of the United States and of Canada, the plants are allowed to become nearly ripe before they are cut. IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES FOR HABVESTING WHEAT 32. Most of the wheat, especially on small farms in humid climates, is harvested with machines called self-binding harvesters, or, simply, binders. An illustration of a binder in operation in a wheat field is shown in Fig. 7. A binder of standard width cuts a swath of 6 feet. The grain plants are bound by the machine in sheaves, or bundles, and are deposited in piles, as shown in the illustration. Three horses are generally used to operate a binder. On an average, about 10 acres of wheat can be cut in a day with one of these machines, although if the rows are long and the grain light, it is possible to cut a larger area. 33. Another machine that is sometimes employed to cut wheat and other small grains is the self-raking reaper, one of which is illustrated in Fig. 8. Grain cut by a reaper is 22 WHEAT § 12 deposited in piles, which are afterwards bound into sheaves Pig. 7 by hand as described elsewhere. Reapers were used exten- sively before the advent of binders, but since binders require Fig. 8 less labor on the part of the farmer they are now used more extensively than reapers. §12 WHEAT 23 34. In regions having a rather dry climate the grain is allowed to become nearly ripe before it is cut. In these places ^^^t- ' ^ ^^T vkT*?^ Fig. 9 much of the grain is cut by machines known as grain headers. These machines, one of which is shown in Fig. 9, cut the grain near the head, leaving the straw standing in the field. The grain is conveyed by an endless belt to one side of the machine, Fig, 10 where it is elevated and loaded into a wagon that is ready to receive it. From 15 to 30 acres of grain can be cut in a day 24 WHEAT §12 with one of these machines. The header is propelled by being pushed by horses. 35. Combined harvesters and threshers are used in some sections where large areas of grain are to be cut. These machines are made in many different sizes, some of the smaller Pig. 11 ones cutting a swath of grain as narrow as 8 feet in width, while machines are made that cut a swath as wide as 35 feet. The heads of grain are conveyed by a belt to the thresher part of the machine, where the grains of wheat are threshed and placed in sacks ready for shipment. The smaller machines are propelled by horses, as shown in Fig. 10, while the larger ones are operated by traction engines, as shown in Fig. 11. 36. An implement known as a grain cradle is used for cutting wheat and other small grains on small areas or on rough or newly cleared lands on which the grain binders or the self-raking reaper cannot be used. This implement is shown in Fig. 12, and is composed of a scythe a, snath b, handle c, four wooden fingers d set in a frame e, and braces /. Fig. 12 §12 WHEAT 26 37. The cradle was formerly extensively used in all grain harvesting. It is used much the same as a scythe, the oper- ator swinging it clear of the ground, as shown at the right on Fig. 13. In the swing, the fingers of the cradle carry the grain stalks as they are cut to the left side of the operator, or cradler, where they are deposited in a straight swath, with Fig. 13 all stalks at right angles to the line of the swath and with all heads of grain away from the cradler. The stalks are laid in the swath by drawing the cradle forward with the back of the scythe and fingers of the cradle next to the ground, as shown at the left in Fig. 13. The grain is allowed to cure in the swath and is then bound in sheaves by hand. BINDING GRAIN BUNDLES BY HAND 38. To bind grain by hand, it is necessary, when the grain has been cut with the cradle, to rake the grain lying in the swath into neat bundles of such a size that, when bound, they will be 6 to 8 inches in diameter midway between the head and the butt ends. In this operation the implement 26 WHEAT § 12 shown in Fig. 14, which is known as a grain rake, is employed. If a self-raking reaper has been used, the raking is not necessary. If the grain straws are long enough, single bands are used in binding. The single band is simply a medium-sized handful of the stalks taken from the bundle. With one end of the band in the right hand, the bundle is gathered into the arms, the other end of the band grasped by the left hand and the two ends drawn up so that the band is tight around the sheaf, as shown in Fig. 15 (/), which shows the ends of a double band. In a single band, one end would be heads and the other end Fig. 14 butts of- the straw. The ends of the band are then given a half twist around each other and tucked under the band, as shown in Fig. 15 (g), which completes the binding of the sheaf. 39. If the straw is not of sufficient length to go around a sheaf, farmers make what is called a double band, which is done as shown in Fig. 15. In the left hand a fair but not a large handful of the straw is grasped near the head end with the heads next the thumb and forefinger ; then, with the right hand, the straw is parted as shown in (a), one part being grasped by the right hand under the left as illustrated, and by ■a series of motions the positions shown in (b) , (c) , and (d) are attained. Then the left hand lets go of the double band thus formed, the right hand holding it as shown in (e). The bundle is then gathered into the arms, the left hand grasping one end of the band, and as that portion of the double band held by the right hand comes against the straw in the bundle, (S) 27 Fig. 15 28 WHEAT § 12 the hold on the knot is released and the hand passed along the band until near the end, when the band is drawn tight around the sheaf, which is then bound in the same way as with a single band. The knot formed in making the double band is on the side of the sheaf opposite to the ends shown in (g) . PLACING GRAIN BUNDLES IN SHOCKS 40. Workmen follow either the binder or reaper and place the bundles of grain in shocks, as illustrated in Fig. 16. Some Fig. 16 farmers cap the pile with one or two bundles laid across the top, while others simply stand the bundles upright and leave them without caps. From ten to twelve bundles is the usual § 12 WHEAT 29 number placed in a shock. There are two forms of shock in general use on farms — the round and the long. The methods of forming these shocks are illustrated in Fig. 17, two ways of making the round shock being shown in (a) and {b) and the way in which the long shock is made being shown in {c) . The round shock shown in (a) is made by standing six sheaves in two parallel rows, as shown by the circles 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, and then standing two sheaves on each side, as shown by the circles 7 and 8 and 9 and 10. The shock is then capped by laying two bundles across the top. The sheaves forming the cap are spread out at both the head and butt ends so that they will cover as large a space as possible. © O0 ®00® 0®0 00 00 (b) (c) Fig. 17 The round shock shown in (b) is formed by first standing four sheaves together as indicated by the circles 1, 2, 3, and 4, then adding four sheaves as indicated by the circles 5, 6, 7, and 8, and finishing the shock by placing four more sheaves as shown by the circles 9, 10, 11, and 12. The long shock shown in (c) is formed by standing ten sheaves in two parallel rows as indicated by the circles 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10. If a twelve-bundle shock is desired, two more sheaves are added at the end. Long shocks, as a rule, are made to lie north and south, as this position gives both sides of the shock an equal distribution of sunshine to dry the grain. 30 WHEAT §12 HAULING GRAIN BUNDLES 41. In the regions where wheat is cut with binders or reapers, the shocks of grain are left standing in the field for a Fig. 18 few days to cure, or dry out, before being hauled either to the place of storage or to where they are thrashed. As a rule, racks placed on the regular running gears of a farm wagon Fig. 19 are used for conveying the bundles. The rack shown in Fig. 18 is known as a hay ladder, and that shown in Fig. 19 § 12 WHEAT 31 is called a hay flat. Ladders or flats are, as a rule, from 14 to 18 feet long, and as their length is greater than that of the ordinary wagon box, it is necessary, when using them, to lengthen the coupling of the wagon. At least two men are needed to load bundles on a rack, one to pitch the bundles from the shock to the rack, and the other to place them in position on the rack. If the rack is a very long one it is better to have two pitchers and two loaders. The loading of a shock of wheat into a flat or a ladder pro- ceeds about as follows : The team is driven to the shock and stopped, the two pitchers take their places on the ground near the shock, one loader (if there are two) standing on the rack in position to load the front end, and the other one standing near the rear end. The bundles are then thrown one at a time to the loaders, who place them in position. The bed, or bot- tom, is filled by placing sheaves lengthwise, those in the back half having the butt ends turned toward the rear of the wagon and those in the front half having the butt ends turned toward the front. After the bed of the rack is filled, the loaders next place bundles out over both sides of the rail. The band of the sheaf should rest on the rail, the butt being toward the out- side of the rack and the head toward the inside. The next step is to fill the middle, as it is called. This is done by laying sheaves lengthwise. These sheaves tend to bind the layers. Consecutive layers are then built above the first ones, the butt ends of the sheaves always being turned toward the outside. When the load becomes so high that it is inconvenient to pitch the bundles to the loaders, the layers are made smaller; this is known among farmers as drawing them in. The top layers therefore consist of comparatively few sheaves. This method of finishing the load is for the pur- pose of binding the sheaves together to prevent the load from falling from the rack. STORING GRAIN BUNDLES 42. Storing in Stacks. — It is the practice in some regions to store wheat for a time before thrashing it. There are two general methods of storing wheat, which are to place it in 32 WHEAT §12 stacks built out of doors or in a mow in a barn. When wheat is stored out of doors, the stack should be built on ground that is well drained and not too close to the farm buildings. It is a good plan to make stacks small or medium-sized, as sev- eral such stacks are to be preferred to one large one. Stacks are built on some kind of a foundation, or platform, that will keep the sheaves off of the ground. Were no foundation built, the bottom sheaves would become wet and rot. Besides, the sheaves, when held above the ground, are aired, and thus dried out better than if no platform were built. Stacks are usually made circular at the base, and for this reason a cir- cular foundation is generally built. ^=^ o J f\_ VL r P\ o o ^ 1 =^i- k 5> -- 4= =ip' =< In ,' IE T ii"~ ihy ^ c - ^' = = J = 1= = - ie||= = . n 3E ^ w ^ o 1^ + P = raj (b) Fig. 20 The foundation for a stack is made of two layers, one of posts and one of rails. The posts are laid down first, as shown in Fig. 20 (o), and the rails are then laid across the posts, as shown in Fig. 20 (b), thus forming a platform from 7 to 10 inches high. 43. Three persons are generally employed in building a stack — a man who puts each sheaf in place in the stack, a boy who hands him the sheaves one at a time, and a man who pitches the sheaves from the loaded wagon. There are two rules that must always be observed when building a stack. These are: (1) place the butts toward the §12 WHEAT 33 outside of the stack, (2) always keep the center of the stack high and the outside low. If these rules are observed, a stack will shed water. The stack is started at the center of the foundation by placing a few sheaves in a pile, with heads toward the center as just advised. The stacker next lays a row of sheaves around the pile in the center, the sheaves radiating from the center like the spokes of a wheel, differing from a wheel, however, in that the sheaves are placed close together. . A second row is then laid around the first one, the heads of the sheaves of the second row being placed as far as the bands of those of the first one. A third row is then laid in the same manner around the second one, and the practice of laying one row around another is continued until the edge of the foundation has been reached. «.«» ^i" ^ . t; ,.*.-(t^ «{= Fig. 21 After the first layer has been completed the stacker goes back to the center and starts a second one. If he finds that the center is not high enough he should pile up a few extra bundles in the center. The second layer is built above the first one, the stacker now getting on his knees, as in this posi- tion he can push the sheaves in place better than if he were on his feet. As the stacker is on his knees, the boy who hands him the sheaves should watch his changes of position and hand him the sheaves accordingly. The sheaves are handed side- wise to the stacker, and if it is more convenient for him to reach for the sheaf with his right hand, the boy should hold 234—4 34 WHEAT § 12 the head of the sheaf toward the front; if it is more convenient for the stacker to reach for the sheaf with his left hand, the boy- should hold the butt toward the front. It is well to state here that the boy should not move about the stack any more than is necessary, as tramping loosens the grain and is also likely to push some of the sheaves out of place. 44. The layers are then continued one above the other until the stack is finished. To give the stack the shape shown in Fig. 21, some layers are made to cover a larger area than others. The first two or three layers are of just about the area of the foundation, the third or the fourth is made a little larger in circumference, the next one still larger, and so on until about one-third of the height the stack is to have is reached. Each layer is then made a little smaller than the preceding one. This process of making the layers smaller, or drawing in the stack, as it is called, causes each sheaf to be placed over another as shingles are laid. This drawing in must be done very gradually in order to prevent the stack from having too flat a roof, as the top part is termed. When the stack is nearly finished the top layers are so small in area that the boy is no longer needed, as the pitcher can throw the sheaves direct to the stacker. In making the small layers, the stacker must continue to keep the middle portions high, just as with large ones, as otherwise the stack will not shed water. To finish a stack' at the top, a stick from 4 to 6 feet long is set in the center and the sheaves are built around it. After all the bundles have been placed, some rye straw is put on the top to act as a cap, or covering, that will prevent water from entering the center of the stack. To keep the straw in place, it is tied to the stick. Some farmers make a practice of leaning several poles of about equal size against the sides of the stack so that it will settle evenly, and not lean to one side or the other. Obvi- ously, these poles should be about the height of the stack. The positions of the lower ends of the poles are shown by the small circles around the foundation, shown in Fig. 20 (6) . After a stack has stood for a few days the poles should be removed. § 12 WHEAT 35 45. Storing in Mow. — Before storing wheat bundles in the mow of a barn, all dirt, loose seeds, chaff, straw, etc. that are in the mow should be removed. Too often the cleaning of a mow consists only of throwing out all the loose stuff that can be gathered with a pitchfork. This kind of cleaning is not sufi&cierit. Not only the floor but also the sides and all stringers and rafters should be swept. The refuse may be thrown into the manure gutters to act as an absorbent for the liquid manure. The only objection urged against the use of the refuse in the manure gutters is that it often contains weed seeds which, when thrown on the land with the manure, may seed the fields to weeds. This objection can be obviated, however, by not having weeds in the grain stored in the mows. The m o w i n g of ? ' grain, or the placing * of it in the mow of a bam, requires one pitcher on the load to throw off the sheaves, a man or a boy tp hand the sheaves, and a man to mow, or place the sheaves in Fig. 22 place. If the load cannot be drawn near the mow, an extra man may be necessary to hand the sheaves. The method of placing grain in a mow is similar to stacking it, and should be just as carefully done. The only difference is that when it is placed in the mow the pile is started at the edge, that is, along the wall of the mow, instead of at the center as when a stack is built. The sheaves are laid with the butts toward the walls. The start is made at one corner, where the sheaves are laid down in the order shown in Fig. 22 by the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, and the row is continued around each side of the mow, as shown by arrows, all corners being filled in as already indicated. A second row is then com- menced inside of the first, the butt of each sheaf overlapping a sheaf of the first row as far as the band, and this procedure is continued until the center of the mow has been reached, 36 § 12 WHEAT 37 when the first layer is finished. Subsequent layers are made in the same way, the man laying the sheaves getting on his knees as in building a stack, and if care is exercised the sheaves can be placed so tightly together that the pile will be rat-proof. The center of the mow should be kept high like the center of the stack. This sometimes makes it necessary to place a few extra sheaves at the center of the mow. By having the center high the sheaves press toward the walls of the mow instead of toward the center. The top of the mow of grain can be protected from sparrows, pigeons, etc. by standing a few sheaves with the heads down. Some loose straw thrown over the top is a further protection. THRASHING WHEAT 46. Most wheat, except that cut by combined harvesters and threshers, is thrashed by power machines, operated either by horses or by steam or gasoline engines. As a rule, farmers do not own thrashing machines, the work being done by outfits that travel from farm to farm thrashing the grain at a fixed rate per acre. Fig. 23 illustrates a thrashing outfit in opera- tion. The bundles of grain are pitched on to a table on the machine, from which they are shoved into the separator, where the grain is parted from the straw and chaff. The grain comes out at an opening where it is measured automatically, and is either sacked or allowed to run loose into a wagon box. The straw and chaff are carried out at another opening and placed in a stack. From many machines the straw is blown through a long tube by means of a rotary fan, as shown in the illustra- tion, while in other machines an elevator belt carries the straw to the stack. The practice in some sections is to thrash the grain direct from the shocks, while in other localities it is stored for a time in mows or in stacks before being thrashed. Grain, after it is harvested, must go through a sweat; this may take place while on the stalk in the shock, mow, or stack, or after the grain is thrashed and placed in a bin. The sweating causes heating to take place, and if this heating becomes too intense 38 WHEAT § 12 the grain will be so burned and blackened that the quality- is injured. 47. Experience has demonstrated that if the sweating takes place in the shock and the grain dries out well before it is thrashed there will be but little danger of heating in the bin. On the contrary, if wet weather occurs while the grain is in the shock, there is danger of its sprouting. This may be overcome by storing it in mows or in stacks, but care must be exercised when storing the unthrashed grain, for if it is too wet when placed in the mow or stack excessive heating will occur. If much grass and weeds are bound with the grain there will be more heating than if the bundles are free from such plants, simply because the grass and weeds, being green when cut, remain damp longer than the grain. Thus there is much difference of opinion as to whether grain should be thrashed direct from the shock or from mows or stacks. Statistics show, however, that the larger part of the wheat raised in the United States is thrashed direct from the shock. The grain in the bin is then watched during the sweating and heating process, and if too much heat occurs it is spread out to dry, and thus further heating is stopped. ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF WHEAT WEEDS IN WHEAT FIELDS 48. Wheat fields should be kept free of Weeds, on account of the harm that weed seeds do to flour made from the wheat, and the damage the plants do in the fields. The best way to keep fields free from weeds is to plant wheat that is free from weed seeds. There are six species of weeds that do the most damage in wheat fields. These are chess, darnel, cockle, wild garlic, wheat thief, and wild mustard. 49. Chess, also called cheat, is a grass that, when young, very much resembles wheat; so much so, in fact, that the § 12 WHEAT 39 plants are difficult to distinguish from those of wheat. Fig. 24 illustrates a mature head of chess. This weed is less trouble- some in fields having a good stand of wheat than in those having a poor stand. This condition is due to the fact that chess is readily crowded out by wheat. If, however, there is a sparseness of wheat the chess will spring up on the space unoccupied by wheat plants. The weed is not attacked by insects that are especially injurious to wheat, and it is also able to endure more cold than wheat. Therefore, if a crop of wheat is partly destroyed by insect pests or by the freezing Fig. 24 of the plants, chess is very likely to be found in the field. As may be inferred from the foregoing statements, the best way to prevent chess from becoming troublesome is to plant wheat seed that is free from chess. If wheat seed that is to be used for planting is found to contain chess, it should be run through a fanning mill, which process will separate the two kinds of seeds. Chess seed, when ground with wheat, greatly injures the resulting flour. The market value of wheat is therefore seriously lowered if chess is present. 40 WHEAT § 12 50. Darnel is found as a weed in wheat fields in Europe, and to some extent in California, where it is known as chess. Like chess, if ground with wheat into flour, it seriously afEects the product. It may be removed from wheat seed by means of a fanning mill. 51. Cockle is a weed prevalent in wheat fields. The plants grow to be about 2 feet in height, and can be easily distinguished by their rather large pink blossoms. The seeds are black in color and of somewhat the shape of a kidney. In size and weight they are about the same as wheat. These facts make their removal with a fanning mill difficult. Pass- ing through the wheat field and pulling up the plants, which are readily known by the pink flower, is about the only practical method of combating this weed. 52. Wild garlic is a weed that is widely disseminated throughout the eastern part of the United States. It bears a cluster of bulblets in place of seeds, which, however, can be removed by the fanning mill. Flour is spoiled if garlic bulblets are ground with the wheat. A method often employed by farmers to get rid of garlic is to plant the infested fields with a cultivated crop for 2 or 3 years. The tillage operations will kill the plants before the bulblets are mature. 53. Wheat thief, or pigeon weed, a plant often found in wheat fields, varies in height from 6 to 20 inches. It has nar- row, roughened leaves, and produces hard, stony, dark-colored seeds about -rw inch in length. This weed is difficult to des- troy except by tillage, and for this reason it is often advisable to put land infested by it into some kind of cultivated crop. 54. Wild mustard is very common in spring wheat, as in all other spring- grown crops. It produces a bright-yellow flower, which is very conspicuous in fields during blossoming time. The weed is more prevalent in the central than in the eastern part of the United States, and as the seed is so com- monly found in with the seed of spring wheat and oats, farmers in the eastern states object to western-grown seed. The spread of wild mustard is combated by pulling up the plants § 12 WHEAT 41 while they are in blossom. Experimenters have also found that a solution of iron sulphate, which is made by placing about 80 pounds of the sulphate in 40 gallons of water, when spread on the fields at the rate of 50 gallons to the acre, will kill the mustard without injuring the wheat. FUNGOUS PESTS 55. Rust is a fungus disease that is responsible for much injury to the wheat crop. Mold, mildew, etc. are examples of fungous growths. There are two closely allied varieties of rust, one known as orange-leaf rust and the other as black- stem rust. Each is a reddish growth resembling iron rust on the straw and leaves of the plants. It appears just about the time the grain is in the milk stage. Rust is more common if hot, moist weather occurs during the ripening period of the wheat than if the weather is dry. 56. Smut is a soft blackish fungous growth that attacks the grain. There are two kinds that appear on wheat — loose smut and stinking smut. The remedy for smut is to treat the seed in some way to kill the spores before the seeds are planted. In the treatment of loose smut, the grain is placed in sacks and soaked for 4 hours in cold water, and allowed to stand for 4 hours more in the wet sacks. It is then immersed for 5 minutes in water having a temperature of 133° F., after which it is ready to be dried and sown. For stinking smut there are three treatments reported. The first is to place the seed in a bag or basket and immerse in water at 133° F. for 10 minutes, and then cool by placing in cold water or by stirring the seed while they are drying. The second method is to place the seed in a solution of copper sulphate, made by dissolving 1 pound of the sulphate in 10 gallons of water. The seed is immersed in the solution for 10 minutes and then drained for 10 minutes, after which it is spread out and dried. The third method is to immerse the seed for 30 minutes in a solution made by mixing 1 pound of formalin with 50 gallons of water. Formalin, like copper sulphate, can be obtained from druggists. 42 WHEAT §12 INSECT ENEMIES OP WHEAT 57, There are many varieties of insects that do damage to wheat, the two most dangerous being the chinch bug and the Hessian fly. The chinch bug is brown and black in color, with a white band across the back. It may be known also by its offensive odor, which is like that of the bedbug. The chinch bug passes the winter under any object that affords protection such as waste straw, corn stalks, and rubbish F G 25 along fence rows. The removing of such refuse from the farm, thereby destroying the nesting places, has been found to be a good preventive measure. When the bugs get into the wheat field there is no way to combat them. From wheat fields they migrate to com fields, and during the migratory period combative measures are effective. One of the best methods is to plant some crop, such as millet, as a barrier § 12 WHEAT 43 between the wheat and the corn fields, and when the bugs are in this crop to spray it with kerosene and then plow the plants under. Another type of barrier is made by throwing two furrow slices together and forming a ridge, along the top of which there will be a slight depression; this depression is filled with coal tar, which the bugs are unable to pass. Fig. 25 shows a barrier of this kind. Holes, as shown in the illustra- tion, are dug at intervals along the furrow next to the wheat field. The bugs, in passing to and fro in trying to find a way around the barrier, drop into these holes. Kerosene is poured into the holes occasionally, and as a result many of the bugs are killed. 58. The Hessian fly is a blackish insect with red lines on the upper surface. In length it is about -rs inch, and on account of being so small it is seldom noticed by the casual observer. The damage done by this pest amounts to several million dollars annually. To counteract the ravages of this fly preventive measures are employed. One of these is to delay the sowing of the wheat until after the flies are killed by early frosts. Another is to avoid the continuous cropping of wheat on the same land. Perhaps one of the best methods is to plant a strip of wheat along the edge of the regular wheat field somewhat earlier than the usual time of planting. The flies will then congregate in this strip, and as a result the regular field will not be ravaged. The burning of the wheat stubble is also an effective preventive. The damage to the crop is done by the larvas, which eat into the stem of the plant, causing it to fall over. There are parasitic insects that feed on the Hessian fly, thereby holding it in check, and were it not for this provision of nature the cultivation of wheat would be practically impossible. OATS, BARLEY, RYE, AND BUCKWHEAT OATS GENERAL DESCRIPTION 1. The oat is a plant similar in its habits of growth to the wheat plant. It is widely cultivated for its grain, although its straw possesses value as stock food and as bedding. The grain of nearly all varieties of the oat consists of an outer husk, or hull, and an inner 'kernel that somewhat resembles the wheat kernel, though it is longer and more slender and lighter in weight. The grain in bulk is usually referred to as oats, and it is so light in weight that from 11,000 to 30,000 grains of a fair grade are required to weigh 1 pound. In most of the states of the United States, a legal bushel of oats weighs only 32 pounds. 2. Uses of Oats. — Oats are much used as a food for horses, sheep, and cattle. As a food they are especially suited to the needs of horses, and as such are greatly approved by many authorities. In the form of oatmeal, this cereal is widely used as human food, and it is perhaps the best of the cereal foods for that purpose, being highly nutritious and easily digested. This grain is frequently grown alone or with some legume, and while still green is cut for hay. 3. Yield of Oats. — The average yield of the oat crop in the United States for several decades past has been a little GOPYRIOHTED BY INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY. ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL, LONDON §13 OATS, BARLEY, RYE, AND BUCKWHEAT § 13 over 27.5 bushels per acre. The northern states produce larger crops per acre than do the southern states. A few states report yields as high as 50 or more bushels per acre. Yields of 60 to 70 bushels are considered to be high, though yields of 100 bushels per acre have been reported. The average yield in the United States, namely, about 27.5 bushels per acre would be produced by three plants on each square foot of an acre, provided each plant produced three or four stalks and each stalk produced 40 grains of fair size. An oat crop is said to be well filled when each stalk bears from 30 to 150 grains. The farmer can thus § 13 OATS, BARLEY, RYE, AND BUCKWHEAT 3 readily see that the average yield is not nearly what it might be under more nearly ideal conditions of growth. In general, the oat plant produces about 2 pounds of straw to each pound of grain. 4. Types and Varieties of Oats. — There are two distinct types of oats: (1) The spreading oats, as shown in Fig. 1, on which the branches bearing the grains spread in all directions from the main stalk, or straw, and (2) the side, or mane oats, as shown in Fig. 2, on which all the branches bearing the grains hang on one side of the main stem. These two distinct types of oats may be subdivided as to time of planting into spring and winter oats; as to color, into white, block, gray, and red oats and many variations of these colors; and as to shape of the grain, into short and plump Fig. 3 Fig. 4 oats, as shown in Fig. 3, and long and slender oats, as shown in Fig. 4. There are also a few varieties of oats, the hulls of which are so loose that they are separated from the kernels in thrashing. Such varieties are called naked oats. They are, however, poor yielders and are therefore not extensively grown. The winter varieties of oats are those which are sown in the fall. They have been grown almost wholly in the South, but seem to be gaining favor in northern sections. The spring varieties are those which are usually planted in the spring. They are grown almost entirely in the North. For southern growers, the Red Rust Proof and Virginia Gray varieties are recommended. For planting in Noi-thern United States, the varieties known as American Banner, 4 OATS, BARLEY, RYE, AND BUCKWHEAT § 13 Improved American, Badger Queen, Wide Awake, Colonel, Lincoln, Swedish Select, and Siberian have met with much success. In Canada, the Siberian variety is considered to be the best yielder. OAT CULTURE 5. Climatic Conditions for Oat Growing. — Oats will thrive best in a cool, moist climate, such as is found in northern sections of the United States, in Canada, in Northern Europe, and in Scotland. However, this grain is grown in a warm climate where sufficient moisture is present. 6. Soil for Oat Crops. — The soil in which to grow oats need not be especially rich, but in all instances it must be moist. In fact, if grown on very fertile soils, this grain is inclined to grow too rank, producing a large quantity of straw and a comparatively small quantity of grain. Besides, it has a tendency to break over, or lodge. For these reasons, it is a common practice to sow oats in soil that is moist, but not too rich. Fertile soils from which crops, such as corn or potatoes, have taken large quantities of plant-food are desirable for oat crops. The most suitable soil for oats is a moist clay loam. 7. Use of Fertilizer for Oat Crops. — On account of the vigorous manner in which the root system of the oat plant finds plant-food in the soil and assimilates 'it, very little fertilizer is needed for growing oat crops. If this grain is to be grown in soil that has produced a cultivated crop, such as corn or potatoes, during the previous year, it will be sufficient to apply liberal quantities of fertilizer or manure for the cultivated crop. In such cases, enough nourishment will remain in the soil for the oats. If grass and clover seed are sown with oats, a good plan will be to use the same quantity and kind of fertilizer as was recommended for wheat and to apply it in a similar manner. 8. Seed-Bed for Oats.— The seed-bed for oats is similar to that for wheat, although it is not usually made so deep. § 13 OATS, BARLEY, RYE, AND BUCKWHEAT 5 If the grain is to be planted in corn-stubble land that is not exceedingly hard and compact, it may be sown on the unpre- pared land and then covered by means of a cultivator, a disk harrow, or a similar implement. However, such practice under most conditions is considered to be poor. For spring oats, it is a good plan to plow the ground in the fall so as to have it ready for use in the early spring. In such cases, the seed-bed may be plowed to the same depth as that for wheat, but the rolling and harrowing must not be done until the seed is to be planted. If the work must be done in the spring, the soil need not be plowed to a depth greater than 4 inches, after which the seed-bed should be rolled and the oats sown broadcast and harrowed in. If a drill is to be used in sowing the oats, the rolling and harrowing must be done before drilling. 9. Selecting Seed Oats. — In selecting oats to be used as seed, care should be taken to choose those which are plump, clean, and heavy. Seed from a variety of oats that is known to give good yields in the locality in which it is to be grown is very desirable and should be selected if it can be procured. 10. Methods of Seeding. — In general, the methods employed in the seeding of wheat, namely, drilling and broadcasting, are used in the seeding of oats. Broadcasting, being somewhat cheaper and more rapid than drilling, is employed more commonly in sowing oats than in sowing wheat. Either the broadcast seeder attached to the rear end of a wagon bed, as described in Wheat, or the disk drill is extensively used when large areas of corn-stubble land are to be sown to oats without plowing. Drilling is the better practice to follow if dry weather is likely to prevail during the sowing season or immediately following it, because, with the drill, the seed can be covered to a uniform depth. The depth of seeding will depend on the condition of the soil; however, experiments show that the best results can be produced by planting the seed to a depth of 1 to 1^ inches. 11. Time of Seeding. — In the southern states, the seed for winter or fall oats is usually sown sometime between 6 OATS, BARLEY, RYE, AND BUCKWHEAT § 13 the first of October and the first of December. If, in any case, the fall seeding fails to grow, the ground may again be seeded to oats sometime between the first of January and the first of April. Many southern growers consider February to be the most favorable month for spring sowing. In the northern states, spring seeding is the predomina- ting practice. The best results are obtained by sowing the seed oats as soon as the soil , can be prepared. This time will vary from the middle of March in the region of about 38 degrees north latitude to the first of June in parts of Canada. 12. Quantity of Oats to Sow per Acrel — The quantity of seed oats to be sown per acre will depend on the fertility of the soil, the preparation of the seed-bed, the method of seeding, and the size of the seed.' The more fertile the soil, the better prepared the seed-bed, and the larger the seed oats, the greater will be the quantity of seed oats to be sown. The quantity that has been found to give the best yields in various parts of the United States varies from 2 to 4 bushels per acre. Under average conditions, 2^ to 3 bushels is sown per acre. If the seed is sown broadcast, each acre will require about i bushel more than when it is sown by means of a drill. When sown with field peas for hay, the proportion should be 2 bushels of oats to 1 bushel of peas. 13. Harvesting the Oat Crop. — When harvested for the grain, oats should be cut when they have just passed from the milk stage into the dough stage. The stage of growth may be determined by pressing the grain between the thumb and finger. If a milk-like juice is pressed out, the grain is said to be in the milk stage; but as soon as the grain is sufficiently matured to allow it to be mashed without giving forth any milk, it has passed into the dough stage. In this stage, about one-third of the leaves are more or less yellow. If the grain is allowed to ripen much beyond this stage, a. large part of it will be lost by shattering. 14. In general, the methods employed in cutting wheat are used in cutting oats. When the self-rake reaper is used, § 13 OATS, BARLEY, RYE, AND BUCKWHEAT 7 the bundles of oats are allowed to lie and cure for 1 or 2 days, depending on the weather conditions, after which they are bound by hand, as described in Wheat. The grain cradle is used perhaps more to cut oats than any other grain. When the cradle is used, the oats are allowed to lie in the swath until well cured, when they are raked into bundles and bound into sheaves by hand. The operations followed in harvesting oats after they are bound into sheaves vary in different sections of the country. The sheaves may be gathered together in bunches of about twelve and then shocked, after which they may either be hauled to the thrashing machine or be stacked or stored in a mow, ready to be thrashed at a future time. 15. Oats intended for hay may be cut at any stage of growth from the milk stage to maturity. However, hay made from oats cut while the stems and leaves are green and the grain is in the milk stage is the most palatable and nutritious. The mowing machine should be used to cut oats, whether sown alone or with field peas. Such crops are cured and stored in the same manner as any other hay crop. ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF OATS 16. Insect Enemies of Oats. — Oats are comparatively free from insect ravages and disease. The chinch bug, grasshopper, and army worm are about the only insects that cause damage to the growing oat crop. Such pests are treated in the manner already described in Wheat. 17. Oat Smut. — The most severe damage to the oat crop is caused by oat smut, which is a fungus that starts its growth with the sprouting seed oats, unless, of course, the latter are free from the fungus spores or have been treated to kill them. The spores bear the same relation to the fungus, which is a fiowerless plant, that seeds do to flowering ' plants. The fungus spreads through the oat stalk, stunting its growth and finally turning the oat grains, and sometimes 8 OATS, BARLEY, RYE, AND BUCKWHEAT § 13 the hulls, into black masses of fungous spores. Three stages of the development of oat smut on the heads of oats are shown in Fig. 5. If the spores happen to lodge on other oat grains, either in the field, in thrashing, or in storage, they may- destroy the resulting plants the following year, provided such grains are planted. On account of the small size of all oat plants that are attacked by oat smut, they are easily overlooked by the Fig, 5 farmer. Therefore, the damage caused by this fungus is also overlooked or underestimated. The damage caused by oat smut varies from 5 to 50 per cent, in oat fields sown with untreated seed. The per cent, of oats destroyed in ■ any particular field can be closely estimated by making an actual count of all affected stalks and of all healthy stalks in a square yard in several locations in the field, dividing the § 13 OATS, BARLEY, RYE, AND BUCKWHEAT 9 total number of affected stalks by the total number of all stalks, and then multiplied by 100. 18. Inasmuch as oat smut is carried from one oat crop to another by seed oats that are affected, the best way to combat the disease is to treat aU seed oats with a fungicide and thus kill the spores of the smut. The remedies for oat smut are the same as those recommended for stinking smut on wheat. The formalin treatment, which is most commonly used, is as follows : A solution made up o'f 1 pound of formalin to 50 gallons of water is sprinkled over the oats at the rate of 1 gallon of solution to 4 bushels of grain. The grain is then mixed thoroughly by shoveling the oats into a conical pUe, and is covered with blankets. After being covered for 2 hoiurs, the oats must either be sown or be spread out and dried. Keeping the grain covered or allowing it to remain in a deep pUe will Idll the oats as well as the spores of the smut. 19. Blade Blight, or Yellows of Oats. — Another disease, known as blade blight, or yellows of oats, has caused a loss of 50 or 60 per cent, of the oat crop in certain sections. This disease is caused by a bacterial growth that during cloudy, rainy weather rapidly turns the leaves yellow. Short periods of sunshine during such weather turns the diseased leaves red or brown. No prevention or cure is known for this disease. 20. Weeds. — Certain weeds cause great loss to oat crops by using large quantities of the soil water, crowding the oats, and retarding the curing either for grain or for hay. The most troublesome of such weeds is the mustard plant. This weed, as well as many others, can be killed without injury to the oats by spraying it with an iron-sulphate solution consisting of 100 pounds of the iron sulphate dissolved in 50 gallons of water. This solution is applied with a power sprayer, such as is used for potato spraying, and is sufficient for 1 acre of oats. The spraying should be done in clear weather, after the dew has disappeared and before the mustard plant is in flower. 10 OATS, BARLEY, RYE, AND BUCKWHEAT § 13 BARLEY GENERAL DESCRIPTION 21. Barley is .one of the important grain crops. The plant is similar to wheat in its general appearance and its habits of growth, although it does not usually grow so tall. The barley grain resembles the oat grain, in that it consists of a kernel and a hull. The hull of barley is not removed in thrashing, except from a few varieties known as hull-less barleys. It takes about 13,000 barley grains of average size to weigh 1 pound, and in most of the states of the United States and in Canada, a legal bushel of barley weighs 48 pounds. In a few of the states, the legal weight per bushel varies from 45 to 50 pounds. The hull-less varieties usually weigh about 60 pounds per bushel. 22. Uses of Barley. — Barley grain finds extensive use in the making of beer. It is also used, whole or crushed, as food for animals and to a slight extent as human food. For the latter purpose, the hull is separated from the kernel by special machinery, the naked kernel then being known as pearl barley. In the manufacture of beer, the barley is sprouted, and this gives rise to a by-product known as malt sprouts. Another by-product, known as brewers' grains, is that portion of the barley grains which is left after the removal of the sprouts and the extraction of carbohydrates made soluble by the sprouting. Malt sprouts and brewers' grains are valuable foods for dairy cows and other domestic animals. The barley crop is also cut green and cured for hay, or it is used for soiling. Its sharp beards, however, make barley an undesirable hay or soiling crop. § 13 OATS, BARLEY, RYE, AND BUCKWHEAT 11 23. Yield of Barley. — The yield of barley per acre is not so great as that of oats, but it is greater than that of wheat. mm (a) Fig. 6 (b) 1(a) \(1» Fig. 7 The average yield per acre in the United States for several decades past has been about 23.5 bushels. On an average, the crop produces 1 pound of straw for each pound of grain. 12 OATS, BARLEY, RYE, AND BUCKWHEAT § 13 A good yield in the northern portion of the United States and in Canada would be 30 to 40 bushels per acre, and in the southern portions of the United States from 20 to 30 bushels per acre is considered to be a fair yield. 24. Varieties of Barley. — ^Two well-marked varieties of barley exist, namely, the two-rowed and six-rowed varieties. There are, however, other varieties, known as four-rowed, hull-less, and beardless. The broad side of a head of the two- rowed variety is shown in Fig. 6 (a) and the narrow side of the same head in (b). It is grown mostly in European countries and is used largely by breweries. A side view of the head of a six-rowed variety is shown in Fig. 7 (a), and a view at right angles to this in (b) . . The six-rowed variety is grown extensively in the United States and is used freely for malting purposes. The two-rowed and six-rowed varieties must not be mixed if the grain is to be used for malting, because the former variety requires a longer time to sprout than does the latter, and for malting all the grain must sprout uniformly. The four-rowed varieties seem to be a modification of the six-rowed varieties. The beardless and hull-less barleys are not only uncommon, but are considered to be undesirable in some respects. The broad side of a head of beardless variety of barley is shown in Fig. 8 (a) and a view at right angles to this in (b) . Although it is a better variety to handle and makes better hay than does the bearded varieties, it lacks strength of straw and has a tendency to lodge. The hull-less variety is a poor yielder, and its grain is never used for malting. Barley may also be classified as winter and spring varieties. The two-rowed variety is planted in the spring, while the six-rowed variety .may be planted in either spring or fall. Fig. 8 § 13 OATS, BARLEY, RYE, AND BUCKWHEAT 13 BARLEY CULTURE 25. Climatic Conditions for Barley Growing. — ^Barley may be grown under more varied climatic conditions than any other grain crop; also, it requires less water for its pro- duction than any other grain crops, though an abundance of water does not materially retard its growth. It may be raised in nearly all parts of the United States and in some sections of Canada, and its ctiltivation is carried on successfully even in Alaska. 26. Soil for Barley Growing. — Although barley can be raised on a great variety of soils, it does not seem to be able to adapt itself so readily to soils as to climate. The first requirement of the soil is that it be well drained. The root growth of barley is not so vigorous as that of wheat and oats; for this reason the plant-food should be both plentiful and in a quickly available form. Perhaps the best soil for barley production is a rich, well-drained sandy loam, although fertile, well-drained clay loams and clays will produce fair yields of this grain. 27. Manuring and Fertilizing. — ^Barley as a rule will stand liberal applications of manure or fertilizer, but if it is to be planted in soil in which a crop of potatoes or corn is first grown, there will be no need of applying manure or fertilizer, provided the first crop was well fertilized. The straw of barley is short and rather stout and is not stimulated by fertilizing to rank growth and lodging so readily as oats; and when it does lodge, the development of the head is not materially checked. If commercial fer- tilizer is to be used, it may be applied directly to the soil in the same quantities and in the same manner as has been recommended for wheat. 28. Seed-Bed for Barley. — ^The seed-bed for a barley crop should be carefully prepared. Deep fall plowing is preferable, as it permits of an earlier preparation of the seed- bed in the spring. The soil should be thoroughly disked and 14 OATS, BARLEY, RYE, AND BUCKWHEAT § 13 put into good tilth as early in the season as possible. Good tilth should be secured before planting, especially if the barley is intended for malting purposes, which requires the -grain to be uniformly matured. To secure this tilth if the soil is lumpy, it should be gone over, after disking, with a roller or a drag, and if these operations do not produce the desired fineness of tilth, the Meeker harrow should be used. 29. Methods of Seeding. — In planting seed for barley crops, the methods recommended for the sowing of wheat and oats should be employed. As drilling enables the farmer to secure a more uniform depth of covering for the seed than does broadcasting, and at the same time a more uniform rate of seeding, it is the more desirable method to follow in seeding barley. Broadcasting is employed, however, in seeding large areas. The best results can be expected if about 2 to 2^ bushels of barley is sown per acre and the seed is placed to a depth of 1^ or 2 inches. 30. Time of Seeding. — The time for sowing barley varies with the location and the variety of barley to be grown. In general, it may be said that in the spring-wheat regions the best time for sowing is immediately after the sowing of wheat and before the sowing of oats. Although spring seeding is the custom throughout the northern states, in the South fall sowing prevails. 31. Harvesting the Barley Crop. — On account of the sharp, hard beards so characteristic of the common varieties of barley, it is advisable to handle barley as little as possible during harvesting and thrashing. Whenever practicable, the binder should be used for cutting. It is considered best to cut the barley crop just before it has fully matured, so as to secure bright, plump, light-colored grain, which is con- sidered to be the ideal barley for brewing purposes. Barley that is allowed to become fully matured before cutting is readily darkened in the shock by rain or dew, and sunshine. Discolored barley will bring only about one-half as much as § 13 OATS, BARLEY, RYE, AND BUCKWHEAT 15 bright grain in the market, as brewers, who really fix the selling price, consider it inferior for their purpose. The discolored barley is used chiefly for feeding cattle. As soon as the grain is cut, the sheaves should be placed in shocks of ten sheaves each and carefully capped with two sheaves. If the weather does not become too unfavorable the barley on all sheaves except the cap sheaves will arrive at complete maturity in the shock and at the same time retain the bright color. The cap sheaves should be removed and thrashed separately, and the grain used for feeding cattle. Barley is thrashed in the same manner as oats or wheat, but on account of the difficulty encountered in removing the beards and outer husks, the grain is run through the thrashing machine a second time. ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF BAEIiEY 32. Insect Enemies of Barley. Barley has the same insect enemies as wheat, but the attacks of none of them except of one insect are so in- jurious. This exception is the chinch \ (a) (^> bug, which works greater havoc with barley than with any other grain. The measures recommended in ■'''°- ^ Wheat for the destruction of each insect also . apply here. 33. Fungous Diseases of Barley. — The black-stem rust and the orange-leaf rust, already described in Wheat, also attack barley. The diseases that do the worst damage to barley, however, are the two wheat smuts. These diseases attack barley in about the same way as they attack wheat. § 13 OATS, BARLEY, RYE, AND BUCKWHEAT 17 In Fig. 9 (a) is shown the effects of loose smut on a two- rowed variety of barley, and in (6), the effects of the same disease on a six-rowed variety. 34. For the destruction of smuts, it is recommended that the seed barley be subjected to the hot-water treatment, although the regular treatment should be modified as fol- lows: Place the seed in sacks and soak it in cold water for 4 hours; then let it stand in the sacks for 4 hours. After this immerse the sacks with the grain in hot water at a tem- perature of 130° F. for 5 minutes. The grain should then be dried in the manner described in Wheat. RYE GENERAL DESCRIPTION 35. Rye is one of the leading grain crops, and in its general appearance and habits of growth is similar to wheat and barley. It grows much taller than either wheat or barley, however, frequently attaining a height of 6 or 7 feet. The heads that bear the grain are longer and more slender than those of wheat, and are covered with beards, as are most of the barleys. Fig. 10 will serve to illustrate the relative height and character of growth of rye, wheat, and barley. Rye is shown in (a), wheat in (6), and barley in (c) . Although rye kernels closely resemble those of wheat, they are longer, more slender, and more pointed at the end nearest the stem of the head. They are also darker in color, as a rule. The legal weight of a bushel of rye in Canada and in all the states of the United States except California and Maine is 56 pounds. In California, the legal weight of a bushel is 54 pounds, and in Maine it is 50 pounds. 36. Uses of Rye. — The rye crop is put to a variety of uses. The grain is used chiefly in the manufacture of flour 18 OATS, BARLEY, RYE, AND BUCKWHEAT § 13 and in the distilling of certain liquors. In the manufacture of flour there is produced a by-product known as rye bran, and from the distillery a by-product called distillers' grains. The bran, the distillers' grains, and the whole grain are considered to be excellent food for many of the domestic animals. The straw of rye is longer than that obtained from any of the other grains. It is used extensively in the manufacture of such articles as hats, mats, baskets, boxes, trunks, and fans. It is also used for packing purposes, and is highly prized as bedding for horses. Green rye makes excellent winter and early spring pasture. It is sometimes used as ensilage, and is considered to be one of the earliest and best soiling crops. Rye is also occasionally grown for hay. It should be cut just as the heads begin to bloom. After cutting, it should be raked up immediately and made into small fiat, curing cocks. After allowing the hay to cure for a few days, these cocks should be turned upside down and the new top spread out so as to cure it quickly. The hay may then be made into stacks or stored in a barn. 37. Yield of Rye. — The yield of rye is about the same as that of wheat. The average annual yield in the United States for the past 20 or 30 years has been 14 bushels per acre. Yields of 20 to 25 bushels per acre are considered to be fair, and those of 30 to 35 bushels per acre are said to be good. 38. Varieties of Rye. — There are really only two impor- tant varieties of rye, namely, the winter and spring varieties. As a matter of fact, the spring ryes are seldom grown in America. RYE CULTURE 39. Climatic Conditions for Rye Growing.— Rye is nat- urally adapted to a cool climate and will thrive in climates that are too cold for wheat. However, it is successfully grown in the warmer sections of the United States. § 13 OATS, BARLEY, RYE, AND BUCKWHEAT 19 40. Soil for Rye Growing. — The most desirable soil for rye growing is a light, sandy loam. Soils in which other grain crops are almost sure to fail will usually grow fair crops of rye, although the rye will not be of the best quality. Rye is one of the best crops to grow on soil poor in humus. In fact, the humus content of such soils can be increased by plowing under either the rye stubble or the entire crop of rye early in the spring. 41. Seed-Bed for Rye. — For the growing of rye, the soil should receive practically the same preparation as has been recommended for winter wheat. It may be mentioned, however, that rye will often yield a fair crop if planted in a seed-bed in which wheat would be sure to fail. 42. Planting of Rye. — In planting rye, it is advisable to follow the methods of seeding recommended for wheat sowing, and also to use the same kinds of implements. Although rye grains are smaller than wheat grains, the same quantity per acre, namely, from IJ to 2 bushels, is required. The rye seed should be planted to a depth of 1^ to 2^ inches. Rye may be sown either earlier or later than wheat. On poor soils, it is best to sow the rye from 1 to 3 weeks before the proper time for sowing wheat ; and should the seed planted at this time show a tendency in the fall to shoot heads or to grow the main straw that bears the head, it should be pastured off by sheep or cattle, preferably sheep. On well- prepared seed-beds, the sowing of rye may be deferred until about 4 to 6 weeks after sowing winter wheat, or until it barely has time to sprout before freezing. 43. Harvesting the Rye Crop. — Rye is usually ready to cut about 1 week in advance of winter wheat. When it is grown on rather poor soils that produce a crop that grows only about 4 feet in height, it may be harvested with the grain binder, exactly as wheat would be. However, when raised on good soil, rye has a tendency to grow rank, and is likely to lodge. Rye that has lodged is exceedingly dif- ficult to cut, and 6-foot rye that stands erect, taxes the 20 OATS, BARLEY, RYE, AND BUCKWHEAT § 13 binder severely. Probably the most desirable method of harvesting full-grown rye, therefore, is to cut it with the self-raking reaper and to bind it and set it up into shocks by hand. If this method of harvesting is followed, the shocks should be left standing until the grain is thoroughly cured, because it is liable to become musty if stored too soon. After it is cured it may be either thrashed or stacked, or stored in the barn to be thrashed at some future time. It is very important that a good crop of rye be handled carefully in harvesting, because the straw is often as valuable as the grain. Straight white rye straw usually sells at about the same price as bright timothy hay. 44. Thrashing of Rye. — The ordinary thrashing machine may be used in thrashing rye if the grain is the principal product. However, if it is desired to obtain straw that will bring the highest price, the ordinary grain thrasher should not be used, because the straw is liable to become tangled in it and in this way injured. In sections where rye is extensively grown, a special thrasher is employed. ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF EYE 45. Insect £nemies of Rye. - — The same insects that cause damage to wheat work injury to the rye crop. They should be treated in the manner already described in Wheat. 46. Diseases of Rye. — Large loss in the rye crop is sometimes caused by a black rust that forms on the stems, or straw, by an orange Fig. 11 rust that grows on the leaves, and by smuts that attack the heads of grain. Rotation of crops and the burning of infested stubble are recommended as preventive measures for the rusts. For the destruction of the smuts, the hot-water treatment recommended for oat smuts, with the water at a temperature of 127° F., should be employed. § 13 OATS, BARLEY, RYE, AND BUCKWHEAT 21 47. Another disease that is more noticeable on rye than on other grain, though not peculiar to it, is ergot. This disease attacks the grains, causing them to become replaced by enlarged black horn-shaped masses, as is shown in Fig. 11. Ergot is claimed to be poisonous, and the farmer should be extremely careful about feeding any of the black, grain-like masses to domestic animals, especially female cattle or horses used for breeding purposes. Care should be taken not to sow rye containing ergot; and land on which ergot rye has grown should not be planted to rye until 3 years has elapsed. BUCKWHEAT GENERAIi IlESCEIPTION 48. Buckwheat is a plant that has long been grown for its seeds, and is therefore classed with the grain crops. In reality, however, it is a cultivated member of a family of plants that includes sorrel, smartweed, and bindweed, which are commonly considered as noxious weeds. Each seed produces but a single stalk, or stem, that grows from 2 to 4 feet in height. This stalk throws out several branches, the number of which depend on the fertility of the soil and the thickness of the plants on the ground, thus adapting itself very well to its environment. The flowers of buckwheat are white, tinged with red or pink. They are produced at the end of the branches or on short stems that grow from the base of the leaves. The plant begins to bloom about 4 weeks after planting and continues to bloom until killed by frost. The buckwheat seed, as shown in Fig. 12 (a), has a pyram- idal shape, resembling the seed of the sour dock and the beechnut. It varies in color from a silver gray to a dark brown or black. The root system consists of a central taproot and a few side branches that penetrate rather deep into the soil in search of the necessary nourishment to sustain the plant. 234—6 Fig. 12 22 § 13 OATS, BARLEY, RYE, AND BUCKWHEAT 23 A buckwheat plant, with roots, main stem, branches, flowering stems, and flowers, is shown in Fig. 12 (b) . Buckwheat leaves the soil in which it is grown in a peculiarly mellow, crumbly condition, and for this reason, together with the fact that it will grow in almost any kind of soil, it is considered to be a great improver of stiff clay soils. The legal weight per bushel of buckwheat grain varies from 40 to 56 pounds. The most common weight in the states in which it is most extensively grown is 48 pounds per bushel. 49. Uses of Buckwheat. — Buckw:heat is generally ground into flour that is extensively used for making pancakes, or griddle cakes, which are commonly known in America as buckwheat cakes. In some countries the flour is used as breadstuff. The grain and straw are used to a limited extent for the feeding of farm animals. It is claimed by some persons that if the grain is fed freely to chickens, it will stimulate egg production. Buckwheat middlings and bran, which are by-products of the manufacture of buckwheat flour, are very rich in protein and are good food for dairy cows. Buckwheat is an excellent bee plant, as its flowers contain an abundance of nectar and are in bloom at a time when the flowers of many other bee plants are not. 50. Yield of Buckwheat. — More than two-thirds of the entire amount of buckwheat produced in the United States is grown in New York and Pennsylvania, which states produce approximately 6,000,000 and 4,000,000 bushels, respectively. Thirty bushels per acre is said to be a fair yield, and a yield of 40 to 60 bushels is considered to be extra large. The, average yield of buckwheat in the United States for several decades past has been 16.6 bushels per acre. 51. Varieties of Buckwheat. — Only three varieties of buckwheat are grown in the United States and Canada, namely, the Common Gray, the Silver HuU, and the j apanese. The seed of the Common-Gray variety is grayish brown in color and is from ^ to ^ inch long and i to ^ inch wide. 24 OATS, BARLEY, RYE, AND BUCKWHEAT § 13 Silver- Hull buckwheat seed is somewhat lighter in color and smaller than Common-Gray seed, and its hull is glossier. Japanese buckwheat is larger both in grain and in stem than either of the other varieties; the grain also is darker and has a tendency to become flattened or wing-shaped at the edges. Each variety is considered to be the best yielder in a particular locality. BUCKWHEAT CUIjTURE 52. Climatic Conditions for Buckwheat Growing. — Buck- wheat will mature in from 8 to 10 weeks, and for this reason is adapted to regions in which the growing season is too short for the other grain crops. Such regions, however, must be free from frosts during the time that the buckwheat is grow- ing, because' this grain is very sensitive to frost. Buckwheat thrives best during clear days in a cool, moist climate. The seed, however, will germinate in very dry soil. Warm or hot weather is desirable during the early stages of growth; but if, during the time the seed is forming, such weather immediately follows showers, it will cause the flowers to wither and the seed formation to stop. 53. Soil for Buckwheat Growing. — Buckwheat will yield the largest crops if planted in a well-drained, moist, sandy loam containing only a moderate supply of organic matter. However, buckwheat is noted for its ability to yield fair crops on soils that are too poor to grow even average crops of the other grains. For this reason, it is often thought that only the poorest, run-down, neglected, delapidated soils should be planted to buckwheat. Such soils should be planted to buckwheat, provided there is a market for this grain, not with the expectation of harvesting a maximum yield, but because the crop will likely be more profitable than any of the other grain crops. On rich, fertile soils, buckwheat is liable to lodge, and when once down it cannot again raise as do wheat, oats, rye, or barley. 54. Use of Fertilizer for Buckwheat. — As buckwheat has a tendency to grow rank and to lodge when raised on fertile § 13 OATS, BARLEY, RYE, AND BUCKWHEAT 25 land, it is considered to be poor farm practice to apply stable or barnyard manure to any soils that are to be sown to buck- wheat except particularly poor ones. However, applica- tions of 150 to 300 pounds per acre of low-grade fertilizer containing little or no nitrogen, but possessing a fair quan- tity of phosphoric acid and potash, are usually efiEective in economically producing increased yields on poor soils. 55. Seed-Bed for Buckwheat. — In preparing a seed-bed for buckwheat, it will be advisabe to plow the soil long enough before seeding to allow the land to settle and to per- mit of two or more harrowings at different times so as to kill the weeds. If this plan is followed, any sod that is turned under will have time to begin to decay; the settling will reestablish capillarity, insuring a more rapid and uniform germination of the seed ; and the field will be free from weeds when the buckwheat is sown. Such a seed-bed should pro- duce as large a crop as can be obtained from the soil in which the buckwheat is sown. 56. Planting of Buckwheat. — The quantity of buckwheat seed that should be sown will vary with both the method of sowing and the tilth of the soil. The broadcasting method of seeding generally requires about 1 peck more of seed per acre than does drilling — that is sowing with the grain drill — and poorly prepared soil should receive more seed than soil that is well prepared. The quantity of seed recommended per acre varies from 3 to 5 pecks. The seed should be placed in the ground to a depth of about IJ inches, and should be sown about 11 weeks before fall frosts are expected. This time will vary from June |intil September, depending on the location. The Japanese variety of buckwheat grows larger than the other varieties, and its flowers do not seem to be so quickly affected by hot sunshine. For these reasons, some planters recommend the sowing of equal parts of the Japanese and Silver Hull or equal parts of the Japanese and Common Gray, claiming that they secure larger yields from such practice than from sowing the full quantity of any one variety. 