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The Beginnings of Public Education 
 in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 Study of Secondary Schools in Relation to the 
 State Literary Fund 
 
 BT 
 
 A. J. MOERISON 
 
 [Issued by the State Board of Education as a Report 
 
 Introductory to the Series of Annual Reports of the 
 
 Superintendent of Public Instruction.] 
 
 RICHMOND: 
 Uavis Bottom, Superintendent op Public Printing 
 1917. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education 
 in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 Study of Secondary Schools in Relation to the 
 State Literary Fund 
 
 BY 
 A. J. MORRISON 
 
 [Issued by the State Board of Education as a Report 
 
 Introductory to the Series of Annual Reports of the 
 
 Superintendent of Public Instruction.] 
 
 RICHMOND: 
 
 Davis Bo'^ m, Sttpeeintendent of Pdbi,ic Pmntino 
 
 1917. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 This investigation makes no pretensions to be exhaustive. It would 
 require a very long time to make plain the details (method and personnel) 
 of the system shown here in sketch. The compiler, at the end of his task, 
 finds that he has worked with two main purposes — to bring out represent- 
 ative facts as regards the Academy period of the educational history of 
 a State,* [Part II] ; and to assemble for that period illustrative docu- 
 ments, legislative, critical, and miscellaneous, showing what the ideas 
 were within the State as touching its educational needs and accomplish- 
 ments, with reference to secondary schools particularly, [Part I]. But 
 where there were hardly any public schools, only public schooling in pri- 
 vate schools, to get the perspective for the Academy it has been necessary 
 to trace the development somewhat of public schooling in the State. 
 
 The subject is complicated in a way, but really it is simple enough. 
 What have been the few changes within the State, during the period, in 
 the ideas held as to community education? The people are the State. 
 What the people have done the State has done ; and it is useless to decry 
 the old methods which were biit phases of the State. When shall we 
 come by the ideal of an educated State of the democratic cast? 
 
 For "Virginia, restriction of investigation to the period before 1861 
 is apt besides, because until ai'ound that year the State showed a more 
 marked diversity of character, its territory extending from the Atlantic 
 ocean to the Ohio river, and it is of interest to know what was said by 
 its two- voices : that of the mountains and that of the sea. 
 
 * The Academy period of American education, according to Brown, was from 1776 to 1860. 
 The American High School, New York, 1913, p. 2. 
 
Part I. — Documentary 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Introduction 7-16 
 
 1779. A Bill for the more general diffusion of knowledge 17-lS 
 
 1785. Letter of Thomas Jefferson to John Banister, Junior 19-20 
 
 1786. Education in Virginia 20-21 
 
 1796. An Act to establish Public Schools 22-24 
 
 1809. Dec. 4. Message of Governor Tyler 24-25 
 
 Dec. 15. Establishment of the Literary Fund 25 
 
 1814. Letter from Thomas Jefferson to Peter Carr 25-27 
 
 1816. Report of the President and Directors of the Literary Fund.. 27-30 
 
 Letter of President Smith, of William and Mary College, on a 
 
 system of public education 30-32 
 
 1817. A Bill providing for the establishment of Primary Schools, 
 
 Academies, Colleges, and an University 32-34 
 
 Letter from Thomas Jefferson to Joseph C. Cabell 34-36 
 
 Articles in the Christian Monitor 35-37 
 
 1818. An Act appropriating part of the Literary Fund 37 
 
 Article by John Holt Rice 37-38 
 
 1819. Education in "Virginia 38-40 
 
 1821. An Act providing for Academies 40 
 
 1822. Articles by John Holt Rice 40-46 
 
 1823. Defence of the Common Schools 46-47 
 
 1824. Statement of John Holt Rice 47 
 
 1825. Statement of a School Commissioner 4S 
 
 1827. Old and New Virginia 49-53 
 
 1829. Act for establishing District Free Schools 53 
 
 1831-1835. The Institute of Education of Hampden Sidney College.. 54-57 
 
 1839. Randolph Macon College Normal Department 57 
 
 1841. Acts of Assembly 58 
 
 Education in Virginia 58-61 
 
 1842. The Virginia Military Institute a Normal School by Law 62 
 
 1843. Message of Governor McDowell 62-64 
 
 1845. The Richmond Meeting 64-66 
 
 Message of Governor McDowell 67-68 
 
 1846. A System of Public Education 68-72 
 
 1847. Address before Virginia Historical Society 73 
 
 1850. Address by John R. Thompson 73-77 
 
 1856. An act to increase the number of State students at the Uni- 
 
 versity of Virginia 77 
 
 1857. The University and the Colleges 77-80 
 
 1858. The University and the Schools 80-82 
 
 1860. Status of the year 82 
 
 Summary, with respect to the workings of the Literary Fund. . 83-90 
 
 Appendix: biographical items 90-95 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 Before 1776 in Virginia there were very few ideals and there was 
 very little legislation in regard to educational matters. But from what 
 legislation there was had come a well equipped and well endowed col- 
 lege, and what ideals there were led to a pretty thorough culture among 
 those who were considered as having any concern with culture, to employ 
 the language of that time. For more than a century and a half, Virginia 
 had been a tobacco colony, drawing to itself many people of good tradi- 
 tions and sound heads, who by the year 1776, had organized a "Little- 
 England" in a new world. From the founding in 1607 there had been 
 a great deal to do, severe work of many kinds, and although the Eights 
 of Man had not been greatly bruited in the process, it is unquestionable 
 that the principle was never much obscured, as the times were. There 
 was opportunity, and many a man who could not 'trace liiiuself far back 
 in the annals of England,' was able to establisli himself on the soil of the 
 colony, and 'found his family' in the conventional way. The business 
 of the colony had to be performed by many persons, and participation in 
 it was fair training for the wits.* The Church was there, and if you had 
 a mind for Latin and Greek and the Mathematics, you need not go 
 denied. The Law was a disciplinarian in many forms, as is plain enough 
 from the records preserved. England was close to every man, the exam- 
 ple of England was before men's eyes, the machinery was moved from 
 England, too much so the people came to believe in the end. 
 
 In 1776, Virginia set up machinery of its own, necessarily of no 
 brand-new device. The Virginians engaged in the work were men of 
 sense and courage. They had plans enough, but they could not do every- 
 thing at once. As Jefferson remarked, "The abuses of monarchy had so 
 filled all the space of political contemplation, that we imagined every- 
 thing republican which was not monarchy. We had not yet penetrated 
 to the mother principle, that 'governments are republican only in propor- 
 tioil as they embody the will of their people, and execute it.' Hence our 
 first constitutions had really no leading principle in them."t It was 
 JefEerson's idea, when he came to assist in the revision of the laws of 
 Virginia, that if the people were given the chance, they would take an 
 education. His bill on the subject is proof that from the year 1779 the 
 facts were understood in Virginia — that what the State needed was a 
 system of public education, so designed that all freemen should share 
 
 * cf. Mair's Bookkeeping Methodized. Edinburgh. 1763 (editions from 1741 to 1774), Chapter 
 VII, "The Trade of the Tobacco Colonies." This is a book extraordinary for absolute grasp of 
 the subject. Mair was an Ayrshire schoolmaster. 
 
 f Letter to Samuel Kercheval, July 12, 1816. 
 
8 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 I 
 
 in its benefits. The Eights of Man were understood: every child should 
 be assured three years' primary schooling gratis, the school district or 
 hundred being taxed; certain pre-eminent boys should be sent up from 
 the primary schools to the grammar schools embraced in the Bill; and 
 the excellent scholars of the grammar schools should be continued at 
 the College of William and Mary. This was to be a system manda- 
 tory, under overseers "eminent for their learning, integrity, and fidel- 
 ity to the Commonwealth," appointed by County Aldermen chosen 
 by election of the people. In commenting on his Bill, Jefferson added 
 that more indeed was necessary — 'the influence over government must 
 be shared among all the people.' 
 
 Nothing came immediately of this blanket bill of 1779.* Even in 
 the old fields the muses were not to be encouraged, as the posture of 
 affairs was for a good many years after 1779. Adjustments, and read- 
 justments, prejudice, the Constitution, old custom, fear of taxation, 
 meager publicity, the state of the country, many obstacles, obvious and 
 obscure, stood and lay repellant. But from a letter written by Jefferson 
 in 1785 to a young friend in Virginia, it is interesting to observe what 
 . Mr. Jefferson's opinion was in those years regarding the education still 
 afforded in Virginia to those who had long had opportunity. The young 
 man is advised not to come abroad, but to stay at home, where (except 
 in medicine), he should have as good a training for his purposes as he 
 would get anywhere in Europe. It was to be the adviser's care, later, 
 that the young men of Virginia might follow such counsel with no hesi- 
 tancy at all. And it may be guessed that if the adviser had not been so 
 much abroad himself, the result might have been earlier established. 
 
 The attendance at William and Mary for a good many years after 
 1785 was on the average about fifty students. The two other colleges of 
 the State, which Jefferson regarded as little better than grammar schools, 
 added scarcely more than a hundred students, to make a total average 
 of one hundred and fifty boys by the year, pursuing 'college' studies in 
 Virginia from 1786 to 1825. t Those were lean years educationally, reck- 
 oning by the formal standard. In 1796, the Legislature, remembering 
 the Eights of Man, enacted something like the first section of Jefferson's 
 Bill, providing that in the counties, three Aldermen were to be elected, 
 "on the second Monday in May, if it be fair ;" these Aldermen to deter- 
 mine whether it would be expedient to assemble the householders inter- 
 ested in primary schools; if the householders assembled proved to be 
 interested, there was to be primary schooling for three years gratis for 
 all the male and female free children in the district assigned, a tax to be 
 laid on the inhabitants. Biit the county court was to determine when 
 
 * JeSerson assigned reasons in his letter to Priestley of Jan. 27, 1800. 
 t See Calendar of Board Minutes: Hampden Sidney College. 1776-1876. Richmond. 1912. 
 p. 81. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 9 
 
 the election for Aldermen was to be held. So much for primary schools, 
 and nothing whatever for secondary schools, left to community enter- 
 prise often very efficient. Of this system Jefferson remarked in 1816, 
 "The experience of twenty years has proved that no court will ever begin 
 it.* The reason is obvious. The members of the Court are the wealthy 
 . members of the counties; and as the expenses of the schools are to be 
 defrayed by a contribution proportioned to the aggregate of other taxes 
 which every one pays, they consider it as a plan to educate the poor at 
 the expense 'of the rich." 
 
 Therefore it may be said that for forty years after the Eevolution, 
 as before it, if an education was wanted it could be had, but that not 
 until 1818 was there a system of public education in force in Virginia. 
 A great many people wanted an education, and a great many got it, but 
 there was little desire to so shape opinion as to make the demand gen- 
 eral, and there was no desire whatever to have taxes laid for the purposes 
 of schools. 
 
 During the years from 1796 to 1818, for a part of the time opinion 
 was very much alive on the subject of a system of public education. Mr. 
 Jefferson left the White House, March 3rd, 1809, and a few months 
 afterward Governor Tyler sent a message to the General Assembly, in 
 which, (as in the messages of Governor Monroe, 1801 and 1803, and Gov- 
 ernor Cabell, 1806 and 1808), the effects of no system of education in 
 the State were emphasized. The next year, 1810, the act establishing 
 the Literary Fund was passed, appropriating certain escheats, penal- 
 ties, and forfeitures to the encouragement of learning. Naturally, 
 curiosity was' aroused as to how this fund should be applied, and those 
 interested in the idea of a university began their movement. In 1814, 
 Mr. Jefferson, turning to a section of his chart and digest of the world, 
 put together a plan for a system of education which he sent in a letter 
 to Peter Carr, President of the Board of Trustees of the Albemarle 
 Academy, — a paper institution that was to become the University. Jef- 
 ferson was at no time a friend to the existent colleges of Virginia, except 
 at the first, when he was willing to encourage William and Mary. By 
 1814, he would have little to do with any of the old colleges, and his 
 scheme of that year looked to primary schools, a university, and a sys- 
 tem of gymnasien where instruction could be had through the grammar 
 school years and the college period. Indeed, as he drew to the end of 
 his life, Jefferson was determined to get results. A University was what 
 he was driving for, no matter what was excluded. An3'thing in the way 
 was considered non-essential, or put down as an interference. 
 
 On the other hand, the General Assembly having been apathetic 
 long enough, meant now to have some system of Primary Schools at all 
 
 * Certainly one county began it. In 1^98, Norfolk County elected its three aldermen. See 
 History of Norfolk County. By William H. Stewart. Chicago. 1902. p. 178. ' 
 
10 Tiie Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 costs. That is to say, the Literary Fund had been greatly increased in 
 1816, public education could now be furthered with no resort to a school 
 tax, and the president and directors of the Fund were requested to report 
 a system of education. In this report, the president and directors sub- 
 mitted a plan for primary schools, academies, and a university, but they 
 made it plain that they had chiefly in view the establishment of primary 
 schools. As a part of their report they submitted answers from learned 
 men to inquiries on the subject of this proposed system of 'national' edu- 
 cation. Dr. John Augustine Smith, President of William and Mary, in 
 his answer neatly stated the problem at large: how were the primary 
 schools to be superintended, and where were the teachers to come from? 
 In the nature of the case, Dr. Smith preferred not to discuss the estab- 
 lishment of a university. 
 
 Following the report of the president and directors, which with other 
 documents in the matter was printed and widely circulated, Charles Fen- 
 ton Mercer in 1817, drew an exhaustive bill, providing for a board of 
 public instruction (not ex-officio), with a permanent secretary; for pri- 
 mary schools, in which all white children, free, wards, or apprentices, 
 were to be schooled gratis, the trustees being authorized to demand pay 
 at discretion; for a system of academies, (three of them for girls) ; and 
 for colleges and a university. The House passed this bill; the Senate 
 threw it out as too broad and too narrow, for although it covered the 
 ground, the primary schools and academies were left as before to the 
 voluntary interest of the community. Jefferson said of the Bill-;-'the 
 University must go through'; 'we should not be cluttered up with petty 
 academies and colleges' ; 'should we regard them for their funds ? They 
 have no funds.' 
 
 The upshot of it all was that in 1818, the Bill was passed establish- 
 ing a system of primary schools and a university.* Under the bill the 
 courts must appoint school commissioners, and these were to determine 
 on how many poor children were to be educated from the income, $45,000, 
 of the Literary Fund set apart. The School Commissioners must report 
 to the president and directors of the Literary Fund. A University had 
 been brought near establishment ; the term 'poor children' had been intro- 
 duced, with a guaranty that certain of them would now be schooled ; and 
 secondary education, on the whole wisely, had been left as before to com- 
 munity interest. 
 
 If any system is subject to decay, or if maintained, to continual and 
 just criticism, this one of 1818, although in force with few changes until 
 1860, was bound to meet with obloquy. It was at once said — Who are 
 indigents? Why encourage indigence? Is there riot still full oppor- 
 tunity for industrious men in Virginia ? Give us a rational system that 
 shall make a good education cheap, not gratuitous, and do so largely by 
 
 • The University of Virginia was actually established Jan. 25, 1819. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 171'6-1860 11 
 
 means of solid schools of the secondary grade throughout the state. We 
 need a Revival of Learning in Virginia, and it is too much to expect that 
 a University, and voluntary enterprise in the matter of secondary schools, 
 will bring such a revival about. Where there are indigents, vifhiskey is 
 the chief agent, and by ofEering the drunkard's children a free schooling 
 you appropriate so much the more for drink. Eeligion, with ai little 
 endowment, will take care of helpless poverty. Give us good, permanent 
 academies for boys and for girls, do something for the old colleges, and 
 such a system, with a university, will before long get the people interested 
 in education. You will not get them interested for an object they have 
 not been made to see the value of. These arguments Dr. John Holt Eice, 
 a man of experience and wisdom, put down with great clearness in his 
 religious magazines, among the earliest of Southern magazines. 
 
 Dying in 1831, Dr. Eice seems never to have let go his belief that 
 the state could be brought to enact plans for a system of public educa- 
 tion, thorough and to the point throughout. Others said "no" to any- 
 thing like a general subsidy for education, holding that there was plenty 
 of intelligent opinion to sustain and further the system of private acade- 
 mies in Virginia, and that the statute of 1818 hit the mark exactly. 
 James M. Garnett was of those who believed that nothing worthy could 
 come of statutes in these matters, and that the resort must be always 
 to private endeavor, the obligation resting plainly upon right thinking 
 men to stimulate private endeavor. Enlightened opinion, that is, was 
 pretty much at one — there was little of a programme; how was a pro- 
 gramme to be had? It is clear that the state had a great objection to 
 programmes, but nevertheless a great deal was done. The mere estab- 
 lishment of the university, if it came near killing some of the colleges, 
 did not kill them, but shook them up. Academies were founding every- 
 where. As for educating all of the people some of the time, that was a 
 consummation still a long way ofl. 
 
 In 1829, the Legislature passed an act empowering school commis- 
 sioners to establish district free schools, the inhabitants to be liable for 
 three-fifths the expense of the plant, and for one-half or more of the 
 salary account, the Literary Fund to be chargeable with the balance.* 
 This was the old familiar basis, and had almost no result. Initiative was 
 no surer with the school commissioners of 1830 than with the county 
 courts of 1796. This was not the sort of voluntary enterprise that the 
 
 ♦ Alexander Campbell, in the Convention of 1829-30, brought forward a resolution looking 
 to a system of public education (see Journal of Convention, 1829-30, p. 181). The resolution 
 was laid on the table, and never came to a vote. Another western man, Charles Morgan of Monon- 
 galia county, introduced a resolution providing for the increase of the Literary Fund by taxation. 
 CSee Debates, Virginia Convention, 1829-30, p. 377). 
 
 Of Dr. Campbell, the consistent reformer, Little, in his History of Richmond (chapter on 
 the Convention of 1829), remarks: "Alexander Campbell presented that singular spectacle, a cool 
 and cautious Scotchman, thoroughly imbued with and active in carrying out the most enthusiastic 
 ideas. He was too much carried away by his love of reform ; and his views, embracing every 
 subject, made him, like many reformers, too much a citizen of the world to be a perfectly safe 
 counsellor for •Virginia." History of Richmond. By John P. Little. Richmond. 1857. p. 57. 
 
13 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, lTi6-1860 
 
 idealists had in mind. Commenting on the District School law of 1830, 
 the Board of School Commissioners of Washington county* in their 
 report for the next year remarked: "The Board consider it of vital im- 
 portance to the success of a general plan of education that some mode 
 should be adopted by the General Assembly to furnish the counties with 
 qualified teachers, whose moral habits are known to the people or to the 
 school commissioners. To effect this great and important object this 
 Board would humbly suggest whether it would not be good policy in the 
 General Assembly to authorize a school to be established in each county 
 on the plan of Pestalozzi, for the education of young men for the express 
 purpose of becoming teachers. The establishment of such a school might 
 safely be committed to the school commissioners 'of the counties ; and a 
 sum appropriated for the purpose, but the money not to be drawn from 
 the Treasury until the school should be put into operation." Dr. John 
 Augustine Smith had observed in 1816 — "The first thing therefore which 
 I should recommend would be the immediate adoption of such steps as 
 would ensure an adequate number of well instructed persons to act here- 
 after as teachers — that these must be, in the first instance, educated for 
 this special purpose, and at the expense of the public, is to me clear; 
 for certain I am, that proper persons who would accept of such remun- 
 eration as could be afforded, are not to be procured either here or else- 
 where." 
 
 The first formal movement in the state looking to the betterment of 
 conditions in the common schools, seems to have come from the short- 
 lived Institute of Education of Hampden Sidney College. This associa- 
 tion, organized in 1831, must have been due in great part to the Presi- 
 dent of Hampden Sidney, Jonathan P. Cushing, and went out of exist- 
 ence in 1836, a year after Mr. Cushing's death. Important objects of 
 the association were the improvement of the common schools and other 
 literary institutions, and the collection of educational statistics. In 1839, 
 the Board of Trustees of Eandolph Macon College, recently established, 
 adopted a minute providing for a normal department, under the care of 
 the Professor of English Literature. The purpose of the Trustees was 
 in this way to give especial attention to the training of teachers for the 
 common schools. There is no documentary evidence as to the results. 
 Probably there were none. In 1843, all state cadets at the Virginia Mili- 
 tary Institute (provision for not more than forty) were by Act of Assem- 
 bly required to teach for two years in some school in Virginia in return 
 for two or more years' instruction at the charge of the state. Under this 
 regulation, a great many teachers were supplied to the state, pay cadets 
 as well often becoming teachers for a year or more. In 1850, the Trus- 
 
 *Washington county was one of the three counties (Washingrton, FrankUn and Monroe), 
 reporting in 1832, a system of District Free Schools, established under the act of 1829. In 
 Washington county, by this report, 1,067 children were in the free schools ; the total compen- 
 sation to teachers being $4,081, of which $3,167 was allowed by the inhabitants. " 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia^ 1776-1860 13 
 
 tees of Emory and Henry College were permitted to discharge the interest 
 of a loan from the Literary Fund by receiving into the college yearly, 
 sixteen indigent and deserving young men as state students, upon their 
 promise to teach, at the conclusion of their collegiate course, for two 
 years at least in some school or college in the State. The University of 
 Virginia in 1856 was authorized to receive fifty state students annually 
 on similar conditions. These were the movements under the old order 
 for a 'normal instruction.' Young women were not in the purview, and 
 often the young man must found the school in which he was obligated 
 to teach. 
 
 But such establishments early had effect in bringing education more 
 within the range of subjects meet for legislation. In 1841, Professor 
 Dabney of Washington College sent to the Literary Messenger an article 
 embodying a careful indictment of the system of public education in the 
 state, and in the same year the General Assembly instructed the Presi- 
 dent and Directors of the Literary Fund to report a system best adapted 
 in their opinion to 'secure the benefits of education to the people of this 
 commonwealth.' 
 
 Following this resolution there was great activity for several years. 
 The legislative documents for the session of 1841-42 contain eighty 
 quarto pages of material in protest and suggestion on the subject of the 
 state of learning in Virginia: — the proceedings of the Education Con- 
 vention of Northwestern Virginia held at Clarksburg in September, 
 1841 ;* the Memorial of the Education Convention held at Richmond in 
 1841 ; the report of the Committee of Schools and Colleges (House of Dele- 
 gates) ; President Henry RufEner's Plans for a system of schools ;t the 
 Report of the President and Directors of the Literary Fund, submitting 
 their plan. The next year. Superintendent Smith, of the Virginia Mili- 
 tary Institute, submitted his report on a System of Common Schools for 
 Virginia. (Doc. No. 33, 1842-43). In 1845, the second Richmond Con- 
 vention was held, in which Governor McDowell's influence seems to have 
 been controlling. 
 
 Every phase of the matter was touched upon in these conventions 
 and reports. The ideas of the west were particular and thoroughgoing; 
 those of the east scarcely less so. Judge Duncan wrote to the Northwest- 
 ern Convention, "We have but little to expect from the east." John D. 
 
