F * t- 
 
 N"^ ^: 
 
 B 
 
 ^V:- 
 
 P-^ O-^. 
 
 M 
 
 ^^^^^^^■'^^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 ^^^^^H^ 
 
 
 
 
O^atnell InittetBitg Siibcatg 
 
 attfaca, New $at:k 
 
 Kvs.A*5).NNKvte, 
 
Cornell University Library 
 JX 1937.J82 1912 
 
 Syllabus of lectures on International co 
 
 3 1924 007 403 441 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924007403441 
 
LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY 
 
 Syllabus of Lectures 
 
 on 
 
 International Conciliation 
 
 BY 
 
 David Starr Jordan 
 
 AND 
 
 Edward Benjamin Krehbiel 
 
 (PRINTED FOR CLASS USE, NOT PUBLISHED) 
 JANUARY. 1912 
 
The International Peace Movement 
 
 Syllabus of Lectures by President Jordan and Professor Krehbiel 
 of Stanford University 
 
 Nothing more impressive, more thorough or more hopeful bearing 
 upon the great movement for the supplanting of the present war sys- 
 tem of nations by the system of law and reason In the settlement of 
 international disputes has ever been published than the Syllabus of 
 Lectures on International Conciliation given at Stanford University 
 by President David Starr Jordan and Professor Edward B. Krehbiel, 
 which is just issued by the World Peace Foundation in Boston. The 
 work was originally prepared as a syllabus for the use of the students 
 of Stanford University attending a course of lectures on this subject 
 given by the authors during the last two university years, the material 
 being arranged solely to meet the needs of those hundred students 
 from the upper classes of the university. The interest shown in 
 the courses by the students, and in copies of the syllabus coming 
 into the hands of some of the leading peace workers of the country, 
 was so deep that Dr. Jordan and Professor Krehbiel have revised 
 and greatly enlarged the syllabus ; and it is now given to teachers 
 and the public in a solid, paper-covered volume of i8o pages. 
 Nothing could reveal more strikingly the wonderful advance of 
 the peace movement in our time, the variety and breadth of the 
 interests now involved in it, the searching and scientific character 
 of the study being devoted to it, or the wealth of its literature. 
 The history of warfare, the evils of war, the historical background of 
 the present peace movement, the beginnings of a world legislature, the 
 beginnings of a world judiciary, the conditions tending to promote 
 international amity, and the means of promoting peace are brought 
 out in this syllabus of thirty-seven lectures, with their various sub- 
 titles, in a manner never done before. The value of the syllabus for 
 the professors in other universities and colleges where similar instruc- 
 tion is rapidly being organized will prove no greater than its value 
 for lecturers and teachers everywhere who in various ways are 
 addressing themselves to the treatment of this commanding cause. 
 It is an inexhaustible magazine of argument and reference for peace 
 workers in every field of the movement. Nowhere else perhaps has 
 the literature of the movement been so thoughtfully collected and so 
 well classified ; and the work should be in every public and univer- 
 sity library, to meet the needs of students. Dr. Jordan and Professor 
 Krehbiel have rendered a notable service to every worker for the great 
 cause to which they are themselves so constantly and intelligently 
 devoted. The Syllabus will be sent by mail for ^i.oo to any address. 
 World Peace Foundation, 
 
 29A Beacon St., Boston, Mass. 
 
LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY 
 
 Syllabus of Lectures 
 
 on 
 
 International Conciliation 
 
 BY 
 
 David Starr Jordan 
 
 AND 
 
 Edward Benjamin Krehbiel 
 
 (Printed for Class Use, Not published) 
 January, 1912 
 
 UKiVf UiM 1 Y 
 
Stanford University 
 Press 
 
SCHEDULE OF LECTURES. 
 
 L The Growth of Peace through Law. 
 IL The Literature of the Subject. 
 
 The Evil: Waf. 
 
 III. History of Warfare. 
 
 IVi Causes and Conditions producing War. 
 
 V. War Scares and Armament Syndicates. 
 
 VI. Japan and The United States. 
 
 The Edonomic E'vils of War. 
 
 VII. EcOrtomic Consequences of Past Wafs. 
 VIII. The Wdfld's War fi^uipnifettt and Expenditure. 
 IX. The Public Debts of Nations. 
 
 The Biological Etiis of Wdr. 
 
 X. War's Toll in IDead and Wounded in the Past. 
 XL The Biology of War. 
 
 The Social and Moral Evils of War. 
 XII. The Social and Moral Effects of War. 
 
 The Case For artd Against War. 
 
 XIII. The Brief for Wat. 
 
 XIV. The Brief for Peace. 
 
 XV. "The Great Illusion.*' (Fallacy of the current 
 conception that War is economically beneficiial. ) 
 XVI. Dififerent Types of War in Modern Titties. 
 
SCHEDULE OF LECTURES 
 
 The Remedy. 
 
 Enlargement of the powers of the Hague Conferences 
 (World Legislature), and of the Hague Tribunal 
 (World Judiciary) in the direction of a code and sanc- 
 tion of law superior to individual powers (World 
 Federation) ; ultimately disarmament and peaceful 
 settlement of all international disputes. 
 
 What Has Been Done in This Direction. 
 
 XVII. Peace Advocates and Projects of the Past. 
 XVIII. The Restriction of Force through the Develop- 
 ment of Law. 
 XIX. The History of International Law. 
 XX. Laws Governing International Relations in Time 
 of Peace. 
 XXI. International Rules for War. (Restriction of 
 
 Force. ) 
 XXII. The Development of International Arbitration. 
 XXIIa. Examples of International Arbitration. 
 XXIII. Treaties of Unlimited Arbitration. 
 
 THE WORLD LEGISLATURE. 
 
 XXIV. The First Hague Conference, 1899. 
 XXV. The Second Hague Conference, 1907. 
 
 THE WORLD JUDICIARY. 
 
 XXVI. International Courts. 
 XXVII. Cases Tried and Pending in International Courts. 
 
 Forces Working Toward International "Rapprochement." 
 
 XXVIII. The Shrinkage of the Earth. (Virtual decrease 
 in the size of the earth through the improve 
 ment of means of transportation and commu- 
 nication.) 
 XXIX. Cosmopolitanism. (The world's common life.) 
 
 Means of Promoting the Abolition of War. 
 
 XXX. Means of Antagonizing War. 
 
 XXXI. Education for Peace. 
 
 XXXII. World Federation. 
 
 XXXIII. Present Peace Workers. 
 
 XXXIV. Summary Lecture. 
 
SYLLABUS OF LECTURES 
 
 ON 
 
 INTERNATIONAL CONCILIATION 
 
 I. THE GROWTH OF PEACE THROUGH LAW. 
 
 (Jordan) 
 
 Law, the expression of right. 
 
 Right, the best way of doing things among men, — that which 
 
 makes for strength, happiness and life. 
 Peace : the duration of law ; the absence of violence in social and 
 political relations. 
 
 "La Paix est la duree du Droit." — (Bourgeois.) 
 War, the expression of "unreasoning anger." 
 
 Coordinated and legalized violence to accomplish political 
 ends. Meaning of battle, riot, brawl. 
 Kingdoms, homogeneous groups headed by a king. 
 Empires, groups of kingdoms more or less completely ruled 
 
 through force by an emperor. 
 A nation a region in which people are at peace among them- 
 selves. 
 Civil war, due to failure of functions of a nation ; law-forming 
 and law-enforcing (Cabinets, parliaments and courts). 
 The road from absolutism towards democracy. 
 International war, war between recognized nations. 
 
 Virtually prohibitive through its gigantic expense. Pre- 
 vented by treaties of arbitration. 
 Imperial war, war against weak, lawless or barbarous nations. 
 By no means over. "The Great Illusion." The belief that 
 a nation is enriched by conquest or by expansion of 
 jurisdiction over tinwilling people. 
 Who is to judge? 
 
 "The Mirage of the Map," the belief that power or glory goes 
 with unprofitable extensions of jurisdiction. 
 Primitive man always subject to war. The life of every 
 primitive man or woman, as of every wild animal, is 
 a tragedy. 
 
4 PEACE THROUGH LAW 
 
 Barbarian man violent, but not warlike, becavtse neighbors 
 have nothing to plunder. 
 War and peace have existed from time men wrote no history. 
 
 Extension of mutual help. 
 
 The growth of law. Primaeval arbitration. 
 
 Tribal war; feudal war; the vendetta; piratical war; 
 baronial war; municipal war; religious war; trial by 
 ordeal: ordeal of war; the duel; civil war; interna- 
 tional war. Was as "God's great test of the Nations." 
 
 International war, the only legaHzed form of wholesale 
 killing; the only stronghold of "unreasoning angei 
 in the councils of the world" ; a relic of Mediaevalism : 
 the "Holy Roman Empire," the ideal of one nation 
 and one religion. 
 
 Mutual hatred and mutual distrust along the boundaries 
 of tribes. 
 
 The old patriotism as tribal loyalty. 
 
 The new patriotism as faith in humanity. 
 
 Commerce, science, common interests of men are 
 wider than the borders : Missions, "International- 
 ism," "La Vie Internationale." 
 
 Peace, as agreement among politicians. 
 
 Peace of exhaustion. 
 
 Peace of bankruptcy armed to the teeth. "The beggar 
 crouching by the barrack-door." — (Gambetta.) 
 
 Peace of mutual respect and mutual understanding. 
 
 "The old Peace with the velvet-sandaled feet." — (No- 
 guchi. ) 
 
 Peace of the English-speaking countries. The Canadian 
 border the best illustration of international peace. 
 Compromise and co-operation, the condition of national pros- 
 perity. 
 
 Also the condition of international peace. 
 
 War may sometimes be inevitable, it may be righteous, 
 but only when no other redress exists. 
 
 It is the business of civilization to provide other means of 
 redress, other methods of adjusting differences. 
 Cooperation and Competition, Egoism and Altruism are two 
 principles forever active in organic life, always present 
 in human history. 
 Growth of in-groups ; competition with out-groups. Coales- 
 cence of in-groups into tribes and nations. Develop- 
 ment of peace within in-groups. Competition within 
 in-groups lead to feudal wars. 
 
O PEACE THROUGH LAW 
 
 War as an impostor. Courage, self-restraint, magnanimity, 
 daring are not caused by war, but shown against its lurid 
 background. Brave men chosen as soldiers; being 
 fighters does not make men brave. Every war shows 
 cowardice, murder, arson, graft and leaves a trail of per- 
 sonal and national demoralization. 
 War as illegal. "Inter arma leges silent." Law and truth are 
 silent when war is on. 
 The righteous cause no guarantee of success at arms. 
 "God on the side of strong battalions." 
 War as immoral. That killing is made legal by war does not 
 change its nature. 
 
 "If you take a sword and draw it. 
 And go stick a fellow through, 
 Government's not to answer for it, 
 God will send the bill to you !" 
 War as a counter-irritant to democracy. 
 "Gild the dome of the Invalides." 
 
 War for glory, for territory, for plunder. Gain through 
 war no longer possible. — "The Great Illusion." 
 War as costly. 
 
 (Consult the tables in the appendix for the public debt of 
 nations about 1908.) 
 The French cartoons: 
 
 The farmer and the marquis. 
 The farmer, the soldier, and the bondholder. 
 War as a business contrasted with war for plunder. 
 
 The Unseen Empire of Finance : the houses of Roths- 
 child, Cassel, Stern, Goldschmid, Perreire, Giins- 
 berg, Hirsch, Mendelsohn, Bischofifsheim, War- 
 schauer, Warschafski, Sassoon, Montefiiore, Fould, 
 and their allies. "Das Consortium" of bankers. 
 War as destructive of virility. 
 Reversal of selection. 
 Breeding from ^inferior stock the primal cause of "the 
 
 drooping spirit" of Europe. 
 A nation must be judged, not by its military power, not 
 by its art, its science, its bankers or its universities, but 
 by the status of its common man. What are the op- 
 portunities granted to the men of the rank and file? 
 In what degree are these men able to grasp these op- 
 portunities? The effect of war is to limit these op- 
 portunities, and to leave the common man too weak 
 to grasp such as may exist. 
 
LITERATURE OF THE SUBJECT 
 
 II. THE LITERATURE OF THE SUBJECT. 
 (Krehbiel) 
 
 A. The character and quality of peace Hterature. 
 
 1. Literature casually pertinent to the subject. 
 
 Articles in newspapers ; periodicals, editorials, addresses, 
 dresses, pictures, cartoons, socialist and other 
 literature. 
 
 2. Literature devoted to the promotion of peace. 
 
 a. Critique of war. 
 
 Religious writings. Sermons, tracts, etc. 
 Works of peace advocates and societies. 
 
 Peace periodicals (see appendix). 
 
 Fiction (see appendix). 
 
 Biography of peace advocates, etc. 
 
 Reports of peace organizations of all kinds. 
 Scholarly investigations of war and its conse- 
 quences. 
 
 Historical studies. 
 
 Economic studies. 
 
 Philosophical studies. 
 
 Biological studies. 
 
 b. Constructive literature, which advocates some plan 
 
 of abolishing war. (See the later lectures of the 
 course.) 
 
 B. Suggestions for library work. 
 
 C. Instructions for thesis work. 
 
 References 
 
 La Fontaine : Bibliographic de la paix et de I'arbitration. 
 
 Mead : Literature of the Peace Movement. 
 
 Brooklyn PubHc Library: International Peace: A list of books 
 
 with references to periodicals, 1908. 
 Arena, 12, 138-144. 
 Library of Peace and War. Four lists of the best hundred books 
 
 on peace and war. (Speaker Publishing Co., 1907.) 
 Association for International Conciliation : Monthly Bulletins of 
 
 books, pamphlets, and magazine articles dealing with 
 
 international relations. 
 Peace Year-Book, 191 1. Bibliography. 
 
lO HISTORY OF WARFARE 
 
 III. HISTORY OF WARFARE 
 (Krehbiel) 
 
 Warfare on Land 
 
 A. Ancient Period. 
 
 1. Eastern nations. 
 
 a. Offensive weapons. 
 
 Shock weapons : sword, club, mace, lance, pike, 
 axe, dagger, curved sabre, spear (also missile). 
 
 Missile weapons: barbed javelin, sling, bow and 
 arrow, spear (also shock). 
 
 Artillery: balista, catapult, maginall. 
 
 b. Defensive armor. 
 
 Shield, greaves, helmet, cuirass (outside of Greece). 
 In Greece: belt-band, tunic, breast-plate, corslet. 
 
 c. Military organization and methods. 
 
 Infantry predominant.. 
 
 Armies of great size: Xerxes had nearly a million 
 
 men in his expedition against the Greeks. 
 Soldiers untrained. (Exception: Macedonia.) 
 Provisioning : forage and plunder. 
 I Treatment of the enemy whether combatant or not : 
 
 killed or mutilated, or enslaved. 
 
 d. Tactics. 
 
 Rudimentary (excepting Macedonia: phalanx, long 
 file and narrow column). 
 
 e. Fortifications: protective and strategic centers. 
 
 Permanent fortifications ; no field fortification. 
 Underground passages, moats, turrets. 
 
 2. Rome. 
 
 a. Offensive weapons. 
 
 Shock weapons: short sword, spatha (long sword), 
 pilum, dagger, broadsword, thrusting-pole, lance, 
 axe. 
 
 Missile: spear, javelin, bow and arrow. 
 
 b. Defensive armor. 
 
 Round shield, buckler, greaves, chain cuirass, tunic, 
 scutum, helmet, breast-plate. 
 
 c. Military organization, and methods. 
 
 Infantry predominant. 
 Armies of smaller size than in east. 
 Standing armies. Mercenaries (under the Empire). 
 Provisioning : mainly forage and plunder. 
 Treatment of the enemy: enslaved or ransomed. 
 i. Tactics. 
 
 Armies well drilled. Strategy well developed. 
 
12 HISTORY OF WARFARE 
 
 e. Fortifications. For protection. 
 
 Cities walled; few military strongholds. 
 
 B. Mediaeval Period. (Western Europe.) 
 
 1. Offensive weapons. Not much improved over past. 
 
 a. Shock weapons: sword, lance, axe, mace, leaden 
 mallet, long knives, pike, halbert, two-handed 
 sword. 
 
 h. Missile weapons : long-bow, cross-bow, f ronde, spear 
 (Scotland), sling. 
 Artillery: as in earlier period, but less used. 
 
 2. Defensive armor: most highly developed of any age. 
 
 a. Early middle ages. Mail armor, principally. Helmet, 
 hauberk, shield, hood of mail, leg-bands, glaives, 
 surcoat, breast-plate, back-plate, greaves, bain- 
 bergs, etc. 
 
 h. Later middle ages. Plate armor, chiefly. 
 
 3. Military organization and methods. 
 
 a. Cavalry predominant. Chivalry. 
 
 h. Armies of moderate size. Lords and their retainers. 
 
 c. Provisioning: forage, devastation, plunder. 
 
 d. Prisoners: ransomed or mutilated. 
 
 4. Tactics. 
 
 Individual fighting chiefly; little organized fighting. 
 
 5. Fortifications. 
 
 Practically impregnable in many cases. 
 
 Highly important in warfare as places of refuge. 
 
 6. Martial courage in the middle ages. 
 
 C. Modern Period. (Projectile or missile weapons: firearms.) 
 
 1. Offensive weapons. Much in advance of defensive appli- 
 
 ances. 
 a. Bow and arrow. 
 
 h. Long bow. First used at Falkirk, 1289; Crecy, 1346; 
 in rural France until 1630; in China in i860. 
 
 2. Firearms. Began to be used about 1330. Gunpowder. 
 
 a. Explosives. 
 
 Greek-fire ; Roman candles. Name of inventor un- 
 known. 
 Gunpowder used in firearms beginning ca. 1330. 
 Improvements in explosives. 
 
 Large grain powder. Pressed powder. 
 
 Xyloidine, 1835 (Pelouze). 
 
 Gun-cotton, 1845 (Schonbein). 
 
 Nitro-glycerine, 1846 (Sobrero). 
 
 Gun-cotton improved, 1863 (Nobel), 1865 
 (Abel). 
 
 Dynamite, 1865 (Nobel). 
 
 Sprengel explosives, 1873. 
 
 Blasting gelatine, 1878 (Nobel). 
 
14 
 
 HISTORY OF WARFARE 
 
 Nitro compounds (smokeless). 
 
 E. C. powder, 1882 (Reid). 
 
 B. N. powder, 1886 (Vieille). 
 
 Ballistite, 1888 (Nobel). 
 
 Cordite, 1888. 
 
 German smokeless powder. 
 
 Maximite, 1903. 
 
 Imperial Schultze. 
 
 Snyder explosive (1910). 
 Lyddite. 
 
 b. Loading. 
 
 Muzzle loader. 
 
 Breech loader: ca. 1540. Abandoned. Readopted 
 ca. 1700. Uncommon until 1865. 
 
 c. Ignition. 
 
 Match-lock, 1484. 
 
 Wheel-lock, 15 17. 
 
 Flint-lock, 1635. 
 
 Percussion cap, 1807 (Forsyth), for small arms. 
 
 Needle-gun, Prussia ca. 1840. 
 
 Electric, 1891, used only in naval ordnance. 
 
 d. Field artillery. 
 
 The earliest cannon. 
 
 Used at Cambrai, 1338. 
 Mortar guns, invented in Germany, ca. 1575. 
 Howitzer, invented in England, ca. 1575. 
 Iron shot displaces stone. 
 Artillery classified by Gustavus Adolphus. 
 
 Mobile and immobile. 
 Siege guns: mortars. 
 
 Horse artillery, ca. 1759, by Frederick the Great. 
 Four pounders. Introduced into France by Gri- 
 
 beauval. 
 Case shot, 1807. 
 Shrapnel, 1808. 
 Rifled cannon, Prussia, 1870. 
 Time fuses, France, 1870. 
 
 Percussion caps for large ordnance, Germany, 1870. 
 Rapid fire guns, 1891. Made possible by mastery 
 
 of the recoil. 
 Time shrapnel, 1891. 
 Present day ordnance : land and naval. 
 
 "Section built" guns. 
 
 Wire wound guns. 
 
 Silencers. 
 
 Telescopic sights. 
 
 Automatic guns (3-pounder the largest). 
 
1 6 HISTORY OF WARFARE 
 
 e. Small arms. 
 
 Hand cannon, 1375. 
 
 Arquebus, 1525. 
 
 Musket, 1540. 
 
 Rifle, after 163 1. 
 
 Pistol, about 1670. 
 
 Revolver, about 1835. 
 
 Repeating rifle, 1837. 
 
 Needle-gun, Prussia, 1840. 
 
 Minie ball, 1849. 
 
 Breech loader, ca. i860. 
 
 Magazine rifle, 1860-65. 
 
 Automatic, adopted by the Danish army, 1904. 
 /. Improvement in accuracy and effectiveness. 
 
 Shock weapons : sword, bayonet. 
 
 3. Defensive armor, discarded about 1500 as useless. 
 
 4. Military organization and methods. 
 
 a. Infantry, cavalry, artillery, and, later, baggage train, 
 
 engineer corps, medical corps, etc. 
 h. Armies steadily increase in size, and standing armies 
 become the rule. (Bloch, II, 137-173). 
 Mercenaries. Conscription. 
 Regulars, volunteers. 
 Compulsory universal service. 
 Reserve and militia. 
 
 c. Provisioning. Gradual change in the rules of war. 
 
 (See Syllabus XXI.) 
 
 Forage, devastation, plunder : living off of the 
 enemy. 
 
 Provisioning armies by the state ; necessitates bag- 
 gage train, and base of supplies. 
 
 Private property on land made immune (excep- 
 tions). , 
 
 d. Prisoners, etc. War made more humane and con- 
 
 fined to combatants. (See Syllabus XXI.) 
 
 5. Tactics and strategy. 
 
 The use of firearms, and, later, the abolition of forage, 
 necessitates a base of supplies and constant 
 communication of the army with the same; 
 hence strategy and maneuvering become impor- 
 tant, and armies are well drilled. Individual 
 skill and prowess become unimportant. 
 
 6. Fortifications. 
 
 Serve to dominate strategic points rather than as 
 places of refuge. 
 
HISTORY OF WARFARE 
 
 Naval Warfare 
 
 A. Ancient period. 
 
 1. Vessels. 
 
 Galley or longboat: bireme, trireme, quinquireme. 
 
 2. Armor and protective devices. 
 
 Fake keels, awnings of hides, braces to withstand 
 ramming, moveable walls and turrets, girdling 
 cables. 
 
 3. Armament. 
 
 Javelins, arrows, spears, grappling poles and irons, 
 stone hurlers, combustibles (Greek fire), rams. 
 
 4. Tactics. 
 
 Earlier : ships stationary while men, collected on decks, 
 fought at a distance with spears and bows. 
 
 Later: ships try to ram each other *and soldiers 
 attempt to board the enemy's vessel. 
 
 5. Personnel. 
 
 Crew: 200 oarsmen (freemen, later slaves) to a trireme. 
 Fighting force : distinct from crew. 
 
 B. Mediaeval period. 
 
 Decline of naval warfare. Vikings, Italian cities, Byzan- 
 tines, Hanseatic League. 
 
 C. Modern Period. 
 
 Revival and high development of sea-power. 
 
 Merchant ship and warship distinct after 1500. 
 
 The closed sea (Marc Clausum). 
 
 Spain and Portugal. The Netherlands. The Armada, 1588. 
 
 England versus Louis XIV and Napoleon. Trafalgar, 1805. 
 
 The open sea. 
 
 Germany, United States, Japan, Russia. 
 I. Early modern period. 
 
 a. Vessels. 
 
 Wooden. 
 
 Sailing ships: ships of the Hne; frigates. 
 
 b. Armor: practically none. Gunports. 
 
 c. Armament. 
 
 Ships carried 60 guns by 1600. Number steadily 
 increased; 140 about 1800. 
 
 d. Tactics. 
 
 Gain wind of the adversary. 
 Break the enemy's fighting line. Injure rigging. 
 Boarding at close quarters. Capture vessel if 
 possible. 
 
20 HISTORY OF WARFARE 
 
 2. Later modern period. 
 
 a. Vessels. 
 
 Built of iron and steel. 
 Propelled by steam. (Turbine engines.) 
 Speed. 
 
 Steaming radius. 
 Coaling stations. 
 Docking facilities. 
 
 b. Era of competition between : 
 
 Armor. Kinds and strength. 
 Ordnance. (Average 42 guns per ship.) 
 
 Range, power, durability. 
 
 The Dreadnoughts : all-large-gun vessels. 
 
 Pre-Dreadnought, Dreadnought, Super-Dread- 
 nought. Fighting range is six miles or more. 
 
 General Conclusions 
 
 1 . Formerly war was waged between whole peoples ; now it 
 is a struggle between the combatants of the peoples. 
 
 2. War formerly meant personal antipathy between the 
 combatants ; now it is more nearly a conflict between interests. 
 
 3. Victory formerly meant subjection for the conquered; 
 now the conquered often retains his independence. 
 
 4. Formerly war was waged with little or no preparation, 
 or strategy ; it has gradually been reduced to a science which 
 requires experts in all departments. 
 
 5. Formerly individual prowess counted, and a skillful 
 fighter stood some chance in battle : now the leaders of the army 
 are expected to have the prowess, and the private ordinarily is 
 expected to do nothing more than obey orders (which is contrary 
 to the spirit of democracy) ; and under fire the keen and wide- 
 awake soldier has little more chance to escape death than the 
 sluggard (except perhaps in retreat). 
 
 6. Plundering and wanton destruction of property, which 
 were formerly the rule, are now discouraged. 
 
 7. War has grown more humane. 
 
 8. War has grown very much more expensive than it was. 
 
 9. War was formerly decided upon by the rulers and they, 
 if anybody, were the beneficiaries ; their subjects who fought 
 risked life and gained little except by plunder. Today the people 
 as a whole have a voice in deciding upon war but get Httle out 
 of fighting except the satisfaction of being victors. Others get 
 the prizes. The realization of this and the enlargement of the 
 power of the people will militate against war. 
 
2,2 REFERENCES 
 
 General. 
 
 Jahns : Kriegsgeschichte. 
 
 Bloch: Der Krieg. (Engl. ed. abridged: Future of War). 
 
 Dodge: Great Captains Series (appendices, and the chapters on 
 the history of warfare). Alexander, Hannibal, Caesar, 
 Gustavus Adolphus, Frederick the Great, Napoleon. 
 
 Bout ell (Lacombe) : Arms and Armour. 
 
 Parmentier: Album Historique (illustrations). 
 
 Machiavel : The Art of War. 
 
 Jablonski : Histoire de I'art militaire. 
 
 von der Goltz : The Nation in Arms. 
 
 Maurice: War. 
 
 Grose : Military Antiquities. 
 
 Creasy : Fifteen Decisive Battles. 
 
 Harbottle: Dictionary of Battles. 
 
 Spencer: Descriptive Sociology. 
 
 Sumner: War, Yale Review, October, 191 1. 
 
 (Consult also periodicals, professional journals, and encyclopedias 
 under the proper headings.) 
 
 Ancient. (In addition to the references above.) 
 Phillipson : International Law and Custom of Ancient Greece and 
 
 Rome, II, 166-348. 
 Whibley: Companion to Greek Studies, Ch. VI, Pt. 10. 
 Holmes : Caesar. 
 Meyrick: Antient Armour (illustrations). 
 
 Mediaeval. 
 Oman : Art of War in the Middle Ages. 
 Viollet-le-Duc : Annals of a Fortress. 
 Clark, G. T. : Mediaeval Military Architecture. 
 MacMillan's Mag. : 72, Soldier of the Sixteenth Century. 
 Lacroix: Military and Religious Life. 
 Gautier: Chivalry. 
 
 Modern. 
 
 Derrecagaix: Modern Warfare, 3 vols., iJ 
 (Consult the bibliographies in the works mentioned above and 
 the history of any given war.) 
 
 Naval Warfare. 
 Mahan: Influence of Sea Power on History. 
 Bloch : Der Krieg, III. 
 
 Gibbon: Decline and Fall (Bury) I, 450-1; 538-40. 
 Burchett: Complete Naval History. 
 Mahan : Interest of America in Sea Power. 
 Mahan : Lessons of the War with Spain. 
 Jane : Imperial Russian Navy. 
 
 Jane: All the World's Fighting Ships (Since 1898). 
 Mahan : Influence of Naval Warfare upon the French Revolution. 
 Stenzel : Seekriegsgeschichte. 
 
CAUSES AND CONDITIONS PRODUCING WAR 
 
 IV. THE CAUSES AND CONDITIONS PRODUCING WAR 
 
 (Krehbiel) 
 
 A. Declarations of war. 
 
 1. Present the case of the belligerent as favorably as possible. 
 
 2. Emphasize the immediate occasion of the war (the pre- 
 
 text). 
 
 3. Frequently dissemble the true cause of the war. 
 
 4. Are often belied by subsequent events. 
 
 5. Illustrations. 
 
 B. The immediate cause or the occasion of the war (the pre- 
 
 text). 
 
 1. Chance or accidental occasions. 
 
 2. Artificially prepared occasions. 
 
 3. War slogans and their role. 
 
 C. The underlying causes of wars, the motives. (These proceed 
 
 from human nature and sway individuals and groups.) 
 
 1. Pride. 
 
 2. Revenge. 
 
 3. Avarice. 
 
 4. Love of fighting and adventure. 
 
 5. Racial antipathy. 
 
 6. Causing a war for the purpose of diverting men from 
 
 some action (good or bad) by appealing to their 
 patriotism and loyalty. The "Terror" in France an 
 extreme case. Illustrations abundant. 
 