26 OATS, BARLEY, RYE, AND BUCKWHEAT § 13 57. Harvesting the Buckwheat Crop. — Buckwheat should be cut soon after the first seed matures. If cutting is delayed much beyond this stage of growth, some ripe grain will likely be lost by shattering. It is also a good plan to cut the grain while it is damp from dew or during cloudy weather, so that as little seed as possible will be shattered off. Buckwheat may be cut by means of the self-raking reaper, the self-binder, or the grain cradle. If the binder is used in Fig. 13 cutting, the sheaves should not be bound. After being cut, the grain should be allowed to lie a few days in the swath or in loose unbound bundles so as to wilt and partly cure the herbaceous stems. It should then be set up into small shocks, either unbound or in small, loosely bound bundles. Shock- ing should also be done during the morning hours or during cloudy weather, and when a shock is set up it should be bound around the top with a small band made of buckwheat § 13 OATS, BARLEY, RYE, AND BUCKWHEAT 27 stems, so that the completed shock will resemble those shown in Fig. 13. The crop is cured, or dried, in these small shocks. 58. Thrashing of Buckwheat. — When the buckwheat crop is cured, its stems will have turned from the reddish green color that they possessed when first cut to a dark brown ; besides, it will be rather dry. The grain is easily thrashed. The crop should be hauled directly from the field to the thrasher, preferably on a damp day. In order to avoid breaking and cracking the grains of buckwheat, careful thrashers remove the spiked concave from their thrashing machine and replace it with a smooth one. CORN GENERAL DESCKIPTION 1. Indian corn, or maize, is a grass plant of American origin, and, like all other grass plants, is shallow-rooted in proportion to its size. As shown in Fig. 1, the plant has a tall, jointed culm, or stalk a, to which long leaves h are attached. At the top is a tassel c. This tassel is a collection of small flowers. Each fruit, or ear, d, is at an axil of a leaf, that is, at a point where a leaf joins the stalk. In some varieties of corn two, and in a few cases more than two, ears are found on a stalk. Barren stalks, that is, stalks bearing no ears, are sometimes found. The ear is covered with an envelope known as the husk, and at the end of the ear is a bunch of threads, or fibers, known as silk. Each thread of silk is connected with a grain, or kernel, of corn on the ear. The kernels are arranged in rows on the cob, as illustrated in Fig. 2, which shows an ear of corn with the husks partly removed. 2. The grains of corn on the ear are fertilized by pollen, which is produced in the tassel and carried by the wind to the silk at the end of the ear and thence to each kernel. Pollen from com is abundant and is carried for long dis- tances by the wind. For this reason, if fields of corn of differ- ent varieties are planted near together there will be grains of different varieties on the ears. A familiar example of two varieties of corn being thus mixed is illustrated in Fig. 3, which shows an immature ear of mixed dent corn and sweet COPYRIQHTED BY INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY. ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL, LONDON §14 §14 CORN corn. The smooth kernels are dent com, and the wrinkled kernels are sweet com. 3. Four general classes of com are grown on a com- mercial scalfe. These are pop corn, dent corn, flint corn, and sweet corn. Two other classes are known, but as they are of no importance commercially they are not described here. Fig. 2 Fig. 3 There are many varieties of each of the four classes named, only a few of which are described and illustrated. 4. Pop Corn. — There are two general varieties of pop com — Rice and Pearl. The grains of Rice pop com are pointed at the top, and the ears are somewhat cone-shaped. The grains of Pearl pop corn are rounded at the top and the 4 CORN § 14 ears are cylindrical. The stalks of pop com are, as a rule, from 5 to 7 feet in height, although in extremes of climate they may be larger or smaller than this. The ears are, on an average, about 5 inches in length and from 1 to 1^ inches in diameter. Pop corn mixes readily with other com and for this reason should not be planted near other corn fields. 5. Flint Corn. — The kernels of flint corn are hard and smooth. In shape they are nearly round, as may be seen in Fig. 4, which illustrates three typical kernels. The width of grains varies in different varieties from f to J inch. The average depth in all varieties is about f inch, and the thick- ness is about i inch. In color, fiint kernels are usually yellow, white, or red, although brown and purple varieties are known. Five varieties of flint com are shown in Fig. 5. They are: (a) Rhode Island White Flint, an early maturing com adapted to the climatic conditions of Rhode Island and adjacent states; (b) 90-day Yellow Flint, a yellow early maturing corn that is extensively grown in all of the New England states ; (c) 90-day Red Flint, a red early maturing com that grows in Vermont and near-by states; (d) Pennsyl- vania Yellow Flint, a variety grown extensively in Northern Pennsylvania and New York; (e) Pennsylvania White Flint, a variety grown extensively in Northeastern Pennsylvania. Flint ears vary in length from 4 to 18 inches, the average length being from 7 to 10 inches. In diameter, ears of differ- ent varieties vary from IJ to 2 inches. In most varieties of flint com there are but eight rows of kernels on a cob, although ten, twelve, and even sixteen rows are found on some varieties. The plants of flint corn average from 5 to 8 feet in height. One good feature of flint corn is that the plants have a tendency to produce two ears to the stalk, thereby giving a greater yield per acre than do most of the species that bear but one ear to the stalk. Fig. 6 illustrates a stalk of flint corn. It will be seen that there are two ears on the main, One-third natural size Fig. 6 §14 CORN or central, stalk. The two stalks, or suckers, at the side are worthless so far as the production of ears is concerned, but y^fiT"\ Fig. 6 they are useful as fotlder for livestock. The tendency to produce suckers is characteristic of flint com. CORN §14 6. Dent Corn. — The most widely distributed class of com is dent corn, which gets its name from the fact that the kernels, when matured, are indented at the top, as shown in Fig. 7. In color, dent kernels are generally yellow or white, although red and mixed yellow and red kernels are some- times found. Five varieties of dent com are illustrated in Fig. 7. They are: (a) Northwestern Dent, a small-eared, early-maturing, yellowish-red corn that is extensively grown in the cold climate of North Dakota and South Dakota; (b) Marlboro Prolific Dent, a white corn that produces several ears to the stalk and that is generally grown in the South Atlantic states ; (c) Hickory King Dent, a white com that is adapted to the uplands of Virginia and adjacent states; (d) Boone County White Dent, a white variety that is extensively grown in the central part of the United States; and (e) Hildreth's Yellow. Dent, a large-eared yellow com that is extensively grown in Kansas and adjacent states. Dent ears vary in different varieties from 5 to 12 inches in length and from 1^ to 2^ inches in diameter. A rather large- sized ear weighs | pound. The average number of rows of kernels on dent ears is from sixteen to twenty, although as few as eight and as many as forty-eight are sometimes found. The size and shape of grains vary with the variety and with the position on the ear. As a rule, however, grains are wedge-shaped and are longer than those The kernels shown at a, b, c, d, and e, Fig. 8, are from the middle of ears of different varieties of dent com; those shown at / and g are tip kernels; and those shown at h and * are butt kemels. It will be noticed that tip and butt kernels are smaller than kemels from the middle of the ear. Fig. 8 of flint com. 23-; Ons-third natural size Fig. 7 §1* § 14 CORN 7 The plants of dent com vary in height, according to climate and soil conditions, from 8 to 12 or 14 feet. They bear, as a rule, only one ear to a stalk, as shown in Fig. 1, which illustrates a typical stalk of dent com. The period of maturity of dent com varies with climatic conditions. In the colder parts of the so-called com belt, varieties that mature in 90 days are common, while in the warmer parts of the United States from 150 to 160 days is the time required for maturity. 7. Sweet Corn. — The corn most widely cultivated for household use is sweet corn. Part of the starch of sweet com turns to sugar during the growth of the plant. The com is, therefore, sweeter to the taste than other kinds of com. The grains of sweet corn, when matured, are wrinkled at the surface, rather broad, and rounded at the top. In most varieties a typical grain is about i inch long, J inch thick, and about f inch wide. The ears are usually about 6 or 8 inches long and from IJ to 2J inches in diameter. Twelve rows of kernels is the average number found, although as few as eight and as many as twenty-four have been found. The plants are generally about 6 or 8 feet in height, and frequently bear more than one ear to a stalk. The period that the plant takes to mature varies with the type and with climatic conditions. From 60 to 80 or 90 days is about the average length of time required for the plant to mature. CORN I 14 CORN CULTURE SELECTION OP TAKIETY FOR PliANTING 8. Selection for Early Maturity and Yield. — In selecting seed corn the farmer should be sure to get a variety that will ripen before the occurrence of early frosts. A frosted corn stalk does not cure well, the ear does not ripen, and the grain is unfit for seed. Unmatured ears, when stored in a crib, are likely to mold and decay. The yield of the variety is also an important matter to consider when selecting seed corn. The yield, of course. depends to a large extent on the stand, for a poor stand means a poor yield; nevertheless, two fields of corn side by side, one field apparently having as good a stand as the other, will often give different yields. The reason for this differ- ence in yield may be that one field has been planted with a better-yielding variety than the other. A good-yielding § 14 CORN 9 variety will have a large proportion of what may be termed good ears, that is, ears that approach ideal ones. 9. Description of Ideal Ear of Dent Corn. — An ideal ear of dent corn is nearly cylindrical in shape, tapering slightly Fig. 10 and uniformly from butt to tip. An ear that is too taper- ing contains less corn than an ear of the same size that is of nearly cylindrical shape. Fig. 9 illustrates this point very well. In (a) is shown an ear that is nearly cylindrical, and in (b) one that tapers considerably. As these two ears are of the same size at the butt, it is obvious, provided the kernels on both ears are of the same length, that there is more com on the ear that is nearly cylindrical than on the tajSering ear. In an ideal ear of corn, both butt and tip should be Fig. 11 well covered with kernels. A tip filled as shown in Fig. 10 (a), obviously contains more corn than one like that shown in (6) . A well-filled tip on an ear of corn indicates maturity, which is a qualification necessary for a good yield. In Fig. 11 two 234—7 10 CORN §14 butts are shown. The butt illustrated in (a) plainly contains more corn than the butt shown in (b). 10. As to length, ears should be neither too long nor too short. Too long an ear may mean failure to mature and too short an ear means a small quantity of com. The length depends largely on the variety and on the locality where the corn is grown. It should range from about 7 to 12 inches. The circumference of an eair should be proportionate to the length. For an ear 9 inches in length, the circumference about midway between butt and tip should be 7 inches, and for an ear 11 inches in length the circumference should be about 7f inches. Excessive size in an ear is often caused by a large cob. The fact that an ear has a large cob might seem like an advantage so far as yield per acre is concerned, for there would naturally be more kernels of the same size on an ear 8 inches in circumference than on one 7 inches around. Often, however, ears with large cobs contain short kernels. Besides this, large cobs are objectionable on account of not drying out as quickly as desired after being husked. In consideration of these facts, the ideal ear is generally one of medium size, with a corresponding cob. 11. Length, or depth, of grain is an important con- sideration, for short, or shallow, grains mean a loss in the yield. Kernels half as long as the diameter of the cob are the kind generally desired. The kernels should be slightly wedge-shaped. When of this shape they will fit together on the cob as shown in Fig. 12 (a). Too much of a wedge shape is undesirable, for there is then the tendency for to6 §14 CORN 11 great a space between the kernels where they are attached to the cob, as shown at a in (6). Obviously, corn with kernels shaped like those in (b) will give a poorer yield than if the kernels are shaped as in (a). The top of the kernels should be nearly flat, as shown in (a) and (b) ; if rounded like those in (c), there is less corn on the cob than if the kernels are well filled out at the top. All kernels should show strong, healthy-looking germs. Those with small, weak-looking germs are objectionable for seeding purposes. The tips of the kernels should show health and vigor. Blackened tips are considered undesirable, mfimmm. ■*■'* **'^«*««'Spijv, ^^,, pending corn by strings or by the husks is that the ears cannot be reached easily by rats and mice. TESTING OF SEfiD CORN 17. The ears of corn that are to be used for seed should be tested for germinating power, as it is difficult to tell from the appearance of an ear whether the kernels will germinate or not. A good way of doing this work is to remove, say, six kernels from each ear and place them in what is known as a germinating box. Such Fig. 16 a box is simply constructed ; it can be made at home by any one in an hour or so. For testing fifty ears, a box about 3 or 4 inches deep, 24 inches wide, and 30 inches long may be used, with moist sawdust which Fig. 17 This should be about half filled has been soaked in water for §14 CORN at least an hour and packed level as shown in Fig. 17. Above this layer of sawdust should be placed a piefie of white cloth, Fig. 18 preferably sheeting, which has been ruled into oblong spaces about 2^ by 4 inches, as shown in Fig. 18. A margin of Fig. 19 about 2^ inches should be left about the edge of the oblong spaces. These spaces are then numbered from 1 to 50, and the Fig. 20 cloth is tacked to the box as shown in Fig. 18. The fifty ears to be tested are also numbered, and the six kernels from each 18 CORN §14 ear placed in the correspondingly numbered space on the cloth, as shown in Fig. 19. In selecting the six kernels, two are taken from near the butt, two from near the tip, and two from the middle part of the ear. The kernels are laid in the box with the germ side up, care being taken to prevent the Fig. 21 kernels in the different spaces from becoming mbced. A piece of cloth larger than the box is laid above the kernels, and above this is placed another layer of moist sawdust. The sawdust is packed down and the edges of the cloth are folded over it as shown in Fig. 20. The testing box is then placed in a warm place for about 6 days, by which time the §14 CORN 19 kernels, if they have good germs, will have germinated suf- ficiently for the farmer to know what ears are fit for seed. On the sixth day the top cloth is removed, care being taken that the kernels are not thrown out of the spaces. The appearance of the sprouted kernels will be similar to those shown in Fig. 21. The sprouts of all good kernels will be an inch or so in length. Any set of kernels that has even one kernel not germinated indicates that the ear from which the kernels came is unfit for seed. 18. A cigar box and newspapers can be used for seed testing, as shown in Fig. 22, although they will not be so satis- factory as the tester just described. Several pieces of paper Fig. 22 are cut to such a size that when folded they will occupy about one-third of the box. These pieces of paper are moistened and folded over grains of corn to be tested. As a rule, six kernels from each ear are placed in each fold of paper, and the outside of the paper is marked with the number of the ear from which the kernels were taken. After being filled with the folded pieces of paper containing the corn, the box is placed in a warm place for about 6 days, after which the kernels are examined for germinating power. 19. Another method of testing com is to plant the grains from the ears to be tested in moist sand or earth, the earth having been placed in a box and divided into spaces by strings 20 CORN §14 attached to the sides of the box as seen in Fig. 23. The kernels from each ear are, of course, placed in spaces that Fig. 23 are designated by the same number as the ear. The box is then set in a warm place and the earth kept moist. In a few days the corn plants will be above ground, as shown in Fig. 24 Fig. 24, and the farmer can decide by the appearance of the young plants whether the ears are desirable for seed. SOIX, REQUIEEMENTS FOR CORN KIND OF SOIL FOR CORN 20. The yield of a crop of maize depends — perhaps more than any other grain — very largely on the kind of soil on which it is grown. A deep, well-drained loam that is rich in humus is the kind of soil best adapted for com culture. There must also be present an abundant supply of film water, as the com plant, being large and also a rapid grower, is a heavy user of § 14 CORN 21 moisture. The supply of water must be continuous through- out the growing period; otherwise the crop will be injured. It is to a great extent on this account that a large supply of humus is needed in ground planted to corn; the humus will absorb water from the rains and snows of winter and spring and retain it until it is needed by the com roots during the summer. Corn planted on soil poor in humus must depend largely on the rains of summer for a supply of water, and for this reason it is very likely to suffer from the effects of drought. Drainage of corn land is an important consideration, for corn cannot live in a water-logged soil. The water-table on land planted to corn should be at least 3 feet from the sur- face if the best results are expected. If it is much nearer than this distance there is a likelihood that the corn will not produce a good crop. 21. A method of learning whether land will be good for the growing of com is to plant Red clover on it. Among farmers there is a saying that if land will grow a good crop of Red clover it will grow a good crop of corn. This test, of course, applies only in regions where Red clover grows. Where this plant does not grow, other legumes may be used in testing the land. FERTILIZING CORN LATJD 22. Since com land requires much humus, it is natural to conclude that the use of stable rhanure for corn is advan- tageous. The manure should be spread evenly over the land so that all parts of the soil are equally enriched. The usual application of stable manure for com land varies in practice from 10 to 20 tons per acre. Experiments show that, as a rule, the use of mixed com- mercial fertilizer for corn does not pay. But, if the soil to be planted to corn is particularly lacking in phosphoric acid and nitrogen, applications of fertilizer mixtures containing these plant-foods may be an advantage. The usual quantities applied in fertilizer mixtures are from 25 to 75 pounds of phosphoric acid, and from 5 to 25 pounds of nitrogen.. 22 CORN I 14 LIME FOB CORN LAND 23. Under some conditions of soil, lime is applied to land intended for corn. Its use is especially advantageous if the soil is acid, for corn, like many other crops, does not produce good yields on sour, or acid, soils. Soils of a very clayey nature are made more friable by the use of lime, and for this reason an application of lime is often an advantage to clay soils where corn is to be planted. A farmer can learn whether the soil needs lime by a study of the crops of clover, alfalfa, or other legumes. Land on which these crops make a satis- factory growth is generally well supplied with lime, while that on which poor crops of legumes are grown is often lack- ing in lime. As has been stated elsewhere, lime is so impor- tant for legumes that it is useless to try to grow these crops unless there is a plentiful supply in the soil. 24. As explained in another Section, lime and barn-yard manure should not be mixed, because of the loss of nitrogen from the manure that will occur if this is done. Farmers sometimes apply manure and lime at the same time, but whenever they do this they cause a loss of plant-food that should be avoided. Therefore, when lime is used on soil that is to be planted to corn it should be placed on the ground in the spring after the land is plowed, and harrowed into the soil. If this practice is followed the lime does not come in direct contact with the manure that has been plowed under. TILLAGE FOR CORN 25. Time of Plowing for Corn. — There is much discus- sion among farmers in different parts of the country as to whether land intended for com should be plowed in the spring or in the fall previous to planting. In the Central States the general practice is to plow in the fall, while in the Eastern States most farmers advise spring plowing. One trouble with plowing a field in the fall is that since the soil is not covered by a crop for a long time, a large quantity of § 14 CORN 23 plant- food is wasted. Farmers of the Central States claim that, although plowing corn land in the fall results in a loss of plant-food, it is better farm management for them to do the work in the fall than to wait until spring. Among the advan- tages of fall plowing are that it is done at a time of year when men and teams are not busy at other work, and that the weathering received by the upturned furrows during the winter months helps to make the soil friable and easily worked when the land is further prepared for planting in the spring. One disadvantage of fall plowing is that there is liable to be a loss of top soil b}' reason of the winds blowing the fine particles of soil away from the field, and on rolling land by the wash- ing of the soil from the higher lands into the low places. In addition, sand that remains uncovered during the winter will lose much of its moisture by capillary attraction in the early spring, unless the loss is prevented by breaking up the sur- face of the soil in some way. One method of doing this is by going over the field with a disk harrow early in the season. The surface of the soil being broken, the loss of water by capillary attraction is lessened. However, where large areas of corn are planted and where the corn-planting period is short, farmers will, all things being considered, generally find it to their advantage to plow for corn in the fall, while in those regions where the areas planted to corn are small spring planting is the better practice. Whether spring plowing should be done early or late will depend largely on conditions. If the farmer has had his sod field in a good producing condition and free from weeds, it is good management to wait until the grass gets 2 or 3 inches high before plowing, as this grass will provide vegetable mat- ter that will form humus in the soil. If, however, the ground is full of weeds, it had better be plowed early so as to prevent germination of weed seeds. 26. Depth of Plowing for Corn. — The depth that the soil in a com field should be plowed will vary with the kind of soil. If the soil is naturally deep, and deep plowing has been practiced on the farm, the plowing for corn can be somewhat 24 CORN § 14 deeper than if the soil is naturally shallow, and shallow plowing has been the rule. On account of the wide extent of country over which corn is grown, it is difficult to give a rule that will apply to all sections. It is safe to say, however, that land on which corn is to be planted can be plowed an inch or so deeper than the same kind of land intended for wheat or oats. 27. Leaving Unplowed Borders in Corn Fields. — In some corn-growing sections there is a custom of leaving unplowed strips around the edges or across the ends of the field. In case the planting is to be done in hills as explained hereafter, the border is left entirely around the field; but if in drills, only the ends of the field are left. The reasons for the prac- tice are that on account of these strips being much trampled later on in turning with planter, harrow, cultivators, etc. a better crop of grass than of corn can be raised there. Under some special conditions this may be true, but as a rule such a practice is not to be recommended, for its disadvantages are likely to outweigh its advantages. Good plowing is one of the most essential factors in soil tillage, and it would seem poor management to omit it upon a strip around a field, particularly when it can be done with so little additional time and trouble as is the case when the field itself is being turned. Most corn growers prefer to do this and extend the rows to the extreme edge of the field. While it is true that the last few stalks at the end of each row will be damaged and some perhaps destroyed during later cultivations, it is also true that a grass or hay crop grown upon such a strip would suffer to practically the same extent. 28. Preparation of Seed-Bed for Corn After Plowing. After ground to be planted to corn has been plowed it must be made ready for planting by means of a roller, a drag, and harrows. These implements should be used in such a way as to make a finely pulverized, uniform seed-bed. All clods should be broken up and the field made smooth. If the land has been plowed in the fall no further work is done on it vmtil early spring, when the land is disked to prevent loss of water. §14 CORN 25 as before explained. Later in the season it is further pre- pared for the planting. When land is plowed in the spring, clods will be found; if these are not pulverized soon after the plowing they are likely to become so hard that they can be broken only with difficulty. To avoid this condition, a roller or a drag should be used on the land before the final work of finishing the field with harrows is accomplished. THE PLANTING OF CORN 29. Planting Corn in Hills or Drills. — There are two gen- eral methods of planting corn. One of these is to place from three to five kernels in hills that are from 3^ to 4 feet apart each way. The appearance of a field of corn that has been Fig. 25 planted in hills is shown in Fig. 25 (o). The number of grains in a hill and the distance apart of the hills depend largely on the quality of the soil. In a rich soil, more grains 234—8 26 CORN I 14 per hill can be planted and the hills can be nearer together than in a poor soil. The other method of planting is in drills, or rows, as shown in Fig. 25 (b). In the northern part of the United States, drills are made from 3 feet 6 inches to 3 feet 8 inches apart, and the kernels in each drill are left from 8 to 15 inches apart, depending on the quality of soil. In the southern part of the United States, corn rows are left about 6 feet apart. The reason for having so great a distance between them is not because of poor quality of soil, but on account of a method of culture known as ridge cultivation that is practiced in these regions. Whether to use hills or drills depends largely on the lay of the land and the shape of the field, it having been found by experiment that if the same number of kernels per acre is planted on two similar acres, one acre being planted in drills and the other in hills, there is practically no difference in the yield. On level fields, especially those that are rectangular in shape, the planting of corn in hills is the method generally employed. The hills are spaced at regular distances, as may be seen in Fig. 25. This plan permits of cultivation in two directions, one at right angles to the other. In hilly fields, planting in rows that run at right angles to the slope of the hill is the method employed, as the field can then be cultivated so as to prevent the formation of gul- lies on the hill slope. Irregular-shaped and rolling fields are also generally planted in drills, as in such fields it is dif- ficult to have hills at equal distances apart. 30. Depth for Planting Corn. — The depth to which com should be planted varies with different conditions. When the ground is rather moist, the planting should be about 1 inch deep; if it is dry, anywhere from 2 to 4 inches should be the depth. Early in the season, therefore, when the ground is Ukely to be moist, the planting should be shallow; if done later in the season it should be deeper. During exceptionally dry springs, com should be planted deeper than in normal spring weather. §14 CORN 27 31. Methods of Planting Com. — Most of the com grown in the United States and Canada is planted by means of implements known as corn planters. Of these there are various types on the market, the most simple being oper- ated by hand; there are others that are pulled by horses. Where rather small areas are planted, hand planters similar to the one shown in Fig. 26 are used. In this planter the can shown at a is for holding the seed corn. When planting is being done, a notched disk, shown in (a), is placed in a horizontal position in a slot at the bottom of the can. A spring b with a hook at the end of it, and which is fastened to the frame, as shown in the illustration, is hooked in one of the notches of the disk. Each time the upper part of the frame is opened by means of the handles, the spring is made to turn the disk so that one of the holes in the disk comes over the mouth of a chute, down which a few kernels, the number depending on the size of the holes in the disk, pass at a time to the bottom of the planter. After the bottom is placed in the ground, the top of the frame is closed, which operation opens the bottom of the planter sufficiently to allow the com to pass out. The planter is then removed from the ground and the operation repeated. Several disks with different-sized holes are supplied with a planted Fig. 26 32. To make the corn rows straight and parallel, some method of marking them is generally employed. A home- made sled with three runners like that shown in Fig. 27 is often used for this purpose. The runners, which are made the same distance apart as that at which corn rows are 28 CORN §14 planted, will, when the sled is drawn across the field, mark the position of the rows. The extension arm at the side, to which a marker is attached, is for the purpose of scratching Pig. 27 a line in the soil to guide the driver when making the next trip across the field. A single-shovel plow like the one shown in Fig. 28 is an implement sometimes used for marking corn rows. One disadvantage of this implement is that it makes only one furrow to each trip across the field. Pig. 28 33. Planters drawn by horses are used extensively where rather large areas are planted to com. Fig. 29 shows a type of single-row planter that is pulled by one horse. The kernels §14 CORN 29 are placed in a can a, and fertilizer, when it is used, in a small can b As the planter is drawn along, a furrow is made by Fig 29 a furrow opener c, and the kernels are dropped in the furrow one at a time or in groups of three or four as regulated by Fig. 30 a chain attachment d; a wheel e closes the furrows and covers the kernels. 30 CORN '§ 14 34. Two-row planters operated by two horses are used extensively where large areas are planted. Fig. 30 shows a modern type. The principle of its operation is similar to that of the one-horse type shown in Fig. 29. The seed box is at a, the furrow opener at b, and the covering wheel at c. No fertilizer box is shown on this planter. Planters are made both with and without fertilizer attachments, whether or not they are on an implement depending largely on the section Fig. 31 (C) of the country in which it is to be sold. On the planter illustrated in Fig. 30, the dropping of the kernels in hills is regulated by a wire d, that is stretched from one end or side of the field to the other end or side when a row of corn is being planted. On this wire are knots at regular intervals that, as the planter is being drawn along the row, come in contact with a contrivance that causes three or four kernels to drop into the furrow, each group of kernels being the seed of one hill. If the corn is to be planted in rows the wire d is not used. §14 CORN 31 35. Most planters are provided with some kind of a marker, which enables the driver to make parallel rows. A common type of marker is that shown in Fig. 30 at e, which is a disk connected to an arm extending from the planter to the proper distance; the mark made by the disk serves as a guide when subsequent rows are planted. 36. Different kinds of furrow openers and covering wheels are used on different makes of planters. In Fig. 31 (a) is shown a single-disk furrow opener; in h, a double-disk furrow opener; and in (c), a stub-runner furrow opener. Four types of planter wheels are shown in Fig. 32. Those shown in Fig. 32 (o), (6), and id) have concave, flat, and open tires, respect- ively. A double wheel is shown in {£). 37. A regular wheat drill is often used for planting corn. If the third hoe from each end of an U-hoe drill, which is 7 feet from wheel to wheel, is used for planting corn, two rows 3 feet 6 inches apart will be planted at a time, and the wheels of the drill will be 21 inches from each row. If on the return trip across the field one of the drill wheels is kept in the track it made on the previous trip, the rows will be spaced at the correct distance, 3 feet 6 inches. 38. In some sections of the United States, corn is planted by listing it into the ground with a lister, which is a double plow that throws a furrow both ways. When corn is planted in a row made by a lister, a planter is usually attached 32 CORN §14 just behind the plow. Fig. 33 shows a three-wheeled riding lister and drill. While being operated, a plow a makes a furrow, and the seed are dropped from a can h through a tube c, to the ground just behind the plow. A double wheel d covers the seed. Thus, the ground is plowed and planted at one operation. One reason for the use of listers is that when corn is planted deep it is better able to stand drought than if planted shallow, and another reason is that the stalks are well braced to withstand winds. 39. Time of Year for Planting Corn. — The time at which corn should be planted varies with the locality and with the Fig. 33 season. Near Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, from the 8th to the 15th of May has been found by experience to be the best time; at Urbana, Illinois, the best time has been determined to be from the 11th to the ISth of May; while at Fargo, North Dakota, from the 1st to the 8th of June is the approved time. A farmer must, therefore, be governed largely by conditions in his own locality. The particular season must be studied also, for in some years the ground will be in condition earlier § 14 CORN 33 than in other years. It is a good plan to fix a date for planting and then adhere to it as closely as conditions will permit. Com should not be planted too early in the season, as it is Ukely to be injured by the cold weather that is so likely to occur before the really warm weather of spring is at hand. It often happens that farmers will plant corn during a few warm days in April. The corn may germinate and get above the ground in good condition, but if cold weather comes in the last part of April or the first part of May, the corn will turn yellow and remain so until the ground becomes warmer. Corn planted late in the season, when the ground is warm and continues warm, will nearly always surpass corn that is planted early. 40.. Quantity of Seed Corn Per Acre. — The quantity of seed corn per acre to plant should vary with the quality of the soil; the richer the soil the thicker can be the planting. In the Central States, planting at the rate of four grains to the hill, the hills being 3 feet 8 inches apart, or one grain to every 12 inches, in rows 3 feet 8 inches apart, has been found by experience to give the best results, while on the best soils of southern Pennsylvania and Maryland, the plantings are three kernels to the hill, or one kernel to every 12 to 15 inches in hills or in rows 3 feet 6 inches apart. It will be noticed that thinner planting is done in the latter districts mentioned than in the former. In some of the Southern States corn is planted one stalk to the hill, the hills being 5 feet apart. The number of quarts of seed used per acre will vary largely with the size of the kernels. When planted three kernels to the hill with the hills 3 feet 6 inches apart, from 4 to 4^ quarts is the average quantity required to sow an acre; where four kernels are planted to the hill, the hills being 3 feet 8 inches apart, about 5 to 5J quarts will be found necessary. 41. Testing the Corn Planter. — The planter that is to be used for planting a field should be tested for accuracy in dropping the kernels and the fertilizer. Of course, if no fertilizer attachment is on the planter, it will need to be tested only for accuracy in dropping the kernels. If a hand planter 34 CORN § 14 such as is shown in Fig. 26 is used, the testing is done simply by opening and closing the top of the frame a few times, as explained before, and noting how many kernels are dropped. If the desired number of kernels is not dropped, another disk such as shown in (a), Fig. 26, with larger or smaller holes for the passage of the seed, is inserted in the planter, and the testing is continued until the planter drops the desired number. 42. When planters like those illustrated in Figs. 29 and 30 are to be tested, the seed box and, if fertilizer is to be used, the fertilizer box, are filled with com and fertilizer. The contrivance that causes the kernels and the fertilizer to drop is then tripped by hand, and a note is made of the number of kernels and the quantity of fertilizer that is dropped each time the contrivance is tripped. If too many kernels or too much fertilizer are being dropped, the parts regulating the dropping should be adjusted. At the bottom of the seed box there will be found a removable circular plate perforated with holes. With each planter the manufacturers furnish several plates, each of which has different-sized holes. These plates regulate the number of kernels dropped. If it is found that not enough kernels are dropped, a plate with larger holes should be substituted, and if too many are dropped a plate with smaller holes should be used. If it is found that there is no plate with holes of a size sufficient to provide for the quantity of com the farmer desires planted, he can overcome the difficulty by making the holes in a plate larger by filing. The amount of fertilizer that is dropped into the soil is regu- lated by the size of an opening that can be made larger or smaller as desired. The farmer should be sure, before starting the planter in the field, that this opening is of the right size to distribute the quantity of fertilizer he wishes to place in the soil. 43. Operating the Corn Planter. — After the corn planter has been adjusted, it is taken to the field, together with the seed, the fertilizer, if fertilizer is to be used, measures, etc. If the corn is to be planted in drills, the start can be made § 14 CORN 35 immediately after the seed-corn and fertilizer boxes are filled, and the marker adjusted. To be sure that the first row is planted in a straight line, it is a good plan to have guide poles to sight on when taking the first trip across the field. The farmer throws the machine in gear by the lever provided for this purpose, and drives straight for the pole or poles, the machine, of course, dropping the corn on the way. Reach- ing the farther edge of the field, he throws the machine out of gear, and turns it around. After bringing the machine in line parallel to the tracks of the first row, he again puts it ia gear and drives back across the field to the side where the start was made. On this and the subsequent trips he will have no need for the sight poles, for he can be guided by the line made in the soil by the marker. 44. When the field is to be planted in hills, the knotted wire previously mentioned, which trips the planting device so that the kernels are dropped in groups of three or four instead of one at a time, must be used. The farmer fastens one end of the wire to an iron pin that has been driven into the ground along the edge and near one corner of the field, and then reeling off the wire he goes to the opposite side of the field where he fastens the other end of the wire. The wire is thus stretched from one side of the field to the other, and it is then slipped into a groove provided for it on the planter, and the planter is driven across the field to make the first double row. As each knot in the wire trips the planting contrivance of the planter three or four grains are planted. After the first double row has been planted, the wire is slipped out of the groove, the implement is turned, and the pin and the wire at the end where the implement is standing are moved up or down the field the space of a row. The wire is then placed in the groove again and a return trip is made across the field to the side where the start was made. After this second trip is finished the pin and wire at this end are moved the space of a row, and a trip of the planter is then made as before. To keep the hills the same distance apart, the wire should be stretched to about the same tight- 36 CORN § 14 ness each time it is moved. If it is stretched loose one time, and tight another time, the hills in the second double row will not be in line with the hills in the first double row. 45. There is a kind of two-horse planter on the market that when com is being planted in hills is operated without a check wire. The dropping of the kernels is done by a lever worked either by the hand or the foot. Two men are required to operate one of these planters, one man to drive the team and the "other one to trip the lever. In order to have the hills at equal distances apart, it is necessary to mark off the field with a sled or other device, as explained in regard to planting with the hand planter. When the com is to be planted in hills, the marker must be hauled across the field in two directions, one at right angles with the other, thus causing squares to be marked on the surface. When planting is being done, the machine is pulled along the mark made by the sled, and as the planter crosses the cross lines on the field the lever is operated, thus planting the com in hills that are at equal distances apart. 46. Replanting Corn. — Farmers will often find, no matter how careful they may have been in selecting and planting the seed, that when the corn plants come above the ground some rows contain fewer than the desired number of plants. When this is the case, it is advantageous to replant kernels where plants are missing. The hand planter is a useful implement for this work. As the kernels used in replanting are placed in the ground late in the season it is a good plan, in order to hasten their germination as much as possible, to soak them in water for from 24 to 36 hours before planting them. A good way of soaking corn for planting is to place the kernels in a vessel and cover them with about ^ inch of water. If much water is used the kernels are likely to become so soft that it will be difficult to plant them. 47. It sometimes happens, by reason of planting too early in the season, or on account of unfavorable weather con- ditions, that the kernels in an entire field fail to germinate. §14 CORN 37 or if any kernels do germinate, these are so few that, even if the plants are allowed to mature, the resulting crop is not a paying one. In such cases, it will generally pay the farmer to plant the whole field, unless the season is so far advanced that he can- not hope to have the plants mature before frost comes. With a field successfully replanted, all the farmer loses is the seed for the first planting, and the time and labor it took to plant it, while if he does not replant, he may lose the use of the field for the season. If it is too late in the year for replant- ing corn, the loss of the ground for the season may be pre- vented by planting some late-growing crop, such as buck- wheat. CULTIVATION OF CORN DURING GROWTH 48. Corn is a crop that is cultivated during the growth of the plants. The chief reason that most farmers cultivate com is to kill the weeds in the field. Incidentally, however. Fig. 34 the working over of the soil is of much benefit to the crop, as it pulverizes, aerates, and mellows the soil, and increases its water-holding capacity. 49. Implements Used in Cultivation. — Harrows, weeders, and cultivators are used in cultivating corn. Spike-tooth harrows are the implements best adapted for the work, but 38 CORN §14 their use is confined to but a few days of the season, as explained later. The weeder, a type of which is shown in Fig. 34, is an implement that, like the harrow, can be used on a corn field for a few days only, but its use is very effective. The most-used implement during the corn-growing season is the cultivator. Of these there are both single- and double- row types. Corn cultivators with shovels, as shown in Figs. 35 and 36, are more generally used than those provided 'ifS]^ Fig. 35 with disks, such as shown in Fig. 37, although some farmers prefer the disk type. Corn fields are weeded by drawing a cultivator up and down the corn rows, allowing the shovels or disks, as the case may be, to loosen the earth between the rows. Double-row cultivators are made to straddle one row of com at a time when being used, but with the single-row cultivator the horse, implement, and driver all pass between the rows. §14 CORN 39 50. Frequency of Cultivation. — The number of times a field of corn is cultivated, and the methods of doing the work, vary in different localities. It is important to cultivate the land early, for the weeds are then small and easily killed. Corn plants, as a rule, will be above the ground on about the fifth day after planting, but the work of cultivating can be begun even before this time. About the third day after plant- ing, unless the ground is wet, a weederor a harrow can be used on the field. If a crust has formed on the surface of the Fig. 36 soil, by reason of a heavy rain just after planting, this early working will break the crust and make it easier for the plants to get above the ground. Some persons advocate the use of a cultivator before the corn plants are above ground, the marks left by the planter serving as a guide to show where the rows will be. The use of a harrow or a weeder follows that of the cultivator, and thus the field will be practically free from weeds when the corn plants appear above the ground. Fig. 37 Fig. 38 40 § 14 CORN 41 If the ground is wet on the days before the com plants appear, it is a good plan to postpone cultivation until about the eighth day after planting. Under such circumstances some persons use a harrow for the cultivation, while others condemn this practice, as the teeth of the implement uproot some of the corn plants. If a harrow is used in the afternoon, it is less likely to injure the corn plants than if it is used in the morning when they are brittle and easily broken. Although a harrow will uproot a few corn plants, it will rid the field of many weeds, which is an advantage. A weeder is sometimes used for cultivation under the conditions men- tioned. Like the harrow it will pull up some corn plants but it will also rid the field of weeds. 51. If com is cultivated soon after it is planted there will be less weeds to contend with than if this early working is neglected, but whether there is early working or not, later cultivation is necessary. The cultivator is the implement that is generally used for all cultivating after the coin plants get to be over 2 or 3 inches high. Cultivating should be con- tinued until the plants shade the ground. After that but few weeds will grow, and cultivating is likely to injure the corn roots. 52. The number of times a field is cultivated often depends on the number of acres a farmer has in corn, and the help he is able to obtain. In the Central States farmers try to get over the fields at least three times, and possibly four, while in regions that are more intensively cultivated to go over a field seven or eight times is not uncommon. The more times a field is cultivated, provided the cultivation is not too deep, as explained later, the better for the corn crop. 53. Depth of Cultivation. — Maize is a plant with fibrous, branching roots, and many of these roots are near the sur- face, as is shown in Fig. 38, which illustrates the position of the roots in four hills of corti, at earing time. It is not a good plan to cultivate so deep as to injure the roots. Experi- ments have been made showing that 50 per cent, more roots 234-^9 42 CORN §14 will be cut o£E by cultivating 4 inches deep than by going to a depth of 3 inches. It is clear, therefore, that shallow cul- tivating is better than deep cultivating. From 1 to 2 or 2^ inches may be considered shallow cultivating, and when- ever a farmer cultivates deeper than this he may be sure that he is injuring his corn crop. haevesti:ng and storing of corn HARVESTING OF CORN Time for Harvesting Corn. — The 54. Time for Harvesting Corn. — The time of year to harvest com will depend on the purpose for which it is grown. If the corn is raised for the grain alone it should be left on the standing stalks until the ears are ripe. This will usually yi\L M.,i;^^.:m ,i.d LMa Pig. 39 be about 4 or 5 weeks after the first frost. If both grain and fodder are desired, the stalks should be cut when nearly all the kernels are dented or glazed. The stalks are placed in shocks, as explained later, where they will cure for fodder. 44 CORN §14 The ears will be matured by the time the curing of the fodder is finished. 55. Methods of Harvesting Corn. — Corn is harvested in different ways in different parts of the country. Where fields are large and not much use is made of the stalks for fodder, it is the practice to allow the ears to mature on the standing stalk, and then to husk the ears by hand from the stalks and throw them one at a time into a wagon that is drawn through the field. A high sideboard is used on one side of the wagon, as shown in Fig. 39. Jti^" ?Zig^ »^j ^ ^- FiG. 41 56. The corn picker shown in Fig. 40, now on the market, but not yet in general use, is an implement that pulls the ears of corn from the stalks, husks them, and elevates them so that they fall into a wagon that is driven along by the side of the implement. Unless a person has large areas of corn, the use of such a corn picker is not practicable. 57. A method of harvesting corn which is generally prac- ticed in the North Atlantic States, the Southern States, and in parts of the North Central States of the United States is to cut the stalks and place them in shocks, leaving the ears § 14 CORN 45 to be husked later. Fig. 41 shows a field of corn in shocks. In many places the cutting is done with a large knife called a corn knife. Two types of corn knives are shown in Fig. 42; the knife shown in (a) is the kind used in the North Central States, and that shown in (6) is the kind used in the North Atlantic States. Where corn is cut by hand, the number of hills from which the stalks in a shock are taken varies from 35 to 144 hills, the size of a shock depending largely on the custom followed in the region. A common method of making a shock is to go to the center of the area that is to be included in the shock and tie the tops of the stalks of four hills together without cutting the stalks, and then cut the stalks from the other hills, and place the latter stalks about the stalks that are standing on the four hills. The stalks of the four hills can be tied together simply by twisting a corn stalk about them. They need to be held i together for a short time only, as the stalks from the other hills wh'en piled around them will hold them in place. When the shock is finished, a light rope with a metal hook on one end is used to draw the top together, after which it is tied with a piece of twine or a com stalk and the rope removed. After the stalks in the shocks have cured and the ears are well dried the ears are husked. After the ears are removed the stalks are tied in bundles to be used as fodder for livestock. A corn knife is carried to the field when the ears are being husked and used to cut down the stalks that were used as a support for the shock. 58. Machines known as corn harvesters, that bind the com in shocks, are beginning to be very generally used for har- vesting com. One of these machines is illustrated in Fig. 43. One row of com is cut as the machine is driven across the field; the stalks are bound into bundles, and these bundles are held on the machine until several have accumulated, when 46 CORN §14 they are deposited in a pile. If the com is to be cured on the stalks, these piles are made up into shocks by hand, but if the stalks with the ears attached are to be used for silage the bundles are loaded on wagons soon after being cut, and are taken to the silage cutter, where they are made into silage. Fio. 43 59. On some farms a machine known as a busker and shredder takes the place of hand labor for husking the corn, shredding the husks, leaves, and stalks; such a machine is shown in Fig. 44. The bundle of stalks is first fed to the machine, which removes the ears and elevates them to one side, where they can be easily loaded into a wagon. Any 48 CORN § 14 grains that are removed from the ears as they are being husked are deposited in a grain sack attached to the side of the machine. The stalks, leaves, and husks are finely shredded and then elevated by a blower attachment to the mow of a barn or other place of storage. Shredded corn fodder is a very desirable feed for livestock. 60. In parts of the Southern States the practice of pulling the leaves and using them for fodder is followed. Handfuls of leaves are tied together and hung on a stalk to cure for a few days; when cured, these hands,' as they are called, are collected and used for fodder. It has been found by experi- ments that fodder pulling results in a loss of grain yield; it should therefore be practiced only when the decrease in yield will be more than offset by the value of the fodder. 61. Another method of harvesting corn, known as top- ping corn, is practiced to some extent in the Southern States. A few weeks before the ears of corn are mature, the tops of the plants just above the ear or ears on the stalks are cut off. These tops are made into shocks and left to cure for fodder. The ears are gathered when mature, and the standing stalks on which they were attached are either left in the field to be plowed under the next time the field is planted or they are shredded and used for bedding for livestock. STORING OF CORN 62. After the ears of corn are husked they are stored in cribs, which are bins or sheds with the sides slatted. In cribs thus ventilated the ears will dry out much better than if they are stored in a tight-sided bin. Corn stored in cribs is subject to loss from rats, mice, and other vermin. Special precaution should therefore be taken to minimize or prevent this loss. One inexpensive way to do this is to place the crib on blocks of wood or stones that will raise the floor above the ground. The vermin are less likely to get into a crib thus raised above the ground than into a crib that is built level with the ground. A practical method of preventing §14 CORN 49 loss by vermin that has been tried with success is to place flat galvanized pans upside down on the top of the posts used as a foundation, as shown in Fig. 45. The rats or mice that attempt to get into the crib by crawling up the posts will be turned back by the rims of the pans. If a crib thus protected is detached from other buildings the corn stored in it will be practically free from the ravages of vermin. Fig 45 Another method of protection against vermin that has been adopted is to screen the walls of ^the crib with a wire netting having a mesh fine enough to keep out rats and mice. This method is expensive, but for use on a permanent crib it is considered desirable. 50 CORN § 14 CORN JUDGING 63. Persons who are desirous of learning how to select good seed corn should be skilled in the judging of corn. By the judging . of com is meant the determining of whether certain ears or collections of ears are better for use as seed than other ears or collections of ears. Corn is usually judged in samples; each sample generally contains 10 ears, and is considered as a unit. The characteristics of corn that are looked for in judging are those that have been determined by expert corn growers to be of the most importance. 64. Characteristics Considered in Judging Corn. — The characteristics that are considered when judging a sample of corn are: (1) Trueness to type or variety, (2) shape of ears, (3) color of grains and of cobs, (4) market condition of the corn, (5) condition of tips and butts of ears, (6) condition of kernels, (7) length and circumference of ears, (8) space between rows and between kernels, (9) percentage of com to cob. 65. The first thing that a judge considers when looking over a sample of corn is whether it is true to the variety or the type to which it is supposed to belong. A sample of com can be judged according to the type or according to the variety. For instance, if the sample is one of Hildreth's Yellow Dent, illustrated at Fig. 7 (e), it will be judged as such, but if a sample of corn is not of a pure variety, but is, say, a white flint corn, not pure as to variety, it will be judged simply as white flint corn. 66. A sample of corn to be perfectly true to type and variety should conform to the standard of the variety or type in form of kernels, shape of ears, color of grains, and, if it is a sample of dent corn, in indentation of grains. § 14 CORN 51 67. The shape of ears in a sample of dent com should conform as nearly as possible to the cylindrical shape described in Art. 9. It is difficult to find ears perfect in shape, but the more nearly the ears of a sample approach perfection the better will the sample naturally be considered. The reason a cylindrical-shaped ear is better than a tapering ear is given in Art. 9. Each variety of com has a distinct shape peculiar to itself, but in a general way the desired shapes of all varieties approach the cylindrical. 68. The color of the grains of the sample should be uniform and true to the color of the variety or type that is being judged. Each variety of com has a distinct color. For example, Boone County White Dent is pearly white, and Silver King White Dent is of a cream color. In the yellow dents there is a variation among the varieties from pale yellow to 'a deep orange. In judging a variety, therefore, the distinct color of the variety must be considered. Any departure from the color peculiar to a variety shows that the sample is not pure-bred. 69. The color of cobs should be a bright cherry red for yellow corn, and a pure white for white corn. Any departure from these colors shows that the ear is not true to the type or the variety. 70. The market condition is an important characteristic to consider. The ears of the sample should be ripe, sound, and free from mold. Corn that is exceedingly loose on the cob gives evidence of lack of maturity and is, therefore, unfit for seed and is not in the best market condition. 71. The condition of the tips and butts of ears is impor- tant. All the tips and butts of the sample should be well filled, as described in Art. 9. Tips and butts that are not well filled show a lack of yield, an undesirable characteristic for seed corn to possess. In addition, a poorly filled tip shows a lack of maturity of the ear. 52 CORN § 14 72. The condition of kernels of the sample should receive careful consideration. The kernels should possess uniformity. By uniformity is meant likeness in size, shape, and color. The shape should be that characteristic of the type judged. If the corn is dent corn, a wedge shape, as described in Art. 11, is the shape desired, and if the sample is one of flint, a rounded shape, as described in Art. 5, is the right shape. Kernels should not only be uniform, but should have no weak or shriveled tips. Kernels of this kind are undesirable, as they lack oil and protein, two desirable food elements. 73. The length and circumference of ears should be in accordance with the variety or type being judged. As an average for dent corn the length and circumference -of the ideal dent ear given in Art. 10 may be taken. The average length for flint ears is given in Art. 5. 74. The percentage of corn to cob should, of course, be large, because a large quantity of corn to the cob means a large yield of corn. As stated in Art. 12, the percentage of corn to cob for dent corn such as is generally desired by corn growers is from 85 to 90. The percentage can be learned definitely only by shelling ofE the kernels and comparing their weight with that of the cob. Ears of com that have the desired characteristics of shape of ear, well-filled butts and tips, and but little space between kernels and rows of kernels generally show a large percentage of corn to cob. 75. Use of Score Card in Cora Judging. — To facilitate the judging of corn, judges often make use of a score card, a sample of which is shown in Fig. 46. This is simply a list of the desired characteristics arranged in order with spaces for the score. 76. The numbers printed in line with the qualifications indicate perfection in accordance with the relative importance of the various characteristics. A sample perfect in all respects is entitled to 100 points. A sample absolutely true to type or variety is allowed 10 points out of the possible 100; if the shape of the ears is also perfect it is allowed 10 more §14 CORN 53 points, and so on in accordance with the points allowed for perfection in each characteristic. A cut, or deduction, is made from the possible points for any characteristic if the sample falls short of perfection in this respect. The points obtained by this method of judging are entered in the blank DENT CORN SCORE CARD Characteristics r c55 Sample 3 Trueness to type or variety lO Shape of ears lO Color: (o) Grains s (b) Cobs S lO Market condition Tips S Butts 5 10 Kernels: {a) Uniformity (b) Shape 5 Ears: (a) Length 10 (b) Circumference 5 Spaces: (a) Between rows of kernels. 5 (b) Between kernels at cob . , 5 Percentage of corn to cob lO lOO Total Name. . . . Remarks . Fig. 46 spaces provided on the score card. After the points of a sample have been judged and entered in this way, the numbers written in the blank spaces are added, and the sum, or the score of the sample, is placed on the score card. This process of judging corn is known as scoring corn. TABIiE I PLAN OF MAKING DEDUCTIONS IN SCORING CORN Characteristics of Sample Deductions Trueness to type or variety. Deduct i point for each ear that differs materially from type or variety. Shape of ears. Deduct 1 point for each poorly shaped ear. Color of grain and of cob. Deduct To point for each mixed kernel. Missing kernels are counted as mixed. Differences in shade or color of ker- nels, as light and dark red, white -and cr.eam color, light and dark yellow, are scored according to the regular color of the variety. Deduct 5 points for a red cob in a sample of white corn, or a white cob in a sample of yellow corn. Market condition. Deduct 1 point for every diseased, injured, or immature ear. Condition of tips and butts of ears. Deduct 1 point for each tip where an inch of cob is exposed. For tips where less cob is exposed, deduct in proportion to amount of cob exposed. Regularity of rows near the top, and the shape and size of the kernels near the tip must be considered, and deductions made accordingly. In scoring butts, make deductions in proportion as grain is small, or compressed. 54 TABLE I— (Continued) Characteristics of Sample Deductions Condition of kernels. Deduct 1 point for each set of kernels that are not uniform. Deduct i point for each set of kernels that are shriveled or poorly formed. Length and circum- ference of ears. The length of ears that the type or variety should have is first deter- mined. Deductions are made as follows: Measure each ear of the sample and add the deficiencies and excesses, in inches, of all ears not of the standard length and for each inch of the sum deduct 1 point. The deduction for circumference is obtained in the same manner. Add the deficiencies and excesses in cir- cumference, in inches, of all ears not of standard circumference and de- duct i point for each inch thus obtained. Space between rows and between kernels. Deduct i point for g^ inch to ^ inch space between the rows, and deduct J point for more than fg inch space between the rows. Deduct i point for each ear showing space between kernels at the cob. Percentage of com to cob. Deduct 1 point for each point the sample falls short of the percentage of com to cob that is standard for the variety or type. 65 56 CORN I 14 77. When several samples are to be judged, they are each scored, and the results are compared. Obviously, the sample that has the score nearest 100 is the best. 78. Rules for Making Deductions. — In scoring corn some plan must be adopted for regulating the amount that is deducted from the numbers opposite the list of qualifications. Different judges will naturally have different plans. 79. Table I illustrates a plan for making deductions adapted from a corn score card distributed by the Wisconsin Experiment Station. 80. Judging Corn Without Score Card. — At fairs, corn shows, etc. corn is often judged without making use of score cards. In this case the judge must have had considerable experience in scoring corn. He is thereby able to tell, merely by looking at the samples, their relative merits, and thus when samples have been placed in competition he can place them in their respective places of 1st, 2d, 3d, etc. without taking the time to score them. CORN PARASITES INSECT PARASITES OF CORN 81. The corn plant is injured by numerous insect pests among which are rootworms, root lice, cutworms, white grubs, earworms, stalk borers, chinch bugs, wireworms, and bill bugs. Formidable as this list may seem, the farmer has the consola- tion of knowing that the practicing of crop rotation and the avoidance of too old a sod for corn ground are effective in overcoming these pests. 82. Rootworms. — The most troublesome insect pests of corn are the rootworms, of which there are two species, the western rootworm and the southern rootworm. The root- worm of either species is very small, being about f inch in length, and about as large around as a pin. It is colorless except § 14 CORN 57 for three spots, one on the top of the head, one on the first segment of the body, and one on the last segment. As soon as the worms are hatched, which is about July 1, they enter the corn root at its tip, and burrow back and forth lengthwise through the root just under the outside covering. Some- times as many as six rootworms have been found in one root, and two hundred of these worms have been discovered in the roots of a hill of corn. Roots thus injured soon die and rot off, and the corn plant that is thus deprived of its roots either blows over at the first heavy wind or dies for the want of food. The corn rootworms can live on no species of plants except com, and for this reason they may be controlled by the rotation of crops. Examinations made of fields of corn showed more rootworms in fields that had been in corn the previous year than in those where corn followed some other crop on the same ground. 83. Corn-Root Louse. — The corn-root louse, like other members of the plant-lice family, derives its nourishment from the plant by sucking juices that the plant needs for nourishment. The root louse is a little smaller than the head of a pin, but what root lice lack in size they make up for in numbers. They appear in clusters about the roots of corn, and by sucking the juices greatly injure the plants. This damage is done during the time the plants are very small, namely, in May and June. The young plants being weak at this time are easily killed. Root lice are always found associated with ants, which take care of them and carry them to the roots of corn. In return for this care the lice provide food for the ants. This food is a sweet substance and is secreted in tubes in the body of the louse. Later in the season when the corn roots have become hard and woody the ants transfer the lice to the roots of smart- weed and foxtail. The keeping of the fields free from these weeds is one method of fighting the lice. Another remedy, and the most important' one, is rotation of crops. If there is no corn on a field the ants will take the lice away. Culti- 234—10 58 CORN § 14 vation of com before the com plants are above grovmd is another method of fighting .this pest, because it hinders the ants from transferring the lice to the com roots. 