 * cf. The very interesting article in Barnard's American Journal of Education^ VoL XVI, pp. 
 173-176, on "Virginia Educational Conventions," viz: 
 
 1. September 8, 1841, Clarksburg [West] Virginia. 
 
 2. October 2, 1841, Lexington, Virginia. 
 S. December 9, 1841, Richmond. 
 
 4. December 10, 184S, Richmond. 
 
 5. July 23-24, 1856 (at the call of Governor Wise), Richmond. 
 
 t President Henry Ruffner, of Washington College (Va.), was the father of Dr. William H. 
 Iluffner, first Superintendent of Public Instruction in Virginia. Dr. Henry Ruffner's elaborate 
 scheme for common schools in Virginia was submitted at the Clarksburg Convention of 1841, 
 and also at the L«dngton Convention of the same year. The full text was reprinted in U. 8. 
 Education Report, 1900, Vol. I, pp. 381-397. 
 
14 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, ITTG-ISGO 
 
 D. Eosset, of Jackson county proposed the abolishment of the Literary 
 Fund as a nuisance, the establishment of normal schools, the support of 
 the colleges, an eight months' session for the common schools, and pen- 
 sions to teachers. The address of George W. Thompson, D. Goff of Ean- 
 dolph, and others declared that a "bare and mechanized system of instruc- 
 tion will not meet our wants", and urged that the churches must De 
 aroused; something substantial should be done for female education; 
 normal schools should be set up; a common school journal be issued, 
 (under the control of the Chief Superintendent of Education) ; four 
 division superintendents should be appointed; floral games (the prizes 
 chaplets of posies) inaugurated, school libraries installed; and school- 
 houses reformed. Dr. Euffner's plans were less radical (see Doc. No. 7 
 and Doc. No. 35, 1841-42), leaving room for later developments, such as 
 Normal Schools. Dr. Euffner's plan included provision for grammar 
 schools, and academies, both for boys and for girls. The Committee Ee- 
 port on Schools and Colleges (1841-42, Doc. No. 34) recommended an 
 office of general superintendent, and the establishment of schools of 
 higher grade in the counties, to be denominated County Normal Schools. 
 The Eichmond Convention of 1841, James M. Garnett, President, me- 
 morialized for a system of primary schools, academies, and colleges (with 
 the university) to receive state subsidy, the primary schools to be free 
 schools and optional. Superintendent Smith's plan embraced normal 
 schools, a general superintendent and Board of Education, and county 
 superintendents. The consensus of opinion from 1841 to 1845 was for 
 a general manager of the education provided by the State, and for the 
 right of election in the counties as to the establishment of free schools. 
 It was felt that the old system must be done away or greatly changed. 
 The Eichmond Convention of 1845 gave the tone to the legislation oE 
 the following year : if the people are as much aroused as people say, they 
 may do as they like. 
 
 Since 1830, the state had changed. Voluntary enterprise had beea 
 indeed pretty active. And yet when the General Assembly framed its 
 new plan of 1846, it could not be said that any great advance was assured, 
 unless by those who believed that the people would act as certain of their 
 spokesmen or well-wishers had fancied. The Schools for Indigent Chil- 
 dren were retained, with better machinery for superintendence provided. 
 If any county or corporation was willing to set up free schools, it was 
 given authority to do so, and if any county or corporation, having done 
 so, was willing to give up free schools and go back to indigent schools, 
 it had the right to. A tax was to be levied for these free schools, and if 
 any county or corporation did not like the tax, it could as before draw 
 its quota of the Literary Fund, and educate only as far as that went. No 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, lI'^B-lSeO 15 
 
 Secretary of Education, and no grand bureau. How far reaching was 
 this act of 1846, it would be difficult to, say. By the Eeport of the Lit- 
 erary Fund for 1859-60, nine counties and three corporations were listed 
 as receiving aid from the fund, for district schools. Counties established 
 district schools under the act of 1846 and later abandoned them. The act 
 itself was amended,* so that certain districts, or one district, in a county 
 might set up free schools, as under the act of 1829. Perhaps thirty coun- 
 ties' at one time or another, and in one way or another, before 1860, 
 tried the district free school system. Not half a dozen had adopted the 
 system permitted under the act of 1839. 
 
 So, 1860 being near at hand, and no further enactment having much 
 changed the legislative status of education in the state during the fifteen 
 years, the achievement of the period may be briefly summarized. Granted 
 the premise, involving a large number of people, left in very considerable 
 ignorance, the showing is cheerful enough.* From 1846 to 1860 educa- . 
 tion in Virginia was carried forward creditably. The University, the 
 Military Institute, and the colleges grew in numbers and were strength- 
 ened in every way. Schools for girls became well established. Good 
 academies were everywhere. Indeed, the Rector and Visitors of the Uni- 
 versity of Virginia felt warranted in saying, shortly before the outbreak 
 of the war, that without the cumbrous machinery of public patronage, 
 the State could show an efficient system of education due largely to the 
 stimulus given by the University. The University trained its scholars, 
 and many of these desired to train others. So also of the colleges. 
 
 It is of interest finally to trace the origin of a report made in 
 1858 by the Committee of Schools and Colleges of the House of Dele- 
 gates, recommending that appropriations be made from the Literary 
 Fund in aid of academies and colleges. The first bill of this sort voted 
 upon was drawn by Charles Fenton Mercer in 1817. The bill was re- 
 jected, but in 1831 it was enacted that when the income of the Literary 
 Fund set apart for primary schools should pass a certain figure, the over- 
 plus was to be appropriated to the endowment of colleges and academies. 
 There was an overplus in 1836, but instead of letting the act stand as 
 it was, the Legislature authorized the school commissioners of the coun- 
 ties to apply the surplus income in aid of academies or colleges within 
 their districts. Under this law, aid had been afforded here and there for 
 
 •See Acts of Assembly, 1852-3, p. 232. 
 
 Rufus Brittain, an experienced teacher of Tazewell county, in his report to the Jeffersonville 
 Historical Society, gave it as his opinion that "the system as provided for [c. 1850] could be 
 made effective." Bickley, History of Tazewell County, Cincinnati, 1862, pp. 113-118. 
 
 t See Index to Enrolled Bills of the General Assembly of Virginia, 1776 to 1910, under 
 "Public Free Schools." , .„ ^ 
 
 + "At the opening of the war, Virginia, east of the Alleghany range, led the entire flfteen 
 States of the South in the arrangements for the secondary and higher education." U. S. Educa- 
 tion Report, 1890-91, p. 882. ...... 
 
 For general statements regarding movements for public education in ^ irginia, see Mavo, 
 Education Report. 1893-94, I, pp. 674-682, 726-734 ; Report, 1895-96, pp. 269-274. See also Educa- 
 tion Report, 1876, pp. 399-401. 
 
16 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, ITT'S-ISGO 
 
 twenty years or more,* and the report of 1858 was thus merely in 
 extension of the system then in force, the object being to make fixed and 
 definite what had been indefinite and arbitrary. Nothing came of 
 the report of 1858, and therefore it may be said that secondary education 
 in Virginia had been left almost untouched by the state before 1860. 
 
 The facts were known from the first. The state needed a system of 
 public education through all the grades, with a sure supply of good teach- 
 ers, under trained superintendence. How was this complex organization 
 to be had before 1860 ? Probably it could not have been had. This lack- 
 ing, it cannot however be questioned, that the voluntary enterprise of 
 the state had given a good account of itself, and particularly in the item 
 of secondary schooling. 
 
 * For example, see Acts of Assembly, 1839-40, p. 104 : "That the second auditor be, and is 
 hereby, authorized and required to issue his warrant on the treasury in favor of the Woodstock, 
 Strasburgr and New Market academies, for the proportion of the surplus revenue of the Literary 
 Fund for the years 1839 and 1840, which has been allotted to those academies by the school 
 commissioners of the ' county of Shenandoah : Provided, that such proportion shall not be paid 
 unless the report required by law showing the disposition of previous payments to said academies 
 shall have been received by the iwesident and directors of the Literary Fund." In 1830, 1833, 
 1835, 1836, and 1847 acts were passed requiring reports to the second auditor from colleges 
 and academies, to show the state of their funds, the number of their teachers and pupils, branches 
 of learning taught, etc. As is apparent from the reiteration, very few reports were filed under 
 these acts. 
 
DOCUMENTARY 
 
 1779. A BILL FOE THE MORE GENERAL DIFFUSIOX OF KXOWLEDGE, PRO- 
 POSED BY THE COMMITTEE OF REVISOES OF THE LAWS OF VIRGINIA, 
 APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY IN THE YEAR 1776.* 
 
 Section 1. WHEREAS it appeareth, that however certain forms of 
 government are better calculated than others to protect individuals in 
 the free exercise of their natural rights, and are at the same time them- 
 selves better guarded against degeneracy, yet experience hath shewn, that, 
 even under the best forms, those entrusted with power have, in time, and 
 by slow operations, perverted it into tyranny; and it is believed that the 
 most effectual means of preventing this would be to illuminate, as far as 
 practicable, the minds of the people at large, and more especially to give 
 them knowledge of those facts which history exhibiteth, that, possessed 
 thereby of the experience of other ages and countries, they may be enabled 
 to know ambition under all its shapes, and prompt to exert their natural 
 powers to defeat its purposes. And whereas it is generally true that that 
 people will be happiest whose laws are best, and are best administered, and 
 that laws will be wisely formed, and honestly administered, in proportion 
 as those who form and administer them are wise and honest; whence it 
 becomes expedient for promoting the public happiness that those persons, 
 whom nature hath endowed with genius and virtue, should be rendered 
 by liberal education worthy to receive and able to guard, the sacred de- 
 posit of the rights and liberties of their fellow citizens, and that they 
 should be called to that charge without regard to wealth, birth or other 
 accidental condition or circumstances; but the indigence of the greater 
 number disabling them from so educating, at their own expense, those of 
 their children whom nature hath fitly formed and disposed to become 
 useful instruments for the public, it is better that such should be sought 
 for and educated at the common expense of all, than that the happiness 
 of all should be confided to the weak or wicked. (Sundrt/ Documents on 
 the Siibject of a System of Public Education for the State of Virginia. 
 Published by the President and Directors of the Literary Fund. Eich- 
 mond, 1817. pp. 3-4). 
 
 This is the preamble to Jefferson's Bill for a systematical plan of 
 general education. The substance of the Bill is given in JeflEerson's Note^ 
 on Virginia, as follows: 
 
 "Another object of the revisal is, to diffuse knowledge more generally 
 through the mass of the people. This bill proposes to lay oS every county 
 
 ♦Reported to the General Assembly June 18, 1779 — Eevisors: Edmund Pendleton, George 
 Wythe, and Thos. Jefferson. See Writings of Jefferson. CharlottesviUe, 1829, I, 36. 
 
18 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 into small districts of five or six miles square, called hundreds, and in 
 each of them to establish a school for teaching, reading, writing! and 
 arithmetic. The tutor to be supported by the hundred and every person 
 in it entitled to send their children three years gratis, and as much longer 
 as they please, paying for it. These schools to be under a visitor who is 
 annually to ehuse the boy, of best genius in the school, of those parents 
 who are too poor to give them further education, and to send him forward 
 to one of the grammar schools, of which twenty are proposed to be erected 
 in different parts of the country, for teaching Greek, Latin, geography, 
 and the higher branches of numerical arithmetic. Of the boys thus sent 
 in one year, trial is to be made at the grammar schools one or two years, 
 and the best genius of the whole selected, and continued six years, and 
 the residue dismissed. By this means twenty of the best geniuses will 
 be raked from the rubbish annually, and be instructed at the public ex- 
 pense, so far as the grammar schools go. At the end of six years' instruc- 
 tion, one-half are to be discontinued (from among whom the grammar 
 schools will probably be supplied with future masters) and the other 
 half, who are to be chosen for the superiority of their parts and disposi- 
 tion, are to be sent and continued three years in the study of such sciences 
 as they shall chuse at "William and Mary College, the plan of which is 
 proposed to be enlarged, as will hereafter be explained, and extended to 
 all the useful sciences. The ultimate result of the whole scheme of educa- 
 tion would be the teaching all the children of the state reading, writing 
 and common arithmetic: turning out annually ten of superior genius, 
 well taught in Greek, Latin, geography and the higher branches of arith- 
 metic: turning out ten others annually, of still superior parte, who, to 
 those branches of learning shall have added such of the sciences as their 
 genius shall have led them to : the furnishing to the wealthier part of the 
 people convenient schools, at which their children may be educated at 
 
 their own expence 
 
 "By that part of our plan which prescribes the selection of the youths 
 of genius from among the classes of the poor, we hope to avail the state 
 of those talente which nature has sown as liberally among the poor as 
 the rich, but which perish without use, if not sought for and cultivated. 
 But of the items of this law none is more important, none more legiti- 
 mate, than that of rendering the people the safe, as they are the ultimate 
 guardians of their own liberty. For this purpose the reading in the first 
 stage, where they will receive their whole education, is proposed, as has 
 been said, to be chiefly historical. History by apprising them of the past 
 will enable them to judge of the future, it will qualify them as judges 
 of the actions and designs of men, it will enable them to know ambition 
 under every guise it may assume, and knowing it, to defeat its views. In 
 every government on earth is some trace of human weakness, some germ 
 of corruption and degeneracy, which cunning will discover, and wicked- 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 19 
 
 ness insensibly open, cultivate and improve. Every government degener- 
 ates when trusted to the rulers of the people alone. The people them- 
 selves therefore are its only safe depositories. And to render them safe 
 their minds must be improved to a certain degree. This indeed is not 
 aU that is necessary, though it be essentially necessary. An amendment 
 of our constitution must here come in aid of the public education. The 
 influence over government must be shared among all the people." 
 
 [Notes on Virginia. New York. Furman and Loudoun. 1801. 
 Query XIV. pp. 216-321.] 
 
 1785. LETTER OF THOMAS JEFFERSON TO JOHN BANISTER, JUNIOR. 
 
 Paris, October 1-5, 1785. 
 Dear Sir: 
 
 I should sooner have answered the paragraph in your letter of Sep- 
 tember the 19th, respecting the best seminary for the education of youth 
 in Europe, but that it was necessary for me to make inquiries on the 
 subject. The result of these has been, to consider the competition as rest- 
 ing between Geneva and Eome But why send an American youth 
 
 to Europe for education? What are the objects of an useful American 
 education? Classical knowledge, modern languages, chiefly French, 
 Spanish, and Italian; Mathematics, Natural Philosophy, Natural His- 
 tory, Civil History, and Ethics. In Natural Philosophy, I mean to in- 
 clude chemistry and agriculture, and in Natural History, to include 
 Botany, as well as the other branches of those departments. It is true 
 that the habit of spealcing the modern languages cannot be so well ac- 
 quired in America; but every other article can be as well acquired at 
 William and Mary College, as at any place in Europe. When college 
 education is done with, and a young man is to prepare himself for public 
 life, he must cast his eyes (for America) either on Law or Physic. For 
 the former, where can he apply so advantageously as to Mr. Wjrthe. For 
 the latter, he must come to Europe. The medical class of students, there- 
 fore, is the only one which need come to Europe. Let us view the disad- 
 vantages of sending a youth to Europe. To enumerate them all would 
 require a volume. I will select a few. When he goes to England, he 
 learns drinking, horse racing, and boxing. Those are the peculiarities 
 of English education. The following circumstances are common to edu- 
 cation in that, and the other countries of Europe. He acquires a fond- 
 ness for European luxury and dissipation, and a contempt for the sim- 
 plicity of his own country; he is fascinated with the privileges of the 
 European aristocrats, and sees, with abhorrence, the lovely equality 
 which the poor enjoy with the rich in his own country; he contracts a 
 partiality for aristocracy or monarchy; he forms foreign friendships 
 
30 the Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 which will never be useful to him, and loses the season "of life for forming 
 in his own country, those friendships, which, of all others, are the most 
 faithful and permanent. . .1 am of the opinion, that there never was an 
 instance of a man's writing or speaking his native tongue with elegance, 
 who passed from fifteen to twenty years of age, out of the country where 
 it was spoken. Thus, no instance exists of a person's writing two lan- 
 guages perfectly. It appears to me then, that an American coming to 
 Europe for education, loses in his knowledge, in his morals, in his health, 
 in his habits, and in his happiness. I had entertained only doubts on this 
 head, before I came to Europe; what I see and hear, since I came here, 
 proves more than I had even suspected. Cast your eye over America; 
 who are the men of most learning, of most eloquence, most beloved by 
 their countrymen, and most trusted and promoted by them? They are 
 those who have been educated among them, and whose manners, morals 
 and habits, are perfectly homogeneous with those of the country. 
 
 Did you expect by so short a question to draw such a sermon on 
 yourself ? I dare say you did not. But the consequences of foreign educa- 
 tion are alarming to me, as an American. I sin, therefore, through zeal, 
 whenever I enter .on the subject. You are sufficiently American to par- 
 don me for it. 
 
 [Jefferson's Correspondence, Charlottesville. 1829. I, 345. cf. Let- 
 ters to Peter Carr, I, 285 (1785) ; II, 315, (1787), 325 (1788) ; to John 
 W. Eppes, II, 190 (1787) ; and to Thomas Mann Eandolph, II, 180 
 (1787).] 
 
 1786. EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA. 
 
 A gentleman who stiles himself A Countryman, recommends j.t to 
 us to be contented with the productions of our own country. To a peo- 
 ple so totally divested of national pride as the Virginians, this must be 
 applicable. For not only the productions of our soil, whether from the 
 spontaneous gift of nature, or the reward of industry, but even those of 
 the scholar and mechanic are jumbled into one confused, indiscriminate 
 mass, of contemptible things. But as this is a subject too copious for 
 general discussion, I will only confine my observations to one point : An 
 idea has lately gone abroad, and seems to be daily gaining ground, that 
 there is not a school in this country, at which a parent can trust his 
 child. 
 
 Dissipation, they say, takes the lead at the University [William and 
 Mary.] As to the inferior schools— this is superficial— that wants atten- 
 tion — they are immoral at one, and extravagant at another. 
 
 But begin at Kesbitt's Academy [probably Dickinson College, at 
 Carlisle, Pennsylvania, Dr. Charles Nisbet, President, 1784-1804], and 
 
' The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 21 
 
 travel on quite to Cambridge in Massachusetts, and you find none of 
 these imperfections. Let me entreat you, however, not to be too hasty in 
 this matter. Ask your own judgment and experience, how many great 
 characters there are in the State which, if educated at all, are not the 
 
 sons of W m and M y? View the rising characters and say, 
 
 where those were educated which promise to tread in their steps. Is 
 
 there a seminary in the whole union so generously endowed as W 
 
 and M College ? Is there one which has abler Professors ? It then 
 
 only rests with yourselves to make it extensively useful and great. You 
 may, however, remove your sons if you please, but experience will teach 
 you, Celum nan animum mutant qui trans mare currunt. The youth 
 who cannot attend to his studies in Williamsburg will not anywhere else. 
 
 As to your Grammar Schools, it is hard indeed, that out of such a 
 number you cannot find one to please you. There is a hive of them, from 
 Alexandria to Prince Edward. Neither can that of Williamsburg have 
 escaped your notice. Take a view of all these — see which has most to 
 recommend it to your attention. For my part, I have trusted my sons 
 at the last mentioned, and am pleased. The superior commodiousness 
 of the building, the healthiness of its situation, and its vicinity to the 
 University, where my sons can finish their literary course, give it the 
 preference with me. Besides, the plan of the school is more extensive 
 than any other ; but let me entreat you not to indulge the thought that 
 your sons cannot be as well instructed, that their morals cannot be as 
 secure in your own State, as in any other. 
 
 Let me ask you, if the bulk of your citizens, who can afford their 
 sons a liberal education, send them out of the State, how will it be pos- 
 sible for your schools to be respectable ? You, in fact, deprive your teach- 
 ers of every stimulus — pecuniary inducements are gone; the importance 
 of his character sinks on a level with his thin school ; he thinks his coun- 
 trymen suspicious and ungrateful, therefore does not feel that propensity 
 to exert his powers and improve his faculties in their service, which yoa 
 will always find where the professor sees he is looked up to. 
 
 Cherish, therefore, and support your own grammar schools, which 
 you should consider as nurseries for the University — and that, you should 
 regard as the only proper place for the general resort of your youths, 
 where they are to receive their last polish from one hand, and like brothers 
 cast in one mold, are emulous which shall shew most striking proofs of 
 affection and contribute most to the aid of their parents, shall be united 
 in their efforts for their country, the common parent of us all. 
 
 [Philomathes in Virginia Magazine of History and Biography XTX. 
 pp. 314-316; first printed in Virginia Gazette and Amencan Advertiser, 
 June 28, 1786.] 
 
23 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 1796. DEC. 23. AN ACT TO ESTABLISH PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 
 
 Whereas, it appeareth that the great advantages which civilized and 
 polished nations enjoy, beyond the savage and barbarous nations of the 
 vforld, are principally derived from the invention and use of letters, by 
 means whereof the knowledge and experience of past ages are recorded 
 and transmitted; so that man, availing himself in succession of the 
 accumulated wisdom and discoveries of his predecessors, is enabled more 
 successfully to pursue and improve not only those arts, which contribute 
 to the support, convenience, and ornament of life, but those also, which 
 tend to illumine and ennoble his understanding and his nature; 
 
 And whereas, upon a review of the history of mankind, it seemeth 
 that however favorable republican government, founded on the principles 
 of equal liberty, justice and order, may be to human happiness, no real 
 stability, or lasting permanency thereof can be rationally hoped for, if 
 the minds of the citizens be not rendered liberal and humane, and be 
 not fully impressed with the importance of thos^ principles from whence 
 these blessings proceed, with a view, therefore, to lay the first foundations 
 of a system of education, which may tend to produce those desirable pur- 
 poses ; 
 
 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly, That in every county 
 within this Commonwealth, there shall be chosen annually, by the electors 
 qualified to vote for delegates, three of the most honest and able men of 
 their county, to be called the aldermen of the county 
 
 3. The said aldermen, or any two of them, annually on the secoild 
 Monday in May, if it be fair, and if not, then on the next fair day, ex- 
 cluding Sunday, shall meet at the Court House of their county, and shall 
 then and there proceed to consider the expediency of carrying the subse- 
 quent parts and provisions of this present act into execution, within their 
 counties respectively, having regard to the state of the population withia 
 the same. And if it shall seem expedient to the said aldermen in any 
 year, to carry into effect the subsequent parts and provisions of this act, 
 the said aldermen are hereby empowered and required to proceed to divide 
 their' said county into sections, regulating the size of the said sections, 
 according to the best of their discretion, so as they may contain a conven- 
 ient number of children to make up a school, and be of such convenient 
 size that all the children within each section may daily attend the school 
 to be established therein. 
 