 7. Religious conviction. 
 
 8. Economic expansion. 
 
 9. Desire to spread civilization (often a pretext). 
 
 10. Desire to get some matter settled. 
 
 11. Liberty (personal or political). 
 
 12. Economic want. 
 
 13. Humanitarianism. 
 
 D. Conditions conducive to peace or war. 
 
 1 . Prevalent conception that fighting is the manly way ,to 
 
 settle a thing. 
 
 2. Expediency of fighting. 
 
 Might of a nation, and its chances of victory. 
 Financial situation. 
 
 Advantage to be gained from fighting. 
 Public opinion (counts more every day). 
 
 3. Justice of fighting. Other means of settlement. 
 
 The same grievance once causes a war, and another time 
 
 is ignored or settled by peaceful means. 
 Illustrations. 
 
26 CAUSES AND CONDITIONS PRODUCING WAR 
 
 "He asked me 'What were the usual causes or motives that 
 made one country go to war with another?' I answered they 
 were innumerable, but I should only mention a few of the chief. 
 Sometimes the ambition of princes, who never think they have 
 land or people enough to govern ; sometimes the corruption of 
 ministers, who engage their masters in a war, in order to stifle 
 or divert the clamor of the subjects against their evil adminis- 
 tration. Difference in opinions has cost many millions of lives; 
 for instance, whether flesh be bread, or bread be flesh ; whethei 
 the juice of a certain berry be blood or wine; whether whistling 
 be a vice or a virtue ; whether it be better to kiss a post, or throw 
 it into the fire ; what is the best color for a coat, whether black, 
 white, red, or gray; and whether it should be long or short, 
 narrow or wide, dirty or clean; — with many more. Neither are 
 any wars so furious and bloody, or of so long continuance, as those 
 occasioned by difference of opinion, especially if it be in things 
 indifferent. 
 
 "Sometimes the quarrel between two princes is to decide 
 which of them shall dispossess a third of his dominions, where 
 neither of them pretends to any right; sometimes one prince 
 quarrels with another, for fear the other should quarrel with him ; 
 sometimes a war is entered upon because the enemy is too strong, 
 and sometimes because he is too weak ; sometimes our neighbors 
 want the things which we have, or have the things which we want, 
 and we both fight till they have ours or give us theirs. . . . Alli- 
 ance by blood or marriage is a frequent cause of war between 
 princes ; and the nearer the kindred is, the greater their disposi- 
 tion to quarrel. Poor nations are hungry, and rich nations are 
 proud ; and pride and hvmger will ever be at variance. For these 
 reasons the trade of a soldier is held the most honorable of all 
 others, because a soldier is a Yahoo hired to kill in cold blood as 
 many of his own species, who have never offended him, as 
 possibly he can." 
 
 (Dean Swift: Voyage to the Land of the Houyhnhnms.) 
 
 References 
 
 Lavelaye: Causes for war and means of reducing their number. 
 
 Cobden Club Essays, 1872. 
 Manning: Causes of wars. Westm. 152, 597-607. 
 Conrad: Autocracy and war. No. Am. 181, 33-55. 
 Hirst: Arbiter in Council. 
 Dymond: War, 9-12. 
 
28 WAR SCARES AND ARMAMENT SYNDICATES 
 
 V. WAR SCARES AND ARMAMENT SYNDICATES 
 
 (Jordan) 
 
 A. The chief business of all governments — borrowing or extort- 
 
 ing money for past or future wars. America spends today 
 71 to 73 per cent, of her receipts. National expenditures in 
 Europe for matters not connected with war, are, and always 
 have been, negligible. 
 
 "I cannot help thinking of you as ye deserve, O ye govern- 
 ments. The only government that I recognize, and it matters not 
 how few are at the head of it or how small is its army, is that 
 which establishes justice in the land." — (Thoreau.) 
 
 B. Who wants war? 
 
 Not the people anywhere. 
 
 Not the rulers anywhere. 
 
 Not business anywhere. 
 
 Not the Unseen Empire of Finance. 
 
 Militarists sometimes (not always). 
 
 Journalists sometimes (not honest journalists). 
 
 "We (of Germany) are a commercial and agricultural nation 
 and we want peace and are peaceful notwithstanding the utter- 
 ances of some irresponsible half-pay generals and admirals who 
 want promotion for their relations, and the unpardonable levity 
 of representatives of the press, who write, against better know- 
 ledge and only for sensation's sake. . . . Truth and fairness in 
 the press would make things much easier and allow nations to 
 understand each other." — (Baron von Roeder, Berlin.) 
 
 C. War Scares and Scarers. 
 
 "In time of peace, prepare for war." 
 
 In time of peace, prepare for peace. 
 
 The war lobby of the world. 
 
 "Making work for unemployed men." Other working men 
 
 must pay for all wasted labor. 
 The Junker element. 
 The military element, "bored almost to death, kept from 
 
 quarreling only by the strictest discipline, ofiScers and 
 
 men, separated from family and with no hope of the 
 
 future except from war." 
 "Just as nervous and just as persistent" when a thousand 
 
 millions more are wasted as they are now. 
 Bid for soldier's vote. 
 Alliance with protected interests. 
 Jingoism : turning aside reforms. 
 
30 WAR SCARES AND ARMAMENT SYNDICATES 
 
 "Look for the simplest motives in explanation of action or 
 of conduct ; somebody makes something by reason of the huge 
 expenditures in preparation for war." 
 
 "Have you ever noticed that about the time that appropria- 
 tions for military purposes are under consideration in Congress, 
 in the House of Commons, in the Chamber of Deputies, or in the 
 Reichstag, or just before such a time, hostilities are always on 
 the point of breaking out in two or three parts of the world 
 at once?" 
 
 "It might be worth while to make some measurement of the 
 sincerity and disinterestedness of the lively type of patriotism 
 which accompanies these military and naval debates the world 
 over." 
 
 War Scares. 
 
 1. England: 
 
 Danger of German aggression — need of armament 2j4 
 times that of any other nation, to protect commerce 
 and colonies. 
 
 Revolt of India. 
 
 Incursion of Russia along Persian frontier. 
 
 Imminent seizure of Holland and Belgiujn by Germany. 
 
 2. Germany : 
 
 Dominance of Great Britain. 
 
 Unprotected commerce and colonies. 
 
 Aggressions on Persia. 
 
 Panslavism. 
 
 Alsace-Lorraine. 
 
 North Africa. 
 
 Asia Minor. 
 
 3. France: 
 
 Germany in Holland; Africa. 
 
 4. Austria : 
 
 Panslavism. 
 "Italia Irredenta." 
 Balkan States. 
 
 5. Italy: 
 
 "Italia Irredenta," Tripoli. 
 
 6. Russia: 
 
 Japan, Germany, England, Sweden, Poland, Persia. 
 
 7. Australia: 
 
 White Australia. 
 
 8. Persia: 
 
 England, Russia, Turkey. 
 
32 WAR SCARES AND ARMAMENT SYNDICATES 
 
 9. United States: 
 
 Designs of Japan. 
 
 Europe and the Monroe Doctrine. 
 
 Germany and Southern Brazil. 
 
 The Philippines. 
 
 Hawaii. 
 
 Panama Canal. 
 
 10. Japan : 
 
 Designs of United States. 
 Designs of Russia. 
 
 1 1 . China : 
 
 "The watermelon to be divided." 
 
 Spheres of Influence of England, France, Germany, 
 
 Japan, Russia. 
 American Concessions. 
 D. Origin of War Scares. 
 
 1. Irresponsible talk. 
 
 2. Yellow Journalism. 
 
 3. Armament Syndicates. 
 
 The New York Evening Post describes the greatest "of the 
 unseen and pernicious forces with which economists have to 
 contend." These are "the powerful companies which exist to 
 produce armaments and which have been encouraged to increase 
 their capital obligations within the last few years by the successive 
 scares and naval programmes of the last decade." 
 
 The capitalization of the six leading English firms is thus 
 given in the London Morning Leader: 
 
 Issued Share Debenture 
 
 Capital Capital 
 
 Vickers' Sons & Maxim £5,200,000 £2,956,200 
 
 Cammell, Laird & Co 2,372,895 1,728,511 
 
 Armstrong, Whitworth & Co. . . 4,210,000 2,500,000 
 
 Wm. Beardmore & Co 2,000,000 1,716,621 
 
 John Brown & Co 3,218,500 1,018,292 
 
 Thames Ironworks Co 600,000 261,044 
 
 Total £17,601,395 £10,180,468 
 
 ^ , ^ $85,368,765 $49,375,267 
 
 total, over $134,740,000. 
 
 This list is by no means complete so far as England is con- 
 cerned. "The importance of these figures," says the correspon- 
 dent of the Post, "is evident. The country has encouraged pri- 
 vate concerns to expend these sums so that they may be produc- 
 tive of profits year by year for the benefit of their shareholders. 
 
34 WAR SCARES AND ARMAMENT SYNDICATES 
 
 Any restriction in the building of armaments either by the home 
 or foreign governments has disastrous results on the year's 
 profits. It requires no stretch of the imagination to see that the 
 enormous numbers of investors in every class of society scattered 
 through the country exert a subtle influence in favor of the ex- 
 pansion of armaments. The numbers are not so much as the 
 quality. According to the "Investor's Review," the social posi- 
 tion of some of the leading owners of three of the principal firms 
 
 is as follows : 
 
 . „ T T-. Armstrong, 
 
 VicKERs' Sons John Brown whitworth 
 
 & Maxim & Co. ^ q^ 
 
 Duke 2 I 
 
 Marquess 2 
 
 Earl, baron, or wife, son, or 
 
 daughter of 5° ^° ^^ 
 
 Baronet 15 2 15 
 
 Knight 5 5 20 
 
 M. P 3 2 8 
 
 J. P 7 9 3 
 
 K. C 5 
 
 Military or naval officer . . 21 2 20 
 Naval architect or govern- 
 ment contractor 2 
 
 Financier 3 i 
 
 Journalist (including news- 
 paper proprietors) 638 
 
 The plant of Vickers' Sons and Maxim is prepared t<» lay 
 down and complete three Dreadnoughts in three years without 
 going outside its own factories. 
 
 In referring to the standing army of 1,041,000 men now 
 maintained by the British Empire, Mr. G. H. Ferris says (Hands 
 Across the Sea, p. 10) : "This is the largest peace establishment 
 in the world, with the exception of the Russian army, which is 
 of about the same size. Those of Germany and France number 
 only about 650,000 men. Of the million of our soldiery, 776,000 
 are Britishers, 665,000 being located at home, and the remainder 
 exiled mainly in tropical or sub-tropical lands. To this 776,000, 
 we must add 185,000 men of the Fleet and the Naval Reserve. 
 And behind this force of 961,000 able-bodied and middle-aged 
 Englishmen, there lie two bodies, also of adult men, most skilled 
 and able-bodied, whose numbers can be only approximately de- 
 termined : ( I ) Those engaged in the arsenals and dockyards, and 
 the numerous armament trades, and (2) Pensioners, small and 
 large, possibly 100,000 of them, since their cost on the Estimates 
 is about 2,500,000 pounds a year. 
 
36 WAR SCARES AND ARMAMENT SYNDICATES 
 
 "The probability is, then, that at least 1.500,000 adult able- 
 bodied men — or one in six of the "occupied" adult males of the 
 United Kingdom — share, to some extent, in the 65,000,000 pounds 
 a year which we spend on the twin 'defense' services. Thus, even 
 when we remember that many of these, like the 'Terriers' and 
 Reservists, get a mere allowance, while a large part of the regular 
 army is paid for by India, it will be seen that we have here the 
 most widely ramified of all our vested interests, a fearful drag 
 upon reproductive industry, and an influence which must often 
 diverge from the straight line of democratic advance. The big 
 prizes, of course, all go to a small class of financiers and indus- 
 trial magnates, who, in order to keep the game going, exert a 
 thoroughly pernicious influence on Parliament and middle-class 
 opinion. The higher officer ranks of the army and navy are an 
 aristocratic preserve, and are highly organized for the advance- 
 ment of their professional interests. This alliance of money 
 power and class power, whose shibboleth and trademark is 
 'Imperialism,' includes the most determinedly reactionary ele- 
 n:ents in British society." 
 
 "War," says the German Colonel Gadke, "is the father of 
 other wars. The more we think of our own power and ability, 
 the oftener we have tasted of the fruit of victorious war, the 
 more are we surrounded by the evil spirit of Chauvinism and of 
 Imperialism. War is the father of other wars." 
 
 E. Roar of indignation at closing of Woolwich. (Syndicates for 
 War, 7f.) 
 I. Similar conditions elsewhere. 
 
 a. "King Krupp of Essen." Embassadors in every capi- 
 
 tal, "strong, silent men," covered with glory when 
 they stir up trouble. Egging powers to purchase 
 arms by showing orders of rivals. 
 
 b. In Japan. The foreign editor of the Times is report- 
 
 ed to have said of one of them (a shipbuilding 
 firm) that he found it difficult sometimes to say 
 where this firm began and where the government 
 ended. 
 
 c. Millions spent in "tips" and douceurs. 
 
 d. Trail of bribery everywhere. Servia, Russia, Argen- 
 
 tina, Turkey. 
 Russia the paradise of the armament maker. 
 
 e. Sale of old weapons, to Albanians, Arabs, Abyssini- 
 
 ans. Moors, Central Americans, Central Africans, 
 „ Caucasians, Afghans, Chinese, Senegambians. 
 "Civilization in the Dark Continent has much to 
 
 answer for, beginning with rum and ending with 
 
 rifles." 
 
38 WAR SCARES AND ARMAMENT SYNDICATES 
 
 F. Typical utterances. 
 
 "If our navy should shrink to lesser proportions and 
 should be permitted to fall below the level of Germany, 
 France and Japan, these nations would bully our commerce 
 and insult our Monroe Doctrine whenever they felt like it." 
 — Republican Peace Committee, New York. 
 
 Germany says, "War is the only means of fulfilling 
 national purpose. Preparation for war seems the first busi- 
 ness of government." 
 
 "If, while nations remain, war is to be abolished, then 
 unless the degeneration of people can be prevented, to say 
 there shall be no more war means there shall be no more 
 progress." 
 
 "Many thousand Japanese troops already established in 
 the guise of settlers in the United States and in Mexico." 
 
 "Japan has bought secretly from Mexico a coaling sta- 
 tion in Magdalena Bay." 
 
 "The Shadow of Conflict and of displacement greater 
 than any which mankind has known since Attila and his 
 Huns were slayed at Chalons is visibly impending over the 
 world. Almost can the ear of imagination hear the gather- 
 ing of the legions for the fiery trial of peoples, a sound vast 
 as the trumpet of the Lord of Hosts." 
 
 "The waning fleet of Great Britain is tied to its own 
 shores by German menace." 
 
 G. The Moral. 
 
 "The moral is when next you read a war scare, reassure 
 your native intelligence by making the sound "pooh-pooh." 
 In the current idiom : It is all punk." 
 
 "The only national defense Great Britain needs is de- 
 fense against her armament syndicates." — (G. H. Perris.) 
 
 References 
 
 Syndicates for War: TV. Y. Evening Post, April i, 191 1. 
 
 Same : Reprinted by the World Peace Foundation, Boston. 
 
 Makers of War Scares: N. Y. Evening Post, April 12, 191 1. 
 
 Influence of Capital: N. Y. Evening Post, April 12, 191 1. 
 
 Perris: Hands Across the Sea. 
 
 Homer Lea : The Valor of Ignorance. 
 
 Wyatt : God's Test by War. Nineteenth Century. 
 
 Perris : Labor's Plea for International Peace. 
 
 Wilson: War and Business, Harper's Weekly, December 9, 1911. 
 
40 THE UNITED STATES AND JAPAN 
 
 VI. THE UNITED STATES AND JAPAN. 
 (Jordan) 
 
 A. Early History of Japan. 
 
 Hideyoshi and Korea (1592-1598). 
 Temples and palaces. 
 
 B. Feudal System. 
 
 Shogun and the Mikado. 
 Portugese in Japan. 
 Dutch at Nagasaki. 
 
 C. Modern Japan. 
 
 Commodore Perry at Kanagawa (1854). 
 
 The Treaty Ports. 
 Shimonoseki affair (1864). 
 General Grant at Nikko. 
 Consular jurisdiction (1899). 
 War with China (1894-5). 
 War with Russia (1904-5). 
 Protectorate over Korea (1904). 
 Absorption of Korea (1910). 
 
 D. The "Japanese Question." 
 
 1. Steamship agents bring rice-field laborers from Okayama, 
 
 Hiroshima and Yamaguchi to Hawaii. These, the 
 lowest class of Japanese (not criminal nor weak- 
 minded) virtually slaves in Hawaii. 
 
 2. Warning of W. W. Scott, of clash with European labor- 
 
 ers due to low standards of living and lack of common 
 traditions (1898). Refusal of Japanese Government 
 to issue passports to this class to come to America. 
 (1899). Annexation of Hawaii to United States 
 (1898) gives freedom to Hawaiian laborers. Inilux 
 of laborers to California. Injury to reputation of 
 Japan (being judged by its lowest and least educated 
 class). 
 
 3. Race prejudice, economic prejudice, exploitation. 
 
 4. Efforts at exclusion of Japanese unskilled laborers. 
 
 5. The demand for them in the fruit orchards and as house 
 
 servants. 
 
 6. Their preference for work in cities. 
 
 7. Agreement with Japanese Government that no passports 
 
 be issued to unskilled laborers to come to Hawaii or 
 to the Pacific Coast, and that all Japanese with pass- 
 ports be received without question. 
 
42 THE UNITED STATES AND JAPAN 
 
 8. Efforts to make political capital by exclusion bills after 
 
 desired results had been fully attained. 
 
 9. Efforts of "Anti- Japanese" to change public opinion. 
 
 10. Objections to "Oriental exclusion" projects. 
 
 11. Economic reasons for exclusion not without cogency. 
 
 12. Racial reasons for exclusion. 
 
 Of doubtful validity. 
 
 13. Social reasons for exclusion. 
 
 Fecundity, disregard for contracts, lack of business 
 honesty. 
 
 Ambition to rise above situation, bad neighbors, non- 
 assimilation, low standards of morality. 
 
 14. Japanese reasons for exclusion. 
 
 Ricefield "coolies" giving wrong impression of character 
 and culture of Japanese people. 
 
 E. Japanese students in America. 
 
 F. School question in San Francisco. 
 
 a. Question at issue. Was an "Oriental School" (no Chinese 
 being present) a violation of "most favored nation" clause 
 in treaty? Probably, but not certainly. Matter originally 
 without significance and without malice. Given impor- 
 tance by Japanese protest, by newspapers of both countries, 
 and by misrepresentation and exaggeration. 
 
 b. Proper course of action apparently an injunction suit. 
 
 c. Message of President. 
 
 G. The Manchurian railway question. 
 
 Suggested sale to China, to be directed by outside syndicate, 
 unwelcome and doubtless impracticable. 
 H. The fur seal question. 
 
 1. The Pribilof herd reduced (1888 to 1900) from 1,000,- 
 000 breeding females to 200,000. 
 
 2. Work of Canadian pelagic sealers. 
 
 Further reduced to about 30,000, largely by Japanese 
 pelagic sealers. 
 
 3. Matter settled wisely and justly by treaty of 1910. Great 
 Britain, Russia, Japan and the United States. 
 
 /. No question has ever disturbed the friendly relations of the 
 governments of the two nations. Some matters have 
 made local or temporary friction, but these all fully ad- 
 justed. 
 American sympathy with Japan: 
 
 In early days, work of Harris, Denison, Chamberlain, 
 
 Mendenhall, Morse, Hearn, Terry, Swift and others. 
 In war with China. 
 In war with Russia. 
 
44 THE UNITED STATES AND JAPAN 
 
 The "Pro-Japanese" and "Anti-Japanese." 
 
 Problems of the Japanese Government. 
 
 War scares in America and Japan. 
 
 Wicked imaginings for wicked purposes. 
 
 Japanese love America. 
 : Many of the ablest were educated in America. 
 
 ' America is Japan's best customer. 
 
 America is Japan's most constant friend. 
 
 The outside* ambitions of Japan centre on Korea and 
 South Manchuria. 
 
 She is nearest the greatest political problem of the world: 
 the future of China. 
 
 She has no money to waste on war in any quarter. 
 /. Peace Societies in Japan. 
 
46 ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF PAST WARS 
 
 VII. ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF PAST WARS 
 
 (Krehbiel) 
 
 A. Destruction of property. 
 
 1. Formerly an essential part of war: war must support 
 
 war. 
 
 a. Middle ages. Destruction of enemy's property (in- 
 
 cluding his serfs and cattle) was the rule. 
 
 b. Period of mercenary armies, XIV-XVII centuries. 
 
 War a trade or profession (not without honor). 
 
 Soldiers were paid, and expected to live on their 
 pay; the only help in this direction was the es- 
 tablishing of markets in the neighborhood of the 
 army. 
 
 Soldiers made their real gain from plunder and 
 booty. 
 
 Foraging. 
 
 Wallenstein. 
 
 2. Provisioning armies. 
 
 Made easier by the fact that the use of artillery neces- 
 sitated a base of supplies. 
 
 Relieving the individual private of the need of foraging 
 for himself made it possible to march farther and 
 faster. 
 
 Gustavus Adolphus introduced the system. 
 
 He provisioned his army at the expense of the oc- 
 cupied country, by means of well organized for- 
 aging divisions, which were expected to take no 
 more than was necessary. 
 
 Large armies made possible. Kept in time of peace. 
 Supplying the army became an important business, 
 and in France a monoply ("compagnie des 
 - vivres," Paris-du-Verney) ; which practiced so 
 
 much fraud and graft that the soldiers were com- 
 pelled to pilfer in order to get an adequate 
 income. 
 
 Systematic provisioning the secret of Frederick the 
 Great's rapid campaigns. 
 
 Provisioning of armies tended to diminish wanton des- 
 truction on the part of the private; however, 
 depredation still remained a part of legitimate 
 warfare. Thirty Years' War; Louis XIV. 
 
48 ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF PAST WARS 
 
 3. Requisition and contribution. Initiated with the French 
 
 Revolution. (Instead of forcefully seizing whatever 
 
 was wanted, a locality was requested and forced to 
 
 furnish a given amount of provisions of a stated 
 
 kind; other property being exempt from seizure.) 
 
 A requisition might demand supplies or money. 
 
 All property in France put under requisition by decrees 
 
 of August 27, and September 7, 1793. (Bloch 
 
 IV, 379-) 
 Napoleon supported his armies abroad by requisi- 
 tions. 
 The destruction of property still remained legitimate. 
 Napoleon and the art treasures of his victims. 
 Sherman's March to the Sea. 
 Conventions for land warfare now prohibit wanton 
 destruction of private property. 
 Violated: Boxer rebellion. 
 On the sea private property remains subject to capture 
 by the enemy. (It should be made immune.) 
 
 B. Disturbance of economic conditions. War is pathological, as 
 
 it produces an abnormal economic condition. 
 
 1. Interruption of business at many points (not only be- 
 
 tween foes). 
 
 2. Withdrawal of large numbers of men from their regular 
 
 pursuits in factories, offices, and on farms; draft 
 animals needed for war purposes. 
 
 3. Rise in wages and prices. (Wages do not rise in concert 
 
 with prices. Dewey: Financial History of U. S. 294.) 
 
 4. Change in demand: war goods wanted. 
 
 5. Rise in insurance rates (both for goods on land and sea). 
 
 C. Financial conditions. 
 
 War means enormous expense to a government. 
 
 Credit of the govetnment immediately sinks; its paper 
 
 (bonds and paper money) fall in value. 
 Specie (especially gold) is forced out of circulation ; hoarded. 
 Runs on banks are to be feared. 
 Banks (perchance the government) may be compelled to 
 
 suspend specie payment. 
 Loans recalled ; interest high ; bankruptcy to be feared. 
 Financing the war. (Based on the Civil War.) 
 
 The government issues bonds. These must be of a 
 character to induce moneyed interests to buy. 
 Must bear high rate of interest' (preferably pay- 
 able in gold). 
 Must be put on sale at a discount. 
 
50 ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF PAST WARS 
 
 Must offer suitable means of conversion or redemp- 
 tion. 
 (The patriotism and courage of purchasers of such 
 
 bonds.) 
 Issuing bonds means indebtedness. 
 Customs and excise duties. War tariffs. 
 
 Duties on imports payable in coin (often gold). 
 Why? 
 Taxes increased. But not too much; as people must not 
 
 feel the burden of war too directly. 
 Fiat money. Non-interest bearing paper. Greenbacks, 
 assignats in France. Debt in another form. 
 Redeemable : 
 
 Not too soon, or the government cannot meet its 
 
 obligations. 
 Not too late, or the paper will depreciate. 
 Legal tender. 
 
 If not made a legal tender, it will fail of its pur- 
 pose. 
 If made a legal tender and received for customs 
 and taxes, the government will get no coin. 
 Hence legal tender except for certain payments to 
 
 the government; which causes depreciation. 
 For depreciation in Civil War: Dewey, 293. 
 D. Recovery from the war. 
 
 Resumption of normal economic life. Danger of booms or 
 
 inflation. 
 War debt to be repaid. (Do financial interests want the 
 
 governments to get out of debt?) 
 The rehabilitation of the war equipment. 
 Results of the acquisition or loss of territory. (Lecture XV. ) 
 Results of the payment of indemnities on conqueror and 
 conquered. France and Germany. 
 
 References 
 
 Bloch : Der Krieg, I, 3-308 ; 358-64. IV, 3-308 ; 343-64- 
 
 Richet: Passe de la guerre ... 61. 
 
 Molinari : Grandeur et decadence de la guerre, 228 ; 237-9. 
 
 Mass. Commision on the Cost of Living : Waste of Militarism. 
 
 Jones : Commerce and War. 
 
 Anitchkow: War and Labor. 
 
 Journal de la Societe de Statistique de Paris, 1909, 314-49. 
 
 Denifle : Desolation des Eglises. 
 
 Dewey: Financial History of the United States. 
 
 Rauchberg: Die Bevolkerung Oesterreichs. (Plate p. 27, shows 
 
 wages and prices in Austria.) 
 (For additional references see Syllabi VIII and IX.) 
 
52 world's war equipment and expenditure 
 
 VIII. THE WORLD'S WAR EQUIPMENT AND EXPEN- 
 DITURE. 
 
 (Krehbid) 
 
 A. In men. 
 
 I. Land Forces, classified. (Sundbarg) 
 
 a. Officers 227,537 
 
 b. Infantry 2,651,625 
 
 c. Cavalry A9'^,9^7 
 
 d. Artillery 601,350 
 
 Total classified 3,972,479 
 
 e. Colonial (Great Br., Portu- 
 gal, Netherl.) 281,026 
 
 /. Miscellaneous 1,345,698 
 
 Total unclassified 1,626,724 
 
 Grand total, peace standing 5.599)203 
 
 -. In the navies. (Sundbarg) 46 nations 422,737 
 
 (World Almanac, 191 1, 551, gives the 
 
 figure at 477,279 men for 22 navies. ) 
 
 Guardians of the world's peace 6,021,940 
 
 3. War footing. (World Almanac, 1 911, 551) . 19,143,500 
 
 B. In draft animals, etc. Horses (Sundbarg) 741,656 
 
 C. In military and naval stations. 
 
 Fortifications : their distribution illustrated. 
 
 Barracks, drill-grounds, arsenals, proving grounds, gun and 
 
 ammunition factories and depots. 
 National cemeteries. 
 Navy yards, ship yards, docks, coaling stations, etc. 
 
 For details about the U. S., Heitman : Historical Regis- 
 ter, II. 
 
 D. Vessels. All types (Sundbarg) 2848. 
 
 Number of dreadnoughts to be ready at end of 191 1, 35; 
 1912, 67; 1913, 85. (Navy League Annual, 1910). 
 
 E. Air craft. 
 
 I. Types. 
 
 a. Lighter-than-air : balloons and dirigibles. 
 
 Rigid: Zeppelin. 
 
 Semi-rigid: Gross (German); La Rebublique 
 
 (French). 
 Non-rigid: Perseval (German); Ville de Paris 
 
 (French). 
 
 b. Heavier-than-air : aeroplanes (various makes). 
 
54 world's war equipment and expenditure 
 
 2. Performances. 
 
 3. Military uses: dropping explosives forbidden. (Hague.) 
 
 4. Number of air craft used by armies not ascertainable. 
 
 F. Miscellaneous war materials. 
 
 Uniforms, utensils, repairs, stores, hospital equipment, en- 
 gineering outfits, telegraphic appliances, etc. 
 Large guns on land, 20,904; on ships, 21,207 (Sundbarg). 
 
 G. Cost of maintaining this equipment. 
 
 World's military budget (Statesman's Year 
 Book, 191 1, and Bull. Bureau Am. 
 Rep., 31, 32) $1,591,571,441 
 
 World's naval budget (1908) (Sundbarg).. 575,364,000 
 
 Total annual budget . (ca. 1908) .... $2,166,935,441 
 
 Cost per man. (Mulhall: "Army.") 
 
 Great Britain. Annual cost per man . . .$ 350 
 
 France " " 240 
 
 Germany (1897) " " 205 
 
 Austria-Hungary " " 205 
 
 Italy " " 225 
 
 Portugal " " 160 
 
 United States " " 1581 
 
 The Annual Armament Budgets of Ten Nations 
 
 /~„„,T™,r -c-T^^., \7,~.„ Expended for Expended for Total Military 
 
 Country Fiscal Year ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^ 
 
 Austria-Hungary . 1909 $ 69,578,000 $ 12,687,000 $ 82,265,000 
 
 France 1910 164,569,000 68,299,000 232,868,000 
 
 Germany 1910-11 177,462,000 39,513,000 216,975,000 
 
 Great Britain 1909-10 137,175,000 175,715,000 312,890,000 
 
 Italy 1909-10 61,745,000 33,927,000 95,672,000 
 
 Japan 1909-10 36,146,000 17,662,000 53,808,000 
 
 Russia 1910 240,358,000 14,624,000 284,982,00011 
 
 Spain 1910 32,814,000 6,271,000 39,085,000 
 
 Turkey* 1909 49,667,000 5,530,000 55,197,000 
 
 United Statest .. .1909-10 158,173,000 123,974,000 282,147,000 
 
 Totals $1,127,687,000 $528,202,000 $1,655,889,000 
 
 Total annual military expenditures of world approximate $2,250,000,000. 
 