84. Com on rich soil is less damaged by the root louse than that grown on poor soil, for the corn on the rich soil gets a better start in the spring and is therefore stronger and better able to stand the loss of any sap taken by the lice. 85. Cutworms. — ^The larvas of many different kinds of moths are cutworms, and many of them are troublesome in com fields. The moths lay their eggs on the leaves of grass in pastures and meadows during midsummer. The worms hatch from these eggs soon after, and feed on the growing grasses. They remain in the ground during the winter and come out the next spring. If the sod land on which the worms are living is plowed up and planted to corn, the worms start at once to feed on the small, tender corn plants. They destroy these plants by cutting them off just above the ground. 86. Late fall plowing has been found to be a remedy for cutworms, as it exposes them and kills the vegetation on which they would feed during the early spring. The use of a mixture containing poison has also been found useful for destroying the worms. The mixture used consists of 40 pounds of wheat bran, 2 quarts of molasses, and 1 pound of Paris green thoroughly moistened with water. Of this, a teaspoonful is placed near each hill of corn. This mixture attracts the cutworms, and if eaten kills them. Another way to have fewer cutworms in a com field is to use land that has not been left in sod for more than 2 years. The worms are less numerous in fields that have been sodded but a short time than in those that have long been left in grass. It is a good plan to have an abundance of clover in the sod fields, as this means fewer grass leaves for the moths to lay their eggs on, and therefore there will be fewer worms hatched. 87. White Grubs. — ^The larvas of May beetles, or June bugs, as these insects are sometimes called, are white grubs, which § 14 CORN 59 are sometimes troublesome in com fields. The worms feed on the roots of young corn plants, thereby weakening the roots and often causing the plant to be destroyed. No very satis- factory remedy is known for these pests, but it has been found that they are more numerous in grass lands of long standing than in those left in sod for only 1 or 2 years. Com planted in land that has been in sod for only a short period is less troubled with grubs than that planted in land that has been in sod for a long time. 88. Corn Earworm. — The corn earworm is about 1^ inches long, and varies in color from green to brown. It is covered with longitudinal stripes of nearly the color of the body, and on each segment of the body are eight round, black, shiny spots from which protude short hairs. The head and neck are always brown. The worm is the larva of a moth. Three broods are hatched in a year ; the first brood eats the leaves of corn, the second the silk, and the third the ear. The third brood is the most destructive. The worms feed on the tip grains of the ear, and do damage, not only by destroying many of the grains, but also by providing a place for mold and rot. No satisfactory remedy has as yet been found for these worms, although it is claimed by some that late fall or early spring plowing will help to get rid of the insects. Besides being an enemy to corn, the earworm attacks cotton, tobacco, and beans. Where it is found on the cotton plant it is known as the boll worm. 89. Stalk Borers. — Three kinds of stalk borers are known to infest corn, namely, the regular, or medium, the small, and the large. The last-named does the most damage. The injury is done by the larvas, which are white, about f inch long, and marked with dark brown spots. They bore into the young stalks of com, and later bore into the older stems and work down into the main root. Rotation of crops has been found to be the best remedy for this pest. 90. Chinch Bug. — The chinch bug, as explained in a pre- vious Section, is an insect that infests fields of wheat, oats, 60 CORN § 14 barley, and rye. When the crops of these fields are harvested, the bugs, being deprived of food, migrate to the nearest field that affords food. This is generally a corn field. Barriers, the construction of which has been explained elsewhere, should be provided, not only to keep the bugs out of the com field, but ultimately to destroy them so that the crops will be protected the next year. 91. Wirewonns. — The various wireworms are the larvas of click beetles, or jumping jacks. The worms of the different species vary in length from J inch to IJ inches. They have a hard, smooth body that varies in different insects from yellowish to reddish brown. These worms damage com by eating the seed in the ground before germination, and also by eating and boring the roots and young stems of the plants. The growing of corn on land that has been in sod for but a short time is the most effective practice in fighting wire- worms. 92. Bill Bugs. — The bill bugs, of which there are several varieties, are black beetles from i to f inch in length. They damage corn by punching holes in the young stalks and leaves. The damage done is very slight. No remedy has as yet been found effective. FUNGOUS PARASITES OF CORN 93. Corn Smut. — The most troublesome fungous growth found on corn is smut. Smut appears in masses of black powdery spores on any part of the plant that is above ground, although the parts most likely to be affected are the ears and tassels. An ear of com infested with smut is shown in Fig. 47. Warmth and moisture are necessary for the germination of smut spores, and for this reason smut is likely to be preval- ent during a warm, moist season. 94. The best way thus far discovered for ridding corn plants of smut is to gather the masses of spores two or three times during the season and either burn them or place §14 CORN 61 them in boiling water. The heat will kill the spores, and germination will be prevented. The smut does not seem to be harmful to livestock, but it lessens the yield of com. 95. Com Rust. — Corn, like wheat and other grasses, is subject to rust. On the leaves of a plant infested with corn rust there will be found small, reddish-brown spots which are collections of spores. Rust can be fought by using fungicides, but this is not generally done, for the harm caused by rust is not considered great enough to warrant the use of preventives. 96. Bacterial Disease of Com. — A bacterial disease of com is becoming somewhat troublesome in sections. This disease not only damages the crop of corn but it is thought to be the cause of the so-called corn-stalk disease of cattle, which is generally fatal. The presence of the plant disease may be known by the dwarfed condition of plants in spots in the field which are generally in rich soil. The infested plants are yellow in color and the lower part of the stalks is covered with brownish spots. Late in the sum- mer, brown, watery patches are found on the inner surface of the leaves. The ears are soft and partly rotted during the summer, and in the fall they became moldy and covered with a white fungus. No remedy for this disease is known, but it has been observed that it is more likely to be found on land that has been in corn the year previous, than on land that has been in some other crop. Rotation of crops, or the plant- ing of some other crop than corn on the same ground the next year after corn is planted there, would seem, therefore, to be a preventive measure. Fig. 47 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS (PART 1) GRASSES GKASSE8 IN GENEBAIi 1. The term grass as it is commonly used is somewhat indefinite, and in order to avoid confusion its exact meaning should be made clear. In some cases, the word grass is applied to all of the common plants that are fed to livestock ; in other cases it is applied to a particular family of plants known to botanists as the grass family, all the members of which have certain common characters. The former use of the term is incorrect and the word grass will be used here to designate only members of the grass family. The grass family is one of the largest families of plant life. Included in it are many of the commonest plants on the farm, such, for example, as timothy, oats, wheat, com, lawn grass, etc. The grasses, together with a family of plants known as the legume family, which will be discussed later, comprise most of the plants that are commonly used for hay and pasture purposes. 2. The relationship between such apparently dissimilar plants as corn and wheat may not at first be apparent ; never- theless, they have certain common characters that distinguish them from plants belonging to other families and place them in the same general group. Some of these common char- acters are apparent from a casual examination of any mem- OOPYHIQHTED BY INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY. ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL, LONDON §15 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS §15 ber of the grass family. For example, the leaves of grasses are parallel veined; that is, the veins of the leaf lie in a parallel position, whereas in such common leaves as the oak, maple, potato, etc. they extend irregularly throughout the leaf. A leaf having this irregular arrangement of veins is called netted veined. 3. In grasses there is usually, in the central part of the leaf, a vein larger than the others and known as the midrib. The midrib in sofne grasses, com, for example, is pronounced, as will be seen in Fig. 1 (a) . The main upright part a of the plant above ground is called the stem, or culm, and this is divided into sections by enlarged rings, or knots, b, known as nodes. The sections of the culm between the nodes, as shown by c, are called intemodes. The leaves of grasses have three common parts, which are the sheath d, the blade e, and the ligule /. The sheath always starts from a node on the culm ; in some cases, the edges of this sheath are completely grown together, forming a tube that encloses the stem; in other cases, the edges of the sheath merely overlap. The blade, which is the upper and most conspicuous part of the leaf, may be more or less erect or it may be drooping in habit. It may be 3 or 4 inches in width, as in some kinds of com, or only a fractional part of an inch, as in some lawn grasses. The third part of the leaf, the ligule, which derives its name from a Latin word 15 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS Fio. 2 meaning tongue, is not so con- spicuous as the other parts men- tioned. It is a projection, usually thin and membranous, at the upper part of the sheath where the lat- ter joins the blade. In some species of grasses, it is a mere line ; in others, it may be a fourth of an inch in length. All grasses also possess what is known as a fibrous root system. By this is meant that the roots are numerous and threadlike, as shown in Fig. 1 (b). The culm of grass usually has a hard, smooth outer wall. In some varieties, the intemode is hollow, as shown in Fig. 2 (a), but the opening does not extend through the node. A bamboo fishing pole is an example of the hollow form of growth. In some varieties of grass, the intemodes are filled with a soft, spongy material known as pith, as shown in (6), which illus- trates a com stalk. The grass blossom, although often somewhat conspicuous, is not so showy as that of many other kinds of plants. For this reason mainly, grasses are seldom used for ornamental purposes. An ex- ception to this is grass for lawns and certain other grasses that have peculiarly colored leaves. 4. For the most part, grasses that are used for hay and pas- 4 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 15 ture purposes are long lived; that is, when once estab- lished, they continue to grow for several years without reseed- ing. This character is of importance, as it greatly reduces the cost of seeding meadows and pastures, both in the matter of labor and in the cost .of seed. The leaves of grass form a considerable portion of the plant when growing and of the hay made from a crop of grass. The leaves are not easily broken off in making hay, which fact gives grasses a distinct advantage over legumes, such as clover, alfalfa, etc., for hay purposes, since the leaves of the latter plants are easily broken off and lost in the process of haymaking. Certain grasses, as, for example, blue grass, have a tendency to produce a profuse growth of leaves at the base of the plant. This character is doubtless of consider- able economical importance when the grass is used for pas- ture, as a heavy growth of leaves is thought to aid consider- ably in preventing the evaporation of moisture from the ground during the growing season. Grasses having this habit, if otherwise satisfactory, make excellent pastures and lawns. The value of grasses is greatly improved by a peculiar habit of growth of the leaf blade. The point at which growth of the leaf takes place is not at the tip, or extreme end, but at the base, as may be recognized, by examining a plant, from the lighter green color at this point. The extreme end, or tip, of the leaf blade may be removed without injuring the growing point; and, in fact, this is exactly what happens when grass is browsed in the pasture or the lawn is mown. Other characters of grasses that make them of agricultural value are their palatability and healthfulness when fed to farm animals. Although there is probably little difference in grasses as to healthfulness, there may be considerable difference as to palatability and both will depend somewhat on the stage at which the grass is cut and the manner of curing it. 5. There are two general ways in which grasses reproduce or multiply. One of these is by the production of seeds, §15 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS which is too familiar to require detailed description ; the other method is by what is known as vegetative multiplication. It is by this process that certain grasses are able to grow on indefinitely and spread over large areas, without production of seed. Vegetative multiplication takes place in two ways, one of which is by what is known as tillering, or stooling. Wheat and timothy plants are good examples of plants that reproduce by tillering. Starting with a single plant, bearing three or four leaves, ofEshoots are soon produced, as seen in Fig. 3 Fig. 4 Fig. 3. These offshoots start from the lower nodes, and may, in turn, produce other offshoots ; the process continues until it is checked by the ripening of the plant. The second method of vegetative multiplication is by means of underground stems, or runners, called stolons. The parent grass plant sends out horizontal shoots, which are usually just below the surface of the ground. These shoots, or runners, produce at regular intervals a new root system and a new plant above ground. Each of the plants so pro- 6 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 15 duced may send out stolons, and thus the process continues indefinitely, usually resulting in the formation of a close sod; that is, the soil near the surface becomes so filled with these stolons and roots that it is bound together into one compact mass. Kentucky blue grass is an example of the grasses that reproduce by stolons. Fig. 4 shows a parent grass plant sending out stolons. 6. Importance of Grasses. — Grasses are of the greatest value to the human race, since all cereals, with the exception of buckwheat, are members of this family. These cereals furnish the staple foods for the vast majority of the world's population. But even if the cereals were omitted, grasses would still hold a prominent place in agriculture. The grass crop of some sections of the United States far surpasses in value that of any other crop. For instance, in the state of New York the value of the annual hay crop, which is largely timothy, is about three times as great as that of any other crop grown in the state; furthermore, there is, in the same state, a much greater area devoted to pasture purposes than is used for hay. 7. Aside from the direct use of grasses in agriculture, there is no doubt but that they are of great importance in the improvement of soils. When a good sod is plowed and the ground planted to other crops, it is observed that the soil has been improved by being left in grass a few years. By the decay of the grass roots much plant-food is undoubtedly added to the soil. It has been noticed in the history of agriculture in the plains and the prairie regions that the newly broken soil generally produces excellent crops for a number of years without the addition of manure or fertilizer. The grass crops have decayed on these soils for ages, and there has doubtless been a constant addition of humus to the soils on account of this process. Grasses do not have, like the legumes, the peculiar power of fixing free nitrogen in the soil by the formation of nodules on their roots; it has been shown by experiment, however, § 15 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 7 that a considerable quantity of nitrogen accumulates in the soil even where only grasses are grown. 8. Uses of Grasses. — Grasses are the principal plants found in nearly all permanent pastures. This is probably due to the fact that grasses are less sensitive to soil conditions than are legumes. In many sections of the country, pastures are by far the cheapest means of furnishing feed for horses, cattle, and sheep. In the state of New York, it has been determined by experiment that it is possible to keep milch cows on pasture with little or no other feed, at a cost of from 3 to 6 cents per day. To keep these same cows on hay and grain without the use of pasture, the cost would have been about 20 cents per day. In sections of the United States where land is cheap, it is a general practice to pasture farm animals a large part of the year. The number of months that animals can be grazed during the year will, of course, depend on the climate, con- dition of the pasture, and kind of grasses growing in it. There are sections in the western part of the United States where, owing to peculiar climatic conditions, grasses go through a sort of natural curing process in the field after the growing season is over. This occurs in localities where there is prac- tically no rain or snow after the close of the growing season. Animals may be pastured and kept in good condition on such dried grasses throughout the winter season. But grasses left exposed to the weather, in regions where rain and snow prevail, quickly lose their nutritive properties. 9. Aside from their use in pastures, grasses play an impor- tant part in almost all agricultural systems by furnishing hay. The process of making hay from grasses consists in cutting the plants before they have reached maturity, allow- ing them to dry, or cure, in the open air until a certain part of the moisture has been given off, then storing them in bams, stacks, or sheds for use as feed for livestock. Hay may be made from wild or from cultivated grasses. In the northeastern part of the United States, where timothy is grown, it is the great hay plant. In the north central sec- 8 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 15 tion, just west of the timothy region, the wild prairie grasses become important. Continuing west, the grasses occupy a less important place as hay plants, their place being taken by the legume alfalfa, which is better adapted for hay production in the western half of the country. The fact that grasses may be cured into hay is of great importance. This method of preservation extends their use throughout the whole year, and even makes it possible for the farmer to lay in store a supply for a future season of scarcity. It is a common practice, in many localities, for the farmer to hold a part of his hay until he knows for a certainty that he will secure enough from his fields to carry his farm animals another year. There are several reasons why grasses are more popular for hay than legumes. In the first place, grasses are generally easier to grow. They do not require to be sown so often as clovers and they will produce paying crops even on the poorer soils. The cost of the seed is also generally less. In most markets, hay made from grasses sells for a higher price than that made from clovers; consequently, the farmer does not generally plow his grass lands until compelled to do so by diminishing yields. Another reason why grasses may be more popular than clovers is the comparative ease with which good hay may be made from grasses, as compared with the difficulty of curing legume hay, particularly in humid sections. 10. Another important use for grass is in the making of lawns. Grasses that have a fine leaf and possess the creep- ing habit are the best for this purpose. The kinds that reproduce by tillering are unsuited for lawns, as they are inclined to become bunchy. Kentucky blue grass, in regions where it will grow, is the best lawn grass known, as it makes an even, dense sod in a few years. Generally, some more quickly maturing grass is sown with it, with the idea of furnishing a covering for the soil until the blue grass becomes established. 11. In some localities, grasses serve an important func- tion as soil binders; that is, they prevent surface soil from § 15 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 9 being carried away by winds and water. This trouble is, of course, most common on steep embankments and ter- races. In regions of sandy soils, the wind is likely to cause serious drifting unless the soil is covered by vegetation. Permanent grasses are effective in checking or preventing these troubles. Grasses that multiply by underground stems after the manner of blue grass are the most satisfac- tory as soil binders, as they form a closer sod than those that do not multiply in this way. CULTURE OF GRASSES 12. Soil Requirements for Grasses. — In farm practice, it is generally considered that a fairly rich, heavy loam is best suited for grass crops. In the timothy region, maximum yields of hay are grown on clay loams. The root system of the ordinary grasses consists of numerous rather fine roots, which are better suited for securing plant-food from finely divided soils than from the coarser sandy soils. There is no type of soil, however, on which some kind of grass cannot be grown if given opportunity. Grasses are not so sensitive to soil conditions as the legumes and other classes of farm .crops. They will endure more acid conditions as well as poorer drainage than legumes. For instance, timothy may be a profitable hay crop on almost any type of soil provided climatic conditions are not unfavorable. 13. Preparation of the Land for Grasses. — -As a rule, when a meadow is seeded, it is expected that several crops will be harvested before the land is again plowed. The preparation of the soil before sowing the seed should be such as will fit the land for several years of cropping. If land is poorly fitted for tilled crops, it is possible by a thorough sys- tem of cultivation afterwards to correct this error; this is not true in the case of meadows, for it is not possible to till the field after grass has begun to grow. For this reason it is of special importance to prepare the ground thoroughly before sowing grass for a meadow. 10 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 15 Deep and thorough plowing is essential for grasses. If the best results are expected, the land should be as carefully- prepared as for the most exacting garden crops. Thorough drainage, preferably by a system of tile drains, is advisable if the field is at all inclined to be wet. As it is impossible to remove weeds from a meadow economically after grass seed, is sown, the weeds should be destroyed as nearly as possible before sowing. This can be accomplished by clean culture of crops grown during the 1 or 2 years preceding the seeding of the meadow. When grasses are sown in late summer with no other crop, it is sometimes the practice to summer-fallow the field, and by frequent harrowing kill weeds as fast as they appear. This, however, is a rather expensive method unless some early-maturing crop can be secured from the land before preparing it for grass. The addition of barnyard manure to the soil is an aid to the growing of large yields of hay. From 20 to 30 tons per acre is often used when applied immediately before sowing grass seed. It is a more usual custom to manure a previous crop, such as com, in which case it is expected that the effect of the manure will extend to the grass crop. The average crop of hay from grasses in the eastern part of the United States is but little over 1 ton per acre. With proper weather conditions and the best cultural methods, more than four times this quantity has been produced. It is almost universally true that the meadows that pro- duce the lowest yields of hay also produce hay of the poorest quality. A field that does not support a fine stand of good grasses is sure to have the vacant places filled with weeds or inferior grasses. Thus the farmer who does not take the pains to carefully prepare meadow lands loses in two ways— by securing a low yield of hay and by producing hay of an inferior grade, which always sells at a low price. 14. Selecting and Testing of Grass Seed. — A good quality of grass seed can usually be obtained from a reliable dealer by paying a reasonable price. Although numerous weeds may grow and be harvested with the grass crop intended §15 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 11 for seed, modem methods of cleaning seeds usually remove practically all of the weed seeds. This is especially true of timothy, the most common grass sown. Moreover, with one or two exceptions, grass seeds possess Such distinctive characters that it is difficult to adulterate them with cheaper and inferior seeds. The United States Department of Agriculture maintains a seed laboratory for the purpose of testing farm seeds for those who desire such services, and some of the state experi- ment stations perform a similar service. All such work is, as a rule, done free. The tests include the determination of the percentage of living seeds and also the percentage of foreign material, such as weed seeds and inert matter. If dangerous weed seeds are found, attention is called to them and the farmer is advised not to sow the seed. Although it is impossible for the average farmer to deter- mine the purity of grass seed, it is a simple matter to test most seeds for the percentage of live seed. A simple appara- tus for this purpose consists of a pie pan, a pane of window glass, and two pieces of blotting paper, as shown in Fig. 5. The test is made by mois- tening the two pieces of blotting paper and placing 100 seeds between them; the papers are then placed in the pie pan, covered with the pane of glass, and set in a place where the temperature is about 70° F. and as uniform as possible. The live seeds will sprout in a week or two and a count may be made. The number of seeds that germinate will indicate the percentage of germination. Fig. 5 15. Methods of Seeding Grasses. — A common method of sowing grass is by broadcasting by hand. This is the only satisfactory way of sowing chaffy seeds, such as uncleaned red top or Kentucky blue grass. When the air is still, a hand seeder may be used to advantage to broadcast most of 234—11 12 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 15 the well-cleaned and heavier seeds. Two types of hand seeders in common use are adapted for grass seeding. They are the knapsack seeder and the wheel- barrow seeder. A knapsack seeder is shown in Fig. 6. It is an inexpensive implement and gives fair satisfaction. It is provided with a strap that fits around the neck of the workman and is ^'°- ^ operated by means of a small crank. The seeds fall from the hopper of the seeder on a circular pan that revolves at a high rate of speed, throwing them vary- ing distances from the operator, as shown in Fig. 7. ■ A wheelbarrow seeder is shown in Fig. 8. This type of seeder gets its name from the resemblance of its framework to that of a wheelbar- row. The seed hop- per a consists of a long box placed at right angles to the handles and contains the mechanism for Fig. 7 sowing the seeds. This mechanism is operated by power supplied from the wheel. §15 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 13 When grass seed is sown by broadcasting, it is a good plan to sow half of the seed across the field in one direction and the other half at right angles. When grass seed is to be sown with grain, the most satis- factory method is to sow them together by means of a grain drill fitted with a grass-seeder attachment. It is the prac- tice to sow grass seed shallower than grain, which may be done by an adjustment of the drill. It is frequently good practice to roll land sown to grass seed, either alone or with grain. This firms the soil about the seed and encourages rapid germination. 16. Value of Mixed Plantings of Grasses. — In the culture of grasses, it is a common practice to sow a mixture of two or Fig. 8 more different grass seeds, which is termed a mixed planting. There are certain advantages to be derived from this practice, one being that the varying soil conditions of a field can be better met by two or more grasses than by one; in other words, one grass will thrive on a particular portion of the field, perhaps crowding out all others, and another variety will be better adapted to some other portions, and hence excel there. Another advantage of a mixture, when it includes legume seed, is that the resulting leguminous plants add an appreciable quantity of nitrogen to the soil, and the grasses profit by the increased fertility. Still another advan- tage is the possibility, in the case of mixtures for pastures, 14 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 15 of sowing a mixture that will yield a succession of forage growth, one variety of grass furnishing pasturage during the time that another is practically dormant. A further discussion of mixed plantings will be taken up in connection with the different grasses and legumes. It should be stated here, however, that the sowing of a miscel- laneous mixture of grass seed without regard to the adapta- bility of each to local soil and climatic conditions is likely to prove disappointing. If grass mixtures are sown for hay or pasture, each variety included in the mixture should be one that would succeed in the locality if it were sown alone. In the case of meadows, it is essential that all of the varieties mature at about the same time, otherwise it will be necessary to cut some too green or others too ripe. 17. Nurse Crops for Grasses. — It frequently happens, in seeding a certain grass, that it is desirable to sow at the same time a second crop with the idea that the latter will furnish protection to the former. The protective crop is known as a nurse crop, and is harvested as soon as it has served its purpose. Nurse crops commonly used with grasses are rye, wheat, oats, and barley. Where a nurse crop is used with grasses, it is a common practice to sow the grasses in the fall with rye or wheat, although they may be sown in the spring with oats or barley. Fall sowing is generally preferable, as fall-sown grain is har- vested earlier than spring-sown grain. Another reason why fall sowing of grasses is generally best is that the seeding is done at a time when there is sufficient moisture in the soil to start the young plants. Oats are not always desirable as a nurse crop for the reason that in dry seasons they take so much water from the soil that the young grass plants suffer. Grasses do not grow rapidly while young. If sown alone, especially in the North, weeds are likely to appear in such numbers as to do considerable damage. When sown with grain, either in the fall or spring, the appearance of weeds is prevented, to a considerable extent, by the rapid growth of the grain. Although the nurse crop may retard the growth § 15 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 15 of grasses, they recover as soon as the nurse crop is har- vested and are in better condition than if weeds had been allowed to occupy the ground. As grasses do not usually give a crop of hay the first season in northern sections, there is a decided advantage in sowing them with grain, for the grain crop is secured at little additional cost. In the South, it is thought by some to be better practice either to sow grasses alone or with a light seeding of barley or oats. The grain will prevent the growth of weeds and may be mown for hay before mature in order to prevent serious damage to the grasses. 18. Fertilizers for Grasses. — It is not possible to give fixed rules for the use of commercial fertilizers for the culture of grasses. Under some conditions, the use of such fertilizers may be a decided advantage by increasing the yield. Fertil- izers, however, will hardly be profitable on a poor stand of grass. In the timothy region, it is generally considered that if more than a ton of hay per acre is being secured, the quan- tity may be economically increased by using fertilizers. If a lower yield than a ton per acre is being secured, the increase that may be expected would not be likely to pay for the cost of the fertilizer, especially if the low yield is due to the lack of a good stand of grasses or the presence of . undesirable plants. For most conditions, fertilizers high in nitrogen are prefer- able for grass lands. Fertilizers should be applied to meadows as early in the spring as the grass begins to grow. Grasses often make a vigorous growth before other farm crops are even planted. At that season of the year, plant-food is not so available as it becomes later, consequently the aid afforded by fertilizers at an early date is very acceptable to grasses. A fertilizer containing from 100 to 200 pounds of nitrate of soda per acre is generally used. It may also be advisable to use in the mixed fertilizer 100 pounds of 15-per-cent. acid phosphate and about 50 pounds of muriate of potash per acre. A common method of application is to sow the fertil- izer by hand. 16 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 15 Barnyard manure is the cheapest and often the best fer- tilizer for meadows. Where a rotation including corn and hay or potatoes and hay is followed, it is a common practice to use the manure produced on the farm for the com or the potato crop. Yet many good farmers use the manure for a top dressing on the meadow instead. When so used, a much larger yield of hay is secured with little or no reduction in the yield of com or potatoes; in other words, the effect of the manure extends beyond the life of the meadow. More- over, the dense sod induced by the use of manure adds fer- tility to the land to be utilized by future cropsi When stable manure is used for the top dressing of meadows, it is best to use a manure spreader if possible, in order to insure an even distribution. If a spreader is used, less manure is required to cover a given area than when it is spread by hand. HARYBSTING OF GRASS CROPS 19. Grazing, which is, in effect, the harvesting of pasture grasses, may begin early in the spring and continue irregularly or without interruption throughout the summer and fall, depending on the kind of grass grown, the nature of the season, and the number of animals pastured on a given area. On account of a habit some grasses have of lying dormant during a part of the summer or fall, it is necessary to give such a pasture a rest at dormant periods, and an unusually dry season may make this necessary even in the case of grasses that ordinarily grow continuously throughout the summer and fall. 20. Harvesting of Grasses for Hay. — The proper time for harvesting grasses for hay depends on several factors. If allowed to approach too closely to maturity — ^that is, become too ripe — the hay becomes woody and is not relished by stock. On the other hand, if cut too green, the hay will shrink excessively in curing, thus reducing the yield; more- over, hay cut too green is likely to be difficult to cure, particularly in localities where rainfall is heavy. §15 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 17 Grass cut in the earlier stages, before seeds have formed, may contain a greater percentage of protein than when cut later, although the total quantity of protein may be more per acre when the grass is cut in its later stages, on account of the increased quantity of hay. Early-cut hay is likely to be best for dairy cattle, and late-cut hay preferable for horses. As the more mature hay generally sells better on the mar- ket, it is often good business practice for the farmer to sell this and feed that which is cut early. If a large acreage of Pig. 9 hay is to be harvested, it is often necessary to begin cutting it earlier in the season and continue the work later than would be the case in harvesting the crop of a small meadow. 21. Harvesting Implements and Operations. — Although small quantities of hay are still harvested by hand with the old-fashioned scythe and hand rake, modern haymaking machinery has come into general use wherever hay is pro- duced on anything but the most limited scale. The first implement used in the operation of harvesting hay with modem machinery is the mowing machine, or mower, a com- 18 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS §15 mon form of which is shown in Fig. 9. In Fig. 10 is shown the cutter bar of such a machine. This cutter bar has, pro- jecting from its front edge, a series of fingers known as guards. Fig. 10 The knife, which is simply a slender bar of steel to which is riveted a series of triangular plates having cutting edges on two sides, is made to move back and forth over the guards at a high rate of speed, thus cutting grass stems that come between the latter. The general form of the knife is shown in Fig. 11, which illustrates a knife in a grinding machine that will be described later. The rapid back-and-forth motion is given to the knife by a system of geg,rs driven from the main wheels of the mower. The framework between the main wheels serves as a support for the mechanism and a Fig. 11 seat for the driver of the team. Mowing machines of the ordinary size cut a strip, known as a swath, from 4 to 7 feet wide, and are drawn by two horses. Smaller machines that §15 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 19 cut a swath of 3 or 3^ feet and are suitable for one horse are to be had. An important point in the operation of a mowing machine is to keep the knife sharp. A dull knife ,^ .<>-^ * r'n (9 results in a great loss of power and a heavy strain on the working parts of the mower. A convenient device for sharpening the sections of a mower knife is shown in Fig. 11. The knife is taken from the cutter 20 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS §15 bar and placed in the sharpening machine, which is attached to the mower wheel as shown in the illustration. By turn- ing the crank, the beveled grinding stone sharpens the cutting edges of two adjacent knife sections. A valuable feature of this sharpening mechanism is that it may easily be carried to the field and used whenever the knife becomes dull. 22. As soon as hay is cut, the curing process begins. While lying in the swath, drying proceeds rapidly, par- ticularly if the sun is shining, for a large part of the hay is exposed. Under ©rdinary conditions, the hay is cured suflfi- PlG. 13 ciently within a few hours after cutting. When an extra heavy crop of hay has been cut or when an ordinary crop has been wet by rain, it is sometimes necessary to turn it over in the swath to prevent molding and get it properly cured. A machine called a hay tedder accomplishes this turning very rapidly and satisfactorily. Fig. 12 shows a hay tedder in operation. 23. After the grass has cured in the swath for a suf- ficient length of time, it is raked into windrows, which are long rows of loose hay, as shown in Fig. 13. The raking is usually done with an implement known as a hay rake. Two §15 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 21 types of these machines are common. One is known as a sulky rake, which is made in both one-horse and two-horse sizes; the one-horse size is shown in Fig. 14. The second type is called the side-delivery rake; this is illustrated in Fig. 15. The sulky rake is equipped with a row of teeth, which col- lect the hay from the swath. When a sufficient quantity has accumulated, the driver raises the teeth by means of a hand lever or a foot trip, which discharges the load, when the teeth return to their first position and begin collecting another load. On the next and subsequent trips around the field, Fig. 14 each load is dumped in line with the one left on the previous round, thus forming long windrows, which extend at right angles to the direction in which the rake is moving. The side-delivery rake performs its work by a system of moving forks, which work the hay to one side of the machine and discharge it in a windrow parallel with the course of the rake, as shown in the illustration. 24. From the windrows, hay may be temporarily placed in cocks or be hauled direct to the stack or bam. If con- 22 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS §15 ditions are such that hay cannot be soon placed in a stack or under shelter, it will perhaps be advisable to place it in Fio, 15 cocks, for in this shape it is less likely to be injured by rain or bleached by the sun than when it is in windrows. Cocks Fig. 16 §U15 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 23 ■.a.;*ei- ■ i ■•■■'• ■ § 15 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 25 are formed by gathering the hay into convenient piles with a pitchfork, the piles being built in the form of a miniature stack so as to shed water. In certain regions or at times of heavy rainfall, it may be advisable to cap the cocks with canvas. Hay in cocks is illustrated in Fig. 16, which shows some of the cocks covered with canvas. 25. Stacking or mowing is the next step in haymaking. It consists in taking the hay from the field to a place of per- manent storage, which may be a stack, a shed, or a hay mow. If the hay is to be placed in a stack in the meadow or in an adjoining field, a sweep rake may be employed for carrying the hay to the stack. This machine, which is illustrated in Fig. 17, will gather the hay from the swath, windrow, or cock and transport it to the stacker, a mechanism by means of which the stack is built up. Stackers are of various types; Fig. 18 shows a common form in operation. When ready to receive a load, the elevating fork of the stacker rests on the ground and the sweep rake is drawn up to it in such a man- ner as to deposit its load on the fingers of the stacker fork. The sweep rake is backed away and the horses operating the stacker are started, thus raising the load to a height that will permit its being swung over the stack. Fig. 18 shows the appearance of a stacker at this stage. The fork drops the load at the place desired and men with pitchforks smooth it out on the stack. 26. There is always some loss when hay is stored in stacks. At the top of the stack, if this is not protected, and at the sides a part of the hay will be of poor quality if not actually spoiled. However, it is probable that, in the drier sections, the loss from damaged hay is not equal to the cost of building hay bams. In stacking hay, the practice is followed of keeping the center of the stack well filled and tramped as well as possible. This prevents any water that may fall on the stack from running toward the center of the stack, which would be the case if the center were loose and poorly filled and the edges well filled and packed. 26 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS §15 In stacking hay, it is good practice to place the stack on a slight elevation, so that water will not run under the stack and ruin the hay at the bottom. The soil on which the stack is built should be porous and well drained. Some farmers place a framework of poles on the ground and build the stack on these. This prevents the hay from coming in contact with damp earth. 27. If, instead of hay being stacked in or near the meadow, it is transported to a stack, bam, or shed at some distance from **^ If* ■sSr — rmmm^m Fig. 19 where made, it is necessary to load it on a wagon fitted with a hay rack. The hay rack is simply a framework displacing the regular wagon box. It extends the full length of the wagon and out over the wheels on each side, thus furnishing a platform from 14 to 18 feet long and from 7 to 8 feet wide. Loading the rack in the field may be done from the cocks or from the windrow by hand labor with pitchforks, or it may be done from the swath or the windrow by means of a machine known as a hay loader, which is illustrated in Fig. 19. As will be seen, the loader is attached to the rear §15 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 27 end of the hay wagon. As the wagon moves forwards, the hay is picked up and placed on an endless belt, which ele- vates and drops it on the rear end of the rack, from which point it is distributed over the load by hand. In humid sections, especially in the North, by far the largest part of the hay grown is stored in bams. The cost of buildings for storing hay is often considerable. It is essential that the framework of hay bams be strong and well built, but it is not so important that the walls be perfectly tight and weather- pro o f . The roof, however, must be water-tight. Some hay barns are made with a good roof sup- ported by framework, but with the sides open. This is an eco- nomical and satis- factory way of build- ing barns if they are intended only for storing hay or straw. Most bams are built for the double pur- pose of sheltering horses and cattle and of storing hay, grain, ^^°- 20 and other products. This is a great convenience, as much time is saved by keeping cattle and horses under the same roof where their winter supply of feed is stored. 28. For elevating hay from the wagon to the hay mow or shed, two mechanical devices have largely supplanted hand labor. These devices are known as the hay fork and the hay sling. There are several types of hay fork, a common one being shown in Fig. 20. This is known as a double harpoon fork. A modification of this type, having only one tine or 234—12 28 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 15 prong, is known as a single harpoon fork. It will be seen from the illustration that there are barbs at the lower extremities of the tines. These are for the purpose of retaining hay on the fork. By means of a trip rope, they may be withdrawn at any time, thus permitting the hay to drop from the tines. Fig. 21 Another type of hay fork used extensively is known as the grapple fork. This is shown in Fig. 21. In (a), the fork is shown open, in which position it is ready to be thrust into the hay on top of the wagon; in (6), the same fork is sho%vn closed. §15 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 29 29. The bam fixtures necessary to the operation of these forks are a track, a carrier, a cable, and several. pulleys. The track is suspended from the ridge pole of the barn or from adjacent timbers. Within the barn, it extends over the mow or space in which hay is to be stored and out at the end of the barn far enough to be over the wagon to be unloaded. The carrier runs on this track and serves as a truck for carrying a fork load of hay into the barn. The cable by which the device is operated is attached to the fork, and then passed through the carrier and over a series of pulleys to the outside of the Fig. 22 bam, where a horse is attached for hoisting the fork loads. In Fig. 20, a carrier and a section of track is seen above the double harpoon fork, and in Fig. 22 is seen a . method of carrying the cable to the outside of the bam. The operation of this equipment usually requires one man on the hay wagon, one or more men in the mow to properly distribute the hay, and a man or a boy to drive the horse operating the hoist. The fork is thrust into the hay on the top of the wagon load, the' horse operating the hoist is started, and the fork load of hay elevated to the carrier. From this point, the 30 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS §15 same power serves to haul the carrier into the bam, the man on the load allowing the trip rope to run through his hands until a certain signal is given by the men in the mow, when a sharp /pull serves to drop the fork load. The horse operating the hoist is then returned to the starting point, the man on the hay wagon hauls the carrier back to its original position by means of the trip rope, the fork is pulled down to the load, and the operation repeated. 30. The hay sling is operated in much the same manner as the hay fork. Fig. 23 (o) shows a loaded hay wagon equipped with slings, one being in a position ready for hoist- ing into the bam ; in (b) is shown a sling extended. The trip- ping device, with trip rope attached, is seen in the center §15 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 31 at the junction of the two halves of the sling. When the hay wagon is taken to the meadow for a load, one sling is extended upon the bottom of the rack with the end rings caught into hooks on the front and rear upright pieces of the rack. A portion of a load is placed on the rack, then another sling laid out on top of this hay, this being repeated until the load is completed. Ordinarily, three or four slings are used for each load, although five may be required under some conditions. At the bam, pulleys on the hoisting cable are Fig. 24 hooked into the end rings of the sling in the manner shown in Fig. 23 (a) and the sling load .handled in the same way as described for the fork. An advantage of slings over the fork is that after the last sUng load there is practically no hay remaining on the wagon; with a fork there is always a considerable quantity of hay remaining, and it must be cleaned up by hand. Some hay- makers prefer to use a fork for the most of the load and clean up the rest with a single sling. 32 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 15 Sometimes forks or slings such as have been described are used for stacking in the field. In such a case, the car- riage usually runs on a cable instead of a track, this cable being drawn taut between two poles braced by guy ropes. In other respects, such an outfit is operated in the same manner as has been outUned. 31. Preparing Hay for Market. — It is estimated that in the stack or the mow 1 ton of hay will occupy a space 8 feet long, 8 feet wide, and 8 feet high. This is, of course, but an average, which will vary with conditions. When hay is to be transported any considerable distance, particularly if the transportation is to be by rail or water, this large bulk is objectionable. To compress hay into smaller space and thereby make handling more convenient and reduce the cost of transportation, a hay press, or hay baler, is employed. A hay baler in operation is shown in Fig. 24. The hay baler in common use is merely a strong, reinforced box, or crate, of the dimensions of a bale of hay. Into this crate hay is compressed by a heavy plunger operated by a team of horses or other power. When a bale has been com- pressed to the proper size, it is bound with wire. With such a machine it is possible to place from 4 to 6 tons in an 8-foot cube. When hay is to be shipped great distances, as across the ocean, it may be further reduced in bulk by hydraulic pressure until 1 ton will occupy 55 cubic feet, thus making it possible to store about 9 tons in an 8-foot cube. 32. Hay bales are of various sizes, although the markets generally recognize three distinct sizes, known as large, medium, and small. A large bale weighs from 200 to 250 pounds; a medium bale, from 120 to 150 pounds; and a small bale, from 80 to 100 pounds. When hay is baled, it is cus- tomary, in some sections, to attach a tag giving the exact weight of the bale in pounds. The farmer may ship his hay direct to commission mer- chants in the city or sell it to a local hay buyer, who ships it to the city. The practice of selling to buyers is the most common and doubtless the most satisfactory, all things con- HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 33 sidered. The price which the grower receives for his hay is the final selling price less the cost of baling, hauling to the railroad, freight, inspection, and the profit of the commis- sion house. In some cases, these items amount to one-half the selling price. PERENNIAL GRASS PLANTS TIMOTHY 33. General Charac- ters of Timothy. — The important hay and pas- ture grass known as timothy derived its name from Timothy Hanson, who is said to have first introduced the plant from England in 1720. An older name for timothy is meadow cattail, which name was given to it on account of the resemblance of its head to the tail of the common cat. In some localities it is called herd's grass, but this name is confusing from the fact that the same name is sometimes used to designate red top. Timothy is an erectly growing plant that averages from 2 to 4 feet in height. Under adverse conditions plants may be only a few inches in height and again, in exceptionally favorable situations, plants 6 feet in height may be found. Fig. 25 shows a timothy plant, and the general appearance Fig, 25 34 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 15 15 Fig. 26 § 15 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 35 of the grass as it grows in a meadow is illustrated in Fig. 26. The roots of timothy grow fairly deep and the plant usually produces new stems by tillering, in the same manner as wheat. Timothy also has the habit of reproducing by short stolons. Under favorable conditions, a single plant, in the course of a few years, may extend outwards until it forms a clump a foot or more in diameter. Such a clump is shown, in Pig. 26. The plant does not, however, produce the dense, even sod that is characteristic of certain other grasses. The culm of timothy is composed of from two to seven intemodes. A distinguishing character of the plant is the tendency of the lowest intemode to become enlarged into a corm, or tuber, which formation is shown just below the ground in Fig. 25. In general, timothy is not characterized by an abundance of leaves, particularly on the lower portion of the plant. This habit of sparse leaf production greatly facilitates the curing of the grass into hay. The head of tim- othy is of an elongated, cylindrical form known as a spike. This spike may be from 3 to 4 inches long and if allowed to mature bears a large number of seeds, which are easily thrashed. This character of timothy is of considerable importance, since it makes timothy seed comparatively easy to obtain. The seed is small, tV inch being an average size, although there is considerable variation. The num- ber required to make a pound ranges from six hundred thou- sand to two million. As a general rule, timothy seed on the market is of good quality; that is, it is comparatively free from impurities and a large percentage of it is capable of gerrnination. At least 90 per cent, of seed should germinate when tested as described under the heading of Selecting and Testing of Grass Seeds, and a sample should be not less than 98 per cent, pure. The most common injurious weed seeds found in timothy are plantain, daisy, lamb's quarters, sorrel, and peppergrass. Others may occur, but most of them are removed in the process of seed cleaning. The legal weight of timothy seed in the United States is 45 pounds per bushel. 36 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 15 When grown for seed, timothy is cut with a self-binder and thrashed with machines intended for thrashing small grains. From 8 to 10 bushels of seed per acre is considered a fair yield. 34. Importance of Timothy. — In value, timothy leads all other hay grasses grown in the United States. Over large areas it is the only grass sown for hay. In states east of North and South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas, and north of the Ohio River, timothy and Red clover seeds are the ones chiefly sown for hay crops. This area comprises what -is known as the timothy region. Timothy is also grown to some extent in nearly all other states, and to a con- siderable extent on the Pacific coast, especially in the states of Washington and Oregon, and in the northern part of California. Not only is timothy thus distributed throughout the United States, but it is grown more or less in practically all temperate regions of the world except Australia. But nowhere in the world is this grass so well established as in the so-called timothy region of the United States. Outside of the alfalfa regions, by far the largest part of all hay sold on the American markets is timothy hay; in fact, no other grass used for hay has more than a local repu- tation. Even in the South, where timothy hay is not an important crop in any sense, it is shipped in from the North and is practically the only hay on the markets in the larger cities. 35. This popularity of timothy is explained by the fact that it has certain desirable characters that make it par- ticularly well adapted for the use made of it. These char- acters, which are enumerated below, are important enough to make the grass one of first rank in spite of the fact that, according to chemical analysis, it is one of the least nutritious of the grasses. 1. Timothy is adapted to a wide range of territory, as already explained. 2. Timothy seed is cheaper than that of any other per- manent grass used for hay or pasture, on account of the large I 15 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 37 quantity produced by the plant, the ease of production, and the comparatively small quantity used per acre. At the ordinary price, timothy seed for an acre will cost one dollar; seed of other common hay and pasture grasses for the same area will cost several times as much. 3. The grades of timothy hay are well established and the owner of horses in the city can buy hay with the cer- tainty of knowing what he is paying for. 4. The ease with which timothy hay is cured is another point in its favor. This is partly due to the character of the plant and partly to the season at which timothy matures. In most timothy-growing sections, hay is made in the early summer after the weather is settled. There is consequently little danger that the hay will be spoiled by adverse, weather conditions. Moreover, the quality of timothy hay is not materially reduced if the crop is not harvested as soon as it is ready. This is a matter of considerable importance on farms where there is a large acreage of hay. Timothy hay, cut at the usual stage, does not contain a large percentage of protein. It should be remembered, how- ever, that grain is fed to a horse to supply this constituent. A horse at rest or that has moderate exercise needs but little protein, and what little is needed may be supplied by timothy hay. For livery horses, which are often driven hard after feed- ing, there is no substitute for timothy. It is easily digested and does not cause derangement of the digestive system. A disadvantage of timothy is the fact that it produces but little aftergrowth. This character may be of considerable importance when a dry season is followed by a severe winter. Too little growth takes place for the protection of the plants. Another disadvantage of timothy is that it starts late in the spring, which reduces its value as a pasture plant as com- pared with blue grass. It does not form a dense sod and is more easily injured by tramping than some other pasture grasses. 36. Timothy Culture. — The timothy plant makes its best growth in a moist and rather cool climate. It does not 38 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 15 flourish in hot climates, but has been grown successfully as far north as Alaska. In the sections where it thrives best, it produces maximum crops in seasons when the rainfall is plentiful, especially during the earlier months of the growing season. The stand of timothy is often very much reduced by a hot, dry summer. If the drought occurs in the fall after the grass is cut, the effect is to weaken the stand and give other plants, especially certain weeds, a hold on the land to the detriment of the next year's hay crop. In the timothy region, the heaviest yields of hay are pro- duced on a rather stiff clay loam. On such soils, 4 tons of hay per acre have been harvested from a single cutting when weather conditions were just right. It has been found that it is difficult to grow timothy properly on soils that are too light. In certain parts of the New England States, it does not thrive well on account of an acid condition of the soil, and it has been found necessary in some cases to apply lime or wood ashes in order to secure good results. 37. In ordinary practice, two or three crops of timothy hay are secured from one seeding, after which the land is usually broken up and other crops grown. The reason for this is that the plants become so weakened or the number on a given area reduced to such an extent that it is not generally profitable to leave the field longer in timothy. When this occurs, weeds take the place of grass and greatly reduce the value of the hay produced. Timothy is classed as a long- lived plant, but it is not known exactly how long it will live under favorable conditions. Under particularly favorable conditions, timothy fields have been known to yield more than 2 tons of a fine grade of hay per acre for 12 years after seeding. The fields were top-dressed every year or two with stable manure, which kept the plants vigorous and productive. 38. In" the North Atlantic and North Central States, timothy enters into nearly all rotations. The common rota- tion consists of com, oats, and wheat, each for 1 year, and clover and timothy sown together for 2 or more years. § 15 • HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 39 Clover is expected to last but 1 year, and little or no timothy- is secured before the second year. By using wheat in the rotation, timothy may be sown in the fall. In localities where wheat is not a profitable crop, this is omitted from the rotation and the timothy and clover are sown either with rye in the fall or with oats in the spring. Timothy is seldom sown alone ; it is nearly always sown with Red or Alsike clover, sometinies with both. When sown alone for hay, the quantity is about 15 pounds, or ^ bushel, per acre. If Red clover is included, the quantity of timothy seed is reduced. In this case, from 8 to 12 pounds of timothy is sown and about 8 pounds of clover. The cost of seed at the usual prices would then be about 12.50 to $3 per acre. In many places, especially if the conditions are unfavorable for Red clover, the quantity of this is reduced and Alsike clover substituted. Timothy may be sown at almost any time during the grow- ing season, but if sown alone, the sowing should be done in the fall, as the weather conditions at this time are the most favorable for successful seeding. If sown with wheat, it is customary to place the grass seed in a separate compartment of the grain drill and allow it to fall in front of the grain hoes, which cover it. 39. Harvesting of Timothy. — Timothy is ready to harvest at a later season than other hay grasses. July is the usual time for cutting it. The lateness of the season is a decided advantage, as the hay is cured much better at this season than earlier, when the weather is likely to be unsettled. It is sometimes maintained that the best time to cut tim- othy is when- it is in full bloom. This idea is erroneous. Tests have demonstrated that timothy, if cut when the seeds are nearly ripe, yields from 15 to 20 per cent, more dry matter than if cut when in full bloom. It is, perhaps, somewhat more palatable when cut at the earlier stage, especially for cattle. But for horses the palatability is not materially reduced unless the cutting is delayed too long. Just before timothy seeds ripen, they pass through what is kno-wn as the 40 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 15 dough stage, so called from the fact that the interior of the seed is of about the consistency of dough. Probably the best time for cutting timothy hay is while the seeds are in this dough stage. MEADOW FOXTAIL 40. The grass plant known as Meadow foxtail, which is shown in Fig. 27, is a near relative of timothy and closely resembles it. Meadow foxtail, however, differs from timothy in that it is a more permanent plant. Its habit of growth is slightly creeping, consequently less seed per acre is required than if it did not possess this character. Meadow foxtail is an early grass, the heads ap- pearing a month or more in advance of those of timothy. Few leaves are produced on the stem, but they are very plentiful at the base of the plant. The heads are cylindrical, and from 2 to 3 inches in length. Meadow foxtail is not com- mon in the United States, but it is one of the most valuable of pasture grasses in England. It is especially adapted to pas- tures on rich soils in that coun- try. It is not sown alone; a pound or two per acre is mixed with the seed of other grasses. Meadow foxtail requires several years to become established, consequently it is not suitable for sowing in temporary pas- tures. One of the chief objections to it is the high cost of seed, which is said to be of low vitality. Fig. 27 §15 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 41 RED TOP 41. General Characters of Red Top. — iNext to timothy, red top is doubtless the most important hay grass in North America. The plant, a general view of which is given in Fig. 28, is of a creeping habit, producing long underground stems. It grows rapidly from seed and quickly forms a dense, smooth sod. These latter characters make it particularly adapt- ed for lawns and pastures, and it is consequently largely used for these pur- poses. The roots of red top do not go so deep into the ground as do those of timothy, but the roots of red top completely fill the soil for a few inches below the surface . The seed head is open and spreading, as will be seen in the illus- tration. This is known as a panicle, and is found also in blue grass and in other grasses to be described later. Red top is some- times mistaken for blue grass on account of this similarity of the head, al- though blue grass blossoms from 3 to 4 weeks earlier than red top. The seeds of red top have a silvery appearance, par- ticularly if viewed in mass, and they are the smallest of the ordinary cultivated grass seeds. Fig. 29 shows the appearance of red top growing in a meadow under favorable conditions. Red top thrives under a wide range of climatic and soil conditions. It is not, however, equal to some of the other Fig. 28 42 § 15 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 43 cultivated grasses, and consequently it is not often grown where more valuable grasses can be grown. It is especially- suited to low, moist soils, and will endure acid conditions. Acid soils are common in New England and this doubtless explains why red top is popular as a hay grass in that sec- tion of the United States. It is especially valuable, and in fact comprises a large part of the herbage, in meadows that are not in condition to plow often on account of lack of proper drainage. Fields that have not been plowed for more than 40 years have been known to yield fair crops of red-top hay. Red top is generally considered to be the least palatable of all grasses commonly sown in either pasture or meadow. Its presence in timothy hay, even in small quantities, greatly reduces the value of the hay when sold on the market. When sown for pasture, it quickly makes a dense sod. Cattle will eat it fairly well but prefer Kentucky blue grass, timothy, orchard grass, etc. Because red top will grow on thin soils, poor in organic matter, it is often sown on such soils or allowed to appear naturally. Under such conditions, it will give better returns than any other grass, although the actual quantity of pasturage or hay secured may be small. 42, Culture of Red Top. — Red top may be sown alone for pastures or meadows, or it may be included in mixtures with other grasses and clover. The date of maturity in meadows corresponds clDsely to that of timothy, hence these two grasses are sometimes sown together for hay on soils not especially adapted to timothy. The time and manner of sowing are the same as for timothy, except that red-top seed should be covered very slightly. The seed is sometimes sold in the chaff — that is, enclosed in the protective husk; it is also sold with the husk removed, in which case it is known as recleaned seed. A bushel or more of seed in the chaff is used per acre; a half bushel of recleaned seed will be sufficient for the same area. 234—13 44 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS §15 KEH^TUCKY BliTJE GRASS 43. General Characters of Kentucky Blue Grass.