 4. The householders residing within every section shall meet on 
 the first Monday in September next after the aldermen of their county 
 shall have determined that it is expedient that the provisions of this act 
 shall be carried into execution within the same. The householders, beino- 
 so assembled, shall choose the most convenient place within their section 
 for building a schoolhouse 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 23 
 
 6. At every one of these schools shall be taught reading, writing, 
 and eominon arithmetic; and all the free children, male and female, resi- 
 dent within the respective sections, shall be entitled to receive tuition 
 gratis, for the term of three years, and as much longer at their private ex- 
 pense, as their parents, guardians, or friends, shall think proper. The said 
 aldermen shall from time to time appoint a teacher to each school, and 
 shall remove him as they see cause. They, or some one of them, shall 
 visit every school once in every half year, at the least, examine the schol- 
 ars, and superintend the conduct of the teachers in everything relative to 
 his school. 
 
 7. The salary of the teacher with the expense of building and 
 repairing a schoolhouse in each section shall be defrayed by the inhabi- 
 tants of each county in proportion to the amount of their public assess- 
 ments and county levies, to be ascertained by the aldermen of each county 
 respectively, and shall be collected by the sheriff of each county 
 
 9. Provided always, and he it further enacted. That the court of 
 each county, at which a majority of the acting magistrates thereof shall 
 be present, shall first determine the year in which the first election of 
 said aldermen shall be made, and until they so determine no such election 
 shall be made. And the court of each county shall annually, until each 
 election be made, at their court in the month of March, take this subject 
 into consideration and decide thereon. [Code 1803, Chap. CXCIX.] 
 
 As a commentary upon this bill the following observations are of 
 interest, not only as showing something of conditions generally in the 
 country, but as formulating a prevalent state of mind: 
 
 "Before the revolution, I have reason to believe that the average 
 produce of the soil would have stood considerably higher than at present, 
 and there is no doubt that the owners of it were more opulent; and at 
 that time, the capital of tlie country was vested in the lands; and the 
 landed proprietors held tUe first rank in the country for opulence and 
 for information, and in general received the best education which 
 America, and not infrequently Europe, could afford them; their estates 
 were sufficiently extensive to make it worth their while to bestow their 
 time and their money upon them; and the estates in return repaid with 
 interest the attention and expense. The law of England generally pre- 
 vailed with respect to the descent of property ; an aristocracy was formed 
 of capitalists, well calculated for improving, cultivating, ornamenting, 
 and enriching the country ; great exertions and great improvements can- 
 not be made in any country but by persons of this description; and no 
 country requires such exertions and such improvements, as a new one. 
 Since the revolution a new order of things has taken place. The capital, 
 as well as the government of the country, has slipped out of the hands 
 
24 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 of land owners. In some of the states, the gentlemen of landed property 
 
 have passed into perfect oblivion * 
 
 There are no indigent poor in the United States. In a country, 
 where in every part the demand for labor exceeds the supply, where wages 
 are high, and provisions not in proportion to them, no one need want 
 that will labor ; and the able, who refuse to work, will then meet with no 
 support. In the country, I never heard of poor." (William Strickland : 
 Report on the United States to the British Board of Agriculture. 1796. 
 Printed in Farmers' Register ^ III, 864-268). 
 
 1809. DEC. 4. MESSAGE OF GOVERNOR JOHN TYLER TO THE GENERAL 
 ASSEMBLY OE VIRGINIA. 
 
 A faint effort was made some years past to establish schools 
 
 in the respective counties throughout the Commonwealth, but even in 
 that solitary instance the courts had a discretionary power to execute the 
 law or not, which completely defeated the object intended; for in no 
 instance had the law been complied with, to the disgrace of the County 
 Courts, and to the great disadvantage of the people 
 
 Nor have the representatives of the people, hitherto, been clear of 
 blame in so long neglecting to establish some other system, or to amend 
 the law before mentioned,. so as to ensure its execution. There- cannot be 
 a subject of more importance to a free government than that which we 
 at present contemplate. This seems to be admitted by every intelligent 
 man who wishes well to our country, and yet so fatal is the apathy which 
 prevails or so parsimonious a policy has insinuated itself among us, that 
 year after year is permitted to pass away without a single attempt to at- 
 tain so great and indispensable an object. Neither are those old semi- 
 naries, which were established before the Eevolution, supported in a 
 proper manner, either as to funds or discipline 
 
 I have, for the last twenty years of my life, had an opportunity in 
 the discharge of my public duties as a Judge, to see the mortifying pic- 
 ture which I have here drawn and of which experience has enabled me, 
 in every day's travel through the state, to prove the reality. Scarcely a 
 common country school is to be found capable of teaching the mother 
 tongue grammatically, and as much writing and arithmetic as is abso- 
 
 *John Taylor, of Caroline, read Strickland's Eenort with interest. He quotes from Strick- 
 land ; "Virg-inia is the southern limit of my inquiries, because apiculture had there already 
 arrived to its lowest state of degradation." "The land owners in this State are, with a few 
 exceptions, in low circumstances ; the inferior rank of them wretched in the extreme." "Decline 
 has pervaded all the States." 
 
 "These conclusions, if true," remarks John Taylor, "are awfully threatening to the liberty 
 and prosperity of a country, whose hostage for both is agriculture. Upon reading the opinion 
 of this distinguished foreigner, my impressions were, indignation, alarm, conviction, inspired suc- 
 cessively by a love for, my country, a fear for its welfare, and a recollection of facts. The ter- 
 rible facts, that the strongest chord which vibrates on the heart of man, cannot tie our people 
 to the natal spot, that -they view it with horror and flee from it to new climes with joy, deter- 
 mine our agricultural progress to' a progress of emigration, and not of improvement ; and lead 
 to an ultimate recoil from this exhausted resource to an exhausted country." Taylor's' Arator, 
 Petersburg, 1818, p. 5. (The first edition about 1810, in The Spirit of Seventy-^ix, a newspaper.) 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 25 
 
 Ititely necessary for the ordinary business between man and man. In this 
 situation of our country, would not an enlightened stranger, if he were 
 making the tour through the State, readily conclude, that in the general 
 passion for war which pervades almost the whole civilized world, we had, 
 for want of an enemy at our gates, declared an exterminating war against 
 the arts and sciences? [Letters and Times of the Tylers. Eichmond. 
 1884. I, 238.] 
 
 1809. DEC. 15. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE LITERARY EUND^ FEB. 2, 1810. 
 
 "Ordered, That so much of the Governor's Message as relates to 
 the subject of education be referred to a Committee consisting of Messrs. 
 Noland, Preston, Stevenson, Johnson (of Isle of Wight), Claiborne, 
 Jeffries, Blackburne, Stannard (of Spottsylvania), Archer (of Norfolk 
 Borough), McCampbell, Laidley, Berkshire, and Cabell." 
 
 On the 19th of January, 1810, this Committee reported, through 
 Mr. Noland,* a bill enacted into law Feb. 2, 1810, providing that all 
 escheats, confiscations, penalties, and forfeitures, and all rights in per- 
 sonal property found derelict, should be appropriated to the encour- 
 agement of learning, and the Auditor of Public Accounts was directed 
 to open an account to be designated as the Literary Fund. 
 
 1814. LETTER FROM THOMAS JEFFERSON TO PETER CARR, PRESIDENT OP 
 THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES OF THE ALBEJIARLE ACADEMY. t 
 
 Monticello, September 7th, 1814. 
 Dear Sir: 
 
 On the subject of the academy or college proposed to be established 
 in our neighborhood, I promised the trustees that I would prepare for 
 them a plan, adapted, in the first instance, to our slender funds, but sus- 
 ceptible of being enlarged, either by their own growth or by accession from 
 other quarters. 
 
 I have long entertained the hope that this, our native State, would 
 take lip the subject of education, and make an establishment, either with 
 or without incorporation into that of William and Mary, where every 
 branch of science, deemed useful at this day, should be taught in its high- 
 est degree. With this view, I have lost no occasion of making myself ac- 
 quainted with the organization of the best seminaries in other countriea 
 and with the opinions of the most enlightened individuals, on the subject 
 of the sciences worthy of a place in such an institution. In order to pre- 
 pare what I have promised our trustees, I have lately revised these sev- 
 
 *It is understood that James Barbour, Speaker of the House, drew the biU. JeflFerson had 
 been'the guest of Governor Tyler and the Council of State, October 21, 1809. Sec Letters and 
 Times of the Tylers, Eichmond, 1884, I, 228. 
 
 t Published in the Richmond Enquirer, February, 1816. The Albemarle Academy, chartered 
 in 1803, became by statute Central College in 1816, which in 1819 passed into the University 
 of Virginia. Both Academy and College were paper institutions. 
 
26 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 era! plans with attention ; and I am struck with the diversity of arrange- 
 ment observable in them — no two alike. Yet, I have no doubt that these 
 several arrangements have been the subject of mature reflection, by wise 
 and learned men, who, contemplating local circuinstances, have adapted 
 them to the condition of the section of society for which they have been 
 framed. 
 
 In the first place, we must ascertain with precision the object of 
 our institution, by taking a survey of the general field of science, and 
 marking out the portion we mean to occupy at first, and the ultimate 
 extension of our views beyond that, should we be enabled to render it, in 
 the end, as comprehensive as we would wish. 
 
 1. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 
 
 It is highly interesting to our country, and it is the duty of its func- 
 tionaries to provide that every citizen in it should receive an education 
 proportioned to the condition and pursuits of his life. The mass of our 
 citizens may be divided into two classes — the laboring and the learned. 
 The laboring will need the first grade of education to qualify them 
 for their pursuits and duties; the learned will need it as a foundation 
 for further acquirements. A plan was formerly proposed to the Legisla- 
 ture of this State for laying off every county into hundreds or wards of 
 five or six miles square, within each of which should be a school for the 
 education of the children of the ward, wherein they should receive three 
 years' instruction gratis, in reading, writing, arithmetic, as far as frac- 
 tions, the roots and ratios, and geography. The Legislature, at one time, 
 tried an ineffectual expedient for introducing this plan, which having 
 failed, it is hoped they will some day resume it in a more promising form. 
 
 3. GElSrEEAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 At the discharging of the pupils from the elementary schools, the 
 two classes separate — ^those destined for labor will engage in the business 
 of agriculture, or enter into apprenticeships to such handicraft art as 
 may be their choice; their companions, destined to the pursuits of sci- 
 ence, will proceed to the college, which will consist, 1st, of general 
 schools, and 2nd, of professional schools. The general schools will con- 
 stitute the second grade of education 
 
 3. PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 At the close of this course, the students separate ; the wealthy retiring, 
 with a sufficient stock of knowledge, to improve theniselves to any degree 
 to which their views may lead them, and the professional section to the 
 professional schools, constituting the third grade of education, and teach- 
 ing' the particular sciences which the individuals of this section mean to 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 27 
 
 pursue, with more minuteness and detail than was within the scope of 
 the general schools for the second grade of instruction. In these profes- 
 sional schools each science is to be taught in the highest degree it has 
 yet attained 
 
 With this tribute of duty to the Board of Trustees, accept the assur- 
 ance of my great esteem and consideration. 
 
 Th: Jefferson. 
 
 [Early History of the University of Virginia. Edited by N. ]?. 
 Cabell, Eichmond, 1856, p. 384 ff.] 
 
 1816. [1] BEPOET OF THE PEESIDENT AND DIEECTOES OF THE LITEEARY 
 FUNDj TO THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY/IN DECEMBER, 1816. 
 
 In obedience to the resolution of the General Assembly, of the 24th 
 of February, 1816, declaring, "That the President and Directors of the 
 Literary Fund be requested to digest and report to the General Assembly, 
 a system of public education, calculated to give effect to the appropria- 
 tions made to that object by the Legislature heretofore, and during its 
 present session, and to comprehend in such system the establishment of 
 an University, to be called 'The University of Virginia,' and such addi- 
 tional Colleges, Academies, and Schools, as shall difiuse' the benefits of 
 education throughout the Commonwealth, and such rules, for the gov- 
 ernment of such university, colleges, academies, and schools, as shall pro- 
 duce economy in the expenditures for the establishment and maintenance, 
 and good order and discipline in the management thereof,'" the President 
 and Directors of the Literary Fund respectfully report : 
 
 That they have entered on the discharge of the important duties 
 committed to them, with all the solicitude which would naturally arise 
 from the magnitude of the trust, and the difficulties attendant on the 
 subject. 
 
 In common with their fellow-citizens at large, they hail with pleas- 
 ure, and delight, the liberal spirit of improvement, which dawns upon 
 their country, and which displays itself, not only in what contributes to 
 an increase of the conveniences, the comforts and wealth, but also in the 
 advancement of the intelligence and knowledge of the people. In all en- 
 lightened countries, national education has been considered one of the 
 first concerns of the Legislator, and as intimately connected with the 
 prosperity of the state. In free states, where the government is founded 
 upon, and is the organ of the public will, it is indispensably necessary 
 that that will should be enlightened. It is the proud prerogative of free 
 governments to be founded in virtue and intelligence. They go hand in 
 hand ; and, by imparting a full knowledge of the rights of mankind, and 
 securing obedience to laws framed with wisdom, and administered with 
 impartiality, they give that happiness to the community which despotic 
 
28 TM Beginnings of .Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 power never can confer. In a republic, too, every citizen can aspire to 
 the highest offices of the state. He may become a legislator, a judge, 
 or be called to fill the office of first magistrate. How deeply interested, 
 then, is the community, in the formation of a system, which shall enable 
 the youth of our country to discharge the high duties that await them, 
 with honor to themselves, and advantage to the State ? These considera- 
 tions, with many others, which might be suggested, shew the extreme 
 importance of the subject, committed to the President and Directors of 
 the Literary Fund, and impress on them fully the nature and extent of 
 their responsibility. In addition to the intrinsic difficulties of the sub- 
 ject of education, it is necessary, in the formation of- any system of this 
 sort, to consult the peculiar situation of the country, for which it is m-. 
 tended. Into this estimate must enter, a regard to the state of its popu- 
 lation, the degree of perfection to which science has attained, the progress 
 of the arts, and, above all, the means, v/hich it is in the power of the state 
 to apply to such establishments. It cannot be expected, that the system 
 which may be adopted will, in its commencement, be perfect. This is 
 not the lot of human institutions, even of those which are the result of 
 the greatest experience, and the most indefatigable labour. Much less, 
 is anything like perfection to be expected from the first attempts made 
 by a people, cofaparatively in their infancy, and where public establish- 
 ments for instruction have been very limited. One great consolation 
 which presents itself on the subject, is, that as the system about to be 
 adopted by the legislature, whatever it may be, will be a national* one, 
 it will be subject to the control of the national will, and may be modified 
 and improved, as experience may direct. It would appear that some 
 former efforts, made by the legislature for the establishment of schools, 
 failed. This probably was owing to the circumstance that no revenues 
 were set apart for the support of such institutions ; and they were made 
 too much to depend on the funds to be extracted directly from the people; 
 We may anticipate a more auspicious result, from^ the system now 
 adopted, where means are provided, in a manner not burthensome to the 
 community, for imparting the benefits of instruction, and science, to the 
 poorest children in the state. It is worthy of remark, that one source 
 of support to the Literary Fund, is derived from fines, penalties and for- 
 feitures, imposed on the violators of the laws of the State. Thus, by a 
 happy feature in the system, vice and immorality are made to pay an 
 involuntary tribute to virtue, and to provide the means of their own 
 extinction. 
 
 It appears from the terms of the resolution of the General Assembly, 
 that the plan of education, contemplated by them, embraces three essential 
 parts, which are, however, intimately connected, are subsidiary to each 
 
 *This use of. the word "national" was not uncommon before 1830. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education iri Virginia, 1776-1860 89 
 
 I ■ ' ■ ^ ^ ^^ ^^ =^- =r^-^ 
 
 other, and constitute one system. The arrangement of this system seem-j 
 to be dictated by considerations of great propriety. It contemplates tak- 
 ing a boy who is ignorant of the rudiments of learning, and first imparting 
 to him those rudiments; next, placing him in a seminary, where he can 
 obtain a higher degree of information; and, finally, in a University, 
 where every kind of science attainable in this country can be acquired. 
 The steps in this progress are natural and regular, and present, at a 
 glance, an outline of such a system as it is proper to adopt. The Presi- 
 dent and Directors of the Literary Fund submit to the legislature the 
 subject,, under the different divisions of which it is susceptible, and will 
 recommend to their adoption, such provisions as appear to them best 
 adapted to the situation of the country, and to the extent of the funds 
 established for this object. In doing' so, they will forbear to enter into 
 a minute defail, from a belief, that the most important thing is to Hk 
 the great principles of the plan, to be established; after which it will be 
 easy to supply, by an act of the legislature, the numerous provisions, 
 which will be necessary. The subject is divisible into Primary Schools, 
 Academies, and an Ilniversity. They will be considered in their 
 
 order 
 
 The Presdent and Directors have submitted to the legislature what 
 they consider the best organization of schools, etc., for this Common- 
 wealth, but they are not so sanguine as to believe that it can be carried 
 into effect at once to its full extent, without a considerable augmentation 
 of their funds. It is, therefore, respectfully referred to the legislatvre 
 to decide, whether it would not be better to execute the system by de- 
 grees; to extend its operation as the fund may be increased; and in its 
 application always to keep in view the ultimate completion of the whole.. 
 With these impressions, it is recommended, that the product of the fund 
 be immediately applied to the establishment of a school in each township, 
 as indicated by the foregoing plan; that an academy be then established 
 in each district; and that, after the accomplishment of these objects the 
 surplus that may remain, be applied to found and support the University 
 of Virginia. In order to expedite the operation and perfection of the 
 system, it is earnestly recommended to the General Assembly to augment 
 tlie fund, by additional appropriations. In recommending to commence 
 with Primary Schools, the President and Directors liave been influencea 
 by no consideration but a belief that the greatest public benefit would be 
 thereby derived. It is supposed that no fewer than twenty thousand of 
 the youth of this state may receive instruction in these schools at the 
 same time. The President and Directors cannot believe that an object 
 of so much importance ought to be postponed for any other. But they 
 trust that, from their preference of these, no inference will be drawn 
 of their entertaining opinions unfavorable to the other branches of i;he 
 
30 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, lY'i'e-lSeO 
 
 system; or that their execution should be delayed one moment beyond 
 
 the period when it may be practicable * 
 
 By order of the Board, 
 
 W. C. NICHOLAS, President 
 Teste : 
 Wm. Munfoed, Cleric to the Literary Fund. 
 
 [Sundry Documents on the Subject of a System of Public Educa- 
 tion. Eichmond. 1817. pp. 18-34.] 
 
 [3.] ANSWER OF J. AUG. SMITH, PRESIDENT OF WILLIAM AND MAKT COL- 
 LEGE, TO THE OIRCULAE LETTER FROM HIS EXCELLENCY, WILSON C. 
 NICHOLAS, GOVERNOR OF VIRGINIA, TO SUNDRY GENTLEMEN, ON THE 
 SUBJECT OF A SYSTEM OF PUBLIC EDUCATION FOR THE STATE OF 
 VIRGINIA. 
 
 Wm. and Mary College, 7th November, 1816. 
 Sir: 
 
 Although I have not failed to bestow that reflection on the subject 
 of your circular letter, which its importance demanded, yet, I fear it 
 will not be in my power to communicate anything very novel or very use- 
 ful. Nothing is easier, than to enumerate the various branches of learn- 
 ing which a general system of instruction should comprehend; and as to 
 the manner in which these should be taught, there is probably neither 
 room nor occasion for any great improvement. But the object of the di- 
 rectors of the literary fund, I presume, is rather tp inform those who 
 must otherwise remain in total ignorance, in the humbler but more im- 
 portant parts of knowledge, than to make a comparatively few profi- 
 cients in the sublime departments of science. In these we have always 
 had a sufScient number of persons adequately skilled for all purposes of 
 practical utility, while the mass of- our population is well known to be 
 grossly deficient of even the most ordinary attainments in literature. If 
 my view of the wishes of the directors of the literary fund be correct, it 
 necessarily follows, that he alone can devise a scheme for the fulfillment 
 of their intentions, who is intimately acquainted with the particular cir- 
 cumstances of those who are to be benefited. But my situation and pur- 
 suits have always been such as to preclude me from acquiring this minute 
 knowledge of my countrymen; a few general remarks, therefore, indica- 
 
 ♦By an Act of the 24th of February, 1816, an addition was made to the Literary Fund of 
 the debt due to the State from the United States on aeeount of advances made during the War 
 of 1812. February 26, 1816, Joseph C. Cabell wrote to Mr. Jefferson: "I now return your original 
 letter to Mr. Carr. Its publication, in my opinion, was well-timed, and has produced a happy 
 effect on the measures of the Assembly. We have appropriated all our United States debt, except 
 $600,000, to the purposes of education; and have required the President and Directors of the 
 Literary Fund to report to the next Assembly the best plan of an university, colleges, academies, 
 and schools. The passage of both these measures is unquestionably to be ascribed,' in a great 
 degree, to your letter. But, it may be asked, why enquire of the President and Directors of 
 the Literary Fund for plans, when one so satisfactory is already before the public? I will tell 
 you. Appropriations abstracted from their location are most easily obtained." (^Early Bistory of 
 the University of Virginia, pp. 60-61.) 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 31 
 
 tive rather of my zeal for the cause, than of my ability to promote it, 
 are all I can offer. Men, as far as I have been able to judge, fail in at- 
 taining their ends, not so much from a defect in their plans, as, first 
 from employing agents really incompetent; and, secondly, from neglect- 
 ing to superintend those upon whom the details must devolve. In the 
 present instance, both of these difEiculties are great: the former is, at 
 this time, I am sure, insuperable. It may, I think, be ultimately over- 
 come, but as years •will be necessary for this purpose, the requisite mea- 
 sures cannot be too early commenced. The first thing therefore vrhieh I 
 should recommend; w^ould be, the immediate adoption of such steps as 
 would ensure an adequate number of well instructed persons to act here- 
 after as teachers. That these must be, in the first instance, educated 
 for this special purpose, and at the expense of the public, is to me clear : — 
 for certain I am, that proper persons, who would accept of such remun- 
 eration as could be afforded, are not to be procured either here or else- 
 where. 
 
 An objection of considerable magnitude immediately occurs, how is 
 the public to be assured that those thus educated will hereafter act in 
 the capacities for which they were designed ? A contract might, I should 
 suppose, be framed, under an act of the assembly, to be passed with this 
 view, which would accomplish this end. But upon this, gentlemen more 
 conversant with the law than I am must decide. 
 
 The want of good teachers would be principally felt at tlie com- 
 mencement; in a short time, the demand would ensure a supply. But, 
 while this difficulty was diminishing, the other to which I have alluded 
 would increase. Most establishments have, at their beginning, a vigour, 
 which gradually wears out; and perpetual motion has, hitherto, been 
 found nearly as impossible in the moral as in the physical world. A 
 vigilant system of superintendence, therefore, is highly essential 
 Proper characters for this trust cannot, I know, be found in all the 
 counties, and the appointment of itinerant visitors would not probably 
 answer. If the number of schools be not greater than one to a county, 
 and if each of these were located at some courthouse, the judges of the 
 general court might, at their annual circuits, have the scholars ex- 
 amined; recommend those who deserve promotion; and, above all, make 
 strict inquiry into the conduct of the teachers, who ought to be imme- 
 diately discharged for drunlcenness, or any other act of equal depravity. 
 A detailed report should be annually made to the directors of the literary 
 fund, or to whatever other body the general superintendence of education 
 is committed; which reports, condensed into one, should, at every ses- 
 sion, be laid before the legislature. 
 