 * Figures obtained from Whitaker's Almanack, 1910, and 
 Almanac de Gotha, 1910. 
 
 t Figures_ obtained from U. S. Treasury Report, 1910. 
 
 Figures for the remaining countries obtained from States- 
 man's Year Book, 1910. 
 
56 references 
 
 References 
 
 For statistics consult: Statesman's Year Book, Hazell's Annual, 
 Mulhall, WebD, Almanacli de Gotha, United States Re- 
 ports. 
 
 Sundbarg: Apergus Statistiques Internationaux, 1908, p. 165, 166. 
 
 Call : Military Reservations of the U. S. (Govt. Printing Office.) 
 
 Jerram : Armies of the World. 
 
 Bartholomew: Atlas of the World's Commerce. Map 26-27. 
 
 Heitman: Historical Register, II, 475-559. 
 
 Philips : Mercantile Marine Atlas. 
 
 Smithsonian Institution, Reports, 190S, 117-159 (Aeronautics). 
 
 Bloch: Future of War, 63-92. 
 
 Cobden Club : The Burden of Armament. 
 
 Tawney: Cost of Armed Peace. (Speech in Congress.) 
 
 Bloch: Der Krieg, II, 497-751. IV, 289. 
 
 Griffiths : Great Armies and their cost, Fortn. 75, 249-59. 
 
 Dymond : War. Appendix. 
 
 Peace Year Book, 191 1, 42-48. 
 
 Berkeley: The Cost of 230,000 Fighting Men. Westm. Rev. 
 155, 1 17-125. 
 
 Johnson : Expansion of Military Expenditures. ( Pamphlet. ) 
 
 Ferris: Hands Across the Sea, p. 10. (Pamphlet.) 
 
 Office of Naval Intelligence (U. S.) ; Coaling, Docking, and 
 Repairing Facilities of the Ports of the World. 
 
 War Dept. General Staff, 191 1, No. 17. Strength and Organi- 
 zation of the Armies of Germany, Austria, Russia, Eng- 
 land, Italy, Mexico, and Japan. 
 
 British Sessional Papers, 1906 (148), LXVII, 469. Military 
 Expenditure, British and Foreign. 
 
 British Sessional Papers, 1909, LIII (251). Naval Expenditure 
 of the Principal Powers. 
 
58 PUBLIC DEBT OF NATIONS 
 
 IX. THE PUBLIC DEBT OF NATIONS. 
 
 (Jordan) 
 
 Small debts of kings. 
 
 Borrowed money ; wasted money. 
 
 Paid by new loans ; by scaling, by confiscation, by fiat money, 
 
 by extortion, by plunder. 
 "L'etat, c'est fnoi !" All the people merely squatters on the 
 
 royal property. 
 "Apres nous le deluge!" 
 Small war debts of Eighteenth Century. 
 Making war pay its way. 
 Cheap equipment. 
 Cheap guns and scanty suppHes. 
 Making a desert and calHng it peace. 
 Thirty Years War. 
 Rise of war debts in Nineteenth Century : A device of the Nine- 
 teenth Century. 
 Constitutional government makes borrowing possible. 
 Began with Pitt in England, just before 1800. 
 "The last check upon war given up." 
 "O, how I leave my country!" (Pitt's last words.) 
 . Credit prevents plunder. Banks filled with paper, not coin. 
 Increase in size of armies — due to great mortality. 
 Cost of equipment — due to scientific invention. 
 Change from the wooden fleet of 1812 to Dreadnoughts of 
 1910, costing upwards of $12,000,000. Succeeded 
 perhaps by swift hornets, sending dreadnoughts and 
 super-dreadnoughts to the junk heap. 
 War necessarily prepared for long beforehand. 
 
 Germany; Japan; France; United States; Canada. 
 War preparations bankrupt the nations. How those thrive who 
 have part in supplying means of war ; the Unseen Empire 
 and the Armament Syndicates. 
 Debt of Europe (mostly war debt) now $26,000,000,000. 
 Rise of the Unseen Empire. 
 
 Meyer Amschel, pawnbroker. "Der rothe Schild," Frank- 
 
 fort-on-the-Main. 
 The Landgrave of Hesse Cassel. 
 The Hessians (12,000 soldiers sold to the British). 
 "Uncle" to the King of Denmark. 
 Nathan Rothschild and Waterloo. 
 Nathan Rothschild and the Bank of England. 
 
6o PUBLIC DEBT OF NATIONS 
 
 Alphonse de Rothschild and the indemnity of France. 
 
 Wealth of Rothschilds estimated at $2,000,000,000. 
 Bleichroder, "The little man who had counted gold ever since 
 
 the Christian Era." 
 Fould, supporter of Napoleon III. 
 
 Perreire, Austria and southeastern Europe. ($700,000,000.) 
 Cassel, the Nile; "uncle" of kings. 
 Sassoon, Asia Minor. 
 Stern. 
 
 Goldschmid, Portugal. 
 Giinsberg, Russia ; "uncle" of the Czar. 
 Montefiore, Australia. 
 Mendelssohn 
 Ephrussi. 
 Bischoffsheim. 
 Warschafski. 
 
 Camondo, Turkey; "uncle" of the Sultan. 
 Ralli, "Lord of the Levant." 
 Beit. 
 
 Wertheimer. 
 Barnato. 
 Friedlander. 
 
 Africa, $1,000,000,000. 
 The Unseen Empire or "Das Consortium" of Bankers, who con- 
 trol Europe. 
 To control a railroad or a nation is not to own it, but to 
 "absorb" or to "adjust" its debt. 
 Countries not controlled : 
 
 Uncivilized states, not yet ready to borrow money. 
 Small states of Europe. 
 United States. 
 Canada. 
 Wealth of Astors : estimated at $300,000,000. 
 Rockefeller's: estimated at $400,000,000. 
 
 English houses have about $16,000,000,000 invested abroad. 
 $2,400,000,000 in America; $7,000,000,000 in British 
 colonies ; $550,000,000 in Japan ; $2,000,000,000 in Austra- 
 lia. (Cf. Syllabus XXIX.) 
 Theory that the nation belongs to the present generation with no 
 
 thought of the future. 
 Evils of deferred payment. 
 Evils of indirect taxation. 
 
62 
 
 PUBLIC DEBT OF NATIONS 
 
 Evils of making war pay its way. 
 
 National debt the basis of international credit. 
 
 The Unseen Empire, the guarantee of the peace and financial 
 
 stability of Europe. 
 When all the money is in the hands of professional financiers 
 
 finance will be stable. 
 Devices for increasing national wealth by diverting money from 
 
 the poor who make poor use of it to the strong who can 
 
 make money grow. 
 The kings become puppets or go into banishment. The masters 
 
 of Europe take their place. 
 Meanwhile what of Democracy? 
 
 "For after all this is the people's country." 
 
 THE PUBLIC DEBT OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 {Prepared by C. R. Nunan, '12) 
 
 <7M laa» 
 
 tilt 
 
 
 n>a 
 
 last 
 
 a4<» 
 
 iBSa IBto IBM /•«• fMfa ifeo illg 
 
 fc7"..»..-. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2.773. aoo^oco 
 
 ZJOO.OOO.oao 
 
 TOE PUBLIC 
 UNITED 
 
 DEBT OF THE 
 STATES 
 
 
 2,1 20^00 '^^'^^'^ i.t^C.omopey'-''^ 
 
 . /.eoo.ooo^ooo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I.BIS. oao.aao \ / 
 
 . I.S 00.0 0,0 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f /, SS.i, 000. a a»\.-^r,S*r.Ooejaa» 
 
 ./.zoofioo.aa 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 In Mi 11 tons.' 
 
 . 300,000,060 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . So(i.ooo.oao 
 
 - Zoo.000,000 
 7S 000.000 
 
 IZS. 
 
 -r^ 
 
 .POO aa.oo".*'"" 
 
 f\o»o 
 
 
 I. The public debt of the United States. 
 
 [Source — 1791-1855, North American Review, 1910, 
 720 (Austin). 
 1855-1910, Lalor's Encyclopedia, p. 726.] 
 II. Total annual expenditure of the United States. 
 [Source — Statesman's Year Book.] 
 
 III. Total annual cost of military and naval establishments (ex- 
 cluding pensions). 
 [Source — Statesman's Year Book.] 
 (The figures for any given year are for the fiscal year ending 
 June 30). 
 
64 references 
 
 References 
 
 Hamilton-Grace: Finance and War. 
 
 Atkinson : Facts and Figures. Lecture 6. 
 
 Barr, J. : Christianity and War. Lecture II. 
 
 Levi: War and its Consequences. 
 
 Gorges : La Dette Publique. 
 
 Austin: No. Am. Rev. 1901, 632f. 
 
 Journal de la Societe de Statistique de Pans, i860, p. 14-16. Vol. 
 
 34, 315-17. Vol. 50, 359-389 (Bonds). 
 Statesman's Year Book, 1900, p. 53. (The same table is found 
 
 in other earlier editions.) 
 World's Work : 14, 9145-48. Prevention of War. 
 Mass. Commission on the Cost of Living : The Waste of Militar- 
 ism. 
 British Sessional Papers, 1909, [cd. 4657]- L. 43, 44, 113 
 
 (1835-1908). 
 Dewey: Financial History of the United States. (References 
 
 at the beginning of the book. ) 
 Bloch: Der Krieg, I, 3-245 passim; 277-308. 
 Bloch: The Future of War, 128-9; 140-6; 163-318. 
 Bullock: Cost of War. Atlan. M. 95, 433-45- 
 Tarbell: The Tariff in Our Times (War Tariffs). 
 Giffen: Cost of the Franco-German War. 
 Pfitzner: Entwickelung d. kommunalen Schulden in Deutsch- 
 
 land. (Tables.) 
 Trueblood: Cost of War. 
 
 Dilke: Armaments of United Kingdom. Indep. 52, 1294-7, 
 Sundbarg: Apergus . . . (1908), p. 16. 
 Stammhammer: Bibliographic der Finanzwissenschaft. 
 Statistical Abstract (Engl.) 1908. (Debt of foreign countries 
 
 in recent years.) 
 Statistical Abstract (U. S.) 1906, p. 650 and appendix. (U. S. 
 
 debt). 
 Statistisches Jahrbuch d. deutschen Reiches, 1910, 307 (Imperial 
 
 debt). 
 Statesman's Year Book, 1899, 521 (French debt). 
 Allgemeines Statistisches Archiv I, 242, 295 (U. S. debt). 
 Atkinson: Cost of War and Warfare (1902). 
 Atkinson : Cost of a National Crime. 
 Atkinson: The Hell of War and its Penalties. 
 Bastable: Public Finance. 
 Lalor: Encyclopedia, "Debts," p. 726. 
 Adams: Public Debt. 
 
THE PUBLIC DEBT OF GERMANY. 
 (Prepared by L. L. Hill, 'ii) 
 'Sjo laso /b9o J9oa /^/o 
 
 3fl(tO.C0i>OlfO 
 
 THE PUBLrC DEBT 
 Spoopoti^ooo O F 6 E R MANY. 
 
 3,&ZS'^o o 0,0 o o . 
 
 Zp0_OOl>/>OO 
 
 f,Soo,ooopoo J/aJ, 
 
 (sso, ooBj)ao 
 
 ^00 Off 0,1) 00 
 
 '8'3,Dto,eoe 
 
 
 'S,si3,oi>o,aoo 
 
 t/s;Me,fi>o\ 
 
 
 ■/o/.eoo.foo 
 
 (The scale of this plate is twice that of the other plates.) 
 
 I. The Imperial debt. 
 
 [Source — British Statistical Abstract, 1908, 319.] 
 II. Debt of the German States. 
 
 [Source — Pfitzner: Entwickelung der kommunalen 
 Schulden in Deutschland, p. 36.] 
 III. Fluctuation of German bonds. 
 
 [Source — Journal de la Societe de Statistique de Paris, 
 Vol. 50, p. 362.] 
 

 
 5 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 -> -"- 
 
 
 
 
 ■■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0, 
 
 
 s_ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 !? 
 
 ? 5 '. 
 
 
 
 
 
 o_ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 \ 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 & 
 
 « 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2> 
 
 Q 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 'Q 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \\ ' 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 m 
 
 V 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 ? 
 
 
 o 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -A 
 
 
 
 
 
 s^V 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 1 / 
 
 
 
 .n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 ■a 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 VA 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 •a 
 
 '■NO 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V- 
 
 
 \>^ 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 // 
 
 
 
 ?" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 L 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 (0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 W 7 
 
 w 
 
 
 '^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \k 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ;^ 
 
 _,_ 
 
 'a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 < 
 
 l-H 
 
 ? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 »^ 
 
 \'^\ 
 
 ^ 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ts 
 
 \s S 
 
 fe 
 
 tf 
 
 <s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 o 
 
 tq 
 
 ? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 H 
 
 •4 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CQ 
 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 >-4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . A 
 
 P 
 
 f 1 
 
 -o' 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 UI 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1— 1 
 
 PQ 
 
 PL, 
 
 w 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C3 
 
 z 
 < 
 
 tr 
 b. 
 
 u. 
 o 
 
 te 
 
 UI 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 _i 
 
 CQ 
 
 Z3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 yX 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Q. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fs 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 UI 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fe 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 1- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 [ 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 »N 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 j^ 
 
 
 
 ■Q 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S5-' 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 «>«j 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2*^ 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 ft' 
 
 1 
 
 »4 
 
 5 
 2 
 «' 
 « 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 0" 
 
 •a 
 
 1 
 
 1 i- 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 CI 
 
 1" 
 
 "a' 
 
 
 'J 
 
 II /I ■ 
 
 
 
 
 ^'- 
 
 '*■ 
 
 "* 
 
 ^' 
 
 w 
 
 K1- 
 
 w 
 
 «■ 
 
 nf 
 
 N- ^ 
 
 ?. 
 
 i!- 
 
 
 
 
68 war's toll in dead and wounded 
 
 X. WAR'S TOLL IN DEAD AND WOUNDED IN THE 
 
 PAST. 
 
 (Krehbiel) 
 
 (This lecture, whicll is statistical in character, will be based 
 chiefly upon the following references. A mimeographed syllabus 
 will be issued for this lecture.) 
 
 References 
 Loss of life. 
 
 Lavasseur: Statistics and losses caused by war after three cen- 
 turies. 
 
 Seeck: Untergang der antiken Welt, "Die Ausrottung der Bea- 
 ten." 
 
 British Sessional Papers, 1907 (25), XLIX, 729. Killed and 
 wounded in English wars, 1898-1903. 
 
 Richet: Le passe de la guerre ... 61. 
 
 Seaman : Real Triumph of Japan. 
 
 Bodart : Militar-historisches Kriegs-Lexikon. 
 
 Denifle : Desolation des Eglises. 
 
 Heitman: Historical Register, II, 281-297. 
 
 Journal de la Societe de Statistique de Paris, 1909, 142; 224-36; 
 417-427. 
 
 La Population Frangaise, II, 139-140 ; III, 533. Index "Guerres." 
 
 Cambridge Modern History, IX, 114; 289-90. 
 
 Munson: Military Hygiene. 
 
 Bloch: Der Krieg, IV, 35-64; V, 349-603. 
 
 Bloch: Future of War, 147-159. 
 
 Dodge: Great Captains (Appendices). 
 
 Harbottle: Dictionary of Battles. 
 
 Mulhall: Statistics, 586. 818. 
 
 Longmore : Gunshot Injuries. 
 
 Biological effects of war. 
 
 Wolf: System der SozialpoHtik, I, 218. 
 
 Memoires de la Societe Anthropol, I, Ser. II, 224 ; 252. 
 
 La Population Frangaise, HI, 524; 533; Index, "Taille." 
 
 Ripley: Races of Europe, 86f. 
 
 Mass. Com. on the Cost of Living: Waste of Militarism. 
 
 Statistics of births, marriages and deaths. 
 Statistisches Jahrbuch d. deutschen Reiches, 1911, 22 (1859- 
 1909). 
 
yo WAR S TOLL IN DEAD AND WOUNDED 
 
 Rauchberg: Die Bevolkerung Oesterreichs, 27 (1822-1890). 
 La Population Frangaise, II, p. 12 (Births, 1801-1888). 
 
 II, p. 58 (Deaths, 1801-1888). 
 II, p. 76 (Marriages, 1801-1888). 
 Vital Statistics, Part i, 1909, pp. 437, 438, 443. 
 
 p. 486 (Japan, 1887-1905). 
 " p. 483 (Italy, 1872-1904). 
 " " " P- 412-17 (Hungary, 1876-1905"). 
 
72 BIOLOGY OF WAR 
 
 XL BIOLOGY OF WAR. 
 
 (Jordan) 
 
 Heredity, the law of continuity among organisms. Like the seed 
 is the harvest. 
 
 Law of Variation, almost alike but never quite. 
 
 Law of Selection, preservation of the adaptable ; survival of the 
 fittest. 
 
 Law of Isolation, survival of the existing. 
 
 All these laws apply to man as to the lower animals. 
 
 Selection lays hold of variation. Heredity reproduces what is 
 left. Isolation confirms hereditary traits. 
 
 Selection as the magician's wand. 
 
 Reversed selection. 
 
 "La guerre a produit a tout temps une selection a rebours." 
 
 Rome, viri, virilis. 
 
 Effect of domination. 
 
 "Vir" gave place to "Homo." 
 
 Rise of the Emperor. Emperors as barometers. Emperor ex- 
 ponent of the mob. "The little finger of Constantine was 
 stronger than the loins of Augustus." 
 
 Marius destroyed the aristocrats. Sulla- the democrats. "Only 
 cowards remained and from their brood came forward the 
 new generations" (Seeck). "The Roman empire perished 
 for want of men" (Seeley). "The human harvest was 
 bad." Militarism knows no country. "The brigands' and 
 barbarians' contempt for honest industry." "Wo von 
 100,000 Starken 80,000 zum Opfer fallen, da werden es 
 von 100,000 Schwachen sicher 90,000 oder gar 95,000 
 sein" (Seeck, I, 303). 
 
 "A physical, not a moral decay." 
 
 Decline selective, not collective. 
 
 Novara, Magenta, Solferino, Sedan, Moscow, Waterloo. Of the 
 600,000 "who proudly crossed the Niemen for the conquest 
 of Russia, only 20,000 half-naked, famished, frost-bitten, 
 unarmed spectres staggered across the bridge of Korno in 
 the middle of December." (Cambridge Modern History, 
 IX, 505, places the loss of the French army at 500,000 ; 
 and estimates that 100,000 men was all that was left of 
 the Grand Army.) 3,070,000 of the "elite of Europe" 
 slain by Napoleon. 
 
 Disappearance of physical strength, alertness, dash, recklessness, 
 patriotism, qualities chosen in the soldier. 
 
74 BIOLOGY OF WAR 
 
 Effect of Emigration.. Oberammergau, Devon, Winchelsea, Rye. 
 Germany: The Thirty Years war, 1618-1648. 
 
 Population reduced from 22,000,000 to 8,000,000. (16,000,- 
 000 to 6,000,000. Only one-third survived, and in 
 some districts as few as one-tenth.— Cambridge Mod. 
 Hist. IV, 418.) 
 Effects of the war concealed by industrialism and paternal- 
 ism. 
 Spain. 
 
 "This is Castile ; She makes men and wastes them." "This 
 ! , sublime and terrible phrase sums up the whole of 
 
 ' Spanish history." 
 
 Switzerland. 
 
 The Lion at Lucerne. "Biederkeit and Tapferheit : the valor 
 
 which is worth and truth." 
 "Sons of the men who knelt at Sempach, but not to thee, O 
 Burgundy." 
 Japan. Venezuela. Paraguay. Samarcand. Korea. China. 
 England. 
 
 The "Widow in Sleepy Chester." 
 Memorial tablets. 
 "Its only my dead that count." 
 
 Disappearance of the English squire and of John Bull. 
 Country squires exchanged for memorial tablets. 
 "O Cromwell's England, must thou yield 
 For every inch of ground a son?" 
 
 "Childless and with thorn-crowned head up the steep road 
 must England go." 
 
 The United States. 
 
 The Civil War cost the North 359,528 men. The National 
 cemeteries, about 1600 acres. North Carohna. 152,000 
 volunteers from Massachusetts. (Heitman, II, 285.) 
 Where are Boston's forty orators? 
 "The remnant just eleven, 
 Once twinkled a thousand bayonets 
 And the swords were thirty-seven." 
 The Law of Quetelet: the same number of each type in each 
 
 generation. True only when parentage is the same. 
 "War does not of choice destroy bad men but good men ever." — 
 
 (Sophocles.) 
 "Ja der Krieg verschlingt die Besten." — (Schiller.) 
 "A la guerre, ce sont toujours les memes qui se font tuer." — 
 
 (French Proverb.) 
 "There is a deeper green of the sod where we left the bravest of 
 us." — (Captain Brownell.) , 
 
76 • biol6gy of war 
 
 "O band in the pine wood, cease, 
 Cease with your splendid call, 
 The living are brave and noble 
 But the dead are bravest of all." — (John Esten Cooke.) 
 
 "Cut off from the land that bore us 
 Betrayed by the land we find 
 The brightest are gone before us 
 And the dullest are left behind." 
 
 — (Bartholomew Dowling.) 
 
 "Proudly they walk but each Cameron knows 
 He may tread on the heather no more." 
 
 —(May Campbell.) 
 
 "Wars are not paid for in war time; 
 the bill comes later." — (Franklin.) 
 
 References 
 
 Seeck: Untergang der antiken Welt, I, 270-308: Die Ausrottung 
 
 der Besten. 
 Schallmayer: Vererbung und Auslese im Lebenslauf der Volker, 
 
 249-266. 
 Schallmayer: Dies und Das. D. Neue Jahrh. I, 581. 
 Heineman: Menschenverachtung und Menschenverbrauch im 
 
 Kriege. Luzern, 1909. 
 Galton: Heredity. 
 
 Novicow : War and its Alleged Benefits. 
 Association Medicale Internationale contre la Guerre: Actes. 
 Pearson: National Life from the Standpoint of Science. 
 Jordan: The Blood of the Nation. 
 
 The Human Harvest. 
 
 War and Manhood. 
 
 The Waste of Nations. 
 Richet: Le passe de la guerre . . ., 75-90. 
 Havelock Ellis : The Soul of Spain, Chapter H. 
 Schallmayer: Der Krieg als Ziichter. 
 Novicow: Critique du darwinisme sociale. 
 
 Militarism or Manhood. Arena, 24, 379-92. 
 
78 SOCIAL AND MORAL EFFECTS OF WAR 
 
 XII. SOCIAL AND MORAL EFFECTS OF WAR. 
 (Jordan) 
 
 "Inter arma leges silent." 
 
 "Ein furchtbar heulend Schreckniss ist der Krieg." — (Schiller.) 
 "Disguise fair nature with hard favored rage." 
 "You'd never have known him then with the flame of fight in 
 his eyes." 
 
 "Fear a forgotten form, 
 
 Death a dream of the eyes, ^ 
 
 We were atoms in God's great storm 
 That swept through the angry skies." 
 
 "Ended the mighty noise. 
 
 Thunder of forts and ships. 
 
 Down we went to the hold. 
 Oh, our dear dying boys ! 
 How we pressed their poor brave lips, 
 
 Ah, so pallid and cold! 
 And held their hands to the last, 
 
 Those that had hands to hold. 
 
 "Be still, O woman heart ! 
 So strong an hour ago; 
 If the idle tears must start, 
 'Tis not in vain they flow. 
 
 Lie thus, for a myriad lives 
 
 And treasure-millions untold. 
 Labor of poor men's lives. 
 Hunger of weans and wives. 
 
 Such is war- wasted gold." — (Brownell.) 
 
 "Grim is the sea and cruel. 
 Fierce are the winds and fell; 
 But the strife of man is the fuel 
 That feeds the fires of Hell !"—( Gray.) 
 
 The restraints of manhood unloosed. 
 Military versus civilian ideals. 
 
 a. Robbery, arson, brutality, blasphemy, rape, murder. 
 
 b. Courage, magnanimity, heroism, patriotism. 
 "Chair pour le canon." "A boy will stop a bullet as well as 
 
 a man." "A soldier like me does not care a tinker's 
 damn for the lives of a million men."— (Napoleon.) 
 
8o SOCIAL AND MORAL EFFECTS OF WAR 
 
 The army as an instrument of plunder. 
 
 "We brought back a thousand cattle and the head of him 
 
 that owned them." 
 Outrages of the allied armies in China. Plunder of astro- 
 nomical observatory. Trial of Kunert at Halle. 
 The army as a political machine. 
 Militarism. Conscription. 
 
 Petty abuses of power; subjection of soldiers; idleness; bar- 
 rack vulgarity ; vice ; record of barrack life. 
 Infectious diseases. "The Queen's Daughters." Efforts of 
 the medical staff for sanitation. 22 instead of 54% in 
 France. 
 The army as a means of defense. 
 
 Police duties of the army. 
 Alleged degeneracy of peace. 
 
 "Without war the world would degenerate and disappear in 
 
 a morass of materialism." — (Moltke.) 
 War, "the red rain which fertilizes and purifies humanity." 
 Alleged unchangeability of human nature and its pugnacity. 
 Alleged survival of warlike nations. 
 
 Alleged constancy of physical force as the dominant factor. 
 Human nature has changed its manifestations through 
 
 co-operation, civilization, religion. 
 Warlike nations never have survived. 
 Co-operation is the dominant force. 
 False ideals of patriotism. 
 
 Dreyfus case. Boer war. Spanish war. "Remember the 
 
 Maine." 
 "Patriotism is killing Spaniards." 
 "Patriotism the last refuge of a scoundrel." — (Samuel 
 
 Johnson.) 
 Patriotism : love of country and willingness to help in any 
 way to her real advantage. 
 Moral damage of war. — (Walter Walsh.) 
 To the Nation. 
 Child. 
 Soldier — depends on circumstances. (Walsh, p. 156, 
 
 160.) 
 Politician— -"Hot fits" or long preparation. 
 Journalist. 
 
 Preacher — "War, God's assizes." Ordeal of nations. 
 Missionary. 
 Trader. 
 
 Citizen — extension of graft; loose views of life. 
 Patriot. 
 Reformer. 
 
82 SOCIAL AND MORAL DAMAGE OF WAR 
 
 "Let your reforms for a moment go. 
 
 Look to your butts and take good aims. 
 Better a rotten borough or so, 
 Than a rotten fleet and a city in flames." — (Tennyson.) 
 
 References 
 
 Walsh: Moral Damage of War (References at the end of each 
 
 chapter). 
 Weale: Indiscreet Letters from Peking. 
 
 Jordan: Imperial Democracy. Chapter: "The Captain Sleeps.'/ 
 Chittenden : War or Peace. 59-63. 
 Levi : War and its Consequences. 
 
 Friedens-warte, VII (1905), 130-136. (Trial of Kunert at Halle.) 
 Westm. Rev., 1902, Mar.: Bella, Bella, horrida bella ! 
 Tolstoi : War and Peace. 
 Photographic History of the Civil War. 
 
84 THE BRIEF FOR WAR 
 
 XIII. THE BRIEF FOR WAR. 
 
 (Krchbiel) 
 
 A. Evils inherent in the ideal of universal peace. 
 
 1. Disarmament would disorganize all economic conditions. 
 
 a. Vast numbers of workers (soldiers and makers of 
 
 war materials) would be thrown out of employ- 
 ment. 
 
 b. Inventive genius would be deprived of its readiest 
 
 market. 
 
 2. The enfeebling or disappearance of patriotism. • 
 
 Anti-patriotism. Herveism. 
 
 3. The extinction of courage, producing an effeminate race. 
 
 4. The supreme arbitral court would fail to give justice in 
 
 many cases : graft and influence. 
 
 5. Nations would suffer injustice without means of redress: 
 
 "the peace of unrighteousness." 
 
 B. War is inevitable. 
 
 • r. History is one series of wars. 
 
 3357 years: from 1496 B. C. to 1861 A. D. 
 3130 years of war in that time. 
 227 years of peace. 
 
 Thirteen years of war to one of peace. 
 
 (Bloch: Future of War, Ixv.) 
 
 2. Human nature is unchangeable. 
 
 a. Men consider fighting as the honorable and manly 
 
 way of settling their differences. (Ruskin: 
 Crown of Wild Olive, "War.") 
 
 b. Human nature remains impulsive. 
 
 c. Even if men are becoming more deliberate, they will 
 
 always have convictions, for which they will 
 fight. 
 
 3. Universal peace presupposes the same standard of civili- 
 
 zation for all nations; and homogeneity within the 
 nations. Even now many pacifists oppose only inter- 
 national war between civilized states. (See Lecture 
 XVI.) 
 
 C. War and militarism are beneficial on the whole. 
 
 I. Militarism furnishes an opportunity for — 
 
 a. Education of the private. 
 
 b. Development of national unity and patriotism. 
 
 c. National physical training. 
 
86 THE BRIEF FOR WAR 
 
 d. Moral training 
 
 For the nation: teaches the nation how to put the 
 welfare of the nation ahead of private ease. 
 
 For the soldier: he is under discipline at the time 
 he most needs it. (Failure to make use of this 
 opportunity is an abuse of the system and should 
 be corrected. Immorahty is not limited to bar- 
 racks.) 
 