— Prob- ably the best-known pasture grass of the United States is Kentucky blue grass, also known in some sections as June grass. The first name doubtless had its origin in the fact that the plant grows luxuriantly in the limestone regions of Ken- tucky; the second name was given on account of the fact that the grass is at its best during the month of June. The plant is rather shallow rooted and strongly creeping in habit. When it becomes well estab- lished, it forms a fairly dense, even sod. The leaves are crowded near the base of the plant, and are light green in color. The end of the blade of blue grass is closed, giving the end of the leaf the appear- ance of the keel of a boat. . Hence the leaf is said to be keel-shaped. By drawing a leaf be- tween the fingers, it may be split at the end, thus forming a notch. This is a simple method of distinguishing blue grass by the leaf. The culm is much shorter than that of timothy, being only from 2 to 3 feet tall, and bears but few leaves, which, as already stated, are near the base. The panicle is spreading and resembles red top . Fig. 30 illustrates a plant of Kentucky blue grass. Fig. 30 § 15 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 46 Kentucky blue grass reaches its most perfect development on the rich loamy soils of Kentucky and the states to the north and east. In general, it is grown to a greater or less extent in the states comprising the northeastern section of the United States. On the southern border of its successful cultivation, it thrives best in partly shaded areas, such as open woods. Being a shallow-rooted grass, it will not thrive in soils that are inclined to become too dry during the sum- mer. Moreover, it does not thrive on poor soils. Im- poverished soils must be improved before it is safe to try to secure a stand of blue grass. For lawn and pasture purposes, Kentucky blue grass probably has no equal in sections where it thrives, and this includes a considerable area of the United States and Canada. It is but little used for hay, but furnishes a large part of the herbage in all the best pastures. It forms a compact sod, which bears tramping and close grazing where conditions are favorable. The grass is nutritious and well liked by farm animals, including cattle, sheep, and horses. It is one of the earliest grasses to start in the spring and one of the latest to cease growing in the autumn. In fact, during open winters, even in the North, it may remain green nearly all winter. Kentucky blue grass has two serious faults. The first of these is that it does not become well established until 3 or 4 years after seeding, and for this reason it is seldom sown alone either for pasture or lawn; it is included with more quickly growing grasses, which are often of shorter duration. The second fault of the grass is its inability to furnish good grazing during the warmer part of the summer. The growth of blue grass is slow during the months of July and August. This is especially noticeable during dry, hot seasons. 44. Culture of Kentucky Blue Grass. — It has already been pointed out that, on account of the length of time required to establish blue grass, it is not often sown alone. When intended for lawns it is common to sow red top. White clover, and sometimes timothy with it. For pastures, the above 46 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 15 mixture; with the addition of orchard grass and Meadow fescue, is considered good. Most of the commercial blue- grass seed comes from a limited area in Kentucky, known as the blue-grass region. The seed is generally gathered from both natural and sown pastures. The cattle are kept out of the pastures for a few weeks immediately before gathering the seed. The grass is not cut and thrashed, but the seed is stripped from the standing grass by hand, after which the pasture is again grazed. The grass seed is cleaned by thoroughly rubbing the heads. There are two grades of Kentucky blue-grass seed sold on the market. One is known as fancy and the other as eoUra cleaned. The term extra cleaned is misleading, as the seed sold under this name consists of the chaff and dirt blown out in the cleaning process. Such seed usually contains less than 10 per cent, of pure grass seed. Ordinary commercial fancy seed seldom contains more than from 50 to 75 per cent, of live seed. In many cases, much less than one-half of the seed will grow, but by carefully gathering and curing the seed, it is found that from 80 to 90 per cent, of a sample will ger- minate. Doubtless the method of curing the seed after harvesting is accountable in a large measure for the poor quality of Kentucky blue-grass seed. The stripped seed is often placed in ricks out of doors or in bams. If not turned or stirred often for the first few days, the pile heats and a large proportion of the seed is killed. A temperature of 140° F. has been known to develop in a pile in 16 hours, killing all the seed. The standard weight per bushel of blue-grass seed is 14 pounds. The lower grades of seed may, however, actually weigh not more than from 6 to 8 pounds, and the fancy recleaned seed may weigh 27 pounds. Blue-grass seed, especially the cleaned seed, is always sold by the pound and not by the bushel. Blue-grass seed maybe sown either in the fall or in the spring, although it is generally believed that it germinates better if sown in the fall. It may be sown alone or with a nurse crop. As blue-grass seed is small, it should be sown on §15 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 47 the surface or at least given a shallow covering of earth. "When sown alone, from 30 to 40 pounds of seed is used per acre; if included in mixtures, a much smaller quantity is required. Often but 3 or 4 pounds per acre is sown with other grasses. It is expected that blue grass will form but a small part of the herbage until the other grasses have begun to dis- appear. Blue grass improves from year to year under good treatment. CANADA BLUE GRASS 45. There are certain soils in the northeastern part of the United States and the section of Canada adjoining on which Kentucky blue grass does not thrive. In such local- ities Canada blue grass is fre- quently substituted for the for- mer. Canada blue grass, a plant of which is shown in Fig. 31, has the same form of leaf as Ken- tucky blue grass, but the culm is shorter, flattened, and the successive intemodes grow in a somewhat zigzag form, as shown in the illustration, instead of forming a practically straight stem, as is the case with Ken- tucky blue grass. Canada blue grass is of a bluish-green color. It produces a much closer sod than Kentucky blue grass, but the production of culms and leaves is not so abundant. The seeds of the two grasses are so similar that even a specialist in the study of seeds requires a Fig. 31 microscope in order to distinguish one from the other. For this reason, seed of Canada blue grass is often sold for Kentucky blue grass or used for adulteration because of its compara- tively low cost. 48 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 15 Ordinarily, Canada blue grass is called a weed, but it is far from being a weed in certain respects. It is one of the most nutritious of the grasses and very palatable both as hay and as pasture, cattle and horses being fond of it. In the form of hay it is eaten readily, even if cut when very mature. Canada blue grass will thrive in soil too poor for either timothy or Kentucky blue grass, and under such conditions it often supplies a fair quantity of herbage for grazing. The chief objection to Canada blue grass for pasture and hay purposes is its small yield. Under ordinary conditions, from 3 to 4 acres are needed to pasture a full-grown animal, and a fair yield of hay is about f of a ton per acre, which is a low yield when compared with timothy or clover. The qual- ity of Canada blue grass hay is, however, excellent, many horsemen regarding it as equal or even superior to timothy hay. It is not a grass to recommend for soil on which more productive grasses will grow, but it is well worth sowing under conditions not suitable to other grasses. The cultural methods for Canada blue grass are similar to those for Kentucky blue grass. SMOOTH BROME GRASS 46. In Fig. 32 is shown a plant of Smooth brome grass, which is a grass recently introduced into North America from Russia. The plant is strongly creeping in habit and a coarse grower, under favorable conditions reaching a height of from 4 to 5 feet, and forming a dense sod from 6 to 8 inches thick. The leaves are coarse, being from i to ^ inch wide, and often reach a length of 1 foot. The seed head is in the form of a long, spreading panicle, as will be seen from the illustration. The seeds are among the largest of those of the cultivated grasses, often being ^ inch in length. As yet, Smooth brome grass has not been successfully intro- duced in the eastern or southern sections of the United States, and it does not appear to be well adapted to humid or warm cHmates. It is grown successfully in Kansas, Nebraska, the Dakotas, and to the west and northwest of these states, §15 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 49 especially in the semiarid sections. Its habit of rooting deeply enables it to withstand long periods of drought. Fig. 32 50 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 15 Smooth brome grass is one of the most palatable of the pasture grasses, and as such it is supplying a great need in the region mentioned. It is often used as hay for a year or two after seed- ing and then used for pasture purposes. It seldom produces more than one or two profitable crops of hay, but continues to supply excellent pasture for an indefinite length of time. It starts early in the spring, grows until late in the fall, and is liked by all kinds of stock. The seed of Smooth brome grass is sown at the rate of about 20 pounds per acre, preferably in the fall, if there is plenty of moisture in the soil; if the fall is dry, it may be well to sow the seed in the spring. Deep seeding is said to give better results than shallow seeding. Smooth brome grass is sometimes sown with alfalfa, for pasture, in order to prevent the alfalfa from causing bloat in cattle. ORCHARD GRASS 47. Orchard grass, which is illustrated in Fig. 33, is a common grass in some sections of the United States. The grass probably derives its name from its ability to thrive under the shade of trees, although it does not appear to grow better in the shade than in the open. It is not creeping in habit like blue grass, but has a habit of growth similar to that of timothy. The plant does not form an even sod like many other grasses, but grows in raised clumps, making a very uneven and bunchy sod. The culms are usually from 2 to 3 feet tall, and have but few leaves. The coarse, light-green leaves are mostly produced near the ground. It will be seen from the illustration that the panicle is somewhat spreading, with the flowers clustered in what are known as tufts. Orchard grass is said to be best adapted to a fairly fertile, well-drained soil. Like all other useful grasses, it thrives best on good land, but it has been known to persist on soils that are generally considered poor. On account of its deep root system, it surpasses timothy in ability to endure drought. It seems to be able to endure extremes of climatic conditions ; it is fairly well distributed over nearly the whole of the United §15 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 51 States east of the Mississippi River, and is grown in the Western States to a considerable extent. It is cultivated most extensively near the southern border of the timothy- region. The grass is able to endure severe winter weather, but on account of its extreme earliness, it is often injured by late spring frosts. Fig. 33 48. Orchard grass is used both for hay and pasture pur poses. In pastures, it is readily eaten by cattle unless the stock is turned on it too late and it has been allowed to become woody. Its habit of continued growth during the summer 52 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 15 renders it a valuable addition for pasture mixtures. It makes a nutritious and very palatable hay if cut while in blossom. Orchard grass is often mentioned by agricultural writers with much favor, and, according to chemical analyses, it con- tains a higher percentage of protein than many other cul- tivated grasses. The fact remains, however, that it is very seldom used for hay where timothy thrives. Orchard grass matures with Red clover, which makes it suitable for use with that plant for the meadow. It is one of the first grasses to start in the spring, and it continues to grow during the summer and into the fall. It is a long-lived grass and will continue to furnish good crops of hay for a number of years if properly treated, although it produces, like other grasses, the heaviest yields the first year or two. The habit of earliness in orchard grass, however, is often a disadvantage, especially as a meadow grass. It cannot be safely sown with other hay grasses because of the differ- ence in season of maturity. It ripens from 3 to 5 weeks earlier than timothy. It must be cut during the blooming period or just afterwards, or it will become woody and is then not relished by stock. It is, perhaps, for this reason as much as any other that farmers do not sow it oftener. If per- mitted to stand a little too long, it is greatly reduced in value. This is a serious fault, as it ripens so early that weather conditions are not always favorable to haying. Per- haps on account of lack of uniformity of the quality of hay, caused by being cut at different stages of maturity, it has not established a reputation in the markets. The high cost of orchard-grass seed doubtless also has much influence on the small quantity sown. It costs sev- eral times as much per acre for seed as timothy. Another fault of the grass is its habit of forming a bunchy sod, as already mentioned. This characteristic makes it difficult to use a mower in cutting an orchard-grass meadow. When sown alone for hay, about 30 pounds of seed is used per acre. If intended for seed, half this quantity is better. It may be sown with 10 or 15 pounds of Red clover per acre for hay. If intended for pasture, it is customary to include §15 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 53 only a few pounds of seed with other grasses and clovers. The time and method of seeding is the same as for timothy. Orchard-grass seed is exceptionally free from foreign seeds and dirt, and, as a rule, shows a high percentage of ger- FiG. 34 mination. Seed less than 98 per cent, pure should not be accepted, and the standard of germination should be not less than 90 per cent. 54 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 15 MEADOW FESCTJE 49. Meadow fescue, illustrated in Fig. 34, somewhat resembles brome grass when in blossom. Its habit of growth, however, is not at all similar to that of brome grass, as it is not a creeping plant. Meadow fescue can be distinguished from most other grasses by its shiny, bright-green leaves. One variety of fescue, known as Tall fescue, is a more vigor- ous grower than the Meadow fescue. It may reach a height of 4 feet, but is seldom grown, as the seed is expensive. Meadow fescue is a grass of considerable value for both meadow and pasture, and it is highly prized in Europe, but it is not so popular with American farmers. It is unable to compete with timothy in the timothy region, yet, like some other grasses, it is of considerable importance on the borders of the timothy-growing sections. It requires a rich soil for perfect development and is found sparingly cultivated from New England to Missouri; it is grown extensively in the eastern part of Kansas. Meadow-fescue seed is produce^ to a limited extent in por- tions of Kansas and Missouri, but probably the bulk of that used in the United States is imported from Europe, and this is usually of poor quality. It is doubtful whether Meadow fescue should be sown alone for hay if timothy can be grown. Its best use is probably as an ingredient of pasture mixtures. When sown in such mixtures, an average quantity of seed is from 1 to 4 pounds per acre. TALL OAT GRASS 50. Tall oat grass, illustrated in Fig 35, is related to the common cultivated oat plant, as is indicated by the name. The grass is known also as Meadow oat grass, and in some localities as Evergreen. This last name is used in the southern part of the United States, where this grass remains green throughout the year. Tall oat grass grows to a height of from 3 to 5 feet, and to some extent has the habit of form- ing clumps like orchard grass. §15 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 55 Tall oat grass is of importance only in the southern portion of the timothy region and to the south of this locality. The Fig. 35 grass will grow in northern latitudes, but is very much inferior to timothy. It is well adapted to light soils and 56 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 15 thrives in the South on soils too sandy to grow other grasses profitably. The grass has two characteristics that greatly reduce its value. One is that it has an undesirable flavor when used ■ for pasture, although it seems to be relished by stock when cut for hay. The other is that it is difficult to save seed from the grass. It has the habit of scattering its seeds as soon as they ripen, which makes harvesting uncertain. How- ever, it produces an abundance of seed, which can be har- vested if precautions are taken against its being lost in han- dling. Tall oat grass is grown in Tennessee and to the south as a hay and pasture grass on the lighter soils. It is a grass of great permanence and is easily established. Some authori- ties recommend using 3 bushels of seed per acre when sown alone. In pasture mixtures, less seed may be used. BERMUDA GRASS 51. In the southern part of the United States, Bermuda grass is a favorite. The plant reproduces from seed and from creeping stems on or just below the surface of the ground. The main prostrate stem may extend 4 or 5 feet during the season and send out several lateral branches a foot or two in length. At intervals of an inch or two, the stems take root. The flowering stems are upright and leafy, as will be seen in Fig. 36. They grow from a few inches to 2 feet in height, depending on the soil and the climate. The habit of the grass is to form a dense sod, which bears tramping by cattle. It does not produce seed in the United States except in the extreme South. By nature, the grass is a tropical plant. It was probably introduced into the United States from the West Indies about 100 years ago. Since then it has spread over the entire southern part of the country, and is espe- cially popular in southern states from South Carolina to Texas. Bermuda grass is practically unknown north of the thirty- seventh parallel. South of the latitude of Tennessee and North Carolina, it is a valuable grass for lawns, pastures, and hay, and also for preventing the washing of soils. It §15 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 57 will grow on any kind of soil from light sandy loams to heavy clay. It reaches its best developm.ent on rich alluvial soils. It is not a shade-loving plant and cannot be grown in shady places. Even in the extreme South, it thrives best in the open. Bermuda grass in the South occupies a place similar to that of blue grass in the North. It is the great pasture grass of the Southern States. It is also the only grass in many sections suitable for lawns. Its one great disadvantage for this purpose is its character- istic of turning brown during the winter months. It begins growth late in spring, but continues green through the hottest and driest part of summer. Wheri used for hay, Bermuda grass may be cut two or three times in a season, producing, under good conditions, a total yield of from 2 to 4 tons per acre. It is much better suited for pasture than for hay. When used for either purpose, it is relished by all kinds of livestock. Bermuda grass is also the best grass in the South for binding sandy soils and for covering hillsides that are inclined to wash. Fig. 36 52. Bermuda grass may be grown from seed, but it is seldom propagated in this way, because the seed is expensive and is also likely to be low in germinating power. The 58 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 15 usual method of securing a stand of Bermuda grass is by planting pieces of the roots or small sections of sod. There are numerous methods of doing this. Some farmers free the sod from earth and cut up the roots into small pieces. These may be sown broadcast and harrowed in or they may be set at regular intervals and covered with moist earth. A good method consists of dropping pieces of sod in every other furrow when land is being plowed. By the next year, an excellent sod will be formed. The field is sometimes marked and pieces of sod set at regular intervals. This is a favorite practice when lawns are made of Bermuda grass. If the pieces of sod are placed 18 inches apart each way, a good lawn may be formed in a few weeks. Spring is a good time to do this work, although the grass will grow if planted at any time during the growing season. .Bermuda grass often attains a weedy character, especially on rich land. For this reason, it is feared by many farm- ers, but it is not difficult to control, except in the extreme South, where it produces seed. It should probably never be grown where it matures seed, as it will be scattered over the farm in many ways, especially by spreading the manure of cattle that have eaten the grass. The usual method of eradicating the grass consists of plowing the field and sowing it to cowpeas, sorghum, or some other densely growing crop. As Bermuda grass cannot thrive in the shade of these plants, the land is soon freed from it. MISCELLASTEOTTS PERENNIAL GRASSES 53. Rye Grasses. — Although of great importance in European agriculture, the rye grasses are of doubtful value in the United States, especially in the timothy region. They are grown in certain localities in the South and on the Pacific Coast, west of the Cascade Mountains from Northern Cali- fornia to Washington. It is not easy to explain why they are so valued in Western Europe and so little grown in America. However, the great grass-growing section of the United States is east of Kansas and Nebraska and north of Tennessee, and §15 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 59 this territory has long been occupied by timothy, a grass far surpassing in adaptation and ease of growing anjrthing that has been tried in competition with it. Hence there is no inducement for the use of rye grasses in this section. The reason that the rye grasses are grown on the Pacific Coast may be in part explained by the similarity of cUmate of that region to the climate of Western Europe. It is probable that the cli- mate of the eastern part of the United States is not so well adapted to these two grasses as to some others. 54. Italian rye grass, shown in Fig. 37, reaches at maturity a height of from 2 to 3 feet. It is a short-lived grass,. lasting but 1 year, or, at best, 2 years. By permitting it to ripen seeds before cutting for hay, it will, under favorable condi- tions, reseed itself and furnish crops for a num- ber of y e a r s . It is adapted to rich, moist soils . It is recommended for southern conditions fig. 37 as a soiling crop, as it may be cut several times during the season. 55. Perennial rye grass, qften known as English rye grass, has been grown in England for nearly 300 years. It is said to have been the first of the true grasses domesticated for hay and pasture purposes. This grass grows from 1 to 2 feet in height, and is adapted to both pastures and meadows. 234—14 60 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 15 Fig. 38 § 15 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 61 It is a perennial of rather short duration, lasting from 3 to 7 years. From one to two bushels of seed are sown per acre. 56. Johnson Grass. — In the southern part of the United States, Johnson grass is grown to some extent for hay and pasture. The plant is illustrated in Fig. 38, from which it will be seen that the culms are rather coarse and leafy. They often grow to a height of from 4 to 7 feet. In the section mentioned, Johnson grass is probably more often looked on as an undesirable weed than as a useful plant. When once established on a farm, it is an exceedingly difficult matter to exterminate it, on account of its habit of spreading from underground stems, which are produced in great abundance and are resistant to adverse conditions. Because of its tendency to become weedy, Johnson grass is not to be recommended for sowing on farms where it has not secured a foothold, especially if the land can be made to produce crops of better grasses. On farms where it has already become established and where the better grasses do not thrive, it may be wise to grow Johnson grass for hay, although it is usually considered to be of rather poor quality. Two or three cuttings per season may be secured, but it is likely to become sod bound after 2 or 3 years, when it may be renewed by plowing in the fall. By this method of handling, good crops of hay may be secured as long as the fertility of the soil lasts. For controlling it when it becomes a weed, seeding the field to alfalfa in the fall is recommended. Fortunately, the soils on which Johnson grass grows the most luxuriantly may be made to produce excellent yields of alfalfa. The alfalfa has a tendency to smother out the grass. The Johnson grass that remains when the alfalfa has become established tends to improve the quality of the hay. 57. Sweet Vernal Grass. — The grass known as Sweet vernal grass is one of the least valuable of the cultivated grasses. It is mentioned here not so much for its value as to call attention to its poor qualities. It is often praised by seedsmen as of great importance in adding aroma to hay, although it is difficult to explain the value of this aroma. The 62 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 15 grass is a low-growing perennial, being from 1 foot to 2 feet in height. It has a bitter taste and is probably not relished by- cattle or sheep, but, when dried, it possesses an agreeable odor. It grows under a variety of conditions. The seed is imported from Germany, where it is gathered from wild plants'. 58. Velvet Grass. — The perennial plant known as velvet grass is a low-growing variety that reaches a height of about 2 feet. It derives its name from the downy character of the leaves and other parts. This character makes it distasteful to horses and cattle. It is said that these animals will nearly starve before acquiring a liking for velvet grass, but when once accustomed to it they thrive remarkalby well on it. Velvet grass is grown to some extent on the Pacific Coast of the United States, west of the Cascade Mountains. Else- where in the United States, it is of little importance. A light sandy soil is best adapted to its requirements. In seeding, about 20 pounds of seed per acre is sown. 59. Quack Grass. — The grass known as quack grass is usually regarded as a weed wherever it is common. It spreads by underground stems in much the same manner as Johnson grass. When once established, it is difficult to eradicate. In spite of its weedy character, it is often utilized as a hay and pasture grass. The culms grow to a height of from 1 tb 2 feet, and it appears to be well suited to rich, loamy soils of the Northeastern States, especially the New England States. 60. Texas Blue Grass. — A grass called Texas blue grass is a close relative of Kentucky blue grass and has similar habits. As its name indicates, it is a grass of southern origin and adapted to southern conditions, although it is grown as far north as Tennessee. It may be grown from seed, but on account of the high cost of the seed, it is usually grown from pieces of sod in the same manner as Bermuda grass. As it does not spread so rapidly as the latter grass, the pieces must be set closer, usually about 1 foot apart. Texas blue grass is used for both meadows and pastures. In some cases, it is also used successfully for lawns. § 15 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 63 ANNUAL GRASS CROPS 61. There are a number of annual grasses that are grown largely for hay and pasture purposes. Among these are several of the cereals, the millets, sorghum, Kafir com, and teosinte. Although the cereals are nearly always grown chiefly for grain they are often used for hay and pasture purposes. This is particularly true in sections where other grasses are not easily grown. Wheat, oats, barley, and rye make a good quality of hay when cut before the seeds ripen. Wheat and rye are excellent for pasturage and are often sown for this purpose. It is also a common practice, in some sec- tions, to pasture cattle on these crops for a part of the season even when sown for grain. The cattle are removed when the culms begin to form and the yield of grain is not much, if any, reduced by the use of the field for pasture. This practice is feasible only in sections of mild .winters. As pointed out, however, the annual grasses for hay and pasture purposes are not generally popular in sections where the perennial grasses are grown extensively. Their use in this way is practically limited to sections where timothy and other permanent grasses do not form the bulk of the hay crop. In general, the expense of sowing annual grasses is greater than that for the perennial grasses, especially the item of labor, as the lands must be fitted every year. Another condition that may warrant the use of annual grasses for hay or pasture purposes is to take the place of a crop that has failed. For instance, a young com crop may be destroyed in some way, and if the season has not advanced too far the land may be fitted for millet or some other quick-maturing annual grass and a hay crop secured in place of the com, thus avoiding the complete loss of the land for a year. THE MILLETS 62. The millets grown in North America are generally classed in four groups, only two of which are of importance in the United States as hay. These two groups are the fox- 64 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS §16 Fig. 39 § 15 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 65 tail millets and the broom-corn millets, specimens of which are illustrated in Fig. 39. The three important varieties of the foxtail millets are Common millet, shown in (a) ; German millet, shown in (c); and Hungarian grass, shown in {d). Common millet is smaller than the other two varieties, although the heads are, as a rule, larger than those of Hun- garian grass. The seed of Common millet is yellow, oval in shape, and larger than that of Hungarian grass. Several stems are produced from a single seed. Common millet matures earlier than the other two varieties, and the head, instead of being upright like that of the Hungarian grass, droops to a considerable extent, which character is known as nodding. German millet is larger and coarser than the others. Usually, but one stalk is produced by a seed, and the heads are large and nodding. It requires a longer season for growth than the other varieties. It is popular in the South and also in the Central States, but not in the North. For northern conditions, its season of growth is too long. It is the variety most grown in Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. Hungarian grass has an upright head, which is smaller than those of Common and German millet. In shape, the seed is similar to that of Common millet, but is mixed in color; some are yellow, some blue, and others gray or intermediate. Like Common millet, Hungarian grass produces several stems from a single seed, and the season of maturity is medium. Hun- garian grass is grown more in the Eastern States than the other varieties of millet, perhaps on account of its better adaptation to a fairly moist climate. The broom-corn millets, instead of having cylindrical heads like the foxtail millets, have heads that spread in the form of a panicle, as shown in Fig. 39 (b). Although of shorter growth than foxtail millet, they generally produce more seed per acre. They also mature earlier, and as a con- sequence are best adapted for the Northern States, including the Dakotas and Minnesota. Two or three varieties are grown, chief among which is Hog millet, so named because the grain is used for feeding to hogs as a substitute for com. 66 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 15 63. The millets are all short-season crops. The time required to mature a crop ranges from 6 to 10 weeks. They grow during the hottest season, and they should not be sown until the soil is thoroughly warm. The millets under discussion are all exceedingly drought resistant, with the possible exception of Hungarian grass. Although they will grow on a great variety of soils, they are best adapted to fertile, sandy loams, and are generally considered hard on the soil. This is probably due to the fact that their rapid growth consumes much soil moisture. The root system is fine and near the surface. When plowed under, there is not as much organic matter added to the soil as in the case of more deeply rooted grasses. Largely because of the peculiar climatic adaptation of the millets, they are grown most extensively from North Dakota south to Texas. In general, this section is outside of the timothy region. The millets are used for hay in the same manner as other grasses. When cut at the proper season, and rightly cured, they are doubtless of equal value with timothy hay. In fact, Hungarian grass has been shown to be somewhat superior to timothy in feeding value. Aside from their value as hay crops, the millets are sometimes grown for soiling purposes and very rarely for pasture. Their short duration and the fact that they do not form a sod render them poorly suited for the latter purpose. The quantity of millet seed sown per acre depends on the type of soil and the purpose for which the crop is to be used, whether for seed or for hay. It is customary to sow 3 pecks per acre when hay is wanted, and not more than 1 peck when sown for seed production. A heavy clay soil requires more seed than a sandy loam. The methods of making hay from millets do not vary greatly from those employed in making hay from other grasses. The hay is somewhat harder to cure properly than timothy, due partly to the fleshy character of the stalks and partly to the lateness in the season at which it is generally cured. It is considered good practice to cut millet hay before the seed is well formed. If allowed to become fully ripe §15 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 67 before cutting, millet is thought to have a bad effect on the kidneys when fed to livestock, especially horses. SORGHUM 64. Although sorghum is generally used for another pur- pose, namely, that of producing sirup, it has great value as a hay crop in many parts of the country. Fig. 40 shows a head of a sorghum plant approaching maturity. The plant is well adapted to the South and West, and is grown to some extent in northern states, and even as far north as Canada. It is a drought -resistant plant, although much greater yields may be secured on soil fairly moist. It will produce a crop on any type of soil, even the poorest. On such soils, it grows only 4 or 5 feet in height, but on rich land the stalks may reach a height of from 12 to 14 feet. Its period of growth from sowing to maturity is somewhat shorter than that of com, but longer than that of the millets. Sorghum is grown extensively for hay in some sections and it is occasionally used as a pasture crop. The second growth is said to have produced poisonous Fig. 40 effects, although there seems to be some controversy on this point. Until positive proof on this point is brought forth, it is perhaps well to utilize sorghum with caution. The hay is relished by most farm animals. It contains a high percentage of sugar when cured, and is considered especially valuable for dairy cows. The cultural methods for sorghum are similar to those for the millets. When grown for hay, it is sown thickly, either by broadcasting or by grain drills. If sown thickly, the stems are small and easily cut by the mowing machine. About 100 pounds of seed per acre is used for this purpose. Fig. 41 68 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS §15 The crop is harvested when in bloom and placed in cocks when sufficiently dry. It is then left to cure further for several days. The yield of hay per acre is often from 4 to 6 tons. Fig. 42 KAFIR CORN 65. The plant known as Kafir com is a variety of sorghum, although it does not have the sugar- producing qualities of the latter. A head of Kafir com is shown in Fig. 41. It is most com- monly grown for the grain, but is sometimes planted for hay in the same manner as sor- ghum. It is especially adapted to the semiarid sections, as it is able to endure extreme heat and drought. The yield of Kafir corn is not equal to that of sor- ghum, but the former will endure more ad- verse climatic conditions than the latter. When used for hay, Kafir com must be sown thicklly and cut before the seed is ripe. § 15 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 69 TEOSINTB 66. Teosinte is an annual grass that much resembles Indian com in habit of growth, as will be seen from Fig. 42, which represents a teosinte plant. It is of tropical origin, and consequently not adapted to northern conditions. It may be grown profitably in the extreme South and has been tried to some extent as far north as Tennessee. The plant does not produce seed except below the thirtieth parallel. Teosinte, as a rule, should be planted from 4 to 5 feet apart. From 1 to 3 pounds of seed is required per acre. Teosinte requires a long, hot season, a deep, rich soil, and plenty of moisture. It is useless to try to grow it without these favorable conditions. It is a coarsely growing plant from 8 to 12 feet in height. Two crops of hay may be har- vested during the season if cut when 5 or 6 feet high. HAY AND PASTURE CROPS (PART 2) LEGUMES liEGUMES IN GBNEEAIi CHARACTERISTICS COMMON TO LEGUMES 1. Nearly all leguminous plants have certain common characteristics. The leaves are arranged around the stem in regular order — not two-rowed as in grasses. As shown in Fig. 1, the leaf consists of a stalk a and leaflets b. At the base of the stalk is a pair of leaf-like outgrowths c called stipules. All legumes have a common form of blossom, examples being sweet peas, garden peas, and beans. As shown in Fig. 2, the root system of legumes comprises a large central root, called a tap root, from which numerous branches are sent out at varying distances. The roots of all legumes under favorable conditions bear tubercles, which are clearly shown in the figure. These tubercles, or nodules, as they are properly called, are caused by certain forms of bacteria that live in the soil. They have the power of assimilating the free nitrogen of the soil atmosphere and of transferring it to the root tubercles. 2. Although legumes have many common characteristics, they also vary greatly in some respects. Nearly all colors of blossom may be found among them. The color is usually consistent in any given species, as in Red clover, but on the COPYRIQHTED BY INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY. ALL RIQHTS RESERVED §16 §16 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS other hand it may be of almost any shade of color, as in sweet peas, the blossoms of which vary from white to deep red. Leguminous plants vary extremely in size. Some are very Fig. 3 Fig. 4 small, as White clover, and others are large trees, as, tor instance, the locust. 4 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 16 "While the leaves of difEerent species of legumes resemble in general those of Red clover, they have certain distinguishing characters. The leaflets may be arranged along the sides of the leaf stalks, as in the locust, illustrated in Fig. 3, or they may radiate from the end of the leaf stalk, as in Red clover, Fig. 1. The leaf may be composed of an even number of leaflets or there may be an odd number, depending on the species. When there is an even number of leaflets, the midrib may end in a tendril, which serves the plant for climbing purposes. Vetch, Fig. 4, is an example of this kind of legume. USES OF LEGUMES 3. Legumes for Hay. — The two legumes most extensively used for hay in the United States are Red clover and alfalfa. The former occupies first place among leguminous plants for hay in the northeastern section, while west of the Mississippi River alfalfa is better adapted for the purpose. In southern states the cowpea is a plant of great value for hay, and Alsike clover is often used as a hay plant in northern states. Legumes are of value as hay plants primarily because of the high percentage of protein they contain. Alfalfa hay contains 11.4 per cent, of digestible protein; Red-clover hay, 7.1 per cent.; cowpea hay. 5.8 per cent.; and Alsike-clover hay 8.4 per cent. Besides containing a large percentage of protein, hay from legumes is rich in potash, much richer, in fact, than hay from grasses. 4. Legumes for Pasture. — Most legumes have value as pasture plants. This is especially true of legumes that do not require reseeding each year. In many sections of the United States, alfalfa is an important pasture plant for the grazing of swine. Red and Alsike clovers are also very valuable pasture plants in those sections where they thrive. A serious objection, however, to these clovers is that they are too short-lived for permanent pastures. When used for pasture purposes, they are usually sown primarily for hay § 16 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 5 and then the aftermath is grazed; or, the meadow is turned into pasture land after cutting hay for a year or two. In such cases, grasses are sown with the clover. In a short time, the clover disappears and the grasses become the chief herbage. White clover is by far the most important legume for pasturing, especially in northern sections of the United States. This clover is seldom sown in pastures, yet it appears in almost all kinds of soil shortly after the land ceases to be cultivated. Its habit of creeping, after the manner of a strawberry plant, makes it very valuable where land is closely grazed. In southern states, Japan clover is a legume of considerable importance as a pasture plant. It occupies somewhat the same place in southern pastures as White clover does in northern ones. 5. The value of legumes for pasture purposes is determined largely by their protein content. This is true especially where young stock or cows are pastured and no supplementary food is given to them during the summer. It has been shown, also, that by growing a mixture of plants in a pasture more forage can be secured under ordinary conditions than if only one kind of plant is sown; hence, a pasture of grasses and legumes mixed is better than one of either grasses or legumes alone. Legumes in pastures also serve another important function — that of gathering nitrogen. Nitrogen is an exceedingly valuable plant-food for grasses. Therefore, when legumes and grasses are grown together, the decay of the tubercles on the legume roots furnishes the much-needed nitrogen for the grasses. 6. Legumes for Lawns. — Grasses of various kinds are the plants of most value for lawns, but it requires several years to estabUsh a firm sod even when the best lawn grasses are used. To provide a covering for the soil during the time that the grass is becoming well established. White clover is often sown with lawn grasses. This variety of clover germ- 234—15 6 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 16 inates quickly and grows rapidly, and its presence in a lawn doubtless offers considerable protection to the young grass plants. When the grass becomes well established, the clover disappears. 7. Legumes as Soil Renewers. — All legumes are of importance in keeping up the fertility of soil. In many sections of the United States a profitable system of farming would be out of the question if it were not for clover and other legumes. Besides being benefited by the addition of nitrogen, the soil in which legumes are grown is also directly benefited by the decay of the extensive root system of these plants. Aside from the preceding valuable features, legumes are frequently sown for the purpose of plowing under as green manure. Crimson clover, in sections where it can be grown, is an especially valuable plant for this purpose. In the southern part of the United States, the cowpea is of great value in renovating unproductive soils. This plant is an excellent gatherer of nitrogen, and its root tubercles are large and numerous. In these states it is common to plow under a crop of cowpeas when preparing the land for other crops. The cowpeas are either turned under green or the plants are allowed to decay, after which they are worked into the soil by tillage implements. In many cases, however, a hay crop is cut from the field and only the stubble plowed under. In either case, a liberal quantity of plant-food, including nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, is returned to the soil and a certain amount of nitrogen is added 8. Legumes as Human Food. — The seeds of various legumes have been used as food from ancient times. Those most commonly used in the United States are the common bean, the common pea, the peanut, and certain varieties of the cowpea. The common garden pea is well distributed throughout the country and thrives under very diverse conditions. The common field bean is more particular as to climate than is the garden pea; it thrives best in a moist, § 16 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 7 cool climate. Peanuts and cowpeas reqtdre a warmer climate than do beans. As there are legumes for forage purposes adapted to particular localities, so there are legumes for human food for almost all conditions of soil and climate. CTTIiTTJRE OF LEGUMES 9. Soil Requirements. — Legumes are exacting in regard to certain soil conditions, particularly as to moisture and acidity. For instance, Red clover and alfalfa thrive best on a well- drained soil that is well supplied with lime. Large areas, especially in the northeastern part of the United States, could be made to produce greater yields of clover by a system of drainage and liming. In this region, many farms on which clover has not grown for years and which are otherwise unproductive could again be brought into condition for profitable farming by the application of lime and by the removal of surplus free water. The growth of crops of clover in these regions would be very useful agriculturally, for more livestock could be kept, which, in turn, would result in more stable manure to increase further the fertility of the soil. Many soils that will not grow alfalfa can be made to pro- duce this valuable crop by proper treatment. The addition of organic matter in the form of manure, the treatment of the soil by liming, and drainage will generally bring favorable results. 10. Selecting and Testing Leguminous Seeds. — Most seeds for leguminous crops cannot be profitably grown on the farm where they are to be sown. One reason why this condition must continue, even to an increasing degree, is that some kinds of leguminous seeds are produced economically only in favored locaUties. For example, certain soils near the Pacific Coast of the United States are more suitable for producing the seeds of hairy vetch economically than are soils in other localities. Seed growing is a business in itself. Even if the farmer could grow such seeds as alfalfa and clover, he would doubt- 8 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 16 less find it as cheap, if not cheaper, in the end to purchase these seeds from some one who makes a business of growing them in large quantities. 11. Whenever farm seeds are to be purchased, it is a wise plan to patronize seedsmen who have a reputation for furnish- ing seeds of the best quality. There are advantages in pur- chasing seeds from a local dealer, among which are a consider- able saving in time and transportation charges and the desire most local dealers have of furnishing seeds that will prove satisfactory to his customers. Furthermore, the buyer has an opportunity to examine the seeds before purchasing, thpugh it is unfortunately true that the appearance of seeds does not always indicate their true quality. It frequently happens, however, that local dealers do not carry in stock the seeds wanted. This is very likely to be true of some legumes not commonly grown ; as, for example, alfalfa, vetches, soybeans. White clover, and Sweet clover. Many local dealers wiU offer for sale seeds of more than one grade. It is never safe to try to economize by purchasing a cheap grade of seeds. It costs exactly as much for fitting the land when poor seeds are sown as when good seeds are sown, and the farmer who willingly accepts seeds merely because they are cheap justly suffers the penalty by har- vesting either a poor crop or no crop at all. 12. The farmer may, however, be ever so careful in the purchase of seeds and still not secure the best. To avoid disappointment and loss from the use of inferior seeds, it is always advisable to test the germinating qualities of a sample of the seed before sow- ^°-^ ing. The testing of seeds is easily accomplished. Such seeds as clover and alfalfa may be tested in a simple home-made germinator consisting of an ordinary pie pan covered tightly with a pane of glass, as §16 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS shown in Fig. 5. To conduct a test, 100 seeds are placed on a moist blotter and covered with another moist blotter. The blotters, with seeds between them, are then placed in the pie pan and covered with the glass. The pan is then set where it will not be disturbed for about 5 days. An examination is made in a day or two to see whether or not the blotters are still moist; if they are not moist, a small quantity of water should be added. The temperature of the room in which the test is being made should be between 50° and 70° F. At the end of the period, provided all conditions for the germinating of the seeds have been favorable, the sprouts on the live seeds will be about 1 inch long. The live seeds are then counted. If the sample for testing has been chosen at Fig. 6 random, the number of seeds that have sprouted will indicate approximately the percentage of the whole sample that will grow under field conditions. Most good samples of legume seeds will show a germination of from 90 to 95 per cent. If the percentage is less than 90, either the seeds from which the sample is taken should be rejected or a larger quantity of them should be sown per acre. 13. For testing larger seeds, such as beans and peas, a larger germinator must be used. A good germinator for this purpose can be made of a box 12 inches wide, 18 inches long, and 4 inches deep. The box is filled to within an inch of the top with moist sand or sawdust. On top of the sand or sawdust is placed a piece of muslin large enough to 10 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 16 come up around the edges of the box, as shown in Fig. 6. When ready to make the test, 100 seeds are placed on the cloth and covered with another piece of muslin. Several thicknesses of wet burlap or some kind of thick cloth are then placed on top of the muslin, and the box is set in a warm place where it is allowed to remain for a week. During this week the cloths should be kept moist. At the end of the period, the seeds that have sprouted are counted and the percentage of germination determined in the manner already explained. 14. Preparation of Land for Legumes. — Thorough prep- aration of the soil is an element of success in growing leg- umes. This means deep and careful plowing and afterwards thorough harrowing or rolling, or both if necessary. If legumes are to be sown for permanent meadows, the soil cannot be cultivated while hay crops are being taken from the land. In view of the fact that the land is usually left unplowed for a number of years, it is all the more important that the plowing and further tillage operations be done thoroughly. Time and effort spent before the crop is sown means much in the production of a maximum crop of hay. Often the drainage of fields is imperative for the production of clovers and alfalfa, especially the latter. There are many cases in which drainage not only will help the clover but will also increase the yields of other crops grown in the rotation. 15. Methods of Sowing Legume Seeds. — The method to be employed in sowing legumes depends somewhat on the particular variety of seed and the area to be seeded. The least expensive method of seeding is broadcasting by hand, as explained in a previous Section. All kinds of legume seeds may be sown in this way. From the standpoint of obtaining an even stand, however, this method is often unsatisfactory, because not all persons are able to sow seeds evenly by hand. If legumes are to be sown in the spring with spring grains, such as barley or oats, it is advisable to use the regular grain § 16 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 11 drill. This implement usually has an attachment especially adapted for sowing such seeds. The grain and legume seeds are sown at one operation. The general practice in clover-growing sections is to grow clover with winter grains in a regular rotation, and as it is not usually advisable to sow clovers in the fall, they are sown the following spring on the fall-sown grain. Such seeding cailnot be done with the ordinary seed drill, but requires either a knapsack seeder or a wheelbarrow seeder. 16. Quantity of Seed Required. — Many factors influence the quantity of leguminous seed to be sown per acre, the most important of which are the kind of plant, the quality of the seed, the condition of the seed-bed, and the method of planting; that is, whether the seeds are to be sown alone or with grasses. No general instruction can be given that will apply to all legumes; therefore, this subject is reserved for consideration under the detailed discussion of the various leguminous crops. 1 7. Value of Mixed Planting. — It has been shown in many instances that a larger total yield per acre is secured by a judicious mixed planting of grains or grasses and legumes than can be secured by growing a single species alone. Thus, in the northern part of the United States, instead of sowing oats or barley alone, peas, barley, and oats are often sown together. The yield of straw and grain from the mixed planting is often from one-fourth to one-half greater than if either oats or barley is sown alone. 18. The value of mixing grasses and legumes for hay depends largely on whether the individual species is adapted to the locality and to the purpose for which it is to be grown.. It is useless to include in a mixture a plant that will not thrive when sown alone, for the extra quantity of hay secured will not pay for the seeding. The yield of valuable plants is reduced by the useless ones occupying space that could profitably be utilized by those adapted to the conditions of soil and climate. In growing a hay crop, the chief aim is tp 12 . HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 16 secure the greatest amount of palatable forage per acre. In clover-growing sections, provided the land is uniform and in perfect condition for Red clover, a maximum yield of clover will probably be secured when Red clover only is sown. There are some soil conditions, however, under which this variety of clover will not reach its highest development. In such a case, it is advisable to mix Red and Alsike clovers, because Alsike clover is more hardy under adverse con- ditions. Certain plants do not reach their highest period of pro- ductivity until they have become well established. In order to occupy the ground fully, a plant of quicker development may be sown. Timothy and Red clover go well together on account of their different habits. When these are sown together, a crop of clover hay is first cut. Another reason for mixed planting lies in the difference in root systems. The root system of grasses, such as timothy, is comparatively shallow and occupies more fully the upper layer of soil, while that of legumes, such as the clovers, goes deeper and draws much plant-food from below. It is believed also that by the decay of clover roots the soil is left more porous. In addition, plant-food is added to the soil by the legumes. Thus, all crops that follow them in the rota- tion are benefited. 19. The indiscriminate sowing of mixed seeds for hay purposes should be discouraged. Some farmers pay high prices for mixtures simply on the recommendation of persons who have seeds for sale. As many as a dozen or fifteen kinds of seeds are sometimes included in these mixtures. The great bulk of these combinations is for lawn purposes, yet many pasture and meadow mixtures are also offered for sale. The foundation of such mixtures is usually timothy, Red clover, and Alsike clover. The remainder is made up of miscellaneous legumes and grasses, many of which become mere weeds in the field. Experience proves that it is always cheaper and safer to buy high-class seeds of the kinds- wanted and to mix them as needed. § 16 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 13 20. Legumes in Rotation. — Where legumes will grow, and there are probably few localities where some one of them will not, the only rational system of crop rotation is one in which some leguminous crop is included. In the North- eastern States, the legume used may be clover; in the West, alfalfa; and in the South, cowpeas. The kind of legume to use and the number of years required to complete the rotation will largely determine the place that the legume occupies in a rotation system. In southern sections of the United States cowpeas may be included twice in a rotation, as follows: First year, com with cowpeas planted between the rows; second year, oats followed the same year by cowpeas; third and fourth years, cotton. In this rotation, six crops, two of which are legumes, are grown in 4 years. In regions where Red clover is indigenous, usually only one crop a year is secured during the course of the rotation, although in favorable seasons two crops may be obtained. The second year after planting, the hay will be mostly tim- othy or whatever grass is used in the seeding. In the alfalfa sections, the rotation is planned with the view of getting as much alfalfa as possible from the land. This crop does not become thoroughly established in less than 2 or 3 years, and it is usually poor practice to plow up the crop before its fourth year. Hence, the following rotation is suggested: Alfalfa with barley for a nurse crop ; the latter harvested and the former kept growing for 4 years, after which it is ploWed up and a crop of corn raised. In the com belt there is no better condition to be obtained for a maximum yield of com than that secured by growing alfalfa on the land. The great depths to which the alfalfa roots penetrate, combined with the fertility added to the soil by the decaying of the roots, makes ideal conditions for the growth of corn. 21. The effect on the soil and the consequent benefit to succeeding crops are not the only reasons for including legumes in the crop-rotation systems. The cost of stock foods containing high percentages of protein makes it of extreme importance that leguminous crops be grown. Thus, 14 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 16 for example, by growing legumes, a farmer can produce for his animals on his own farm feed rich in protein and thereby avoid purchasing large quantities of high-priced mill feeds rich in protein. 22. Nurse Crops for Legumes. — A nurse crop is, as pre- viously explained, a crop sown or grown with another crop for the purpose of affording the latter protection during the early stages of its growth. Nurse crops are used extensively with the clovers and alfalfa. These plants are tender in their earlier stages, and, therefore, the shade offered by the grain crop is undoubtedly advantageous. By the time the grain is cut the plant is sufficiently well established to begin vigor- ous growth. A nurse crop is useful in protecting legume fields from weeds. If, for example, clover or alfalfa is sown with grain, weeds will have less chance to thrive during the early growth of the grains, and by the time the grain is harvested the season of growth of most weeds is past and the legumes then grow unhindered. If unprotected while young, legumes are easily crowded out by weeds. The grains most extensively used as nurse crops for clovers in the order of their value are rye, wheat, barley, and oats. In states where buckwheat is grown extensively, it is occa- sionally used as a nurse crop for the clovers. The nurse crops used for alfalfa are oats or barley. Many farmers consider barley preferable to oats for alfalfa, chiefly because it ripens earlier and does not draw so heavily on the mois- ture content of the soil. 23. Fertilizers for Legumes. — Although leguminous crops are extremely valuable for improving the fertility of the soil, it does not follow that they will grow successfully without fertilizers. Many soils have become so poor that clovers cannot be grown profitably on them. In most cases of clover failure where it once grew, the use of stable manure and Ume will so improve the soil that clover may be grown again. Stable manure adds organic matter that iinproves the water- holding capacity of the soil, and lime puts the soil into proper condition for the growth of bacteria. § 16 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 15 Nitrogenous fertilizers do not appear to encourage the growth of legumes to any great extent unless the available nitrogen is deficient. Legumes use soil nitrogen, as well as nitrogen that is obtained from the atmosphere. The plant- food that gives most marked results when applied to legumes is potash. It is often noticeable in meadows where brush has been burned, that these spots produce a luxuriant growth of legumes. Wood ashes are rich in potash and lime, and doubtless the lime adds much to the value of ashes by correcting the acidity of the soil. 24. Soil Inoculation. — When bacteria that produce the nodules on roots of legumes are not present in the soil, they must be supplied artificially, a treatment that is called inoculation. It is seldom necessary to do this for any legumes except soybeans and alfalfa. In the western half of the United States, inoculation is not necessary for alfalfa. The soil conditions in the eastern half, however, are such that inoculation for alfalfa is almost always necessary. 25. There are several methods of accomplishing soil inoculation. One of them consists in the continued growing of a certain legume upon the same soil. For instance, alfalfa may be sown with some other plants on uninoculated soil otherwise adapted to the growing of alfalfa. At the end of the first year a few alfalfa plants will survive. These will be found to have tubercles on the roots. If alfalfa is sown continuously for a few years on the same field, the entire field will become inoculated. It is not known whether the bacteria already in the soil, which normally are active on the roots of other legumes, adapt themselves to the other host, or whether a few bacteria are accidentally introduced on the seed and multiply, producing the requisite number of tubercles. 26. In another method of inoculating soil for legumes, soil from a field that is successfully growing the particular kind of plants desired is distributed over the field that is to be inoculated. This soil is sown at the rate of 200 to 400 pounds per acre immediately before sowing the seeds. Care 16 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 16 should be taken not to allow the inoculating soil to become dry; also, sunshine is destructive to the bacteria contained in the soil. It is therefore good practice to apply the inocula- ting soil on a cloudy day or toward evening and then imme- diately harrow it in. . In general, this method of inoculation gives satisfactory results, but it has some disadvantages. There is always danger of introducing weed seeds, fungous diseases, or dangerous insects with the soil used; also, when such soil has to be shipped a long distance, the item of trans- portation becomes important. If the transportation of soil for inoculation is a serious question, it is well to prepare and inoculate a small area of the field thoroughly. If this plan is successful, the soil needed for the whole field may be taken from this area the next year. Inoculation has been accomplished by passing water through soil containing the desired bacteria and then using the water instead of the soil. In still another method, inoculation is done by means of cultures, which may be purchased in the market, as has been explained in Green Manure. HARVESTING OJF LEGUMES 27. Making Legume Hay. — It is impossible to set a definite time for cutting legumes for hay. If they are cut too early, there will be a deficiency of dry matter in the hay ; that is, the stems and leaves will be too "watery" and con- sequently will shrink excessively in curing. On the other hand, if cut too late, the hay will be "woody" and hence unpalatable and indigestible. The problem, therefore, is to select a time between these two extremes. It is very essential that legumes be harvested at the proper stage, while with most grasses there is more latitude. Specific directions under this heading will be given with the more complete dis- cussion of the particular species of legumes. 28. The curing of legumes for hay is often a difficult matter. Such plants may mature at a season of the year § 16 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 17 when weather conditions are unfavorable for making hay; also, their succulent nature adds to the difficulty, especially in a wet season. Hay made from legumes is more easily damaged by rains than is hay made from grasses, particu- larly when it is in the cock or stack. Legume hay in the cock or stack does not shed water so readily as does grass hay. Moreover, much valuable food in the former hay is soluble and may be washed out when it is exposed to wet weather for a long time. The leaves are the most valuable part of legume'hay. If the plant is too mature, or is dried too thoroughly before storing, a large percentage of the leaves will be broken off and lost, and the feeding value of the hay greatly decreased. 29. Storing Legume Hay. — The method to be followed in storing legume hay is governed to a great extent by weather conditions. In humid regions, especially in sections where there is liable to be much snow or rain during the winter season, it is common practice to store the hay in bams. This is particularly true where a diversified system of farming is followed and the production of hay is only one line of the farming operations. In western states, where the produc- tion of hay is often the main activity, it is usually stacked. Fig. 7 30. Harvesting Legumes for Seed.^Legumes that are to produce seeds must be allowed to attain a greater degree of maturity than those commonly used for producing hay. When seed is to be gathered, there is also in some cases a 18 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 16 difEerent previous treatment of the crop, such as rate of seeding, keeping the species separate, etc. With certain legumes, it is possible to produce seeds commercially only in favored localities. Under such conditions, it is often much more profitable to grow the crops for seeds rather than for forage. With other legumes, such as field beans, the primary object is to secure the seeds, the straw being a by-product. In some cases, special machinery is used for harvesting legumes to be thrashed for seed. An example of such a machine is the clover buncher, one form of which is shown in Fig. 7. However, a large amount of the work of harvesting legumes for seed differs in no way from that of harvesting for hay. An object to be attained in harvesting for seed is to avoid shattering or shelling. The seeds of some leg- umes, alfalfa, for instance, are readily lost from the plant unless extra care is taken in handling them. The straw from legumes that have been ripened for seed is usually poorer in feeding qualities than the hay from the same legumes cut earlier for hay. It has been pointed out that the highest feeding value of legumes often lies in the leaves. When the plant has ripened, these are largely lost in harvesting; also, the whole plant is more woody and unpalatable. CLOVERS "VARIETIES OP CLOVER 31. There are a large number of clovers, perhaps over 200 species, but only a few of them are generally grown in the United States. Those of most importance are Red clover, Mammoth clover, Alsike clover. Crimson clover, and White clover. Only one of these, namely. White clover, is native to America. The others have been introduced from abroad. § 16 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 19 RED CliOVEK 32. Importance of Red Clover. — Red clover is the most important leguminous crop in the United States. It is suc- cessfully grown in nearly all that section east of the 100th meridian and north of the Gulf States. In addition, it is grown in the Pacific Coast States north of California. In comparison with other plants grown for hay in the United States, Red clover stands second in the number of acres grown, but third in the total yield in tons. It has long been a staple hay crop especially in the northeastern and north central parts of the United States. Red clover is especially valuable as food for milch cows, sheep, and in fact almost all classes of growing animals. It is not so suitable for horses because it is liable to contain too much dust. .33. The value of Red clover as a restorer of soil fertility is high. Experiments have proved that a crop yielding 4,900 pounds of dry matter per acre will leave in the soil from roots and stubble 44 pounds of nitrogen, 32 pounds of potash, and 13 pounds of phosphoric acid. The hay from such a crop contains 138 pounds of nitrogen, 152 pounds of potash, and 32 pounds of phosphoric acid. By way of com- parison it may be said that a ton of stable manure may contain 10 pounds of nitrogen, 10 pounds of phosphoric acid, and 8 pounds of potash. Red clover is a valuable plant in temporary pastures, but unless it is reseeded the plant soon disappears. For perman- ent pasture purposes, it is inferior to White clover or the grasses. It fits in well with grain crops, thus becoming valuable in a system of rotations. Its extensive root system leaves the soil in good condition for succeeding crops. 