 Thus, it appears to me, that the execution of whatever plan may 
 be adopted, will be as effectually secured as the nature of the case will 
 permit. 
 
32 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 It would not be altogether decorous, I conceive, for a person in my 
 situation to say anything upon the subject of an university, but always 
 willing to lend every aid in my power, and awfully impressed with the 
 necessity of extending the benefits of education, 
 
 I remain your's, with great respect, 
 
 J. Aug. Smith. 
 
 [Sundry Documents on the Subject of a System of Public Education, 
 etc., pp. 65-67.] 
 
 1817. [1.] A BILL, "providing FOE THE ESTABLISHMENT OF PEIMAEY 
 
 SCHOOLS, ACADEMIES, COLLEGES, AND AN UNIVERSITY" PASSED 
 
 THE HOUSE OF DELEGATES THE IStH, AND EEJECTED BY THE 
 SENATE THE 20tH OF FEBEUAEY, 1817.* 
 
 .... That, for the purpose of digesting and carrying into effect the 
 system of public education provided for by the last General Assembly, 
 and recommended by the President and Directors of the Literary Fund, 
 there shall be elected annually, by joint ballot of the Senate and House 
 of Delegates, ten directors, who shall be styled "The Board of Public 
 Instruction." 
 
 That the governor of the commonwealth shall be, ex officio, president 
 of the "board of public instruction,"; that any citizen of this common- 
 wealth shall be capable of being a director of the board, but that two of 
 the whole number of directors shall reside westward of the Alleghany 
 Mountain; two between the Alleghany and the Blue Eidge; four be- 
 tween the Blue Eidge and the great post-road, which passing through 
 the territory of the Commonwealth, crosses the principal rivers thereof 
 at or about the head of tide water; and the residue between that road 
 and the sea coast. The board shall annually elect from their own body 
 a vice-president, who, in the absence of the president, shall preside over 
 their deliberations ; they shall have power also to appoint a secretary, and 
 such officers as may be required for conducting the business of the board, 
 who shall receive for their services such compensation as the board may 
 allow, to be paid out of the revenue of the Literary Fund. Each direc- 
 tor of the board shall receive, from the same fund, such compensation 
 for his services as may be allowed by law, which, until otherwise pro- 
 vided shall be the same mileage for traveling to and from the place of 
 sitting, and the same, per diem, during his necessary attendance on 
 the board, as is now allowed by law to a member of the General As- 
 sembly. 
 
 That there shall be established within the Commonwealth as many 
 primary schools as shall tend to promote the easy diffusion .of kiiowl- 
 
 * Charles Fenton Meroer was the author of this bill. Note Judge Murphey's elaborate report 
 ol a similar character made to the Legislature of North Carolina, Nov. 27, 1817. Education 
 Report, 1896-97, pp. 1404-1414. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 33 
 
 edge among the youth of all classes of society ; and for establishing and 
 properly regulating such schools, the whole territory of the Common- 
 wealth shall be divided into small and convenient jurisdictions, to be 
 denominated townships and wards. 
 
 That whenever any person or persons, body politic or corporate, in , 
 any township or ward, shall provide a lot of ground of two- acres in ex- 
 tent, or of the value of two hundred dollars, with a school-house there- 
 upon of the value of two hundred and fifty dollars, and convey the same 
 to the 'president and directors of the Literary Eund, and have the con- 
 veyance therefor recorded in the proper court, and transmit a certified 
 copy thereof to the said president and directors, said house shall be re- 
 garded as a primary school-house. 
 
 That all the free white children resident within the township oi 
 ward in which any primary school is established, shall be entitled to re- 
 ceive tuition at such school, free of any charge whatever : Provided, that 
 the board of trustees, who have the government of the school, may de- 
 mand of such parents, guardians, or masters as are able to pay, without 
 inconvenience, for the education of their children, wards or apprentices, 
 such -fees of tuition as the said trustees may deem reasonable and proper. 
 * * * [Salary of $300 to be paid the teacher from the Literary Fund.] 
 
 That the .board of public instruction shall, as soon as can be con- 
 veniently done, divide the territory of the Commonwealth, from reference 
 to the last census of the free white population thereof, into forty-eight 
 academical districts, containing, each, one or more counties, and as near 
 as practicable, an equal number of such' population. * * * That where, in 
 any academical district, there shall be no academy in existence, or none 
 which the board of public instruction may deem it proper to recommend 
 to the president and directors of the literary fund, the board may accept 
 a lot of ground, conveniently situated in the district, for the erec- 
 tion of an academy for the said district. Provided, that along with the 
 lot of ground, there shall be subscribed, by one or more persons, bodies 
 politic or corporate, (or the payment thereof be otherwise assured, to the 
 president and directors of the literary fund), three-fourths of the sum 
 necessary to erect suitable buildings thereon for such academy; which 
 sum shall, in no case, be computed at less than ten thousand dollars. 
 
 That, upon the preceding conditions relative to the admission of ex- 
 isting academies into the system of public instruction hereby created, or 
 to the creation of new academies as part of such system, the board of 
 public instruction and the president and directors of the literary fund, 
 are authorized to accept the Anne-Smith Academy (at Lexington), for 
 the education of females ; and to provide for the erection of one or more 
 similar institutions. Provided, that the whole number within the Com- 
 monwealth shall not exceed three. 
 
 That the board of public instruction shall have authority to estab- 
 
34 The Beginnings of Public Education in Vi/rginia, 1776-1860 
 
 lish within the Commonwealth, three additional colleges, to be denomi- 
 nated respectively, Pendleton, Wythe, and Henry: the two first shall 
 be located to the west of the Alleghany mountain; one whereof shall be 
 placed to the north, and the other to the south of the dividing ridges of 
 the mountains, which separate the head waters of the Kanawha and 
 Monongalia rivers, from those of the rivers Greenbrier and the great 
 Kanawda; and the third shall be established in some one of the follow- 
 ing counties below the Blue Eidge, viz: Orange, Madison, Culpeper, 
 Fauquier, Prince William, or Loudoun. There shall be established one 
 other college on the south side of James river, to be denominated Jefier- 
 son College; such college to be established on the same terms with those 
 before mentioned. * * * That the board of public instruction shall have au- 
 thority to receive from the trustees or visitors of the existing colleges of 
 William and Mary, Hampden Sidney and Washington, any proposals 
 which they may deem it proper to submit to the board, for the purpose 
 of having their respective institutions embraced within the system of 
 
 public education, to be created by this act 
 
 The board of public instruction shall as soon as practicable, fix upon a 
 proper site for the University of Virginia * 
 
 [Sundry Documents on the Subject of a System, of Public Educor 
 tion, etc., pp. 35-49.] 
 
 [3'.] l.ETTEK ITKOM 'JIIOIUAS JEFFBRSON TO JOSEPH C. CABELL. 
 
 Monticello, October 24, 1817. 
 Dear Sir: 
 
 Yours of the 14th came to hand two days ago. Soon after you left 
 us, I received the pamphlet you were so kind as to have directed to 
 me, containing several papers on the establishment of a system of edu- 
 cation. A serious perusal of the billt for that purpose, convinced me, 
 that unless something less extravagant could be devised, the whole un- 
 dertaking must fail. The primary schools alone on that plan would 
 exhaust the whole funds, the colleges as much mote, and an university 
 would never come into question. However slow and painful the operation 
 
 •cf. Early History of the University of Virginia, p. 50. Letter of Joseph C. Oabell to Thomas 
 Jeflrerson, January 24, 1816: "Would you object to the publication of your letter to Mr Carr? 
 Indeed, sir, I may take the liberty to have your letter printed before I can get your answer I 
 do not believe the General Assembly will make so great an appropriation at this time as 'the 
 one proposed by Mr. Mercer ; but I will do anything in my power to promote it " 
 ' ' tCharles Penton Mercer's. _ "Mr. Mercer, then a delegate from Loudoun, afterwards, and 
 for many years, a representative in Congress from that district. This gentleman claims the 
 paternity of the Literary .Fund of Virginia, as appears in his Address on Popular Education, 
 published in 1826. It is proper to add, however, that on this point there is a conflict of nre- 
 tcnsion between him and Gov. Barbour (see Ruffln's Parmer's Register, III, 688) Without de- 
 ciding on the question of origin, it may justly be said, that to Mr. Mercer, as Chairman of the 
 
 Senate. From a letter to Mr. Oabell we learn that" Mr. Jefferson's letter "to" Peter Car?^tas '3io^ 
 to Mr. Mercer before he had submitted either report or bill." Early History of the Dnivpr«t„ 
 of Virgima, p. 50. ^ i ^ .ii/csisj, 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 35 
 
 of writing is become from a stiffening wrist, and however deadly my 
 aversion to the writing table, I determined to try whether I could not 
 contrive a plan more within the compass of our funds. I send you the 
 result brought into a single bill,* lest by bringing it on by detachment 
 some of the parts might be lost. 
 
 You ask if we should not associate with it the petty academies and 
 colleges spread over the State, in order to engage their interest? Why 
 should we? For their funds? They have none. Scarcely any of them 
 have funds to keep their buildings in repair. They depend on what 
 they get from their students. Aggregated to our regular system, they 
 would make it like the image of brass and clay, substances which can 
 never amalgamate. They would only embarrass, and render our col- 
 leges impracticable. I have always found it best never to permit a ra- 
 tional plan to be marred by botching. You would lose on the vote more 
 honest friends than you would reconcile dishonest enemies, under which 
 term I include those who would sacrifice the public good to a local in- 
 terest. ( Marly History of the University of Virginia, p. 50, p. 84.) 
 
 [3.] ARTICLES IN THE CHEISTIAN MONITOE.t 
 
 A. Some consideration of the subject has produced the conviction that 
 learning is in a much lower state in this country at present than in 
 
 former times It is well known that the bill for the establishment of 
 
 primary schools, academies, colleges and an University of Virginia, was 
 lost only by a very small number of votes in the Senate last winter. Had 
 this scheme succeeded, the question is put to every thinking man in the 
 State, could native Virginians or Americans have been found to fill 
 the various professorships by law established? 
 
 In this republic we are in a fair way to have what may truly and 
 properly be termed a populace — a mere ignorant, untaught, immoral rab- 
 ble, who will give themselves to the control of any man who will give 
 them a morsel of bread to eat, and liquor to drink. The evidence need 
 be urged no farther to prove that the interests of literature are greatly 
 neglected ; that in this respect we are degenerating from the wisdom and 
 worth of our ancestors. It seems to me high time that those who have 
 understandings to discern, and hearts to feel, should come forth and 
 make a vigorous effort to effect a EEVIVAL OF LEAEFING IN VIR- 
 
 GiisnA. 
 
 B. We shall proceed to enquire into the causes which have produced 
 the decline of learning in our country. 1. The first which we shall as- 
 sign, was the just, necessary and glorious war of the revolution. The 
 
 * A bill for Establishing a System of Public Education. [Providing: for primary or ward 
 schools — "the wards to comprehend each about the number of militia sufficient for a company" ; 
 colleges — "the several counties of this Commonwealth shall be distributed into nine collegiate 
 districts'* ; and a University. Text of bill fifteen octavo pages — see appendix, Early History of 
 the University of Virginia, p. 413 ff.] 
 
 t John Holt Rice, in Christian Monitor, Richmond, 1817, II, 273-276. 
 
36 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 youthful part of our population were put in requisition for the defence 
 of their country: and the seven years which they should have spent in 
 acquiring an education, were employed in the field. These were the citi- 
 zens by whose activity and influence only, a leaning and bias in favor of 
 learning could have been given. But they were engaged in a new and 
 arduous business, and that at a very critical period in the affairs of the 
 world. The new republic was to be organized in all its departments. 
 
 2. Shortly after the close of the war, during the discussions pro- 
 duced by the proposal to form a new Constitution, and the carrying of 
 that proposal into effect, the demon of party spirit shed his malignant 
 influence upon us. The flame, tjien enkindled, was made to burn with 
 new fury by the events which took place in Europe ; nor is it yet wholly 
 extinguished. This was an event in a high degree disastrous; and per- 
 haps on no account more so, than because of its influence on the intellec- 
 tual and moral culture of the American youth. It soon became obvious 
 that intelligence, knowledge, and experience, even when combined with 
 well tried virtue, were not the only qualifications required in candidates 
 for places of honor and profit. "Is he true to his party ? Will he go with 
 us ?" were the questions most promptly and eagerly asked. 
 
 3. A third cause which has had considerable influence is, the great 
 success which some persons, remarkably endowed with natural powers, 
 have met with in our republic. It might seem invidious to mention 
 names; it is, however, well known that some, who have obtained much 
 applause, and excited great admiration, were not scholars, in the common 
 acceptation. 
 
 4. When the tranquillity of peace succeeded to the turbulence of 
 the revolutionary war, the circumstances of the civilized world afforded 
 to our citizens universal facilities of becoming rich. An impulse, un- 
 known before, was given to our commerce, the value of real property was 
 suddenly raised; the products of our agriculture commanded "great 
 prices; the carrying trade fell into our hands; and a variety of circum- 
 stances, enumeration of which would be tedious, occurred to excite our 
 love of gain. This soon became the ruling passion of the nation; and 
 most parents thought much more of ways and means to make their chil- 
 dren rich, than to make them ripe and good scholars. Added to this, 
 the boundless tract of unsettled country lying on our whole western fron- 
 tier, produced a restless and unsettled spirit. Many of our citizens broke 
 up their old establishments, and in the spirit of adventure, went in 
 search of new settlements. Their success excited others ; and thus there 
 has been, and yet is, continual removing from one part of this vast coun- 
 try to another. The population in most parts is very sparse— the peo- 
 ple find great difficulty in obtaining the most ordinary teachers ; and the 
 majority grow up without sufficient learning to teach them the value of a 
 good education, or excite any great interest in an affair so truly import- 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 37 
 
 ant. In this situation, our legislatures, with an economy utterly un- 
 wise, have forborne to afford aid to the cause of literature. 
 
 5. It is believed that the influence of slavery has been pernicious 
 to the interests of literature. 
 
 6. Another cause, of no small weight, may well be considered in con- 
 junction with this; namely, the almost total destruction of what may 
 be termed domestic discipline. Children are very generally allowed to act 
 pretty much as they please. 
 
 7. The neglect of religious education. That this neglect is very 
 general is too obvious to require proof. [John Holt Eice in Christian 
 Monitor. Richmond, 1817, II, 289-297.] 
 
 1818. [1.] AN ACT APPEOPEIATING PART OF THE EEVEXUE OF THE 
 LITERARY FUND. 
 
 February 21. 
 
 For the purpose of duly applying a part of the income of the Liter- 
 ary Fund, to the primary object of its institution, it shall be the duty of 
 the courts of the several counties, cities, and corporate towns, repre- 
 sented in the General Assembly, and of the borough of Norfolk, in the 
 month of October, or as soon thereafter as may be, to appoint not less 
 than five nor more than fifteen discreet persons, to be called school com- 
 missioners for the counties, cities, the said corporate towns and borough 
 
 of Norfolk respectively, in which they may be appointed The said 
 
 commissioners shall have power to determine, what number of poor chil- 
 dren they will educate, what sum shall be paid for their education, to 
 authorize each of themselves to select so many poor children, as they 
 may deem expedient, and to draw orders upon their treasurer, for the 
 payment of the expense of tuition, and of furnishing such children with 
 proper books and materials for writing and cyphering. The poor children 
 selected in manner aforesaid, shall (with the assent of the father, or if 
 no father, of the mother of such children respectively, or if no mother, 
 with the assent of the guardian), be sent to such school as may be con- 
 venient, to be taught reading, writing and arithmetic*. 
 
 [3'.] ARTICLE BY JOHN HOLT .RICE. 
 
 I hear the insinuation that after all, the Legislature of 
 Virginia will establish no University, no Colleges, no general sys- 
 tem of education — I can believe no such thing. Our representatives 
 
 *"At the session of 1817-18, the General Assembly passed the bill for the erection of a 
 University, and for the education of the poor. After long and patient discussion and investiga- 
 tion, it was decided not to interfere with education, except in the points where it could not safely 
 be left to individual enterprise, viz: in the case of persons too poor to pay for it themselves, 
 and in that where the expense and magnitude of the subject defied individual enterprise, as in 
 the case of a University. This measure, for a University of the State, was hailed with enthusiasm 
 in the states west and south of us, as well as from every part of our own State." fStatement 
 of Joseph C. Cabell; see Early History of the University of Virginia, p. XXXIII.] 
 
38 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 ( 
 
 will not thus trifle with public feelings and public interests. And if 
 so disposed, they dare not do it. The PEOPLE are awake on this sub- 
 ject; and demand of their LEGISLATORS a wise and efficient sys- 
 tem of public education. Woe unto them, if they resist this demand! 
 * * * But the thing is not to be believed. They will not, and they 
 dare not do it. Every one now knows that the great business of erect- 
 ing and endowing seminaries of learning is not to be left to the 
 desultory, and feeble exertions of individual enterprise. And should the 
 State fail to provide the due instruction of the people, they will fail in 
 a paramount duty. It is difficult to withdraw from a subject so deeply 
 interesting. But the withdrawal will be only temporary. The writer 
 of this will return to it again and again, and, however feeble his abilities, 
 will give them, in their best exercise, to an afEair so deeply involving the 
 best interests of his country. [Virginia Evangelical and Literary Maga- 
 zine. Richmond, I. 1818, p. 548.] 
 
 1819. EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA. 
 
 The College of William and Mary, flourished for a number of years 
 in great prosprity; and in former times furnished for the service of the 
 State many ripe and good scholars. But the war of the revolution gave it 
 a shock from which it has not yet recovered. On the decease of Bishop 
 Madison, the late president, it seemed to be threatened with total ex- 
 tinction. Exertions, however, have been recently made to revive it, and 
 sanguine hopes are entertained hy some that it will again flourish. 
 
 The colleges of Hampden Sidney and Washington, have been chiefly 
 supported by the fees paid by stiidents. They were originally academies 
 established by Presbyterians, and incorporated for the general purposes of 
 education by the legislature. Whatever reputation they have had, has 
 been chiefly acquired and sustained by the character of their presidents. 
 To the former the legislature granted some escheated lands, with a few 
 hundred pounds; and to the latter, Washington bequeathed a hundred 
 shares in the Richmond Canal Company. Resources so scanty as these 
 have not enabled the trustees of these institutions to procure extensive 
 libraries, or complete apparatus ; much less to support a competent num- 
 ber of able professors. On this account, and perhaps because it was im- 
 agined that better discipline is maintained in the Northern schools, 
 many men of wealth have sent their sons to be educated either in Nas- 
 sau Hall, Yale or Harvard. These, it is understood, have generally main- 
 tained a good standing in their classes. And if they have not made dis- 
 tinguished scholars, the censure ought not to be on the schools where 
 they were not educated. The fact, however, is that literature, as a pro- 
 fession, is not known in Virginia. Education is sought as a qualifica- 
 tion for the business of life. The manner in which Virginians have dis- 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 39 
 
 t 
 
 charged the duties of the various learned professions, and acted their 
 part as politicians and warriors, affords the proper criterion by which to 
 determine whether they have been subjected to a salutary course of in- 
 tellectual discipline. 
 
 There is a number of incorporated academies in the State; few of 
 which are on a permanent foundation, or in a very flourishing condition. 
 Of this perhaps the principal reason is, that there exists among the 
 wealthy Virginians a strong predilection in favor of domestic or private 
 education; most gentlemen preferring to employ family tutors, instead, 
 of sending their children to academies. 
 
 While the State of Virginia has left the important business of edu- 
 cation to mere private management, it may well be taken for granted, 
 that the people at large have been but imperfectly instructed. Schools 
 for common education, perhaps the most important of any, have been 
 few, and in general badly conducted. This subject has not indeed been 
 wholly neglected. [Follow remarks on the establishment of the literary 
 fund, and the Act of Assembly of 1818.] But the question concerning 
 the appropriation of this literary fund, has produced a difference of opin- 
 ion which perhaps it will not be easy to reconcile. The subject is con- 
 fessedly one of delicacy and difficulty. The duty of the State, first in 
 point of importance, is to afford the means of a good common education 
 to the people. Of this, there can be no doubt, but the difficulty is how to 
 accomplish this object. Not every one who has acquired the elements of 
 learning is qualified to be a teacher. The demand for men of abilities in 
 the various departments of life is so great, and in general the profit so 
 considerable, that few men of education will devote themselves to^the 
 business of instruction for the salaries that the literary fund could af- 
 ford them. If then at the present time the State of Virginia were di- 
 vided into wards, and a primary school established in each, the teacher, 
 in most cases, would be some man too lazy to work; or, which is more 
 likely, some adventurer from abroad whose moral and intellectual quali- 
 fications could not be ascertained, would impose on the school commit- 
 tee, and be imposed on the people, until having gathered up as much 
 money as his ulterior purposes should require, he would return to the 
 place whence he came. Perhaps then, it might be the wisest course, first 
 to establish a number of respectable colleges and academies in various 
 parts of the State, at which the terms of education should be so low that 
 any, even the poor, jnight avail themselves of the advantages which these 
 institutions would afford. In this way teachers might in a few years be 
 raised up to supply the demand which primary schools would create. 
 But, however, this may be, it is gratifying to know that a fund so large 
 has been accumulated for literary purposes; and whatever doubts may 
 exist as to the best manner of appropriation, should it be diverted from 
 its original purposes, the character of the State will be materially in- 
 
40 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 jured, and they whom the people choose to manage their affairs will be 
 utterly inexcusable. 
 
 [Eemarks sub. "Virginia" in Eees's Encyclopedia, vol. 38.] 
 
 1821, PEB. 34. PEOVTSION BY THE STATE FOE ACADEMIES. 
 
 Whenever the annual income of the literary fund shall exceed sixty 
 thousand dollars, the surplus above that sum, until such surplus shall 
 amount to twenty thousand dollars, shall be appropriated, and the same 
 is hereby appropriated to the endowment of such colleges, academies, or 
 intermediate schools, within this Commonwealth, as the General As- 
 sembly may hereafter designate as fit institutions for such endowment. 
 {Acts of Assembly.] 
 
 1822. ARTICLES BY JOHN HOLT KICE. 
 
 1] We are much at a loss, to know by what criterion it is determined 
 that children are really indigent. We suspect that much is arbitrary in 
 this case. The county of Eockingham, by the last census, fias 1,959 per- 
 sons of sixteen years and under, more than the county of Eockbridge; 
 yet 140 indigent children are reported in the former, and 304 in the 
 latter. Essex has 103 reported one year and 41 two years afterwards. In 
 some cases negligence, and in others difference of opinion in the Commis- 
 sioners must account for this difference in numbers. The whole matter 
 seems to be irregular and uncertain. 
 