 2. Armaments are a national insurance of business against 
 
 war. Granting that the rate of insurance is high, the 
 protection to business etc. justifies the cost. The 
 armed peace. 
 
 3. War is a divine ordeal. 
 
 "War conforms to the order of things established by 
 
 God." — :(Moltke, Seve: Cours . . . 145.) 
 Strongest nation does not always prevail: American 
 Revolution. 
 
 4. War is justifiable in many cases. 
 
 a. When it resists aggression; armament is preparation 
 
 for this. 
 
 b. When it protects citizens and commerce. 
 
 c. When it promotes justice : Spanish-American war. 
 
 d. When it is the lesser of two evils. 
 
 e. When it is the last resource and solves problems that 
 
 cannot be solved otherwise. Men want, and must 
 have, questions settled one way or the other at 
 times. 
 
 5. War is the means of human progress. 
 
 a. War is the medium through which the law of evolu- 
 tion works upon peoples. 
 
 "If nations ceased, the one to take advantage of the 
 other's weakness, the processes of biological law 
 and therefore of evolution would come to an 
 end." — (Wyatt, Nineteenth Century, 45, 216 f.) 
 
 "War has been the method of accomplishing the 
 social evolution of mankind."— (Wyatt, lb.) 
 
 "May God deliver us from the inertia of European 
 peoples and make us a present of a good war, 
 fresh and joyous, which shall traverse Europe 
 with fury, pass her peoples through the sieve 
 and rid us of that scrofulous chaff which fills 
 every place and makes it too narrow for others, 
 so that we can again live a decent human life 
 where a pestilential air now suffocates us." — 
 (Heinrich Leo, 1853. — Seve: Cours . . . 170.) 
 
88 THE BRIEF FOR WAR 
 
 The harm to a race through loss of Hfe in war is 
 neghgible. 
 
 Harm of this kind can come only when soldiers 
 are selected for their physical and mental 
 capacity; which has not always been the 
 case : volunteers or mercenaries usual except 
 among the early Romans, and recently since 
 the adoption of universal compulsory ser- 
 vice. 
 
 Percentage of killed and wounded is very 
 small on the average : 
 
 Killed 2% ; wounded ii% ; 4 — 14% die of dis- 
 ease. — (La Combe, 65.) 
 
 The wounded may still make good fathers. 
 
 The mothers are as fit as ever. 
 Economic processes also cost lives, but must 
 none the less continue. 
 
 b. It unifies peoples: Germany, Italy, Europe generally 
 
 after Napoleon. 
 
 c. It arouses all the latent energies and powers of a 
 
 people in a way that no economic or other strug- 
 gle could. Golden ages in literature. 
 
 d. It is the final, and frequently the only means by 
 
 which new ideals can secure their acceptance: 
 Reformation; American independence; abolition 
 of slavery. 
 
 References ; 
 (See Lecture XIV, page 98.) 
 
go THE BRIEF FOR PEACE 
 
 XIV. THE BRIEF FOR PEACE. 
 
 (Jordan) 
 
 Rebuttal of the Arguments Advanced in Lecture XIII. 
 
 (Follows the outline of the previous lecture.) 
 
 War in History and Literature. 
 
 War inextricably woven into history of civilization. 
 Records of the past concerned chiefly 
 
 With elevation and abasement of kings. 
 March of armies, noise of battle. 
 Literature based chiefly on war. 
 Homer, Virgil. 
 Christian epics. 
 
 Song of Roland. 
 
 Holy Grail. 
 
 Paradise Lost. 
 
 Andalusia. 
 Ballads. 
 
 Venice. 
 
 Wars of the Roses. 
 
 Thirty Years' War. 
 
 Gustavus Adolphus. 
 
 William the Silent. 
 Lyrics and hymns. 
 
 The Two Voices. 
 
 The Christian Soldier. 
 Painting, Sculpture. 
 
 "Through the whole web of human record runs the bood-red 
 thread of war." 
 Great literature follows great war. 
 
 "The cave-dweller who sketched with a flint on a piece 
 of bone in such a masterly manner, that hairy arctic elephant, 
 did it when safely entrenched in his cave after a successful 
 hunt, in a leisure moment, and on a full stomach." 
 Art flourishes in peace after successful war. 
 Golden age of Greek art after Marathon. 
 Salamis and Thermopylae. 
 Augustan age after Caesar's campaigns. 
 Elizabethan age after dispersal of the Invincible Armada. 
 Spanish art after fall of Moor. 
 Netherlands after rise of Dutch RepubHc. 
 German art and science after Sedan. 
 
 Does idealism rise from blood of war, from exaltation, 
 confidence, boastfulness ? 
 
92 THE BRIEF FOR PEACE 
 
 Art, the translation of deep experience into visible terms. Cologne 
 and Parthenon. Abundant life makes life more abun- 
 dant. 
 Uplift follows successful war. 
 
 What of defeat? What if none left to be uplifted? What 
 of loss and waste, and horror and sorrow? 
 Civilization a march of victors, but none victor for long. 
 "No victory possible save as resultant of totality of virtues; 
 no defeat for which some vice or weakness was not 
 responsible." 
 Is this true? 
 Are men weak, flabby, selfish, engrossed in' gain, without 
 
 war? 
 Is war an agency set on foot for hope of gain ? 
 Do those fight who win ? Do those fight who plan the game ? 
 "Part of human nature." What evil is not? Struggles of 
 brains and science against struggles of sinew and 
 dynamite. 
 Why does war exist? 
 
 1. Selfishness: coveting of others' possessions. 
 
 "Modern peace only a near relation of war, of a differ- 
 ent sex, but of the same blood." 
 "So love as if you were one day to hate." 
 
 2. Restlessness. 
 
 The military vs. the social whirl. The prize-fight and 
 the thirst for thrills. 
 
 Fondness for combat. Combat and killing not neces- 
 sarily the same. 
 
 3. Poetry of war. 
 
 Flags and bugles. Red coats and drums. 
 
 The Pipes o' Gordon's Men. 
 
 By J. Scott Glasgozv 
 
 Home comes a lad with the bonnie hair. 
 
 And the kilted plaid that the hill-clans wear ; 
 
 And you hear the Mother say, 
 
 "Whear ha' ye bin, my laddie, whear ha' ye bin th' day?" 
 
 "Oh ! I ha' bin wi' Gordon's men ; 
 
 Dinna ye hear the bag-pipes play? 
 
 And I followed the soldiers across the green. 
 
 And doon th' road ta Aberdeen. 
 
 And when I'm a man, my Mother, 
 
 And th' grenadiers parade, 
 I'll be marchin' there," wi' my Father's pipes, 
 
 And I'll wear th' red cockade." 
 
94 THE BRIEF FOR PEACE 
 
 Beneath the Soudan's sky ye ken the smoke, 
 As the clans reply when the tribesmen spoke. 
 
 Then the charge roars by ! 
 The death-sweat clings to the kilted form that the stretcher brings, 
 And the iron-nerved surgeons say, 
 
 "Whear ha' ye bin, my Laddie, whear ha' ye bin th' day?" 
 "Oh, I ha' bin wi' Gordon's men ; 
 Dinna ye hear th' bag-pipes play? 
 And I piped the clans from the river-barge 
 Across the sands — and through the charge. 
 And I — skirled the — pibroch — keen — and high. 
 But th' pipes — bin broke — and — my — lips — bin — dry." 
 
 War 
 By Richard Le Gallienne 
 War 
 I abhor! 
 
 And yet how sweet 
 The sound along the marching street 
 
 Of drum and fife, and I forget 
 Broken old mothers, and the whole 
 Dark butchering without a soul. 
 
 Without a soul — save this bright treat 
 
 Of heady music, sweet as hell ; 
 And even my peace-abiding feet 
 Go marching with the marching feet. 
 For yonder goes the fife. 
 And what care I for human life! 
 The tears fill my astonished eyes. 
 
 And my full heart is like to break. 
 And yet 'tis all embannered lies, 
 
 A dream those drummers make. 
 
 Oh, it is wickedness to clothe 
 
 Yon hideous, grinning thing that stalks 
 
 Hidden in music, like a queen 
 That in a garden of glory walks, 
 
 Till good men love the things they loathe ; 
 
 Art, thou hast many infamies, 
 
 But not an infamy like this, 
 
 Oh, snap the fife, and still the drum. 
 
 And show the monster as she is! 
 
 "The iiower of Hfe is red." 
 
 "Human kind without emotionality, coursing red blood, and 
 without the out-reaching of personality was inconceivable." 
 
96 THE BRIEF FOR PEACE 
 
 The universe begotten of clashing atoms ; race against race ; 
 species against species ; individual against individual. 
 
 But all this not the war of the militarist, wholesale killing, 
 not individual struggle. "Unreasoning anger" set in operation 
 by unbridled greed. There are struggles, natural and desirable. 
 The wholesale murder of strangers not of these. 
 
 Civilization makes friends of strangers, removes barriers of 
 age, race, nation, even of species. 
 
 To pour out blood and money at dictate of quarreling 
 individuals and cliques, who struggle only through the lives of 
 those they destroy. 
 
 War has no sacredness, no more than a prize-fight. Those 
 who die for their country's sins have wasted life as much as 
 those who die from a defective bridge. 
 
 Civilization and commei^ce, science, invention and religion 
 extend the borders of the in-group until they shall include the 
 earth. 
 
 There will always be place for struggle. Competition and co- 
 operation, egoism and altruism go hand in hand, and both are 
 ineradicable and eternal, so long as life endures. 
 
 But there is room for eternal struggle, though not a drop 
 of blood be shed wantonly. 
 
 References 
 
 (In addition to those mentioned in the syllabus.) 
 Richet : Le passe de la guerre . . . 243f . 
 Fried : Handbuch der Friedensbewegung. 
 Bloch: Der Krieg V, 1-197. 
 Loewenthal: Geschichte der Friedensbewegung. 
 Darby: International Tribunals. 
 Channing: Discourses on War. 
 
 Dodge : War Inconsistent with the Religion of Jesus Christ. 
 Cobden Club Essays. 
 Gill: Evolution of the Peace Movement. 
 La Vie Internationale, passim. 
 Peace Year Book, 1910. 191 1. 
 Evans : Sir Randall Cfemer. 
 La Fontaine, Bibliographie de la paix, 2571. 
 Memoires pour servir a I'histoire de France, Due de Sully. Ser. 
 
 2, vol. 3, 422-436 (The Great Design). 
 Bayet: Les ecrivains politiques du XVIII siecle, 16-22 (Projet 
 
 de . . . I'abbe de Saint-Pierre). 
 Rousseau: Oeuvres completes (Musset-Pathay), V, 405-459 
 
 (Extrait du projet . . . de I'abbe de Saint-Pierre). 
 Hastie: Kant's Philosophy of Law, 224-226 (Perpetual Peace 
 
 and a Permanent Congress of Nations). 
 
98 the brief for peace 
 
 References 
 
 Showerman : Peace and the Professor. 
 Tames: Moral Equivalent of War. 
 Sumner: War (Yale Review). 
 
 For War. 
 Ruskin: Crown of Wild Olive, "War." 
 Luce: Benefits of War, No. Am., 153, 672! 
 Wyatt: War as a Test of National Value, Nineteenth Century, 
 
 45, 2i6f. 
 The Intellectual Charm of War, Spect., 58, 542. 
 Mahan: The Moral Aspect of War. 
 Lea: The Valor of Ignorance. 
 Hobson: Imperialism. 
 
 Whewell: Elements of Morality, "The Rights of Man." 
 Maude: War and the World's Life. 
 
 Moltke, in Molinari : Grandeur et decadence de la guerre, 249-58. 
 Brunetiere : Mensonges du pacificisme, Revue de Deux Mondes. 
 Collier : On the Way to India. Scribner's, 49, 29-40. 
 
 For Peace. 
 Novicow : War and its Alleged Benefits. 
 Richet : La passe de la guerre at I'avenir de la paix. 
 (Hirst) : Arbiter in Council. 
 Angell (Lane) : The Great Illusion. 
 Molinari : Grandeur at decadence de la guerre. 
 Seve : Cours d'enseignement pacifiste. 
 Novicow : Critique du darwinisme sociale. 
 Novicow: Die Gerechtigkeit und die Entfaltung des Lebens, 
 
 251-366. 
 Bloch : Der Krieg, VI, 304-347. 
 
 Courtney of Penwith : Peace or War ? Contemp., 96, 385-400. 
 Tolstoi : War and Peace. 
 Helps: Friends in Council, I, chap. 2. 
 Kirkpatrick : War — What For ? 
 Sumner: Addresses on War. 
 Jordan : War and Manhood. 
 Dymond: War. 
 
 Ralston: Some Supposed Just Causes of War. (Pamphlet.) 
 Vrooman and Will: Abolition of War, Arena, 11, 118-144. 
 Worcester: Solemn Review of the Custom of War. 
 Lacombe : La guerre et I'homme. 
 Warner: The Ethics of Force. 
 Chittenden: War or Peace. 
 (And many other articles in periodicals, books, etc.) 
 
lOO THE GREAT ILLUSION 
 
 XV. "THE GREAT ILLUSION." 
 
 (This lecture is a presentation of the argument of Norman 
 Angell's book, The Great Illusion.) 
 
I02 DIFFERENT TYPES OF WAR IN MODERN TIMES 
 
 XVI. DIFFERENT TYPES OF WAR IN MODERN 
 
 TIMES. 
 
 (Jordan) 
 
 A. Civil war: war within the boundaries of a nation. 
 
 1. Caused usually by tyranny, lawlessness, ignorance, or 
 
 misunderstandings, i.e., by the failure of the nation to 
 perform its normal functions. Brigandage. Balkan 
 States. 
 
 a. In a well-governed nation courts replace violence ; in 
 
 an ill-governed nation the courts may be set aside 
 or made instruments of tyranny or plunder. 
 
 b. In a well-governed, and especially in a self-governed 
 
 nation violence is in the nature of treason; in 
 an ill-governed nation violence has meant pat- 
 riotism, the last resort of "murdered, mangled 
 liberty." 
 
 c. Democracy provides machinery to settle all questions 
 
 between man and man. 
 The public, being the chief sufferer, has the right 
 
 and duty to enforce the peace. 
 No cause under democracy is important enough tc 
 
 justify violence in its behalf, as justice can be won 
 
 without violence, not by it. 
 "The force of arms must be kept far from matters 
 
 of the Gospel." — (Luther.) 
 "To keep unreasoning anger out of the councils of 
 
 the world." 
 
 2. Inevitable when people suffer from injustice or when 
 
 people fail to enforce order. 
 Revolt against absolutism and the squeeze process: 
 China, Mexico, Persia, France, labor-riots, tax- ' 
 riots, bread-riots. 
 
 3. Examples of civil war. 
 
 a. American Revolution: "taxation without representa- 
 
 tion." 
 
 b. French Revolution: taxation without limit; "I'etat 
 
 c'est moi." 
 
 c. Civil war in United States : state rights and slavery. 
 
 d. Boxer war: invasion of foreigners, revenge of Eu- 
 
 rope. 
 
I04 DIFFERENT TYPES OF WAR IN MODERN TIMES 
 
 e. Mexican insurrection : contempt of courts and consti- 
 tution ; farcical elections. 
 
 /. Revolutions in Spanish America: ambitious usurpers. 
 
 g. Class wars : labor against capital. 
 
 h. Dynastic wars : pretenders. 
 
 i. Agrarian riots : Champagne ; L'Ouest railways. 
 
 ;'. Race riots : lynching in the southern states. 
 
 k. Picketing, boycotting, and other petty warfare. 
 France, Sweden, New Zealand, Canada. 
 
 B. International war: war between organized nations. 
 
 Passing, on account of burden of debt, cost of armament, re- 
 fusal of laboring men to fight, opposition of commerce, 
 prohibition by high finance, growing intelligence of 
 people and growing respect for other nations and 
 races. 
 
 C. Imperial wars : wars for subjection or extirpation of weaker 
 
 races. 
 A republic : a self-governed state, with elective executive. 
 A kingdom : a homogeneous people having a common titular 
 
 head, the king. 
 An empire : a group of different peoples united by force or by 
 agreement, under a common titular head, the em- 
 peror. 
 Instability of empire. 
 
 Imperial wars, those for the extension of control over alien 
 districts. 
 For exploitation. China, South Seas, Tripoli. 
 For bringing order out .of chaos. Cuba, Korea, Mo- 
 rocco. 
 For assimilation. Korea, Finland, Alsace-Lorraine, 
 Schleswig, Holstein. 
 Benefits of imperial domination. 
 Evils of imperial domination. 
 On the ruling nation. 
 On the people ruled. 
 Cost of imperial domination. 
 Jealousies of imperialism. 
 Relation of navies to imperialism. 
 
 Government of colonies in interest of resident people. 
 Government by "brassbound and hidebound militarism 
 
 as though colonies were enemies' camps." 
 Alleged duty of strong nations to keep order. "Pax 
 
 Britannica." 
 Alleged duty of strong nations to extirpate weak 
 peoples: "Social Darwinism." 
 
I06 DIFFERENT TYPES OF WAR IN MODERN TIMES 
 
 "Let him who falls in the press lie there and be trampled 
 broad." 
 Does right and wrong exist in international affairs? 
 Is a deed of violence by a nation justified by the advantages 
 
 it brings to some or all of those who suffer by it? 
 Does the growth of California justify the war on Mexico ? 
 Do the needs of Japan justify the occupation of Korea? 
 What are the ethics of imperialism? 
 What are the economics of imperialism? 
 
I08 PEACE ADVOCATES AND PROJECTS OF THE PAST 
 
 XVII. PEACE ADVOCATES AND PROJECTS OF THE 
 
 PAST. 
 
 (Krehbiel) 
 
 A. Religious denominations. 
 
 1. The Mennonites, beginning about 1534. 
 
 2. The Quakers or Friends. 
 
 George Fox ( 1 624- 1 69 1 ) . 
 
 Ann Austin and Mary Fisher in Massachusetts, 1656. 
 
 Penn in Pennsylvania, 1682. 
 
 3. Exempted from military service in the colonies. 
 
 Non-resistance only one of their tenets. 
 
 B. Individual peace advocates and their projects. 
 
 1. Henry IV of France (1589-1610). Sully. 
 
 "The Great Design." (Engl. ed. by Mead, 1909.) 
 Proposed a hegemony subject to France against the 
 
 Hapsburg power; therefore not a disinterested 
 
 peace project. 
 (Cf. Imperial and papal schemes of hegemony.) 
 
 2. Emeric Cruce (about 1590-1648). 
 
 "Le Nouveau Cynee," 1623. 
 
 "The New Cyneas," (Balc'h, 1909). 
 
 Proposes an international council of all nations with 
 
 headquarters at Venice to settle all differences 
 
 and preserve the peace. 
 
 3. William Penn (1644-1718). 
 
 "Essay towards the Present and Future Peace of Europe 
 by the Establishment of an European Dyet, Par- 
 liament, or Estates." 1693-4. (Old South Leaf- 
 lets, IV, 75.) 
 Justice rather than war. 
 
 Justice is the fruit of a proper government; hence 
 a central body is desirable — 
 
 to decide all cases not otherwise disposed of. 
 to compel submittance of such cases, 
 to enforce compliance with decisions. 
 Language: Latin or French. 
 Penn's pacific dealings with the Indians of Pennsyl- 
 vania was an object lesson that was more effective 
 than his publications. 
 
 4. Abbe de Saint- Pierre (1658- 1743). 
 
 "Abrege du projet de paix perpetuelle invente par le roi 
 Henri le Grand . . ." 1713. 
 
I lO PEACE ADVOCATES AND PROJECTS OF THE PAST 
 
 (Extract in Darby, International Tribunals, yii). 
 The first "coherent" proposal for an international 
 
 tribunal (Richet, 247). 
 Exercised an influence toward the creation of Holy 
 
 Alliance. 
 
 5. Rousseau, J. J. (1712-1778.) 
 
 "Extrait du projet de paix perpetuelle de M. L'Abbe 
 
 de Saint-Pierre.'' (Darby, 105.) 
 "Jugement sur la Paix Perpetuelle." (Darby, 117.) 
 
 6. Benjamin Franklin (1706- 1790). 
 
 "On War and Peace." 1788. (Old South Leaflets, 
 VI, 162.) 
 
 7. Immanuel Kant (1724- 1804). 
 
 "Der Ewige Friede." 1798. 
 
 "On Perpetual Peace." (Engl, transl. Hastie. Darby, 
 
 158.) 
 
 8. Comte de Saint-Simon. 
 
 "Reorganisation de la societe europeenne . . ." 1814. 
 
 9. Other peace advocates : Landgrave of Hesse-Rheinfels, 
 
 Duke Charles of Lorraine, John Bellers, Leibnitz, 
 Fenelon, Bentham, Chateaubriand, Abbe Gregoire, 
 James Mill, John Stuart Mill, etc. 
 C. Peace societies. 
 
 1. New York Peace Society, 1815. About 30 members. 
 
 David Low Dodge (1774-1852) first president. 
 How Dodge came to be a peace advocate. 
 "The Mediator's Kingdom not of this World." 1809. 
 Opposed by Noah Worcester. 
 
 2. Massachusetts Peace Society, 1816. 
 
 Noah Worcester and WilHam Ellery Channing. 
 Worcester: "Solemn Review of the Custom of War." 
 1814. 
 Edited : "The Friend of Peace." 
 
 3. The Peace Society (EngHsh), 1816. 
 
 4. The American Peace Society, 1828. William Ladd. 
 
 A union of local and state societies. 
 
 5. European continental peace societies. 
 
 The first was founded at Geneva, 1828. 
 The second at Paris, 1841. 
 
 6. Peace societies today (1910). About 160 societies with 
 
 many branches. 
 England, 22 societies with about 45 branches. 
 France, 36 societies, some of which have as many as 
 
 40 branches. 
 Germany, 3 societies with 95 branches. 
 
112 PEACE ADVOCATES AND PROJECTS OF THE PAST 
 
 Austria, 8; Belgium, 3; Hungary, 2; Italy, 55; Nor- 
 way, 2 ; Portugal, 3 ; Russia, 2 ; Spain, 2 ; Sweden, 
 8; United States, 17; Canada, i ; South American 
 States, 7; Australia, 4; Japan, 2; Denmark, 2, 
 with 37 branches ; Persia, a society is projected. 
 (Annuaire du mouvement pacifiste, 1910.) 
 
 D. International peace congresses. Organizers : Count de Sellon 
 
 and Auguste Couvreur. (List of congresses: "La Vie 
 Internationale," 1908, 647.) (Bastiat.) 
 
 1. London, 1843. 
 
 2. Brussels, 1848. (Elihu Burritt's part.) 
 
 3. Paris, 1849: Victor Hugo, President; Richard Cobden, 
 
 Vice-President. 
 
 4. Frankfurt, 1850. 
 
 5. London, 1851. 
 
 6. Edinburgh, 1853. 
 Interrupted by wars. 
 
 Geneva, 1867; Paris, 1878; Brussels, 1882; Paris, 1889. 
 
 Since 1889 they have practically met annually. Permanent 
 headquarters established at Berne in 1891: "Perma- 
 nent International Bureau of Peace." Has branch 
 offices. 
 
 E. Further development of the principles of peace treated in 
 
 Lecture XXII. 
 
 F. Other agencies working for peace, though indirectly. (Syll. 
 
 XXIX.) 
 
114 DEVELOPMENT OF LAW 
 
 XVIII. THE RESTRICTION OF FORCE THROUGH 
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF LAW. 
 
 (Krehbiel) 
 
 A. Primitive conditions; force universal. 
 
 "The state of nature is a state of war." — (Hobbes.) 
 (Cf. Sumner: War.) 
 
 B. The limitation of force through — 
 
 1. The evolution of states. 
 
 a. Stages. 
 
 Families and clans. 
 
 Tribes. 
 
 Nations and empires. 
 
 b. Result: two kinds of law: 
 
 -r. National law : suppresses force and governs with- 
 in any particular political unit. Has the sanc- 
 tion of the unit. 
 Law is constantly being perfected. 
 
 Revolt against the law becomes civil war. 
 y. International law: governs the relations of na- 
 tions. 
 In times of peace. (Syllabus XX.) 
 In times of war : force is put under restrictions. 
 
 (Mainly since 1850. Syllabus XXI.) 
 Lacks an effective sanction. 
 
 2. The conception of law. 
 
 a. The law of might. Faustrecht. Law of primitive 
 
 man. 
 Implies only as much respect for another's rights 
 as he can command. Cannibalism. "An eye for 
 an eye, and a tooth for a tooth." 
 
 b. Supernatural law: divine law. Law of clans and 
 
 tribes. 
 
 As there were many gods, this law implied a 
 hatred of all other peoples and their laws, and 
 a duty to extirpate them. Israel. 
 
 Theory of divine origin of law prevailed chiefly in 
 the tribal and earlier national periods, during 
 which patriarchal and monarchical governments 
 were the rule. Ordeal, trial by battle, blood- 
 feud, vendetta. 
 
Il6 DEVELOPMENT OF LAW 
 
 c. Natural law: inherent in Nature. 
 
 Assumes a common basis for all true law, hence 
 tends to lessen antipathies between peoples and 
 to weaken supernatural law and monarchy. 
 
 Never generally accepted {i.e., by all classes V 
 
 d. Positive law: man-made. (Voluntary or customary 
 
 law.) 
 Implies just as much respect for the laws and rights 
 of other nations as we respect the men of 
 that nation. 
 Law made by the ruler: monarchy. 
 ' Law made by the people: democracy. (This 
 form has been spreading for a century and a 
 quarter.) 
 Acquaintance with other peoples tends to increase 
 respect for their laws ; in other words, democracy 
 tends to diminish wars and to increase the power 
 of law. 
 C. Five morals that can be deduced from the development of the 
 Law of Nations to date. (Oppenheim, I, 73-76.) 
 
 1. A law of nations can exist only if there is an equilibrum, 
 
 a balance of power, between the members of the 
 family of nations. 
 
 2. International law can develop progressively only when 
 
 international politics, especially intervention, are made 
 on the basis of real state interests. 
 
 3. The principle of nationality is of such force that it is 
 
 fruitless to try to stop its victory. 
 
 4. Every progress in the development of international law 
 
 wants due time to ripen. 
 
 5. The progressive development of international law depends 
 
 chiefly upon the standard of public morality on the 
 one hand, and', on the other, upon economic interests. 
 
 References 
 
 Pollock: First Book of Jurisprudence, chap. i. 
 
 Holland: Jurisprudence, chaps. 2, 3. 
 
 Markby: Elements of Law, chaps, i, 2. 
 
 Korkunov : Theory of Law, Book I. 
 
 Terry: Leading Principles of Anglo-American Law, chap. i. 
 
 Carter : History of English Legal Institutions. 
 
 Sumner: Folkways. 
 
 Spencer: Descriptive Sociology, passim. 
 
 Sumner: War. (Yale Review, October, 191 1) 
 
 Holdsworth : History of English Law. 
 
Ilg HISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 
 
 XIX. THE HISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL LAW. 
 
 (Krehbiel) 
 
 A. Before Grotius. 
 
 1. Among the Jews. Religious rules of international rela- 
 
 tions. 
 
 2. Among the Greeks. 
 
 3. Among the Romans. 
 
 4. In the Middle Ages: Practically no international law in 
 
 the modern sense. 
 
 5. Early writers on international relations. 
 
 a. Legnano. Professor of Law at Bologna. 
 
 "De bello, de represaHis, et de duello," 1360. 
 
 b. Belli. (Italian.) 
 
 "De re militari et de bello," 1563. 
 
 c. Bruno. (German.) 
 
 "De legationibus," 1548. 
 
 d. Victoria. (Spaniard.) 
 
 Reflectiones theologicae," I557- 
 
 e. Ayala. (Spaniard living in the Netherlands.) 
 
 "De jure et officiis belHcis" . . . 1582. 
 /. Suarez. (Spanish Jesuit at Coimbra, Portugal.) 
 
 "Tractatus de legibus et de legislatore," 1612. 
 g. Gentilis. (Italian.) 
 
 "De legationibus," 1585. 
 
 "Commentationes de jure beJH," 1588-9. 
 
 "De jure belli libri tres," 1598. 
 
 "Advocatio Hispanica," 1613. 
 
 B. Hugo Grotius, ( 1 583-1635). "Father of the Law of Nations." 
 
 1 . His youth : a precocious child. 
 
 2. Political career, arrest, imprisonment, residence abroad. 
 
 3. "De jure belli ac pads libri tres." 1625. (Engl, transl. 
 
 Old South Leaflets, Vol. 5, No. loi, pp. 1-24.) 
 This work recognizes both. 
 
 Customary or voluntary law. (Positive law.) 
 Natural law : This is held to be most important, 
 hence : Jus gentium, i.e., law of nations. 
 
 C. After Grotius. 
 
 I. Zouche, 1590-1660. Englishman. 
 
 Emphasizes voluntary international law at the expense 
 of the natural law of Grotius. Hence: Jus inter 
 gentes, i.e., international law. 
 
120 HISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 
 
 2. Three schools of the law of nations. 
 
 a. Naturalists : accept natural law. 
 
 Pufendorf (at Heidelberg), 1632-1694. 
 
 Christian Thomasius, 1655-1728. (German.) 
 
 Francis Hutcheson. (English.) 
 
 Thomas Rutherford. (English.) 
 
 Jean Barbeyrac, 1674-1744. 
 
 Jean Jacques Burlamaqui, 1694-1748. 
 
 b. Positivists: deny natural law. 
 
 Rachel. (German.) 
 
 Textor. (German.) 
 
 Bynkershoek, 1673-1743. (Dutchman.) 
 
 J. J. Moser, 1701-1785. (German.) 
 
 G. F. von Martens, 1756-1801. (German.) 
 
 c. Grotians : Recognize natural and voluntary law. 
 