34. Description of the Red-Clover Plant. — The Red-clover plant has a tap, or main, root that often extends to a con- siderable depth, and may be forked into two or more branches. The smaller roots arise from the upper third of the main root and occupy the first few inches of the soil. The tap roots go deeply for moisture and plant-food. The main stem of 20 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS §16 the plant is very short, and the leaves are produced in a rosette around the stem. From the base of these leaves grow about ten or twelve leafy branches. The branches are erect or ascending and produce flower heads at the apex. There are often many other branches produced from the main branches, all of which bear a large number of leaves with a flower head at the end. The result of these characteristics is a bushy, leafy plant averaging from 18 to 20 inches in height, with a large proportion of leaves and small stems. Fig. 2 gives a very good idea of the root system of a Red- clover plant, and Fig. 8 shows a stem with leaves and blos- soms. The appear- ance of the main stem at the ground is much the same as that of Crimson clover (see Fig. 12). Under ordinary conditions, the plant is shgrt-lived. When sown in the spring with winter or spring Fig. 8 grains, it produces no crop the first year. In the second year, under favorable conditions, either two crops of hay or one crop of hay and one of seed may be secured. 35. Soil Requirements.— Almost any type of soil is suit- able for Red clover, provided the land is well drained and in good condition of fertility. Red clover is not a poor-land crop; therefore, the better the soil on which it is grown the larger will be the yields. § 16 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 21 Careful experiments have proved that failure to grow this crop is often due to lack of lime in the soil. When Red clover fails on soils that have grown this crop before, it is well to try the use of lime. About 1 ton per acre of quicklime is usually a sufficient application, and this may well be applied to the grain crop preceding clover. Soils that are particularly in need of lime usually require liming about once in 5 or 6 years. In certain sections there are soils too poor in organic matter to produce clover profitably. In many such cases, the soil may be improved sufficiently to grow clover by plowing under some green-manure crop, such as oats, rye, or buck- wheat. If the soil is put into proper condition to grow heavy crops of clover, successful farming is almost sure to follow., 36. Time and Manner of Seeding Red Clover. — Red clover may be successfully sown any time during the growing season, although the seed is most often sown in the early spring. It is generally conceded that this is the best time of the year for sowing, largely on account of the moisture condition of the soil. The young plants are not very hardy; consequently, if soil and weather conditions are Unfavorable a good stand is not likely to result. When sown on fields of winter-grain, such as rye or wheat, the Red-clover seed is sown broadcast in the early spring, and if conditions are favorable, the seed may be scattered on a late snow. In northern climates, the soil is loose and full of cracks at this season and the seed sinks into these cracks and is covered by rains. When thus sown, the young plants are occasionally killed by late frosts, but this danger is not so great as the possibility of injury by drought if sown too late in the season. When clover is to be sown with spring grains, such as barley or oats, seeding may be done by means of the grass-seed attachment of the grain drill; or, the seed may be sown broadcast by hand after the grain seed is sown. The seed should receive a light covering of soil, and to accomplish this harrowing or rolling may be necessary. 234—18 22 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 16 37. Quantity of Red-Clover Seed Required Per Acre. — Red clover may be sown alone with some grain as a nurse crop, or with Alsike clover or grass seeds, or both. The quantity of seed to be sown depends on the climate and the condition of the soil. When sown alone under favorable conditions, about 10 pounds per acre is used; when sown with timothy and grain, 6 to 8 pounds per acre is used ; and when sown with timothy and Alsike clover, as is often done in sections not entirely favorable to the growth of Red clover, 4 povmds per acre may suffice. The cost of clover seed varies according to whether the seasons have been favorable or unfavorable to the production of seed. In some seasons, the seed will cost twice as much as^in other seasons. Owing to this fact, farmers sometimes fail to seed sufficiently heavy. Yet if it is decided to sow at all, the cost of seed at the highest price should not deter a farmer from sowing liberally of this very valuable forage crop. It is the poorest kind of economy to prepare a field for clover and then half seed it. 38. Harvesting Red-Clover Hay. — Red clover should be handled as little as possible in the process of hay making. The leaves and the blossoms are the important parts of the plant for hay, and if these are lost, the hay wiU be much reduced in value. Therefore, any treatment that causes these parts to break off should be avoided as far as possible. When hay is left lying on the ground to cure, the finer parts, such as leaves, dry more rapidly than the coarser parts. If they become too dry, they are lost when the hay is handled. From the standpoint of producing the highest quaUty of hay, the best plan is to put it up into cocks before the leaves become too dry. An advantage of cocking Red-clover hay is that only a small quantity is exposed to washing in case of rain. Rain absorbs and carries away the nutrients of the hay; also, if the hay is left exposed to rain and dews, it loses the bright color so characteristic of a well-cured product. 39. Yield of Red-Clover Hay. — The average yield of Red- clover hay is about 1.3 tons per acre for the United States. § 16 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 23 Yields of 2.5 tons are not uncommon, and no farmer in the clover-growing sections should be contented with less than 2 tons per acre of cured hay. The yield is usually better than that of timothy, but less than that of alfalfa. 40, Production of Red-Clover Seed. — Red-clover seed is usually secured from the second crop. The first crop grows luxuriantly and is liable to lodge so badly that it is difficult to harvest for seed. The second crop grows smaller and is harvested at a season when weather conditions are generally favorable. Moreover, there is a larger quantity of seed at the latter cutting than at the former. The second crop when used for seed is cut at a more mature stage than the first crop when used for hay. The heads should be brown or black and nearly all the seeds hard. The straw from the second crop is of inferior quality for feeding when compared with that of the crop cut earlier. The crop for seed is cut with a mowing machine or a self- rake reaper. Clover bunchers, as shown in Fig. 7, are made so that they can be attached to mowing machines. These devices leave the clover in small bunches convenient for handling. In use, the freshly cut plants are allowed to accumulate upon the slats until a good-sized bunch is formed. By means of a foot lever the driver trips the gate, which allows the clover bunch to be deposited upon the ground immediately behind the mower and thus out of the way of horses and machine upon the next round. After discharging the bunch, the gate returns to its former position and the operation is repeated. Clover when cut for seed must be handled as little as possible, as the flowers break off easily. In wet weather, the bunches should be turned in order to keep the seed from sprouting. The thrashing of clover seed is a slower process than the thrashing of grains, on account of the manner in which the seed is enclosed in the head. The machines used are known as clover hullers. They differ from the ordinary thrashing machines in that they have a cylinder that is specially fitted for hulling the clover. Clover hullers are also provided with 24 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 16 special devices for cleaning the seed. One of these' machines will hull from 20 to 40 bushels of seed per day. From 2 to 6 bushels of seed per acre is a common yield. 41. Impurities and Adulterants of Red-Clover Seed. — One of the most important considerations in preparing for the culture of Red clover is pure seed. Impure or adulterated seed is dear at any price. The purchaser not only pays a high figure for weed seed and dirt, but also runs the risk of- introducing pernicious weeds upon his farm, reducing his stand of clover, and seriously hindering the growth of young plants. Fortunately, the number of weed pests of clover is not large; but it is essential to know something of the worst ones and particularly the characteristic appearance of their seeds. 42. Fig. 9 will serve to illustrate Red-clover seed and a number of seeds that are frequently found as adulterants. The seeds in this figure are magnified about 10 diameters and are shown in approximately their natural colors. The Red- clover seed is shown at 1, and the adulterants are shown as follows: At 2, timothy; at 3, Alsike clover; at 4. YeUow trefoil; at 5, Field dodder; at 6, Curled dock; at 7, Sheep sorrel; at 8, Lamb's quarters; at 9, Rag weed; at 10, Yellow foxtail; at 11, Green foxtail; and at 12, Bracted plantain. Although timothy and Alsike clover are planted as regular crops, they are considered to be adulterants when mixed with Red-clover seed; the remainder are simply weed seeds. It will be seen that only two of these adulterants — Yellow trefoil and Sweet clover — ^resemble Red clover sufficiently to be mistaken for it. Every farmer should possess a small pocket magnifying glass, or hand lens, for examining seeds. Careful use of this instrument in connection with the colored illustration will be of great assistance in avoiding trouble from adulterated clover seed. 43. Rarely is a sample of commercial clover seed 100 per cent. pure. Nearly always there are present more or less weed f\M ^^s^ <.^mi w*^^^4nl(^^^ 231 Fig. 9 §16 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 25 seed and trash. Some weeds may be ignored because they are so widespread that it would be difficult to find any farm free from them. Such weeds as foxtail, Lamb's quarters, and Rag weed in a sample of seed should give no alarm unless present in large numbers. Narrow-leaf plantain. Curled dock. Yellow trefoil, and Sheep sorrel should be guarded against, and clover seed showing any considerable percent- age of such seeds should be rejected. Most of the weeds mentioned are not so injurious to the clover crop itself as to the grass or grain crop that follows. 44. Of all weeds that cause trouble in clover fields, dodder is perhaps the worst. There are several varieties of this weed, but they are much the same in gen- eral characteristics. Dodder is usually intro- duced into a field by sowing clover seed that has dodder mixed with it. The seeds sprout at about the same time, but the dodder plant quickly attaches itself to a clover plant and begins to sap the juices from it. Having no use for roots, the dodder plant soon loses them and continues to live as a parasite, killing the clover plant that it at- tacked by robbing it of its nourishment and spreading to others ^'o. lo near by, which share the same fate. Dodder is a tawny yellow plant, readily distinguished from clover by the color and the twining habit of its stems, which 26 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 16 form a dense mass. Fig. 10 shows clover stalks infested with dodder. Dodder in clover is not so serious as dodder ia alfalfa, for the reason that a field of the latter is usually maintained for several years, while the former is used in shorter rotations. The most satisfactory way of combating dodder in clover fields is to plow the land and grow other crops for a few years; clover dodder will not attack non-leguminous plants. 45. Enemies of Red Clover. — Certain fungous diseases of Red clover are troublesome in some localities. These diseases are clover rust, leaf spot, and stem rot. Little can be done in the way of combating them other than rotating the crops. In some sections where attempts to establish Red clover have failed, it is said to be on account of "clover sickness." Investigations that have been made indicate that the trouble in such cases is usually due to acidity of the soil, winter killing, etc. 46. There are two classes of insects whose injuries to Red clover are widespread, namely, the clover-seed midge and the clover -root borer. The clover-seed midge lays its eggs in the green flower heads. In a few days these hatch into minute worm-like creatures that live within the developing seeds and destroy them. It is estimated that in certain sections at least three-fourths of the clover-seed crop is destroyed by these insects. In other sections, they have practically made the growing of clover for seed unprofitable. The usual method of control is to pasture clover for a time in the spring or to cut the first crop of hay early, taking the seed from the second crop. This procedure deprives the insect of its food and thus prevents its increase. The clover-root borer is a small beetle. It lays its eggs in the crown of the year-old plants. In about 1 week the eggs hatch and the resulting grubs burrow into the roots. During the season the roots become honeycombed by the insects, causing the death of the plants. In some sections where root borers are numerous, few plants survive the § 16 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 27 second year, but the plants are not killed until a crop of clover is secured. The method of control usually suggested is to plow the field immediately after cutting the hay, say before the first of July. This method deprives the insect of food and they do not develop further. Some late-planted crop, as buckwheat, could be grown after cutting the clover. MAMMOTH RED CLOTER 47. Mammoth Red clover, also caUed Mammoth clover, Perennial Red clover, and Pea-vine clover, is a variety of ordinary Red clover, differing from it in a few respects only. Mammoth clover is larger and coarser than Red clover, is a longer-lived plant, and matures 3 or 4 weeks later. The seeds are identical in appearance with those of Red clover, and for this reason, the latter may often be substituted for Mammoth clover. This explains why farmers often complain of their inability to secure Mammoth-clover seeds. There are certain characteristics of Mammoth clover that give it preference over Red clover under some conditions. One of these is that its date of maturity is practically the same as that of timothy and it is therefore more suitable for sowing with this grass. Another is that on account of its- maturing later in the season than Red clover the hay crop is more likely to escape damage from rain than a hay crop of the latter. 48. On account of its ranker habit of growth. Mammoth clover is groAvn extensively on the poorer soils. It thrives better under such conditions than does Red clover. On better soils, it may grow so large as to become Unpalatable. The cultural methods of this variety of clover do not differ materially from those of Red clover. It is grown in the same sections of the country and has the same enemies; also, the methods of harvesting and of using the two kinds of clover are the same. On account of the greater amount of organic matter left in the soil by Mammoth clover, it is supposed to be more satisfactory than Red clover for renew- ing depleted soils. 28 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS §16 ALSIKE CliOVEK 49. Alsike clover is said to have been introduced into the United States from Sweden. It has not attained the wide reputation that Red clover has, and is seldom a competitor with it where the latter can be grown successfully. On Fig. 11 account of its hardier character, Alsike clover is taking the place of Red clover in the clover-growing sections where the latter either has failed or does not give satisfactory returns. In Tennessee, Alsike clover is growing into favor on account of the recent failures of Red clover in that section. It is § 16 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 29 especially well adapted to land too wet for Red clover. This is a valuable characteristic in certain northern states where drainage conditions are often bad. The plant is also more hardy on soils that are inclined to become too dry during the growing season, and it is less susceptible to extreme climatic conditions. It will thus be seen that Alsike clover has a much wider range of adaptation than Red clover. 50. Alsike clover, a plant of which is shown in Fig. 11, bears a close resemblance to White clover, which will be described later. The leaves of the two plants are very similar. The chief difference lies in the light-colored crescent-shaped mark usually borne on the leaflets of the White clover. These are always absent from Alsike clover. Moreover, White clover has a strongly creeping habit, while Alsike clover is only slightly creeping. The latter has a root system similar to that of Red clover, but the roots are somewhat shallower and perhaps not so well adapted for adding plant-food to the soil. The leaves and stems are perfectly smooth, while those of Red clover are hairy. The plant is smaller in its parts than the plant of Red clover; hence, the yield of hay is slightly less. 51. Alsike clover may be used for the same purpose as Red clover, because it matures at about the same time. It is often used in a mixture with Red clover to make cer- tain that there will be at least a partial crop in case the latter fails. All kinds of farm animals eat Alsike clover as readily as they do Red clover, and for temporary pasture ,purposes it is fully as valuable. It is not equal to White clover for permanent pastures, because it is not so long-lived. One objection to Alsike clover is that it is liable to cause a dis- ease of the skin in mules and horses if they are pastured on it exclusively. In such cases, however, relief is immediately obtained by placing the afflicted animals on grass. By using grass for pasture in connection with this variety of clover, no trouble of this kind will be experienced. Under very favorable conditions, Alsike clover lives from 3 to 5 years. 30 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 16 The hay from Alsike clover is thought by some persons to be superior to that from Red clover, the plant being finer stemmed and more leafy. 52. The seeds of Alsike clover, as will be seen by referring to Fig. 11, are only about one-half to two-thirds the size of those of Red clover. Commercial seed should be 98 per cent, pure and should show a germination test of not less than 75 per cent. Alsike-clover seed does not show so high a per- centage of germination as Red clover. Alsike clover is seldom sown alone. In sections where it is used with Red clover, it is a common practice to sow from one-half to two-thirds as much Alsike as Red clover. The two clovers are very often sown with timothy. When thus used, a good seeding is as follows: Timothy, 15 pounds; Red clover, 6 pounds; Alsike clover, 4 pounds. When the clover is intended for seed purposes, about 8 poiinds per acre should be sown alone. The first crop of Alsike clover is cut for seed, and the second is made into hay, though there is less likelihood of harvesting a good crop of the latter than would be the case if Red clover were being grown. The seeds are not so difficult to thrash as the seeds of Red clover. The enemies of Alsike clover are the same as those of the two clovers previously discussed, though the seed midge is not so destructive to it. The methods of culture and of har- vesting the crop are also the same. CRIMSON CI.OVER 53. Crimson clover differs from the other clovers more particularly in its duration. While the others live from 2 years to an indefinite length of time, this clover runs its life history in less than a year from seeding. This variety of clover is not likely to be hardy in northern latitudes; hence, it is not planted extensively north of the 40th parallel. It is grown most extensively in the South Atlantic States. §16 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 31 54. Crimson clover, as shown in Fig. 12, is bushy in appear- ance. Several branches arise from the short main stem. These branches grow from 1 to 3 feet high. The leaves and Pig. 12 the stems of the plant are densely covered with short, hairy growths. This clover takes its name from the color of the 32 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 16 flower. The name scarlet clover is also used, though some varieties of this clover have whitish or yellowish flowers. 55. Crimson clover is valuable chiefly as a soil renewer. It is also used for hay, grazing, and soiling. Its use as hay is objectionable when fed to livestock, especially horses, as it has been known to cause serious trouble in the digestive tract from the formation of hair halls. The wooly character of the plant is responsible for this difficulty. Crimson clover is an ideal cover crop for orchards. Its quick and vigorous growth where conditions are suitable furnishes a large quantity of organic matter for working into the soil. As it makes its chief growth in the fall and early spring, it may also be grown between the period of maturity of one crop and the planting of another. By turning under the clover in preparation for another crop, the soil is greatly improved. It is decidedly valuable for stiff clay soils. 56. Crimson clover is not often sown with a nurse crop. The usual time of seeding is in late summer or early autumn. August is the ideal month for sowing under ordinary con- ditions. In southern states it may be sown as late as October, but this late seeding is likely to be attended with reduced yields. From 12 to 15 pounds of seed per acre is used. When used as a green-manure crop, crimson clover is often sown between the rows at the last cultivation of corn. For this purpose, the land needs no special preparation. The seeds may also be sown with either rye or winter oats. It is also a satisfactory practice to sow with buckwheat in July or August. If this is done, the buckwheat is harvested in the fall and the crimson clover the next year. WHITE CliOVEB 57. As shown in Fig. 13, White clover, also called Dutch clover, is a small plant of creeping habit. It is very common in pastures and lawns. The stems of the plant are prostrate. At intervals, blossoms and leaves are produced that assume §16 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 33 an upright habit of growth, as is well illustrated in the figure. The root system of White. clover is much shallower than the root system of other clovers; also, there is not so deep a tap root as is produced by either Red or Alsike clover. White clover is less affected by climatic conditions than Red clover and is better adapted to moist, rich soils than to soils that are too dry. For this reason, it makes better growth during wet seasons than during dry seasons. Fig. 13 58. White clover is used only for pastures and lawns. It is often sown with grasses in lawns for the purpose of getting a covering of foliage on the ground quickly. Later, the grasses tend to crowd it out. It is one of the best plants for pasture purposes. White clover and Kentucky bluegrass form an ideal pasture mixture, but neither is adapted to poor soils. In sections where this variety of clover is abundant a high grade of honey, called white-clover honey, is obtained from the blossoms of this plant by bees. 34 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 16 59. White clover is seldom sown in pastures, but it appears as a volunteer plant in greater or less degree in all good pasture land. The application of wood ashes to pas- tures has been known to bring in White clover abundantly. When it is desirable to sow it, from 2 to 4 pounds of seed per acre is about the right quantity. The cost of White- clover seed is generally about 20 cents a pound. HAY AND PASTURE CROPS (PART 3) LEGUMES— (Continued) AliFAIiPA ALFALFA IN GENEKAL 1. Description of the Alfalfa Plant. — Among the legu- minous plants used as hay and pasture crops, alfalfa is probably second in importance. It is a strongly growing branching perennial, which, at full maturity, may have a height of 3 or 4 feet. As shown in Fig. 1 (a), which illus- trates an old root that is starting a new growth, alfalfa has a large tap root a, which grows directly downwards. Under favorable conditions alfalfa roots often reach a depth of from 12 to 14 feet, depending on the character of the soil and the depth of the permanent water-table. The lower end of the main root is usually branched, or forked, and a few secondary roots b are produced along its course. These, however, tend to disappear from the upper portion of the main root as the plant grows older, from which fact it is thought that the old, well-established plants draw heavily on the lower layers of soil |or moisture and plant-food. This belief is strength- ened by the fact that the character of the subsoil greatly influences the growth and yield of alfalfa. From the crown, which is the portion of the plant that expands from the top of the tap root, mature plants produce from twelve to fifteen erect stems, from which short, leafy COPYRIGHTED BY INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY. ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL, LONDON §17 HAY AND PASTUR]fe CROPS §17 branches rise. After the plant has been cut for hay new stems often grow from the lower part of the existing stems or from the crown. 2. The leaf of alfalfa resembles the leaf of Red clover in general shape. But the divisions of the leaf, instead of rising at the end of the leaf stalk, are arranged at the sides and end § 17 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 3 of the stalk, one of them being terminal, that is, at the extreme end. Moreover, the divisions of the leaf are longer and narrower than those of Red clover. The flowers. Fig. 1 (6), are in oblong clusters instead of in compact heads as in Red clover. In most alfalfa varieties they are purple and have the characteristic shape of all the flowers of the legumes. Several seeds are produced in each pod, Fig. 1 (c), which is a spiral, having two or three turns. The seeds vary in shape from oval to distinctly kidney-shaped. They are usually larger than the seeds of Red clover and are easily distinguished from the latter by their color. Red clover seeds are yellowish to purple ; alfalfa seeds, especially when fresh, are of a light olive-green color. 3. Varieties of Alfalfa. — There is only one variety of alfalfa commonly grown in regions of greatest alfalfa produc- tion; this is known as the common variety. Sand lucerne is a hardy variety that is sometimes grown in the more severe climate of the North. It has a spreading habit in contrast with the erect habit of common alfalfa and it is inclined to lodge. The flowers, instead of being bluish or purple, are often yellow in color. The Grim alfalfa is a strain that was brought from Ger- many in 1857 and is also a hardy variety adapted to the North. The Turkestan type was introduced into North America in 1898. Its hardiness and resistance to drought render it valuable in the cold sections of the North and in the hot dry sections of the Southwest. It is inferior to common alfalfa in other sections of the country. 4. Valuable Characteristics of Alfalfa.^ — In common with other legumes alfalfa has the power of storing nitrogen in the soil. Crops following alfalfa upon the same field almost invariably show the effect of this increased nitrogen supply. Alfalfa renders soils more porous by the ramifications of the extensive tap roots. This feature is of considerable importance in improving drainage conditions and aerating certain soils. 234—17 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS §17 The decay of the root system of alfalfa adds humus to the soil, which is a very desirable feature, especially where there is a deficiency of this important constituent. Perhaps the chief value of alfalfa as compared with other forage plants lies in its large yields of hay per acre and the richness of this hay in the tissue-forming feed known as protein. Protein is not only very essential in livestock feeds but it is also expensive when it must be purchased. Alfalfa hay yields protein in larger proportion than any other forage plant and in fact is almost equal to wheat bran in protein content. In Table I is shown the amount of digestible protein contained in 100 pounds of some common feeds. TABI.E I PROTEIN IN 100 POUNDS OF VARIOTTS FEEDS Feed Quantity pf Protein Pounds Feed Quantity of Protein Pounds Alfalfa hay Clover hay. . . . Timothy hay. . II.4 7-1 2.8 Cowpea hay . Wheat bran . Shelled corn. 5-8 II.9 7.8 5. Uses of Alfalfa. — Alfalfa is used as a ration for cattle, horses, sheep, swine, and poultry. It is pastured, used as hay, as silage, and as a soiling crop, that is, cut and fed green to stock in pens or yards. About four-fifths of the alfalfa grown in the United States is made into hay. Sometimes the hay is ground into meal and sold as alfalfa meal. Alfalfa is a particularly desirable feed for young stock. The protein which it contains is essential for growth of the animal. It is also a good roughage for beef cattle. It has been determined that 1 acre of alfalfa will produce from 562 pounds to 706 pounds of beef annually, the amount pro- duced depending on the stage at which the alfalfa is cut. That cut in early bloom will produce the most beef per acre. I 17 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 5 6. Alfalfa hay has no equal as a roughage for fattening sheep or for wintering ewes. A breeding flock of ewes may be carried through the winter on alfalfa hay with but little grain in addition. It costs about one-half as much to grow lambs for the market where alfalfa is used as it does where ordinary methods of feeding are practiced. Alfalfa, when used as pasturage for sheep and cattle, is liable to cause bloat ; this trouble is seldom experienced when the crop is used as hay. In sections where alfalfa is grown extensively, it is deemed an ideal feed for horses, especially growing colts. In summer it is used for pasturage and in the winter as hay. Objection has been raised against alfalfa for horses, as it is said to cause kidney disorders; this is likely to be true if alfalfa is fed in excess. It should b§ considered a substitute for a part of the grain ration and the grain reduced accordingly. It is pos- sible for horses to perform heavy work on nothing but green alfalfa. 7. Alfalfa is used to a limited extent for swine feed. The hog is not constituted to digest properly most forage crops, but alfalfa is an exception. An objection made to American pork is that it contains too largfe a proportion of fat; this results from feeding hogs largely on corn and other feeds rich in starch. The use of alfalfa produces a pork with a larger percentage of lean meat. For the most part alfalfa is fed green to swine, either pastured or cut as a soiling crop. It has been estimated at the Kansas Experiment Station that 776 pounds of pork was produced from 1 acre of alfalfa pasture. The probable gain due to the small ration of grain fed during the experiment was deducted before the calculation was made. 8. Alfalfa is a valuable feed for poultry. The fowls may be allowed the range of the field during the summer, or they may be fed the green cut plants. Alfalfa hay meal is fed to laying hens in a mash with good results. Alfalfa growing and the honey industry are closely related in some sections. Honey made from alfalfa is of high grade. 6 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 17 As the plant blossoms a number of times during the season, it is possible for the bees to gather successive crops of honey. 9. Distribution of Alfalfa in North America.— Alfalfa is grown from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from the Gulf States to Canada. The greatest proportion, however, in the United States is grown west of the Mississippi River. It is the leading leguminous forage crop in all sections of the West, especially in those sections where irrigation is practiced. The great alfalfa-producing states are: Colo- rado, Kansas, Utah, Idaho, Nebraska, California, Nevada, New Mexico, Montana, Wyoming, and Arizona. According to the census of 1899, in Colorado, one-half, and in New Mexico two-thirds the area devoted to hay was in alfalfa. The distribution of the crop in the United States is dependent mainly on soil and climatic conditions. Yet the fact that most of the states east of the Mississippi River can successfully- produce satisfactory yields of hay by the use of other forage crops, such as timothy and Red clover," has lessened the necessity for the introduction of such a crop as alfalfa. In some of these states, the soil is fre- quently acid, which is a condition that alfalfa cannot endure, and in order to grow it under such conditions the soil must be drained and limed. Weeds and fungous diseases are also more serious in a humid climate, so that under such conditions it is often an expensive operation to establish an alfalfa field. 10. There are, however, certain sections of the East and Southeast especially adapted to alfalfa growing. The limestone soils in the vicinity of Syracuse, New York, and the black prairie soils of Alabama and Mississippi are pro- ducing large crops of alfalfa. By drainage and the use of lime many other states of this section are also producing yields almost equal to those of the West. Climatic conditions do not appear to be so effective in the limitation of the growth of alfalfa as does the soil. The plant is grown below sea level in Southern California and at an elevation of 8,000 feet in Colorado. It is naturally a warm- § 17 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 7 climate plant, but it also thrives in northern latitudes. An annual rainfall of 30 to 36 inches is sufficient for the cropr yet it is grown in the Gulf States, where the rain- fall is twice that amount, and in the semiarid sections of the West without irrigation where the rainfall does not exceed 14 inches per year. Under irrigation alfalfa is grown in the deserts of Arizona, which are among the hottest regions of the world. ALFALFA CTJLTTJRE 11. As alfalfa is a perennial plant, it is not customary to seed oftener than once in 4 to 6 years. Almost all other forage plants will produce only from one to three or four crops without reseeding; but since alfalfa is usually harvested at least three times a year it is possible to secure from fifteen to twenty crops of hay with one seeding. However, the cost of securing a stand somewhat offsets its value in this respect. The seed costs much more than the seed of other forage plants, the price often being nearly twice that of Red clover seed. Then when it is sown without a nurse crop, the use of the land for 1 year is sometimes lost, especially in the East, where every precaution must be taken to establish the field. More- over, it generally costs more to prepare land for alfalfa than for other crops. The cost of establishing an alfalfa field, in the East, often exceeds $25 per acre. Yet one-half the returns from the first full-growing season should be more than double the cost of starting the field. 12. Soil Requirements. — Although alfalfa is classed with the soil-improving plants, it cannot be grown on poor soil; but soil commonly classed as poor land may be improved to such an extent that alfalfa niay be grown with profit. In eastern and southern states, soil that is naturally productive for other crops often lacks certain conditions favorable to alfalfa growing. The alfalfa plant is very sensitive to acid in the soil and will not thrive if it is present, but an acid condition is easily corrected by the use of lime. In the non-limestone areas of S HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 17 the section above mentioned, lime must usually be applied to the soil in the proportion of 1 ton of lime to the acre before alfalfa will grow. The lime should be applied about 1 year before the alfalfa is sown. Limestone soils also often require liming in order to secure the best results. 13. Soil for alfalfa growing must be deep and well drained. Alfalfa roots naturally descend very deep but they will go only a few inches below the permanent water-table. Alfalfa is seldom successf\xlly grown on soils in which there is an impervious stratum of earth 1 or 2 feet below the surface. As the water in such soils has scarcely any means of escape, except by evaporation, the soil is likely to be too wet for alfalfa during a large part of the season. Good drainage is extremely important; if the land is not naturally well drained, artificial drainage must be provided. For this purpose tiling is the most satisfactory. Although clay loams in north- eastern states are not considered the best type of soils for alfalfa, they may be made to grow from 4 to 6 tons of alfalfa per acre by liming and thorough drainage. The drains in such soils are laid from 3 to 4 feet below the surface. 14. The use of stable manure on soil intended for alfalfa is advisable, but on account of the weed seeds that may be introduced into the soil from the manure, it is not a good plan to apply it immediately before the alfalfa is sown. A better practice is to apply from 15 to 20 tons per acre to a preceding crop, such as corn, so that any weeds thus intro- duced will be destroyed to a large extent by the cultivation of the crop. If stable manure is not available and the soil is so poor that it must be enriched before alfalfa can be successfully grown, a green-manure crop can often be used to advantage previous to the planting of the alfalfa. The crops used in the South for green manure include Crimson clover, cowpeas, and vetches; farther north Red and Alsike clovers, soybeans, and vetches are used. These crops, being legumes, enrich the soil as well as supply humus. It is good practice to follow the green-manure crop with some cultivated crop just previous § 17 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 9 to sowing alfalfa, for the acid condition of the soil induced by the decay of the green-manure crop is unfavorable to alfalfa, if this is sown at once. When stable manure is not to be had and green manuring is not practicable, the use of a complete commercial fertilizer is often advisable. As stated previously, alfalfa will not make a good stand on poor soil, but when it is once established it will enrich the soil by storing nitrogen and humus therein. 15. Crops to Precede Alfalfa. — The condition of the soil and locality will have much to do in determining what crops are to precede alfalfa. It is useless to sow alfalfa on land that is not thoroughly prepared; an intertilled crop, such as potatoes or corn in the North and cotton in the South, may be grown. If the weeds are kept out of these crops less trouble from this source will be experienced when alfalfa is sown. In sections where it is possible to sow alfalfa in late summer, a quick-maturing crop, such as early potatoes, may be taken from the land before seeding it to alfalfa. The clean culture given to the early crop frees the land of weeds and also makes plowing unnecessary. In localities where canning factories are within reach of the farm, peas are often grown in the early part of the season and sold to the factories and alfalfa is sown later. In those sections where the season is short or the rainfall low, it may not be advisable to try to get a crop from the land before seeding alfalfa. Under such conditions the use of the land is lost for 1 year, as the alfalfa does not usually come into bearing condition until the next year after seeding. A common prac- tice is to plow the land in the spring and keep it harrowed until the summer for the purpose of destroying weeds and conserving moisture. The alfalfa may be sown under such conditions from June until the first week in August. 16. Need of Soil Inoculation for Alfalfa. — Inoculation of soil to be planted to alfalfa is not usually necessary in the western half of the United States, as the soil appears to be already supplied with the proper nodule-forming bacteria. But in the East the soil conditions are generally not so favor- 10 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 17 able to the growth of these bacteria, consequently they must be supplied artificially. This is accomplished by means of pure cultures or by soil transfer. The soil from the roots of Sweet clover is fully as efEective for inoculating land for alfalfa as that from the roots of alfalfa. This plant is closely related to alfalfa but is not so sensitive to soil conditions. Often it can be found growing in the neighborhood where alfalfa is to be sown, in which case soil for inoculating the field to be planted to alfalfa can be taken from some area where sweet clover is growing. 17. Time of Seeding Alfalfa. — The proper time for sowing alfalfa will be determined by the locality, season, and soil condition. The desirable thing is to get the seeding done as long as possible in advance of what is likely to be the most trying season for the young plants. Drought, weeds, and winter killing are among the most trying conditions affecting a young stand of alfalfa. In some sections, dry weather in midsummer is liable to destroy a seeding; this is especially true when seeding is performed with a heavy stand of oats as a nurse crop. If the oat harvest is followed by dry weather, the alfalfa may be a failure. It is common practice in humid sections to seed in mid- summer or later. If sown in midsummer, the land is plowed in the spring and dragged at frequent intervals in order to kill weeds as they appear. This process brings the soil into fine tilth and preserves the moisture for the use of the young plants-. If the seeding is delayed until August it is often pos- sible to take an early crop from the land, thus avoiding the loss of the use of the land for a year. 18. In humid sections spring seeding is open to objection on account of weeds, which are the worst enemy to alfalfa in these sections, except in the extreme North, where the danger of winter killing is greater. Certain weeds dangerous to alfalfa appear most plentifully in spring and early summer, so that if the sowing of alfalfa is delayed until after the nor- mal season of these weeds is passed, success will be more cer- tain. One important point should be observed when sowing § 17 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 11 late to avoid weeds : the alfalfa must not be sown so late as to prevent its becoming well established before winter sets in, or winter injury is likely to occur. The alfalfa plant is very tender in its early stages, but as it increases in size, it becomes a hardy plant and increases in vigor, provided con- ditions are favorable. If natural conditions are not to its liking, all care must be exercised to give it a good start. 19. Methods of Seeding Alfalfa. — Alfalfa may success- fully be sown by hand, provided one is careful in the operation. In order to insure greater evenness of seeding by hand, it is a good plan to sow one-half the seed one way across the field and cross at right angles the line of sowing with the other half. Instead of sowing by hand a wheelbarrow seeder or hand seeder may be used. If sown with a grain drill, the seed should be mixed with fine soil, corn meal, or some other such material in order to prevent too heavy a sowing of alfalfa. Alfalfa seed must always be covered. If broadcasted, |he seeds should be harrowed in. A light harrow or a weeder may be used for this purpose. The depth of covering the seeds will depend on the soil and the climate; there must be sufficient moisture present to insure quick germination. On moist clay soils, 1 inch deep is sufficient; if lighter soils are being seeded, ij inches of cover- ing is necessary. There is sometimes much difficulty in establishing a stand of alfalfa on sandy soils that are inclined to drift, for the plants may be cut off while young by blowing sand. This danger is often avoided by covering the field just after seed- ing with a light coating of straw or coarse manure, which prevents the sand from blowing. The alfalfa may also be drilled into stubble of Kafir corn or millet. It may also be seeded in a young, thin stand of oats or barley, as these grains make a quick start and protect the young alfalfa plants. 20. Quantity of Seed Per Acre. — It is not expected that all the seeds sown will grow and produce alfalfa plants. Often a large percentage of the seeds never germinate, drought kills large numbers of the young plants, and other 12 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 17 adverse conditions still further reduce the stand. At the rate of 20 pounds of seed per acre each square foot of soil will receive at least one hundred seeds. If one-fifth of these grow there will be twenty alfalfa plants per square foot, which is a satisfactory stand for the first year. As plants tend to diminish in numbers as the field increases in age, there are usually not over five or six plants per square foot in old fields. The purpose of seeding heavily, especially in hiimid sec- tions, is to cover the ground quickly with plants so that there will be no opportunity for weeds to choke out the young alfalfa. For this purpose from 25 to 30 pounds of seed is recommended per acre. In the semiarid and irrigated sec- tions of the United States, much less than this quantity of seed is usually sown; often good stands may be secured from sowing 5 pounds of seed per acre, but 15 pounds at least is usually recommended in the irrigated sections. Less seed is sown per acre if the crop is to be used for seed production than if the alfalfa is to be used for hay. 21. Nurse Crops With Alfalfa. — The advantages of using a nurse crop with alfalfa are that the use of the land is not lost while the alfalfa is becoming established; also the nurse crop comes on quickly and shades the ground, thus lessening the possibility of the alfalfa being choked with weeds. The disadvantages of a nurse crop may be greater than the advantages. Oats are more often used for this purpose than any other crop, but oats require a large quantity of water in order to reach maturity, and when they are removed the soil is often very dry, a condition unfavorable to young alfalfa plants. Moreover, the oat crop is often disposed to lodge, so that the alfalfa may be killed by the matted straw of the oats. The nurse crop used with alfalfa should be sown much thinner than usual, and it should be cut at once and used for hay if the alfalfa shows signs of suffering before the grain is mature.- Beardless barley is better than oats for this purpose. It draws less heavily on the moisture content of the soil and is less liable to lodge. § 17 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 13 22. Alfalfa Under Irrigation. — The irrigated sections of the United States present ideal conditions for the growth of alfalfa. The soil is well adapted to the plant, and the dry climate is apparently favorable to its perfect development. Moreover, the water can be supplied when the crop can make the best use of it. The application of water in irrigated sec- tions forms a crust of the surface soil; therefore, if water is supplied before seeding, as is usually the case, the crust must be loosened before the seed is sown. After the plants have started, water is not applied the first season, as the young plants are liable to be killed by being covered with mud. No rule as to the quantity of water to use in irrigating alfalfa can be given for the climate, soil, and depth of ground water must be considered in each case. Satisfactory crops of alfalfa have been grown in arid sections with little or no irrigation where the field received the benefit of seepage from canals or rivers, while as much as 5 feet of water has been applied in Utah during the season. After the first year from 20 to 24 inches for the entire season are usually sufficient if applied at intervals of 3 or 4 weeks. 23. Harvesting Alfalfa for Hay. — It is an easy matter to make good alfalfa hay in the drier sections of the country. Curing the hay, however, in the Eastern and Southern States is often more serious, especially in wet seasons. In some sections the first crop and often the last crop mature when rainy weather is likely to prevail. Putting the first cutting into the silo has been tried in many instances with varying success, but this plan is in the experimental stage. Some far- mers use the first or last crop for soiling purposes with success. It is important that the alfalfa crop be harvested at exactly the proper stage. Some farmers cut the crop as soon as new shoots begin to appear near the base of the plant. As it is these new shoots that produce the next crop it is claimed that their appearance indicates that the old crop is ready to harvest. A more common method is to cut the alfalfa when about one-tenth of the flowers have opened, for the feeding value of alfalfa is highest when cut in early bloom. 14 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 17 24. In curing alfalfa for hay, the object to be attained is to get the hay into the stack or mow with the least pos- sible loss of the finer parts of the plant and with the least exposure to the weather, consistent with thorough curing. If the hay becomes too dry before the handling, a large per- centage of the leaves will be shattered off; and since 44 pounds of leaves contains as much protein as 100 pounds of stems, if these are lost the alfalfa hay is greatly reduced in value. Alfalfa hay is readily injured by exposure to rains during the curing process. Experiments have shown that as much as 40 per cent, of the crude protein in the hay may be washed out by 2 weeks of exposure to rains amounting to a total rainfall of less than 2 inches. In making alfalfa hay it is a common practice to rake the hay into windrows the next day after cutting. As soon as the hay is sufficiently cured, it is cocked or stacked or baled direct from the windrows. A large amount of alfalfa hay grown in the West is stacked in the field or near the farm buildings, but often a consider- able percentage of stacked hay is lost by spoiling. In those sections where rains are likely to be frequent, it is better economy to build sheds for storing the hay, as alfalfa hay does not shed water readily. Board or canvas coverings are sometimes used and marsh hay is often used for topping out stacks. If this last is not available a load of green alfalfa may be placed on top of the stack for shedding rains. 25. Harvesting Alfalfa for Seed. — Some of the alfalfa seed used in the United States and Canada is imported, but probably the most of it is grown west of the Mississippi River. Very little, if any, alfalfa seed of commerce is grown in eastern states. The growing of alfalfa seed, even where followed on a commercial scale is rather uncertain. Successful seed grow- ing depends on the soil and weather conditions, especially the latter, at the time the seed is setting. Dry weather at this time seems to be essential to success. For this reason, it is a common practice, when seed is wanted, to cut the first crop §17 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 15 for hay and to save the second crop for seed. At the time of the cutting of the second crop the weather conditions are likely to be more favorable. As it requires about the same length of time to produce a crop of seed as is required to mature two crops of hay, only one crop of seed and one crop of hay can be secured in middle latitudes. Farther north, the first crop may have to be saved for seed, as the season is too short to mature seed if a crop of hay is first secured. South of Kansas and Colorado the third crop may be usfed for seed. When grown for seed, a thin stand is preferable; therefore, only a few pounds of seed per acre are sown. Success in seed production is now being secured in the semi- arid sections by sowing in rows 30 to 40 inches apart. The crop is then cultivated in a manner similar to the cultivation of com. 26. Testing the Soil for Alfalfa. — The farmer is often in doubt whether it is worth while trying to grow alfalfa in untried situations. In view of the great value of this crop when once established every means should be used for deter- mining whether or not it will grow. The- beginner should never sow extensively until he fully understands the habits of the plant and knows that it can safely be sown under his conditions. In order to determine this, a few pounds of alfalfa seed should be sown with clover and timothy seeds ; the extra seeds for this purpose will usually cost about 50 to 60 cents per acre. Often many alfalfa plants will appear in the meadow. If they persist during the life of the meadow, it is a good indication that the land is adapted to alfalfa, but the failure of alfalfa under these conditions does not prove that the soil cannot be fitted to meet the requirements of the plant. To determine this more surely stake out a piece of land 2 rods each way and divide this into four plots, each containing 1 square rod, as Pig. 2 shown in Fig. 2. Apply lime to plots 1 and 2 at the rate of 1 ton per acre; this will be 25 pounds for the 1 2 3 i 16 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 17 two plots. On plots 2 and -^ sow soil from some alfalfa field for inoculation. After the four plots have been well prepared, sow alfalfa at the rate of 30 pounds per acre, or about | pound for the entire experiment, following the general instructions for growing alfalfa. In the East it will usually occur that plot 2 will succeed the best, this plot having received both Hme and inoculation. Plot 3, which received no treatment, will generally be the poorest; as a rule, whatever growth there is will be stunted and yel- low in appearance, showing that conditions are not favorable to its growth. ENEMIES OF ALFAXiFA 27. Weeds.^ — In growing alfalfa certain weeds are serious pests in the field ; some of these are common to the locality, while others may be introduced in the seed. Weeds of the class first mentioned are especially likely to give trouble in sections where the rainfall is heavy. Blue grass, although a very valuable hay and pasture grass in large areas of the country, sometimes becomes a trouble- some weed in alfalfa fields. The habit of this grass of spread- ing from underground stems renders it very difficult to control, and if it once gets well started in an alfalfa field, it is impossible to get it out without plowing the field, which, of course, destroys the alfalfa. Witch grass, or couch grass, is of similar habit. Both of these grasses are especially adapted to the types of soil on which alfalfa thrives. They are both long-lived grasses and increase from year to year. In some sections, the two annual grasses, foxtail, or wild millet, and crab grass, are very troublesome in young seedings of alfalfa. In the West, wild barleys are a menace to alfalfa fields. These grasses mature shortly before the first cutting of alfalfa and are objectionable chiefly on account of the beards of the grass heads, which lodge in the mouths and throats of animals, often causing bad sores. It is sometimes neces- sary to burn the first cutting of alfalfa hay if it is too badly infested with these weeds. Another method is to cut the first crop of alfalfa before the barbed awns of the wild §17 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 17 barley are developed ; this method, however, is objectionable, because at that time the alfalfa is too young for cutting. 28. Most other weeds common in meadows give little trouble in alfalfa. The early cutting of the first crop and the frequent cutting during the summer tend to prevent the seed- ing of weeds, so that most annual and biennial weeds are thus prevented from increasing. Grasses and certain other weeds in alfalfa are frequently controlled by disking with the disks of the harrow set so as to turn the soil but slightly. Many weeds may thus be destroyed and the alfalfa stimu- lated. 29. Dodder is a parasitic plant that feeds upon alfalfa in the manner described elsewhere for Red clover. The dodder seeds germinate in the soil but soon attach themselves to Fig. 3 the host plant and wither away at the ground. After the alfalfa to which the dodder attaches itself is destroyed, the dodder spreads to other plants ; thus an ever- widening circle of alfalfa plants is killed. Fig. 3 shows alfalfa stems infected with dodder. When dodder is plentiful in an alfalfa field, the only remedy is to plow the field and yse it for something other than legume crops for 2 or 3 years. If only a few scattering patches are present, the alfalfa on the areas may be cut and when dry saturated with kerosene 18 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 17 and burned. In some cases it niay be necessary to add straw or some other combustible material in order to insure com- plete destruction. Sieves are sometimes used for the pur- pose of removing dodder seed from alfalfa seed. The meshes of the sieve are large enough to allow the dodder seeds to pass through, but retain the alfalfa seeds. 30. One of the very essential points in avoiding weeds is the use of pure seed. It is just as important to avoid sowing weed seeds as it is to exterminate them from the seed-bed. Unfortunately, the alfalfa seed offered for sale is frequently adulterated, particularly low-priced seed. Fig. 4 shows alfalfa seed and some common adulterants, all enlarged about ten times and in natural colors. Alfalfa is shown at 1 ; Sweet clover, at 2; Field dodder, at 3; Buckhom, at 4; Yellow trefoil, at 6; Yellow foxtail, at 6. Other seeds found mixed with alfalfa are: Timothy, Alsike clover. Curled dock, Sheep sorrel, Rag weed, Lamb's quarters. Green foxtail, and plan- tain. Most state experiment stations are equipped to exam- ine samples of seeds and pass on their purity. This service is, as a rule, performed free of charge and is a valuable aid to the farmer in preventing disappointment through the use of foul seed. 31. Diseases. — There are two serious diseases of alfalfa — one of the roots and the other of the leaves. The former, known as root rot, occurs in Texas and other parts of the South; it also attacks cotton and some other plants. There is no known cure except to cease growing alfalfa on the land for a few years where the disease occurs. The disease of the leaves known as leaf spot often becomes a serious disease, especially in humid sections. Its presence is shown bj'' the lower leaves of the plants turning yellow before the ripening period. On close examination such leaves are found to con- tain numerous small yellowish spots. The disease spreads very rapidly.when once it appears. The usual and most successful method of controlling leaf spot consists in cutting the field for hay as soon as it appears. This stimulates the plant to new growth, which may check the disease. § 17 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 19 32. Insects. — Grasshoppers are the most destructive insects in alfalfa fields; they are especially troublesome in arid and semiarid sections. Often alfalfa fields are what may be termed oases in a desert and furnish the only food supply available for these insects. They are successfully kept in check in some places by flocks of turkeys. Another method is by disking the fields in late winter, thus exposing the grasshopper eggs to the attacks of birds and to spring freezes. Web worms, army worms, blister beetles, and mound-building prairie ants are all more or less damaging in alfalfa fields when they occur in large numbers. 33. Animals. — The worst animals in alfalfa fields are gophers, prairie dogs, ground squirrels, and mice, all of which eat the roots and foliage. In the sections where gophers are common the mounds of earth which they build are very annoying when alfalfa is mown. All these animals may be held in check by trapping or poisoning. COWPEAS COWPEAS IN GENERAL 34. Cowpeas are annuals that are somewhat misnamed, since they resemble beans more than peas in their habit of growth. The main root often goes to a considerable depth, considering its short-lived character. Numerous branches are produced from the upper part of this root and root tubercles are plentiful. Above ground there may be con- siderable variation in this plant, but there are only two gen- eral forms. One form is decidedly bushy in habit of growth; the other is of a trailing form. For instance, none of the varieties have the twining habit of pole beans, nor do they possess tendrils, as do garden peas or beans. The bushy forms may grow to only 1 foot or so in height; the trailing forms may extend only a few feet along the ground or they may extend 15 or 20 feet. In Fig. 5 is shown a young cow- pea plant with blossoms and seed pods. The seeds are borne 20 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS §17 Fig. 5 on long stalks; the pods are cylindrical and from 6 to 12 inches in length. The leaf is composed of three leaflets. The seeds are of two general forms: in one the seeds are round and crowded closely in the pod; the other form has kidney-shaped seeds, which are more separated in the pods. 35. Adaptation of Cow- peas. — The cowpea occu- pies a position in the South similar to that held by alfalfa in the West and Red clover in the North. It is well adapted to con- ditions as they exist in southern states, where it has been cultivated for at least 150 years. Cowpeas require a warm climate in order to reach perfection. The time required to mature seeds varies from 2 to 8 months. The bushy forms mature earlier than the trailing varieties. In North Amer- ica, the center of cowpea production is in the South Atlantic and South Central States; the plant is not grown successfully north of Kansas or Pennsylvania. § 17 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 21 Cowpeas will thrive on a great variety of soils. They may be grown successfully on land too poor to raise profit- able crops of either cotton or com, but the soil must be warm and reasonably dry. It is the custom to withhold the plant- ing of the seed until the soil has reached this condition. Maximum yields of seeds are produced in cowpea-growing sections during the drier seasons. 36. Uses of Cowpeas. — In the South, cowpeas very largely take the place of other forage crops and grain for all kinds of farm animals; the feeding value is very high, as they are rich in protein. Although cattle and horses are sometimes pastured on cowpeas, it is generally better to cut the plants as a soiling crop or for hay when fed to these animals. Cattle or sheep may bloat if allowed to eat too freely of such green and succulent forage. When possible to cure the vines, they form a valuable hay for sheep, horses, and cattle. The feeding value of well-cured hay is equal to that of alfalfa. 37. The plant is used in large measure as a green-manure crop. Being a legume the roots add a large quantity of nitro- gen to the soil. Often the vines are allowed to go down on the land in the winter and are plowed under the next spring. It is thought better to allow the plants to decay on top of the soil than in the soil, for there is then less danger of the soil becoming sour by the rapid decay of so much vegetation. When cowpeas are grown for green manure, it is a' good practice to pasture the field with swine at the time of the ripening of the peas. An acre of maturing cowpeas will furnish pasture for a number of hogs for several weeks and will produce an excellent quality of pork at a reasonable cost. Another important use for cowpeas is as human food. Some varieties are of special value for this purpose. This use becomes of considerable importance in sections where ordinary field beans do not thrive. They are used either dry, or as green shell beans before they are fully matured. 22 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 17 CULTURE OP COWPEAS 38. Cowpeas in Rotations. — In the South, cowpeas occupy a similar place in the rotation as Red clover does in the North ; they supply the nitrogen so much needed in the soils of this section. In some of the cotton states' a one-crop system of farming has been for a long period the common practice ; as a consequence the soils have become deficient in organic matter. As comparatively few cattle are kept, very little manure is produced, so that farming land has become poorer each season. The organic matter that has been used up in the soil must be replaced in some manner, else farm lands cease to produce to a profitable degree; therefore, if barn-yard manure is not available some kind of green manure must be supplied. The stubble of cowpeas, particu- larly if a second growth has started, plowed under after a crop of hay has been removed, adds very, materially to the fertility of the soil. In the cotton states it is possible to grow two crops of cowpeas and three other crops in 3 years. Cowpeas are sown betvyeen the rows of corn at the last cultivation and the pods harvested for seed. Winter grain is then sown in the fall or a crop of oats is secured. After the small grain is harvested, the land is plowed and a crop of cowpeas grown for hay. The next season a crop of cotton is grown. This rotation furnishes the stubble of two leguminous crops to add to the soil within 3 years and will build up a poor soil and maintain the fertility of a good soil. 39. Preparation of Soil for Cowpeas. — The preparation of the seed-bed for cowpeas is not necessarily an expensive opera- tion, as is the case with alfalfa. It is a very common prac- r tice to sow the seed in corn, in which case no extra preparation of the soil is needed. If sown before the last cultivation of the corn, the corn cultivator covers the seed sufficiently. The time of sowing will depend on latitude, purpose for which the crop is to be used, and variety. As cowpeas are an annual crop, seeding occurs in spring or early summer. The § 17 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 23 season may vary from April to August. Late sowing is prac- ticed when the crop is being grown for seed. If hay is wanted, early seeding is the rule, as early seeding is favorable to a luxuriant growth of vines. 40. Cowpeas may be sown in drills or broadcasted. The quantity of seed required per acre will depend partly on the manner of sowing as well as on whether they are sown for seed or hay. It varies from 1 peck to 2 or more bushels. For seed production a moderate quantity of seed per acre is best, as the plants are thus permitted plenty of air and light between them, which favors perfect development of the individual plants. When sown in drills from 18 to 30 inches apart, less seed is required than if sown broadcast. For a well-prepared, mellow, and rich soil 2 pecks of seed per acre is usually sufficient when the peas are sown in drills and cultivated once or twice. It is customary to cover the seeds with 2 or 3 inches of earth. When cowpeas are grown after small grains, the seeds are sometimes broadcasted by hand on stubble and plowed under. A safer method is to plow first, sow the peas, and cover them by harrowing the soil. If drilled, a one-horse corn planter is a useful seeder. Grain drills may also be used by closing a part of the openings. Thus, if the drill is arranged to' sow ordinary grains 7 inches apart, by stopping every other outlet the rows may be sown 14 inches apart, which is about right for the production of hay. If for seed, more of the openings may be closed. 