 We should like much to know what effect this appropriation has 
 on the parents of indigent children. Are not these parents generally in- 
 digent because they love whiskey; and because not even the strength of 
 parental affection can restrain their appetite for strong drink? We 
 want to know, then, whether in many cases this appropriation does not 
 operate as a premium for indulgence in this most prevalent and destruc- 
 tive vice in our country. We should like much to be informed whether 
 the jparental care of the State, does not give a plea for the carelessness of 
 natural parents 
 
 But hear the plan which we have to propose. We would engage to 
 have 30,000 poor children taught to read well at an expense of fifty 
 cents each per annum. This would be accomplished by means of Sunday 
 schools * This plan, while it would be tenfold more efficient than the 
 
 •"Great stress is laid on the progress of Sabbatli Schools in Richmond. I am pleased to 
 hear that they improve the opportunity of promoting education in this manner ; but it is what 
 cantiot be done in a thin settled country. Iota estimates the nujnber oif poor children sent to 
 school at 3,500, Init a great number go only five or six months. He says children sent in this 
 way will soon forget what they learn. Very strange, indeed, that a child can learn so much in 
 flfty-two or perhaps not more than forty Sabbath days and learn nothing in five or six months. 
 . . . The next thing that I shall notice, is the employing of twelve agents at $600 each, who 
 are to travel through the State and establish Sabbath Schools. These a;gents would pass on and 
 establish schools and tliis would be the first and last time they would be seen in one year. 
 The next year they would return, find fault, pass on and care as little tor the poor as do our 
 old-field schoolmasters. Next, we must have a great depository of books in Richmond, and a 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 41 
 
 present plan, would at once set at liberty $30,000 per annum to be ap- 
 propriated to the benefit of by far the most valuable part of society, the 
 people in moderate circumstances. 
 
 The use which we would make of this sum is as follows : We propose 
 that a law should pass guaranteeing to every ten thousand of our white 
 population, as soon as they will unite and erect for an academy, a perma- 
 nent building, in the most central and convenient place, and elect a suit- 
 able number of trustees for the due management of the said academy, 
 the sum of $500 per annum, for the purpose of paying one or more cap- 
 able teachers to be employed in the institution. 
 
 The white population of our State amounting now to about 600,000, 
 there might very well be erected 60 academies, each of which would re- 
 ceive from the State $500 per annum. At institutions thus aided, tui- 
 tion might be reduced to $12 a year, and two men of education employed 
 as teachers, who being themselves well educated, might instruct children 
 not only in reading, writing and common arithmetic, but also in geog- 
 raphy, the lower branches of Mathematics, Natural Philosophy, etc., 
 etc.; and turn them out with a taste for reading and strong desire of 
 improvement, or fit them for entering college, and pursuing a general 
 course of liberal study. {Evangelical and Literary Magazine, Y. 93-97.) 
 
 2] It is now generally conceded, that the plan which has been 
 adopted for the education of the poor will not succeed. The reason is 
 obvious : it makes no provision to secure that careful inspection and vigi- 
 lant superintendence, which are indispensable to its efficiency. 
 
 We have shown that the net amount appropriated to primary schools 
 does not rise to more than one-fifth part of what is actually necessary 
 to educate, at the present prices of tuition, the indigent children of the 
 State. Indeed if the whole $45,000 were annually expended in the best 
 manner, only a very small part of the great object proposed would be 
 accomplished. It is utterly delusive then to talk of educating the poor, 
 when almost nothing is done, and comparatively little can be done on 
 the present plan. 
 
 The great object of the legislature should be to MAKE EDUCA- 
 TION CHEAP instead of making it GRATUITOUS. This would place 
 it within the reach of all but absolute paupers, and at the same time pro- 
 duce a general interest in the subject. A knowledge of the fact, that 
 the State, in the exercise of its parental care, had adopted measures to 
 
 great man to keep them, who is to have $2,000 per annum. Such an establishment I hope never 
 to see in Virginia." — A critic of the plan, in Literary and Evangelical Magazine, VI, 283-84. 
 
 See also The Southern Enterprise: being a brief statement of facts in relation to the Enter- 
 prize, which the Americ(hn Sunday School Cnion resolved, at its late annual meeting, to prosecute 
 in the Southern States. Philadelphia, 1833, pp. 28 [containing an account of the origin of the 
 Southern Sunday School Enterprize ; reasons for undertaking it ; opinions of distinguished Southern 
 friends in regard to it, etc.] 
 
42 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 enable every industrious man to educate his children, would do a thou- 
 sand times more to promote general education, than twice forty-five 
 thousand dollars applied exclusively to indigent children. The primary 
 school fund is wasted on an inefficient plan to educate paupers, while 
 it leaves the general prices of education unchanged. 
 
 Most of the tolerably reputable and decent schools are conducted 
 by young men, whose only object in teaching is to procure money to en- 
 able them to study a more respected if not a more profitable profession. 
 Hence, they set themselves up to the highest bidder for the time ; hence, 
 also, parents, unable for any length of time to support the expense, cut 
 short the course of their ehildrens' education. To have good teachers and 
 xheap tuition, we must have permanent schools — these remarks show the 
 high importance of that part of our plan, which recommends the estab- 
 lishment of regular academies in all parts of the State. 
 
 These institutions sufficiently endowed would cheapen the price of 
 education in several ways. 
 
 1. They would afford a considerable portion of the teacher's salary; 
 and of course there would be less necessity for high fees. 2. They would 
 increase the number of scholars; and the more scholars a teacher has, 
 the cheaper Ee can afford to work. 3. They would turn out many men 
 capable of conducting ordinary schools very advantageously ; and thus by 
 competition reduce the price of instructing. 
 
 With these remarks before him, let any man who can make the or- 
 dinary calculations of arithmetic turn to the last census of Virginia. He 
 will there see that the number of persons of sixteen years and under, in 
 the State, amounts to nearly 300,000. It is not too much to say, that 
 one-half of these ought to be at school. The annual expense of their 
 tuition at the very lowest price fixed on for an average, would be fifteen 
 hundred thousand dollars ! But it is not fair to malce the old-field-school 
 price a standard for calculation. We are persuaded that an average 
 formed on the prices of all the schools would amount to more than $20, 
 but to avoid excess, let this be assumed as the correct average, and it 
 follows that the people of Virginia ought to be paying at least three 
 millions of dollars annually for education*. 
 
 But here we wish to guard against any misapprehension of our rea- 
 soning. We do not suppose that if the experiment were made, the re- 
 sult would come out exactly as we have stated in figures, for we know 
 the wide difference between theory and practice. The whole of our 
 argument aims at this conclusion, and we feel warranted in making it 
 with confidence, that the establishment of academies in the manner pro- 
 posed, one for every 10,000 souls, would bring the means of obtaining 
 a good education within the reach of the great body of the people, and 
 thus prove an immense advantage to them. 
 
 •Expenditures 1906-1907 for the public school system ot Virginia, $3,300,000. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 43 
 
 There is another remark to which we invite the most serious atten- 
 tion of our readers. There is perhaps no country in the world of equal 
 degrees of civilization with that of the Southern States, where there are 
 so few objects of local attachment. The churches where our forefathers 
 worshipped have been totally demolished; the graves of our ancestors 
 have been ploughed up; the school-houses, where we learned the rudi- 
 ments of education, have long since rotted down. Now the effect of all 
 this is very unhappy. It makes a man hang loose to his country, and 
 generates a migratory disposition. In this view of the subject, we do 
 most earnestly wish that our legislature, and that the legislatures of 
 the Southern and Western States, would adopt all the measures in their 
 power to promote permanent establishments. The public spirit and wis- 
 dom of our legislators, we trust, will aid in the erection of neat, substan- 
 tial academies, which, seen by the passenger in the midst of embowering 
 groves, will cause many a one, as he goes by, to recollect his youthful 
 sports, and youthful friendships, his generous rivalries, and his honest 
 intellectual triumphs, which, in a word, will awaken all the associations 
 which are so precious to a heart of genuine sensibility. {Evangelical and 
 Literary Magazine, V. 132-138.) 
 
 3] We are fully under the impression that many wrong feelings are 
 cherished, and many mistaken opinions entertained respecting the appli- 
 cation of the Literary Fund. Some consult local interests and preju- 
 dices; and some pursue wild theories. In the mean time, the whole af- 
 fair is so managed as to disgust or offend the people. The result, thus 
 far is precisely this — the mass of our citizens are indifferent; a few are 
 warmly hostile; and the active friends of literature, sadly embarrassed 
 and shackled in their operations, know not very well what to do. 
 
 The reason of all this, as we think, is exceedingly obvious. They who 
 have managed this important business, have not adopted measures to 
 convince the great body of the people, and make them feel that they 
 have an interest in the literary fund. At present, we are persuaded that 
 they regard it as no concern of theirs. The forty-five thousand dollars a 
 year they consider as a donation to the poor. It is never to do the people 
 any good, but it is worthy of the generous and liberal character of Vir- 
 ginia to make such annual gifts, and they are well pleased that they 
 should be made, if only the poor will rightly use the bounty. And as for 
 the university, why, that is .for the rich,* and they may well be satisfied 
 with what they have. This, we verily , believe, is a true expression of 
 the public feeling, and it is precisely what we anticipated from the be- 
 
 * cf. Farmer's Register, III, 688, Address before the Agricultural Conv^tion of Virginia, 
 1836, by ex-Governor James Barbour: 
 
 "It is quite fresh in my recollection that it was objected that the establishment of a Uni- 
 versity would be an aristocratic measure. We all know how easy it is to get up this mad-dog 
 cry. Although in very truth, an entire county with all its wealth would scarcely be equal to the 
 making a real full-blooded aristocrat,, yet with us it is sufficient to fix the 'suspicion of being 
 suspected' against any man who boils his pot every day. One, two, or at most three dishes a 
 day, are full proof of this horrible offence.'* 
 
44 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, VttQ-li&Q 
 
 ginning. The measures pursued, in the present state of the country, could 
 not have produced any other result 
 
 There are several colleges in the State, to which the neighboring 
 people are warmly attached. Many of our most intelligent and influen- 
 tial citizens have been educated at them, and have an unextinguished 
 attachment to them. In this state of things, an impression has been 
 produced that the university is intended to put down these old and valu- 
 able institutions to the level of mere academies, and indeed to supersede 
 their use. It is easy to see what has been, and what will be the effect of 
 all this. There are friends of primary schools, friends of the colleges, and 
 friends of the university, who each having different plans in view, coun- 
 teract those of others. These are painful facts; but they are not to be 
 disguised. They deserve most serious consideration. And that especi- 
 ally, as this state of things may prepare the way for some demagogue to 
 come in, and dissipate the whole literary fund. 
 
 There is another point to which we feel it to be our duty to direct 
 the reader's attention. The State has neglected the subject of education 
 so long, that the effects of this negligence begin to be severely felt; and 
 this particularly, when Virginia compares herself with some of her 
 younger sisters. Many among us are mortified and ashamed ; and under 
 the pungency of these feelings we wish at once to spring forward, and 
 occupy the ground, which we should have been able to possess only after 
 a steady march of fifty years. But the thing can't he done. However 
 high mettled and fieet, we have too much weight to carry, to dash for- 
 ward in this way, and make up lost ground. In other words, moral 
 causes operate slowly; and we must have patience to wait for their 
 progress. We cannot have a completely organized and perfectly ar- 
 ranged system of instruction in successful operation, in less than half 
 a century.* If we run too fast, we shall assuredly ruin everything. 
 
 Do any ask here, what then is to be done ? We are ready to answer 
 with unhesitating confidence, that nothing can be done with any effect 
 at all worthy of the reputation of the State, until by some scheme or 
 other, the great body of the people shall be made to feel a lively personal 
 interest in the management of the literary fund. They elect represen- 
 tatives; and in all great questions their feelings will govern the legis- 
 lature. This we hold as certain. Mathematics could not make it plainer. 
 
 Something may be effected, by well written essays, to convince them 
 that the science and learning of a country are a common stock, employed 
 for the good of the whole. But alas, there is so little reading among us, 
 even of magazines and newspapers, that it is very difficult to get access 
 to the people. The only measure on which we place any great reliance, 
 is one recommended in a former number. That of maldng a really good 
 common education so cheap, as to bring it within the means of the great 
 
 *Half a century from 1822 1 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 45 
 
 body of the people. For this purpose, we have recommended the erection 
 of academies thronghont the State, one for every ten thousand souls. If 
 this measure is not approved, or cannot be adopted, some other of similar 
 design seems really to be necessary. Only let the thing which we wish 
 be done, and we venture to warrant that popular favour will be given 
 without limitation to the literary fund 
 
 And in prosecuting to full efFect the patriotic designs of the founders 
 of the literary fund, it will be highly expedient to support the colleges at 
 present in existence, and aid in the erection of others, in different parts 
 of the State. If this great fimd should be well managed, it will afford 
 ample means to effect these important objects. Three or four more col- 
 leges, at least, are needed for the purpose of retaining the important 
 
 concern of the higher education, within the limits of Virginia 
 
 Every college properly conducted, generates something of a literary at- 
 mosphere. These colleges might maintain, and ought to maintain, a 
 correspondence with the academies in neighboring districts, and keep up 
 the tone of literary feeling in them: Youth destined for the ordinary 
 avocations of life, would go from the academies to their trades and call- 
 ings; and those intending to pursue a higher literary course, would repair 
 to the colleges ; where we would have everything taught that is necessary 
 to fit men for the learned professions. Should any imagine that we 
 are at all hostile to the university, they will be greatly mistaken. In 
 that national design we have always taken a lively interest. At present, 
 however, we cannot enter on this part of the subject. {Evangelical and 
 Literary Magazine, V. 184-189.) 
 
 Certainly, we do in this country greatly need an institution where 
 ingenuous young men, whose minds have been prepared by wise previous 
 discipline, may employ a few years, without incurring any enormous ex- 
 pense, in extending their knowledge and enlarging their views. At such 
 an institution we would, at any price necessary to command them, place 
 men of the very foremost attainments — men at once of consummate 
 skill in their particular departments, and of great and comprehensive 
 minds^-men, who while they could, with all the ease and familiarity of 
 intimate acquaintance, bring the whole that has been discovered of any 
 particular science before the minds of their pupils, would be able to 
 show the various connections of all the branches of human knowledge. 
 This institution is our university. These are the professors whom we 
 would place there, and for its support we would out of our poverty most 
 cheerfully contribute to double and if necessary quadruple the resources 
 of the literary fund. {Evangelical and Literary Magazine, V. 3'37-8.) 
 
 Our whole plan then is this : 
 
 1. We would set apart a small portion of the literary fund for the 
 purpose of affording a regular supply of books for the use of Sabbath 
 schools, and depend on the generosity of enlightened and well disposed 
 
46 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 young people to afEord gratuitious instruction to the poor in their neigh- 
 borhood.* 
 
 3. We would endow permanently an academy for every 10,000 souls ; 
 and so place a really good common education within the reach of every 
 industrious and prudent man in the State. 
 
 3. We would afford aid to the present colleges, and assist the people 
 in the erection of several others where they might be needed, and by mod- 
 erate endowment render their fees so low, as to bring the means of lib- 
 eral education within the reach of gentlemen of moderate circumstances 
 living in the neighborhood. 
 
 4. And to crown all, we would establish the university, and afford 
 there the facilities of pursuing any science to its utmost extent. [Evan- 
 gelical and Literary Magazine, V. 240.] 
 
 1823. DEFENCE OF THE COMMON SCHOOLS. 
 
 I will now say something of the primary schools, and take my own 
 county as an example. We have appointed a school commissioner for 
 every company muster district, who attends to the poor children in said 
 district, by the consent of their parents. We send said children to 
 schools made up partly by them, and partly by those that are able to pay 
 for tuition, and here comes in the benefit of that noble class of our citi- 
 zens, the honest mechanics and the sober farmers. A teacher, for in- 
 stance, comes into a neighborhood, goes round and makes up 14 or 15 
 scholars; but is unwilling to commence with less than twenty; the school 
 commissioner comes and engages 4 or 5, and the school is made up. In 
 this manner, these 4 or 5 poor children cause 15 others to be sent to 
 school ;■!■ the school being established convenient to each man's house. 
 They all go without distinction, are treated alike, and the school com- 
 missioners draw on their treasurer from time to time, as the tuition 
 fees become due. These are the schools to which I have been accustomed, 
 and have had but a small share of them. I have never had the honour to 
 be a student of- a university, a college, or an academy; my information is 
 very limited ; but I know that something may be learned even at the old- 
 field schools, and little as it is, it is the most that the greater part of the 
 community are able to obtain. I am fully convinced that every particle 
 of knowledge that we can get into the mind of the poorest citizen, is 
 strengthening the bands of a republican government. This is the gov- 
 ernment in which we glory, we like equality and cannot abide too much 
 distinction of ranks. We should be most sincerely sorry to see what 
 was the practice sixty years ago, a poor honest man standing at the gate 
 of the rich, and a servant dispatched to know his business. This may 
 
 •In 1821, a law was passed in the State of Delaware, by which State funds were to be used 
 for the support of Sunday Schools. See Report U. S. Bureau of Education, 1896-97, p. 351. 
 
 t This system, as obtaining in South Carolina in 1850, was described as one of "pay," less pay 
 and no pay." Southern Presbyterian Review, IV, 78fl. ' ' 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 47 
 
 again be the ease if the poor are suffered to grow more and more ig- 
 norant. 
 
 In this manner we see all those men fond of distinction and power 
 constantly and earnestly contending for academies, colleges, the univer- 
 sity, etc. Has it not been said on the floor of the legislature that every 
 wise man in the State of Virginia laughed at the primary schools ? And 
 has it not been said also, endow your university, educate your young 
 men there, and when they return home their examples mil he sufficient 
 for the poor to pattern after. 
 
 0, Virginians ! Open your eyes and suffer not yourselves to be de- 
 luded. Be particular in your representations, and elect no man to your 
 legislature, who is inimical to our existing form of government as to 
 primary education. [Evangelical and Literary Magazine, VI. 285-6.] 
 
 1824. STATEMENT OF JOHN HOLT EICE. 
 
 We greatly need in different parts of the State a competent number 
 of well supported academies. Institutions of this kind, where boys are 
 kept under a closer inspection than is possible at college ; where they are 
 trained and disciplined for college life and college studies are of very 
 great importance. They are the proper places for that sort of ground- 
 ing in elementary knowledge without which the course of study at col- 
 lege does not, and from the nature of the case cannot, afford half of its 
 advantages. And I have greatly wondered and deeply regretted that 
 the thousands which have been and are every year squandered on what is 
 falsely called the primary school system, have not been appropriated to 
 
 the erection of institutions like these Why, to borrow the language 
 
 of a man revered and celebrated for his wisdom, should we put a price 
 in the hands of a fool to buy wisdom, when he has no heart for it ?* We 
 want academies, both male and female, at which a course of education 
 might be given, suited to the purposes of all, except those who wish to 
 pass through the higher discipline of college. 
 
 Perhaps there is no country in the world, where the women are 
 more completely domestic, than they are in our own; and none where 
 female influence is more generally felt. This is a most happy circum- 
 stance. And it affords a powerful argument in favor of female edu- 
 cation. 
 
 But suppose that parents generally, wished to give their daughters 
 a good education, where could they find the means ? There are perhaps 
 four or five good female schools in the whole State, in almost efery in- 
 stance raised by the individual exertions of their teachers. In this case 
 the whole apparatus, and all the fixtures are private property ; and the 
 -whole undertaking is altogether at private risque. Hence, the expenses 
 
 * Was this William Branch Giles, in his letters signed "Constituent," Richmond Enquirer, 
 January, 1818? 
 
48 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 are beyond the reach of any but the wealthy. And even they think that 
 they cannot afford to send their daughters more than a year or two to 
 school. [Evangelical and Literary Magazine, VIII. 5-6.] 
 
 1825. STATEMENT OF A SCHOOL COMMISSIONER. 
 
 We Virginians perhaps beyond any people in the United States^, 
 boast of our attachment to republicanism, but if we would carefully at- 
 tend to certain sentiments and opinions which are almost daily expressed 
 among us, we should iind ground to suspect that with all our boasted 
 republicanism there is a strong tincture of aristocracy. Although I have 
 long entertained this opinion, yet I was never so fully satisfied of its 
 truth, as I have been since the pa-ssage of the law for the education of 
 the poor at the expense of the literary fund. Prom the manner in which 
 many express themselves, it was evident they considered the education of 
 the poor as of no importance. The slaves they looked upon as the per- 
 sons who are to perform the chief part of the labor necessary in society, 
 and their masters as the persons who are to be our politicians, our law- 
 yers, our physicians, and our merchants, but the poor are a supernume- 
 rary class, of little use in society, and deserving of but little attention. It 
 is true that but few would bring out these sentiments point blank, yet 
 from the expressions which would occasionally escape from them, it was 
 manifest that such were their inward and genuine opinions. With people 
 under such a bias of mind, as that which I have stated, it was not to be 
 expected that any plan for the education of the poor would meet with a 
 cordial approbation, much less such a plan as that adopted by our legis- 
 lature, which appropriates money for the education of the poor, but none 
 for the education of the middle or higher classes. I am a friend to 
 that plan 
 
 Some persons are for establishing academies all over the State, 
 each one of which is annually to send forth a litter of teachers, well stored 
 with Latin and G-reek, who will teach our little boys and girls the rudi- 
 ments of English in a most excellent manner. For my part I think we 
 have more academies already than are of any use.* Our statute book 
 abounds with them. I am besides no admirer of the proposed method 
 of constructing our literary edifice by beginning in the middle and build- 
 ing downwards. I would rather pursue the good old plan of beginning 
 
 * cf. Life of Willialm B. Rogers, Boston, 1896, Vol. I, p. 35. When he wrote this letter 
 Rogers was conducting a school, with his brother Henry, at Windsor, Ma,ryland. He writes to 
 his father, professor at William and Mary College, November 3, 1826: "The gentleman who 
 wanted a tutor is Mr. Gamett, the husband of the lady who teaches a very celebrated 
 female school in Virginia. He has three sons whom he wishes to educate at home. They are 
 to be instructed in Greek, Latin, English and Mathematics; and the tutor is to receive a salaiy 
 of four hundred dollars and his boarding. The salary is jiandsome and to one in my situation 
 very enticing. 
 
 "Teaching is much less pro.ltable in Maryland than in Virginia. There a classical teacher 
 may in a few years lay up what will enable him to obtain a profession and begin the practice 
 of it ; here, unless he is so fortunate as to become fashionable in the city, he can only realize a 
 support." 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 49 
 
 at the bottom and building upwards. But I have neither time nor space 
 to go into a discussion of this question at large at present. I need only 
 observe, that if we afford a competent support to teachers, we will find 
 them rising up amongst us, as it were, spontaneously, and we will find 
 them flowing in upon us from the northeast, the north, and even the 
 
 west ■ 
 
 Much has been said of "Old Field Schools," and they are always 
 mentioned in terms of great contempt. For my own part I scarcely ever 
 pass an old field school, and indeed scarcely ever think of one, without 
 agreeable emotions. Such a school always presents to my mind the ideas 
 of health, of innocence, and of athletic sport, and I view them as the 
 nurseries from which are to arise the future stays and supports of civil 
 society. I view them moreover as exactly adapted to the State and cir- 
 cumstances of the country, and although their appearance is humble 
 their value is great. [Evangelical and Literary Magazine, VIII. 367- 
 374.] 
 