 Christian Wolff, 1679-1754. (German.) 
 Emerich de Vattel. 1614-1767. (Swiss.) 
 
 3. Historical development. 
 
 a. Naturalists and Grotians predominate to and through 
 
 French Revolution. 
 
 b. Nineteenth century sees triumph of positivists. 
 
 Kliiber, 1836. Positivist of the older type. 
 Wheaton, 1836. Grotian. 
 Manning, 1839. Grotian. 
 Heffter, 1844. Positivist of the older type. 
 PhiUimore, 1854. Positivist of the older type. 
 Twiss, 1861. Positivist of the older type. 
 Halleck, 1861 (American). Positivist of old type. 
 Fiore, 1865. Grotian. 
 Bluntschli, 1867. 
 True positivists: 
 
 Hartmann, 1874. 
 
 Hall, 1880. 
 
 Martens, 1885 (Russian). 
 
 Holtzendorfl, 1885. 
 
 Oppenheim, 1905. 
 
 References 
 
 Phillipson : International Law and Custom of the Ancient Greeks 
 
 and Romans. 
 Consult the list of references given by 
 
 Oppenheim: International Law, I, p. 44; 58. 
 
 Scott: Cases on International Law, xxiv. Sec. 5. 
 
122 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN TIME OF PEACE 
 
 XX. LAWS GOVERNING INTERNATIONAL RELA- 
 TIONS IN TIME OF PEACE. 
 
 (Krehbiel) 
 
 A. Basis of international law is common consent, expressed 
 
 through treaties. Theoretically the sovereignty of states 
 remains intact. Vitiated among other things by — 
 
 1. Refusal of great powers to recognize independence of 
 
 weaker states. 
 Russia and England : Persia. 
 England: Egypt. 
 France : Morocco. 
 Italy: Tripoli. 
 
 (For a classification of states as to sovereignty consult 
 Oppenheim, I, 154-157. Slight changes.) 
 
 2. Infringement of another state's sovereignty for the pur- 
 
 pose of self-protection: Danish fleet, 1807. 
 Excused sometimes; ordinarily a casus belli. 
 
 B. The provisions of international law relating to — 
 
 1. Types of states: 
 
 Sovereign states, federation of states, vassal states, 
 protected states, neutral states (Switzerland, Bel- 
 gium, Luxemburg, and formerly Congo Free 
 State). The Papacy. 
 
 2. Change in status of states, in territory or government. 
 
 3. Rank and precedence of states. 
 
 States with royal honors, and states without. 
 States rank alphabetically (according to French alpha- 
 bet) within each group. 
 Ceremonies recognizing the dignity of states. 
 
 4. Intervention in another state. 
 
 By right, in default of right, in the interests of humanity. 
 The Monroe Doctrine. 
 
 5. Responsibility of states for acts of officials or citizens. 
 
 6. Territory of a state. 
 
 Boundaries, riparian rights, navigation of international 
 rivers, land-locked seas, canals, maritime belt, 
 territoriality of gulfs, bays and straits, modes of 
 acquiring territory, modes of losing territory. 
 
 7. The open sea. 
 
 Maritime sovereignty was formerly the rule. 
 Open sea became the rule by nineteenth century. 
 
124 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN TIME OF PEACE 
 
 The marine league. 
 
 Jurisdiction on tlie high seas: rules of traffic, ship's 
 
 papers, right of visit, search, and arrest. 
 Piracy, fishing, cables. 
 
 8. Individuals. 
 
 Nationality, naturalization, expatriation, right of asylum, 
 exclusion of foreigners, expulsion of foreigners, 
 extradition (not, however, of political criminals). 
 
 9. Diplomatic agents. 
 
 Classes of agents, functions and entering upon them, 
 position, inviolability, extraterritoriality, servants, 
 termination of mission. 
 
 10. Consular agents. 
 
 Appointment, functions, position and privileges (in non- 
 Christian states), termination of functions. 
 
 11. Special agents abroad. 
 
 Armed forces abroad in time of peace. 
 Men-of-war in foreign waters. 
 
 Non-diplomatic or non-consular agents, commissions. 
 Officials : postal, telegraph, commercial, etc. 
 
 12. International transactions. 
 
 Negotiations, declarations, congresses, conferences. 
 Courts of arbitration. 
 , Treaties: framing, ratification, dissolution, voidance, 
 
 cancellation, renewal, interpretation. 
 Alliances. Unions (for non-political purposes: postal). 
 
 References 
 Consult works on International Law. 
 
126 INTERNATIONAL RULES FOR WAR 
 
 XXI. INTERNATIONAL RULES FOR WAR (RESTRIC- 
 TION OF FORCE). 
 
 (Krehbiel) 
 
 A. Principal treaties and international agreements which have 
 
 placed restrictions upon warfare. 
 
 1. Declaration of Paris, 1856. 
 
 (Martens: Recueil de Traites, XV, 767.) 
 Scott: Texts of the Peace Conferences, 349. 
 
 2. Francis Lieber Code, 1863. 
 
 (Cong. Doc. 1607, No. 100.) 
 Scott : Texts, 350-376. 
 
 3. Geneva Convention, 1864. (1866.) 
 
 (Martens: Recueil de Traites, XVIII, 607.) 
 Scott: Texts, 376-381. 
 
 4. Declaration of St. Petersburg, 1868. 
 
 (Martens: Recueil de Traites, XVIII, 445.) 
 Scott: Texts, 381-382. 
 
 5. Hague Peace Conference, 1899. 
 
 (Martens, 2d ser. XXVI, 920.) 
 Scott: Texts, 1-92. 
 
 6. Convention regarding hospital ships (The Hague), 1904. 
 
 Scott: Texts, 400-402. 
 
 7. Geneva convention for the amelioration of the condition 
 
 of the sick and wounded of armies in the field, 1906. 
 Scott : Texts, 402-410. 
 
 8. The Second Hague Conference, 1907. 
 
 Scott: Texts, 93-334. 
 
 9. Declaration of London, 1909. 
 
 U. S. Naval War College : Intern. Law Topics, 1909. 
 
 This Declaration will presumably be the basis for de- 
 cisions of the Prize Court established at the Second 
 Hague Conference, 1907. 
 
 B. Warfare on Land. 
 
 I. Rules relating to arms and armor. 
 
 1. Projectiles of weight below 400 grams which are explo- 
 
 sive or inflammable are prohibited (1868). 
 
 2. Prohibitions of 1899 and 1907. 
 
 a. Using implements which render death inevitable or 
 
 needlessly aggravate suffering. 
 
 b. Poison on projectiles, in water or food. 
 
128 INTERNATIONAL RULES FOR WAR 
 
 c. Glass, irregularly shaped iron, nails, chain-shot, cross- 
 
 bar-shot, red-hot balls and the like. 
 
 d. Expanding bullets, or those which flatten easily in 
 
 the body. (Mushroom bullets.) 
 
 e. Launching projectiles or explosives from balloons. 
 /. Using projectiles diffusing deleterious or asphyxi- 
 
 . ating gas. 
 II. Rules regulating methods of fighting. 
 
 1. Desertion (1863). 
 
 a. Deserters of the army punished by death. 
 
 b. Deserters of one army registered in the enemy's army 
 
 may be put to death for desertion of their own 
 army, by officials of the deserted force. 
 
 2. Espionage (1863). 
 
 a. Spies may be hung whether they succeed in getting 
 
 information or not. 
 
 b. Spy taken in act, can not be punished without pre- 
 
 vious trial (1899, 1907). 
 
 c. A spy after joining army to which he belongs and 
 
 subsequently captured by the enemy is treated 
 as a prisoner of war, and incurs no responsibility 
 for his previous acts of espionage (1899, 1907). 
 
 d. Following are not considered spies : 
 
 Soldiers and civilians carrying out their mission 
 openly and delivering despatches to their own 
 army or to enemy's army (1899- 1907). 
 
 3. Armistice (1863). 
 
 a. Must be agreed upon in writing by both parties. 
 
 b. If conditions, they must be clearly expressed. 
 
 c. May be general, for the whole army; or special, for 
 
 certain troops, etc. 
 
 d. Does not mean peace but suspension of operations. 
 
 e. When broken by one party, the other party under no 
 
 obligation to hold to it. 
 /. If armistice is ended the other side must be warned. 
 
 (1899.) 
 g. An armistice must be officially announced (1899). 
 h. Hostilities must be suspended immediately or at a 
 
 fixed date (1899, 1907). 
 
 4. Treachery. 
 
 a. Traitors are put to death (1863). 
 
 b. A citizen serving as a guide against his own country 
 
 is a traitor and may be treated as such (1863). 
 
 c. All unauthorized and secret communications with 
 
 the enemy are considered treasonable. 
 
-■"*?iS'f, 
 
130 INTERNATIONAL RULES FOR WAR 
 
 d. An envoy taking advantage of his position under a 
 
 flag of truce is considered to have committed an 
 act of treachery (1899, 1907). 
 
 e. Feigned surrender is treachery (Oppenheim, p. 166). 
 
 f. Assassination is treachery (Oppenheim, p. 117). 
 
 g. Treacherous requests for quarter or feigning sick- 
 
 ness and wounds are treated as treachery. 
 
 5. Ruses. 
 
 a. The use of the enemy's national flag for the purpose 
 
 of deceiving the enemy in battle is an act of per- 
 fidy which forfeits all claim to protection of the 
 laws of war. 
 
 b. Ruses of war and employment of methods necessary 
 
 to obtain information about the enemy and, the 
 country are considered allowable (1899). 
 
 c. Feigned signals and bugle calls can be ordered, watch 
 
 words of the enemy may be used (Oppenheim, 
 p. 165). 
 
 6. Cartels. 
 
 a. An exchange of prisoners of war is an act of con- 
 venience to both belligerents. If no general car- 
 tel has been concluded, it cannot be demanded 
 by either of them (1863). A cartel is voidable 
 as soon as either party has violated it (1863). 
 
 7. Outlawry. 
 
 a. Religion and morality to be respected and protected 
 
 against outlawry (1863). 
 
 b. Armed prowlers who rob, destroy bridges, roads, 
 
 canals, telegraphs, and commit outlawry in gen- 
 eral, are not allowed the privileges of prisoners 
 of war (1863). 
 
 c. All wanton violence committed against persons and 
 
 property shall be punished by death (1863). 
 
 8. Flags of truce. 
 
 a. Firing is not required to cease on appearance of a 
 
 flag of truce in battle (1863). 
 
 b. Bearer of a flag of truce cannot insist upon being ad- 
 
 mitted (1863, 1899, 1907). 
 
 c. If bearer of flag of truce abuse the trust he may be 
 
 considered a spy (1863, 1899, 1907). 
 
 d. Bearer of flag of truce has right to inviolability 
 
 (1899, 1907). 
 
 9. Limitations on cruelty. 
 
 a. Sick or disabled combatants must not be killed 
 (1899). 
 
132 
 
 INTERNATIONAL RULES FOR WAR 
 
 b. No inhuman treatment of prisoners of war (1899, 
 
 1907). 
 
 c. Combatants who surrender shall not be killed (1899, 
 
 1907). 
 
 d. To declare that no quarter will be given is pro- 
 
 hibited (1899, 1907). 
 
 e. Prisoners of war shall not be tortured for information 
 
 (1863). 
 /. No arms or means to be used which render death in- 
 evitable or cause needless suffering (1899, 1907). 
 
 III. Rules governing conduct towards combatants. 
 
 1. Military necessity admits of all direct destruction of life 
 
 or limb of armed enemies and of other persons whose 
 destruction is incidentally unavoidable in the armed 
 contests of war (1863). 
 
 2. Retaliation, never as revenge, but only as means of pro- 
 
 tective retribution (1863). 
 
 3. Soldiers not in disguise who are in the zone of hostile 
 
 operations of the army are not considered spies 
 (1899, 1907). 
 
 IV. Rules governing conduct towards non-combatants. 
 
 1. The persons of the inhabitants, especially those of women, 
 
 shall be protected (1863). 
 
 2. Subjects of the enemy cannot be forced into the service 
 
 of the victorious government, until after a complete 
 conquest of the country (1863). 
 
 3. Non-combatants in case of capture by the enemy can be 
 
 treated as prisoners of war (1899, 1907). 
 
 4. Inhabitants cannot be forced to render services except for 
 
 needs of army of occupation, against their own coun- 
 try. Services shall be in proportion to the resources 
 of the country (1899, 1907). 
 
 V. Rules for prisoners of war. 
 
 1. A prisoner of war is a public enemy, attached to the hos- 
 
 tile army for active aid, who has fallen into hands of 
 the captor, by individual surrender or by capitulation. 
 All enemies who have thrown away their arms and 
 ask for quarter, are prisoners of war (1863). 
 
 2. A prisoner of war is subject to no punishment. 
 
 3. A prisoner of war is answerable for his crimes committed 
 
 against the captor's army or people. All prisoners 
 are liable to infliction of any retaliatory measures 
 (1863). 
 
 4. Prisoners of war are prisoners of the government, and not 
 
 the captor, and are released by the government itself 
 (1863, 1899, 1907). 
 
134 INTERNATIONAL RULES FOR WAR 
 
 5. A prisoner of war who escapes may be shot (1863). 
 
 6. Personal belongings of prisoners of war remain their 
 
 property (1899). 
 
 7. Prisoners can only be confined as an indispensable meas- 
 
 ure of safety (1899, 1907). 
 
 8. Tasks assigned prisoners shall not be excessive and shall 
 
 have nothing to do with military operations (1899, 
 1907). 
 
 9. Prisoners of war shall be treated on same footing in re- 
 
 gard to food, quarters, clothing, as the troops of the 
 government capturing them (1899, 1907). 
 10. Every prisoner is required to give his true name and rank. 
 
 VI. Rules governing enemy's property. 
 
 1. Public property. 
 
 a. A victorious army appropriates all public money and 
 
 public property until further directed by the 
 government (1863). 
 
 b. Churches, school houses, hospitals, are not considered 
 
 public property, but may be taxed or used when 
 public service may require it (1863, 1899). 
 
 c. Classical works of art, libraries, precious instruments, 
 
 scientific collections, etc., must be saved without 
 injury and must be kept in fortified places (1863, 
 1899, 1907)- 
 
 d. All appliances for the transmission of news may be 
 
 seized but must be restored or compensation 
 made for them when peace is made (1899, 1907). 
 
 2. Private property. 
 
 a. Private property can be seized only through military 
 
 necessity. 
 
 b. Money and other valuables on person of a prisoner 
 
 are regarded as private property (1863). 
 
 c. Private property cannot be confiscated (1899, 1907). 
 
 d. Pillage prohibited (1899, 1907). 
 
 VII. Treatment of dead and wounded. 
 
 1 . Every captured wounded enemy shall be medically treated 
 
 according to the medical ability of the staff (1863). 
 
 2. Hospitals are designated by yellow flags so enemy may 
 
 avoid firing on them (1863). 
 
 3. Collection of sick and wounded after the battle without 
 
 distinction of parties (1864). 
 
 4. Hospital corps and medical staff are neutral (1864). 
 
 5. Hospitals are neutral unless held by military force 
 
 (1864). 
 
 6. Dead bodies shall, if possible, be buried. 
 
136 INTERNATIONAL RULES FOR WAR 
 
 7. Dead bodies shall not be disgracefully treated. 
 
 (Hague Conference, 1907, resolved to approve the above 
 rules as adopted by the Geneva Convention, 1864). 
 C. Warfare at Sea. 
 
 1. Privateering abolished (1856). 
 
 2. Neutral flag covers enemy's goods except contraband of 
 
 war (1856). 
 
 3. Neutral goods (contraband excepted) cannot be confis- 
 
 cated even when sailing under the enemy's flag 
 (1856). 
 
 4. A blockade must be effective to be binding (1856). 
 
 5. Merchant ships on high seas ignorant of hostilities cannot 
 
 be confiscated (1907). 
 
 6. Prohibitions. 
 
 a. A vessel may not fly any flag other than her own to 
 
 avoid attack. 
 
 b. Attack on or sinking of enemy vessels which have 
 
 hauled down their flags as a sign of surrender. 
 All attack on enemy merchantmen without pre- 
 vious request to submit to visit. 
 
 c. Attack or seizure of hospital ships. 
 
 d. To use hospital ships for any other purpose. 
 
 e. To capture neutral merchantmen, yachts or vessels, 
 
 for having or taking on board sick, wounded, or 
 shipwrecked combatants. 
 
 /. To lay unanchored, automatic contact mines except 
 where they are so constructed as to become harm- 
 less one hour at most after person who laid 
 them ceases to control them ; or to lay those which 
 do not become harmless as soon as they break 
 loose from their moorings. 
 
 g. To use torpedos which do not become harmless when 
 they have missed their mark. 
 
 h. Bombardment of undefended towns, ports, etc., ex- 
 cept after due notice. 
 
 i. Not to spare sick wards as far as possible in case of a 
 fight on board a warship. 
 
 /. Religious, medical and hospital staff of any captured 
 ship is inviolable. 
 
 k. To bury or cremate the dead without careful exam- 
 ination of the corpse. 
 
 I. To capture vessels used exclusively for fishing. 
 
 m. Soldiers or sailors taken on board when sick or 
 wounded, to whatever force they belong, shall be 
 protected and looked after by the captors. 
 
138 INTERNATIONAL RULES FOR WAR 
 
 7. Contraband. (Declaration of London, 1909). 
 
 a. Articles which are absolute contraband. (Article 22.) 
 (i) Arms of all kinds. 
 
 (2) Projectiles, charges and cartridges of all kinds 
 
 and their unassembled, distinctive parts. 
 
 (3) Powder and explosives especially adapted for 
 
 use in war. 
 
 (4) Gun carriages, caissons, limbers, military wag- 
 
 ons, field forges, and their unassembled, dis- 
 tinctive parts. 
 
 (5) Clothing and equipment of a distinctively 
 
 military character. 
 
 (6) All kinds of harness of a. distinctively military 
 
 character. 
 
 (7) Saddle, draught and pack animals suitable for 
 
 use in war. 
 
 (8) Articles of camp equipment. 
 
 (9) Armor plate. 
 
 (10) Warships and floats and their unassembled 
 
 parts suitable for use only in a vessel of war. 
 
 (11) Implements and apparatus made exclusively 
 
 for the manufacture of munitions of war, 
 for the manufacture or repair of arms, or of 
 military material for use on land or sea. 
 h. Conditional contraband articles. (Article 24.) 
 (i) Food. 
 
 (2) Forage and grain suitable for feeding animals. 
 
 (3) Clothing and fabrics for clothing, boots and 
 
 shoes. 
 
 (4) Gold and silver in coin or bullion; paper 
 
 money. 
 
 (5) Vehicles of all kinds available for use in war, 
 
 and their unassembled parts. 
 
 (6) Vessels, craft, and boats of all kinds, floating 
 
 docks, parts of docks, as also their unassem- 
 bled parts. 
 
 (7) Fixed railway material and roUing-stock, and 
 
 material for telegraphs, radio telegraphs, and 
 telephones. 
 
 (8) Balloons and flying machines. 
 
 (9) Fuel ; lubricants. 
 
 (10) Powder and explosives which are not specially 
 
 adapted for use in war. 
 
 (11) Barbed wire. 
 
 (12) Horseshoes and horseshoeing materials. 
 
 (13) Harness and saddlery material. 
 
 (14) Binocular glasses, telescopes, etc. 
 
140 INTERNATIONAL RULES FOR WAR 
 
 c. Following articles are not to be regarded as contra- 
 band of war. (Articles 29, 28.) 
 (i) Articles and materials serving exclusively for 
 the care of sick and wounded. Articles and 
 materials intended for the use of the vessel 
 in which they are found, as well as those for 
 the use of her crew and passengers during 
 the voyage. 
 
 (2) Raw cotton, wool, silk, jute, flax, hemp, and 
 
 other raw materials of the textile industries, 
 and also yarns of the same. 
 
 (3) Nuts and oil seeds; copra. 
 
 (4) Rubber, resins, gums, and lacs; hops. 
 
 (5) Raw hides, horns, bones, and ivory. 
 
 (6) Natural and artificial fertilizers, including ni- 
 
 trates and phosphates for agricviltural pur- 
 poses. 
 
 (7) Metallic ores. 
 
 (8) Earths, clays, lime, chalk, stone, including 
 
 marble, bricks, slates, and tiles. 
 
 (9) Chinaware and glass. 
 
 (10) Paper and materials prepared for its manufac- 
 
 ture. 
 
 (11) Soap, paint and colors, including articles ex- 
 
 clusively used in their manufacture; and 
 varnishes. 
 
 (12) Bleaching powder, soda ash, caustic soda, salt 
 
 cake, ammonia, sulphate of ammonia and 
 sulphate of copper. 
 
 (13) Agricultural, mining, textile and printing 
 
 machinery. 
 
 (14) Precious stones, semi-precious stones, pearls, 
 
 mother-of-pearl, and coral. 
 
 (15) Clocks and watches, other than chronometers. 
 
 (16) Fashion and fancy goods. 
 
 (17) Feathers of all kinds, hairs, bristles. 
 
 (18) Articles of household furniture and decora- 
 
 tion ; office furniture and accessories. 
 
 References 
 
 See the treaties and conventions mentioned at the beginning of 
 
 this lecture. Also works on international law. 
 Spiller: Inter-Racial Problems, 4iof. 
 
142 DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION 
 
 XXII. THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL 
 ARBITRATION. 
 
 (Krehbiel) 
 
 A. Ancient Period. 
 
 1. Oriental states : probably did not use arbitration. 
 
 2. Greece: Arbitration well known. About 75 cases re- 
 
 corded. 
 Arbiters: Amphictyonic Council, oracles, friendly cities. 
 Awards executed in a ratio of 17 : 3. 
 
 3. Rome: Arbitration known, but the extension of the Em- 
 
 pire tended to bring it into disuse. 
 Three classes of arbitration (Phillipson, 154). 
 International, federal, administrative. 
 
 B. Mediaeval period. Not a feature of the middle ages though 
 
 many differences were settled by means of arbitration. 
 
 1. Arbiters: pope, emperor, various potentates, cities. 
 
 2. Special agreements to arbitrate (Moch, 36-38). 
 
 1238. Treaty of alliance between Genoa and Venice con- 
 tained a general arbitral clause. 
 
 1291. Three Swiss cantons accept arbitration. 
 
 1389. Denmark and Norway obliged by treaty to sub- 
 mit their differences to the Hanse for settlement. 
 
 1418. Hanseatic cities adopt principle of arbitration. 
 
 1 5 16. "Perpetual peace" between France and Switzer- 
 land recognizes the principle. 
 
 C. Modern Period. 
 
 1. Early advocates of arbitration (See Lecture XVII). 
 
 2. Early treaties involving the principle of arbitration 
 
 (Darby, 24of.). 
 "Conservators of Commerce," 1606. 
 Treaties of Westminster, 1654-1674. 
 Treaty of Floxence : England and Savoy, 1669. 
 Judges Conservators, 1712. (Assiento.) 
 Treaty of Ryswick, 1697. 
 
 Jay Treaty: United States and England, 1794. Usually 
 regarded as the first modern treaty of arbitration. 
 
 3. The acceptance of arbitration by legislative bodies. 
 
 (It will be noticed that the work of the peace advocates 
 mentioned in Lecture XVII was in the main of 
 a private, unofficial character; it prepared the 
 way for legislative or official consideration of 
 arbitration which is here treated.) 
 
144 DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION 
 
 The United States played a leading role. 
 
 1835. Resolution favoring the erection of an inter- 
 national tribunal of arbitration adopted by 
 the Senate of Massachusetts (Ladd and 
 Thomson) . 
 
 1837. Similar resolution adopted by both House 
 and Senate of Massachusetts. 
 
 1842. William Jay proposed a treaty of arbitration 
 with England. 
 
 1 85 1. Committee on foreign affairs (Senate?) ap- 
 proved of arbitration. 
 
 1853. Senate of U. S. unanimously adopted Under- 
 wood resolution favoring arbitration. 
 
 1873. Congress adopted a resolution favoring an 
 arbitral tribunal and the insertion of arbitral . 
 clauses in treaties (Sumner, Bordman 
 Smith) . 
 
 1882. President Arthur's message favors arbitra- 
 tion. 
 
 1888. Congress approves a bill favoring treaties 
 of arbitration with all powers (Sherman, 
 Hitt). 
 
 ( 1889 : Pan-American Movement ; First Pan- 
 American Conference.) 
 France, first in .Europe. 
 
 1849. Bouvert introduced a resolution in favor of 
 arbitration into National Assembly. De- 
 feated. 
 England. 
 
 1849. Bill favoring arbitration defeated by Com- 
 mons after violent debate (Cobden, Hob- 
 house, Milner-Gibson, Elihu Burritt). 
 
 1873. Commons approved arbitration, though op- 
 posed by Gladstone (Richard, Lawson). 
 
 1887. Bill introduced into the House of Lords but 
 withdrawn because of the opposition of Lord 
 Salisbury (Marquis of Bristol). 
 
 1887. Treaty of arbitration with United States at- 
 tempted by England at the instance of John 
 Bright. 
 The Netherlands. 
 
 1873-4. Question of arbitration raised in the States- 
 General by Van Eck and Bredius. No ac- 
 tion, Carried further in 1878, and 1904. 
 
146 DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION 
 
 Italy. 
 
 1873. Mancini introduced a bill into Chambers 
 
 favoring the insertion of arbitral clauses in 
 treaties. Adopted. Has been put into 
 practice. 
 Sweden. 
 
 1874. Lower House adopted resolution favoring a 
 permanent arbitral tribunal (Jonassen). 
 
 Denmark. 
 
 1875. Measure similar to the last above defeated 
 in the Folketing (Lower House). 
 
 1878. Folketing adopted a petition favoring the 
 arbitration of differences between Scandi- 
 navian states. 
 Belgium. 
 
 1875. Senate and Chamber of Representatives 
 adopted a measure favoring arbitration 
 (Couvreur, Thonissen, Kint de Rooden- 
 beke). 
 The establishment of the Interparliamentary Union, 
 1889, and the initial success of the Pan-American 
 movement, 1889, practically saw the triumph of the 
 principle of arbitration of international differences. 
 Since that time the question has been what the scope 
 of arbitration shall be, as will appear from the fol- 
 lowing. 
 D. Classification of treaties of arbitration. 
 
 (Writers differ in their classification, and the following 
 grouping is a combination.) 
 
 1. Treaties submitting a specific difference to arbitration, 
 
 drafted after the dispute began ("occasional" arbi- 
 tration). 
 
 2. Treaties agreeing to submit to arbitration future differ- 
 
 ences ("permanent") : 
 a. As to the interpretation of the treaty (containing 
 the clause of arbitration) ; or rising out of it 
 ("a clause speciale.") 
 First of this kind: Chile-Peru, 1823 (Moch, 9). 
 For a list (incomplete) of treaties of this kind 'see 
 La Fontaine: Pasicrisie, xii. 
 
148 DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION 
 
 b. Whether rising out of treaties or otherwise, except- 
 
 ing certain categories of disputes. 
 X. This has been accomplished (i) by inserting a 
 clause to that effect in a treaty relating to an- 
 other matter, "a clause generale." (The first 
 treaty of this kind according to La Fontaine, x, 
 is Colombia-Central Republic, 1825. La Fon- 
 taine gives an incomplete list of these treaties) ; 
 or (2), by a treaty made especially for the pur- 
 pose (a treaty of arbitration proper). Moch, p. 
 41, seems to hold that the first treaty of this 
 character was one between Columbia and Peru, 
 1822. ^, 
 
 y. Reservations' 
 
 Questions which can be decided by the na- 
 tional courts. 
 QuejJ-ions concerning the constitution of a 
 
 state. 
 Questions of vital interest, independence, na- 
 tional honor, and those which concern the 
 interests of third parties (France-England, 
 1903; U. S. -England, 1908; and many 
 others). 
 Questions not "justiciable in their nature by 
 reason of being susceptible of decision by 
 the application of the principles of law or 
 equity." (So-called Taft treaties with Eng- 
 land and, France, pending Jan. 1912.) 
 
 c. All differences whatsoever ; without reservation. 
 Unlimited or general treaties. (See Lecture XXIII). 
 
 All since 1902. 
 3. Compulsory or "obligatory" treaties. (Not accepted by 
 all writers.) 
 
 Those who accept this classification are careful to state 
 that they do not mean compulsion from without but 
 moral obligation, resulting from having promised to 
 accept arbitration ; and some writers indicate that a 
 treaty is obligatory which expressly promises to ac- 
 cept arbitration (e.i;., "La Vie Internationale," 1908, 
 516). 
 
 Other writers hold that the distinction is not a proper 
 one, as all treaties accepting arbitration carry a 
 moral obligation to have recourse to arbitration, with- 
 out express statement to that effect; unless, indeed, 
 they distinctly reserve the right to decide in each case. 
 
 The term "obligatory" arbitration is used in Article 19, 
 Convention I of the Hague Conference, 1899. Hence 
 its importance. 
 
IB VOTE EN PAVEUR 
 
 DB L AEBITRAGE OBLIGATOIRE, 
 
 A LA 2© OONPERENCE DE 
 
 LA HAYE. PAR HABITANT 
 
 TEAITES POUR L ARBITRAGE OBLIGATOIRE 
 CONCLUS EN SIX ANS 
 
 1503 
 
 i9as 
 
 190^ 
 
 1907 
 
 I90& 
 
150 DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION 
 
 4. A general treaty of arbitration which all nations shall 
 
 sign has been advocated. 
 
 5. Life of treaties of arbitration. 
 
 For five or ten years ; renewable ; lapse if not renewed. 
 
 Indeterminate; run until abrogated. 
 E. Number of treaties of arbitration is hard to establish because 
 of the dififerences in classification, and incompleteness of 
 researches. 
 