41. Harvesting of Cowpeas. — When the crop is grown for seed a common method of harvesting is to pick the pods by hand and store them in sacks until they are thrashed. When only small quantities of seeds are produced, thrashing is usually done by hand with a flail after the pods are well dried. If larger quantities are to be thrashed an implement known as a cowpea huller is used; these huUers are made small enough that they may be operated by hand. Some- times the entire vines are run through an ordinary thrashing machine, but this practice is objectionable because of the 24 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 17 breaking of a large number of the seeds. The majority of farmers harvest only enough of the seed for planting the following year. The yield of seed per acre may vary from 8 to 12 bushels when grown between corn rows. If sown alone yields of 25 to 30 bushels are sometimes secured. The process of curing cowpea hay is more difHcult than is the case with alfalfa or clover. The vines, especially the ranker growing ones, are very succulent and do not cure rapidly. Unfavorable weather conditions and careless meth- ods of handling often result in much spoiled hay. As is the case with other legumes, a very large percentage of the most valuable part of the hay is found in the leaves; con- sequently, if these are lost the hay is reduced in value. It is essential that the crop be handled when making hay before the leaves become brittle. After cutting, the hay may be raked up within 24 to 48 hours, and placed in small piles, where it is left until dry enough to store in a barn or stack. The piles should be turned over once or twice during the process of curing. The yield of cowpea hay in the Gulf States may be from 2 to 3 tons per acre, and under exceed- ingly favorable conditions may reach 4 to 6 tons. Farther North the yield may reach only 1 to 2 tons. The yields com- pare favorably with the yields of Red clover or alfalfa hay. 42. Diseases of Cowpeas. — The cowpea plant is attacked by two diseases — root knot and cowpea wilt. The latter does not attack other plants, consequently this disease may be con- trolled by following a system of rotation of crops. Root knot attacks certain other plants, as cotton; consequently, rotations are not so effective in controlling the disease. One variety, the Iron cowpea, is said to be resistant to both dis- eases. Both root knot and wilt are more common on sandy than on other types of soils. § 17 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 25 SOYBEANS SOYBEANS IN GENERAL 43. The soybean, also known as soja bean, is an erectly growing plant from 2 to 4 feet in height. As shown in Fig. 6, the leaves are composed of three large leaflets borne at the end of a stem. This stem is often from 10 to 12 inches in length. The leaves, stems, and pods are covered with stiff, reddish hairs. As with alfalfa and cowpeas, the leaflets are the most valuable part of the plant when it is used as forage. The seeds are nearly globular, usually more or less com- pressed, and in color range from whitish to brown and black. In some varieties they are yellowish; in others greeii. The plant is prolific and will produce as many as 200 f)ods con- taining about 450 seeds. The soybean has a stout central root; otherwise, the root growth is not extensive. Root nodules are bdjrne in great profusion; often these are as large as small" peas. The amount of nitrogen added to the soil by a crop of soybeans is large. It is believed that the proper nodule-forming bacteria are often wanting in the soils of the United States, unless provided artificially. Soybeans have been grown successfully in uninoculated soil without the appearance of any nodules. In other cases nodules have appeared without the bacteria having been supplied artificially. 44. Distribution and Adaptation of Soybeans. — The soy- bean is a native of Southeastern Asia and is a plant of ejftreme value in China and Japan. In these countries it is the most important legume grown. It has been grown in the United States for a great many years, especially in the South, but it is only within 25 years that its cultivation has been of much importance. The plant has been recommended by a large number of experiment stations in the United States and Canada. Although its value as a forage crop is undisputed, it does not seem yet to have taken as high a place 26 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS §17 in American agriculture as its advocates have anticipated, owing, perhaps, to the difSculty experienced in handling the crop for hay or seed. Soybeans may be grown successfully in almost any part of the United States ; they have a climatic range similar to that of corn. The plant endures dry weather well and is not so easily injured as cow- peas by excessive moisture. It has been known to live for 3 weeks under flooded conditions without serious in- jury. Because it is less susceptible to frost than common field beans, it may be planted earlier in the spring or harvest- ed later in the fall than the latter. In Japan the soy- bean is thought to require a rather rich soil for successful growth. In the United States, al- though it grows best on such soils, it can also be grown on rather poor soils. Fig. 6 such, for instance, as I 17 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 27 are too light to grow clover. The crop responds readily to applications of fertilizers containing a liberal supply of phos- phoric acid and potash; nitrogen as a fertilizer seldom increases the crop to a profitable degree. 45. Value and Uses of Soybeans. — The plant is sometimes cut for hay and used in the ordinary manner. When cut in the proper season and rightly cured, it has a high feeding value; but if allowed to stand too long, it becomes woody and the leaves fall off. On account of the coarseness of the hay, it is not eaten by stock so readily as some of the other legumes. One of the most important uses of the soybean is for soiling purposes. As a number of the varieties mature at different times, it is possible to secure a succession of green forage crops. There is less waste of the plant if the soybean is used for silage than if it is made into hay. Moreover, the silage is more palatable than hay. Although the crop may be used alone for silage, it is better if mixed with some other plant, as com or millet. In some sections, the crop is extensively used for pasture for all kinds of stock, but hogs and sheep do especially well on it. Pasturing saves the labor of harvesting, which is an important item when labor is scarce and high priced. Soybean meal contains large percentages of both fat and protein in a highly digestible form ; in fact, no other vegetable product except peanuts surpasses it in this respect. Experi- ment has shown that ground soybeans are an exceedingly valuable feed for the production of pork, especially when fed in connection with corn meal to growing pigs. CULTUKE OF SOTBEANS 46. Sowing of Soybeans. — The time of planting soybeans is about the same as that for planting corn, although they may be planted much later than corn with success. They may be sown broadcast in the spring or planted with a grain drill. 28 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 17 If drilled, every other opening of the machine should be closed. It is possible, in the South, to secure a crop of small grain and a crop of soybeans from the ground the same year, as the soybeans may be planted after the grain is harvested. Besides, the soil will be left in better condition than if grain alone had been taken from the field. The quantity of seed used per acre varies from 2 to 4 pecks. If grown for seed, the rows should be from 2 to 3 feet apart, with about six seeds per foot in the row, if thus planted, 2 or 3 pecks of seed per acre is sufficient. When grown for hay or soiling, the drills are closer together, so that a bushel or more of seed per acre will be required. Less cultivation is required than for growing a crop of corn alone. The early growth of the plants is rapid and if sown sufficiently close together they will soon shade the ground and prevent the growth of weeds. One or two cultivations often are sufficient if the soil has been put into good condition. 47. Harvesting of Soybeans. — If soybeans are to be used for hay, it is well to cut the crop before it reaches maturity; just as the pods are forming is considered the best time to cut for hay. While there is a greater quantity of dry matter per acre if the plant is left to become more mature, the hay is not so much relished by stock. If soybeans are used for soiling, cutting may begin when the plants are in early bloom and continue until the pods are beginning to ripen. When used for silage, the crop is best when cut at the same stage as for hay; it will make good silage, however, if cut at a later stage. If soybeans are desired for seeds they are gathered when the beans are fairly mature. They may be harvested with a bean harvester or, if the quantity grown is small, hand pulling may be the most satisfactory method. They may be thrashed with a bean thrasher or with a flail by hand.; for large quantities, ordinary thrashing machines may be adjusted to do good work. § 17 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 29 PEANUTS PEANUTS IN GENERAL, 48. The peanut is a spreading annual. The flowers are yellow and when they fade the short stems that support them elongate and turn downwards, pushing the sharp- pointed ovary into the soil, where the fruit, or nut, which is really a pod, is formed. In case the ovary fails to penetrate the soil, no pod will be formed. 49. Distribution and Adaptation of Peanuts. — In general, peanuts are grown profitably only in the southern half of the United States. The area of greatest production includes the southeastern portion of the country, although recently the industry has spread rapidly westwards to California. The plant requires a long season without frost. The small-podded varieties mature in about 120 days, while 5 months must be allowed for the maturity of the large-podded varieties. Peanuts are sensitive to soil conditions. An ideal soil is a sandy loam that has a reasonable quantity of organic matter and is well supplied with lime. Darker, heavier soils may produce a larger yield of nuts, but they will not be so desirable for commercial purposes, as the shells are likely to be stained. If the crop is grown for forage the heavier soils may be preferable, as the staining of the shells does not injure them for this purpose. Soils that are poorly drained and those that are inclined to become hard or compacted are unsuitable for peanuts; in the latter case the stems are unable to penetrate the surface, hence no pods are formed. 50. Varieties of Peanuts. — There are two general classes of peanuts. One type has large pods and spreading or upright vines; these are the ordinary peanuts of commerce and are usually sold in the shell. The other type has small pods and upright vines. Owing to the compact, upright vine, this type may be planted close together, thus producing greater 30 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 17 yields of forage than can be secured from the large-podded, spreading varieties. 51. Uses of Peanuts. — The uses of peanuts are numer- ous. Besides furnishing the well-known roasted peanuts, they are used for making peanut butter, peanut meal, peanut and vegetable meats, salad oils, and in numerous other ways. In the factories where peanuts are prepared for the market, there is always a considerable quantity of cleanings and inferior stock, which becomes a by-product. This is sold to farmers after special preparation and makes an excellent stock feed. When peanuts are grown on the farm for the. market, the cleaned vines become a useful article of forage. If the pea- nuts are picked from the vines by hand, the stems are much broken and a large part of the leaves are lost. If the vines are carefully handled during the curing process and machines are used for picking, the straw is preserved in better con- dition. It has a feeding value about equal to that of clover hay. 52. Peanuts are often grown exclusively for feeding pur- poses; the upright growing vines are considered best for this purpose. In the Gulf States, peanuts are planted between the rows of corn at the last cultivation as a catch crop, in the same manner that cowpeas are often grown. The corn is husked in the field and the stalks are left standing. Cattle are then turned into the field; they eat the peanut vines and lighter parts of the corn stalks and leaves. After the cattle have secured what feed they can, hogs are turned into the field to clean up the remaining portion of the crop. In some parts of the South, peanuts are grown especially for feeding swine. PEANUT CTJLTTJRE 53. Sowing and Cultivation of Peanuts. — Peanuts are planted in the spring after the soil has become thoroughly wai-m; they are usually planted somewhat later than com or beans. The distance between the rows is usually 3 feet. § 17 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 31 The spreading varieties should be at least 12 inches apart in the row. The bunch varieties may be planted as close together as 7 to 9 inches. Peanuts are either shelled before planting or are planted in the pods; from H to 2 pecks of seed is used if shelled. They are planted with a machine similar to a cotton planter. The depth of planting is from 1^ to 2 inches. Cultivation of the peanut crop should be similar to the cultivation of corn. Frequent and shallow cultivation is better than deep and infrequent cultivation, as the soil by this practice is kept moist and loose, which is essential. ' After the first cultivation, the soil should be worked toward the row in order to provide a mellow bed of earth in which the pods may form. Cultivation should cease as soon as the pods begin to form. 54. Harvesting of Peanuts. — Peanuts may be harvested by hand or by machinery. They are sometimes lifted by forks, but the more common method is to turn them out with a one- horse plow. Workmen follow the plow and separate the vines from the soil by hand. Some farmers use a two-horse plow similar to that used for potato digging. A turning plow with the moldboard removed in order to prevent turning a furrow is often used. A team and driver followed by eight or ten men may thus dig from 5 to 7 acres of peanuts in a day. A machine potato digger drawn by two or three horses will dig from 8 to 12 acres per day, and do the work better than can be done by hand. After the vines are loosened from the soil they are allowed to lie on the ground a few hours. They are then stacked around a central pole, which is sharpened and driven into the ground. The stacks are built to a height of 5 or 6 feet. As soon as the pods are well cured, the peanuts are picked by hand or machinery and marketed. It is essential for the pro- duction of a high grade of nuts that the pods are not exposed to the weather for any length of time, as they become dis- colored. In order to secure peanuts of the best quality there should be but little rainfall at harvest time. 32 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS §17 VETCHES 55. The vetches, of which there are two principal kinds, are weak-stemmed, climbing, annual legumes. The stems are from 2 to 4 feet in length and, unless supported by some Fig. 7 Upright growing plant, trail on the ground. The leaf is com- posed of about eight pair of leaflets arranged along the sides of the midrib, as shown in Fig. 7, and terminates in a tendril, § 17 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 33 which aids the plant in climbing. On account of their weak- stemmed character, vetches, when grown for forage purposes, should always be sown with a nurse crop, such as oats, rye, or wheat. One serious objection to the growing of vetches is the high cost of seed; the price per bushel has been from $4 to $6, and from 1 to 1^ bushels of seed per acre is recommended. The seed may be sown broadcast or in drills ; the latter method requires the least seed. On account of the high cost of seed, it is advisable to allow vetch to reseed itself. This may be done by cutting the crop for hay after some of the seeds are ripened. Another method is to cut the crop very early and so allow time for a second growth to ripen before plow- ing under for fitting the land for the usual summer crop. Another satisfactory method consists of cutting the crop high enough to miss some of the lower blossoms, which may be allowed to mature seeds before the land is plowed. If the crop is pastured, the stock should be removed in time to permit the maturing of seeds before plowing is accomplished. 56. Hairy Vetch. — One variety of vetch known as Hairy vetch, also called Sand vetch, takes its name from the hairy character of the stems, leaves, etc. Fig. 7 illustrates a small stock of Hairy vetch with its roots and tubercles. The seed pods of this plant are shown at a. In the North, it is often sown in the spring and used as a summer crop. It may also be sown in the latter part of the summer and serve as a spring or early summer crop, or it may be plowed under as green manure. It is a very valuable plant for green manure, ?.s it is fairly hardy and will thrive under adverse conditions. In the South, Hairy vetch is a most valuable plant for winter pasture. If sown in August or September and weather con- ditions are favorable, it mil furnish a large quantity of pasture before the coldest weather of winter begins. If a crop of hay is to be cut, the vetch may be grazed until the end of March, when the stock should be removed. The plants will make a new growth and the crop of hay will be ready to cut by the 34 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS " § 17 end of April in the Gulf States and by the end of May in the latitude of Tennessee. The crop is cut just before the plants are in full bloom. 57. Common Vetch. — Another vetch, known as Common vetch, is a legume similar in habits of growth to the field or garden pea. The Common vetch, however, is more slender, and has more tendrils and leaves than the pea plant. There are two varieties of the Common vetch, namely, the Winter and the Spring. The former grows better in regions having mild winters, and the latter in those having cool summer temperatures. Common vetch is useful as a green-manure crop, and also makes a good hay and pasture crop. It is used to a less extent in the United States than is Hairy vetch. The methods of culture are similar to that for Hairy vetch. FIELD PEAS 58. Field peas are an important crop in Canada. Although they are not grown so extensively in the United States, they are doubtless well adapted to various portions of the country. They have been grown in Wisconsin and Michigan, the New England States, Pennsylvania, and New York. In common with other legumes, field peas do best on soils well supplied with lime. A sandy, well-drained soil is better than a clay soil for peas, for, in order to reach perfect development, peas must be planted in the early spring. When grown on light soils the land can be worked earlier than when grown on soils inclined to be heavy. The crop is not well adapted to the South on account of the warm climate. 59. Use and Culture of Field Peas. — Field peas are often sown with oats, and the whole crop is harvested and thrashed together. The grain may be ground and fed to farm animals, making a valuable feed. The straw is excellent for forage if properly cured. As a rule, the peas are sown alone in early spring at the rate of 1^ to 2>\ bushels per acre. They are harvested with a §17 HAY AND PASTURE "CROPS 35 mowing machine having a special attachment on the cutter bar for Hfting the peas so that the knife can cut them cleanly. A windrower similar to the clover buncher with the gate for Fig. S bunching removed is attached behind the cutter bar. A machine of this type is shown in Fig. 8 (o). In (b) is shown the attachment and manner of adjusting it to the cutter bar of a mower. The machine discharges the peas in windrows out 234—19 36 ■ HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 17 of the way of the horses' feet as the next swath is cut. If the horses are allowed to trample on the vines many of the peas are shelled. The plants should be handled as little as possible while curing, as the peas are easily shelled and the leaves are easily lost. Thrashing is done either by means of a flail or a thrashing machine, which implement to use depending on the size of the crop. Peas are often sown as a soiling crop, either alone or with some other crop such as oats. In some sections a favorite practice consists in sowing peas for a pasture crop, in which case they are fed off with sheep or swine. MISCELIiANEOUS LEGUMES 60. Japan Clover. — The legume commonly known as Japan clover is really not a clover, as its name would imply, but belongs to an entirely different class of plants. It is a rather low and somewhat spreading annual plant that is well adapted to almost any kind of soil, and will even grow on hard, dry clay soils. It seldom reaches a height of more than 6 to 12 inches, except on very good soil, when it may attain a height of 2 J feet, and will often yield 2 tons of hay per acre. Its most common use, however, is for pasture purposes. Japan clover is not adapted to northern conditions; it is grown in the Southern States as far west as Texas. The seed is sown in the fall or spring at the rate of about I- bushel per acre. If sown in the fall, the seed is usually sown with oats. The plants do not injure the oats, as they come on after these are cut. When allowed to produce seeds, the plant reseeds itself, thus making it unnecessary to sow the plant often. 61 . Florida Beggar Weed. — ^A plant that is closely related to Japan clover is the Florida beggar weed. It is a leafy, annual legume, bearing many jointed prickly pods, which, when ripe, break apart into sections having a single seed. The pods cling to the bodies of passing animals or to the clothing of persons and in this way are scattered. The plant grows from 2 to 8 feet in height. It is valuable in Florida and the Gulf States as a hay plant or is used for pasturage § 17 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 37 after a crop of seed is secured. After being cut for seed, it produces an aftergrowth until killed by frosts. The plant is also an excellent one for turning under as green manure. Beggar weed is sown in the spring after the ground is well warmed. If a seed crop is wanted, from 5 to 6 pounds of cleaned seed is sown per acre. When sown for hay, it should be sown thicker in order that the plants will not grow large and become woody; for this purpose 8 to 10 pounds of seed is sown per acre. If sown at the beginning of summer a crop of hay and a crop of seed may both be secured. Some farmers scatter the seed between the corn rows at the last cultivation. The hay or seed crop is secured after the corn is harvested. Horses and cattle eat it readily when cut green or made into hay. 62. Sweet Clover. — It has already been stated that Sweet clover closely resembles alfalfa, but is a more ' coarsely growing plant. Instead of having the perennial character, as alfalfa, it usually lives but 2 years. It is a common road- side weed, especially on limestone soils. On account of its extensive root system, it is an excellent plant for soil improvement. Sweet clover is not used in the North as a forage plant but it is used considerably in the South for such pur- poses. It is grown for both pasture and hay. Cattle not accustomed to it do not eat it readily at first, but as it begins its growth early in the spring, if cattle are turned into the field before other vegetation .appears they will acquire a taste for it. The seed is sown in the South in October or February. The first year it is possible to secure only one cutting of hay; in the second year three crops are usually cut. 63. Yellow Trefoil. — Another legume that is closely related to alfalfa is Yellow trefoil, or Black medic, as it is sometimes called, but unlike alfalfa, it dies the second year. It has a tap root about 1 foot long and its habit of growth is spreading. It is adapted to cool, moist climates and is grown rather extensively in the cooler countries of Europe. It is not grown for hay but is frequently sown in pastures, 38 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 17 though it is not equal to White clover for this purpose where that plant will grow. It has attracted attention chiefly on account of its use as an adulterant of alfalfa seed imported from Europe, the seed of which it very closely resembles, as may be seen by examining 1 and 5 in Fig. 4. 64. Bur Clover. — In mild cHmates Bur clover, another plant related to alfalfa, is sometimes grown. It takes its name from the form of the seed pod, which is armed with prickles. The seed is sown in the fall, about October; in February and March it furnishes good pasturage. By April or May the seeds are mature. The ground may then be plowed and planted to other crops; it is self-seeding if thus treated, and will appear again in the fall and furnish winter pasture. The plant is not adapted to use for hay. 65. Velvet Bean. — A legume extensively grown in southern states is the Velvet bean, a vine that often reaches a length of 30 to 50 feet. The purple flowers are borne in clusters. The name velvet bean is derived from the fact that the clusters of short, cylindrical pods are covered with a black, velvety down. The Velvet bean has a value for forage purposes similar to that of cowpeas. It does not mature seeds farther north than 200 miles from the Gulf Coast. In Florida, the seeds are sown in drills about 4 feet apart and the rows cultivated several times. It is best adapted to light sandy soils. The crop may be harvested for hay or used for pasture purposes. The yield is about the same as for the best varieties of cow- peas grown under similar conditions. § 17 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 39 PASTURES IMPORTANCE OF PASTURES 66. The livestock industry of the United States and Canada is largely dependent on pastures. This is particularly true in the raising of beef cattle and sheep ; the statement is also true in dairying and hog raising, but to a less extent. Experience has demonstrated that under ordinary conditions pastures afford an economical method of feeding stock, and it is claimed by some that this is the case even where land values are high. For example, in the so-called blue-grass region of the United States it has been found that the cost of keeping a cow 1 month on pasture is $1.55, allowing 5 per cent, interest on the investment in land; in the corn- belt region, the cost is $1.05; in the southern part of the United States, where land values are low, the cost is 30 cents; in the northeastern part, it is 90 cents ; and in the dry, unir- rigated sections of the West, it is 50 cents. From these figures it is evident that pasturage furnishes an economical method of feeding cows. 67. A particular advantage of pasturing over other methods of feeding stock lies in the fact that it requires a minimum amount of labor, which is an important consider- ation. Another advantage is the fact that pasturage fur- nishes an ideal feed for most classes of livestock, since it supplies a succulent, well-balanced ration that is greatly relished. Dairy cattle do their best in milk production when they have good pasture, and beef cattle thrive well on it. A common practice in beef -producing regions is to keep the animals on pasture during the growing season and then com- plete the fattening process by feeding them a grain ration in addition to the pasturage in the fall. 40 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 17 It would be next to impossible for the sheep industry to exist if it were not for pasture. Sheep have a natural roving habit and thrive best when given the range of a pasture. They will make good gains on pasture alone, as is evident from the fact that most of the sheep raised in the United States and Canada receive no other feed during the summer than pasture grass. Pasture is an important factor in economical pork pro- duction. Much better gains can be obtained by combining pasturage with a grain ration than by confining hogs in yards or pens and feeding a grain ration alone. 68. One disadvantage of pastures is that a large area of land is required for the quantity of feed secured. When it is desired to raise a larger number of animals, as for example dairy cows, than a given area of land in pasture will support a more intensive system of farming must be practiced. The soiling system is often the solution of such a problem. It requires much more labor than a pasturing system, but it has the advantage of producing a much larger quantity of feed on the same area, thus making it possible to keep more livestock per acre. CLASSES OF PASTURES TEMPORARY PASTURES 69. A temporary pasture is one that is grazed for only a short time, after which it is plowed and planted to some other crop. The length of time land remains in temporary pasture depends on conditions. As a rule, the pasture is continued as long as it seems profitable; when it ceases to be profitable it is plowed for other crops. Sometimes, the use of a field for pasture is merely incidental, the main object being the growing of some other crop. This is true in sections where rye or wheat fields are grazed for a part of the season, the livestock being removed in the spring sufficiently early to § 17 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 41 avoid damage to the grain. The practice of pasturing the aftergrowth in meadows falls in the same class of pastures. The kinds of plants present in a temporary pasture largely determine its period of usefulness. For pastures of short duration, varieties of grasses and legumes of short life are employed, because the plants that endure for a long period of years are generally slow in becoming well established. Local soil and climatic conditions must, of course, be con- sidered and varieties selected accordingly. 70. The grasses and legumes used for temporary pastures in the northern part of the United States and in the provinces of Canada are the ones generally used for hay. These include timothy and Red and Alsike clovers. These plants are well fitted for use in temporary pastures. They are by nature short-lived plants, seldom lasting more than 2 years, especially if pastured so that no seeds are produced. For a year or so, however, they produce excellent herbage that is much relished by livestock. Many pastures in the southern part of the United States are temporary in character, largely because there are only a limited number of species of permanent pasture plants adapted to the climatic conditions of the region. There are, however, many short-lived varieties of plants that may be sown for temporary pastures. The climatic conditions below the thirty-sixth parallel of latitude are favorable to the winter growth of many annual plants that are suitable for winter grazing. Among these are such grain crops as oats, rye, wheat, and barley. Any of these crops may be sown in the fall and pastured during a large part of the winter, after which they may be allowed to grow up for hay. Sometimes vetch is sown with them, as it adds materially to the quantity of forage produced. 71. Aside from the cereals, there are a number of legumes that may be used for winter grazing in the southern part of the United States. Bur clover is an annual legume often sown for winter grazing in this region. It makes an excellent pasturage for sheep and cattle. If sheep are grazed on it, 42 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 17 the plants must be kept closely cropped,- for, if allowed to go to seed, the burs become entangled in the wool of the sheep and thus reduce its value. Bur clover furnishes pasture beginning in the autumn about the time that Bermuda grass, which is the grass most used for permanent pastures in this region, fails, and continues until April or May. These two plants, therefore, supplement each other in furnishing pasture during almost the entire year. It is possible to grow both on the same land by disk harrowing Bermuda-grass land in the fall. Bur clover seed is then sown. The disking improves Bermuda-grass sod and in the spring it is ready to produce another crop after the Bur clover has matured. Crimson clover is an annual legume that has considerable value as a winter pasture crop. For this purpose it should be sown early in the fall on well-prepared land. It serves the double purpose of furnishing winter grazing and green manure when turned under in the spring. Crimson clover is said to cause trouble occasionally in animals pastured upon it by the formation of hair balls in the stomach, for which reason it may be well to use it sparingly at first. Hairy vetch is doubtless one of the most valuable legumes for temporary pasture in the South. If sown early, either during August or September, a large amount of pasturage is secured during the winter. It is best to sow vetch with some fall-sown grain, using about 1 bushel of grain per acre and the same quantity of vetch seed. Red clover and White clover are valuable pasture plants in the South, although not nearly so important as in the North. Red clover may maintain its growth throughout the winter in southern states, in which section it is often used as a pasture crop. White clover does not grow during the winter, but is one of the first plants to furnish grazing in the spring. PERMANENT PASTURES 72. A permanent pasture is a pasture that is grazed for an indefinite period. In the northern part of the United States it is a common practice to use certain fields for grazing § 17 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 43 and others for producing cultivated crops and hay. It is expected that the pasture land will not be plowed and con- sequently it does not enter into the regular rotation, but is left in grass as long as grazing is profitable. However, it sometimes happens in this region that it is more profitable to pasture fields in rotation than to devote them entirely to grazing. In such cases the meadows are grazed after securing from one to three crops of hay from them. After a year or two they are again plowed and used for other crops. There is an increasing tendency to abandon the practice of keeping up permanent pastures except on the rougher portions of farms. Although there may be good reason to doubt whether permanent pastures are profitable on the best land, especially land high in price, the fact remains that there are but few states in the United States in which as much as 50 per cent, of the land is improved. A large part of the unimproved land is admirably adapted to permanent grazing ; in fact, much of it is already used in this way, and more could be used if it were freed from stumps, brush, and other litter, and planted to permanent pasture crops. 73. Time Required to Form Permanent Pasture. — In most cases the formation of a permanent pasture requires consider- able time, but when once well established, such a pasture, with reasonable care, ought to continue to improve with age. It is not easy to say just how long grazing land may be profitably left without plowing, but in some parts of the United States, lands of this class that have not been plowed for 50 years are Common. In other cases the land has never been plowed, but has been grazed almost continuously from the time the timber was removed. 74. Permanent Pastures in the Southern Part of the United States. — It has already been pointed out that in the southern part of the United States, permanent pastures are not so commonly found as in the blue-grass regions farther north. One reason for this condition is the quick-growing habit of Bermuda grass. This grass will become well estab- lished in one season; hence, it is unnecessary to leave land in 44 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 17 pasture if it is needed for other purposes. Pastures are broken up at any time, as it is an easy matter to establish new ones whenever desired. 75. Qualities Necessary in Permanent-Pasture Plants. — A plant, to be valuable for use in permanent pastures, must, first of all, be one that is relished by Hvestock; if it is not readily eaten by farm animals it is worse than useless in farm pastures, for it becomes a weed. It must also be adapted to the conditions under which it is to be grown; much money and time are often lost by trying to grow species of grasses and clovers poorly or not at all adapted to the local conditions. Another requirement of a pasture plant is that good seed must be easily and cheaply obtainable. In this respect, plants, grasses especially, differ widely. Some grasses would be extremely valuable in some localities were it not for the fact that it is difficult to secure good seed. Often no seed at all is available. A further point to be considered in select- ing plants for permanent pastures is the fact that some legu- minous plants, clover for example, are likely to cause diges- tive troubles in sheep and cattle. This is particularly true if these animals are turned without restriction on a luxuriant growth. As a precautionary measure, it is a common prac- tice to allow the animals to graze only an hour or two the first day, gradually increasing this time as the animals become accustomed to it. Plants suitable for a permanent pasture must be capable of reproducing themselves year after year in the pasture. As has been stated elsewhere, plants reproduce in two differ- ent ways, namely, by seed and by tillering or stolons. Some plants reproduce by both of these methods, some by only one. Red clover, for instance, cannot reproduce except by ripening seeds. White clover and Kentucky blue grass reproduce by both methods. In the case of blue grass, the stolons or runners are beneath the surface of the ground; in White clover they are at or slightly below the surface. The conditions existing in pastures are entirely against the production of seeds by any plant that is relished by animals, § 17 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 45 for if the pasture is grazed closely, the heads and blossoms are nipped off as soon as they appear. It is evident, there- fore, that a plant that does not depend entirely on the production of seeds to continue its existence stands a much better chance for usefulness in a pasture than one that depends on the ripening of seeds for the propagation of its kind. There are few plants useful for permanent pastures that do not possess the creeping habit. 76. Grasses for Permanent Pastures. — Kentucky blue grass, commonly called simply blue grass, possesses char- acters that make it a most valuable pasture plant over large areas of the country. It is a plant well adapted to a wide range of conditions, although it is not so widely distributed as timothy. There is no other pasture grass, with the possible exception of Bermuda grass, that will furnish more feed per acre. An acre of good blue-grass pasture ought to support one average-sized cow during the grazing season. Blue grass forms a close sod that well endures tramping and fur- nishes a luxuriant growth of lower leaves. It is a grass that English farmers call a good "bottom grass," meaning by this that it occupies nearly all the space near the ground and produces there a heavy growth of leaves. Kentucky blue grass is worthless for temporary pastures, because it requires several years to become well established. One reason for this is that commercial blue-grass seed is often low in vitality, hence, unless a fairly heavy sowing is made, even under favorable conditions, the stand is likely to be poor. When fully established, however, on soil adapted to it, blue grass is of great permanency. Blue grass and "White clover are adapted to similar conditions and the two are very frequently found growing luxuriantly together. 77. Canada blue grass is adapted to poorer soil con- ditions than Kentucky blue grass. It has many habits similar to those of Kentucky blue grass, but it is quicker in becoming established. It forms a very tough sod that endures much tramping. Cattle are very fond of this grass and it has often been observed that it is eaten as readily as any other 46 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 17 grasses with which it grows. It is even reHshed by stock after drying up in the fall. It should not be sown alone for pastures but does well with red top and Alsike clover. Canada blue grass cannot compete with Kentucky blue grass where conditions are favorable to the growth of the latter, but it is worth trying more extensively on many of the poor soils in sections of northeastern states. 78. Timothy, although admirably adapted for temporary pastures, is of almost universal occurrence in permanent pastures in regions where it is grown for hay. Seldom, however, does it constitute a large part of the herbage of such pastures. Timothy does not fully cover the land as do most of the creeping grasses. Spaces always occur between the timothy plants, and these are filled with other plants. Where the conditions are favorable for Kentucky blue grass, it is well to include this with timothy when seeding a field to be used for permanent pasture, for when the timothy is gone the blue grass will begin to furnish pasturage. Advantages that timothy possesses as a pasture plant are its cheapness of seed and its palatability. Cattle, sheep, and horses are fond of it. Its disadvantages are its short-lived character, its inability to bear heavy tramping, and, as has been mentioned, its comparative scarcity of leaf growth near the ground. 79. Meadow fescue is a grass that is relished by farm animals as. well as any other grass grown in pastures in the eastern part of the United States. The seed is costly; con- sequently, the plant is not to be recommended for general use. It does not appear to be adapted to sowing alone, but it is often found growing with other grasses, usually in fairly small proportion. It is best adapted to old and rich pas- tures; it is not satisfactory on poor soil. 80. Orchard grass is a good grass to include in a mixture for pastures, but should never be sown alone on account of its tendency to grow in bunches with open spaces between. Because of its habit of growing throughout the season, it adds materially to pasturage during the summer months § 17 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 47 when blue grass is partly dormant. Unless it has become woody, which may occur if it is not grazed fairly early in the spring, it is readily eaten by animals. The earliness of orchard grass is a point in its favor for use in pastures. 81. Red top is preeminently the pasture grass of poorly ■ drained and acid soils, though it is doubtless the least relished of any of the common pasture plants. Cattle especially will not eat it readily if more palatable grasses are at hand. The seed of red top is cheap and usually of high grade. The plants grow rapidly and soon furnish an abundance of grazing. Red top is adapted to a very wide range of conditions, both soil and climatic, and on account of its creeping habit of growth, it produces a dense sod soon after being sown. The lower leaves are numerous, resembling blue grass in this respect. 82. Bermuda grass, which, as already stated, is adapted to the southern part of the United States, has several favor- able features as a pasture grass. It is easily established; soon becomes permanent, bears as close grazing as any grass known, is readily eaten by farm animals and furnishes grazing from April to October. One of its most valuable characteristics is its habit of continuous growth throughout the summer. In this respect, it is very much superior to Kentucky blue grass, which practically ceases to grow during midsummer. Bermuda grass is able to withstand severe droughts and it can also stand overflow for a considerable length of time without injury. In quality it is thought to be somewhat inferior to blue grass, but compared with blue grass in power to support livestock, it is probably somewhat the better, especially on rich soils for as many as two head of cattle may be pastured per acre on Bermuda grass. This grass does better if plowed up and harrowed every few years. 83. Johnson grass is another southern grass sometimes used for pasturing. It is far inferior, however, to Bermuda grass. Stock eat it very readily, but it is not able to endure heavy grazing. It soon becomes patchy and in a few years is unprofitable. In some localities it is considered to be a weed. 48 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 17 84. Smooth brome grass is rapidly coming into favor as a pasture grass in the northwestern prairie sections of the United States. It is relished by stock and is able to endure grazing for a number of years. Like Bermuda grass, blue grass, and Johnson grass, its habit of reproducing by means of underground stems enables it to increase indefinitely under grazing conditions. 85. Quack grass would be a valuable pasture grass were it not for its weedy character. Probably it is never sown on the farm, yet it is common on the richer lands of the north- eastern part of the United States. Its habit of creeping by underground stems makes it a permanent grass. 86. There are a number of native grasses of the western plains of the United States and Canada that have been of great importance in the agricultural development of those regions. These native grasses are rapidly disappearing in many places and when once gone, it is difficult to restore them. One of the most common of these is bufEalo grass. This is a low-growing, creeping grass that makes a good growth during spring and early summer if rainfall is sufficient. It has the power of enduring extreme drought, and when the land is dry and parched it ceases to grow and assumes a dead appearance. When the rains come, it soon takes on a green color and begins to grow. It forms a most excellent pasture the year around. Even in winter it is eaten greedily by cattle although the stems and leaves are dry. This grass is never cultivated. 87. Legumes for Permanent Pastures. — It is believed that the presence of legumes in grass land is to be desired. It is not likely that a mixed herbage of grasses and legumes is more valuable for grazing than grass alone, but the presence of both classes of plants may extend the grazing season or increase the quantity of feed secured from a given area. The benefit derived from legumes in pastures arises largely from their beneficial effect on the soil. Most legumes are deep- rooted plants, and when the plants die and the roots decay, § 17 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 49 the physical condition of the soil is improved. The nitrogen added by the bacteria on the roots is often much needed in pastures. As a rule, leguminous plants furnish but a small part of the herbage of old-established pastures. Grasses are much better adapted to grazing, and consequently they supply the great bulk of feed in most permanent pastures. 88. Red clover may be found in small quantities in most old pastures, but its habit of growth and the ravages of root borers preclude its continued existence in such places. It is possible, however, to keep more or less Red clover in pastures if seed is sown occasionally in the spring. In seeding a field for permanent pasture in sections where Red clover thrives, it is well to include it in the mixture of grasses and clovers, as it will come on quickly and furnish grazing while the grasses are becoming established. 89. Alsike is fully equal to Red clover for pastures. In fact, it is more permanent than Red clover and will endure more adverse conditions, such as drought and acidity of soil. It is not common in old pastures for the same reasons that Red clover is usually absent. The only way to keep Aliske clover in pastures is to reseed occasionally. 90. White clover is unlike either Red or Alsike clovers in regard to use in pastures. Its blossoms are not so conspicuous and, therefore, the plant is able to mature seeds occasionally except in pastures that are cropped very closely. Further- more, its abundant production of runners enables it to increase from year to year independent of seed. It is especially suited to the conditions that are favorable to Kentucky blue grass. It flourishes in a moist, rich soil and under such conditions will grow from spring until autumn. In midsummer when blue grass has become somewhat dormant. White clover will continue to grow and thus add to the value of the pasture. Although White clover is rarely sown in northern pastures, it is almost always present to a greater or less extent. It has the peculiarity of disappearing almost entirely and returning unexpectedly. This is probably due to peculiarities of season, 50 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 17 it being more abundant in wet seasons, especially if there has been plenty of rain in the spring. If White clover is not natur- ally present in a pasture it may be sown in the same manner as directed for other clovers and it is well worth the effort required to establish it. 91. Japan clover with Bermuda grass occupies a place in southern pastures similar to that held in northern pastures by White clover with Kentucky blue grass. The two clovers are, however, entirely unlike in their habits of growth, for the first mentioned reproduces entirely from seed and lives but a single year. Unlike Bermuda grass, Japan clover ceases to grow during summer droughts, yet it furnishes good grazing during spring and fall. When once established it is practi- cally self-seeding. 92. Yellow trefoil, a relative of the alfalfa plant, has some promise for permanent pastures in regions where clover and alfalfa fail to grow. It is a short-lived plant but seeds so abundantly that it is practically permanent where once established. For pasture purposes it is inferior to White clover and under some conditions becomes a troublesome weed. As pointed out previously. Yellow trefoil seed, illus- trated at 5 in Fig. 4, is not uncommon as an adulterant of Red clover and alfalfa seed. 93. Alfalfa is sometimes used for pasturing purposes. Under some conditions it may be satisfactory for this purpose although it possesses some objectionable characteristics. One is that it is likely to cause bloat in cattle and sheep, as has been explained. Another is that the manner of pro- ducing new growth in alfalfa is not favorable to the highest value as a pasture plant. All the new growth arises from the stems near the ground or from the crown. When alfalfa is cropped by animals the new growth is slow because the shoots do not start immediately. § 17 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 51 PASTURE MIXTURES 94. The practice of using mixtures of seeds for the seed- ing of pastures is very common, especially in the eastern part of the United States and Canada. Sometimes, however, the seed of grasses and clovers entirely unsuited to the soil and climatic conditions is sown. A good rule for making up mixtures for pasture is as follows: Use no variety of grass or legume unless it is adapted to the local soil and climatic conditions and relished by the animals that are to be pastured. The value of a mixture of several varieties of plants for pasture, therefore, depends largely on the adaptability of each species comprising the mixture. 95. There are several reasons why mixtures of the proper grasses and clovers may be superior to sowings of a single species. The roots of different kinds of plants occupy the soil at different depths. For example, clovers are deeper- rooted plants than grasses. In addition, different species ■of plants are at their best at different seasons of the year. Therefore, with a mixed planting a succession of plants is possible, some furnishing pasturage while others are dormant or growing but little. Some grasses are bunchy in character and do not form a good sod. Consequently, much space may be unoccupied between the plants if such grass is grown alone. If grasses of creeping habit are planted with this class of plants, the ground will be more fully occupied. Some of our best pasture grasses are slow in becoming established. When it is expected to make the final sod of such grasses, some more quickly growing grasses should be sown for immediate results. 96. Mixture for Temporary Pastures. — When pastures occupy a place in a regular crop rotation, the plants that form the pasture must be such as produce pasturage quickly, but they need not be varieties of long duration. Among the legumes. Red and Alsike clover are excellent for this purpose. If sown in late summer, they may be grazed the next year. As stated previously they furnish pasture only a year or two 234—20 52 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 17 and then disappear. It is advisable to sow these clovers with timothy or with timothy and red top. Both grasses come on quickly, and the first year's crop may be cut for hay if desired. The quantity of seed usually sown for hay should be used ; that is, 8 to 12 pounds of timothy, 4 pounds of red top, 6 pounds of Red clover, and 3 pounds of Alsike clover would be satisfactory in the timothy region. This seeding ought to furnish pasture for 3 or 4 years. 97. Mixtures for Permanent Pastures. — Aside from the sections of the United States where the grazing lands are occupied by native grass, the sod of which has never been broken up, the region of permanent .pastures corresponds closely to the region where Kentucky blue grass thrives. This section lies east of the Missouri River and north of the states in which cotton is grown. In this area Kentucky blue grass and White clover form the largest part of the herbage on all lands that are fairly fertile and well drained ; the lands that are not so fertile or well drained are occupied chiefly by red top. This is especially true in the New England States, where much of the land is poorly drained and sour. In some parts of this area, where for some reason Kentucky blue grass does not do well, Canada blue grass may some- times be used to advantage. Both Kentucky and Canada blue grass are slow in becom- ing well established, especially the former, and for this reason it is well to sow more quickly growing grasses with them. The blue grass will gradually occupy the ground, crowding out the other grasses. Timothy is the cheapest and one of the best grasses for this purpose and should compose a large part of the mixture. 98. The following grasses and clovers, with the quantity of seed indicated, are recommended for seeding 1 acre for permanent pasture on good land: Pounds Timothy 8 to 12 Kentucky blue grass 4 to 6 Meadow fescue 1 to 4 § 17 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 53 Pounds Orchard grass 1 to 4 Red clover 6 Alsike clover 3 White clover 1 to 2 The herbage will be composed for the first 2 or 3 years of timothy, orchard grass, Red, and Alsike clovers. The final herbage will consist very largely of blue grass and White clover, with some meadow fescue. Such a pasture ought to continue to improve with age if properly handled. If econ- omy in seeding is a matter of consideration, the meadow fescue may be omitted, as the seed of this is very expensive. 99. In seeding poor land for permanent pasture, a slight change in the kinds of grass seed used is necessary. It is useless to sow meadow fescue seed on such land and it is doubtful whether orchard grass or Kentucky blue grass S'hould be used. On very poor lands, Red clover often fails. But unless it is certainly known not to succeed, it should be given a trial. A mixture that is recommended to be sown on 1 acre of rather poor land is: Pounds Timothy 8 to 12 Red top (fancy) 4 Canada blue grass 4 Red clover 6 Alsike clover 3 White clover 1 100. The method of seeding grasses for pasture is similar to that of seeding meadows. A nurse crop of a light seeding of wheat or rye is satisfactory if the grasses are sown in the fall. The clovers may then be sown in the spring in the usual manner. If this method is not followed, but the seeding is made with oats or barley in the spring, a light seeding of grain is advisable. In many sections the practice prevails of sowing the pasture mixture alone in late summer. This seems to be a good practice, and, if followed, the grasses and clovers may all be sown at one operation. 54 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 17 CARE OF PASTURES 101. Mowing of Pastures. — Pastures can often be bene- fited by mowing. However, few farmers think of mowing the pasture. Perhaps one reason for neglect along this line is that the pasture is often too rough or stony to be mowed by machine and that hand mowing is too expensive. There are several benefits to be secured from mowing the pasture. Often in the early part of the season, when the grass is grow- ing most rapidly, it becomes tough and unpalatable before the cattle can eat it off. If the mowing machine is run over the field about the last of June or early in July, this old grass will give place to a newer and more palatable crop. In addition, the old grass that has been mown acts as a mulch to the soil, preventing it from becoming dried and baked. The soil must be kept in good condition if pasture grasses are to thrive. Another advantage secured by mowing the pas- ture field consists in the destruction of many kinds of annual and biennial weeds. Some weeds that cannot be entirely eradicated by mowing may be so weakened that their num- ber will be materially reduced. It is of course useless to try to destroy weeds by mowing after they have matured seeds. 102. Fertilization of Pastures. — As a general rule, stable manure is not often applied to pastures. Probably this is because the manure is usually needed for cultivated land and doubtless another reason is that pastures are often rough and inaccessible, making it difficult to spread manure on them. There is, moreover, a belief among many farmers that pastures do not require manure. Experiments have demonstrated, however, that the application of stable manure is very beneficial to many pastures by increasing theiV productiveness. It often happens that in certain spots in a pasture the herbage becomes scarce while other parts do not show such deficiency. To increase the value of the pasture and bring it up to its full productiveness it is important that these poor spots be improved. This may be done by the application of § 17 HAY ANI> PASTURE CROPS 55 manure or by salting or feeding livestock upon these spots and thus accumulating droppings there. Only a few experiments have been conducted to ascertain the extent of the benefit of an application of commercial fer- tilizer to pasture lands. It is claimed, however, by some persons that the application of from 100 to 200 pounds per acre of a good complete commercial fertilizer produces eco- nomical increases in the quantity of pasturage. If the soil of the pasture is acid a top dressing in the fall of about 1 ton of lime per acre is recommended. 103. Reseeding of Pastures. — The frequent sowing of grass and clover seeds in the pasture is doubtless good prac- tice. For various reasons grasses and clovers become thinner in the course of time. In a well-grazed pasture, the useful plants have no opportunity of forming seed. On the other hand, weeds have abundant chance to produce seed, and as a result the weeds increase rapidly in the field. For the purpose of reseeding the pasture, the same mixtures recommended for the first sowing should be used, but only a part of the quantity of each suggested should be sown, if the field is to be reseeded without plowing. The quantity of seed to be sown will depend on the stand of grass already present. If the pasture is very thin, a fairly heavy sowing should be made, and vice versa. In reseeding a pasture, the land should in some manner be prepared for receiving the seed. One method is to loosen it by means of a disk or a spike-tooth harrow. The best time to sow grass seed on a pasture is in the spring, at which season the land is more likely to be open and in good shape to receive the seed. 104. Grazing of Pastures. — A pasture should never be grazed too closely. Close grazing throughout the year causes many grasses to die out and their places are taken by weeds. A plant must have a certain area of green leaf surface in order to develop a vigorous root system, and, in turn, a strong root system is necessary to the perfect development of the plant above ground. 56 HAY AND PASTURE CROPS § 17 There is a tendency among most farmers to turn stock into the pasture too early in the spring. When the pasture begins to look green, the cattle are turned on it. In northern climates, at that season of the year, the ground is likely to be soft, and certain soils, especially wet clays, are seriously damaged by the hoofs of animals. Moreover, grass should not be grazed until it has recovered from the effects of winter and has become thoroughly established again. By keeping stock off the pasture for a week or two longer than is the general practice most pastures would be greatly benefited. There is no doubt that grass land suffers much from the soil becoming too bare by overgrazing. A covering of vegetation prevents excessive evaporation of moisture and the scorching effect of the sun. Alternate grazing of pastures is considered a good practice. This may be accomplished by division of fields. While one is being used, another is permitted to rest, allowing the grasses to grow. More feed may be secured from a given area in this manner than from the usual method of allowing stock to roam over the whole pasture during the entire season. POTATOES POTATOES IN GENERAL 1. The common potato of 'commerce is the enlarged, fleshy, underground stem, known as the tuber, of the potato plant. Although the tubers are widely known as Irish potatoes because of their general use in Ireland, the plant is a native of America. Aside from its universal culture in kitchen gardens, the potato constitutes an important field crop, ranking next to rice as a food product for the human race. It is also extensively used for feeding domestic animals. In those sections of America where potatoes are most largely grown, the small and the badly diseased'potatoes, that is, the unmarketable portion of the crop, are used for the manufac- ture of starch, and in certain sections of Europe large yields of comparatively small tubers are grown especially for the manufacture of starch and of alcohol. 2. Yield of Potatoes. — The average yield of potatoes in the United States for several decades past has been 83 bushels per acre. It takes about 15 bushels of seed potatoes cut into 1-ounce pieces to plant 1 acre, provided the rows are spaced 3 feet apart and there is a space of 12 inches between the hills in the rows. If each seed piece grew and produced two 4-ounce potatoes, which are only medium-sized potatoes, 1 acre would yield 121 bushels of marketable potatoes. If each hill should produce eight 4-ounce potatoes, or 2 pounds for each hill, as every good grower should endeavor to have it yield, 1 acre would yield 484 bushels of marketable potatoes. On large areas, many potato growers raise 400 or more bushels OOPYRIOHTED BY INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY. ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL, LONDON §18 2 POTATOES § 18 per acre, although the average grower secures a much smaller yield. The highest recorded yield from an acre in the United States is 974.8 bushels, of which 838.7 bushels was market- able; each bushel contained about 110 potatoes. Much larger yields than the preceding are recorded when the yields from small plots are taken as a basis. 3. Standard Varieties of Potatoes. — Thousands of varieties of potatoes have been developed and a large number are now on the market. Among these varieties, the following may be considered as standard: Bliss, Triumph, Bovee, Burpee, Extra Early, Crown Jewel, Early Ohio, Early Rose, Early Thoroughbred, Eureka, Norton Beauty, Reliance, Six- Weeks' Market, Beauty of Hebron, Irish Cobbler, Polaris, White Elephant, Burbank, Carman Number 3, Freeman, Green Mountain, Peachblow, Pearl, Rural New Yorker Num- ber 2, Sir Walter Raleigh, State of Maine, Snowflake, and Vermont Gold Coin. In a general way, the varieties are mentioned in the order of their earliness of maturity. Some varieties, however, mature much earlier in one section of the country than in another. 4. Sections in Which Potatoes Are Grown. — Although the potato is universally grown in the United States as a kitchen garden crop, by far the largest portion of the entire yield is grown in the two rows of states located in the northern part of this country. The crop is probably more generally and more successfully grown in the northeastern county of Maine than in any other county in the United States. Certain irrigated sections, however, are noted for their large yields of potatoes, and, in the light, sandy soils along the Atlantic Coast, from Long Island as far south as Georgia, large quan- tities of early potatoes are raised. 5.. Potato Propagation. — Potatoes are propagated by means of tubers known as seed potatoes and by means of potato seed. The seed potatos are planted either whole, or in pieces containing one or more eyes, or buds. Each eye should produce one or more potato plants. Sometimes. §18 POTATOES though rarely, the potato blossoms develop into a seed ball, which resembles a smiall green tomato, though at times it is purple or yellowish in color. The exterior of a seed ball is shown in Fig. 1 (a), and in (b) is shown the interior, which clearly indicates the arrangement of the potato seed. It is from the small kidney-shaped potato seed b that new vari- eties of potatoes are developed. The seed balls are gathered in the fall before the potato vines are frozen, and the seed is washed from them and afterwards dried. The following spring the seed is planted in a hotbed or a cold frame, and when the seedlings are of sufficient size they are transplanted to well-prepared soil. The first-year («) Fig. 1 W seedlings will be small and slender, producing .small tubers, or potatoes. The small tubers from each plant are saved and are planted separately the following spring, when tubers of good size may be grown from them. The product of each seedling plant is considered to be a new variety. Inasmuch as potato seed is very rare and is used only by potato breeders, the term seed or seed potatoes will be used hereafter in referring to tubers that are to be used in planting. 