 1827. OLD AND NEW VIRGINIA. 
 
 Do you want the old Virginia character brought back? It can be 
 done, it is the easiest of political problems. You must repeal the statute 
 of distributions, and introduce hereditary wealth; then check the spirit 
 of commerce by abolishing the banks, bringing all wealth back to con- 
 sist in land and slaves; and then you will have it restored in two gen- 
 erations: but for how many generations it would last I cannot say. It 
 is not wise in us, depend upon it, to sigh after that, which the equal 
 division of estates among heirs cuts up by the roots. All the improve- 
 ment now going on in the world tends inevitably to equalization, and he 
 who looks at the whole ground will perceive at what cost we have bought 
 a levelling democratic government. Some may be appalled at a philoso- 
 phical consideration of its exclusive course. I speak most sincerely, 
 when I declare it to be worth, in my mind, more than all which falls 
 before it. I do not then join in tliis delusive regret; in the nineteenth 
 century it is too late. I throw my eye on that basis, that residuum which 
 we have chosen for ourselves. I think there is in the Virginia character 
 of the present day a greater fitness for improvement and capacity for 
 excellence, not only beyond what we once knew, but, my respect for 
 other peoples does not forbid me to say, beyond that of any 
 other nation. Let us but see our faults and apply the remedies, and 
 she shall one day, not far distant, be more than she ever yet was imagined 
 by her sons to be. Virginia is lower, none can deny, in the scale of the 
 IJmon than she once was. I firmly believe that a better destiny is pre- 
 pared for her than she has ever experienced, were there but sagacity 
 enough among us to take advantage of all her capabilities. And I would 
 
50 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 even fix upon this event, the acknowledged and recognized decline of 
 Virginia, however paradoxical it may seem, as an important circum- 
 stance promotive of the future greatness of the Commonwealth. .... 
 
 Nor was it in the nature of things that they [great Virginians] 
 should be produced, while the vanity of believing ourselves the greatest 
 people on earth checked our exertions to attain or preserve' real great- 
 ness, and while the very worst plan of education, that ever dulness in- 
 vented to pamper vanity, prevailed, as it did from the revolution imtil 
 about the year 1820. Is it not incredible that a youthful people, with 
 almost none of her energies developed; her enterprise not yet shown in 
 any one great public work, continuing on its imdiminished utility to suc- 
 ceeding times; her love of learning not shown by any venerable seats of 
 learning, founded and liberally patronized by her wealth; with not one 
 poem, one history, one statue, one picture, one work of laborious learn- 
 ing to exhibit to the world in rivalry of the land of Tasso and of Eaphael, 
 or of Gibbon and of Chantrey — that this people should fold its arms to 
 dream of its secure supremacy over all others, should voluntarily cut it- 
 self off from the fountains of rich learning by means of a bad system 
 deliberately taken and persevered in for thirty years, and should by 
 inertness and stagnation of public spirit draw on itself, in its early 
 youth, signs of old age. 
 
 It has been to me always an interesting inquiry, how great was the 
 extent of the means of education in Virginia before the revolution, and in 
 what respect they differed from those of our own time. 
 
 Whoever in considering these parish schools of the colony as the 
 only places of instruction, should estimate their fitness to give a mature 
 education by the analogy of the mostly wretched grammar schools of the 
 present day, and thence conclude that no valuable learning could have 
 been imparted in them, is very far from truth. There has seldom been 
 known a class of men whose characters presented so many varied quali- 
 ties, such mingled subjects of censure and good-natured approbation, as 
 did the clergy of Virginia before the revolution. They were nearly all 
 Scotchmen, sent hither by that uneasy spirit of adventure, which was at 
 that time conducting the interna] commerce of all Europe by Scotch 
 pedlars, and helping to render interminable the German wars, that 
 labyrinth of history, by Scotch soldiers of fortune; a spirit which long 
 made that nation notorious, until the fuller glory of New England thrift 
 and enterprise rose on the world of meum and tuum, to rest forever in 
 the ascendant. It may seem strange, that so few Englishmen were 
 selected. Perhaps the pecuniary prospects of the Virginia parishes 
 were not inviting enough to the colder and more inactive English ; while 
 to the craving of Scotch poverty, the inducement was irresistible. In 
 some cases, perhaps, persons were frocked and sent over to us without 
 any previous clerical education ; but I apprehend that it was not often so. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 51 
 
 Too many of them, undoubtedly, without the impulse of pious purpose, 
 and without the decency of religious profession, came among us to en- 
 joy the comparative wealth which the law made their right ; but the edu- 
 cation of these men had been regular, and their learning was never de- 
 spicable. Little would any one, who had noted the robustious horseman 
 that was loudest in the view-halloo, and foremost in at the death of the 
 fox ; and who had joined the laughing chorus at the rare jest of the same 
 person, the boon companion faithful to the end, the dear lover of the 
 practical joke, and "the skillful adept in the hieroglyphics of whist and 
 picquet; little would he suspect that it was a clerical Nimrod, whom he 
 had seen exulting in the worldly glories of the chase, and that it was the 
 prince of good fellows, whom he would next see comely with band and 
 cassock. But still less would he suspect, that the shelves of this incon- 
 gruous being were stored with the rare treasures of good learning, and 
 that the transactions of the world of letters were scarce less familiar to 
 his mind than to the grave and austere, who make learning their occu- 
 pation and their fame. 
 
 The instruction in the parish schools, cheifly in ancient learning, 
 in Latin particularly, was little inferior to that in any part of the world 
 at the time. When actually engaged with their pupils, the tutors showed 
 a familiarity with their authors, and enthusiastic admiration of them, and 
 a love of learning in general, which inspired all their pupils with an 
 eagerness not immediately satisfied, and which became a permanent part 
 of their character in after life. It may not be amiss to observe here, that 
 though the scholarship of the clergy, as far as it consists in an intimate 
 acquaintance with the spirit of the authors, was most thorough, yet their 
 pronunciation, as it is even now in Scotland, was very wretched ; a mat- 
 ter of no great moment in this connexion, seeing that the true classical 
 enthusiasm was so much diffused by them. 
 
 In making an estimate of the condition of learning here before the 
 revolution, I feel warranted in saying, that while the lower orders were 
 scarcely at all instructed, the richer class were vastly better educated in 
 proportion to the light and spirit of the age, than the present generation 
 are, acknowledging a great advancement of society since in Europe. I 
 might safely say this, even excluding from the estimate those who were 
 sent abroad to be educated, who were not a few. Many are the relics that 
 still lie scattered in the region where these latter men usually had their 
 abode, seeming like the" fossil remains of some long gone species. 
 
 While we may set down the education of those men, who were 
 trained abroad, as equal to the best standard of foreign education; we 
 may form a very exact estimate of the learning of those who were care- 
 fully educated wholly in the colony. The education which they received, 
 was exactly the Scotch education of the period. ISTow Scotch education, 
 in the- three first quarters of the eighteenth century, consisted chiefly of 
 
52 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 Latin. Of Greek, there was but little taught in Scotland, and that, as 
 it is now, rather superficially. The mathematics of the day were taught 
 in Latin, as was almost all the science which was thought proper to be 
 learned. 
 
 You perceive my drift, then, Mr. President, when I avow, that I 
 believe education to have declined here, since the revolution. It has de- 
 clined in the very vital part of learning, namely, classical knowledge; 
 and to the decline in this point is attributable, in my mind, or with this 
 is necessarily connected, a decline in general learning 
 
 The chief operative cause of a decline of letters in Virginia, has un- 
 doubtedly been the premature inclination of most of our young men for 
 political life, absorbing their thoughts from an early age, tempting them 
 by the ease with which political advancement to a certain stage is to be 
 obtained, and making irksome the toil of acquiring any knowledge of 
 which they do not see the immediate need. The consequence of all this 
 is, that the education of our young politicians has been precisely this: 
 just as much Latin as would enable them to read the newspapers ; Greek 
 enough to remember the alphabet for four or five years; the history of 
 England for the last fifty years, embracing the parliamentary lives of 
 Burke, Fox, and Pitt; and, in fact, a better knowledge of American 
 politics than prevails anywhere in America. Nay, sir, this is not all. 
 These geniuses usually learn a little law also. 
 
 It was, perhaps, as much an effect as a cause of the decline of learn- 
 ing, that the college of William and Mary abolished the study of the 
 classics altogether. The truly diverting reasons are to be found in Mr. 
 Jefferson's notes; and it is 3 Call's Eeport,* I think, wherein the Eev. 
 Mr. Bracken was turned out to starve, according to law, and the poor 
 humanities relegated to the grammar schools. The ludicrous pheno- 
 menon of a college, without the ancient languages, and the lamentable 
 sight of the dust thick on the shelves of a noble library, for the honor of 
 Virginia no longer exist. 
 
 And now, Mr. President, having pointed out these deficiencies and 
 these much to be lamented inclinations, which none can well deny to 
 exist in Virginia, I have no systematic plan to propose, nor any new 
 remedy. I am waiting, with anxious expectation, for the fuller develop- 
 ment of the effects of causes now in active, cheerful operation in Vir- 
 ginia. . From these, I scarcely doubt that eminently good results will 
 issue 
 
 But in fact and in seriousness, I will say thus much, and it will in 
 a few words express the radical mischief of our system, according to my 
 apprehension. As soon as the first ten years of our Union, under this 
 constitution, were past, I would that it had been engraven over the door 
 
 •The charter of the college is vested in the case Bracken vs. The CoUege, 3 Call 673 1 
 Call 161 ; a case involving the power of the visitors to change the schools and nut down nro- 
 fessorships. Code 1849, p. 384. ■■ h'"- 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 53 
 
 way of every college in America, that it is to be the error of America, 
 that every one will think that the community needs some direct service 
 from him; he will set out for public utility, and never once imagine 
 that he is a part of that community and that there is no way for promot- 
 ing the public good like that of self -improvement by individuals. [Ad- 
 dress, September, 1827, "The Prospects of Letters and Taste in Virginia," 
 by J. Burton Harrison, before the Literary and Philosophical Society at 
 Hampden-Sidney College.*] 
 
 1829. FEB. 25. ACT FOE ESTABLISHING DISTRICT FREE SCHOOLS. 
 
 Whenever the school commissioners of any county shall believe 
 that the funds appropriated to the education of the poor children of 
 their county, can be employed to advantage in the manner herein desig- 
 nated, it shall be lawful for them to cause their county to be divided into 
 convenient districts, containing not less than three, nor more than 
 seven miles square 
 
 Whenever the inhabitants of any one of the said districts shall, by 
 voluntary contribution, have raised three-fifths of the amount necessary 
 to build, either in the centre, or such other part of the district as may 
 be agreed on with the school commissioners of their county, a good and 
 sufficient schoolhouse, of wood, stone or brick, it shall and may be law- 
 ful for the said school commissioners to appropriate, out of the annual 
 quota of their county, the remaining two-fifths of the amount requisite 
 for said buildings : Provided, such appropriation shall in no case exceed 
 ten per centum on said quota. And provided, the building erected, to- 
 gether with the ground on which it stands, not exceeding one acre, shall 
 forever thereafter be vested in the president and directors of the literary 
 fund, to be held for the exclusive use of the district in which it shall 
 have been so erected. 
 
 It shall morever be lawful for the school commissioners of any county 
 to approririate out of the annual quota of their tounty, a sum not exceed- 
 ing one hundred dollars, for the employment of a good and sufficient 
 teacher for any schoolhouse vested in the president and directors of the 
 literary fund, in the manner prescribed in the foregoing section: Pro- 
 vided, the inhabitants of said district shall raise by voluntary contribu- 
 tion, an equal or greater sum for the same purpose,^ and shall select no 
 teacher that shall not have been examined and accepted by such person 
 
 *In The Harrisons of Skimino. Privately printed. 1910. pp. 277-295. 
 
 t of. Martin's Oazetteer of Virginia, Charlottesville, 1836, p. 77. "As the public bounty is 
 confined to the offspring of indigent parents, a plan is now partially in operation, by which con- 
 tributions may be received from individuals to establish schools free for all classes of pupils ; 
 and strong hope is entertained that the experiment will prove successful, notwithstanding the 
 difficulties which arise from the mixed population of one portion of the State, and the scattered 
 population and rugged surface of the other. Experience has already demonstrated the utility of 
 even the existing system, and thousands who must have groped through life in the darkness of 
 ignorance have ihad the cheering light of knowledge shed upon them by means of the primary 
 schools." I 
 
54 The Beginnings of Public EdiKation in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 . or persons as the school commissioners may have appointed for that 
 purpose. 
 
 And provided also, that the said school shall be constituted into a 
 free school, for the instruction, without fee or reward, of every free 
 white child within said district, and be moreover subject to the control 
 and direction of three trustees, two to be appointed by the annual con- 
 tributors within the district, and one by the school commissioners for 
 the county 
 
 1831-1835. THE INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION OF HAMPDEN SIDNEY COLLEGE. 
 
 1. Agreeably to previous notice a numerous meeting of gentlemen 
 friendly to the interests of education, was held in the chapel of Hampden- 
 Sidney College on the 29th of September, 1831, and after the usual pre- 
 liminaries, and some time spent in consultation, they resolved them- 
 selves, into a society to be called the Institute of Education of Hampden- 
 Sidney College. A Committee was then appointed to prepare a Consti- 
 tution for the Institute and to report at another meeting to be held on the 
 day after the ensuing college commencement. 
 
 At that time, September the 27th, 1832, the committee reported a 
 constitution which with a few verbal alterations, was adopted. The 
 principal features in that constitution are exhibited in the following ex- 
 tracts : 
 
 Article 1. The object of this institute shall be, to collect and diffuse 
 such information as will be calculated to improve the character of our 
 common schools and other literary institutions. 
 
 Article 2. Any gentleman of good moral character, may be elected a 
 member of the institute at any annual meeting thereof. 
 
 Article 3. Section 4. It shall be the duty of the Board of Direc- 
 tors to appoint gentlemen to deliver lectures at the annual meeting of 
 the Institute, on such subjects connected with education as the board 
 may assign them, and to collect information relating to the literary in- 
 stitutions of our country and to communicate it to the Institute in their 
 annual report. (These documents are to be considered the property of 
 the Institute, and it is made the duty of the Executive Committee to pro- 
 cure publication in some form of such portions of them as they think 
 will be profitable and instructive to teachers and the community gen- 
 erally.) 
 
 J. P. Cushing, president ; H. P. Goodrich, E. Root, and S. C. An- 
 - derson, vice-presidents ; Albert L. Holladay, corresponding secretary ; 
 B. M. Smith, recording secretary; E. Ballentine, D. Comfort and S. 
 Matthews, executive committee. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 55 
 
 On motion the institute adjourned to meet at the call of the Board 
 of Directors. 
 
 J. P. Gushing, President* 
 B. M. Smith, Recording Secretary.^ 
 
 The proceedings of the Board of Directors extracted from the 
 minutes of the two meetings, one held January 13th, the other August 
 23, 1833. 
 
 The annual meeting of the institute was appointed to be held in 
 the college chapel at 10 o'clock A. M., on Thursday, the 14th of Septem- 
 ber, next. The public exercises to take place in the Presbyterian Church, 
 near the college, on the same day. The exercises will consist of the follow- 
 ing address and lectures: 
 
 1. The annual address, by President Gushing. 
 
 2. A lecture on a Gommon School System for the Southern States, 
 by Professor Goodrich. 
 
 3. A lecture on the Qualifications of Gommon School Teachers, by 
 J. B. Tinsley, Esq., of Powhatan. 
 
 4. A lecture on Female Education. 
 
 (Owing to unavoidable circumstances a vacancy has occurred which 
 has not yet certainly been filled.) 
 
 5. A lecture on the Practical Advantages of Studying Languages. 
 
 B. M. Smith, Recording Secretary. 
 [Richmond Enquirer, Sept. 6, 1833.] 
 
 [2.] ADDKESS BY JAMES M. GAEXETT. 
 
 Individually consulted, we cry out nearly to a man, "Let us edu- 
 cate our people !" But if called on for combined action, very few or none 
 respond to the invitation. We have no common system — the result of 
 general concert ; no uniform plan, either as to the objects or modes, or 
 courses of instruction ; no generally established class books in the various 
 studies pursued in our sehoolst and colleges; no particular qualifications 
 
 made indispensable for teachers Politics, law, physic, absorb nearly 
 
 all the talent of the State, while the vital business of instructing the 
 
 *Mr. Gushing, a native of New Hampshire and a graduate of Dartmouth CoUege C[_817), 
 was President of Hampden^idney CoUege 1821-1835. He was a Vice-President of the Virginia 
 Historical Society at its first organization in 1831, and his address before that society in 1833 
 forms an excellent statement of intellectual conditions in Virginia at that time. 
 
 It is of interest to note the members from Virginia of the American Education Society 
 before 1835: Rev. Adam Empie, D. D. (William and Mary College), Jonathan P. Gushing, John 
 H. ■ Rice, George A. Baxter (Washington College and Union Theological Seminary), William 
 Maxwell (President, Hampden-Sidney College, 1838-1844), William S. Plumer, William J. Arm- 
 strong, B. M. Smith, agent. 
 
 t The Hiev. B. M. Smith (for many years of the faculty of Union Theological Seminary at 
 Hampden-Sidney) in 1841 drew up the report on Primary Schools for the Richmond Education 
 Convention. The report was especially elaborate, recommending the district free school system 
 [see Barnard's American Journal of Education, Vol. XVI, pp. 173ff]. Dr. Smith was the first 
 Superintendent Schools of Prince Edward county. In his youth he had studied in Germany. 
 
 J "Schools of every grade have greatly multiplied of late years." Southern Literary Messenger, 
 I, (1836), p. 726. 
 
56 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 rising generation, a business which requires minds of the very highest or- 
 der and moral excellence to execute it properly, is generally left to be pur- 
 sued by any who list — pursued far too often most reluctantly, as a mere 
 stepping stone to some other profession, and to be abandoned as soon as 
 possible for almost anything else that may turn up 
 
 Under these circumstances, the existence of which none can deny, 
 where shall we seek an adequate remedy for evils of such magnitude; 
 where turn our eyes but to well organized voluntary associations for the 
 promotion of education ? These would collect and combine the powers, 
 the talents, the knowledge of a very large portion of all the individuals 
 in our society best qualified to accomplish the object. They would 
 create a general taste, an anxious desire for intellectual pursuits; they 
 would elevate the profession of the teacher to that rank which its vast 
 importance to human happiness renders essential to its success ; and would 
 assuredly extend their influence to the remotest limits of our community, 
 far more rapidly than could any scheme of legislative creation. 
 
 To you, gentlemen, members of the Hampden- Sidney Institute, I 
 believe Virginia is indebted for the first example of a voluntary associa- 
 tion on a large scale to promote education. You have commenced the 
 noble work. Your patriotic example will soon be followed in other parts 
 of our_ beloved State ; similar associations will be formed elsewhere, a 
 similar spirit of benevolence will be awakened and exerted. 
 
 [Address before the Institute of Education of Hampden-Sidney Col- 
 lege by James M. Garnett, Sept. 1834, in Southern Literary Messenger, 
 I, 383ff.] 
 
 [3.] ADDRESS OF LUCIAN MINOR. 
 
 I am to offer you, and this large assembly, some thoughts upon edu- 
 cation as a means of preserving the Republican Institutions of our coun- 
 try 
 
 If the anticipation of our revolutionary patriots were not all de- 
 lusive dreams, and their blood fell not in vain to the ground, if man's 
 general doom is not subjection, and the examples of his freedom are not 
 mere deceitful glimmerings up of happiness above the fixed darkness 
 which enwraps him, designed but to amuse his fancy and cheat his hopes; 
 if there is a remedy for the diseases that poison the health of liberty, the 
 reason — that remedy — can be found only in one short precept — BN- 
 LIGHTEN THE PEOPLE ! 
 
 Nothing — I scruple not to avow — it has been my thought for years — 
 nothing but my reliance on the efficacy of this precept, prevents my be- 
 ing at this instant a Monarchist. Did I not, with burning confidence^ 
 believe that the people can be enlightened, and that they may so escape. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 57 
 
 the dangers which en'compass them,* I should be for consigning them at 
 once to the calm of hereditary monarchy. But this confidence makes me 
 no monarchist, makes me, I trust, a true Whig 
 
 Sagacious men have not been wanting among us to see the radical 
 defects of our primary school system; and in 182'9 the late Mr. Fitz- 
 hugh of Fairfax [William H. Fitzhugh] stimulated the legislature to 
 a feeble effort towards correcting them, by empowering the school com- 
 missioners of any county to lay it ofi into districts of not less than three 
 nor more than seven miles square; and to pay out of the public fund 
 two-fifths of the sum requisite for building a schoolhouse, and half a 
 teacher's salary, for any one of those districts, whenever its inhabitants 
 by voluntary subscription, should raise the residue necessary for these 
 purposes; and the schools thus established were to be open gratuitously 
 alike to rich and poor. But the permissive phraseology of.this statute 
 completely neutralized its effect.''' It might have been foreseen, and it 
 VMS foreseen, that empowering the commissioners to act, and leaving the 
 rest to voluntary contribution, would be unavailing, where the workings 
 of the school system had so long been regarded with apathy. The statute 
 hase been acted upon, so far as I have learned, in but three counties of 
 the State ; remaining as to the other 107 a dead letter 
 
 Immense is the chasm to be filled, immeasurable the space to be 
 traversed, between the present condition of mental culture in Virginia, 
 and that which can be safely relied upon, to save her from the dangers 
 that hem round a democracy, unsupported by popular knowledge and 
 virtue. [Address hy Lucian Minor before the Institute of Education of 
 Ham.pden-8idney College, Sept., 1835, in So. Lit. Messenger. II, 17ff ]* 
 
 * cf. Southern Literary Messenger, II, 88flF, Ajrticle on "Popular Education" : 
 
 "Means for averting these ills (threatenings of civil war) are to be sought. Where shall 
 we look for them except in the general diffusion of intelligence among the people. Spread 
 knowledge among the people and their minds will be awakened to a due sense of the value of 
 our free institutions. They will be quick to detect ambition, aiming under a false pretense of 
 public utility at private aggrandizement." 
 
 t See editorial in Norfolk Beacon, quoted in Supplement Southern Literary Messenger, II, 
 138-139: 
 
 "Mr. Minor's address is a patriotic and practical production. The common school system 
 of the State demands the public attention. No voter should let his representatives alone, until 
 such a system shall have been established as will ensure to the child of every honest man in 
 the Commonwealth a thorough elementary education. Mr. Minor quotes his statistics concerning 
 Prussia from the Edinburgh Review, but he would have found a more full examination of the 
 Prussian system in a late number of the Foreign Quarterly. 
 