 1. Treaties of occasional arbitration; number not ascer- 
 
 tainable. 
 
 2. Treaties agreeing to submit future dififerences ("a clause 
 
 speciale" and "a clause generale"). 
 La Fontaine, xiv-xv. 1821-1900. 
 
 North America 172 
 
 Europe 87 
 
 Africa 12 
 
 Asia 6 
 
 South America 4 
 
 Total 281 
 
 Moch, 127-130. 1 822- 1 909. 
 314 treaties of all classes. 
 120 eliminated because counted twice or expired. 
 
 194 in force in 1909. 
 
 Of these 163 are treaties of arbitration proper 
 according to Moch's classification. 
 
 3. Treaties of compulsory or "obligatory" arbitration. These 
 
 were made in pursuance of Article 19, of the Con- 
 vention for Pacific Settlement, Hague Conference, 
 1899. 
 
 1903 2 treaties of this kind. 
 
 1904 27 
 
 1905 48 
 
 1906 49 
 
 1907 S3 
 
 1908 60 
 
 (Bulletin de la Conciliation Intern. No. 3, 1908.) 
 
 Number of treaties according to plate taken from "La 
 Vie Internationale," 1908, p. 516. 
 
152 DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION 
 
 F. Arbitral Procedure (Ralston : International Arbitral Law and 
 Procedure, especially pp. 17-85; 129-140). 
 
 1. Special agreement ( "compromis," protocol). Every case 
 
 is submitted to arbitration by means of a special agree- 
 ment. 
 
 a. Names the arbiters. (A list in Richet, 300-301.) 
 
 Single arbiter. 
 
 Tribunal: each disputant selects arbiters and these 
 selected representatives name an umpire. 
 
 b. Defines the powers of the arbiters. 
 
 c. Fixes the rules of procedure. 
 
 d. Defines the question at issue. 
 
 e. Promises to accept the award (sometimes). 
 
 /. Special agreement as provided by the Hague Con- 
 ferences. 
 1899, I, Art. 31 (Scott: texts, 36). 
 1907, I, Art. 52 (Scott: texts, 177). 
 Differences about the special agreement may be 
 arbitrated. 
 g. Each power ratifies the special agreement according 
 to the provisions of its constitution. 
 
 2. Procedure. 
 
 The procedure is determined by special agreement. No 
 code as yet accepted, though Hague Conferences 
 make a beginning, 1899, I, Art. 48: The "tribunal is 
 authorized to declare its competence in interpreting 
 the 'Compromis' ... in applying the principles of 
 international [the word "international" was omitted 
 from the draft of 1907] law." (Scott: Texts, 40-41.) 
 
 3. Appeal and revision. 
 
 Arbitration implies the intention to accept the award. 
 Hague Conference, 1899, I, Art. .55: "The parties 
 can reserve in the 'Compromis' the right to demand 
 the revision of the award. In this case, and unless 
 there be an agreement to the contrary, the demand 
 must be addressed to the Tribunal which pronounced 
 the award. It can only be made on the ground of 
 the discovery of some new fact calculated to exercjse 
 a decisive influence on the award, and which, -at the 
 time the discussion was closed, was unknown to the 
 Tribunal and to the party demanding the revision. 
 Proceedings for revision can only be instituted by a 
 decision of the Tribunal expressly recording the exist- 
 ence of the new fact, recognizing in it the character 
 described in the foregoing paragraph, and declaring 
 the demand admissible on this ground. The 'Com- 
 promis' fixes the period within which the demand for 
 the revision must be made." (Scott: Texts, 42-43.) 
 
154 DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION 
 
 4. The sanction of arbitration. 
 Public opinion. 
 
 Surrendering the object in dispute to the arbiters be- 
 forehand, to be disposed of according to the sentence; 
 or, if that is not feasible, giving some pledge which 
 is to be sequestrated if the award is not accepted; 
 such as territory, a building, property, lien on cus- 
 toms, a ship, etc. 
 (Chile offered to deposit one million dollars with the 
 Hague Tribunal in her dispute with the United 
 States, 1909.) 
 G. Mediation and good oflfices. 
 
 Object : to permit third powers to help disputants bring 
 their differences to arbitration, or to bring a war 
 to an end. 
 Encouraged by the Hague Conferences. 
 
 1899, I, Art. 2-8 (Scott: Texts, 24-26). 
 1907, I, Art. 2-8 (Scott: Texts, 157-159). 
 H. International Commissions of Inquiry (Ralston, 315-318). 
 First formal recognition by Hague Conference, 1899, I, Art. 
 
 9-14. (Scott: Texts, 26-28.) 
 If powers cannot settle a matter by diplomatic means, a 
 commission may be appointed to investigate the facts. 
 Constituted by special agreement (as above). 
 Powers are expected to help the work of the commission by 
 
 furnishing the facts in their possession. 
 Report of the commission has about it nothing of the char- 
 acter of an award, and leaves the nations at dispute 
 their entire freedom. 
 Commission employed in the "Dogger Bank" affair. (Only 
 
 use to date.) 
 Second Hague Conference, 1907, I, Art. 9-36 (Scott: Texts, 
 159-168), elaborates the scheme. 
 /. Frequency of recourse to arbitration. (Hague cases. See 
 Lectuie XXVII.) 
 Moch, 26. 1800-1900. 212 cases. All accepted. 
 Darby, 769-917. 1800-1900. 222 arbitrations proper. 
 1900-1904. 21 
 
 Total 243 formal arbitrations. 
 
 Besides these. Darby gives 297 instances in which he 
 considers the principle of arbitration was applied. 
 
156 DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION 
 
 La Fontaine, viii. 1794-1900, 177 arbitrations. 
 
 1794-1820 15 cases. 
 
 1821-1840 8 
 
 1841-1860 20 
 
 1861-1880 44 
 
 1881-1900 90. 
 
 By countries to 1901. (To 1904, Richet, p. 304.) 
 
 Great Britain 70 (heads the list). 
 
 United States 56 
 
 Chile 26 
 
 France 26 
 
 (For the complete list by countries and by grand divi- 
 sions see La Fontaine, ix.) 
 Richet, 362-4. 1794-1904. 210 cases. 
 
 (Richet gives a list of these cases by years and by de- 
 cades, showing the average per year.) 
 /. Serious differences settled by arbitration (selected). 
 
 Alabama case (187 1-2) ; The Carolines (Germany and 
 France, 1885) ; Samoan Case (United States, Ger- 
 many, England, 1899) ; Guiana boundary (England- 
 ' Venezuela, 1899; United States intervened); Casa- 
 
 blanca affair (Germany- France, 1909) ; House-Tax 
 case (England, France, Germany- Japan, 1905), etc. 
 K. Classes of differences submitted to arbitration. 
 
 Boundary disputes (probably most abundant), territory, 
 violation of territorial integrity, pecuniary claims of 
 all kinds (including the crown jewels of the House 
 of Hanover), commerce, navigation of rivers, fish- 
 eries, interpretation of treaties, violations of treaties, 
 indemnities, immigration, citizenship, tariffs, seizure 
 of ships, false arrests (sovereignty? — succession to 
 the throne of Persia, 1835 ; inheritance in Lippe-Det- 
 mold, 1897; House-tax in Japan, 1905 ; Ottoman Pub- 
 lic Debt, 1903). 
 L. Success of arbitration: Every award has been accepted. 
 
 (Some mention the award of the King of the Netherlands 
 in the Canadian boundary case between the United 
 States and Great Britain, 1831, as an exception. 
 However, the United States rejected the award on 
 the ground that the arbiter had exceeded his powers ; 
 hence this is not a real refusal to accept the decision. 
 The difference was settled by the Webster-Ashburton 
 Treaty in 1842. 
 Bolivia and Peru threatened to reject an arbitral sentence 
 in 1909, but finally accepted it. 
 
158 DEVELOFMEnSTT- OF INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION 
 
 References 
 
 La Fontaine: Fasicrisie Internationale. (Excellent.) 
 
 Ralston: International Arbitral' Law and Procedure. 
 
 Moch: Histoire sommaire de I'arbitrage permanent. 1910. 
 (Bibliography, p. 5-6;) 
 
 Darby: International Tribunals. 
 
 Dumas: Les sanctions de I'arbitrage international. 
 
 Merignhac: Traite theorique et pratique de I'arbitrage inter- 
 national. 
 
 Scott : Texts of the Peace Conferences at the Hague. 
 
 Richet: Le passe de la guerre at I'avenir de la paix, 243f. 
 
 Phillipson : International Law and Custom of Ancient Greece and 
 Rome. 
 
 Bloch: Der Krieg, V, 1-197. VI. 
 
 Westerman: Interstate Arbitration in Antiquity, Classical Jour- 
 nal, 2, 197-21 1. 
 
 Moore: History and Digest of International Arbitrations to 
 which the United States has been a party. U. S. Govt. 
 Docs., 3267. 7 volumes. 
 
 Myers: List of Arbitration Treaties, 191 1 (Pamphlet). 
 
 Darby: International Arbitration. InternationaL Law Associa- 
 tion, 22 Report, 17-37. 
 
 Peace Year Book, 191 1, iigi. (Treaties since 1899.) 
 
 Maxey : International Law. Am. Law Rev. 40, 188-196. 
 
 Library of Congress : References on International Arbitration. 
 
 Quesada: Arbitration in Latin America, 1907. 
 
 Revon : L'arbitrage international, son passe, son present, son 
 avenir. 
 
 Seve: Cours d'enseignement pacifiste, 217-291. 
 
 Descamps et Renault: Recueil international des traites du XX" 
 siecle. 
 
 Lord: List of Treaties containing Provisions for Settlement by 
 Arbitration. Ann. Am. Acad. Pol.. Sci. 2, 471-487. 
 
 Hazell's Annual, 1910, 232. 
 
 Cambridge Modern History, XII, Bibliography, 954-956. 
 
 Dumas : De la responsabilite du pouvoir executif consideree com- 
 me I'une des sanctions de I'arbitrage international. 
 
 (Consult also periodicals, encyclopedias, treatises on international 
 law, etc.) 
 
l6o EXAMPLES OF INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION 
 
 XXIIa. EXAMPLES OF INTERNATIONAL 
 ARBITRATION. 
 
 (Jordan) 
 
 A. Three ways of settling an international difference peaceably. 
 
 1. Adjustment. 
 
 2. Arbitration. 
 
 3. Judicial determination. 
 
 B. Adjustment. 
 
 Maine boundary. 
 "Fifty-four forty or fight." 
 Northwest angle. 
 Pope's folly. 
 
 C. Arbitration. 
 
 I. Bering Sea case (1892). 
 
 a. Question. 
 
 Fur seal breeds on Pribilof and Komandorski. 
 
 Remains in sea all winter. 
 
 Females go out to feed in summer. 
 
 Young born in early July, weaned in September. 
 
 1,000,000 females on Pribilof in 1885; 500,000 on 
 
 Komandorski. 
 29 out of 30 males superfluous. 
 Land killing affects superfluous males only. 
 Pelagic sealing kills animals at sea indiscriminately. 
 For every female killed, one unborn young dies, or 
 
 "pup" starves. 
 Cut down to 350,000 in 1893. 
 Cut down to 150,000 in 1897. 
 Seizure of Canadian vessels. 
 
 b. Court of arbitration. 
 
 Seven judges: two American, two British, one 
 French, one Norwegian, one Italian (advocates 
 on bench). 
 
 No experts allowed to appear; no cross-examina- 
 tion. 
 
 No agreed case or statement of facts. 
 
 All testimony in printed affidavits (mostly perjury 
 on both sides). 
 
 Judges could not read testimony (time too short 
 and language foreign). 
 
 Introduction of new evidence (by telegram) in 
 closing argument. 
 
 Arbitration (splitting the difference) in place of 
 judgment. 
 
1 62 EXAMPLES OF INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION 
 
 c. Claim of United States. 
 
 Bering Sea a Mare Clausum (on basis of Russian 
 
 claims). 
 Justified in seizing poachers. (Act of war.) 
 Fur seal has animus revertendi (purpose to return). 
 
 d. Claim of Great Britain. 
 
 Bering Sea open ocean. 
 
 Hence, natural right to kill (because not forbidden). 
 Animal not harmed by killing of females and 
 young. 
 
 e. British claims, based on affidavits: 
 
 That seals shot and lost are not more than 3%. 
 That females did not out-number males. 
 These largely barren. 
 
 That Russian and American herds intermingle. 
 That not all seals land. 
 That the number steadily increases. 
 That they mate at sea. 
 That they have other breeding places. 
 That they find new ones. 
 That sexes are indistinguishable. 
 That sexes travel together. 
 That breeding islands are often raided. 
 That starving pups seek other mothers. 
 That pups eat sea weed. 
 That driving on land destroys virility. 
 That killing of superfluous males destroys herd. 
 That Russia only demanded 30 miles of protection. 
 /. Decision of court. 
 
 a. Matters of law. 
 
 Bering Sea not Mare Clausum. 
 
 Herd not owned by U. S. 
 
 No right of seizure. 
 
 Seals must be protected in interest of humanity. 
 
 b. Arbitration. 
 
 Regulations set up to preserve the fur seal; 
 these the result of splitting difference, not 
 study of animal. This made killing legal 
 and gave it great impetus, being no longer 
 illicit adventure or piracy. 
 
 Herd has 50,000 breeding females (1910). 
 
 Probable basis of settlement. 
 
164 EXAMPLES OF INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION 
 
 2. Alaska Boundary (1903). 
 
 Boundary on mountain chain or three miles from coast, 
 
 if mountains are frontier. 
 Settled by judicial determination. 
 Compromise was expected. 
 
 Compromise on Pearse Channel vice Portland 
 Channel. 
 
 3. Samoan Affair (1899). 
 
 Bombardment of Apia. 
 
 Germany vs. Great Britain and United States. 
 
 4. Newfoundland Fisheries. 
 
 Principle of servitude. 
 
 Does coast-line follow indentations? 
 
 5. The International Fisheries. 
 
 Adjustment by commission. 
 
 "The Marauders' Plea of Contiguity." 
 
 References 
 
 Jordan : The Paris Tribunal of Arbitration, in The Forum, May, 
 
 1899, and in "Imperial Democracy." 
 Jordan, Clark, Styneger, Lucas: The Fur Seal of the Pribilof 
 
 Islands, 4 Vols. 1898. 
 Davidson : The Alaska Boundary. 
 ( For additional references consult the particular cases in Darby : 
 
 International Tribunals.) 
 
l66 TREATIES OF UNLIMITED ARBITRATION 
 
 XXIII. TREATIES OF UNLIMITED ARBITRATION. 
 
 (Krehbiel) 
 
 A. Treaties of unlimited arbitration are those which contemplate 
 
 the arbitration of all differences which are really interna- 
 tional in character. 
 The prevailing type of treaty reserves certain categories of 
 differences from arbitration, "differences . . . which 
 do not affect the vital interests, the independence, or 
 the honor of the two contracting parties, and do not 
 concern the interests of third parties." — (Treaty be- 
 tween United States and Great Britain, 1908.) 
 
 B. Treaties of unlimited arbitration. 
 
 1. Argentine-Chile. 
 
 May 28, 1902. Ratifications exchanged September 22, 
 1902. (British and Foreign State Papers, 95, 759.) 
 Art. I. "The High Contracting Parties bind them- 
 selves to submit to arbitration all controversies between 
 them, of whatever nature they may be, or from what- 
 ever cause they may have arisen, except when they affect 
 the principles of the Constitution of either country, and 
 provided that no other settlement is possible by direct 
 negotiations." 
 
 (Article II provides that questions that are regard- 
 ed as settled at the time the treaty is signed may not be 
 forced to arbitration under the treaty.) 
 
 2. Denmark-Netherlands. 
 
 February 12, 1904. Ratifications exchanged March 8, 
 1906. (British State Papers, 98, 454. Moch, 86.) 
 
 Art. I. "Les Hautes Parties contractantes s'en- 
 gagent a soumettre a la Cour Permanente d' Arbitrage 
 tous les differends et tous les litiges entre elles, qui 
 n'auront pu etre resolus par les voies diplomatiques." 
 
 Art. 3. "II est bien entendu que I'article i*"" 
 n'est pas applicable aux differends entre les ressortis- 
 sants de I'un des etats contractants et I'autre etat con- 
 tractant, que les tribunaux de ce dernier etat seraient, 
 d'apres la legislation de cet etat, competents a juger." 
 
 3. Denmark-Italy. 
 
 December 16, 1905. , Ratifications exchanged May 22, 
 1906. (British State Papers, 99, 1035. Moch, 
 86-7.) 
 
l68 TREATIES OF UNLIMITED ARBITRATION 
 
 By article i the contracting parties agree to submit 
 "tous les differends de n'importe quelle nature 
 qui viendraient a s'elever entre elles et qui 
 n'auraient pu etre resolus par les voies diplo- 
 matiques, et cela meme dans le cas ou ces dif- 
 ferends auraient leur origine dans des faits 
 anterieurs a la conclusion de la presente con- 
 vention." 
 Art. 4. "II est entendu qu'a moins que la contro- 
 verse ne porte sur I'application d'une convention entre 
 les deux etats, ou qu'il ne s'agisse d'un cas de deni de 
 justice, I'article i®'' ne sera pas applicable aux differends 
 qui pourraient s'elever entre un ressortissant de I'une 
 des parties et I'autre etat contractant lorsque les tri- 
 bunaux auront, d'apres la legislation de cet etat, com- 
 petence pour juger la contestation." 
 
 4. Denmark-Portugal. 
 
 March 22, 1907. 
 
 (Similar to Denmark-Italy treaty. Moch, 86.) 
 
 5. Costa Rica -Honduras -Guatemala -Nicaragua -Salvador. 
 
 December 20, 1907. 
 Each of these countries entered upon the treaty with 
 
 each other, which is the reason why Moch counts this 
 
 series as ten treaties. (Bulletin of the Bureau of 
 
 American Republics, 25, I345f.) 
 Article I. They [the Republics of Central Amer- 
 ica] "bind themselves to always preserve the most com- 
 plete harmony and decide every difference or difficulty 
 that may arise amongst them, of whatsoever nature it 
 may be, by means of the Central American Court of 
 Justice, created by the Convention which they have con- 
 cluded for that purpose on this date." 
 
 This article should be taken together with Articles 
 I and II of the Convention for the Establishment of a 
 Central American Court of Justice (Bulletin of the 
 Bureau of American Republics, 25, 1351) : "The High 
 Contracting Parties agree by the present Convention to 
 constitute and maintain a permanent tribunal which shall 
 be called the 'Central American Court of Justice;' to 
 which they bind themselves to submit all controversies 
 or questions which may arise among them, of whatsoever 
 nature and no matter what their origin may be, in case 
 the respective Departments of Foreign Affairs should 
 not have been able to reach an understanding." 
 
170 TREATIES OF UNLIMITED ARBITRATION 
 
 Article II. "This court shall also take cognizance 
 of the questions which individuals of one Central 
 American country may raise against any of the other 
 contracting' Governments, because of the violation ot 
 Treaties or Conventions, and other cases of an interna- 
 tional character ; no matter whether his own Government 
 supports said claim or not ; and provided that the reme- 
 dies which the laws of the respective country provide 
 against such violation shall have been exhausted and 
 that a denial of justice shall be shown." 
 6. Italy-Netherlands. 
 November 28, 1909. 
 (Moch, 90.) 
 
 Art. I. "Les Hautes Parties contractantes s'enga- 
 gent a soumettre a la Cour Permanente d'arbitrage tous 
 les differends qui viendraient a s'elever entre elles et 
 qui n'auraient pu etre resolus par la voie diplomatique, 
 et cela meme dans le cas oil ces differends auraient leur 
 origine dans des faits anterieurs a la conclusion de la 
 presente convention." 
 
 Art. 6. "Dans les questions du ressort des auto- 
 rites judiciaires nationales, selon les lois territoriales, 
 les parties contractantes ont le droit de ne pas soumettre 
 le differend au jugement arbitral avant que la juridic- 
 tion nationale competente se soit prononcee definitive- 
 ment, sauf le cas de deni de justice." 
 
 (Moch classifies the treaty between Italy and Ar- 
 gentine, September 18, 1907, and between Italy and 
 Mexico, October 16, 1907, as unlimited. However, 
 these treaties expressly except differences respecting 
 nationality from arbitration.) 
 C. Resume of the treaties. They agree to arbitrate all differences 
 except — ■ 
 
 1. Those which can be settled by diplomacy. 
 
 All the treaties make this exception, but it does not 
 properly constitute a reservation. 
 
 2. Those which affect the principles of the constitution of 
 
 either country. (Treaty i.) 
 Under the prevailing theories of sovereignty and in- 
 dependence of states, such differences are not 
 properly international matters; and may, there- 
 fore, be said to be excepting no international 
 differences from arbitration. However, as dis- 
 putes may arise between nations over constitu- 
 tional matters, this treaty is not generally con- 
 sidered to be unlimited. 
 
172 TREATIES OF UNLIMITED ARBITRATION 
 
 3. Those (between individuals) which according to the 
 existing laws of the country (treaties 2, 3, and 6) fall 
 within the jurisdiction of the national courts, unless — 
 
 a. The difference arises out of the application of a con- 
 
 vention between the states (treaties 3 and 4). 
 
 b. Justice has been denied (treaties 3 and 4) ; and thid 
 
 is shown (treaties 5 and 6). 
 From the foregoing it appears that none of the so-called 
 treaties of unlimited arbitration agrees to submit all international 
 disputes to arbitration ; rather, they contemplate the arbitration of 
 all questions which are truly international, and not purely govern- 
 mental in character. 
 
174 FIRST HAGUE CONFERENCE 
 
 XXIV. THE FIRST HAGUE CONFERENCE. 
 May 1 8- July 29, 1899. 
 
 (Krehbiel) 
 
 A. Origin: Called by the Czar. 
 
 1. "Rescript," August 24, 1898. 
 
 2. Second rescript, Jan. 1899. Contained program. (Scott, 4.) 
 
 B. Place: Hague; House in the Woods ("Huis ten Bosch"). 
 
 C. Members. 
 
 Difficulty as to what powers should be invited. 
 Russia invited all those having representatives at St. Peters- 
 burg. Exceptions. 
 59 powers claimed sovereignty ; 26 were represented. 
 
 20 European (Monaco, San Marino, Papacy omitted). 
 4 Asiatic : China, Japan, Siam, Persia. 
 2 American: United States, Mexico. 
 100 Delegates : from i to 8 per nation. 
 Each country had one vote. 
 Delegates seated alphabetically (by countries). 
 
 D. Festivities, ceremonies, etc. 
 
 E. Organization. 
 
 Conference : Plenary session. There were 10 of these. 
 President: Baron de Staal (Russia). 
 Cabinet consisting of "first delegates." 
 
 Steering committee of first delegates of the seven 
 great powers. 
 Commissions. 
 
 1. Armaments and the use of new kinds of implements. 
 
 50 members, 
 o. Military warfare. 
 b. Naval warfare. 
 
 2. Laws and customs of warfare. 67 members. 
 
 a. Military. 
 
 b. Naval. 
 
 3. Arbitration and other means of preventing war. 59 
 
 members. 
 Commission on Petitions. 15 members. 
 Commission on Editing. 4 members. 
 (Each state had right to be represented on a commission 
 
 and first delegates determined membership.) 
 Honorary Offices. 
 
176 FIRST HAGUE CONFERENCE 
 
 F. Procedure. 
 
 Language : French. 
 
 Secret. No stenographic reports. 
 
 Objection of reporters, "Ambassadors of the people." 
 
 Summaries of each session authorized. 
 Method of considering propositions. 
 Deputations, delegations and petitions. 
 Resolutions of the Conference are of three classes : 
 
 1. Conventions. 
 
 2. Declarations: achievements. 
 
 3. Wishes {voeux) : projects. 
 Conference adopted — 
 
 Three conventions (Scott, Texts, 21-79). 
 Three declarations (Scott, 79-85). 
 Six wishes (Scott, 20-21). 
 
 G. Achievements. 
 
 I. Conventions. 
 
 a.. Convention for the peaceful adjustment of interna- 
 tional differences. (Scott: Texts, 21-45). 
 Good offices and mediation to be tried. 
 International commissions of inquiry pronounced 
 
 "useful" (and "desirable" in 1907). 
 Permanent Court of Arbitration established. The 
 best thing accomplished by the first conference. 
 Nations agreeing to this convention and the pro- 
 portion of the world's population represented by 
 them. 
 
 World's population, 1899: 1,531,463,430. 
 Signatories, 22 powers, representing 54 per 
 
 cent, of the world's population. 
 Signatories with reservation, 4 powers repre- 
 senting 8 per cent, of the world's population. 
 Total signers 26 powers, representing 62 per 
 
 cent. 
 Adhering to the Convention later (not having 
 been represented at The Hague), 18 powers 
 representing 29 per cent. 
 Total accepting Convention, 44 nations repre- 
 senting 91 per cent, of the world's population. 
 b. Convention regarding the laws and customs of war 
 on land. (Scott: Texts 45-71.) 
 Adopted a code of warfare, based on the Lieber 
 Code, which sought not only to alleviate suffer- 
 ing, but to prevent it as well. (Cf. Syllabus 
 XXI.) 
 
178 FIRST HAGUE CONFERENCE 
 
 c. Convention for the adaptation to maritime warfare of 
 the principles of the Geneva Convention, 1864. 
 (Scott: Texts, 71-79.) (Cf. Syllabus XXI.) 
 ■ 2. Declarations. 
 
 a. To prevent the launching of projectiles and explos- 
 ives from balloons or by other similar new 
 methods. (Scott: Texts, 79-80.) For five years. 
 
 h. To prohibit the use of projectiles, the only object of 
 which is the diffusion of asphyxiating or dele- 
 terious gases. (Scott: Texts, 81-83.) 
 
 c. To prohibit the use of bullets which expand or flatten 
 easily in the human body (mushroom bullets) 
 such as bullets with a hard envelope, of which the 
 envelope does not entirely cover the core, or is 
 pierced with incisions. (Scott: Texts, 83-85). 
 
 References 
 
 Conference Internationale de la Paix, 1899. (Official Minutes.) 
 Scott : Texts of the Peace Conferences at The Hague. 
 Scott : The Hague Peace Conferences. 
 Hull : The Two Hague Conferences. 
 Holls : Peace Conference at The Hague. 
 Scott: American Addresses at the Second Hague Conference. 
 White, A. D. : Autobiography ( Parts relating to Hague Confer- 
 ences). 
 
l80 SECOND HAGUE CONFERENCE 
 
 XXV. THE SECOND HAGUE CONFERENCE. 
 June 15-October 18, 1907. 
 
 (Krehbiel) 
 
 A. Origin. (Scott: Texts, 93-111.) 
 
 Requested by the Interparliamentary Union in St. Louis, 
 
 1904. 
 Delegation to President Roosevelt. 
 Circular of Secretary Hay, 1904. 
 Roosevelt relinquished the honor of calling the conference to 
 
 the Czar. 
 Czar issued invitation and program, April, 1906. (Scott,. 
 
 103- ) 
 Additions to the program. 
 
 Limitation of armaments. United States, Spain, Eng- 
 land. 
 Collection of contract debts. United States. 
 
 B. Place: The Hague; Hall of the Knights ("De Ridderzaal"). 
 
 C. Members. 
 
 More nations invited than to first conference (South Ameri- 
 can Republics). 
 59 states claimed sovereignty : 47 were invited ; 44 accepted, 
 equal to more than 96% of the world's population. 
 21 European states (Norway having become independ- 
 ent). 
 4 Asiatic. 
 19 American. 
 256 delegates: i to 15 per country; one vote per country ;^ 
 i delegates seated as before. 
 
 D. Festivities. 
 
 Cornerstone of the Palace of Peace laid, July 30. (Carnegie.) 
 Each country to furnish something in the way of decoration 
 for the structure. (D'Estournelles de Constant.) 
 
 E. Organization. 
 
 Conference : plenary sessions, 1 1 in all. 
 
 President: M. Nelidow (Russia). 
 
 Steering committee : delegates of the great powers. 
 Commissions. 
 
 I. Arbitration. 
 
 a. Projects for arbitration and prevention of war, 
 103 members. 
 
 b. Maritime prizes, 89 members. 
 
1 82 SECOND HAGUE CONFERENCE 
 
 2. War on land. 
 
 a. Laws and customs of war on land, 79 members. 
 
 b. Rights and duties of neutrals on land ; and dec- 
 laration of war. 82 members. 
 
 3. War on the sea. 
 
 a. Bombardment of ports, and the use of submarine 
 mines, torpedoes, etc., 73 members. 
 
 b. Belligerent ships in neutral waters ; and the ap- 
 plication of the Geneva Convention to naval war- 
 fare, 82 members. 
 
 4. Maritime law, 114 members. 
 Commission on petitions, 5 members. 
 Commission on editing, 29 members. 
 
 F. Procedure. 
 
 Much the same as in the first conference. The proceedings 
 
 were more open. 
 The Conference adopted. (Scott: Texts, 135-141.) 
 13 Conventions 
 
 1 Declaration 
 
 2 Declarations of principle. 
 4 Opinions. 
 
 I Desire (besides certain other similar measures). 
 
 G. Achievements. 
 
 I. Convention for the pacific settlement of disputes. 
 
 Signed by 35 powers, representing 83% of the world's 
 population. 
 
 Signed (with reservation) by 8 powers, representing 
 13% of world's population. 
 
 Abstained from voting, i power. 
 
 Accepted by 43 powers representing 96% of the world's 
 population (1,668,706,000, in 1907). 
 
 Improved the permanent court of arbitration. 
 
 Approved the appeal of one party in a contest to the 
 court though the other is unwilling. 
 