6. Potatoes As a Rotation Crop. — The rotation of crops in which potatoes are grown appears to be one of the most important factors for the continued success of the potato grower. The rotation should, in general, be the shortest that is found practicable in meeting the other demands of the farm, 4 POTATOES § 18 and should be such as to give a good stand of some leguminous crop the season previous to the potato crop. Usually, in northern sections, the best adapted and most useful legu- minous crop is Red clover, which should be cut for hay only 1 year before the land is plowed and planted to potatoes. In southern sections, either Crimson clover or cpwpeas seems to be well adapted for this purpose. In the North, the length of time required to establish Red clover permits the introduction of a spring grain crop without loss of time. 7. Of the three means of maintaining fertility utilized in growing a potato crop, two of them together — the rotation of crops and the application of complete commercial fertil- izers — are often used with good success; but the use of all three — a rotation that provides some leguminous crop directly preceding the potatoes, livestock that furnish barn- yard manure, and some form of commercial fertilizer con- taining potash and phosphoric acid — brings the most success- ful results in economical potato production, especially when continued throughout a long period of years. On this account potato growing is often most successful on livestock or dairy farms in northern states, where most of the other crops produced are used for feeding some kind of stock. The potato crop fits into such a rotation remarkably well. On a dairy farm, for example, where a short rotation of silage corn, small grain for hay or grain, and clover hay is grown, a potato crop is most easily fitted into the rotation, being planted on the clover sod and followed by a crop of com for silage, and the manure from the livestock being used on the corn crop and as a top dressing on the hay crop after the grain is harvested. This procedure is not only most advantageous for the potato crop, but it gives the farmer whose income is otherwise entirely from his dairy cattle a cash crop to sell outright and one that is safe and far more profitable than a crop of wheat, for instance, could possibly be. Potato growing in the states where it now is conspicuous seems likely to increase along with the increase of dairying or other forms of livestock farming. § 18 POTATOES 5 SOIIi REQUIREMENTS AND PREPARATION 8. Soil for Potato Growing. — The potato is grown on a great variety of soils. Indeed, it has been grown on nearly every class of soil ; but this fact does not minimize the impor- tance of selecting for the potato the kind of soil most suit- able for it. The ideal soil for this crop is a cool, deep, moist, well-drained easy- working sandy loam ; that is, one that offers no great resistance to the enlargement of the tubers, is so sup- plied with organic matter as to be rather moist without being wet, and is so rich as to furnish an unfailing supply of fertil- izing ingredients. Stiff er soil than that just mentioned may be rendered suitable for the potato by drainage and by the incorporation of farm manures; or better, by the plowing under of green crops. Very heavy clay, however, should be avoided for potato growing if the farm contains any lighter soil. Stony land renders planting and cultivating difficult and expensive, but recently cleared ground is suitable for the potato. Sandy soils, if not subject to drought, may be fitted for the growing of potatoes by the addition of organic matter, and it may be remarked that potatoes grown on such land .are of better quality than those grown on stiffer soil. 9. While the potato requires a rich soil, a proper me.chan- ical condition of the soil is of greater importance. The potato should be planted on the best soil on the farm because it draws heavily upon the plant-food elements. One of the most favorable soils for potatoes in the United States — that of Aroostook County, Maine — is a rolling drift soil made up of shaly rock that breaks up easily. The underlying stratums of the rocks are generally tuiTied up on edge, making perfect drainage. This soil does not pack hard after rains and is so porous that no obstructions are offered to the development of the roots and tubers. Everything else being equal, a northern slope is preferable to- a southern one, because on a southern slope the heat is sometimes so intense that during hot, dry seasons the potato crop is greatly injured. Where potatoes are grown for the 6 ■ POTATOES § 18 early market, however, a southern slope is more desirable. The kind of soil and proper drainage influence the yield, the cooking quality, the liability to disease, and the keeping quality of the tubers. 10. Enriching the Soil for Potato Crops. — If the soil to be used for the potato crop is not sufficiently fertile, liberal applications of manure or commercial fertilizer should be applied. If commercial fertilizer is depended on, the potato crop should be preceded by grain, grass, or clover sod, pref- erably clover or some other legume, in order to supply organic matter to the soil. Experiments have shown that a potato fertilizer should be rich in potash and phosphoric acid. The fertilizer should be selected according to its formula and not because the manufacturer claims that it is a " special potato fertilizer." Special potato fertilizers usually contain a greater percentage of potash than do the ordinary brand of fertilizer. In eastern sections of the United States, a fertilizer con- taining about 2 per cent, of nitrogen, 7 per cent, of phos- phoric acid, and 10 per cent, of potash is popular; in the cen- tral portion of the country, near the Great Lakes, a fertilizer carrying about 2 per cent, of nitrogen, 8 per cent, of phosphoric acid, and 7 per cent, of potash seems more in favor; and still farther west, in the irrigated sections, commercial fertilizer is seldom used. The quantity of nitrogen that must be applied in the form of commercial fertilizer can be largely controlled by the use of leguminous crops. 11. The quantity of commercial fertilizer to use per acre depends on the rotation of crops practiced, the previous cropping of the land, the mechanical condition of the soil, and whether or not manure has been previously used. Many potato growers use from 800 to 2,000 pounds of a high-grade fertilizer per acre. However, the grower should always use that amount of fertilizer which will give the greatest return for the money expended. An excess of fertilizer, especially one containing nitrogen, should be avoided, because it tends to produce an overgrowth of vines, which exclude the air and § 18 POTATOES 7 sunshine, and thus favor a condition for the attack and spread of disease. A simple experiment to determine how much fertilizer to use for a potato crop can be carried out as follows: Take an equal number of rows in four different plots across the field, leaving a few rows between each plot. Apply at the rate of 1,000 pounds, 1,200 pounds, 1,500 pounds, and 2,000 pounds to each of these plots. Give each the same treatment during the season, dig each separately, and estimate the net profit in each case, considering the value of the fertilizer applied. 12. Experience has shown that only about one- third of the nitrogen need be taken from some quick-acting fer- tilizer, such as nitrate of soda, and two-thirds of the nitrogen from a slower-acting fertilizer, such as high-grade tankage, or one-third from tankage and one-third from dried blood. The pliosphoric acid not supplied by the tankage should be obtained from quickly available acid-treated phosphatic rock, and the potash from the sulphate or muriate of potash. The sulphate of potash is claimed to produce a better quality of potatoes than the muriate, but it usually costs about $5 more per ton than the muriate. Commercial fertilizers may be applied at the time of plant- ing, or only two-thirds of the entire amount may be applied at planting and the other one-third at the time of the first cultivation. The quantity to be applied at planting is usually distributed by means of a planting machine; that portion to be applied at the first cultivation of the crop, of course, must be applied broadcast and worked into the soil by cultivation. 13. The direct application of stable manure terids to pro- duce a condition favorable for the development of the disease known as potato scab. For this reason, it is recommended that stable manure be applied to the land a year before the potatoes are to be grown. If clover and timothy precede potatoes, it is a good plan to top-dress the land with from 10 to 20 tons of manure per acre immediately after the grass is cut, allowing the second crop, or aftermath, to be plowed 8 POTATOES § 18 under. Manure may be applied to corn preceding potatoes at the rate of 10 to 30 or more tons per acre. 14. Preparation of the Soil for Potato Growing. — The soil in which potatoes are to be grown should be thoroughly pre- pared mechanically. The plowing should be well and care- fully done to 'a depth of 8 inches. Generally, not enough attention is paid to the matter of plowing. If the subsoil consists of clay or contains a considerable quantity of clay, the drainage can be improved very much by plowing to a uniform depth with a large two-horse plow in the direction that the land slopes. If the soil is inclined to be dry, better results will be secured by plowing at right angles to the slope of the land. The time for plowing will depend largely on the nature and situation of the field. If it is located on a slope that is liable to wash, spring plowing is preferable. If plowed in the fall, an extra amount of harrowing will be necessary in order to obtain the same results as are produced by spring plowing. No matter what time is selected for plowing, the soil should be harrowed and pulverized in a thorough manner. The farmer should not be content with stirring and leveling the surface only, but should use harrows that will work deep and leave the soil in the best condition to receive the potato seed. SEED POTATOES 15. Points to Be Observed in Selecting Seed Potatoes. Good seed is essential to success in potato growing; in fact, too much emphasis cannot be placed on the necessity of selecting good seed. The tubers that remain in the bin after the housewife has selected the best for table use should not be used as seed ; neither should tubers that are considered unfit for the market. The cost per acre of seed potatoes may be reduced a few dollars by using cheap undesirable seed, but the chances of growing a profitable crop are greatly reduced at the start. The fact that a large number of farmers plant small seed potatoes and potatoes of a poor quality largely § 18 POTATOES 9 accounts for the low average yield per acre. For a good, clean crop of potatoes there must be a good start; and to insure this, it will be necessary to select seed that is free from disease and is neither withered nor sprouted. If practicable, seed that is representative of a variety that thrives in the vicinity in which it is to be grown should be chosen. 16. Although the color of the skin of potatoes is not a matter of great importance, it sometimes has considerable bearing on the sale of the tubers. For this reason, growers that raise potatoes for market give this matter some con- sideration in selecting seed potatoes. The white-skinned varieties, such as the Rural New Yorker No. 2 or the Carman No. 3, are now in favor. Whatever the color of the skin, it should be uniform. 17. Attention is also paid to the potato eyes in selecting seed potatoes. Potatoes in which the eyes are set deep are claimed to possess greater vitality than those in which the eyes are shallow. According to some authorities, however, deep eyes indicate coarseness of both the flesh and the flavor of potatoes. An advantage of potatoes with shallow eyes over those with deep eyes is that there is not so much waste in peeling them for cooking purposes. 18. The keeping quality of potatoes is another point that should not be overlooked in making a selection of seed potatoes. This point is of especial importance in the South. The keeping quality will naturally be strengthened if care is taken each year not to plant potatoes that are badly sprouted. The growth of sprouts is made at the expense of the tubers on which they grow. If the sprouts are broken oflf before planting, the nutriment required for their growth is a total loss. Moreover, numerous weak sprouts will grow from the eyes that produced the first sprout. 19. The shape of a potato is one of the special points noted by buyers, and the preference is likely to vary in different localities. Potatoes are divided as regards their shape into three classes, namely the round, as shown in 10 POTATOES §18 Fig. 2 (a) ; the long, or the kidney-shaped, as shown in (b) ; and the oval, as shown in (c) . The oval-shaped potatoes are probably the most popular. They usually have shallow, wide eyes and produce but Uttle waste in peeling; also, they look larger, weight for w;eight, than do potatoes of other shapes, and for this reason they often sell more readily in the markets. Round varieties look smaller in the market, although they hold one point of advantage in that they sift to a more regular size than do either of the other kinds. Round potatoes are said to have a tendency to develop discolored hollows on the inside, while some of the longer varieties have the greatest tendency to second growth. The weaknesses of the different shapes should be considered in selecting seed potatoes. 20. Sources of Seed Potatoes. — Experiments have shown that tubers having the power to send out strong, vigorous sprouts, such as those shown in Fig. 3 (a), can be grown only in a cool climate or in the fall of the year when the weather is cool. The regular crop of potatoes grown in the South, as well as undesirable seed potatoes grown elsewhere, has a tendency to put out weak, slender sprouts, as shown in Fig. 3 (b). For these reasons, northern potato growers always raise their own seed potatoes, while the southern 18 POTATOES 11 growers either secure northern-grown seed or grow a secoiid crop for seed to be used the following j^ear. The second crop is grown in the following manner: The small unsalable, though mature, tubers of the first, or regular, crop should be spread out thinly in a shady place. In 2 or 3 weeks they will have turned ver)^ green. The larger ones should then be cut in two pieces and the others should have a piece taken from the side. It is claimed by some growers that mutilation has a tendency to hasten the development (aj (b) Fig. 3 of sprouts. They should then be spread in the sun and covered thinly with earth or sand. After sprouting com- mences, they should be planted in the ordinary way. If favorable weather conditions prevail, a crop of tubers from the size of a marble to that of an egg will be harvested late in the fall. All these will make good seed with strong eyes, or buds. Another thing in favor of this late-harvested seed is that it will not sprout until spring, and thus the first sprouts, which are usually the best, will be saved. This practice 234—21 12 POTATOES § 18 will be thought by some growers to be too troublesome, but for any of the medium maturing varieties, it will be necessary to do this or to get seed from a cooler climate. 21. Selection of Seed Potatoes in the Field. — Experience has shown that the potato grower can greatly increase the yield of potatoes by a method of field selection as follows: Dig a few hundred hills by hand out of the most thrifty appearing portion of the field and let each hill lie by itself when dug. From them select such hills as comply with a fixed standard, no matter how small a percentage of such hills is obtained. The standard may be a hill containing six, eight, ten, or fifteen perfectly matured, good-sized tubers. The standard should be raised from year to year. By plant- ing these selected hills in a few separate rows and digging them the following season in the way that the first selection was made, the work of selection may be decreased. The selected hills should be planted in a seed plot each year, and all the rest of the product of the plot of the previous year should be used in planting the main crop. It is not advisable to have the seed plot on particularly rich soil, but rather under just such conditions of care and soil as the main crop. 22. In selecting potatoes in the field, considerable depend- ence can be placed on the appearance of the tops. A large perfect top with several stems of good shape and size can be depended on to have more tubers under it than a hill with a single stalk or one with small weak stems, and, besides, these tubers will be more uniform in both quality and size. It should be noted also that there is a difference between potato plants of healthy and profuse growth and a dark-green, overgrown plant. The former plants indicate a vigorous individuality, able to produce and support to full size a large yield of tubers, while the latter plant indicates that all the strength of the plant has gone to the production of vine and that the tuber formation will be small. At the same time, care should be taken to select plants that have shown that they are capable of resisting disease, such as blight, should it attack the crop. The farmer often finds that single plants §18 POTATOES 13 will resist the growth of the blight fungus while all others around them will be stricken, as shown in Fig. 4. This characteristic is one that may be transmitted to the progeny of the plant and that may largely increase the value of the next crop. 23. Size of Seed Pieces. — Much controversy has taken place as to the relative merits of large and small potatoes for planting. The consensus of opinion seems to be that small potatoes, provided they are mature and not diseased, may sometimes be used. Any variety of potatoes will show a tendency to deteriorate if small, immature potatoes are Fig. 4 planted year after year. Experiments prove that the small, undeveloped tubers in any one hill of potatoes lack some of the vigor and power to produce strong sprouts. Although such plants have enough vitality to start the growth of the tubers, they do not possess the necessary vitality or nourish- ment to bring the small potatoes to full maturity. On the other hand, some of the best-known potato growers claim that overgrown tubers, or tubers larger than the general size of the variety, do not excel in vitality the tubers of moderate size but of complete development. Even if this conclusion should not be supported, there is a reason why it is not advisable to grow a variety of tubers larger than is now com- 14 POTATOES § 18 mon. Restaurants and hotels do not wish to buy potatoes so large that they cannot profitably serve a whole tuber with each order, while some lunch rooms prefer to serve two smaller potatoes. Planting large potatoes whole seems to give increased yield, but the price of good seed potatoes is so high that their use in an uncut condition is usually prohibitive. Medium-sized, mature tubers, free from scab and grown in fields that have not been affected with disease of any kind are recommended for planting purposes. Such potatoes should be cut into pieces that will weigh approximately about 1 ounce and will contain one or more strong vigorous buds, or eyes. 24. Cutting the Seed Potatoes. — The tubers that are to be used as seed should not as a rule be cut long before planting time. However, the storing of cut pieces for several days, which is sometimes necessary, is attended with no great disadvantages. Of course, due care should be taken in such instances to prevent heating, and it may be well to dust the cuttings with gypsum (land plaster) to prevent excessive wilting. In cutting seed for which a high price has been paid, it will be found advisable to cut pieces to one eye each, though such a practice is not recommended for cutting the seed for the main crop. This practice is also followed in case there is only a very small quantity of seed available and the grower desires to get the largest possible yield. When potatoes are cut in half through their smaller diameter there results a seed, or bud, end more or less crowded with eyes and a stem, or butt, end on which there are only a few eyes. The experiments to determine the relative values of cuttings from the stem end and from the seed end of the tuber have been numerous. The majority of these showed that the yield was greater when the seed end was used. The superior productiveness of the seed end as compared with the stem end was maintained, whether the halves of the potatoes, the thirds, or smaller cuttings were employed. It will be found that if the seed-end pieces and the stem-end §18 POTATOES 15 pieces are planted separately, a more uniform stand will be insured. The eyes of the seed end sprout quicker than do the eyes of the stem end, and if they are separated it will be much better for cultivation and harvesting. 25. If only a small quantity of seed potatoes is to be cut, a pocket knife, a paring knife, or a sharp case knife will answer the purpose ; but if a large quantity is to be cut, some mechanical implement or device is often used in order to save time. In many cases, however, a man that understands Fig, 5 the work well can get better results with a sharp knife; that is, he can cut the seed in such a way as to leave a smoother cut surface and one that heals more quickly. Fig. 5 shows a device that will be found convenient if large quantities of potatoes are to be cut. It consists of a bench fitted with knives a. The bench can be extended so as to accommodate as many cutters as may be required. There are also many patented cutters on the market that work more or less suc- cessfully and rapidly. 16 POTATOES § 18 PliANTING OF POTATOES 26. Time of Planting. — Each community is the best judge of the proper date for planting. If potatoes are to be grown for the early market, the aim is to plant as early as possible, without subjecting the young plants to severe cold. The crop should be planted at such a date as to bring the stage of growth during which the tubers are rapidly developing at a time when there is ordinarily an adequate supply of moisture. The month when dry weather is most certain varies with the locality, and each pota,to grower should so time his planting as to be least affected by drought. Where the growing season is long, the crop that is to be stored over winter should be planted very late, so that it may remain in the ground until cool weather. On the other hand, where the season is short, late varieties should be planted in time to ripen before frost. 27. Spacing of Plants. — For the best yield of potatoes, the distance between rows and between the hills in the row depends on the variety, the size of the seed pieces, the seasons, the soil, the fertilizers, and the amount of later cultivation. If the seed pieces are small, the soil fertile, and the season favorable, the pieces may be dropped every 6 or 9 inches, but such close planting is not advisable. On well-prepared soil, cuttings that weigh about 1 ounce each can be advan- tageously planted as close as 12 inches. If the soil is in poor condition, however, the cuttings should not be placed closer than 15 or 18 inches. The factors that govern the distance between the hills will serve to determine the distance between the rows. If horse cultivators are to be used, it is not advisable to plant rows closer than 2^ feet nor farther apart than 3^ feet. The plan generally followed in planting is to keep the rows 3 feet apart and to place the seed 12 to 18 inches apart in the •rows. Such planting will usually require from 12 to 15 bushels of seed per acre. 28. Depth of Planting and Underground Growth. — The depth to which seed potatoes should be planted varies with §18 POTATOES 17 the system of cultivation that is practiced' afterwards, the character and condition of the soi}, and the prevailing weather conditions. Where level culture is to be practiced, the seed piece should be deposited from 3 to 4 inches below the gen- eral level of the surface. Where extreme ridge culture is practiced, the seed piece need not be placed at any depth below the surface; in such cases the cutting should be cov- Ji Fig. 6 ered sufficiently to allow it to start. On an open, light soil, deeper covering of the seed is necessary than when the soil is heavy. The favorable effects of deep planting are especially marked on well-prepared, friable soil and in dry seasons. Very deep planting is open to objection because of the increased labor of harvesting and the danger of a deficient stand when 18 POTATOES § 18 weather conditions are unfavorable. Very shallow planting reduces the yield and injures the quality of the crop. The roots of the potato plant do not grow directly from the seed piece, but from the joints of the underground stem. Hence, the seed pieces should be covered deep enough to permit several joints to form below the surface, so as to afford room for an ample supply of roots and tuber-bearing stems to grow. The results of many experiments seem to favor planting the seed pieces not less than 3^ or 4 inches deep. The method of growth of the potato plant underground is illustrated in Fig. 6. The seed piece a sends up the sprout, or stem, b, from the joints of which grow the roots c and the tuber-bearing stems d. On the ends of some of these tuber- bearing stems are the tubers e, while other stems, as at /, either remain barren or produce only a very small, immature tuber, as shown at g. 29. Planting by Hand. — Where only small areas of potatoes are to be grown, planting by hand is the usual prac- tice. After the soil has been thoroughly prepared, the fol- lowing plan is recommended: Open the rows deep and wide with either a double-moldboard plow or a shovel plow. If commercial fertilizer is to be applied, distribute it in the bot- tom of the furrow and then thoroughly incorporate it with the soil by going through the furrow lightly with a single- shovel plow. The thorough mixing with the soil is of impor- tance, because if the seed is put directly upon the fertilizer, it is possible that the bud of the seed will be weakened -or perhaps killed. Drop the seed in the bottom of the furrow, one piece in a place in the row. After this operation, cover the seed by means of either a double-moldboard plow or a shovel plow, breaking open the middle of the space between rows and covering the seed potatoes to the desired depth. This will leave the land in ridges, with furrows between the rows of potatoes. 30. Planting by Machine. — Planting large areas of potatoes by hand is not practicable on account of the expense of labor required. In planting large areas, a machine known §18 POTATOES 19 as the potato planter is used. The planter opens the furrow, appHes the fertilizer, drops and covers the seed, compacts the earth over the seed, and marks the place for the next furrow as it is drawn across the field by two horses. There are two general types of planters on the market. One, known as the picker type, is shown in Fig. 7. This planter has iron fingers that pull out a cutting at regular intervals and drop it in the newly opened furrow. One man can operate a machine of this type, though it is sometimes impossible to tell when the machine fails to plant. When the Fig. 7 seed pieces are of the proper size and shape, this machine will not skip more than five hills in one hundred hills. The other type of machine is shown in Fig. 8. In addition to the driver, this machine requires a man or boy on the rear, whose work is to place a cutting in the revolving compartment wheel immediately in front of him every time a vacant space occurs in it. The compartments in this wheel are supposed to be filled automatically, but occasionally one is not filled by the machine. In the hands of careful operators, this type of machine will plant all hills. 20 POTATOES §18 Care should be taken that no hills are missed in planting, because poor planting cannot be made up during the year, and, besides, the same amount of labor, fertilizing, spraying, etc. is required when the vacancies equal 20 per cent, as when only 1 per cent, of the hills are missing. ;"**->' . 9.- Fig. 8 31. A planting machine will plant 5 or 6 acres a day; therefore, during the planting season, one machine will cover a large area. It is a fact that a potato planter is one of the most expensive implements used in potato growing. How- ever, if several growers purchase one machine to be used jointly, the cost to each will not be great. The cost of a modern planter is about $70. § 18 POTATOES 21 CULTIVATING THE CROP 32. Purposes of Cultivation. — The purposes of cultivating the crop are to liberate plant-food, to conserve soil moisture, to maintain good texture and to aerate the soil, and to keep down weeds. Nothing will add more to the yield of the potato crop than frequent tillage with a shallow working implement. At the beginning of nearly every season there is sufficient moisture in the soil to carry the crop through, provided that moisture is conserved. Nothing will prevent the waste of this moisture better than frequent tillage with a cultivator that has a large number of fine teeth working at a depth of about 2 inches. This maintains a dust mulch that prevents the loss by evaporation of the capillary moisture. The dryer the season the more frequent should be the culti- vation. The use of the cultivator has produced more than one excellent crop of potatoes in seasons of drought. 33. Methods of Cultivating. — Immediately after the land has been thoroughly prepared, and the potatoes have been planted, shallow cultivation should be started. The most economical method is to run over the field about twice each week with a weeder or spike-tooth harrow with teeth set backwards, until the potatoes are out of the ground. This destroys all weeds while they are yet small and often obviates the need of hand hoeing even once. When this method is to be practiced, the cuttings must be planted at least 3 inches deep. If only shallow intertillage is afterwards practiced so that weed seeds are not brought up to the surface, the field will usually be practically free from weeds. A two-row riding cultivator with pivot gangs, pro- vided the gangs are fitted with many shallow working teeth, is the most economical implement to use. Very little hand culture should be necessary in the potato field. The method just outlined in which nothing but cul- tivators are used, is known as level culture. It is without doubt the most effective method of saving moisture and in times of drought will give the best results. When this method 22 POTATOES § 18 is followed, the potatoes are somewhat harder to dig with a machine than where ridge culture is practiced. 34. By ridge culture is meant that method of cultivation in which the ridging begins at the time of planting. The planter most used has a plow so constructed that it makes little more than a mark on the soil, unless it is very Ught, instead of a furrow; then the disks at the rear of the machine cover the seed by throwing up a ridge perhaps 4 inches high so that the seed at the very start is practically on a level with the surface between the rows. Some farmers make a prac- tice of going over the field with a weeder and somewhat flat- FiG. 9 tening the ridge soon after planting. The plan most usually followed is to go between the rows with the cultivator per- haps 8 to 10 days after the potatoes are planted, and then as soon as they begin to break the ground to go over with an implement known as a horse hoe, Fig. 9, and bury them, also burying the weeds at the same time and thereby raising the height of the ridge. Covering the young plants also pro- tects them from frosts in northern sections and is claimed to cause the plant to send out more tuber-bearing stems. This kind of cultivation is continued until the tops are too large to pass through without injury. By this time an A-shaped § 18 POTATOES 23 ridge has been formed about 12 to 15 inches high and, of course, the surface between the rows has been dropped by the continual scraping up of the dirt so that the tubers growing in the ridge are considerably above the surface between the rows. It can readily be seen that in a dry season a field so handled must suffer considerably from lack of moisture. Of course, in localities where wet seasons are the rule, no lack of moisture is felt and the drains between the rows are an advantage rather than an injury; but in an extremely dry season or in light sandy soil the drainage is too great. As the ridges are high and narrow, they dry out very quickly ; it would appear, therefore, that the crop must suffer mere from lack of moisture than it would if the roots of the plants were below the level as they are when level culture is practiced. 35. A combination of the level and ridge methods of cultivation is often practiced with profit. The potatoes should not be cultivated deep, especially close to the rows, after the vines have attained any considerable size. If they are, the roots will be injured and the yield decreased. HAEVESTING, STOBAGE, AND MARKETING OP POTATOES 36. Harvesting. — .The death of the potato vines is the signal for digging the main crop. For the early market, potato growers do not wait f. Fig. 1 taction from cold is not needed for these as for cigar-wrapper tobacco. Virgin soil rather than cultivated land is to be preferred for the seed-bed. A piece of old blue-grass turf turned under in the fall is often used when virgin soil is not available. If well cared for and dressed with manure in the fall, the bed of soil where such turf has been turned under may be used for several years. Commercial fertilizers are not much used in the beds, which should be naturally quite fertile. § 21 TOBACCO 3 4. Preparation of Seed-Bed. — The burning of wood and trash on seed-beds to destroy weed seeds and fungous spores is a common practice, though less common now than formerly. The soil is now more frequently steamed or burned to a depth of 2 inches or more by a tobacco-bed burner, shown in Fig. 1. It consists of a sheet-iron platform 3 feet wide and 9 feet long, with a pair of wheels at one end and haiidles at the other so that it can be moved along by the side of the bed. A fire is started underneath and earth from the bed is shoveled on and roasted. The earth is stirred to roast it all through and is then put back on the bed. Steam sterilization, as previously described in Tobacco, Part 1, will, in some cases, be found less expensive and more thorough. It is as effectual and prevents any danger of injuriously burning .the organic matter or the clay in the soil. The soil of the bed should be well drained, well worked, cleared of all stones, roots, and trash, and raised a little above the surface of the surrounding land with paths about the beds and across them at intervals. The bed is surrounded with inch boards set on edge, wires are stretched across to hold a cloth cover about 6 inches above the ground, and the whole is covered with cheese cloth or light Cotton cloth fastened securely on one side, and on the other in such a way that it can be raised and rolled back for watering and weeding of the bed. The arrangement, preparation, and care of the beds is essentially the same as for cigar- wrapper tobacco. 5. Sowing the Tobacco Seed. — The seed is sown from early January until the first of April. One heaping tea- spoonful of Burley seed mixed with 1 pint or more of fine dry ashes or punk is enough for 200 square feet of bed. The same quantity of Export tobacco seed is enough for 300 square feet of bed. There is no good reason for this difference; custom has established these measures. The seed germinates more slowly than that of cigar-wrapper tobacco, and sometimes 3 weeks are necessary for complete germina- tion. If the beds are sowed late because of bad weather, a partial germination of the seed before sowing is desirable. 4 TOBACCO § 21 RAISING THE TOBACCO CROP 6. Soil Suitable for Export and White Burley Tobaccos.— As in the cigar-wrapper tobacco districts, only part of the soil in Export and White Burley tobacco districts is suitable for the successful growth of the crop, and careful selection of soil is the prime requisite to success. Virgin soils, newly cleared, yield the finest quality of both White Burley and Export tobaccos, although the yield is larger on soils that have been tilled for some years. The soil should be a rather heavy loam, fertile, easily worked, and must contain a fair quantity of humus. Such soils are decidely different from the light, sandy soils that are most desirable for the production of cigar-wrapper tobacco. The typical soil for thie production of White Burley tobacco contains 11.97 per cent, of sand, 49.13 per cent, of silt, 31.62 per cent, of clay, and 7.28 per cent, of organic matter. The typical soil for the production of cigar- wrapper tobacco contains 82.30 per cent, of sand, 11.77 per cent, of silt, 2.32 per cent, of clay, and 3.61 per cent, of |.'»;;S.''^ C/o^ BmmjJI Organic Ma//er Fig. 2 organic matter. These percentages for the two soils are shown graphically in Fig. 2, the soil for White Burley tobacco being represented in (a) and that for cigar-wrapper tobacco in (6) . A heavy loam underlaid with clay is typical of some of the best White Burley and Export tobacco soils. These tobaccos are grown most successfully on virgin soil, in a rotation after 2 or 3 years on a virgin soil, or on an old blue-grass sod. A short rotation is tobacco, wheat, and clover and timothy for 2 years. A longer rotation that is likely to yield a better quality of tobacco is to follow tobacco with wheat, sowing blue grass, timothy, and clover with it. § 21 TOBACCO 5 The blue grass makes a fine pasture after the timothy and clover have gone, and then tobacco is grown again on the inverted blue-grass sod. 7. Preparation of Field for White Burley and Export Tobaccos. — Spring plowing is advisable, except that old blue- grass sod on level land may be broken up in the fall. The spring plowing should be early if the land is in sod. If tobacco follows tobacco or any other tilled crop, a winter cover crop should be grown. The land must be well-plowed, harrowed, and rolled, and left in fine workable condition. The crust should be broken with a light harrow, if necessary, before the plants are set. 8. Fertilization for Export and White Burley Tobaccos. Nothing definite has been determined as to the quantity of fertilizers that can profitably be used in growing Export and White Burley tobaccos, or as to the forms best suited to these crops. Tobacco stems and stalks are valued; stable manure is believed to make the tobacco coarse, although this can be true only when it is used in large quantities. It will certainly increase the size of leaf and weight of crop on poor land. Liberal fertilization is less necessary on rather heavy loam soils containing large quantities of silt and clay than on light, leachy sand soils, because the silt and clay is made up of much smaller particles that retain the soil water better, afford more surface over which the plant rootlets may gather their foods, and contain larger quantities of the essential elements of plant-food than the coarser sand particles. Also, the fact that the Export and White Burley tobaccos are grown in rotation with other crops to which the soil is suited, while the cigar-wrapper t6bacco is grown on a naturally less fertile soil without rotation, makes the need of fertilization less where the Export and White Burley tobaccos are grown. Hill fertilizing rather than broadcasting the fertilizer is practiced where the dark Export tobacco is grown, because, where a small quantity of fertilizer is applied it is desirable that the larger part of it be used by the crop immediately following the application. By fertilizing in the hill, however, there is more 6 TOBACCO §21 risk of burning the roots in a time of drought than when the fertilizer is mixed with the soil of the whole field. A small part of the fertilizer may be used in the hills as a starter and the rest broadcasted and worked into the soil by cultivation. 9. Setting Export and White Burley Seedlings. — Export and White Burley tobaccos are usually set in rows 3i feet apart and 18 inches apart in the row. These distances must be varied according to the quality of the soil, setting farther apart on poor than on rich soils. Wide setting on rich soil is likely to give too coarse a leaf. Dark Export tobacco is usually set in check-rows, 4 feet apart each way. The setting of the plants is done by hand on small fields, but setting with a machine saves time and labor and does the work bet- ter on large smooth fidds. 10. Cultivation of Tobacco Crop. — The results to be secured by the cultivation of any variety of tobacco are the same, the most im- portant of which are to keep down the weeds and to prevent the evaporation of the soil moisture. The kind of tools used for the cultivation of tobacco varies in different sections, depending on the condition of the soil, tradition of the residents, and the quality and the cost of labor. In general, the first cultivation is given the field in about a week after setting, with a double-shovel plow, such as shown in Fig. 3, going rather deep and close to the rows; after this, only shallow cultivation is given with any suitable cultivator. The hand hoe should be used only to keep the weeds out from between the plants in the rows. Cultivation must not continue after the plants have become so large that the leaves will be injured by the operation. Fig. 3 §21 TOBACCO 11. Budding, or Topping, and Suckering of Export and White Burley Tobaccos. — It requires sound judgment of the capacity of the soil and of each plant to top properly. Weak plants and plants on poor soil should be topped relatively low ; strong plants on rich soil should be topped high because they can ripen more leaves than the former. About fourteen to sixteen leaves are left on Export and White Burley tobaccos when topping. Soon after topping, suckers appear; these, if left, will rob the plant just as blossoming will rob it. All suckers must be broken off from time to time as soon as they are 3 or 4 inches long. HARVESTING OF EXPORT AND WHITE BTTRLEY TOBACCOS 12. Harvesting Export Tobacco. — The harvesting of Export tobacco differs somewhat in detail from that of White Burley, more care being taken with the latter because of its greater value. The cutting ^ of Export tobacco is com- menced in about 6 weeks or 2 months after topping. When ripe, the leaves droop, are mottled with yellow, are very gummy, and are crisp, breaking more readily than when unripe. Often less than half the crop is ready to be harvested when cutting is begun. The . harvest should not immediately fol- low a rain, and if possible the tobacco should be cut after the dew is off but when the sun is not too hot. In harvesting the entire plant, the stalk is split down to within 6 or 7 inches of the base with a knife such as is shown in Fig. 4; then cut off close to the ground and inverted or Fig. 4 8 TOBACCO §21 stood on its head on the ground to wilt before handling. As soon as it has wilted enough to handle, as many plants as are to go on one lath, usually from six to twelve, are piled together, heads to the sun, and in rows with a driveway between them. A workman sticks the end of the stick, or lath, in the soil and straddles the plants on it. These sticks of tobacco are then ready to be loaded and carried to the curing barn. If the weather is clear and the barn at some distance, it will pay to hang the lath of tobacco on scaffolds high enough so that the leaves will clear the ground. Here it may wilt for several days, and as it loses much water, larger loads of wilted tobacco than of un wilted tobacco may be hauled. A light Fig. 5 ■rain will not injure the tobacco hung on scaffolds, and when well wilted in the field it may be hung closer in the bam than when unwilted. It should be carried to the barn, hung across a wagon rack, such as shown in Fig. 5, rather than piled on the wagon carelessly. It is hung on poles in much the same way as cigar-wrapper tobacco is hung. 13. In certain sections a small quantity of Export and White Burley tobaccos is harvested by three primings. In the first priming from three to four of the bottom leaves, known as ground leaves, are removed ; in the second, from six to eight of the middle leaves, known as the middles, are removed; and in the third, the top leaves, or the tips, are Fig. 6 Fig. 7 10 TOBACCO § 21 taken. Priming of these heavy tobaccos differs from priming of cigar- wrapper tobacco in that the workmen go through the field and remove the leaves and lay them in small piles on the ground. Fig. 6 shows workmen taking off the middles and leaving them in piles on the ground; Fig. 7 illustrates other workmen gathering the piles of leaves and loading them on a wagon. They are then hauled to a tobacco house or barn, where the leaves are strung across tobacco lath, or sticks, as follows: The tobacco is placed on tables or benches in a con- venient position for the stringers; tobacco twine is fastened to a number of lath as has been described in Tobacco, Part 1 ; Fig. 8 a needle is placed on the string on the lath, which is sup- ported on a light frame or on stakes driven into the ground as shown in Fig. 8 ; and the stringer pierces the leaves through the midrib and places them, two at a time, on the string over the lath. Each alternate pair of leaves is placed on opposite sides of the lath until only about 3 inches of the end of the stick remains uncovered. The needle is then removed and the string tied to the end of the lath. The laths of tobacco are then placed on a scaffold, as shown in Fig. 9, where the §21 TOBACCO 11 tobacco wilts before it is placed in the bam or house to com- plete the curing. 14. Harvesting of White Burley Tobacco. — White Burley tobacco is harvested in a month or more after being topped. The plants are cut in the way described for Export tobacco, Fig. 9 but the cutter at once strings them, five or six on a lath, so that they are kept clean of sand and dirt. If possible the leaf should be wilted on scaffolds in the field and may then be hung as close as 8 to 10 inches in the barn. CURING OF EXPORT AND WHITE BURLEY TOBACCOS 15. Curing of Export Tobacco. — Export tobacco is gener- ally cured by the direct heat of open fires and occasionally by heat from flues. It must be remembered that the curing is a slow natural process and the heat is only to hasten and control that process. If the leaf is taken directly to the barn after harvesting, it is left hanging for several days before the curing by fire is begun. If it has been wilted for several days in the field 234 —29 12 TOBACCO § 21 fire is begun at once. The first day the barn is very gradually heated to 85° or 90° F., and after this the heat is gradually raised to 150° F. In 3 or 4 days the leaf surface and part of the stem should have come to color and be cured. The fires are then allowed to go out, and the barn is opened if necessary, to let the leaf come into case, which it does quite readily on account of the sap remaining in the midrib and stems. The fires are then started again, and the process of drying and airing is continued until the leaf has assumed the color and quality desired and the midrib is cured. The tobacco is then ready to take down, but if in the meantime damp weather occurs, fires should be started to prevent pole burn. The firing is done with logs kept burning with small brush- wood as needed. Flames that endanger the tobacco or the building must be avoided. The creosote and carbon absorbed from the smoke are desirable rather than injurious to Export tobacco because such tobacco is less likely to be damaged in shipment or by further fermentation. 16. Curing of White Burley Tobacco. — ^White Burley tobacco, being more valuable, is cured. with much more care than is usually given to Export tobacco. It is cured in the air without heat, except when necessary to prevent or check pole burn, and for that purpose charcoal or coke fires are used, any considerable smoking of the leaf being very unde- sirable. The general management of the curing is essentially the same as described for the curing of cigar-wrapper tobacco. BULKING OF EXPORT AND WHITE BURLET TOBACCOS 17. Bulking of Export Tobacco. — Export tobacco that has been harvested and cured on the stalk should not be taken down and stripped until late in November. It is essential that the tobacco be in case, but it should not be taken down in cold weather, however good the condition of the leaf may be. If the tobacco is in too high case it may be damaged in bulk; if the tobacco is too dry, or in low case. §21 TOBACCO 13 it will be damaged in handling. The ideal time to take down Export tobacco is during a warm rain, or during damp, foggy weather in winter. The laths are removed from the cured stalks, the plants laid in neat piles and covered with blankets to protect them from drying out. Later the leaves are stripped from the stalks, sorted into uniform grades, and tied in hands, one of which is shown in Fig. 10. The hands are also bulked until the tobacco is to be delivered to the buyer. 18. If the tobacco has been har- vested by priming, the lath are taken down while the tobacco is in case and placed in convenient-sized bulks. The lath with the tobacco are laid shingle fashion as described in taking down cigar-wrapper tobacco. Later, at the convenience of the grower, . the lath are removed, the tobacco rolled in bundles and placed in bulk. This is accomplished by placing two lath one above the other on a table, , cutting the twine at both ends and ' carefully drawing out the lath. The ' ends of the two strings of tob.acco are then folded over on top nearly to I i^ the middle, and then one-half is folded ] over the other. This makes a neat roll, which is placed with others in a bulk where it may remain until delivered to the tobacco buyer. Occasionally, the leaves are removed from the twine, sorted, and tied into hands before being delivered to the buyer. 1 9. Bulking of White Burley Tobacco. — The rules given for taking down and stripping Export tobacco apply also to White Burley, but the latter is more subject to injury than the former. If it is taken down when it is going out of case it will continue to dry out in the bulk. It should be taken down while in perfect condition, not when the weather i? I t V Fig. 10 14 TOBACCO § 21 changing from wet to dry. If bulked in the winter, it will damage in April and May unless hung again on the poles; if bulked in "summer case" it will keep almost indefinitely. In sorting White Burley the two or three light sanded leaves at the base of the stalk are graded as fliers; trash, con- sisting of torn, broken, and badly damaged leaves, comes next ; these, with the lugs, the next grade better than trash, are light in color and often have the best selling price; the bright leaf is finer in appearance than the foregoing, but frequently brings less per pound; and the top leaves are red and still lower in price. It must be remembered that watchful care during the cure, and the greatest care, skill, and neatness in handling and packing the leaf are even more essential to successful selling than the ordinary field operations in growing the crop. The appearance of the crop in market, evenness and correct- ness of sorting, and neatness in tying and handling take the eye and command the price of the dealer. BRIGHT YELI-OW TOBACCO 20. The finest grade of Bright Yellow tobacco as marketed has a bright lemon-yellow color, is soft, fine, and silky in texture, is strong and elastic, and has fine veins. The finer grades are used for plug wrappers; the other grades, for plug fillers and for pipe and smoking tobaccos. The crop varies greatly in quality and price according to the region where it is grown and the success of the curing, which is a more difficult operation with Bright Yellow tobacco than with other tobaccos. It is grown in the southern counties of Virginia, to some extent in Eastern Tennessee, in North Carolina from coast to mountains, in South Carolina, and to a very limited extent in other states. § 21 TOBACCO 15 RAISING BRIGHT YELLOW TOBACCO 21. Soil Suitable for Bright Yellow Tobacco. — Bright Yellow tobacco grows best on light, sandy drift soils that are well drained and naturally not fertile. New land is com- monly believed to yield, other things being equal, brighter leaf than land that has been tilled, although opinions differ on this point. Certainly the judicious use of fertilizers on land previously tilled yields large and paying crops of this variety of tobacco. As is true of all other kinds of tobacco, even in the most favored districts, there is a great difference in the adaptability of individual fields to the production of the best grades of Bright Yellow tobacco, and therefore the choice of soils is a critical and difficult matter, and is best made by those who have had experience with the crop in the particular region in question. The field on which Bright Yellow tobacco is to be planted should be broken up in the fall and plowed shallow again or disk harrowed in the spring, and cultivated with a smooth- ing harrow not long before the plants are to be set in order to have a mellow soil in which to set the seedlings. 22. Fertilization for Bright Yellow Tobacco and Setting of Seedlings. — The soil itself, being naturally unproductive, must be dressed with manure or commercial fertilizers, or both. About 1 cord, or 2 tons, of manure with from 400 to 800 pounds per acre of a commercial fertilizer recommended for cigar-wrapper tobacco should be applied. It is a common practice to put all the fertilizer in furrows where the rows of tobacco are to be, to throw the earth from two furrows over it, and then to harrow level. The seedlings of Bright Yellow tobacco are raised in seed- beds prepared the same as for White Burley tobacco and are set in rows from 3 to 3^ feet apart and from 18 to 30 inches apart in the row, depending on the fertility of the soil. The seedlings are set at any time between the second week in April and the early part of June, depending on the latitude and the conditions of the season. 16 TOBACCO § 21 23. Cultivation and Topping of Bright Yellow Tobacco. The cultivation and care of Bright Yellow tobacco is essen- ■ tially the same as that of cigar-wrapper tobacco and of Export and White Burley tobaccos. The earliest, strongest plants are sometimes topped to fourteen leaves, but more often to ten or twelve leaves. If the crop is to be harvested by priming, more leaves may be left in topping than if the whole plant is harvested at once. HARVESTING OF BKIGHT YELLOW TOBACCO 24. Bright Yellow tobacco should ripen more in the field than other tobaccos. Before harvest, the field should be yellowish green and the leaves should have spots of a lighter yellow color than the rest of the leaf. A day or two either way will make a great difference in the color of the cured crop and the profit from its sale. To decide on the exact time of harvest requires much experience and good judg- ment. Formerly the whole plant was cut and strung on lath as the White Burley is cut and hung. Lately, priming has been practiced with excellent results. Three or four leaves are taken at each priming from the bottom of the stalk up, and are put in baskets and taken to the barn at once, Where they are strung on lath, seventy or eighty leaves to a lath. The lath are hung from 8 to 12 inches apart in the barn. Some growers use laths with wires fastened around them about 8 inches apart so that the ends of the wires project a few inches on opposite sides of the lath and at right angles to it. A small bunch of leaves is strung on each wire by piercing each leaf through the midrib near the base. These lath or sticks cannot, however, be bulked down with the tobacco when it is cured. A better practice is to fasten the bunches alternately on each side of the lath or stick by a string, fastened at the end of the lath and making a loop or half hitch about the base of the leaf stems. The method of stringing Export and White Burley tobaccos already described would seem applicable to Bright Yellow tobacco. § 21 TOBACCO 17 CURING OF BRIGHT YELLOW TOBACCO 25. The curing of Bright Yellow tobacco with perfect success is a difficult matter. When the barn is filled with tobacco the doors and ventilators are closed and the fires started as quickly as possible. A thermometer should be hung near the center of the barn ; it will need constant watch- ing until the curing is finished in order to keep the temper- ature regulated. During the first 36 hours, or until the leaf has completely turned yellow, the firing is very moderate, so that the heat rises gradually from 80 degrees to not over 120 degrees at the end of that time. The desirable yellow color secured at the end of this period must be maintained, and this is the critical time in the process of curing. The temperature must be regulated, but the moisture conditions, of which a thermometer gives no hint, are even more impor- tant. The heat must be kept up and gradually raised to about 135 degrees during the next 10 to 18 hours. The object is to dry out and kill the tissue of the leaf so that no further changes can take place in it. This means that a large quantity of water must be driven out of the building, and to do this the barn must be sufficiently ventilated and the firing must be sufficient to keep up the temperature in spite of the ventilation. But if one must be sacrificed to the other in an emergency, it should be the temperature. If drops of water show on any leaves, more ventilation must be given at once or the leaf will become red and soft. If the temperature runs up too rapidly the leaf will scald and become discolored. As soon as the leaf has become quite dry, the most critical time during the curing is past. It only remains to dry the midribs, or stems. The barn is closed again and the heat allowed to rise gradually to 165 degrees or 170 degrees, where the temperature is held until the stems are well dried. At this time the cured leaves burn very readily and special watchfulness is needed to guard against fire from the fur- naces or flues. When the stems are quite brittle the fires are drawn from the flues and the barn is opened during a night. 18 TOBACCO § 21 The leaf is then ready to be taken down and bulked; if the leaf is not in case, wet straw may be spread on the floor of the closed barn to supply moisture until the leaf is in proper case. BULKING OF BRIGHT YELLOW TOBACCO 26. The lath are taken down, carried to the sorting house and piled in bulks without taking off the plants or leaves, with the butts out and tips to the middle, shingling the sticks, that is, piling the sticks so that the leaves or plants overlap those on the stick beneath, so that the pile is evenly compact. After lying a week, the pile is moved to another spot to air the leaf and prevent mold. This seasoning also improves the colors and brings the greenish leaves to color if they have not been overheated in the cure. The tobacco is then ready to be sorted into grades, which are: wrappers, cutters, and smokers. The wrappers are the perfect leaves, which are sorted into grades, according to the color, as bright yellow, orange yellow, and mahogany; the cutters are the leaves imperfect in color; and the smokers are the torn and light-bodied leaves and .those next to the ground, which sometimes become covered with earth and sand while the plant is growing. SUN-CUEBD TOBACCO 27. Near Richmond, Virginia, a tobacco known as Sun- cured tobacco is grown to a small extent. The growing of the seedlings and the care of the tobacco in the field is practically the same as that of Export tobacco. The usual time for transplanting the seedlings is from May 20 to June 15. The distance between the rows varies from 3^ to 4 feet and the distance between the plants in the rows varies from 24 to 42 inches. The crop is usually harvested in September by splitting and cutting the plants and straddling them on lath. The lath are then hung on scaffolds, where, if the season is favorable, the tobacco remains until the first stage of curing is nearly completed. The curing is then completed § 21 TOBACCO 19 by air curing in barns. On account of its being cured chiefly while exposed to the sun it is called Sun-cured tobacco. The plants are taken down and stripped the same as Export tobacco. The better grades of Sun-cured tobacco are used for manufacture into chewing tobacco and the poorer grades into smoking tobacco. PERIQUE TOBACCO 28, Perique tobacco has been grown successfully only on two small tracts in St. James Parish, Louisiana. It has a wide reputation, chiefly as a pipe tobacco, having an appearance, taste, and aroma quite different from that of any other kind of tobacco. It grows quickly and matures early. The entire plants are cut and a short piece of cane or a nail thrust obliquely into the base of each plant so as to form a hook. The plants are then hung by means of the hooks over ropes or wires stretched across the unheated curing barn. As soon as the main part of the leaves turn brown and while the midribs are still ^reen, the plants are taken down, the half leaves are stripped from the midribs, rolled into loose twists, packed in boxes, and put under a pressure of several thousand pounds for 24 hours. The leaves are then shaken out and aired until the juices that have been pressed to the surface are either absorbed or evaporated. This process of pressing and drying is repeated at intervals for several weeks until the tobacco is entirely cured. It is then quite black, has a rich and agreeable aroma, and is packed for sale in barrels or in cylindrical rolls. 20 TOBACCO § 21 DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF TOBACCO DISEASES OF TOBACCO 29, Damping Off. — The disease of tobacco known as damping off is indicated in the seed-bed by a sudden wilting of the young plants, after which they rot off at the surface of the ground. It is also known as stem rot and as bed rot, and is caused by a fungus. The disease develops when the soil and air of the bed are too damp, and sometimes spreads quickly over the bed unless conditions change. When damping off appears, the bed should be immediately aired and dried, if that is possible. . Care and skill in- keeping the seed-bed well aired will usually prevent serious trouble from this disease, especially if the beds have been sterilized. 30. Calico, or Mosaic, Disease. — A trouble that seldom shows on tobacco plants in the bed but may appear at any time after they have started into rapid growth in the field is known as calico, or mosaic, disease. It shows on the leaves, making dark-green patches of small area at first, which give the leaf a mottled appearance. These patches soon cause a wrinkled or puckered surface on the leaf, because of the different rate of growth of the affected and healthy surface. This disease is especially hurtful on the cigar-wrapper tobacco, as the affected leaves will never cure and make cigar wrappers. Often the trouble goes so far that the calico spots die while the plant is still growing in the field and then fall out, leaving holes in the leaf. The cause of the disease is not known. It is very infectious. Sound plants can be infected by coming in contact with clothing that has brushed against infected plants in passing through the rows, by being topped with a knife that has been used on infected plants, or by being handled, even gently, with § 21 TOBACCO 21 the hands after they have been in contact with the diseased leaves. If mature leaves are inoculated in this way calico will not appear on them, but will appear on new, tender growth above. Plants that show decided calico before any leaves are large should be pulled and carefully taken away without touching sound plants and the hands of the work- man well washed thereafter before touching sound tobacco. Sound plants should not be topped by the same hands or the same knife used to top plants affected with calico, at least not without careful washing. 31. Root Rot. — A fungous disease called root rot has at times done much damage to tobacco crops. It attacks the roots of the tobacco, appearing as black spots. It some- times kills the main, or tap, root and thus kills the plant in dry weather. If the weather is favorable, new roots may develop above the point of the disease and keep the plant alive. The symptom that the grower notices first is a lack of thrift of the seedlings in the beds; the plants stop growin'g and either wilt or die, or they form unhealthy rosettes of leaves with no good stalks and then start into growth again, but never give a healthy, well-developed crop. Other signs of this disease may be seen on pulling up an unhealthy plant and washing the roots on which are blackened spots, and the rootlets are yellowish instead of their natural color, which is white. The fungus causing this disease can be killed in the beds by sterilization before the seed is sown. It is altogether likely that the fungus is often or always living in the soil and attacks the plants only when all conditions are favorable. Experiments have shown that too alkaline a state of the soil is a favorable condition for the development of the disease. Such a condition may be remedied by using no lime for a few years and sulphates instead of carbonate as sources of potash. Resting the land by a rotation is the surest corrective. 32. Pole Burn. — The disease known as pole burn is caused by a fungus that does not attack the leaves while living but grows on them when dead and partly cured, weakening or 22 TOBACCO § 21 destroying their tissues. That part nearest the midribs is attacked first. The injured areas turn dark, finally black and rotten, and, where the conditions are right for its spread, this disease may destroy the whole crop, the rotten leaves falling from the stems and forming a wet, evil-smelUng mass on the ground. Whole bamfuls of tobacco have been ruined within 48 hours from the time that the attack was noticed, but such attacks are not common. In milder forms, pole bum makes discolored or dark, tender spots on some of the leaves. The germs of this disease are probably always present in tobacco barns, but cannot attack the leaf except when all conditions are favorable. The favorable conditions are: when the tobacco is already dead and come to color, there is a certain degree of heat (the disease does not spread at low temperatures) and there is abundant water on and in the leaf, which is caused in turn by an atmosphere saturated or nearly saturated with water. The last condition, which is essential to the spread of pole bum, is the only one that can in any case be controlled by the grower. The only chance in checking the development of this disease is in drying the air of the bam, and by this means drying the leaf. If the grower can do this he can certainly prevent the trouble or stop it quickly after it has begun. Close hanging of the plants, by diminishing the circulation of air in the barn, makes the crop more susceptible to this disease. The watchful grower will be caught only when the weather from the middle of the curing time is wet and muggy with a saturated atmosphere and no wind. When such a condition prevails the circulation of air in the barn stops and evapo- ration of the moisture on and in the leaves is impossible. The water-laden air deposits water on the cooler leaf and then trouble immediately begins. When the grower faces this condition he must save what he can by using artificial heat. The most effective method of applying the heat so far devised is to build charcoal fires on every 400 or 500 square feet of barn-floor space. The tobacco § 21 TOBACCO 23 on the lowest tiers immediately over these fires must be moved or the leaves will be killed and dried quickly by the heat and will make very undesirable tobacco. Cheap charcoal furnaces have been made for this use, and have a piece of sheet iron 3 feet square over the top to dis- tribute the heat ; if they are not available open fires will have to answer. All the fires are kindled at the same time, the barn is closed tight, and the fires forced until the air all through the barn is very much warmer than that outside. The fires are then slackened and the barn opened quickly to let the hot air saturated with moisture escape to be replaced with colder air. After an hour's airing, the bam is again closed and the heating repeated. The air from outside, even if saturated when taken in, takes up, after heating, much more water from the tobacco, and is then allowed to escape, as before. Night is the best time for this operation, and it should be continued until the tobacco on the lower tiers has been brought into safe condition. ENEMIES OV TOBACCO 33. Broom Rape. — A dangerous enemy of tobacco in the White Burley and the Export tobacco regions is caused by broom rape. This is a parasitic plant with white, yellow, brown, or purplish stems and no green leaves. It is found close -to the roots of tobacco, hemp, or other plants that it attacks. It fastens itself to the roots of the host plant, tobacco or hemp, and grows by the nourishment supplied by its host, thus impoverishing if it does not kill the plant on which it lives. It blossoms and seeds freely, and its seeds will remain alive in the soil for years, germinating whenever tobacco or hemp grows near them. Whenever found it should be torn up' and its blossoming prevented at all hazards, or it may in time seriously injure the whole tobacco industry. It is probably introduced in rape seed. 34. Cutworms. — Several species of cutworms attack young tobacco plants and cut them off at the surface of the 24 TOBACCO §21 ground. They are more injurious when sod, especially clover sod, is plowed in the spring and the land planted to tobacco. Such land, when it is to grow tobacco, should be plowed in the fall and kept free of all vegetation by disking or harrowing until the time for setting the tobacco, when most of the cutworms will have been starved to death. When cutworms such as are shown in Fig. 11 are known to exist in the soil in whidh tobacco is to be planted they may be poisoned by a bait consisting of 1 pound of Paris green, ^ gallon of molasses, 100 pounds of fine bran, and enough water to moisten the whole; this mixture is scattered on the rows several days before planting. The cutworms like this mixture, which will kill all those that are ready to attack the crop. Care should be taken that livestock and fowls do not get the poison. As the worms hatch out in the ground from day to day for a month or more, further protection is needed. A day or two after the seedlings are transplanted another mixture of 1 pound of Paris green and 150 pounds of plaster or dry air-slaked lime is dusted over the plants. A good duster is made by fastening a stick for a handle to a quart can, with holes punched in the bottom. This can is filled with the poison mixture which is shaken over each plant. New plants should be set where any have been killed by cutworms in order to secure as even a stand of tobacco as possible. r * 1^'^ '■ *> V / ■ - , A * 4 i 4 • 4 > \: ?' 