 "We were pleased that Mr. Minor handsomely recognized i;he services of the late Mr. Fitzhugh 
 of Fairfax in the cause of education. We well remember his speech on the occasion alluded to, 
 and know that the seeming defect in his scheme alluded to by Mr. Minor was in truth the 
 result of design. Ti was the main argument with which Mr. Fitzhugh met the opponents of his 
 favorite scheme." [Doubtless written by Hugh Blair Grigsby.] 
 
 J "J. Madison, with his best respects to Mr. Minor, thanks him for his address on "Educa- 
 tion," etc., before 'the Institute of Education of Hampden-Sidney College. 
 
 "He has read it with the pleasure that could not fail to be imparted by the interesting 
 and impressive views it takes of a subject extremely important to our popular institutions. 
 
 Montpelier, Dec. 9th, 1835. 
 "To Mr. Lucian Minor, 
 
 "Orange Ct. House." 
 [Autograph letter of Madison owned by Professor J. B. Smith, of Hampden-Sidney College.] 
 
58 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, l'J"?'6-1860 
 
 1839. RANDOLPH MACON COLLEGE NORMAL DEPARTMENT. 
 
 At a meeting of the Board of Trustees of Eandloph-Maxjon College : 
 On motion of J. Early (Bishop Early), Resolved, That as soon as prac- 
 ticable the trustees of Eandolph-Macon College will establish a normal 
 school as a department in the college, in which a good and liberal Eng- 
 lish education can be obtained, and which in its organization shall be 
 especially fitted to educate common-school teachers, and that the pro- 
 fessor of English literature be rector thereof. [History of Randolph- 
 Macon College, in Thomas Jefferson and the University of Virginia, 
 etc., Washington, 1888. (Bureau of Education) p. 2'44.] 
 
 1841. ACTS OP ASSEMBLY. 
 
 March €. Be it enacted by the General Assembly, That the presi- 
 dent and directors of the literary fund be, and are hereby instructed to 
 report to the next legislature, a school system best adapted, in their 
 opinion, to secure the benefits of education to the people of this Com- 
 monwealth. 
 
 March 9. That the School Commissioners of any county or corpora- 
 tion, who have made, or shall make, an appropriation of the surplus reve- 
 nue of the literary fund, accruing to such county or corporation, by vir- 
 tue of the act passed March twenty-sixth, eighteen hundred and thirty- 
 six, appropriating the said surplus revenue, or any portion thereof, to any 
 college or colleges, academy or academies, whether for a specified period 
 or without limitation of time, shall be, and are hereby empowered to 
 withdraw such appropriation, or any part of the same, at the expiration 
 of any fiscal year, when in their opinion the claims of other colleges or 
 academies, or the exigencies of the poor, shall render it proper. 
 
 1841. SEPTEMBER. EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA. 
 
 It was not until after our second war with England that our pres- 
 ent system, if system it can be called, was carried into operation. It is 
 not my purpose at present, nor if indeed I were qualified at any time, to 
 examine the details of that plan, but simply to point out some of the lead- 
 ing objections to its prominent features, and the nature of those efforts 
 that ought to be, and must be, made for its improvement. 
 
 The first defect that must strike every observer, is the want of 
 permanent schools and schoolhouses. The school commissioners are 
 compelled to rely on voluntary associations of individuals for the selec- 
 tion of sites for houses, and for the erection of buildings themselves. 
 Now, those enlightened philanthropists who, in other quarters, in Massa- 
 chusetts for instance, have devoted years to the examination of this sub- 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 59 
 
 Ject, consider the situation of schoolhouses, and their interior arrange- 
 ment, a matter of great importance to children who attend common 
 schools. In their estimation, not only their health and comfort, but 
 their taste or distaste for learning itself, may depend on those circum- 
 stances. So fully convinced is the able secretary of the Massachusetts 
 Board of Education, of this truth, that he has made a separate and vol- 
 uminous report on the situation, construction," ventilation, etc., of school- 
 houses; and has brought to bear on the subject not only all his own 
 science and observation, but those of all the enlightened gentlemen whom 
 he had an opportunity of consulting. But in Virginia, no attention what- 
 ever has been paid to this matter, no public agent is consulted about the 
 location of schoolhouses, and their very existence, as we all know, is de- 
 pendent on the caprice of individuals.* 
 
 Another objection, and one inseparably connected with the pre- 
 ceding, is the fact that schools themselves are of as uncertain a character 
 as the houses in which they are kept, and that there is no system, and little 
 care in the selection of teachers. It may, and no doubt often does hap- 
 pen, that school commissioners are unable to find any suitable schools and 
 instructors for the children entrusted to their management. In a par- 
 ticular neighborhood, there may be a teacher of competent knowledge 
 and unexceptionable moral character, one year, and the next, he may be 
 succeeded by one entirely deficient in both these particulars. This must 
 be the case, as long as persons acting voluntarily, upon no system, and 
 without any responsibility to the public, have the entire control of these 
 arrangements. 
 
 It is a lamentable fact that men are usually more negligent in select- 
 ing the schools to which, and teachers to whom, they send their children, 
 than in the transaction of any other business whatsoever. This is more 
 especially the case in this free country, where men are constantly rising 
 from poverty to wealth; and although sincerely anxious to have their 
 offspring well educated, too often seek to cheapen instruction as well as 
 every other article which they purchase, to the greatest possible degree. 
 Even when this class of men are liberal, as to their honor they fre- 
 quently are, they are totally incompetent to decide on the qualifications 
 of teachers, the most convenient plans of schoolhouses, and other arrange- 
 ments absolutely necessary to the establishment of valuable schools. If 
 private interest and affection for their children cannot stimulate parents 
 to proper exertion, or, if when they have sufficient energy, their efforts 
 are often ill-directed, what can be expected of the unpaid and unin- 
 terested school commissioners, who are usually selected from the same 
 
 * The paragraph suggests another essay — one on Climate and Education. 
 
<iO The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 class, without previous qualifications, and without any motive but public 
 spirit to ensure the performance of their troublesome duties.* 
 
 The remedy for this is, to make the selection of situations, the 
 building of houses, the keeping up of schools, and above all the selection 
 of teachers, a matter of public concern, superintended by paid officers. 
 If, as in Massachusetts, the subject of schoolhouses and school manage- 
 ment, could be studied by a man of talents, science and practical good 
 sense, who would devote himself wholly to the task, would travel through 
 the State, gathering all the valuable facts, imparting useful information, 
 and kindling enthusiasm on the subject; if the existence of schools 
 could be made to depend on legal obligation, and not on the uncertain 
 foundation of individual choice; if the qualifications of teachers could 
 be submitted to the examination of persons really competent, we might 
 hope for a decided improvement in our schools. 
 
 Another vital objection to the plan heretofore pursued in Virginia 
 is, that intermediate schools, the colleges and academies of the State, 
 have received scarcely any aid, or even notice, from the government. Acts 
 of incorporation indeed have been bestowed on hundreds of academies; 
 but in too many instances they have verified the old common law maxim 
 — that corporations have no souls. 
 
 In 1821, it was resolved by the Legislature, that, "When the annual 
 income of the literary fund shall exceed $60,000, the surplus shall be 
 given to such colleges, academies and intermediate schools, as the Gen- 
 eral Assembly may direct." In 1836, it was ascertained that the revenue 
 of the literary fund did exceed $60,000. But the General Assembly, in- 
 stead of carrying out its excellent resolution of 1831, by directing the 
 ascertained surplus to be given immediately to the colleges, academies, 
 and intermediate schools, gave it to the commissioners for primary 
 schools, investing them, however, with the power of assigning all, or any, 
 portion of the surplus belonging to their respective counties, to the col- 
 leges and academies lying within the same. 
 
 The benefit bestowed on the academies by this enactment, may be 
 inferred from the following fact, which fell within the writer's own ob- 
 servation. The principal of an academy, immediately after the passage 
 of the law giving this discretionary power to the cominissioners, sug- 
 
 • cf. R. L. Dabney, in Southern Plamter.mid Farmer, January, 1879. (Also in Dabney's 
 Discvssions, IV, 279.) 
 
 "Thia system of our fathers had superiority in its principles, as great as in its practical 
 workings. Of these, I will, In concluding, present two. One was, that the State government 
 left to parents those powers and rights which are theirs by laws of God and nature, and which 
 cannot be usurped by a just, free government : those of directing the rearing of their own children, 
 and choosing its agents and methods. Clusters of parents were left to create schools, to elect 
 teachers, to ordain the instruction and discipline. When the parents had used their prerogatives, 
 then the State came in as a modest ally and assistant, and by providing for the teaching in those 
 schools of such children as their helpless poverty made proper wards of the State's charity, helped 
 on the work of education, and supplied that destitution which private charity did not reach. 
 There was a system conformed to the good old doctrine of our fathers, that 'governments are 
 the servants of the people.' . . . The other [superior principle] was, that our wise fathers, by 
 this simple plan, resolved the otherwise insoluble difficulty about the religion of the schools. 
 The State, which Knows no church in preference to another, did not create schools ; did not usurp 
 that parental function, did not elect the teachers ; did not ordain their discipline or religious 
 character. Parents have the right to do all these things in the light of their own consciences 
 and spiritual liberty, and the parents made the schools. No other solution will ever be found 
 that is as good." 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 61 
 
 gested to one of the trustees of the institutions under his management, 
 the propriety of making an application in its behalf to the commission- 
 ers of the county within which it was situated. The principal, who of 
 course expected from one of the guardians of his academy some mani- 
 festation of zeal for its welfare, was astonished to hear him make the 
 following declaration: "If I were a school commissioner, I would not 
 give one cent to an academy, at which the sons of the wealthy were 
 educated." 
 
 In saying this, the lukewarm trustee merely expressed the sentiment 
 of a vast number, perhaps a majority, of the school commissioners in 
 Virginia. He was himself a man of wealth, and had been a member of 
 the legislature. The best proof of the extent to which this opinion is 
 entertained, is the fact that only about seventeen academies have received 
 any benefit whatever from this indirect grant of the assembly. 
 
 I believe that it can be satisfactorily shown, that the middle class 
 which frequent academies, has as just claims for pecuniary aid from the 
 xgovernment, as any other in the community, and that academies are 
 falsely considered as intended for the exclusive benefit of the rich and in- 
 dependent. It is clear that our government has done nothing substan- 
 tial except for the wealthy and paupers. I am not among those who 
 
 woTJild speak with envy or detraction of our University Academies 
 
 and intermediate schools are essential to the rich, and to these, universi- 
 ties and higher seminaries, at which the rich would desire to complete 
 their education. It is true that one who is rich and liberal may usually 
 coramand able private instructors for his children. But he will find that 
 scheme neither so convenient, nor so economical, nor so certain of suc- 
 \cess, as that of placing his children at some well-managed high-school in 
 his- vicinity-.' Unless schools of this sort are well conducted, no college 
 nor university, can make thorough scholars. The professors of our uni- 
 versity, as well as of our colleges, complain that they are compelled to 
 admit students who have no acquaintance with the simplest elements 
 of a liberal education. 
 
 But if the intermediate schools were under the control of the State, 
 partly endowed by the State, the selection of teachers made by compe- 
 tent persons appointed for the purpose, we might hope for a decided 
 improvement in the preparation of young men seeking higher institu- 
 tions.* [George E. Dabney, Professor at Washington College, Va., in 
 Southern Literary Messenger. VII. 631if.] 
 
 * "In 1841, Dr. Henry Rufifner, President of Washington College, submitted to the Legislature 
 a plan of public instruction very similar to our present system. The year following General 
 F. H. Smith, of the Virginia Military* Institute, offered a plan for a public school system." 
 Report of Dr. William H. Ruffner, Superintendent of Public Education, Virginia, 1876, pp. 14-15. 
 I Thomas Ritchie, editor of the Richmond Enquirer, interested himself in the movements of 
 1840-1845. During the session of the General Assembly, 1840-1841, he caused his own duplicate 
 of the library then in use by some of the public schools of New York to be placed in the Capitol 
 at Richmond, where it could be seen daily. His address before the educational convention in 
 1841 at Richmond, one of the few public addresses delivered by him, was emphatic, citing the 
 Prussian example. 
 
 Wm. H. Ruflner, The Public Free School System, 1876, p. 42, and Ambler's Life of Thomas 
 Ritchie, Richmond, 1913, p. 220. 
 
62 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 1842. THE VIRGINIA MILITARY INSTITUTE A NORMAL SCHOOL BY LAW.* 
 
 Every cadet, who since the eighth day of March, eighteen hundred 
 and forty-two, has been, or hereafter shall be received on State account, 
 and shall have remained in the institution during the period of two 
 years or more, shall act in the capacity of teacher in some school within 
 this State for two years after leaving the institution, unless excused by 
 the board of visitors ; but this section shall not be construed so as to de- 
 prive any cadet of any of the compensation which he may be able to ob- 
 tain for teaching. [Code 1849, p. 176.] 
 
 1843. MESSAGE OF GOVERNOR m'DOWELL. 
 
 Having brought to the notice of the last legislature the subject of 
 general education and of free schools, and recommended it to a considera- 
 tion it did not receive, I should b^»feitlltess to one of my clearest and most 
 honourable duties if I did not present it again, and again invoke for it 
 the care, the thought and the legislation to which it is entitled. Weighty 
 as this subject confessedly is, and connected, as every one feels it to be, 
 and knows it to be, with the safe, just and enlightened action of popular 
 government, and with all the pursuits of rational and civilized man, 
 and consecrated too, as it has long been, by an inviolate provision of one 
 of our permanent laws, it is nevertheless sadly neglected in our public 
 counsels, and year after year is thrust aside as if it had no admitted place 
 amongst real wants and practical things. It would seem as if the very 
 provision which was made for its support years ago by doing something, 
 had thereby intercepted the larger and more beneficient provision which 
 is necessary to support and to nourish it aright. Satisfied, as it would 
 appear, that something had been done, the higher and bolder duty of 
 doing more and more until nothing should remain to be done, has long 
 been pretermitted, and successive legislatures have handed down the ex- 
 isting plan and provision of the law under painful and accumulating 
 proofs of their ruinous insufficiency. When it is considered that this 
 plan of common education has been near thirty years in existence — ^that 
 its whole machinery has become perfectly familiar to those who adminis- 
 ter it, and whose duties of administration are enforced by penalties — 
 
 fThe examination oJ the cadets of the Virginia Military Institute before the General As- 
 sembly in the winter of 1841-42 brought to the attention of some members of the Legislature 
 the character of the examination conducted at that time by two cadet assistant professors, and 
 prompted the introduction of [this] bill." 
 
 Report of General F. H.. Smith, Superintendent Virginda Military Institute,' XS&o,' '^y 10: 
 
 "The military school at Lexington is not only entitled in every point of view to the literary 
 rank and popular confidence which it has so successfully acquired, but is so firmly established 
 that it may easily be made to conduct its operations upon any larger scale which the munificence 
 of the Legislature may direct, or the public demand for its peculiar plains of . discipline and 
 instruction require. It is, rapidly becoming a nursery of valuable teachers whose services are 
 eagerly sought for, and upon this ground, independently of every other, is well worthy "of having 
 its powers of usefulness extended." ' " . ' 
 
 [Message of Governor McDowell, December 4,- 1848, p. XC] 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 63 
 
 that its minor defects have been corrected as perceived — that material 
 alterations of structure have been introduced, and that every efficiency 
 of which it is capable has been given to it by its controlling head, whose 
 system, vigilance and fidelity, which make him an honor to the govern- 
 ment, have been so long and so laboriously devoted to the perfection of 
 this scheme :* when this is considered, and it is considered also that there 
 is one in every twelve of our grown-up white population who can neither 
 read nor write; that out of fifty-one thousand poor children for whom 
 this scheme is designed, only twenty-eight thousand have been taught 
 anything at all, and that these have been taught an average period of but 
 sixty days during the past year ; when these things are considered, wiU it 
 be said that the result is satisfactory? That it demonstrates a condition 
 in this branch of public interest, and in the means appropriated to sus- 
 tain it, with which the legislature and the country ought to be contented ? 
 If sixty days tuition to one-half of the "indigent" children of the State 
 is the grand result which our present system is able to accomplish after 
 so many years of persevering efforts to enlarge and perfect its capaci- 
 ties, it is little more than a costly and delusive nullity which ought to be 
 abolished, and another and better one established in its place. Supposing 
 it entirely improbable that the legislature, partaking in •all respects in 
 the hopes and interests of the public, will regard it as a duty to continue 
 a system which operates in such manifest subversion of both, they are 
 earnestly invoked to enter at once upon the work of preparing a better, 
 and of preparing it with the ultimate and comprehensive purpose of 
 extending the rudiments of a cheap, if not free education to every child 
 in the State. With the hope of aiding them in this object, I respectfully 
 submit to their consideration, whether it is not possible to obtain it by 
 constructing a system upon the basis of our joint stock incorporations? 
 The principle of these incorporations has already been adopted to some 
 extent in the establishment of our district schools, and there is no rea- 
 son whatsoever, either speculative or practical, why it may not just as 
 well be applied to the support of schools generally as to the support of 
 any other purpose of public concern. No other purpose brings public and 
 private, interests into a more absolute union with each other than that of 
 primary education; or could better justify, on that ground, a union of 
 their means for its support. In all ordinary cases of joint stock associa- 
 tions, individuals are the partners of the State, and to them the larger in- 
 terest and of course the controlling power is assigned. In this case it is 
 suggested that counties should take the place of individuals, and that 
 the will of these counties in all the material points of the partnership re- 
 lation should be declared by the persons residing in them who are tax 
 payers to the revenues of the State. Let these persons determine by 
 general vote, whether they will agree to any joint stock co-operation with 
 
 * James Brown, Jr., was second auditor and Superintendent of the Literary Fund from 1823 
 to 1852. 
 
64 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 the State for such a purpose, and after agreeing, let it be their right to 
 prolong or to discontinue the arrangement at their pleasure. Let the State 
 on its part, and in the first place, determine upon the sum which it is 
 willing upon this plan to appropriate annually for common education; 
 let it fix the fractional share of two-fifths, or any other which it is will- 
 ing to give, and allot the whole to the counties, respectively, according to 
 their white population. When this is done, let the county tax payers of 
 the State revenue decide, under authority of law for that purpose, 
 whether they will unite with the State upon the terms, and for the ob-t 
 jeets proposed, and will agree to raise by a separate tax upon themselves 
 their share of the funds required. Should all or any of the counties agree 
 to do so, authority should be given for the election by general vote, or for 
 the appointment in some other form, of several persons who with others 
 appointed on behalf of the State, should constitute a local directory, with 
 full power to take charge of the joint funds, and carry into effect, un- 
 der the supervision of some general board or superinteaedent, the whole 
 plan and object for which these funds were intended. To the counties 
 who decline this plan of co-operation, the quota of the literary fund now 
 allotted to them should be continued as usual. 
 
 With these general elements, it is believed that a system upon this 
 subject can be formed which will be far more acceptable and more com- 
 prehensive than the existing one, and formed under internal checks 
 which will effectually protect it against harshness, abuse and want of 
 local adaptation. By associating the people of the several counties, as it 
 is proposed to do, responsibly and intimately with the government in the 
 support and administration of their own schools, not only will the gen- 
 eral subject of education be kept alive at its proper and fountain head, 
 but the actual education of every one, resting no longer upon the footing 
 of a parental duty alone, will come to be claimed and contended for as a 
 legal right. Should the legislature regard the plan suggested as worthy 
 of any attempt on its part to elaborate it into a system, a principal re- 
 commendation of it is the ease with which it can be converted into one 
 for free education ; and it is earnestly hoped^that whatever the scale on 
 which it may be thought best to begin, that nothing less wise, patriotic arid 
 perfect than this will be thought of for its final and crowning result. 
 
 1845. AUGUST. THE RICHMOND MEETING. 
 
 How delightful it is, to witness the lively interest in the great cause 
 of Education, that now seems to be spreading throughout our country ! 
 It is cheering to^the heart of the patriot and philanthropist, to find sucli 
 a rising ascendancy of the moral over the physical— of the general good 
 over the promotion of party. 
 
 We do believe, that the auspicious period, for accomplishing great 
 public good, has arrived — to Virginia at least. It should not be lost. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 65 
 
 Tkough the efforts hitherto made may not have effected all that was 
 hoped, or expected, yet none of them should have been dispensed with; 
 for whatever may be achieved now, will be found to have sprung, in a 
 great degree, from the exertions hitherto put forth. 
 
 For a long time, it has been our wish and intention, to procure and 
 publish in the Messenger, a series of papeks, upon the state of educa- 
 tion, AND THE PROVISION MADE FOE IT, IN EACH OF THE SOUTHERN AND 
 WESTERN STATE'S. 
 
 Not that we would confine the Messenger to imparting information 
 respecting these States alone; but because education in them most 
 needs the benefits of such enquiries ; and much would necessarily be said, 
 collaterally, of the noble examples and brilliant success of our Northern 
 brethren. 
 
 We have already communicated the above plan to some of our corre- 
 spondents, and we here propose it to the prominent friends of popular 
 
 education, in each Southern and Western State We are confident, 
 
 that by no one effort, could any one individual so greatly promote the 
 highest and dearest interests of the State, or his own reputation, as by 
 devoting himself to a memoir upon education, addressed to the lawgivers 
 of the State. How far does the fame of a mere politician fall below that 
 of Horace Mann, of Massachusetts, or Henry Barnard, of Connecticut 
 
 We have already spoken of the Education movement now going on 
 in Virginia. Without any apology, we proceed to lay our proceedings 
 before all our readers. Prom the proceedings of the meeting in Eich- 
 mond, it will be seen, that our talented and public spirited governor was 
 called to the chair. [Gov. James McDowell; meeting held August 28, 
 1845.] On taking it, with that ready eloquence for which he is distin- 
 guished, he made a brief, but animating address, which must have 
 stirred the spirits of all who heard him. One prominent point in his re- 
 marks, was the connection and dependence between education and inter- 
 nal improvement. ' The want of improvements causes our citizens to 
 -migrate, and destroys the inducement for settlers to come among us; 
 whilst those who do remain, are so far apart as to prevent union, concert 
 and support, in any system of primary education 
 
 Still it was rather grating, to hear our dear old mother spoken of as 
 "following in the wake of the world;" and her children styled "The 
 steerage passengers of mankind !" To this we cannot assent, though we 
 cannot conceive of stronger incentives than every Virginian has, to la- 
 bor for the regeneration and advancement of his beloved State. 
 
 The Standing Committee have adopted and issued the following: 
 
 ADDRESS TO THE PEOPLE OF VIRGINIA. 
 
 "The citizens of Richmond, in primary assembly, have appointed 
 us a committee to promote, as far as we can, the cause of education in 
 Virginia. 
 