 Arbitration remained voluntary except : 
 
 That force is to be used for the collection of con- 
 tract debts only after arbitration has failed (Con- 
 vention II, Scott: Texts, 193-198). 
 Approved by 34 nations representing 68% of the 
 world's population. 10 nations (28%) did not 
 vote. 
 
184 SECOND HAGUE CONFERENCE 
 
 When prize is taken in war. This is to be tried before 
 the prize court established by this conference 
 (Convention XII, Scott: Texts, 288-317). 
 
 Approved by 31 nations representing 32% of the 
 earth's population. 
 
 Not voting, 13 nations representing 64% of the 
 earth's population. 
 
 2. Further rules of warfare on land (Conventions III, IV, 
 
 V. Scott: Texts, 198-240. Lecture XXI). 
 
 3. Rules for maritime warfare (Conventions VI-XI; XIII. 
 
 Scott: Texts, 240-288). 
 Humanize naval warfare, increase the protection of 
 neutrals, and attempt to "canalize" hostilities. 
 
 4. Declaration against the launching of explosives from bal- 
 
 loons and air-craft "until the end of the next confer- 
 ence." 
 
 5. The Conference "is unanimous: i, in admitting the prin- 
 
 ciple of compulsory arbitration; 2, in declaring that 
 certain disputes, in particular those relating to the in- 
 terpretation and application of the provisions of inter- 
 national agreements, may be submitted to compulsory 
 arbitration without any restrictions." (Scott, 137.) 
 
 6. The Conference expressed a wish for a third conference 
 
 to be "held within a period corresponding to that 
 which has elapsed since the preceding conference." 
 The calling of this new conference was taken out of 
 the hands of any one government and given to an in- 
 ternational committee which is to meet for that pur- 
 pose about two years before conference assembles. 
 Committee has charge of preparing the program. 
 
 References 
 Same as for preceding lecture. 
 
1 86 INTERNATIONAL COURTS 
 
 XXVI. INTERNATIONAL COURTS. 
 (Krehbiel) 
 
 I. Permanent Court of Arbitration, 1899. (Scott: Texts, pp. 
 30-45; 170-188.) 
 
 A. Administration of the Court. 
 
 1. Permanent Administrative Council consists of diplo- 
 
 matic representatives accredited to The Hague. 
 Organizes and administers the International 
 Bureau. 
 
 2. International Bureau; record office of court. 
 
 Secretarial in character ; has custody of archives. 
 
 Makes necessary preparations and gives its prem- 
 ises for court purposes. 
 
 Publishes the documents of cases determined by the 
 Court. 
 
 Expenses carried by signatory powers in proportion 
 fixed by Universal Postal Union. 
 
 B. Jurisdiction. 
 
 1. Competent for all arbitration cases unless parties 
 
 agree to institute a special tribunal. 
 
 2. Non-signatory powers may use court free. 
 
 C. Organization. 
 
 1. Judges. (See list of in World Almanac 1911, pp. 
 
 129-131.) 
 
 Each power selects four or less persons. Same per- 
 son may be selected by several powers. 
 138 selected (up to March 10, 1910) out of possible 
 168. 
 
 Term six years ; renewable. 
 
 2. Judges for any particular case. 
 
 Each disputant selects two judges from list above. 
 Only one may be from nation of disputant 
 (1907 amendment). 
 These four choose an umpire. 
 
 Failing to agree, selection is entrusted to a 
 
 third power. 
 This failing, each party selects a different pow- 
 er and these two determine the umpire. 
 This failing, after two months, each party se- 
 * lects two judges from list above (not na- 
 
 tionals) and lot determines which of these is 
 to be umpire (1907). 
 
 3. Arbitrators enjoy diplomatic privileges and immun- 
 
 ities. 
 
l88 INTERNATIONAL COURTS 
 
 D. Operation. 
 
 1. Preliminaries. 
 
 a. Agreement of nations necessary to bring case 
 before the court (amendment 1907). 
 
 h. "Compromis" (text of this agreement) states 
 difference and arbitrators' powers. 
 
 c. Signatory powers have duty of reminding other 
 states of court. 
 
 2. Procedure. 
 
 a. To sit at The Hague unless some other place be 
 selected by the arbitrators (1907). 
 
 b. Language to be used determined by the court. 
 
 c. Discussions public only if parties assent. 
 
 d. Recorded in "proces-verbaux." 
 
 This supplied to the powers invited to the 
 second Peace Conference as well as to pow- 
 ers which have adhered to the convention 
 (1907). 
 
 e. Deliberations of the Court private ("and remain 
 
 secret," 1907). 
 
 3. Award. 
 
 a. Given by majority vote, accompanied by reasons. 
 
 Minority may record dissent when signing. 
 
 b. Award is binding upon parties. 
 
 c. No appeal from the award. 
 
 d. Revision permitted if: 
 
 (i) Stipulated by "compromis" and within 
 time stipulated. 
 
 (2) New facts of vital importance are discov- 
 ered which were unknown at time of award 
 to court and party demanding revision. 
 (Court determines that question, IQ07.) 
 
 e. Drawn up in writing and read at a public meet- 
 
 ing of the Tribunal, the agents and counsel 
 of the parties being present. 
 
 4. Expenses. 
 
 Each party pays its own and an equal share of the 
 Court's. 
 II. Court of Arbitral Justice, 1907. (Scott: Texts pp. 141-154). 
 
 A. Administration. 
 
 Administered by International Bureau. 
 
 B. Jurisdiction. 
 
 1. Cases to be decided on their merits. 
 
 2. Only signatory powers can use it. 
 
190 INTERNATIONAL COURTS 
 
 C. Organization. 
 
 1. Composed of judges and deputy judges selected from 
 
 persons of high standing in their respective 
 countries. 
 Method of appointment left to individual nations. 
 
 2. Term of judges 12 years; equal in rank; seniority. 
 
 3. Three judges selected by others form delegation to 
 
 carry the administrative work of court. 
 
 4. Judge not to act in case where his country is a 
 
 litigant. 
 
 5. Salaries paid by International Bureau. No other com- 
 
 pensation permitted. 
 
 6. Enjoy diplomatic privileges and immunities. 
 
 D. Procedure. 
 
 1. Court to meet at fixed times and sit until business is 
 
 finished. 
 
 2. Court selects three judges. 
 
 3. Sits at The Hague and cannot be transferred unless 
 
 absolutely obliged by circumstances. , 
 
 4. A report of the doings of the court drawn up every 
 
 year by the delegation and sent to contracting 
 powers. 
 III. International Prize Court, 1907. (Scott: pp. 288-317.) 
 
 A. Administration. 
 
 1. The Administrative Council fulfills with regard to the 
 
 Prize Court the same functions as to the Perma- 
 nent Court of Arbitration but only representatives 
 of contracting powers may be members of it. 
 
 2. The International Bureau acts as registry to the 
 
 Court. 
 
 B. Jurisdiction. 
 
 Cases appealed under fixed conditions after having been 
 tried in national courts. No further appeal. 
 
 (The agreements of the Declaration of London, 1909, 
 will presumably be the basis of decisions.) 
 
 C. Organization. 
 
 1. Composed of judges and deputy judges appointed by 
 
 the contracting powers. 
 
 2. Appointed for six year term; renewable; equal in 
 
 rank; seniority. 
 
 3. 15 in all ; 8 powers represented all the time : Germany, 
 
 United States, Austria-Hungary, France, Great 
 Britain, Italy, Japan and Russia. Judges from 
 others sit "by rota." (Scott, pp. 316-7.) 
 
 4. Paid by International Bureau. No other compensa- 
 
 tion. 
 
192 INTERNATIONAL COURTS 
 
 IV. Central American Court of Justice, 1907. (International 
 Bureau of American Republics, Vol. 25, pp. 1351-7.) 
 
 A. Administration. 
 
 1. Court elects its own officials, including president, 
 
 vice-president, secretary, and treasurer. 
 
 2. Makes its own rules of procedure. 
 
 3. Sits at city of Cartago in Porto Rica unless necessary 
 
 to move. 
 
 B. Jurisdiction. 
 
 1. "All controversies or questions which may arise 
 
 among them of whatsoever nature and no matter 
 what their origin may be, in case the respective 
 Departments of Foreign Affairs should not have 
 been able to reach an understanding." 
 
 2. Also international questions which may arise between 
 
 a Central American government and a foreign 
 government. 
 
 3. Questions between an individual and a Central 
 
 American government. 
 
 4. Shall also have jurisdiction over the conflicts which 
 
 may arise between the legislative, judicial and 
 executive powers. 
 
 C. Organization. 
 
 1. Five justices, named by the legislative body of the re- 
 
 spective powers and also two substitutes from 
 each. 
 
 2. Appointed for five years and can carry on no other 
 
 work during period. 
 
 3. All five necessary for a quorum. Agreement of 
 
 three or more necessary for a decision. 
 
 4. Judgments communicated to all five Republics. Bind- 
 
 ing and final. Salaries paid by treasurer of the 
 court. Expenses borne equally by all nations. 
 [This agreement is valid for ten years.] 
 
.194 CASES TRIED IN INTERNATIONAL COURTS 
 
 XXVII. CASES TRIED OR PENDING IN INTER- 
 NATIONAL COURTS. 
 
 (Krehbiel) 
 
 Before the Permanent Court of Arbitration at The Hague. 
 
 1. United States of America vs. Mexico. 
 
 Referred by Treaty concluded at Washington, May 22, 1902. 
 Subject : The Pious Funds of the CaHfornias. 
 Decision of Court given October 14, 1902. 
 
 a. Documents. 
 
 Recueil des Actes et Protocoles concernant le Litige 
 du "Fonds Pieux des Californies." La 
 Haye, 1902. 
 
 Amer. J. Intern. Law 1908, vol. 2: 893; 898. 
 
 U. S. Govt. Doc. 4377, No. 646. 
 
 U. S. Statutes at Large, vol. 32, Part II, 1916. 
 
 b. References. 
 
 Amer. J. Intern. Law 1902, vol. i : 303. 
 J. W. Foster, Hague Arbitrations 137. 
 R. of R's. vol. 26: 419-24. 
 Intern. Year Book 1902, 35. 
 
 2. British Isles, Germany and Italy, vs. Venezuela. 
 Referred by Treaty concluded at Washington, May 7, 1903. 
 Subject: The Affairs of Venezuela. 
 
 Decision of Court given February 22, 1904. 
 
 a. Documents. 
 
 Recueil des Actes et Protocoles concernant le Litige 
 entre L'Allemagne, L'Angleterre, et LTtalie et 
 Venezuela, La Haye, 1904. 
 
 Venezuela Arbitration of 1903. Ralston's Report. 
 
 U. S. 58th Congress, 3d Session, Senate Doc. 119, 
 1403. 
 
 Amer. J. Intern. Law, vol. 2: 907. 
 
 b. References. 
 
 Cambridge Modern History, XII, 695. 
 
 Hague Permanent Court of Arbitration, U. S. Doc. 
 
 4769. 
 Intern. Year Book, 1909, 37. 
 Amer. J. Intern. Law, vol. 3 : 436 ; 985. 
 Arena, 31 : 583-7. 
 Ind., 55 : 2560-2. 
 
196 CASES TRIED IN INTERNATIONAL COURTS 
 
 World's Work 5 : 3038-40. 
 
 N. Amer. 177: 801-11. 
 
 Ind., 61 : 1742-5. 1472-4. 
 
 Revue des Deux Mondes, (Benoist) Jan. i, 1903. 
 
 Intern. Year Book, 1907, 40: 829. 
 
 Ind., 55 : 2373, 2560-2, 2612-16, Editorial 2713-4. 
 
 Ind., 56 : 487-8. 
 3. British Isles, France and Germany vs. Japan. 
 
 Referred by Treaty concluded at Tokyo, August 28, 1902. 
 Question in Dispute : The House Tax in Japan. 
 Decision of the Court given May 22, 1905. 
 
 a. Documents. 
 
 Recueil des Actes et Protocoles concernant le Litige 
 entre L'AUemagne, La France, et La Grande 
 Bretagne, et Le Japon. La Haye, 1904. 
 
 Amer. J. Intern. Law, 1908, vol. 2: 915. 
 
 Japan Weekly Mail, 1905, 43 (Extract). 
 
 Sessional Papers, 1905, vol. GUI, cd. 2583. 
 
 Sessional Papers, 1904, vol. CX, cd. 1810. 
 
 b. References. 
 
 Annual Register, 1902, 393. 
 Japan Weekly Mail, 1905, 555-6. 591. 
 London Times, 1902, 632. 
 London Times, 1904, 613 ; 757. 
 London Times, 1905, 323. 
 
 4. British Isles vs. France. 
 
 Referred by Arbitral Compromise at London, October 13, 
 
 1904. 
 Question in Dispute : The "Boutres" (native craft) of Mus- 
 cat. 
 Decision of Court given August 8, 1905. 
 a. Documents. 
 
 Recueil des Actes et Protocoles concernant le Dif- 
 ferend entre La France et La Grande Bretagne a 
 propos des boutres de Mascate. La Haye, 1905. 
 Amer. J. Inter. Law, 1908, vol. 2 : 923. 
 h. References. 
 
 Amer. J. Intern. Law, 1904, vol. i : 6. 
 Sessional Papers, 1905, vol. GUI, cd. 2380. 
 Sessional Papers, 1906, vol. CXXVI, cd. 2736. 
 
 5. France vs. Germany. 
 
 Referred by Protocol signed at Berlin, August 10, 1908. 
 Question in Dispute: The Deserters at Casablanca. 
 Decision of Court given May 2, 1909. 
 
IpS CASES TRIED IN INTERNATIONAL COURTS 
 
 a. Documents. 
 
 (Published by the Bureau International de la Cour 
 Permanente; d'Arbitrage. Out of print; not in 
 the library.) 
 
 b. References. 
 
 Intern. Year Book 1909, 36. 
 
 Amer. J. Intern. Law, vol. 3 : 17, 698, 946. 
 
 Outlook 92 : 305-6. 
 
 Intern. Year Book 1908, 263. 
 
 6. Norway vs. Sweden. 
 
 Referred by a Convention between the two countries, March 
 
 14, 1908. 
 Question in Dispute: The delimitation of the maritime 
 
 frontier. 
 Decision of the Court given October 23, 1909. 
 
 a. Documents. 
 
 (Published by the Bureau International. Out of 
 print ; not in the library. ) 
 
 b. References. 
 
 London Times, 1909, 692. 
 
 Intern. Year Book, 1909, •36. 
 
 Cambridge Modern History, vol. XII, 289. 
 
 7. British Isles vs. United States. 
 
 Referred by Agreement, January 27, 1909. 
 Question in Dispute : The Newfoundland Fisheries. 
 Decision of Court given September 7, 1910. 
 
 a. Documents. 
 
 North Atlantic Coast Fisheries Tribunal of Arbitra- 
 tion, The Hague, 1910. 
 
 Minutes of Conference, U. S. and Gt. Brit., Jan. 
 191 1. Treaty series, 553, Dept. of State. 
 
 b. References. 
 
 Amer. J. Intern. Law, 1908, 327. 
 
 Amer. J. Intern. Law, vol. 2 : 823. 
 
 Amer. J. Intern. Law, Supplement 3 : 168 ; 176. 4. 
 
 Amer. J. Intern. Law, 4: 903. 
 
 Intern. Year Book, 1907, 42; 552. 
 
 Intern. Year Book, 1908, 363. 
 
 Intern. Year Book, 1909, 36. 
 
 Intern. Year Book, 1910, 43 ; 44. 
 
 New Eng. Mag., 43 : 265-76. 
 
 R. of R's., 41 718. 
 
 Ind., 69:8; 669. 
 
 Cambridge Modern History, vol. XII, 617. 
 
 Chaut., 60 : 326-7. 
 
 Lake Mohonk Report, 191 1,. 242. 
 
200 CASES TRIED IN INTERNATIONAL COURTS 
 
 8. United States vs. Venezuela. 
 
 Referred to arbitration, February 13, 1909. 
 Question in Dispute: The Orinoco Steam Navigation Com- 
 pany. 
 Decision of Court given October 25, 1910. 
 
 a. Documents. 
 
 Protocoles des Seances du Tribunal d' Arbitrage 
 . . . au sujet . . . de la Compagnie des bateaux 
 a vapeur "Orinoco," La Haye, 1910. 
 
 b. References. 
 
 Intern. Year Book, 1910, 44. 
 
 Outlook, 96 : 886. 
 
 Amer. J. Intern. Law, 3 : 224. 
 
 9. British Isles vs. France. 
 
 Referred by Protocol signed October 25, 1910. 
 Question in Dispute : Case of Savarkar. 
 Decision of Court given February 24, 191 1. 
 a. Documents. 
 
 Protocoles des Seances et Sentence du Tribunal 
 
 d'Arbitrage, La Haye, 191 1. 
 London Times, 191 1, 124; 171 (Extract). 
 h. References. 
 
 Outlook 97 :S23. 
 
 London Times, 191 1, 27; 44. 
 
 10. Russia vs. Turkey. 
 
 Referred by Compromise, August 5, 1910. 
 Question in Dispute : Claims for indemnity for losses in Rus- 
 so-Turkish War, 1877-8. 
 
 1 1 . Italy vs. Peru. 
 
 Question in Dispute : Financial Claim. 
 
 12. Bolivia vs. Peru. 
 
 Protocol on boundary status quo reported March 31, 1911. 
 "The matter will be submitted to the Hague Arbitration Tri- 
 bunal." — (New York Sun, April i, 1911.) 
 References. 
 
 Bull. Intern. Bureau Am. Rep. vol. 30, 152. 
 
 13. Dominican Republic vs. Haiti. 
 
 Subject of Dispute : Boundary. 
 
 According to French Newspaper "Amer'' has been submitted 
 to Hague. 
 References. 
 
 Pan-American Union, 191 1, 937; 1073. 
 
202 CASES TRIED IN INTERNATIONAL COURTS 
 
 Before the Central American Court of Justice. 
 
 1. Honduras vs. Guatemala and Salvador, December 19, 1908. 
 
 a. Documents. 
 
 Bull. Intern. Bureau Amer. Rep. vol. 28 : 267. 
 
 b. References. 
 
 Intern. Year Book, 1909, 36. 
 Intern. Year Book, 1910, 46. 
 
 2. Diaz, citizen of Nicaragua vs. Guatemala, 1909. 
 
 Dismissed on ground that Diaz should have resorted to local 
 courts in Guatemala. 
 References. 
 
 Intern. Year Book, 1910, 46. 
 Amer. J. Intern. Law, April, 1909. 
 
204 SHRINKAGE OF THE EARTH 
 
 XXVIII. THE SHRINKAGE OF THE EARTH. 
 
 (Krehbiel) 
 
 (This lecture, which proposes to show the virtual decrease 
 in the size of the earth through the improvement of transporta- 
 tion and communication is based chiefly upon the references 
 given below. A mimeographed syllabus will be issued at the time 
 the lecture is given). 
 
 References 
 
 Sundbarg: Apergus. . . . Tables 270-286. 
 
 Huber: Entwickelung des modernen Verkehrs. 
 
 Gotz : Verkehrswege in Dienste des Welthandels. 
 
 Album de Statistique Graphique, Plate 28. 
 
 Dodge: Great Captain Series. Appendices. 
 
 Journal de la Societe de Statistique de Paris, 1909, 14-20. 
 
 Mummenhoff : Der Nachrichtendienst zwischen Deutschland und 
 
 Italien in 16 Jahrhundert. 
 Voyages au Temps jadis en France, Angleterre, Allemagne, 
 
 Suisse, Italic, et Sicilie. (Hopkins Railway Library.) 
 Wolff: Transportation. 
 V. d. Borght : Das Verkehrswesen. 
 Andree: Der Weltverkehr und seine Mittel. 
 Jusserand: Wayfaring Life. 
 
 Cheyney : European Background to American History, 22-78. 
 Beazley : The Dawn of Modern Geography. 
 Hartmann : Entwickelungsgeschichte der Posten. 
 Heyd: Geschichte des Levanthandels im Mittelalter. 
 
 Statistics Upon the Increase of Communication 
 
 Telegraph. 
 
 Statistical Abst. of U. S. 1910, p. 257 (1866-1910). 
 
 Sundbarg, 1908, p. 384-5 (1891-1906). 
 
 Chicago Daily News Al., 1911, p. 59 (1850-1905, by decades). 
 
 Commercial Year Book, 1900, p. 505 (1867-99, by 5 yr. 
 periods). 
 
 Ency. Britannica, (11 ed.) p. 527 (1870-1907). 
 
 Statistical Abst. of Gt. Britain, 1908, p. 306 (for all Europe). 
 Cables. 
 
 Chicago Daily News AL, 1911, p. 59 (1850-1905, by decades). 
 
 World Almanac, 1911, p. 299 (for whole world). 
 
 Commercial Year Book, 1900, p. 147-8. 
 
 American Year Book, 1910, p. 260. 
 
2d6 shrinkage of the earth 
 
 Railroads. 
 
 Sundbarg: Apergus, 1908, pp. 368-9 (1825-1910, whole 
 world). 
 
 Statist. Abst. of U. S., 1910, pp. 734-8 (all countries). 
 Postal Statistics. 
 
 Sundbarg, 1908, pp. 380-2. 
 
 Statist. Abst. of U. S. 1910, p. 255 (1879-date). 
 
 Ency. Britannica (11 ed.) vol. 22, p. 179 (1839-1870, Gt. Br.) 
 
 Amer. Al. and Yr. Bk., 1904, p. 522 (1790-1904, U. S.). 
 Telephone Statistics. 
 
 (None found to be satisfactory.) 
 
 Statistics Upon the Increase of Travel. 
 
 Sundbarg: Aperqus . . . 1908, p. 379. 
 
 Poore: Railroad Manual, 1910, Introd. cvii; 1899, ix. 
 
 Statistisches Jahrbuch d. deutschen Reiches, 1901, 46; 
 
 1909, 115. 
 General Railway Reports, Great Britain, 1871-1882, pp. 12, 
 
 14; 15; 17-19; 43. 
 Mulhall: Statistics, 573 (Sea travel). 
 Statistical Abstract (Great Britain), 1901, 205. 
 Album de Statistiqup Graphique. 
 
2o8 
 
 COSMOPOLITANISM 
 
 XXIX. COSMOPOLITANISM. 
 (Krehbiel) 
 
 A. Private International activities. 
 
 I. Of individuals or national organizations. 
 
 Travel, study (Rhodes scholars; exchange professors). 
 Interchange of visits by legislators, mayors, prime 
 
 ministers, rulers, commercial bodies, etc. 
 Buying and selling in the world market. 
 Investment in foreign bonds or enterprises. 
 British Capital invested abroad. 
 (Economist, Feb. 20, 1909. — Webb, Diet, of Statis- 
 tics, 81.) 
 
 British Capital Invested in Colonies and Dependen- 
 cies. 
 
 India £470,000,000 
 
 Australasia .... 321,000,000 
 
 Canada 305,000,000 
 
 Transvaal 220,000,000 
 
 Cape Colony . . 98,000,000 
 
 Rhodesia, E. Af . 59,000,000 
 
 Natal 30,000,000 
 
 Others 63,000,000 
 
 Total £1,566,000,000 
 
 British Capital Invested in Foreign Countries. 
 
 United States . £485,000,000 
 
 Japan 115,000,000 
 
 Argentine .... 254,000,000 
 
 Brazil 101,000,000 
 
 Egypt 97,000,000 
 
 Mexico 51,000,000 
 
 Ger'y, France, 
 
 Sweden, Nor- 
 
 way,Belgium, 
 
 Denmark . . . 48,000,000 
 
 China 47,000,000 
 
 Russia 45,000,000 
 
 Balkan States 
 incl. Turkey 
 
 and Greece. 39,000,000 
 Italy, Switzer- 
 land and Aus- 
 tria 26,000,000 
 
 Spain 25,000,000 
 
 Uruguay .... 25,000,000 
 
 Cuba 21,000,000 
 
 Chile 42,000,000 
 
 Others 63,000,000 
 
 Total foreign investment £1,484,000,000 
 
 Grand total, £3,050,000,000 
 This is about one-fifth of the total capital of the United Kingdom. 
 
2IO COSMOPOLITANISM 
 
 2. Organized international activity. (La Vie Internationale, 
 1908-9-, 537-1282.) 
 A great many interests have international organizations, 
 meetings, and publications. To illustrate this the 
 following are selected. (The names of the asso- 
 ciations are here given in a convenient form.) 
 Libraries. 
 
 International Institute of Bibliography. 
 International Catalogue of Scientific Literature. 
 International Congress of Librarians. 
 Press. 
 
 Renter's News Service. 
 International Press Association. 
 Legislature. 
 
 Interparliamentary Union (1889). One fifth 
 of the members of national legislatures are 
 members of it. 
 Peace. 
 
 International Peace Congresses (i843f). 
 International Friendship Societies. 
 Ethical and Philanthropic. 
 
 International Union of Ethical Societies. 
 International Congress against Immoral Lit- 
 erature. 
 International Congress against Intemperance. 
 International Congress of Protectors of Ani- 
 mals. 
 International Union against Vivisection. 
 International Congress against Duelling. 
 Red Cross Society. 
 Friends of Young Women. 
 Religion. 
 
 World's Parliament of Religions. 
 
 Eucharistic Congresses. 
 
 Salvation Army. 
 
 Young Men's Christian Association. Over 
 
 800,000 members. 
 Young Women's Christian Association. 
 Sociology. 
 
 International Institute of Sociology. 
 International Institute of Statistics. 
 International Colonial Institute. 
 British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society. 
 International Penitentiary Commission. 
 
212 COSMOPOLITANISM 
 
 Labor. 
 
 International Socialist Bureau, 
 international Federation for Sunday Observ- 
 ance. 
 International Association for the Legal Pro- 
 tection of Laborers. 
 International Co-operation. ( See its Year Book, 
 1910.) 
 Law and Government. 
 
 International Law Association. 
 International Alliance for Woman Suffrage. 
 International Association of Lawyers. 
 Insurance. 
 
 International Congress of Actuaries. 
 Education. 
 
 Universal Federation of Christian Students. 
 Cosmopolitan Club, affiliated with Corda 
 Fratres, 1911. 
 (Various Congresses have been held.) 
 Commerce and Transportation. 
 
 International Railway Association. 
 International Marine Association. 
 Philology. 
 
 (International Languages: Volapiik, Langue 
 Bleue, Ido, Esperanto.) 
 Sciences ; pure and applied. 
 
 (Many of them have international organiza- 
 tions.) 
 International Medical Association against War. 
 Geography. 
 
 International Congress of Geography. 
 International Geodesy. (Plans a world map.) 
 International Polar Commission. 
 Fine Arts. 
 
 International Institute of Public Art. 
 Sports. 
 
 Olympic Games. 
 
 International Aeronautical Federation. 
 B. Public International Activities. 
 I. Non-political. 
 
 Universal Postal Union (1878). 
 
 Over 6q states are members. Headquarters Berne. 
 Universal Telegraph Union (1875). 
 
 About 30 members. 
 Convention Concerning the Metric System (1875). 
 About 23 states have accepted it. 
 
214 COSMOPOLITANISM 
 
 Union for the Protection of Industrial Property (1883). 
 
 About 19 members. Headquarters Berne. 
 Union for the Protection of Works of Literature and 
 Art (1886). 
 About 15 states are members. Headquarters Berne. 
 Union Concerning Railway Transports and Freights 
 (1890). 
 9 states are members. Headquarters Berne. 
 Union for the Publication of Customs Tariffs (1890). 
 
 About 30 members. Headquarters Brussels. 
 Phylloxera Conventions (1878, 1881). 
 
 12 members. 
 Convention Concerning Private International Law 
 (1893, 1896, 1900). 
 About 15 members. (Library contains documents of 
 first and third meetings.) 
 Sanitary Conventions. 
 
 Cholera (1893, 1894, 1899). 
 Plague (1897, 1900). 
 Monetary Unions. 
 
 Latin Monetary Union (1865). 5 members. 
 Scandinavian Monetary Union (1873). 3 members. 
 Universal Monetary Conference (1892I. 
 
 17 states represented : no practical result. 
 Convention for the Suppression of the Slave-trade 
 
 (1892). 
 Convention for the Preservation of Wild Animals in 
 Africa (1900). 
 7 signatories. 
 Convention Concerning Bounties on Sugar (1902). 
 
 About 12 members. Headquarters Brussels. 
 Others of the same kind relating to trade in arms, spirit- 
 uous liquors (1899, 1906), the use of international 
 rivers, canals and waterways generally, protec- 
 tion of ocean cables, radiotelegraphy, rules of 
 traffic at sea, international signal code, fishing on 
 the high seas, protection of travelers, exchange, 
 exchange of documents, agriculture (1905), 
 scientific expeditions. World's prime meridian 
 (1884), "white slavery" (1904), etc. 
 2. Political (at least in some measure). 
 
 o. Inter-governmental conferences, congresses, treaties, 
 etc. 
 Final Act of the Congress of Vienna (1815). 
 "Concert." 
 
2l6 COSMOPOLITANISM 
 
 The Holy Alliance (1815). 
 
 Protocol of the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818). 
 Treaty of London (1831). Neutralization of Bel- 
 gium. 
 Declaration of Paris (1856). 
 Geneva Convention (1864). Treatment of wounded 
 
 in war. 
 Treaty of London (1867). Neutralization of Lux- 
 emburg. 
 Declaration of St. Petersburg (1868). Projectiles 
 
 in war. 
 Congress of Berlin (1878). Near Eastern Ques- 
 tion. 
 General Act of the Congo Conference (1885). 
 Treaty of Constantinople (1888). Suez Canal neu- 
 tral. 
 Pan-American Conferences {1889-90; 1901, 1906, 
 
 1910). 
 Final Act of The Hague Peace Conference (1899). 
 Treaty of Washington (1901). Neutralizes Pana- 
 ma Canal. 
 Algeciras Conference (1906). 
 Central American Conferences (1906, 1907). 
 The Second Hague Conference (1907). 
 The Declaration of London (1909). Private prop- 
 erty at sea, etc. 
 (And many others). 
 b. Intergovernmental Administration. 
 Intervention. 
 