7 V * ' ■ V? / r Fig. 12 25 26 TOBACCO §21 35. There are two particular cutworms that eat into the buds and seed pods of the growing plant. One of these is the bud worm, which is also known as the boll worm, the corn- ear worm, and the tomato-fruit worm; the other is the shatter worm. A small hole eaten into the unfolded leaf will cause large holes in the matured leaf or a deformed leaf such as shown in Fig. 12. The effects of bud worms on seed pods is shown in Fig. 13. All the seed in pods thus affected have been destroyed. The most effective method of combating these worms is Fig. 14 to watch for them and kill them as they appear. Dust- ing the worms with the mix- ture of Paris green and lime dust described in the previous article is recommended as a successful method of poisoning Fig. 13 them. 36. Flea Beetles. — Small, black, jumping beetles, which are known as fiea beetles and also as tobacco fleas and as tobacco flea beetles, one of which, drawn to a large scale, is shown in Fig. 14, sometimes destroy young tobacco plants in the seed- bed, and also greatly injure the plant in the field by punc- turing the leaves full of holes, a:s shown in Fig. 15. These §21 TOBACCO 27 insects can be killed in the seed-bed by thoroughly spraying them with a mixture of 1 pound of arsenate-of-lead paste and 15 gallons of water. The same spray may be applied to the field plants, but will usually be found too expensive to justify its use. 37. Grasshoppers. — Some seasons when the tobacco field is adjacent to meadow or pas- ture lands, grasshoppers will do considerable damage by eating characteristic irregular holes in the tobacco leaves, as shown in Fig. 16. The damage done by these insects is usually greatest along the borders of the tobacco field after the adjacent meadow has been mown or when a drought causes the pasture grass to become rather dry. Grasshoppers may be poisoned by the bran baits recommended for poisoning cutworms or by a mixture known in some sections as the Criddle mixture, which is made by mixing 1 pound of Paris green with 60 pounds of fresh horse dung and 2 pounds of salt dissolved in water. The grasshoppers are attracted by the salt when this mixture is sprinkled around the borders of the tobacco field. Flocks of turkeys, when allowed to range over the fields in the vicinity of the tobacco field, are effective 234—30 A C^ 1 't\ 1 Fig. 16 28 §21 TOBACCO 29 in reducing the numbers of the grasshoppers. When turkeys have access to the fields, however, poisoned baits should not be used. 38. Tobacco Worms. — ^The so-called worms commonly known as tobacco worms, tomato worms, and tobacco horn- worms, are the larvas of two moths. These larvas often cause great loss to tobacco growers by eating the growing Fig. 17 leaves full of holes and large portions from the sides of the leaves. One of the larvas, known as the northern tobacco worm, because it is the most troublesome in northern sections, is shown at a in Fig. 17. The moth that lays the eggs from which the larvas are hatched is illustrated at b, and the pupa, or the form in which the larva passes the winter, is shown in c. From the pupa c, which is simply the larva a in another form, the moth b emerges the following spring or summer and 30 TOBACCO §21 immediately lays the eggs that hatch the worms. Thus the worm.s are reproduced year after year. The worm that is most common in the southern tobacco-growing sections is shown at a in Fig. 18, its pupa form at c, and the mature moth at b. The moths and the pupas of these two larvas, or worms, do not destroy tobacco, but since they are merely different Pig. 18 forms of the tobacco worm they should always be destroyed whenever they are found about the tobacco field or barn. 39. The moths may be seen in the tobacco field about dusk, from June until August, when they are laying their eggs. At this time many of them may be poisoned by squirting, with a medicine dropper, a few drops of a solution § 21 TOBACCO 31 of 1 ounce of arsenide of cobalt, 1 pint of honey, and 1 pint of water into the newly opened flowers of the Jamestown, or jimson, weed, which the moths are in the habit of visiting in search of food. The cobalt and the water may be added together and kept in stock, but the honey should be added only as needed. The jimson weeds, in the flowers of which the solution is to be placed, may be grown around the field for this purpose, or the flowers may be gathered and dis- tributed about the field. The flowers may be placed in f-inch holes bored in lath, which are placed in a horizontal position on stakes driven into the ground. The worms can be poisoned by dusting each plant with a mixture of 1 part, by weight, of Paris green and 25 parts of some convenient dry powder, such as dry slaked lime, spoiled flour, or road dust. This mixture is to be applied at the rate of from i to 1 pound per acre by means of a dust gun. Some authorities claim that the danger of injuring the tobacco for chewing and smoking purposes is so slight as not to be con- sidered until after the suckers have been removed. Other authorities refuse to recommend the use of the application of poisons for the destruction of tobacco worms. The most common and most effective way of combating the tobacco worm is by "worming" — that is, picking the worms from the plants by hand and killing them. Worming is done largely in connection with the operations of hoeing, topping, suckering, and priming, and therefore is not in itself expensive. But when the worms appear in large numbers during July and August a special effort must be made to rid the plants of the pests, for at this time the worms can easily conceal themselves on the under side of the large leaves. The tobacco field should be plowed in the fall after the tobacco is harvested, for in so doing a large number of the pupas will either be killed or so exposed that they will be destroyed before the following spring. 32 TOBACCO § 21 TOBACCO BARNS BAEN FOR AIB CTJEING OF TOBACCO 40. General Requirements of Barn for Air Curing of Tobacco. — The barn in which tobacco is to be air cured must stand on well-drained ground, far enough away from other buildings and woods that it will have a free circulation of air on all sides, and as near the tobacco field as possible. It should be built to withstand sudden and severe windstorms, to be capable of being closed tightly during rain and wind storms, and to be thoroughly ventilated on all sides when desired. 41. General Construction of Tobacco Barn. — A common width for a tobacco bam is 32 feet, the length some multiple of 16 feet, and the height from the sill to the plate 18 feet. A barn 32 feet wide and 64 feet long will usually hold the tobacco grown on 2 acres, whether the leaves are primed or the stalks cut and the whole hung at once. Few bams are built more than 192 feet long. A cross-section through a bam showing a bent of the frame is illustrated in Fig. 19. The sills and the principal posts should be of 6"X6" material; the other uprights, the braces a, and the poles, the ends of which are shown at b, of 3"X4" material. The poles, instead of being squared lumber, are sometimes simply round poles cut from the woods, and may or may not be nailed in place. They may also be arranged to run at right angles to those shown, but it is generally conceded that a better circulation of air is secured by running them lengthwise of the bam. Of the other pieces the horizontal pieces supporting the poles should be 1"X4" boards, the rafters of 2"x6" planks, and the plates of two 2"X6" pieces spiked together. Bents §21 TOBACCO 33 such as is shown in Fig. 19 are required at both ends and every 16 feet between the ends of the barn. The bents must be girded together by the sills and the plates and by a crosspiece placed midway between the sill and the plate. A driveway should extend the entire length of the barn Fig. 19 on both sides, which prevents sills being laid across the entire width of the barn. 42. The space between two vertical rows of poles is known as a room, and the space between two horizontal rows of poles is known as a tier. The poles c in the lower tier and the piece supporting them must be removable. They are set in 34 TOBACCO 21 place after all the upper tiers are filled with tobacco. The rooms are usually 4 feet wide and the tiers 4 feet apart in bams in which the entire plants are hung. When the leaves are primed in the field and strung on lath, the tiers may be only 2 feet apart, although this will be too close if a long-leaf variety of tobacco is raised. 43. The roof of the barn should be shingled and should have a ventilator about 2 feet square for every 25 feet in length of roof. These ventilators must be so made that rain will not blow in and damage the tobacco. Fig. 20 The sides and ends of the barn should be tightly boarded and the cracks covered with battens 3 inches wide and ^ inch thick. The boards will run vertically or horizontally to agree with the style or system of ventilation employed. 44. Ventilation of Tobacco Barns. — Two systems of ventilation in tobacco barns are in common use, the horizontal and the vertical. In the horizontal system, the ventilators, which are about 1 foot wide, are hinged on the upper edge. All the venti- lators in a vertical row are connected by a pole so that all §21 TOBACCO 35 may be opened and closed together. This system of venti- lation is shown in Fig. 20. It is the system in most common use throughout the White Burley tobacco region. The vertical system of ventilation, which is shown in Fig. 21, is more commonly employed in the cigar-wrapper tobacco regions. In this system, every third board on the sides of the barn is hinged at the top. A long iron hook fastened to the board next to the ventilator on one side within easy reach from the ground and hooked into a screweye in the board on the other side holds the ventilator in place when closed. The Fig. 21 hook is caught in a screweye on the inside of the ventilator board to hold it open. Where either system of side ventilation is employed, the ends of the barn should be supplied with fourJarge ventilators, three just above the large double doors and one in the gable near the ridge pole as shown in Figs. 20 and 21. These ventilators should be about 4 feet wide, about 6 feet in height, fastened at the middle of the sides, and arranged so that they can be opened from the inside of the barn by means of cords extending from the top of the ventilators to near the floor of the barn. 36 TOBACCO §21 BARNS FOB FIRE CURING OF TOBACCO 45. Barn for Fire Curing of Bright Yellow Tobacco. Barns for fire curing Bright Yellow tobacco are made quite small, partly to secure even conditions of heat and partly to divide the risk from fire, but chiefly because they must be filled and firing begun within 12 hours from the start, or the colors will be uneven and undesirable. All Bright Yellow tobacco is cured wholly by heat from flues, and the curing is finished in a much shorter time than is required for any other kind of tobacco. The barns are usually made of logs, as shown in Fig. 22, and the chinks plastered with clay or mud. Any construc- tion that will make a structure nearly air-tight and one that is easily heated and that will retain the heat will answer the purpose. An average size is 17 feet square and the same in height to the eaves. This will carry four tiers of leaves, one above another, the lowest 8 or 9 feet from the ground. This holds the yield of about 3,000 plants. In the ends of the gables are two small doors that may be used as ventilators, and the cracks and chinks in the walls also permit of some circulation of air. § 21 TOBACCO 37 46. At one end of the barn on the ground level are built two flues of brick or stone, one on each side, their outer sides 20 inches or more from the side walls of the barn. These flues are about 18 inches high and 18 inches wide, and extend parallel with and 20 inches from the inside wall of the bam to within 20 inches of the other end. From here they are continued at right angles half way to the middle of the barn. Iron pipes are connected to the extension of the flues for chimneys and are carried back to the end of the barn where the flues begin, with a slight rise, and come out about 18 inches or 2 feet above the flues. On the inside of the barn, for a distance of about 20 inches, the top of the flues are covered with stone and beyond this the covering is of sheet iron, through which the heat radiates to the inside of the barn. In some barns iron pipe is used' instead of the stone or brick walls covered with sheet iron. Either arrangement allows a passageway through the middle of the barn. 47. Barn for Fire Curing of Export Tobacco. — The barn used for curing much of the Export and heavy manufacturing tobaccos is in many respects like the one for curing the Bright Yellow tobacco. Many have no flues, an open fire being built in the house under the tobacco. However, many log houses are built for curing Export tobacco with one or two flues built from about 2 feet on the outside of the house to within about 2 feet of the inside of the wall on the opposite side. These flues are built of field stones without mortar except on the outside, and where the flue enters the house an abundance of clay mortar is used to protect the logs from taking fire. This open stone furnace permits the heat and smoke to enter the house readily, but reduces the danger of setting the tobacco on fire from sparks or blaze. SOILING CROPS THE PRACTICE OF SOILING GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 1. Crops that are cut and fed green to livestock, either in the stable or the feed lot, are called soiling crops. The practice of feeding such crops is known as soiling. Soiling may be either partial or complete, depending on whether the feeding is practiced simply to supplement pastures or to supply all of the green feed used by the animals. Often several soiling crops are grown on the same land in a single season and each soiling crop produces a large quantity of feed per acre. By practicing soiling, therefore,- less acreage is required for the production of sufficient green feed for the livestock of a farm than when soiling is not practiced. Soiling is more generally employed for dairy cattle than for other kinds of livestock, although soiling crops are often fed with good results to sheep, horses, and hogs. The principal advantage gained by feeding green feed to dairy cattle is that it makes their ration succulent, a condition necessary for the production of maximum yields of milk. 2. Soiling crops are generally fed direct from the field without previous preparation. In some instances, however, where the plants make a coarse, rank growth, the material is passed through a feed cutter before being fed. Cereals, such as oats, wheat, barley, and rye are ready for feeding as soiling crops when the grains are in the milk stage. If the plants are allowed to mature, the stems become too COPYRIQHTED BY INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY. ALL RIQHTS RESERVED §22 SOILING PROPS §22 woody for feeding as a succulent feedstuff, and if fed at too early a stage of growth they are inclined to be watery and deficient in quantity of dry matter. Legumes, including alfalfa, clovers, soybeans, cowpeas, vetches, etc., and pasture grasses, such as timothy, red top, and orchard grass, are ready for soiling before they are in full bloom. If allowed to become at all woody, their value for soiling purposes is lessened. The mowing machine and horse rake are used to advantage in harvesting soiling crops. When a small area is to be cut, the scythe is often used. In the cutting of corn that has been planted in rows for soiling purposes, a corn knife is required. On account of the excessive weight of green material, a low truck is better than a wagon of the ordinary height for con- veying green crops to the feed lot. 3. The principal advantages in growing soiling crops and feeding them to livestock are as follows: 1. A much larger quantity of feed can be secured from the same acreage of land from soiling crops than from pastur- age. Careful experiments have shown that a field devoted TABLE I COMPARISON OF RESULTS FROM 1 ACRE OF PASTURE AND 1 ACRE OF SOILING CROPS Kind of Crop Digestible Nutrients Pounds Milk Pounds Butter Pounds Pasture crop Soiling crop 925 3.140 1,780 4,782 82 196 to soiling crops will furnish feed for from two to three and in exceptional cases five times as many cows as the same acreage devoted to pasture. These results are shown in Table I. It will be seen that more milk may be produced from the same area when planted to soiling crops than when used as a pasture. §22 SOILING CROPS 2. Pastures very frequently become deficient, that is, do not furnish feed enough, during the dry period of mid- summer. This often becomes a critical time, particularly with dairy cows. Soiling crops afford a very satisfactory means of bridging over this shortage by supplying an abun- dance of green succulent feed at a time when it is much needed. 3. By a system of Soiling, the dairyman is often able to exclude objectionable weeds, such as garlic, which might taint the milk, from the diet of the cattle, thus affording a distinct advantage over pasturing. 4. The principal disadvantage of soiling is the great amount of labor necessary to prepare the soil for a succession of crops, and the expense of seeding, fertilizing, harvesting, hauling, and feeding the crops. With the pasture system the labor is reduced to a minimum. SOILING SYSTEMS PAKTIAL SOILING SYSTEMS 5. When a partial soiling system is practiced to supple- ment pastures, the choice of crops will depend on the habits TABLE II PARTIAL, SOILING SYSTEM FOR SO COWS Kind of Crop Area to be Seeded Acres Time of Feeding Oats and peas Clover 3 I 2 I 3 July 4 to Aug. I Aug. I to lo Aug. io to 2o Aug. 2o to Sept. s Aug. 15 to Oct. 15 Sept. I to Oct. I Millet Corn Rape Clover (second crop) .... 4 SOILING CROPS § 22 of growth and the climatic adaptability of the pasture crops. For example, in a region where blue grass is well adapted for pastures, provision should be made to supplement it with soiling crops during the dry periods in July and August. 6. In Table II is given a suggested list of crops and the acreage required in a partial soiling system for soiling 20 cows during the usual dry period from August 1 to October 15, in a region where blue-grass pastures prevail. In this plan, the soiling crops are depended on to supplement the pasture until corn silage is available, .silage being used through the winter. COMPLETE SOILING SYSTEM 7. When a complete soiling system is practiced the animals have the run of the yard for exercise, but all feed is fed in the manger or feed rack. During the growing season the green feed is cut and fed directly from the field, and during the winter period silage is depended on to furnish green, succulent feed. It is essential that a complete and unbroken succession of crops should be provided, and the best results are obtained when the succession of crops is such that the forage from a single planting needs to be fed for no longer than 10 or 12 days. 8. In Table III is given a complete succession of crops, together with the rate and time of seeding, and the feeding period. The system given in this table is used in the New England states for the complete soiling of a herd of 20 cows from May to October. Table IV gives a system used in Wisconsin, for a herd of 20 cows; Table V is a system applying to conditions in New Jersey and near-by territory and furnishes green feed for 20 cows for a period of 6 months. These tables are not intended as absolute guides, but are for the purpose of giving a correct idea of the essentials of a soiling system and to emphasize the importance of a com- plete and orderly succession of crops. o o H J? o u 125 S E o >, m 3 ^-< X 1—1 o o 2 -^ >^ 1 0) 1—1 CO M li-l OT o O O P n lO H M 2-2 2 1 — \ ^ < 1 Aug. 15 Sept. Sept. 15 Aug. 15 is o a. ft o „ 03 h5 o o •3 (u oj'S'S'S'S'S'a) u Si's S - -- 33wwwwt/iTrt ft ft^ ^ ^ ^ ^ g « "^ 3 3 33300 ^ XI XI ft ft N CI «|^ 10 00 ° S c >7 .fl .3 B X « S -*, a- t3 C 3 O ft «H< «H* oi 1^ m xfi in m 'd t3 +j oJ +^ ri lu (U 0) cd o -4-3 n o ■4-* H <1 o " P. 4-> >i h'n bijcn r^ 3 1 g 1—1 < -t^ 5 si ^ c 1 o (-1 ^ s »0 O O IT) H w « (N ro H o 5 o o o p, H M -4^ O ■a ft 4-> o B ft &. . fe 2 t CO ft N gSSaS*^ m OT -g jH tn rt . ^ lU ft — , rt " tS rt !« . (U CU . ft ft til ca IS •r) fip^c^d;?o6o6oo D 0) U2 C C s a >, C C ilj w o o o s g m o o c ^ > ^ ■^ >. m 'H a ffl ^ plh m w ' — . . — ' 1 1 m 2 "3 H M W be 5 " 2 1— 1 1 1—, « a 1—1 5 1—1 5 2. 2 M H 1—1 1—1 5^2-2 < o 4i O t^ > N O ■^ o m -P ■ t^ o O +^' t; >-. -p >i a. " c8 ft-a M 1^ to •— 1 ^ ^ 'a 111 "3 "3 "3 cs c^ eo|io N i-i[io i-4n w Hn 0) j<|io '«[u> cq[ia -^jio eq[ko e)|to -^lio •4i|ie n|u3 ^ua ^[la colua eq|iQ oii|u3 '«|ia ei|io ' Damping ofiE of tobacco, §21, p20. Darnel in wheat fields, §12, p40. Dent com, §14, p6. com, Boone County White, §14, p6. com, Hickory King, §14, p6. com, Hildreth's Yellow, §14, p6. com. Ideal ear of, §14, p9. com, Marlboro Prolific, §14, p6. com. Northwestern, §14, p6- com score card, §14, p53. Depth for planting wheat seed, §12, plO. Disease of corn. Bacterial, §14, p61. of tobacco. Calico, §21, p20. of tobacco, Mosaic, §21, p20. of turnip family. Anbury, §19, p27. of turnip family, Finger-and-toe, §19. p27. Diseases, Alfalfa, §17, pl8. of barley. Enemies and, §13, pl5. of barley, Fungous, §13, pl5. of cowpeas, §17. p24. of oats. Enemies and, §13, p7. of rye, Enemies and, §13, p20. of the beet family, §19, pl8. of tobacco, §21, p20. of turnip family, §19, p27. of wheat, Enemies and, §12, p38. Potato, §18, p28. Disk drill, §12, pl2. Distillers* grains from rye, §13, pl8. Dock seed, Curled, §16, p24. Dodder in alfalfa fields, §17, pl7. in clover fields, §16, p25. seed. Field, §16, p24; §17, pl8. Double bands for grain bundles, §12, p26. -harpoon hay fork, §15, p27. -row com ctdtivator, §14, p38. Dough stage of oats, §13, p6. Drainag;e for alfalfa, §17, p8. for grass land, §15, plO. of com soil, §14, p21. Drill as com planter, Wheat, §14, p31. Cleaning of grain, §12, pl6. Disk, §12, pl2. for planting wheat seed. Grain, §12, pll. Hoe, §12, pl2. Operating a grain, §12, pl3. Sowing legume seeds with grain, §16, plO. Drills, Planting com in, §14, p26. Durum wheat, §12, p6. Dutch clover, §16, p32. INDEX xui E Ear butts, Condition of com, §14, p51. Com,' §14, pi. tips. Condition of com, §14, p51. Ears, Circumference of corn, §14, pplO, 52. Cylindrical-shaped com, §14, p9. Length of com, §14, pplO, 52. Shape of com, §14, p51. Tapering-shaped com, §14, p9. Earworm, Com, §14, p59. Einkom, §12, p6. Emmer, §12, p6. End -gate seeder, §12, pl7. Enemies and diseases of barley, §13, pl5. and diseases of oats, §13, p7. and diseases of rye, §13, p20. and diseases of wheat, §12, p38. of alfalfa, §17, pl6. of alfalfa. Insect, §17, pl9. of barley, Insect, §13, pl5. of carrots, §19, p34. of oats, Insect, §13, p7. of potatoes, Insect, §18, p34. of Red clover, §16, p26. of rye, Insect, §13, p20. of tobacco, §21, p23. of wheat, Insect, §12, p42. English rye grass, §15, p59. Ergot, Description of, §13, p21. Evergreen grass, §15, p54. Export tobacco. Bam for fire curing of, §21, p37. tobacco, Budding of, §21, p7. tobacco. Bulking of, §21, pl2, tobacco. Cultivation of, §21, p6. tobacco, Curing of, §21, pU. tobacco, Description of, §21, pi. tobacco, Harvesting of, §21, p7. tobacco. Preparation of soil for, §21, p5. tobacco seed-bed, §21, p2. tobacco seed. Sowing, §21, p3. tobacco seedlings, Setting, §21, p6. tobacco. Soil for, §21, p4. tobacco, Suckering of, §21, p7. tobacco, Topping of, §21, p7. Extra-cleaned Kentucky blue-grass seed, §15, p46. Eyes, Potato, §18, p9. Family, Carrot, §19, p30. Turnip, §19, pl9. Fancy Kentucky blue-grass seed, §15, p46. Feeds, Table of protein in 100 pounds of various, §17, p4. Fertilization for Bright Yellow tobacco, §21, pl5. Fertilization for cigar - wrapper tobacco, §20, pl4. of pastures, §17, p54. of tobacco. Self-, §20, p6. Fertilizer for alfalfa. Commercial, §17, p9. for buckwheat, §13, p24. for cigar-wrapper tobacco. Commercial, §20, pl7. for cigar-wrapper tobacco. Mixing of, §20. pl9. for com fields. Commercial, §14, p21. for grass. Commercial, §15, pl5. for legumes, Commercial, §16, pl5. for mangel wurzels, Commercial, §19, plO. for oats, §13, p4. for potatoes, Commercial, §18, p6. for tobacco, Tobacco stems as, §20, pl7. for wheat, §12, p8. for wheat. Commercial, §12, p9. Fertilizing com lands, §14, p21. for bariey, §13, pl3. Fescue, Meadow, §15, p54. Field after harvest, Care of tobacco, §20, p45. beet, §19, p3. Cheat in wheat, §12, p38. dodder seed, §16, p24; §17, plB. Formation of gullies in wheat, §12, p20. Headland in grain, §12, pl6. of growing wheat, Harrowing, §12, p20. peas. Characteristics of, §17, p34. peas, Culture of, §17, p34. peas for soiling, Barley and, §22, p25. peas for soiling, Oats and, §22, p22. peas. Uses of, §17, p34. Reseeding of wheat, §12, p20. Weeds in oat, §13, p9. Fields, Chess in wheat, §12, p38. Chinch bug in barley, §13, pl5. Chinch bug in com, §14, p59. Chinch bug in wheat, §12, p42. Cockle in wheat, §12, p40. Commercial fertilizer for com, §14, p2j . Cutworms in com, §14, p58. Darnel in wheat, §12, p40. Dodder in alfalfa, §17, pi 7. Dodder in clover, §16, p25. Hessian fly in wheat, §12, p43. Lime for com, §14, p22. Pigeon weed in wheat, §12, p40. Stable manure for com, §14, p21. Tillage for com, §14, p22. Unplowed borders in com, §14, p24. Weeds in alfalfa, §17, pl6. Weeds in wheat, §12, p38. Wheat thief in wheat, §12, p4p. White grubs in com, §14, p58. Wild garlic in wheat, §12, p40. INDEX Fields, Wild mustard in oat. §13, p9. Wild mustard in wheat, §12, p40. Wireworms in com, §14, p60, Finger-and-toe disease of turnip family, §19, p27. Fire curing of Bright Yellow tobacco, Bam for, §21, p36. curing of Export tobacco. Bam for, §21, p37. Flat, Hay, §12, p31. Flea beetle on potatoes, §18, p36. beetles on tobacco, §21, p26. Flint com, §14, p4. com. Ninety-day Red, §14, p4. com, Ninety-day Yellow, §14, p4. com, Pennsylvania White, §14, p4, com, Pennsylvania Yellow, §14, p4. com, Rhode Island White, §14, p4. Florida beggar weed, §17, p36. Fly in wheat fields, Hessian, §12, p43. Fodder pulling, Com, §14, p48. Food, Legumes as human, §16, p6. Fork, Cable for hay, §15, p29. Carrier for hay, §15, p29. Double harpoon hay, §15, p27. Grapple hay, §15, p28. Pulleys for hay, §15, p29. Single harpoon hay, §15, p2S. Track for hay, §15, p29. Four-rowed barley, §13, pl2. Foxtail, Meadow, §15, p40. millet, §15, p65. Fultz wheat, §12, p2. Fungous diseases of barley, §13, pl5.' parasites of com, §14, p60. pests of wheat, §12, p41. Furrow openers, Com-planter, §14, p31. Galgalos wheat, §12, p5. Garlic in wheat fields, Wild, §12, p40. German millet, §15, p65. Germs, Corn, §14, pll. Globe mangel wurzels, §19, p7. Glyndon Fife wheat, §12, p5. Grabbling of potatoes, §18, p23. Grain binders, §12, p21. bundles by hand. Binding, §12, p25. bundles. Double bands for, §12, p26. bundles, Hailling, §12, p30. bundles in shocks, Placing, §12, p28. bundles. Mowing, §12, p35. bundles. Single bands for, §12, p26. bundles. Stacking, §12, p31. bundles, Storing, §12, p31. Corn, §14, pi. cradle, §12, p24. Grain drill. Cleaning of, §12, pl6. drill for planting wheat seed, §12. pll. drill, Operating a, §12, pl3. drill. Sowing legume seeds with a, §16, plO. field. Headlands in, §12, pl6. harvesters and thrashers. Combined, §12, p24. headers. §12, p23. Long shocks of, §12, p29. rake, §12, p26. Round shocks of. §12. p29. Grains. Color of com. §14, p51. from barley, Brewers', §13, plO. from rye. Distillers', §13, pl8. Grapple hay fork, §15, p2S. Grass, Bermuda, §15, p56. blossom. §15, p3. Canada blue, §15, p47. Commercial fertilizer for, §16, pl5. crop. Annual, §15, p63. crops. Harvesting of, §15, pl6. culm, §15, p2. Culture of Kentucky blue, §15, p45. Definition of. §15, pi. English rye. §15. p59. Evergreen, §15. p54. family. §15. pi. for hay, Curing of. §15. p20. General characters of Kentucky blue. §15, p44. Harvesting implements for. §15, pl7. Harvesting operations for. §15, pl7. Hungarian, §15, p65. Italian rye, §15. p59. Johnson, §15, p61. June, §15, p44. land. Drainage for, §15, plO. leaf, Blade of, §15, p2. leaf, Ligule of, §15, p2. leaf. Sheath of, §15, p2. Orchard, §15, p50. pastures, §15, p7. Perennial rye. §15, p59. plants. Perennial. §15. p33. Quack. §15, p62. seed. Broadcasting, §15, ppll, 13. seed. Extra-cleaned Kentucky blue-, §15, p46. seed, Fancy Kentucky blue-, §15, p46. seed. Selecting and testing, §15, plO. Smooth brome, §15, p48. stalk. Hollow-stemmed, §15. p3. stalk. Pith-filled, §15, p3. stolons, §15, p5. Sweet vernal, §15, p61. Tall oat, §15, p54. Texas blue, §15, p62. INDEX XV Grass, Vegetative multiplication o£, §15, p5. Velvet, JIS, p62. Grasses as soil binders, §15, p8. Culture of, §15, p9. for hay, §15, p7. for hay. Harvesting of. §15, pl6. for lawns, §15, p8. for permanent pastures, §17. p45. for soiling, Annual, §22, pl3. for soiling. Perennial, §22, pl3. Importance of, §15, p6. Methods of seeding, §15, pll. Nurse crop for, §15, pl4. Plowing for, §15, plO. Reproduction of, §15, p4. Root system of, §15, p3. Soil requirements for, §15, p9. Stable manure for, §15, pplO, 16. Stooling of, §15, p5. Tillering of, §15, p5. Uses of, §15, p7. Value of mixed plantings of, §15, pl3. Grasshoppers, Criddle mixture for poisoning, §21, p27. on tobacco, §21, p27. Grazing of pastures, §15, pl6; §17. p55. Green foxtail seed, §16, p24; §17, pl8. manure for alfalfa, §17. p8. manure for cigar-wrapper tobacco, §20, pi 4, Grim alfalfa, §17, p3. Growing, Climatic conditions for barley, §13, pl3. Climatic conditions for buckwheat, §13, p24. Climatic conditions for oat, §13, p4. Climatic conditions for rye, §13, pl8. Grubs in com fields. White, §14. p58. Gullies in wheat field. Formation of, §12, p20. Hairy vetch, §17, p33. Half -sugar mangel, §19, pl8. Hand corn planters, §14, p27. of tobacco, §20, p45. Sowing wheat seed by, §12, ppll, 18. Hard spring wheat, §12, p2. winter wheat, §12, p2. Harpoon hay fork. Double, §15, p27. hay fork. Single, §15, p28. Harrow for com cultivation, §14. p37. Harrowing field of growing wheat, §12. p20. soil for wheat, §12, p9. Harvester and thrasher. Combined grain, §12, p24. Cora, §14, p45. Harvesters, Self -binding grain, §12, p21. Harvesting alfalfa for hay, |17, pl3. alfalfa seed, §17, pl4. Harvesting and storing of common turnips, §19. p23. com. Methods of. §14. p44. implements for grass. §15. pl7. legumes for seed, §16, pl7. of barley, §13, pl4. of buckwheat, §13, p26. of carrots, §19, p34. of cigar -wrapper tobacco, §20, p34. of com, §14, p42. of cowpeas. §17, p23. of entire cigar-wrapper tobacco plant, §20, p34. , of Export tobacco. §21. p7. of grass crops. §15. pl6. of grasses for hay. §15. pl6. of Jerusalem artichokes. §19, p4D. of legumes, §16, pl6. of mangel wurzels. §19, pl5. of oats, §13, p6. of peanuts, §17, p31. of potatoes, §18, p23. of Red clover hay, §16, p22. of rye, §13, pl9. of soybeans, §17, p28. of timothy, §15, p39. of wheat, §12, p21. of White Burley tobacco, §21, pll. operations for grass, §15, pl7. wheat, Implements, and machines for. §12, p21. Hay, Alfalfa as, §17, p4. baler, §15, p32. cocks, §15, p21. Curing alfalfa, §17, pl4. Curing of cowpea, §17, p24. Curing of grass for, §15, p20. Curing of legumes for, §16, pl6. flat, §12. p31. for market. Preparing, §15, p32. fork. Cable for, §15, p29. fork. Carrier for, §15, p29. fork. Double harpoon. §15. p27. fork. Grapple, §15, p28. fork. Pulleys for, §15, p29. fork, Single harpoon, §15, p28. fork. Track for, §15. p29. forks, §15, p27. Grasses for, §15, p7. Harvesting alfalfa for, §17, pl3. Harvesting of grasses for, §15, pl6. Harvesting of Red clover, §16, p22. ladder, §12, p30. Legumes for, §16, p4. loader, §15, p26. Making legume, §16, pi 6. Mowing, §15, p25. XVI INDEX Hay press, §15, p32. rack, §15, p26. rake. Side-delivery, §15, p21. rake, Sulky, §15, p21. rake. Sweep, §15, p25. sling, §15, pp27, 30. stacker, §15, p25. Stacking of, §15. p25. Storing legume, §16, pl7. tedder, §15, p20. Yield of Red clover, §16, p22. Haymaking, Windrows in, §15, p20. Headlands in grain field, §12, pi 6. Headers, Grain, §12, p23. Hessian fly in wheat fields, §12, p43. Hickory King Dent com, §14, p6. Hildreth's Yellow Dent com, §14, p6. Hills, Planting com in, §14, p25. Hoe drill, §12, pl2. Horse, §18, p22. Hog millet, §15, p66. Hollow-stemmed grass stalk, §15, p3. Horse hoe, §18, p22. Hull-less barley, §13, pl2. Huller, Clover, §16, p23. Cowpea, §17, p23. Human food. Legumes as, §16, p6. Hungarian grass, §15, p65. Husk, Com, §14, pi. Husker and shredder, Com, §14, p46. Hybrid turnips, §19, p26. Jerusalem artichokes. Harvesting of , §19, p40. artichokes, Localities adapted to, §19, p39. artichokes, Planting of, §19, p38. artichokes. Uses of, §19, p38. artichokes, Varieties of, §19, p37. Johnson grass, §15, p61. Judging, Com, §14, p50. com. Characteristics considered in, §14, p50. com without score card, §14, p56. Score card in com, §14, p52. June grass, §15, p44. Kafir com, §15, b68. Kentucky blue-grass, Culture of, §15, p45. blue-grass seed. Extra-cleaned, §15, p46. blue-grass, General characters of, §15, p44. blue-grass seed, Fancy, §1, p46. Kernel, Com, §14, pi. tips. Com, §14, pll. Kernels, Arrangement of com, §14, pll. Condition of com, §14, p52. Length of com, §14, plO. Proportion of com, §14, pl2. Shape of com, §14, plO. Kharkov wheat, §12, p5. Knapsack seeder, §15, pl2. seeder for legumes, §16, pll. Knife, Cora, §14, p45. Mowing-machine, §15, pl8. Kohlrabi, §19, p28. Implements and machines for harvesting wheat, §12, p21. for grass, Harvesting, §15, pl7. used in corn cultivation, §14. p37. Importance of grasses, §15, p6. Inoculation for alfalfa. Soil, §17, p9. for legumes, Soil, §16, pl5. Insect enemies of alfalfa, §17, pl9. enemies of barley, §13, pl5. enemies of oats, §13, p7. enemies of potatoes, §18, p34. enemies of rye, §13, p20. enemies of wheat, §12, p42. parasites of corn, §14, p56. Intermediate long mangel wurzels, §19, p7. Intemode, Definition of, §15, p2, Irish potatoes, §18, pi. Irrigation, Alfalfa under, §17, pl3. Italian rye grass, §15. p59 Japan clover, §17, p36. Jerusalem artichokes, §19, p36. artichokes. Cultivation of, §19, p39. Ladder, Hay, §12, p30. Lamb's quarters seed, §16, p24; §17, pl8. Land, Drainage for grass, §15, plO. Lands, Fertilizing com, §14, p21. Lawns, Grasses for, §15, p8. L«gumes for, §16, p5. Lead as a potato spray, Arsenate of, §18, p38. Leaf, Blade of grass, §15, p2. Ligule of grass, §15, p2. Midrib of, §15, p2. Sheath of grass, §15, p2. spot. Alfalfa. §17. pl8. spot, Clover, §16. p26. spot of beets. §19, pi 8. Leaflets, Legume, §16. pi. Leaves, Alfalfa, §17, p3. Netted veined, §15. p2. Parallel veined,- §15, p2. Legume blossoms, §16, pi. hay, Making, §16, pl6. hay. Storing, §16, pl7. leaflets, §16, pi. roots. Nodules on. §16, pi. roots. Tubercles on, §16, pi. INDEX xvu Legume seed required per acre, Quantity of, §16, pll. seeds by hand, Broadcasting, §16, plO. seeds. Methods of sowing, §16, plO. seeds with grain drill. Sowing, §16, plO. stalk. §16, pi. stipules, §16, pi. Legumes as human food, §16, p6. as soil renewers, §16, p6. Characteristics common to, §16, pi. Commercial fertilizer for, §16, pl5. Culture of, §16, p7. for hay, §16, p4. for hay. Curing of, §16, ixl6. for lawns, §16, p5. for permanent pastures, §17, p48. for seed. Harvesting, §16, pl7. for soiling, §22, pl7. Harvesting of, §16, pl6. in rotation, §16, pl3. Knapsack seeder for, §16, pll. Miscellaneous, §17, p36. Mixed plantings of, §16, pll. Nurse crops for, §16, pl4. Soil for, §16, plO. Soil inoculation for, §16, pl5. Soil requirements for, §16, p7.. Stable manure for, §16, pl4. Tap root of, §16, pi. Tendrils on, §16. p4. Uses of, §16, p4. Wheelbarrow seeder for, §16, pll. Leguminous seeds, Selecting and testing, §16, p7. Length of com ears, §14, pplO, 52. of com kernels, §14, plO. Level potato culture, §18, p21. Ligule of grass leaf, §15, p2. Lime for alfalfa, §17, p7. for com fields, §14, p22. Lister, Com, §14, p31. Loader, Hay, §15, p26. Lodge, Definition of, §12, p8. Long mangel wurzels, §19, p7. Loose smut of wheat, §12, p41. Louse, Corn-root, §14, p57. M Macaroni, §12, ppl, 7. Machine, Cutter bar of mowing, §15, pl8. knife, Mowing, §15, pl8. Mowing, §15, pl7. Machines for harves1;ing wheat, Implements and, §12, p21. Maize, Description of, §14, pi. Malt sprouts from barley, §13, plO. Mammoth clover, §16, p27. Mammoth Red clover, §16, p27. Red wheat, §12, p5. Mane oats, §13, p3f. Mangel, Half-sugar, §19, pl8. -wurzel seed, §19, pl6. -wurzel seeding, §19, pll. wurzels. Color of, §19, p6. wurzels. Commercial fertilizer for, §19, plO. wurzels. Composition of, §19, p7. wurzels, Consistency of, §19, p6. wurzels during growth, Care of, §19, pl3. wurzels. General description of, §19, p3. wurzels, Globe, §19, p7. wurzels, Harvesting of, §19, pl5. wurzels. Intermediate long, §19, p7. wurzels. Long, §19, p7. wurzels, Regions adapted to, §19, p9. wurzels, Shapes of, §19, p6. wurzels. Soil for, §19, plO. wurzels. Stable manure for, §19, plO. wurzels, Storing of, §19, pl5. wurzels, Tankard, §19, p7. wurzels. Tillage for, §19, plO. wurzels. Uses of, §19, p8. wurzels, Varieties of, §19, p6. Manufacturing tobacco, §21, pi. Manure for alfalfa. Green, §17, p8. for alfalfa. Stable, §17, p8. for cigar-wrapper tobacco, Green, §20, pi 4. for cigar-wrapper tobacco. Stable, §20, pl6. for com fields. Stable, §14, p21. for grasses, Stable, §15, pplO, 16. for legumes, Stable, §16, pi 4. for mangel wurzels, Stable, §19, plO. for potatoes. Stable, §18, p7. for wheat. Stable, §12, p8. Manuring for barley, §13, pl3. Marker, Sled row, §14, p27. Markers on com planters, Row, §14, p31. Market condition of com, §14, p51. Preparing hay for, §15, p32. Marketing of potatoes, §18, p26. Marlboro Prolific Dent corn, §14, p6. Maturity of com. Early, §14, pS. Meadow fescue, §15, p54. foxtail, §15, p40. Meal, Alfalfa, §17. p4. Medic, Black, §17, p37. Midge, Clover-seed, §16, p26. Mildew of potatoes, Downy, §18, p31. of turnips, §19, p2S. Milk stage of oats, §13, p6. Millet, Broom-corn, §16, p65. Foxtail, §15, p65. German, §15, p65. Hog, §15, p66. Millets, Common, §15, p65. XVlll INDEX Millets for soiling, §22, pl3. Mixed plantings of legumes, §16, pll. Mixture for temporary pastures, §17, p51. Mixtures for permanent pastures, §17 p52. Mosaic disease of tobacco, §21, p20. Mowing grain bundles, §12, p35. hay, §15, p25. machine, §15, pl7. machine. Cutter bar of, §15, pl8. machine knife, §15, pl8. of pastures, §17, p54. Multiplication of grass, Vegetative, §15, p5. Mustard in oat fields. Wild, §13, p9. in wheat fields, Wild, §12, p40. N Naked oats, §13, p3. Ninety-day Red Flint com; §14, p4. -day Yellow Flint com, §14, p4. Node, Definition of, §15, p2. Nodules on legume roots, §16, pi. Northwestern Dent corn, §14, p6. Nurse crop for grasses, §15, pl4. crops for alfalfa, §17, pl2. crops for legumes, §16, pl4. C) Oat culture, §13, p4. field, Weeds in, §13, p9. fields. Wild mustard in, §13, p9. grass, Tall, §15, p54. growing, Climatic conditions for, §13, p4. smut, §13, p7. Oats and field peas for soiling, §22, *p22. and rape for soiling, §22, p26. and vetch for soiling, §22, p25. Blade blight of, §13, p9. Description of, §13, pi. Dough stage of, §13, p6. Enemies and diseases of, §13, p7. Fertilizer for, §13, p4. for soiling, §22, pl2. Gray, §13, p3. Harvesting, §13, p6. Insect enemies of, §13, p7. Mane, §13, p3. Methods of seeding, §13, p5. Milk stage of, §13, p6. Naked, §13. p3. Plump, §13. p3. Seed-bed for, §13. p4. Selecting seed, §13, p5. Short, §13, p3. Side, §13, p3. Slender, §13, p3. Soil for, §13, p4. sown per acre, Quantity of, §13, p6. Oats, Spreading, §13, p3. Spring, §13, p3. Thrashing of, §13. p7. Time of seeding. §13, p5. Types of, §13, p3. Uses of, §13, pi. Varieties of, §13, p3. Winter, §13, p3. Yellows of, §13, p9. Yield of, §13, pi. Openers, Corn-planter furrow, §14, p31. Orange-leaf rust of barley, §13, pl5. -leaf wheat rust. §12, p41. rust of rye, §13, p20. Orchard grass, §15, p50. Parasites, Com, §14, p56. of com, Fungous. §14, p60. of com. Insect. §14, p56. Paris green as a potato spray, §18, p41. Parsnips. §19, p34. Pasture, Alfalfa as, §17, p4. mixtures, §17, p51. plants, QuaHties necessary in permanent-, §17, p44. Time required to form permanent, §17, p43. Pastures, Care of. §17. p54. Classes of, §17. p40. Fertilization of, §17, p54. Grass, §15, p7. Grasses for permanent, §17, p45. Grazing of, §15. pl6; §17, p55. Importance of, §17, p39. in the southern part of the United States, Permanent. §17, p43. Legumes for permanent. §17, i>48. Mixture for permanent. §17, p52. Mixture for temporary, §17, p51. Mowing of, §17, p54. Permanent, §17, p42. Reseeding of, §17, p55. Temporary, §17, p40. Pea-vine clover, §16, p27. Peanuts, Adaptation of, §17, p29. Characteristics of, §17, p29. Cultivation of. §17, p30. Culture of, §17, p30. Distribution of, §17, p29. Harvesting of, §17, p31. Sowing of, §17, p30. Uses of, §17, p29. Varieties of, §17, p29. Pearl barley, §13, plO. pop com, §14, p3. Peas, Characteristics of field, §17, p34. Culture of field, §17, p34. INDEX XIX Peas for soiling, Barley and field, §22, p25. for soiling, Oats and field, §22, p22. Uses of field, §17, p34. Pennsylvania White Flint com, §14, p4. Yellow Flint com, §14, p4. Perennial grass plants, §15, p33. grasses for soiling, §22, pl3. Red clover, §16, p27. rye grass, §15, p59. Perique tobacco, §21, pl9.. Permanent-pasture plants. Qualities neces- sary in, §17, p44, pasture. Time required to form, §17, p43. pastures, §17, p42. pastures. Grasses for, §17, p45. pastures in the southern part of the United States, §17, p43. pastures. Legumes for, §17, p48. pastures, Mixtures for, §17, p52. Pests of wheat, Fungous, §12, p41. Picker, Com, §14, p44. Pigeon weed in wheat fields, §12, p40. Pith-filled grass stalk, §15, p3. Plant, Com, §14, pi. Crown of alfalfa, §17, pi. Description of Red clover, §16, pl9. Description of wheat, §12, pi. Plantain seed, §16, p24; §17, pl8. Planter covering wheels, Com, §14, p31. furrow openers. Com-, §14, p31. Operating the com, §14, p34. Single-row com, §14, p28. Testing the com, §14, p33. Two-row com, §14, p30. Wheat drill as com, §14, p31. Planters, Com, §14, p27. Hand com, §14, p27. Potato, §18, pl9. Row markers on com, §14, p31. Planting com. Depth for; §14, p26. com in drills, §14, p26. com in hills, §14, p25. com. Methods of, §14, p27. com. Time of year for, §14, p32. of buckwheat, §13, p25. of com, §14, p25. of Jerusalem artichokes, §19, p38. of rye, §13, pl9. of wheat, §12, plO. potatoes by hand, §18, pl8. potatoes by machine, §18, pl8. potatoes. Depth of, §18, pl6. potatoes. Time for, §18, pl6. Quantity of seed wheat required for, §12, pll. Selection of seed wheat for, §12, p7. Selection of variety of com for, §14, p8. Planting wheat seed. Broadcast seeder for, §12, pll.' wheat seed. Depth for, §12, plO. wheat seed. Grain drill for, §12, pll. wheat seed. Methods of, §12, pll. wheat seed. Time for, §12, plO. Plantings of grasses. Value of mixed, §15, pl3. of legumes. Mixed, §16, pll. Plants per acre. Number of tobacco, §20, p25. Perennial grass, §15, p33. Qualities necessary in permanent-pasture, §17, p44. Spacing of potato, §18, pl6. Plot, Wheat seed, §12, p8. Plow, Single-shovel, §14, p28. Plowing for com, Depth of, §14, p23. for com. Time of, §14, p22. for grasses, §15, plO. soil for wheat, §12, p9. Plump oats, §13, p3. Poisoning of potatoes. Arsenical, §18, p34. Pole bum of tobacco, §21, p21. Polish wheat, §12, p6. ■Pollen, Com, §14, pi. Pollination of tobacco, §20, p5. Pop com. Pearl, §14, p3. com. Rice, §14, p3. Potato beetle, Colorado, §18, p34. bug, §18, p34. cultivation. Methods of, §18, p21. cultivation. Purposes of, §18, p21. culture. Level, §18, p21. culture. Ridge, §18, p22. diseases, §18, p28. eyes, §18. p9. growing, Soil for, §18, p5. planters, §18, pl9. plants. Spacing of, §18, pl6. propagation, §18. p2. scab. §18. pp7. 31. seed, §18, p2. seed balls, §18, p3. seed pieces. Cutting, §18, pl4. seed pieces. Size of, §18, pl3. spray. Arsenate of lead as a, §18, p38. spray, Bordeaux mixture as a, §18, p36. spray, Paris green as a, §18, p41. spraying apparatus, §18, p41. sprays. Application of, §18, p41. tuber, §18, pi. Potatoes are grown. Sections in which. §18, p2. Arsenical poisoning of, §18, p34. as a rotation crop, §18. p3. by hand. Planting. §18, pl8. by machine, Planting, §18, pl8. Color of skin of, §18, p9. XX INDEX Potatoes, Commercial fertilizer for, §18, p6. " Cultivating of, §18, p21. Depth of planting, §18, pl6. Downy mildew of, §18, p31. Early blight of, §18, p28. Flea beetle on, §18, p36. Grabbling of, §18, p23. Harvesting of, §18, p23. in field, Selection of seed, §18, pl2. Insect enemies of, §18, p34, Irish, §18, pi. Keeping quality of, §18, p9. Late blight of, §18, p28. Marketing of, §18, p26. Materials used for spraying, §18, p36. Preparation of soil for, §18, p8. Seed, §18, pp2, 8. Selecting seed, §18, p8. Shape of, §18, p9. Sources of seed, §18, plO. Spraying of, §18, p36. Stablie manure for, §18, p7. Standard varieties of, §18, p2. Storing of, §18, p25. Sun scald of, §18, p34. Time for planting, §18, pl6. Underground growth of, §18, pl6. Yield of, §18, pi. Press, Hay, §1-5, p32. Priming of cigar-wrappper tobacco, §20, p37. Proportion of com kernels, §14, pl2. Pulleys for hay fork, §15, p29. Pulp, Sugar-beet, §19, pl7. Pulper, Root, §19, p9. Purple Straw wheat, §12, p5. Quack grass, §15, p62. R Rack, Hay, §15, p26. Ragweed seed, §16, p24; §17, pl8. Rake, Grain, §12, p26. Side-delivery hay, §15, p21. Sulky hay, §15, p21. Sweep hay, §15, p25. • Rape, Cultural methods for, §22, p21. for soiling, §22, p21. for soiling, Oats and, §22, p26. Reaper, Self-raking, §12, p21. Recleaned red-top seed, §15, p43. Red clover. Enemies of, §16, p26. clover for soiling, §22, pl8. -clover hay. Harvesting of, §16, p22. clover hay. Yield of, §16, p22. clover. Importance of, §16, pl9. clover. Mammoth, §16, p27. Red clover. Manner of seeding, §16, p21. clover. Perennial, §16, p27. clover plant, Description of, §16, pl9. clover seed, Impurities and adulterants of, §16, p24. clover seed, Production of, §16, p23. clover seed required per acre. Quantity of, §16, p22. clover. Soil requirements for, §16,^ p20. clover. Time for seeding, §16, p21. oats, §13, p3. top. Culture of, §15, p43. top. General characters of, §15, p41. -top seed in the chaff, §15, p43. -top seed, Recleaned, §15, p43. Renewers, Legumes as soil, §16, p6. Replanting of com, §14, p36. Reproduction of grasses, §15, p4. Reseeding of pastures, §17, p55. Rhode Island White Flint corn, §14, p4. , Rice pop com, §14, p3. Ridge cultivation for com, §14, p26. potato culture, §18, p22. Rolling soil for wheat, §12, p9. Root crops. Culture and uses of, §19, pi. knot, Cowpea, §17, p24. of legumes. Tap, §16, pi. pulper, §19, p9. rot. Alfalfa, §17, pl8. rot of beets, §19, pl9. rot of tobacco, §21, p21. system of grasses, §15, p3. Roots, Nodules on legume, §16, pi. Tubercles on legume, §16, pi. Rootworms, Com, §14, p56. Rot of beets. Root, §19, pl9. of tobacco. Bed, §21, p20. of tobacco. Root, §21, p21. of tobacco, Stem, §21, p20. of turnips. Soft, §19, p27. Rotation, Cowpeas in, §17, p22. crop, Potatoes as a, §18, p3. Legumes in, §16, pl3. Row marker. Sled, §14, p27. markers on com planters, §14, p31. Rules for making deductions in scoring com, §14, p56. Rust, Black-stem wheat, §12, p41. Clover, §16, p26. Com, §14, p61. of barley. Black-stem, §13, pl5. of barley. Orange-leaf, §13, plS. of rye. Black, §13, p20. of rye. Orange, §13, p20. Orange-leaf wheat, §12, p41. Wheat, §12, p41. Rutabagas, §19, p24. INDEX XXI Rutabagas, Table of essential features of com- mon turnips and, §19, p25. Rye and vetch for soiling, §22, p26. bran, §13, pl8. culture, §13, pl8. Description of, §13, pl7. Distillers' grains from, §13, pl8. Enemies and diseases of, §13, p20. for soiling, §22, plO. grass, English, §15, p59. grass, Italian, §15, p59. grass, Perennial, §15. p59. growing, Climatic conditions for, §13, pl8. Harvesting of, §13, pl9. Insect enemies of, §13, p20. Orange rust of, §13, p20. Planting of, §13, pl9. Seed-bed for, §13, pl9. smut, §13, p20. Soil for, §13, pl9. Spring, §13, plS. straw. Uses of, §13, pl8. Thrashing of, §13, p20. Uses of, §13, pl7. Varieties of, §13, pl8. Winter, §13, pl8. Yield of, §13. pl8. S Sand lucerne, §17, p3. vetch, §17, p33. Scab, Beet, §19, pl8. Potato, §18, pp7, 31. Scald of potatoes, Sun, §18, p34. Score card. Dent com, §14, p53. card in com judging, §14, p52. card. Judging com without, §14, p56. Scoring com. Rules for making deductions in, §14, p56. com. Table of plan of making deductions in, §14, p54. of com, §14, p53. Seed, Alfalfa, §17, p3. Alsike clover, §16, pp24, 30; §17, pl8. baUs, Potato, §18, p3. bed. Care of tobacco-, §20, pl2. -bed for barley, §13, pl3. -bed for buckwheat, §13, p25. -bed for com, §14, p24. -bed for oats, §13, p4. -bed for rye, §13, pl9. bed. Preparation of tobacco-, §20, p9. bed. Protection of tobacco-, §20, pl2. bed. Site of tobacco-, §20, p8. bed, Sterilization of tobacco-, §2i), p9. bed. Tobacco-, §20, p8. Bracted plantain, §16, p24. Seed, Broadcast seeder for planting wheat, S12, pll. Broadcasting grass, §15, ppll, 13. Buckhom, §17, pl8. by hand. Sowing alfalfa, §17, pll. by hand. Sowing wheat, §12, ppll, 18. com at husking time. Selection of, §14, pl3. com from crib. Selection of, §14, pl3. com germinating box, §14, ppl6, 19. • com in field. Selection of, §14,"pl2. com per acre, Quantity of, §14, p33. com. Selection of, §14, pl2. com. Testing of, §14, pi 6. Curled dock, §16, p24; §17, pl8. Depth for planting wheat, §12, plO. Extra-cleaned Kentucky blue-grass, §15, p46. Fancy Kentucky blue-grass, §15, p46. ' Field dodder, §16, p24; §17, pl8. Grain drill for planting wheat, §12, pll. Green foxtail, §16, p24; §17, pl8. Harvesting alfalfa, §17, pi 4. Harvesting legumes for, §16, pl7. Impurities and adulterants for Red clover, §16, p24. in the chaff. Red top, §15, p43. Lamb's quarters, §16, p24; §17, pl8. Mangel wurzel, §19, pl6. Methods of planting wheat, §12, pll. oats, Selecting, §13, p5. pieces. Cutting potato, §18, pl4. pieces. Size of potato, §18, pl3. Plantain, §17, pl8. plot. Wheat, §12, p8. Potato, §18, p2. potatoes, §18, pp2, 8. potatoes in field. Selection of, §18, pl2. potatoes. Selection of, §18, p8. potatoes. Sources of, §18, plO. Production of Red clover, §16, p23. Ragweed, §16, p24; §17, pl8. Recleaned red-top, §15, p43. required for planting, Qiaantity of wheat, §12, pll. required per acre. Quantity of legume, §16, pll. required per acre. Quantity of Red clover, §16, p22. Selecting and testing grass, §15, plO. Sheep sorrel, §16, p24; §17, pl8. Sowing of carrot, §19, p33. Sowing of common turnip, §19, p22. Sowing of tobacco, §20, plO. sown per acre, Quantity of alfalfa, §17, pll. Sweet clover, §17, pl8. Time for planting wheat, §12, plO. Timothy, §16, p24; §17, pl8. INDEX Seed, Tobacco, §20, p3. wheat for planting, Selection of, §12, p7. Yellow foxtail, §16, p24; §17, pl8. Yellow trefoU, §16, p24; §17, pl8. Seeder, End-gate, §12, pl7. for legumes, Knapsack, §16, pll. for legumes. Wheelbarrow, §16, pll, for planting wheat seed. Broadcast, §12, pll. Knapsack, §15, pl2. Operating broadcast, §12, pl7. Sowing alfalfa seed with hand, §17, pll. Sowing alfalfa seed with wheelbarrow, §17, pll. Wheelbarrow, §15, pl2. Seeding alfalfa. Methods of, §17. pll. alfalfa. Time of, §17, plO. barley, Methods of, §13, pl4. barley. Time of, §13, pl4. grasses. Methods of, §15, pll. Mangel wurzel, §19, pll. oats. Methods of, §13, p5. oats. Time of, §13, p5. Red clover, Manner of, §16, p21. Red clover. Time for, §16, p21. Seedlings, Setting Bright Yellow tobacco, §21, pl5. Setting Export tobacco, §21, p6. Setting tobacco, §20, p23. Setting White Burley tobacco, §21, p6. Tobacco, §20, p8. Seeds by hand. Broadcasting legume, §16, plO. Methods of sowing legume, §16, plO. Selecting and testing leguminous, §16, p7. Selecting and testing leguminous seeds, §16, p7. Selection of seed potatoes, §18, p8. of seed potatoes in field, §18, pl2. Self-binding harvesters, §12, p21. -fertilization of tobacco, §20, p6. -raking reaper, §12, p21. Seven-headed wheat, §12, p6. Shape of com ears, §14, p51. of com kernels, §14, plO. Shatter worm. Tobacco, §21, p26. Sheath of grass leaf, §15, p2. Sheep sorrel seed, §16, p24; §17, pl8. Shocks, Corn, §14, p44. of grain. Long, §12, p29. of grain. Round, §12, p29. Placing grain bundles in, §12, p28. Short oats, §13, p3. Shovel plow. Single-, §14, p28. Shredder, Com husker and, §14, p46. Siberian oats, §13, p4. Sickness, Clover, §16, p26. Side-delivery hay rake, §15, p21. oats, §13, p3. Silage, Alfalfa as, §17, p4. Silk, Com, §14, pi. Single bands for grain bundles, §12, p26. harpoon hay fork, §15, p28. -row com cultivator, §14, p38. -row com planter, §14, p28. -shovel plow, §14, p28. Six-rowed barley, §13, pl2. Skin of potatoes. Color of, §18, p9. Sled row marker, §14, p27. Slender oats, §13, p3. Sling, Hay, §15, pp27, 30. Smooth brome grass, §15, p48. Smut, Com, §14, p60. Oat, §13, p7. of barley, Wheat, §13, pl5. of wheat. Loose, §12, p41. of wheat. Stinking, §12, p41. Rye, §13, p20. Wheat, §12, p41. Soft rot of turnips, §19, p27. white wheat, §12, p2. winter wheat, §12, p2. Soil binders. Grasses as, §15, p8. Drainage of com, §14, p21. for alfalfa. Testing, §17, pl5. for barley, §13, pl3. for Bright Yellow tobacco, §21, pl5. for buckwheat, §13, p24. for carrots, §19, p32. for cigar-wrapper tobacco, §20, p22. for cigar-wrapper tobacco. Preparation of, §20, p23. for common turnips, §19, p20. for common turnips. Fertilizing, §19, p21. for common turnips, Preparation of, §19, p21. for com. Kind of, §14, p20. for cowpeas. Preparation of, §17, p22. for Export tobacco, §21, p4. for Export tobacco. Preparation of, §21, p5. for grasses. Preparation of, §15, p9. for legumes. Preparation of, §16, plO. for mangel wurzels, §19, plO. for oats, §13, p4. for potato growing, §18, p5. for potatoes. Preparation of, §18, p8. for rye, §13, pl9. for wheat. Harrowing, §12, p9. for wheat, Plowing, §12, p9. for wheat, Preparation of, §12, p8. for wheat. Rolling of, §12, p9. for White Burley tobacco, §21, p4. for White Burley tobacco. Preparation of, §21, pS. inoculation for alfalfa, §17, p9. INDEX XXUl Soil inoculation for legumes, §16, pl5. renewers. Legumes as, §16, p6. requirements for alfalfa, §17, p7. requirements for com, §14, p20. requirements for grasses, §15, p9. requirements for legumes, §16, p7. requirements for Red clover, §16, p20. Soiling, Alfalfa for, §22, pl7. Annual grasses for, §22, pl3. Barley and field peas for, §22, p25. Barley for, §22, plO. Cabbage for, §22, pl9. Cereal crops for, §22, p8. Combination crops for, §22, p22. Com tor, §22, p8. Cowpeas for, §22, pl8. Crimson clover for, §22, plS. crop. Alfalfa as a, §17, p4. crop. Definition of, §22, pi. crops. Classes of, §22, p8. Definition of, §22, pi. Legumes for, §22, pl7. Millets for, §22, pl3. Oats and field peas for, §22, p22. Oats and rape for, §22, p26. Oats and vetch for, §22, p25. Oats for, §22, pl2. Perennial grasses for, §22, pl3. Rape for, §22, p21. Red clover for, §22. pl8. Rye and vetch for, §22, p26. Rye for, §22, plO. Sorghums for, §22, pl4. Soybean-and-cowpea combinations with other crops for, §22, p26. Soybeans for, §22, pl9. system for 20 cows. Table of New England, complete, §22, p5. system for 20 cows. Table of New Jersey, complete, §22, p7. system for 20 cows. Table of partial, §22, p3. system for 20 cows. Table of Wisconsin, complete, §22, p6. systems, Complete, §22, p4. systems. Partial, §22, p3. Wheat and vetch for, §22, p25. Wheat for, §22, pl2. Soja bean, §17, p2S. Sorghum, §15, p67. Sorghums for soiling, §22, pl4. Sowing alfalfa seed by hand, §17, pll. alfalfa seed with hand seeder, §17, pll. alfalfa seed with wheelbarrow seeder, §17, pll. Export tobacco seed, §21, p3. legume seed, Methods of, §16, plO. legume seed with grain drill, §16, plO. 234—36 Sowing of carrot seed, §19, p33. of common turnip seed, §19, p22. of peanuts, §17, p30. of soybeans, §17, p27. of tobacco seed, §20, plO. wheat seed by hand, §12, pll. White Burley tobacco seed, §21, p3. Soybean-and-cowpea combinations with other crops for soiling, §22, p26. Soybeans, Adaptation of, §17, p25. Characteristics of, §17, p25. Culture of, §17, p27. Distribution of, §17, p25. for soiling, §22, pl9. Harvesting of, §17, p28. Sowing of, §17, p27. Uses of, §17, p27. Value of, §17, p27. Spacing of potato plants, §18, pl6. Spelt, §12, p5. Spray, Arsenate of lead as a potato, §18, p38. Bordeaux mixture as a potato, §18, p36. Paris green as a potato, §18, p41. Spraying apparatus. Potato, §18, p41'. of potatoes, §18, p36. potatoes. Materials used for, §18, p36. Sprays, Application of potato, §18, p41. Spring barley, §13, pl2. oats,^ §13, p3. rye, §13, pl8. wheat. Hard. §12, p2. Sprouts from barley. Malt, §13, plO. Stable manure for alfalfa, §17, p8. manure for cigar-wrapper tobacco, §20, pi 6. manure for corn fields, §14, p21. manure for grasses, §15, PplO, 16. manure for legumes, §16, pl4, manure for mangel wurzels, §19, plO. manure for potatoes, §18, p7. manure for wheat, §12, p8. Stacker, Hay, §15, p25. Stacking grain bundles, §12, p31. hay, §15, p25. Stalk borers in corn, §14, p59. Hollow-stemmed grass, §15, p3. Legume, §16, pi. Pith-filled grass, §15, p3. Standard varieties of potatoes, §18, p2. Stem rot of tobacco, §21, p20. Stinking smut of wheat, §12, p41. Stipules, Legume, §16, pi. Stolons, Grass, §15, p5. Stooling of grasses, §15, p5. Storage of seed com, §14, pl3. Storing grain bundles, §12, p31. legume hay, §16, pl7. of cigar- wrapper tobacco, §20, p42. XXIV INDEX Storing of common turnips, Harvesting and, §19, p23. of corn, §14, p48. of mangel wurzels, §19, pl5. of potatoes, §18, p25. Storm, Tobacco, §20, p42. Straw, Uses of rye, §13, plS. Stripping cured tobacco stalks, §20, p43. Suckering of Export tobacco, §21, p7. of tobacco plants, §20, p27. of White Burley tobacco, §21, p7. Sugar-beet pulp, §19, pl7. beets. §19, pl7. mangel, Half-, §19, pl8. Sulky hay rake, §15, p21. Sun-cured tobacco, §21, pl8. -scald of potatoes, §18, p34. Swedish Select oats, §13, p4. Sweep hay rake, §15, p25. Sweet corn, §14, p7. clover, §17, p37. clover seed, §17, plS. vernal grass, §15, p61. Systems, Complete soiling, §22, p4. Partial soiling, §22, p3. Table of approximate number of tobacco plants that may be set per acre, §20, p25. of comparison of results from 1 acre of pas- ture and 1 acre of soiling crops, §22, p2. of essential features of common turnips and rutabagas, §19, p25. of New England complete soiling system for 20 cows, §22, p5. of New Jersey complete soiling system for 20 cows, §22, p7. of partial soiling system for 20 cows, §22, p3. of plan of making deductions in scoring com, §14, p54. of protein in 100 pounds of various feeds, §17, p4. of Wisponsin complete soiling system for 20 cows, §22, p6. Tall oat grass, §15, p54. Tankard mangel wurzels, §19, p7. Tap root of legumes, §16, pi. Tapering-shaped com ears, §14, p9. Tassel, Corn, §14, pi. Tedder, Hay, §15, p20. Temporary pastures, §17, p40. pastures, Mixture for, §17, p51. Tendrils on legumes, §16, p4. Tent for growing tobacco, Construction of, §20, p29. Teosinte, §15, p69. Terminal leaf of alfalfa, §17, p3. Testing leguminous seeds, Selecting and, §16, p7. of seed com, §14, pl6. soil for alfalfa, §17, pl5. the com planter, §14, p33. Texas blue grass, §15, p62. Thinning of common turnips, §19, p23. Thrashers, Combined grain harvesters and, §12, p24. Thrashing of barley, §13, pl5. of buckwheat, §13, p27. of oats, §13, p7. of rye, §13, §20. of wheat, §21, p37. Tillage for com fields, §14, p22. for mangel wurzels, §19, plO for wheat, §12, p9. Tillering of grasses, §15, p5. Time for planting wheat seed, §12, plO. Timothy culture, §15, p37. General description of, §15, p33. Harvesting of, §15, p39. Importance of, §15, p36. seed, §16, p24; §17, pl8. Tips, Condition of com ear, §14, p51. Com ear, §14, p9. Com kernel, §14, pll. Tobacco, Bam for air curing of, §21, p32. Bam for fire curing of Bright Yellow, §21. p36. Bam for fire curing of Export, §21, p37. bam. Ventilation of, §21, p34. bams. §21, p32. Bed rot of, §21, p20. bud worm, §21, p26. Budding of Export, §21, p7. Budding of White Burley, §21, p7. Bulking of Bright Yellow, §21, plS. Bulking of Export, §21, pl2. Bulking of White Burley. §21, pl3. Bulking of wrapper, §20, p45. Calico disease of, §21, p20. Cigar-filler, §20. p46. Commercial fertilizer, for cigar-wrapper, §20, pl7. Construction of tent for growing, §20, p29. Cultivation of, §20, p25. Cultivation of Bright Yellow, §21, pl6. Cultivation of Export, §21, p6. Cultivation of White Burley, §21, p6. cured on the stalk. Taking down, §20, p42. Curing of Bright Yellow, §21, pl7. Curing of cigar -wrapper, §20, p38. Curing of Export, §21, pll. Curing of White Burley, §21, pl2. curing. Regulation of, §20, p39. Damping off of, §21, p20. INDEX XXV Tobacco, Description of Export, §21, pi. Description of White Buriey, §21, pi. Diseases of, §21, p20. Enemies of, §21, p23. Fertilization for Bright Yellow, §21, pl5. Fertilization for cigar-wrapper, §20, pl4. field after harvest. Care of, §20, p45. field, Cutworms in, §21, p23. Flea beetles on, §21, p26. Grasshoppers on, §21, p27. Green manure for cigar-wrapper, §20, pl4. Hand of, §20, p45. Harvesting of cigar-wrapper, §20, p34. Harvesting of Export, §21, p7. Harvesting of White Buriey, §21, pll. in case, §20, p42. in the United States, Distribution of, §20, p3. leaves. Bundling of, §20, p43. leaves. Bundling of primed, §20, p44. Mixing of fertilizer for cigar-wrapper, §20, pl9. Mosaic disease of, §21, p20. Perique, §21, pl9. plant. Harvesting of entire cigar-wrapper, §20, p34. plants. Budding of, §20, p27. plants per acre. Number of, §20, p25. plants, Suckering of, §20, p27. plants that may be set per acre. Table of approximate number of, §20, p25. plants, Topping of, §20, p27. Pole bum of, §21, p21. Pollination of, §20, pS. Preparation of soil for cigar-wrapper, §20, p23. Preparation of soil for Export, §21, p5. Preparation of soil for White Buriey, §21, p5. Priming of cigar-wrapper, §20, p37. Raising cigar-wrapper, §20, p22. Raising of Bright Yellow, §21, pl5. Root rot of, §21, p21. seed, §20, p3. -seed bed, §20, p8. -seed bed. Care of, §20, pl2. -seed bed. Preparation of, §20, p9. -seed bed. Protection of, §20, pl2. -seed bed, Site of, §20, p8. -seed bed, Sterilization of, §20, p9. seed. Sowing Export, §21, p3. seed, Sowing of, §20, plO. seed. Sowing White Buriey, §21, p3. seedlings, §20, p8. seedlings. Setting, §20, p23. seedlings. Setting Bright Yellow, §21, pl5. seedlings, Setting Export, §21, p6. Tobacco seedlings, Setting White Buriey, §21, p6. Self-fertilization of, §20, p6. shatter worm, §21, p26. Soil for Bright Yellow, §21, plsT^ Soil for cigar-wrapper, §20, p22. Soil for Export, §21, p4. Soil for White Buriey, §21, p4. Stable manure for cigar -wrapper, §20, pl6. stalks. Stripping cured, §20, p43. Stem rot of, §21, p20. stems as fertilizer for tobacco, §20, pl7. Storing of cigar-wrapper, §20, p42. storm, §20, p42. Suckering of Export, §21, p7. Suckering of White Buriey, §21, p7. Sun-cured, §21, pl8. Taking down primed, §20, p44. Topping of Bright Yellow, §21, pl6. Topping of Export, §21, p7. Topping of White Buriey, §21, p7. under shade. Culture of, §20, p3] . under shade, Raising cigar-wrapper, §20, p28. worms, §21, p29. Yield of, §20, p3. Tobaccos, Cigar, §20, p8. Cigar-wrapper, §20, p8. Mantlfacturing, §21, pi. Topping com, §14, p48. of Bright Yellow tobacco, §21, pl6. of Export tobacco, §21, p7. of tobacco plants, §20, p27. of White Buriey tobacco, §21, p7. Track for hay fork, §15, p29. Trefoil seed; Yellow, §16, p24. Yellow, §17, p37. Tuber. Potato, §18, pi. Tubercles on legume roots, §16, pi. Turkestan alfalfa, §17, p3. Turnip, Common, §19, pl9. 'family, §19, pl9. family. Diseases of, §19, p27. -headed cabbage, §19, p28. seed. Sowing of common, §19, p22. Turnips and rutabagas. Table of essential features of common, §19, p25. Climate for common, §19, pl9. Cultivation of common, §19, p23. Description of common, §19, pl9. Fertilizing soil for common, §19, p21. Harvesting and storing of common, §19, p23. Hybrid, §19, p26. Mildew of, §19, p28. Preparation of soil for common, §19, p21. Soft rot of, §19, p27. Soil for common, §19, p20. XXVI INDEX Turnips, Thinning of common, §19, p23. Uses of common, §19, pl9. Varieties of common, §19, pl9. Two-row com planter, §14, p30. -rowed barley, §13, pl2. TJ Underground branches, §19, pi. Uniformity of corn color, §14, pll. Unplowed borders in com fields, §14, p24. Vegetative multiplication of grass, §15, p5. Velvet bean, §17. p38. grass, §15, p62. Ventilation of tobacco bam, §21, p34. Vernal grass, Sweet, §15, p61. Vetch, Common, §17, p34. for soiling, Oats and, §22, p25. for soiling, Rye and, §22, p26. for soiling. Wheat and, §22, p25. Hairy, §17, p33. Sand, §17, p33. Vetches, Characteristics of the, §17, p32. W Weed, Florida beggar, §17, p36. Weeder for corn cultivation, §14, p38. Weeds in alfalfa fields, §17, pl6. in oat field, §13, p9. in wheat fields, §12, p38. Wheat and vetch for soiling, §22, p25. Blue-stem, §12, p5. Club, §12, p5. Commercial fertilizer for, §12, p9. culture, §12, p7. Distribution of, §12, pi. drill as corn planter, §14, p31. during growth, Care of, §12, p20. Durum, §12, p6. Enemies and diseases of, §12, p38. Fertilizer for, §12, p8. fields. Cheat in, §12, p38. fields. Chess in, §12, p38. fields. Chinch bug in, §12, p42, fields. Cockle in, §12, p40. fields. Darnel in, §12, p40, fields, Formation of gullies in, §12, p20. fields, Hessian fly in, §12, p43. fields, Pigeon weed in, §12, p40. fields, Reseeding of, §12, p20. fields, Weeds in, §12, p38. fields. Wild gariic in, §12, p40. fields. Wild mustard in, §12, p40. for planting. Selection of seed, §12, p7. for soiling, §22, pl2. Pultz, §12, p2. Wheat, Fungous pests of, §12, p41. Galgalos, §12, p5. Glyndon Fife, §12, p5. Hard spring, §12, p2. Hard winter, §12, p2. Harrowing field of growing, §12, p20. Harrowing soil for, §12, p9. Harvesting of, §12, p21. Implements and machines for harvesting, §12, p21. Insect enemies of, §12, p42. Kharkov, §12, p5. Kinds of, §12, ppl, 2. Loose smut of, §12, p41. Mammoth Red, §12, p5. plant. Description of, §12, pi. Planting of, §12, plO. Plowing soil for, §12, p9. Polish, §12, p6. Preparation of soil for, §12, p8. Purple Straw, §12, p5. Rolling soil for, §12, p9. rust, §12, p41. rust. Black-stem, §12, p41. rust, Orange-leaf, §12, p41. seed. Broadcast seeder for planting, §12, pll. seed by hand, Sowing, §12, ppll, 18. seed. Depth for planting, §12, plO. seed, Grain drill for planting, §12, pll. seed. Methods of planting, §12, pll. seed plot, §12, p8. seed required for planting, Quantity of, §12, pll. seed. Time for planting, §12, plO. Seven-headed, §12, p6. smut, §12, p41. smut of barley, §13, pl5. Soft white, §12, p2. Soft winter, §12, p2. Stable manure for, §12, p8. Stinking smut of, §12, p41. thief in wheat fields, §12, p40. Thrashing of, §12, p37. Tillage for, §12, p9. Time of harvesting of, §12, p21. Types of, §12, p2. Uses of, §12, pi. Wheelbarrow seeder, §15, pl2. seeder for legumes, §16, pll. seeder. Sowing alfalfa seed with, §17, pll. Wheels. Corn-planter covering. §14, p31. White Burley tobacco. Budding of. §21, p7 Burley tobacco, Bulking of, §21, pl3. Burley tobacco, Cultivation of, §21, p6. Burley tobacco, Curing of. §21. pl2. Burley tobacco. Description of, §21, pi. Burley tobacco. Harvesting of, §21, pll. INDEX xxvii White Burley tobacco, Preparation of soil for, 521, p5. Burley tobacco seed-bed, §21, p2. Burley tobacco seedlings. Setting, §21, p6. Burley tobacco, Soil for, §21, p4. Burley tobacco, Suckering of, §21, p7. Burley tobacco. Topping of, §21, p7. clover, §16, p32. grubs in com fields, §14, p58. wheat. Soft, §12, p2. Wild garlic in wheat fields, §12, p40. mustard in oat fields, §13, p9. mustard in wheat fields, §12, p40. Wilt, Cowpea, §17, p24. Windrows in haymaking, §15, p20. Winter barley, §13, pl2. oats, §13, p3. rye, §13, pl8. wheat, Hard, §12, p2. wheat. Soft, §12, p2. Wireworms in com fields, §14, p60. Worm, Tobacco bud, §21, p26. " Tobacco shatter, §21, p26. Worms, Tobacco, §21, p29. Wrapper tobacco. Bulking of, §20, p45. Wurzel seed. Mangel, §19, pl6. seeding. Mangel, §19, pll. Wurzels, Color of mangel, §19, p6. Commercial fertilizer for mangel, §19, plO. Composition of mangel, §19, p7. Wurzels, Consistency of mangel, §19, p6. during growth. Care of mangel, §19, pl3. General description of mangel, §19, p3. Globe mangel, §19, p7. Harvesting of mangel, §19, pl5. Intermediate long mangel, §19, p7. Long mangel, §19, p7. Regions adapted to mangel, §19, p9. Shapes of mangel, §19, p6. Soil for mangel, §19, plO. Stable manure for mangel, §19, plO. Storing of mangel, §19, pl5. Tankard mangel, §19, p7. Tillage for mangel, §19, plO. Uses of mangel, §19, p8. Varieties of mangel, §19, p6. Yellow foxtail seed, §16, p24-, §17, pl8. trefoil, §17, p37. trefoil seed, §16, p24; §17, pl8. Yellows of oats, §13, p9. Yield of barley, §13, pll. of buckwheat, §13, p23. of com, §14, p8. of potatoes, §18, pi. of Red clover hay, §16, p22. of rye, §13, pl8. of tobacco, §20, p3.