 Austria (Concert ?) in Naples (1821). 
 France (Concert ?) in Spain (1823). 
 Russia, England, France in favor of Greece 
 
 (1829). 
 England, France, Piedmont against Russia 
 
 (1854-6). 
 Europe against Russia (1877-8). Congress of 
 
 Berlin. 
 United States in Cuba (1898). 
 Bureau of American Republics. 
 Central American Bureau. 
 
 Central American Court of Justice (All differ- 
 ences of any nature whatsoever are to 
 be arbitrated by this court). 
 Permanent International Bureau at The Hague. 
 The Hague Tribunal (1899). 
 The International Prize Court (1907). 
 The Court of Arbitral Justice (1907). 
 
2l8 COSMOPOLITANISM 
 
 C. International Conferences etc., summarized. 
 
 1. Number between 1843 ^"d 1910: I977+- 
 
 Within that time their number has steadily in- 
 creased. 
 
 1840-1860 28 international congresses 
 
 1861-1870 69 
 
 1871-1880 150 
 
 1881-1890 295 
 
 1891-1900. .... 64s 
 
 1901-1910 790 
 
 1840-1910 1977 international congresses 
 
 (La Vie Internationale, 1908-9, i. 175.) 
 
 2. Three stages in their history. (La Vie Intern. 1908, i, 
 
 46-7.) 
 
 a. Formation of a scientific organization and the invita- 
 
 tion of foreigners to join it. Originated in Ger- 
 many, about 1823. 
 
 b. Creation of large official organizations. Begun about 
 
 i860. 
 
 c. Formation of independent associations with or with- 
 
 out state aid. Since 1895. 
 
 3. Headquarters. 
 
 a. Some have none. 
 
 b. Fixed : Berne, Brussels, and lately The Hague, favor- 
 
 ites. 
 
 c. Itinerant. 
 
 D. Results. 
 
 1. International life and thought. 
 
 2. Supernational law and administration. 
 
 3. Reduction of national prejudices. 
 
 4. Change of Conceptions of Patriotism "New Patriotism." 
 
 "Above the nations is humanity." — (Goldwin Smith 
 bench at Cornell.) 
 
 5. Schemes of world federation. 
 
 References 
 
 Oppenheim : International Law. 
 
 Bridgman: World Organization. 
 
 Bridgman : The First Book of World Law. 
 
 Trueblood : Federation of the World. 
 
 Farrer: The New Leviathan. 
 
 Crafts : A Primer of the Science of Internationalism. 
 
 Crosby : Constitution for the United States of the World. 
 
 Eykman: Internationalism and the World's Capital. Ind., 61,200. 
 
 Westm. 165; 250 ImperiaHsm, Nationalism, and Internationalism. 
 
 Crawford: United States of Europe. Fortn., 80, 992. 1 
 
220 COSMOPOLITANISM 
 
 Reinsch: International Government. 
 
 Reinsch: World Politics. 
 
 Reinsch: Public International Unions. 
 
 Holt: Dawn of the World's Peace, World's Work, 21, I4i28f. 
 
 La Fontaine: Existing Elements of a Constitution of the United 
 
 States of the World. 
 Spiller: Inter-Racial Problems, 57; 233-260. (Bibliography.) 
 Fried: Pan-Amerika. 
 
 Bulletin of the International Bureau of American Republics. 
 Internoscia: New Code of International Law. 
 Code Internationale publique prepare par E. Amend. 
 Bourgeois, L. : Pour la societe de nations (Le Figaro, 20, XI). 
 Bolce: New Internationalism. 
 
 Year Book of International Co-operation, First Year, 1910. 
 Finance and Commerce. Their Relation to International Good 
 
 Will. (Am. Assoc, for Int. Cone. No. 50.) 
 Hammond: The Business Man's Interest in Peace — Why Not 
 
 Neutralize China? (Maryland Peace Society, No. 8.) 
 
222 MEANS OF ANTAGONIZING' WAR 
 
 XXX. MEANS OF ANTAGONIZING WAR. 
 {Jordan) 
 
 A. Advocates of peace have various projects for accomplishing 
 
 their desire. 
 
 1. Critique of war. (Destructive.) 
 
 2. Agitation against certain kinds of war only. 
 
 3. Limitation of armaments. ' 
 
 The treaty between Chile and Argentine of May 28, 
 1902, provides for a limitation of armaments. It 
 is the only treaty of its kind. 
 
 4. Total disarmament. 
 
 5. Peaceable readjustment of boundaries to remove present 
 
 disputes. 
 
 6. Neutralization of boundaries or countries. 
 
 7. Improving world law. 
 
 Codification. 
 
 Providing for periodical meetings of the world legisla- 
 ture. 
 Increasing the scope of world legislation. 
 
 8. Improving the system of arbitration. 
 
 Increasing the scope of arbitration. Unlimited treaties. 
 Providing for judicial settlement of differences. 
 
 (American Society for the Judicial Settlement of 
 International Disputes, Baltimore.) 
 General treaty of arbitration to be signed by all powers. 
 Inserting a clause in the constitution of countries bind- 
 ing them by their fundamental law to resort to 
 arbitration. 
 This has been done by Brazil (constitution of 1891, 
 article 34) and Venezuela (constitution of 
 1904, article 120). Moch, 61-2. 
 Making arbitration compulsory, by giving some sanc- 
 tion to the mandates of the world court, such as 
 the right to summon disputants, or enjoin them, 
 etc. This is equivalent to establishing a world 
 executive. (See Lecture XXXII.) 
 
 B. Means of promoting peace. 
 
 1. Investigation of the results of war. 
 
 2. Impartial and deliberate investigation of the facts of aii 
 
 international difference before, instead of after, the 
 war. 
 
 3. Publicity of the facts in all disputes. 
 
224 MEANS OF ANTAGONIZING WAR 
 
 4. Organizations and societies. 
 
 5. International activities. 
 
 Travel, trade, foreign investment, world congresses, 
 reciprocity, free trade. 
 
 6. International languages. 
 
 7. Pictures, photographs, cartoons, etc. (Vereschthagin.) 
 
 8. Museums. Lucerne Peace Museum. 
 
 9. Exhibits at expositions, etc. 
 
 10. Bureau of information, to furnish information about war 
 
 and peace to the press, speakers, legislators, schools, 
 etc. 
 
 11. Prizes (Nobel), contests, debates, etc. 
 
 12. Endowments to support peace propaganda. 
 World Peace Foundation, Edwin Ginn, $1,000,000. 
 Carnegie Peace Endowment, Andrew Carnegie, 
 
 $10,000,000. 
 
 13. Propaganda by means of books, journals, pamphlets, 
 
 circulars, calendars, almanacs, cards, lectures, etc. 
 
 14. Petitions. (Eckstein.) 
 
 15. Education (in the schools). (Lecture XXXI.) 
 C. Woman and war. 
 
 1. Sees and concerns herself more about social and economic 
 
 evils; and will want to have these removed in place 
 of indulging in war. 
 
 2. Is less combative by nature than man; is opposed to 
 
 violence. 
 
 3. Is less destructive and wasteful than man. 
 
 4. Often experiences the losses and consequences of war 
 
 more keenly than man. 
 
 5. Her finer nature revolts at brutality and vulgarity every- 
 
 where, and therefore in the army and in barracks. 
 
 6. Suffrage gives her the power to express her opinion 
 
 effectively. 
 Voting without bearing arms. 
 
 7. Woman does not lack courage ; instead she has a kind of 
 
 courage that very few men can equal. 
 
 8. International marriages. 
 
226 MEANS OF ANTAGONIZING WAR 
 
 References 
 
 Frost : Safeguards for Peace : A scheme of state insurance against 
 
 war. 
 Courtney of Penwith : Peace by Justice. 
 Richard: Constitutional Safeguards Against War, Outlook, 84: 
 
 29-32. 
 Brewer: Enforcement of Arbitral Awards, Mohonk Addresses 
 
 (Hale) 104-115. 
 Stein : An International Police to Guarantee the World's Peace. 
 Dumas : Les sanctions de I'arbitrage international. 
 Dumas: De la responsibilite du pouvoir executif consideret 
 
 comme I'une des sanctions de I'arbitrage international. 
 Rashdau: Der Friedensgedanke und die Neutralisierung der 
 
 europaischen Grenzen. Deutsche R. (Dec. 1910.) 
 Neuwirth : Weltcongress und Weltarmee oder Weltfriede. 
 Carnegie: League of Peace, Pop. Sci. 68, 398-424. 
 Independent, 66: 1087-8; 62, 512; 67, 430. 
 Jeffrey: How to Abolish War, Am. Jour. Pol. Sci. i, 492. 
 Polymyer: Observations on Compulsory Arbitration. 
 Photographic History of the Civil War. (Only four volumes is- 
 sued.) 
 Documents Interparliamentaire, No. 5. La limitation convention- 
 
 elle des armaments et I'arbitrage international. 
 D'Estournelles de Constant: Woman and the Cause of Peace. 
 
 (Am. Assoc, for Int. Cone. No. 40.) 
 Suttner : Ground Arms ! 
 
228 EDUCATION FOR PEACE 
 
 XXXI. EDUCATION FOR PEACE. 
 (Krehbiel) 
 
 A. Education (study, travel, reading, etc.), if at all impartial, 
 
 has a tendency to remove bias and prejudices of all kinds. 
 The removal of international and inter-racial prejudices is 
 a proper function of education. 
 
 B. Education for peace should begin with childhood in the home 
 
 and the schools. Boy scouts. 
 
 C. Education may aid the cause of peace by — 
 
 1. Teaching all subjects as honestly as possible. 
 
 2. Admitting the part played by other peoples in civilization. 
 
 3. Discouraging superficial patriotism of the noisy, public 
 
 sort, which stands for "my country right or wrong," 
 and encouraging that patriotism which desires to have 
 one's nation be right, not wrong. 
 
 D. Peace ideals may be inculcated by the method of teaching, or 
 
 by the emphasis placed upon special subjects. 
 
 1. Literature. 
 
 Guarding against the romantic in literature, to prevent 
 
 it from obscuring the truth and giving distorted 
 
 conceptions. 
 Works based on fact may ring false: "Charge of 
 
 the Light Brigade." 
 Works founded on imagination may ring true: A 
 
 Note on Romance, Atlantic M., Aug. 191 1. 
 
 2. Commercial geography. Bringing out the economic in- 
 
 terdependence of the whole earth. 
 
 3. Contemporary politics. 
 
 Showing that the problems of all civilized nations are 
 similar. 
 
 Noting that there is often a distinction between a gov- 
 ernment and the state ; for example, that "Russia" 
 does not connote a homogeneous unity. 
 
 4. The relation of brute force to intellect and the value of 
 
 deliberation and the investigation of facts before, 
 rather than after, a war. 
 
 5. International ethics. Any reflection upon this theme is 
 
 likely to be fruitful for peace. 
 
 6. Chairs of international institutions at colleges and univer- 
 
 sities. 
 
 7. Schools of peace; or peace courses. 
 
230 EDUCATION FOR PEACE 
 
 E. History. 
 
 1. It should try to teach the truth. The truth about the past 
 
 will deprive war of much glamor. 
 The truth about service in the army as a private. 
 The truth about the fruits of war. 
 The frequent failure of war to settle or improve matters-. 
 
 2. Continuity of history should be emphasized. History is 
 
 genetic, not cataclysmic. 
 Results of this conception. 
 
 There is growth in time of peace as well as in war. 
 
 War is not the motive force of progress, but mere- 
 ly the clash of forces resulting from progress. 
 
 Progress does not necessarily mean war, as ideas 
 absolutely subversive of accepted beliefs have 
 made their way without bloodshed: Darwinism. 
 
 The only solid progress is that which comes from 
 sound growth; progress forced by war alone is 
 not lasting. 
 
 Progress in peace versus progress in war. 
 
 3. History should be made more nearly a "biography of 
 
 man." instead of a record of his political doings. 
 Should touch all sides of human endeavor. 
 Should measure the success or expediency of any pro- 
 cedure in terms of all of man's interests, instead 
 of merely in terms of political consequences. A 
 step which has good political consequences, may 
 be bad considered from an economic, social or 
 moral point of view. 
 The objection of time: it is impossible to teach all sides 
 of history in the time allotted to the subject. 
 This does not justify teaching what is untrue. 
 If anything is to be omitted it should be the inter- 
 esting rather than the true. (The reverse has 
 been too common.) 
 
 4. Writers of texts of history have already begun to reduce 
 
 the space given to wars and to increase other matter 
 in proportion. 
 
232 EDUCATION FOR PEACE 
 
 United States History- 
 
 —The War 
 
 OF 1812. 
 
 
 QUACKENBOS ^ HOLMES ^ MONTGOMERY ^ 
 
 Hart* 
 
 Pages in book .... 
 
 458 
 
 323 
 
 36s 
 
 583 
 
 Total pages to war 
 
 218 
 
 123 
 
 145 
 
 "3 
 
 Percentage. . . . 
 
 47-6% 
 
 38% 
 
 39-7% 
 
 19-3% 
 
 Pages to this war . . 
 
 44 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 Percentage 
 
 9.6% 
 
 3-7% 
 
 1.6% 
 
 1-3% 
 
 Detailing maneuvers 
 
 32>4 
 
 SV^ 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 Percentage. . . . 
 
 7% 
 
 1-7% 
 
 1-3% 
 
 ■5% 
 
 Total illustrations 
 
 
 
 
 
 in book 
 
 63 
 
 87 
 
 82 
 
 146 
 
 Illustrations to this 
 
 
 
 
 
 war 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 Percentage 
 
 12.7% 
 
 5-7% 
 
 4-9% 
 
 3-4% 
 
 Total maps in book 
 
 42 
 
 7 
 
 72 
 
 S6 
 
 Maps for this war 
 
 9 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 I 
 
 Percentage 
 
 21.4% 
 
 14-3% 
 
 6.9% 
 
 1.8% 
 
 ^ Quackenbos : Illustrated School History of the United States, 
 
 1 861. 
 ^ Holmes : Sheldon's History of the United States, 1884. 
 ^ Montgomery : American History, 1896. 
 
 * Hart : Essentials in American History, 1905. 
 
 Greek History — Peloponnesian War, 431-404 B. C. 
 
 Gillie ^ Pinnock ''■ Oman '^ Morey * 
 
 Pages in book .... 475 384 546 353 
 
 Total- to war .... 216 174 319 43^4 
 
 Percentage.... 45.5% 45.3% 58.4% 12.3% 
 
 Pages to this war . . 80 52 ' 126 13 
 
 Percentage 16.8% i3-5% 23.1% 1 i.^% 
 
 Detailing maneuvers 19 19 48 6 
 
 Percentage.... 4% 5% 8.8% 1.7% 
 Total illustrations 
 
 in book o 32 o 97 
 
 Illustrations to this 
 
 war o 4 o I 
 
 Percentage.... 12.5% 1% 
 
 Total maps in book i 2 12 40 
 
 Maps for this war 0245 
 
 Percentage '100% 33-3% 12.5% 
 
 ^ Gillie : History of Ancient Greece, 1843. 
 ^Pinnock: Goldsmith's Greece, 1851. 
 
 ^Oman: History of Greece, 1895. (Oman is a writer on the 
 history of war.) . 
 
 * Morey : Outlines of Greek History, 1903. 
 
234 EDUCATION FOR PEACE 
 
 References 
 
 Seve : Cours d'enseignement pacifiste. 
 
 Gordy: Teaching Peace in the Schools through Instruction in 
 American History (Pamphlet). 
 
 Passy : L'education pacifique. 
 
 Larned: Peace Teaching of History. Atl. M., loi, 114-121. 
 
 Shaler: Natural History of War, Int. Quar. 8, 17-30. 
 
 Sturdee: Teaching of History on War, Westm. Rev. 108, 124-3,1^ 
 
 Hale: Creation of Public Opinion, Mohonk Addresses, 86-94. 
 
 Pollard : Education and International Duty. 
 
 Hull: Swarthmore College Bulletin, 31-36. (37-47). 
 
 Miiller: Pacifistisches Jugendbuch, 84. 
 
 Mead: Peace Teaching in American Schools and Colleges, Out- 
 look 83: 376-382. 
 
 Andrews : Relation of Teachers to the Peace Movement, Educ. 
 Rev. 28: 279-289. 
 
 Report of a Committee of Three appointed by the American 
 Peace Society: The Teaching of History in the Public 
 Schools with Reference to War and Peace, 1906. 
 
 Hart: School Books and International Prejudices. (Am. Assoc, 
 for Int. Concil. No. 38.) 
 
236 WORLD FEDERATION 
 
 XXXII. WORLD FEDERATION. 
 
 (Krehbiel) 
 
 A. Federations have been successful on the whole. 
 
 1. The Achaian League, B. C. 281-146. 
 
 2. The Swiss Confederation, A. D. 1291-date. 
 
 3. The United Provinces, A. D. 1579-1795. 
 
 4. United States, 1789-date. 
 
 5. German Empire, (1866) 1871-date. (Confederation.) 
 
 B. The steady improvement of means of transportation and 
 
 communication has produced a tendency in modern history 
 for nations to draw together, and for human interests in 
 all countries to become alike. 
 Certain acts of states point in the direction of federation. 
 Central American Union. 
 Pan-American Union. 
 
 Similar propositions for other countries are not un- 
 common. 
 
 C. Schemes proposed to compel bellicose nations to keep the 
 
 peace. 
 
 1. Leagues of neutrals, or peace syndicates. (Molinari 258, 
 
 287.) 
 
 2. International protests against war. 
 
 3. Boycott of nations which make war. Refusing to recog- 
 
 nize its officials, its acts, papers, stamps, citizens, ships, 
 goods, declining to trade with it, refusing loans, can- 
 celling bonds and stocks listed at boards of trade, etc. 
 
 4. Pacific blockade. 
 
 5. International police. 
 
 (The last two suggestions imply an international exe- 
 cutive. ) 
 
 D. The world executive. 
 
 i. Character of the executive: no different from executive 
 arrangements known today. 
 
 a. An individual. 
 
 b. A commission. 
 
 2. Source of authority of the executive. 
 
 a. From the several states acting jointly; giving the 
 
 executive the powers of ambassadors. 
 
 b. From the people of the several states ; a true federa- 
 
 tion, making the several states subject to the 
 world executive. 
 
240 PRESENT PEACE WORKERS 
 
 XXXIII. PRESENT PEACE WORKERS. 
 
 (Jordan) 
 
242 APPENDIX 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Peace Periodicals. 
 
 The Arbitrator (London). 
 
 Concord (London). 
 
 Advocate of Peace (Washington). 
 
 The Messenger of Peace (Richmond). 
 
 Peace and Goodwill (Wisbech). 
 
 The Cosmopolitan Student ( Madison). 
 
 The Herald of Peace (London). 
 
 Friedens-warte (Berlin, Vienna, Leipzig). 
 
 Volkerfriede (formerly "Friedensblatter). (Esslingen.) 
 
 La Paix par Le Droit (Paris). 
 
 Etats-Unis d'Europe (Berne). 
 
 La Paix (Geneva). 
 
 Revue de La Paix (Paris). 
 
 La Vita Internazionale (Milan). 
 
 Vrede door Recht (Hague). 
 
 Fredsbladet (Copenhagen). 
 
 Fredsf anan ( Stockholm ) . 
 
 Fredstidende ( Copenhagen ) . 
 
 Wainmoinen (Tampere, Finland). 
 
 See La Fontaine: Bibliographie, p. I28f.) 
 
 Fiction, and the like. 
 
 Suttner, Bertha von: Ground Arms! (Lay Down Your Arms.) 
 Tolstoi : War and Peace. 
 Zola: The Downfall. 
 Gribble: The Dream of Peace. 
 ' Crosby: Captain Jinks, Hero. 
 Wells : In the Days of the Comet. 
 Sturge: The Patriot. 
 Crane: The Red Badge of Cotirage. 
 Andreiefi: The Red Laugh. 
 Buchanan: The Shadow of the Sword. 
 Schreiner, Olive: Trooper Peter Halket pf Mashonaland. 
 Decle: Trooper 3809. 
 Erckmann-Chatrain : The Conscript. 
 
244 APPENDIX 
 
 Tolstoi: Sevastopol. 
 
 Wiegand and Schauerman : The Wages of War. Poet 'Lore, 1908. 
 
 Comfort: Routledge Rides Alone. 
 
 Ular; A. : Die Zwergenschlacht. 
 
 Severine: A Sainte-Helene. 
 
 Stefane-Pol: Vers L'Avenir. 
 
 Richet: Fables et Recits Pacifiques. 
 
 Biography. 
 
 Peace Year Book. Appendix. 
 
 (A "Who's Who" in the peace movement is preparing.) 
 
• H ^ 
 
 : is'-' 
 
 = P 
 
 W 
 
 W « H 
 « W " 
 
 •» M < 
 
 H W K 
 W H f 1 
 
 K W , 
 
 W ^ J 
 
 iM Q < 
 
 I? S S 
 
 2 
 
 
 Q 
 
 S < 
 
 gu 
 Q « 
 
 w 
 
 PL, 
 N / — V 
 
 •^ ^ z 
 
 H 2 o 
 
 1-1 HH K 
 
 fd i-l 
 
 M 2 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 00 
 
 ON 
 
 VO 
 
 iNroi-iMi-iMc^<r;oi'-'-5i- u-)0)->i-i-i 
 
 w 0) 
 
 OOOOOOOOOOOOO 
 rC'^OsfClN.t^M rxfO rcOO O^OO 
 fCVO_ ■>^oq_00 too <M_ ro J^\0 i-<„MD 
 
 ds^oo cfodoo" c^'vo'od'oo' t^cxT i-T 
 q\o_ Tf ^ js.00^ "t Q, •> "^^^ '^.^- 
 
 txod'oo" w" t-^VD ds " -^oo" d ro M 
 OOC^ MCOn 1-1 "00 VO 
 
 Q O O O 
 00 00 ro O 
 
 ■ 00 '^ 1-1 
 
 N ^O 
 re ro P^^ 
 
 vo" ro -^ d"vO oT 
 
 00 f^ -^ 0) -^^vo 
 *> "^ "3 Q, "? 
 o" "^ rC i-T VO 
 
 ■^ lOOO "O roc^ CNfOO\lN.toO Osi-i r^io^o tovoQ^ 
 
 !M_ lo (v) o -^ looq o q\ fo ■* up p» i^.oq p) 
 
 ' i-I ■ i-i r«S i-< oi i-i CO "' N uS m' N pi pi 
 
 
 VO VO tN, 1^ M i^vo VO O " Tl-<r)<s) mOO -Tt-^rMoO 'X' t^OO 
 PO PO 1-1 t<1 " LDOO OS O N "^CO O t^ rc M -^ crOO VO Q Q 
 
 oo_^ir)Oio^t>.tN.qO'^ixq\ixPoi-<_poo_i-i f^'^^'^", 
 •N^ CO lo i-T t5 '^ of o" dsvo" lo t<oo''vo'' m" o''vo'" pf pf "^ r^ pT 
 
 coo t^sPTJioOvtxP^ Qvo OsO rn O ■^■'l-rO'+O ^ovo P) 
 °^^. '^'^'~>'t^-"?'>^'^^ ^-^ '-^ '^°°. '^'^^ '^ "It Q, 
 " vO pf m' pfvo' o" vnod" -^-vo" ds Lo ^vo" lovo" pfvo" Pf o" t~C 
 PiJ^Osi-iiO'^i-' t^OM.Pl "ON -* rcOO VO P) 
 
 1-1 P) MM 
 
 OvOOO 0\0\0\0\0\0 
 0"00000- 
 0^ ON On ON 0\ Ov ON 
 
 0\0 OvO QnOnO On OvOO 00 0\ i On 
 
 omO"OOi-iOooo goo o 
 
 OnOnOvOvOvOnOnOnOnOvOvOvO On 
 
 _ ON 
 
 ON M 
 
 " w lOOvQVOVO ONtN,lOCOP) ■'tPOt^t^lOl-i M -*ioio 
 
 povo O t^vnro-*0\P)vo pom m O lOO t% -^ m f«o O -^ 
 lo IN vo_^ P)^ "^^^ 't'^ "^ "3 ". ^_^ ^» "^ Q, "? ". "'t Q, " '^„ 
 
 i-T Ttvo" o" m" po d d ^ pf CO «" PC d\ ds tC o' oo" lo t^; to lo 
 
 VO O 1-1 CO COOO O P) fx loOO vO ui o OstxONOst^iriP) P) 
 OOVO OnOnOsOntJ-i-ivO m roiOP) popjOO I^vo VO O t^ co 
 
 CO tN M 
 
 PI 00 O 
 
 O PI VO 
 
 48- 
 
 co On i^ t^oo t-^00 r^ '^oo 1-1 PI rx Tj- looo oo co co 
 
 PI VO P) iri CO M ui two 00 lO O lo ON tx OsvO VO vo 
 
 covo^ lo p) M 00 Lo pq 00 "^^^ " o "_oq qvo 
 CO m" '^ pf m" po in i-T 
 
 P) m CO OsOO P) P< 00 M 00 O POOO 00 1^00 00 COOsOOVO M 
 ■^ " CO p P^ 0\ POvq PI toiOMOO -^OsOscoPI OOO O ON 
 
 M vd pi lo pi 1-i pi uS pi d " ds K. ts, lo d\ fv d d "^ 1-H d\ 
 M P) 00 1*00 P) t%P) ONCOTi-u-)Pof^t%iOM mmpq csioo 
 
 «5- " '"' " 
 
 O 
 
 ON 
 00 
 
 o 
 P)^ 
 
 -4-> 
 
 ri 
 
 -4-1 
 
 m 
 
 -a 
 
 o 
 o 
 p) 
 
 oo" 
 
 IT) 
 
 O 
 O 
 
 pT 
 
 o 2 
 
 lo m 
 
 PO 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 in 
 
 o o . o 
 
 OOO 
 
 LO O . O 
 
 CO ■ Tj- ■ P) M . VO 
 
 PO ■ VO ■ Os in • On 
 
 PO ■ 00 ; vd in ■ pi 
 
 ON . ^ . t^M .VO 
 
 PI . VO . p< PI . -* 
 
 -:^ CO 
 
 VO in 
 
 00 PO 
 
 •00 
 
 'VO 
 
 . O 
 
 O 
 
 .00 
 
 ■ d 
 
 ■ m 
 
 O O 
 O O 
 O 00 
 O'vo" 
 P) 
 
 m N .00 
 
 l%00 PO 
 
 t^ PO . tN 
 
 . VO • VO O 
 
 i in • m PO 
 
 ! i^i ! ds d 
 
 , O . VO PO 
 
 , pn . 00 O 
 
 o 
 
 be 
 C 
 
 d 5 
 
 M Ji 
 
 
 1? « S 
 
 Nt3 
 . « 0) 
 
 ca w 3 "C 
 
 
 S 
 c 
 
 -"^S^ 
 
 
 W 
 
 
 : be 
 . c 
 
 . 3 
 
 CO 
 
 in 
 
 00 
 
 ■ o 
 
 : i< 
 
 VO 
 vo" 
 
 00 
 
 PJ^ 
 pT 
 
 PO 
 ON 
 
 o" 
 o 
 
 m 
 
 CO 
 
 On 
 
 OS 
 '^ 
 
 pi 
 P) 
 
 CO 
 CO 
 
 x^ 
 
 ds 
 i-t 
 f^ 
 vs 
 VO 
 ^ 
 
 PI 
 
 CO 
 
 IS. 
 
 d 
 
 VO 
 
 in 
 
 OS 
 
 vd 
 PI 
 
 3 3 
 
 <L1 n) .2 
 <J P u 
 
 £ S 3-3.5 
 
 c 
 
 & 
 
 3 
 
 ni rt 
 bo S3 
 
 pq<l 
 
 3 
 <u 
 O 
 
 !W 
 
 G en" 3 
 O iS O 
 
 ■ H 
 
 i.SMvd 
 
 a.3 a "I 
 !> — , ■* 
 
 Ss8s„ o 
 
 M l-* W 
 
 - ^1 J; o 
 
 aj V Q'w, 
 
 "3^"^i^ 
 
 ni Os.S^vO 
 p w 4^ H 
 
 55 I. 2U . 
 
 oj o rL_ a 
 
 c/] 
 
 u Os 
 3 tN 
 
 "3 *^ r 
 
 i5 o c" ^^ 
 
 w ON c J^ 
 
 =« o 
 
 M-i 00 
 
 3-^ag 
 
 O lll-^ - M 
 
 •n u «-« 
 
 I—! 
 
 X. 
 
 X 
 3 
 cil 
 
 e 
 o 
 
 T5 
 a 
 
 u 
 
 _ U „-Q 
 
 nj O rt '^ 
 — 11-- Ji 
 
 3 '^ y i*^ 
 
 -C ONnJ 
 
 ^ o a 
 
 ^"•§ . " 
 •S- ^vdii 
 
 •Sic W • 
 . !» « .11 
 
 >;s „-« ON 3 
 -° "rt .2 £.2" 
 V 3 P-l .2 
 
 •So yi3 
 
 Si & 
 Is 
 
 Osl 
 
 TO M 
 
 •. o 
 "o i) in. 
 
 is 
 
 If 
 
 Si 
 
 c/53 
 
 S " * 
 
VM 
 
 ) » 
 
 C 1 
 
 >t^ >,v 
 
 >>^y 
 
 i^.v