66 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 "We propose to urge upon every friend of literature in the State, to 
 lend the influence of his name, to give a portion of his time, to devote the 
 energies of his mind, and. to raise his animating voice in behalf of a 
 cause so noble, so worthy of every exertion. We would speak, if we could, 
 in tones that would arouse the most apathetic to action. . . .We would 
 impress upon all, that this is no ordinary subject to be thought of once, 
 and then idly cast aside, but one upon which depend the destinies of- 
 
 Virginia 
 
 "We are deeply impressed, fellow-citizens, with the difficulties with 
 which we are surrounded. We know that our territory is extensive, that 
 much of it is mountainous and rugged, our population, in many parts of 
 the State, is widely scattered; that our estates are large, our streams un- 
 bridged, our roads bad — and, perhaps what is worse than all, the funds 
 at the disposal of the State are inadequate. The greater the difficulties, 
 the greater the triumph, if we overcome them — the greater the neces- 
 sity for deliberation and for concert of action, 
 
 "The meeting, of which we are the organs, have recommended that 
 a convention of the wise and the good, from every part of the State, 
 should be assembled to take this subject into consideration.* We invoke 
 the aid of every intelligent mind to urge upon the people, the importance 
 of appointing delegates to that convention ; to aid, too, in rousing the leg- 
 islature to a full contemplation of our wants, and to the adoption of some 
 system worthy of Virginia Let the people manifest to the legisla- 
 ture that they are in earnest, and the legislature will be in earnest too. 
 Then we shall havie actions, instead of words." 
 
 George W. Munford, 
 Wm. H. MacFarland, 
 Tho.'s Nelson, M. D., 
 Charles F. Osborne, 
 Peter V. Daniel, Jr., 
 Henry L. Brooke, 
 E; T. Daniel, 
 James E. Heath, 
 Thomas H. Ellis, 
 Benj. B. Minor, 
 Gustavus A. Myers, 
 Richard B. Gooch, 
 J. A. Cowardin. 
 \Southern Literary Messenger, 1845, 603-607.] 
 
 *Tbis convention was held at Richmond December 10-15, 1845. Portyseven counties, cast 
 and west, and four corporations were represented. The convention adopted a memorial signed 
 by Andrew Stevenson, James McDowell, William Nelson, P. V, Daniel, Jr., John Munford, S. M. 
 Jannev, William S. Plumer, Asa Rogers, R. B. Gooch, and John S. Gallagher. James McDowell 
 was president of the convention. Angus McDonald and Judge P. V. Daniel submitted projects 
 for a sj'stem of education, Judge Daniel's plan providing for a State superintendent of education, 
 to be elected every three years by the Legislature. The plan adopted by the convention was 
 very similar to that laid down in the bill of 1846, no mention being made of a general super- 
 intendent. See Memorial in Journal and Documents, 1845-6, Doc. No. 16. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 67 
 
 1845. DECEMBER 3. MESSAGE OP GOVBENOB m'dOWELL. 
 
 It is obviously important that the legislature should settle definitely 
 upon the ground on which this subject is to be treated — ^whether as a 
 private affair or as a State affair. If in its Judgment it should be left, 
 like the acquirement of property, to every man's separate exertions — those 
 to receive much who have the means to procure it with, and those noth- 
 ing, who are without the means, and it determines in consequence to 
 add nothing to the provision already allowed for its benefit — if this is 
 its Judgment, it is highly proper that it should be made known, that the 
 necessary steps might be taken by the people themselves, either to re- 
 verse it or carry it into effect. If on the other hand, the sounder Judg- 
 ment is entertained, that education is a public as well as a private con- 
 cern ; that unlike the acquirement of property, which can be pursued by 
 each one for himself, without dependence upon others, its only permanent 
 success depends upon the effectiveness of the co-operation with which it is 
 conducted, and this co-operation can be more fitly settled by public au- 
 thority than by casual and voluntary arrangement, and further, that edu- 
 cation is too sacred an element in the well-being and safety of a State 
 governed like ours, to be left to the hazards of unorganized, individual 
 combination — if this is its opinion, it follows that the public ai^ which 
 it recognizes as a legitimate aid in the case, should be extended to every 
 grade of education and eveiy description of learner Once estab- 
 lish education upon this basis of public liberality and Justice, and watch 
 over and develop it afterwards in the fostering and determined spirit 
 which esteems nothing to be done whilst anything remains to do, and 
 Virginia will soon throw from her soil the reproach and the pain of 
 rearing upon it a body of children, outnumbering the revolutionary sol- 
 diers who gave us the power to rear them as we please, and to whom, 
 from year to year, not a moment of instruction is afforded by the State, 
 nor afforded at all. 
 
 If the legislature can agree upon the preliminary principle that 
 education is a State duty, or State trust, which ought to be provided for 
 by law, it can have no difficulty in determining upon the point to which 
 its fiduciary labours should be chiefly directed. A single glance at the 
 statistics of the subject will show that the greatest want which we suffer 
 is that of common education. The number of pupils at the university, 
 colleges, academies, classical, and grammar schools of this State, being 
 something less than two per cent, on our whole population, is greater 
 nevertheless than is found in any of the States except those of ISTew 
 England, and is less than it is there by only an inconsiderable frac- 
 tion. . . . 
 
 I have submitted in former messages what seemed to me the germ 
 of a suitable plan for the accomplishment of this work, and respectfully 
 
68 The Begvnnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 refer to it now as capable, in my judgment, of being snccessfuUy matured 
 and applied. That plan was generally, to establish in each county, with 
 the consent of a majority of its tax payers, free schools, for common edu- 
 cation. To rely for the support of these schools upon the quotas of the 
 present school fund, and upon such additional sum as might be found 
 necessary, to be made up of county and State taxes united in given pro- 
 portions. To place the schools, wherever adopted by county vote, and all 
 matters connected with their location, accounts, and management, un- 
 der country tribunals, and these in turn under the general supervision of 
 some central and controlling head — and to authorize each county to re- 
 nounce the plan, after adopting it, shoiild it wish to do so, and in all 
 eases, whet'.ier the plan is accepted, rejected, or renounced, to continue 
 the school quota to each county, just as at present. 
 
 Without illustrating this plain by additional detail, it is perhaps 
 enough to say of it, that by placing its adoption in each county upon the 
 express consent of its own tax-payers, you appeal to those who are most 
 concerned in interest, and most identified with each other in intercourse 
 and business, to decide whether it will suit them or not ; you enable each 
 county, in case of its adoption, to modify and improve it according to its 
 judgEdent and its own view of its local circumstances and wants; you 
 connect, every citizen, in some degree, with the management, make every 
 tax-payer a sentinal upon its operation, and thus secure its ultimate effi- 
 ciency and support, by surrounding it with the largest possible amount 
 of watchfulness, interest, and affection. Nor is this all — ^by supporting 
 these schools upon a general fund, making them free from any charge 
 for tuition, you at once destroy those designations of indigence and 
 charity, which have kept so many thousands in ignorance.* 
 
 1846. A SYSTEM OIF PUBLIC EDUCATION. 
 
 [1.] Of Schools for Indigent Children. 
 
 Court of every county or corporation to lay off the same into dis- 
 tricts. Such court also to appoint one person in each district as school 
 commissioner. Said school commissioners to be a corporation under the 
 style of "The board of school commissioners for the county (or corpora- 
 tion)." 
 
 Board to elect a superintendent of schools for such county or cor- 
 poration who shall be also clerk and treasurer of the board. Bach super- 
 intendent of schools to give bond in such penalty as the court shall ap- 
 prove, not being less than two thousand dollars. Upon the certificate 
 
 •A relation of Governor McDowell, bom in the year 1830, has made this statement to the 
 compiler: My father was for a number of years a school commissioner of Prince Edward 
 county. By the old system, any teacher in the county would take into his school pupils recoin- 
 mended and paid lor by a commissioner. My father investigated every case carefully " The 
 formalities, therefore, for the admission of children to the schools, as public wards were' similar 
 to those adopted now for State students at the several "State schools." ' 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 69 
 
 of the said board that he has performed all the duties required of him 
 by law, he shall receive a compensation of iive per centum on the money 
 belonging to the school fund lawfully disbursed by him. 
 
 If income of the school fund is more than sufficient for the educa- 
 tion of the poor children in the county or corporation, surplus may be 
 transferred to any incorporated college or academy in operation in such 
 county or corporation. [Code 1849, Chap. LXXXI.] 
 
 [2.] Of Free Schools. 
 
 1. The council of any city or 
 town, having a corporation court, 
 may adopt the free-school system 
 provided for in this chapter. 
 
 2. On the petition of one- 
 fourth of such of the white male 
 citizens aged twenty-one years, 
 resident in any county without 
 the limits of any such city or 
 town, as may be entitled to vote 
 in the election of a delegate from 
 such county, or shall have been 
 assessed with a part of the county 
 levy vrithin the preceding year, 
 and actually paid the same, the 
 court of the said county shall or- 
 der a vote to be taken for or 
 against the said free - school 
 system.* 
 
 4. If two-thirds of the votes be 
 in favor of adopting the free 
 school system, the said court shall 
 have the fact entered on the min- 
 utes of their proceedings, and or- 
 der a copy of such entry to be de- 
 livered to the existing board of 
 school commissioners of such 
 countv. 
 
 System Proposed by Jefferson, 
 1817. 
 
 Judge of the Superior Court to 
 appoint three Visitors of the pri- 
 mary schools of the country. 
 These Visitors to divide the coun- 
 ty into wards. All free white 
 male citizens of age in each ward 
 to meet (the Visitors also attend- 
 ing) and to decide, by a majority 
 of their votes, upon the location 
 of a school house and of a dwell- 
 ing house for the teacher. 
 
 * Letter oi Thomas Jefferson to Joseph C. Cabell, Feb. 2, 1816 : [Early History of the Uni- 
 versity of Virginia, pp. 64-55.] 
 
 "If it is believed that these elementary schools will be better managed by the Governor and 
 Council, the Commissioners of the Literary Fund, or any other general authority of the Govern- 
 ment, than by the parents within each ward, it is a belief against all experience. Try the prin- 
 ciple one step further, and amend the biU so as to commit to the Governor and Council the 
 management of all our farms, our mills, and merchants' stores. No, my friend, the way to 
 have good and safe government, is not to trust it all to one ; but to divide it among the many, 
 distributing to every one exactly the functions he is competent to * * * How powerfully did we 
 feel the energy of this organization in the case of the Embargo? I felt the foundations of the 
 Government shaken imder my feet by the New England township." 
 
70 The Beginnings of Public Ediwation in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 5. The said board shall cause 
 the county to be laid ofE into dis- 
 tricts, which shall each have a suf- 
 ficient number of children of the 
 proper age for a school, and be of 
 such size that all the children in 
 the district may daily attend the 
 school therein. 
 
 6. As soon as may be after a 
 county is so laid off into districts, 
 and annually afterwards, an elec- 
 tion shall be held in each district 
 for a commissioner. 
 
 8. As early as possible after 
 their first election, the said com- 
 missioners shall meet at the 
 courthouse of their county, or cor- 
 poration, and from the time that 
 a majority of them shall so meet, 
 they shall be a corporation under 
 the name of "The board of school 
 commissioners for the county (or 
 corporation) of ," and 
 
 be the successors of the board of 
 school commissioners previously 
 existing in said county or cor- 
 poration. 
 
 11. The said board shall estab- 
 lish a school in each district, in 
 which shall be taught reading, 
 writing, arithmetic, English 
 grammar, and geography, and, 
 when it is practicable, history, the 
 elements of physical science, and 
 such other branches of learning 
 as the said board may require. 
 
 12. Any white child, between 
 the ages of six and twenty-one, 
 resident in a district, may attend 
 and be instructed in the school 
 thereof. 
 
 The citizens of the ward shall 
 also elect, "by a plurality of their 
 votes, a Warden resident, who 
 shall direct and superintend the 
 said buildings, and be charged 
 with their future care * * * All 
 ward meetings shall be at their 
 fchool house. 
 
 Visitors to seek and employ for 
 every ward a person of good moral 
 character, qualified to teach read- 
 ing, writing, numeral arithmetic, 
 and the elements of geography, 
 whose subsistence shall be fur- 
 nished by the residents and pro- 
 prietors of the ward, either in 
 money or in kind. The teacher 
 shall also have the use of the 
 house and accommodations pro- 
 vided for him, and shall more- 
 over receive annually such stand- 
 ing wages as the Visitors shall 
 have determined, to be appor- 
 tioned on the residents and pro- 
 prietors of the ward. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 71 
 
 14. Upon every county or cor- 
 poration, for which there is a 
 board of school commissioners 
 under this chapter, there shall be 
 annually assessed such sum as the 
 said board shall deem necessary, 
 in addition to their other funds, 
 for the free school system therein. 
 
 19. Every commissioner ap- 
 pointed under this chapter shall 
 visit the school in his district at 
 least once in each month, examine 
 the register of the teacher, the 
 condition of the school house and 
 other matters touching the mode 
 of teaching and the discipline 
 therein. He may suspend or ex- 
 pel any pupil of incorrigibly bad 
 habits or guilty of gross miscon- 
 duct. 
 
 30. He shall be allowed for his 
 services a sum not exceeding ten 
 dollars, to be iixed by the board, 
 and be reimbursed, on its order, 
 his necessary expenses while at- 
 tending its meetings. 
 
 21. A superintendent of 
 schools, for every county or cor- 
 poration which adopts the system 
 of schools provided for in this 
 chapter, shall be appointed by 
 the board. 
 
 28. In any county which has 
 heretofore adopted, or which shall 
 hereafter adopt, the district free 
 school system, if at any time one- 
 fourth of such of the white male 
 citizens, as are described in the 
 second section of this chapter, 
 shall petition for the abolition of 
 said system, the court of the coun- 
 ty shall order a vote to be taken 
 for and against the abolition of 
 
 At this school shall be received 
 and instructed gratis every infant 
 in the ward, of competent age, 
 who has not already had three 
 years' schooling. No person, 
 compos mentis, to be a citizen of 
 the Commonwealth, until he or 
 she can read readily in some 
 tongue native or acquired. 
 
 Some one of the Visitors, once 
 in every year at- least, shall visit 
 the school, shall enquire into the 
 proceedings and practices thereat, 
 shall examine the progress of the 
 pupils, and give to those who ex- 
 cel in reading, in writing, in 
 arithmetic, or in geography, such 
 honorary marks and testimonies 
 of approbation as may encourage 
 and excite to industry and 
 emulation. 
 
 The said teachers shall, in all 
 things relating to the education 
 and government of their pupils, 
 be under the direction and control 
 of the Visitors. [Early History 
 of the University of Virginia, pp. 
 413-417.] 
 
72 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 the said free-school system 
 
 If a majority of the votes be in 
 favor of abolishing the said free- 
 school system, the court shall have 
 the fact entered on their minutes, 
 and thereupon the said district 
 free-school system shall from and 
 after the first day of October next 
 ensuing, be abolished in the said 
 county, and the primary school 
 system shall be in full force and 
 effect therein as it stood before 
 the adoption of the free school 
 system.* [Code 1849, Chap. 
 LXXXII.] 
 
 [3.] Of Colleges and Academies. 
 
 The visitors, trustees, or other body having the government of any 
 college or academy established in this State, shall annually before the 
 •first day of November, make a report to the second auditor, showing the 
 condition of such college or academy, the state of its funds, the amount 
 of its revenue, and the sources whence derived, its accommodations for, 
 and the number of its teachers and pupils, its fees of tuition, and the 
 branches of learning taught in the institution. 
 
 If no such report is made from any college or academy, which re- 
 ceives any portion of the revenues of the literary fund, or to which any 
 loan has been made out of the said fund, the second auditor shall with- 
 hold (until the report is made) the payment of such portion of the literary 
 fund, or proceed to enforce payment of the said loan. [Code 1849, p. 383.] 
 
 * Besides those few counties in which free schools had been established under the Act of 
 1829, Albemarle county and Norfolk county had been authorized by special acts, Feb. 19th 
 and Feb. IVth, 1845, to set up free schools. The act establishing' free schools in Albemarle 
 county was very elaborate [pp. 19-30, Acts of Assembly, 1844-45], and similar in many respects 
 to the general act of 1846. A superintendent of schools, to be president of the Board of School 
 Commissioners (and with many other duties) , was provided for ; no tax was to be raised In the 
 several districts unless rati'.^ed by the voters, but adverse vote was not to deprive the district of 
 its quota of the Literary Fund. In short, this act of 1845, for Albemarle county, was the norm 
 for the general act of 1846, which gave the counties as units the same privilege which had been 
 allowed the several districts of Albemarle county. 
 
 A special school fund had been available since 1841 in Albemarle county, under the will 
 of Martin Dawson, of that county [Acts of Assembly, 1840-41, p. 52fF]. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 73 
 
 1847. ADDRESS BEFOKE VIRGINIA HISTORICAL SOCIETY. 
 
 We cannot but be painfully sensible of the fact that Virginia no 
 longer holds the proud precedency, not in numbers merely, but in con- 
 sideration and influence, which she once possessed among the Confederated 
 States of the Union. Why is this so ? Are not her extraordinary physical 
 advantages the same? Are not our people the same? There is nothing 
 of great achievement, in peace or war, of which such a race is not cap- 
 able, when its energies are properly impelled and directed. The spirit of 
 the age summons us to progress ; and our own self-respect, with the proud 
 annals of our State unrolled before our eyes, can never permit us to take 
 willingly the rear of our contemporaries.* 
 
 In invoking a noble State. ambition on behalf of our ancient Com- 
 monwealth, I am far from wishing to encourage any feeling of an anti- 
 national character, which could cause us to regard, with either indiffer- 
 ence or alienation, the common concerns of our glorious confederacy. It 
 is for the sake of the Union, as well as for her own sake, that I would 
 wish now to see her arouse her faculties in the vigorous prosecution of 
 State interests, and in the development of all her domestic resources 
 whether of mind or matter. Let her, by a wise and well-considered sys- 
 tem of public policy, in which the means shall be proportioned to the end, 
 and the end to the means, push her railroads, her schools, her work-shops, 
 her factories, public-spirited improvements of every kind, into the various 
 quarters of the Commonwealth. The more strength and power she ac- 
 quires at home, the more, undoubtedly, will she exert abroad. 
 
 Investigations of the diversified natural resources of the State, 
 modern improvements in the arts and the applications of science to the 
 practical pursuits of life, educational reforms, ameliorations in the social 
 economy, everything, in short, which an active and inquisitive spirit, 
 stimulated by patriotism and enlightened by knowledge, can draw from 
 the history of the past or the present to minister to the future advance- 
 ment and renown of our State, falls within the legitimate scope of this 
 society. [President's address before Virginia Historical Society, De- 
 cember 16, 1847, by the Hon. William C. Eives, in Virginia Historical 
 Register, I, pp. 4-8.] 
 
 1850. ADDRESS BY .TOH>f R. THOJiPSOx, Editor of the Southern Literary 
 Messenger. 
 
 Virginia, the mater magna virum, has declined steadily in influence 
 and standing, from her neglect to provide adequate means for diffusing 
 knowledge among her citizens. . . . 
 
 *cf. History of Virginia, by Eobert R. Howison, Richmond, 1848, II, 611. "Great learning 
 may not be essential, but in the present century, to read and write, and use fibres intelligently, 
 are qualifications without which the great body of any people wiil find it difficult to perform 
 their positive duties. An uncultivated mind will be lethargic and inefficient in its movements ; 
 polish it by education, and you immediately give it activity and power. Adopting these views, 
 it is with pain we are compelled to speak of tlie horrible cloud of ignorance that rests upon 
 \'irginia." 
 
74 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 From a recent editorial of the London Times, embracing some judi- 
 cious remarks upon an educational movement of Mr. W. J. Fox, in the 
 House of Commons, I take the following passage in allusion to the State 
 of general information among the people of England — which presents a 
 parallel too painfully obvious with the same class in the Old Dominion : 
 
 "There can at least," says the Times, "he no harm in ascertaining, in 
 bringing to light, and in recogoizing the facts of the ease. Whatever our 
 opinion, at all events let us get at the facts. We speak not as politicians, 
 philosophers or religionists, much less as partisans, when we record our 
 sorrowful experience that the laboring classes of this country are more 
 ignorant than it would be decent or even possible to say."* 
 
 I know no more painful reading, in the whole range of documen- 
 tary publication, to an educated Virginian, than the [last] report of the 
 Second Auditor on the State of the literary fund, with the accompanying 
 proceedings of the school commissioners throughout the Commonwealth. 
 The cold indifference of some — the neglect of others — the alternations of 
 hope and despondency, and the struggling aspirations after a better sys- 
 tem than as yet obtains, with those who think and feel in the matter — 
 and the almost unanimous expression, in the written reports, of a sad 
 sense of the gloomy an(^ abiding present, make up a story of the most 
 melancholy character. "The question will present itself to every man," 
 writes the county superintendent of the county of Smyth, "Can nothing 
 be done to remedy this great, this crying evil, which is increasing every 
 year? And. unless something is speedily done to remove it, and to shed 
 light upon so many minds now in darkness, it will be impossible to con- 
 jecture to what it will lead. Can any be willing to trust their rights, 
 their liberties and their lives, to such hands?" "While other States are 
 becoming powerful by the liberal support they give to public education," 
 says the county superintendent of the county of Marion, "Virginia is 
 growing impotent in everything that pertains to national greatness. 
 Develop the intellect of the children of the rising generation, and they 
 will develop all the natural resources of the State. In short, it is useless 
 to try to conceal the miserable rickety system of public education in this 
 Commonwealth by flaming reports and abstracts of its condition." We 
 need add nothing to what has already been submitted to justify us in say- 
 ing of our poor, benighted Old Dominion, in connection with the sombre 
 outline of the London journalist, "Mutato nomine de te fabula narratur." 
 
 * "Much has been said and many desponding expressions used in reference to the degeneracy 
 of Virginia, and the amount of ignorance among her population. And if we believe the assertions 
 of some, all that is wanted to make every maai, woman and child in the State learned, wise, 
 and happy, is to build up schoolhouses everywhere, and teach every one to read, write and cipher. 
 Such a plan we consider impracticable in our thinly settled country, impossible to carry out 
 unless attendance is made compulsory by law, improper and tyrannical if such forced attendance 
 is required, and inefficient to accomplish good, proportioned to the expense and trouble necessary. 
 It might produce a herd of spelling-book philosophers and primmer literati, but could hardly 
 afford even the means of a good education, in the right sense of that term. For the least part 
 of education is that acquired in the walls of a schoolhouse." [Dr. John P. Little, History of 
 Richmovd, 1861, p. 86.] 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 75 
 
 A convention is soon to assemble to retouch and modify the Con- 
 stitution under which we live.* Without presuming to inquire into the 
 counsels by which the deliberations of that body shall be guided, it is not 
 too much to assume that great changes will be made in the right of suf- 
 frage; that this inestimable privilege of a freeman, indeed, will be uni- 
 versally extended without regard to property qualification. Now if a 
 change of such magnitude as this is to be made, should we not look well 
 to its consequences, and see to it that those upon whom this privilege 
 is to be bestowed are well qualified to use it to advantage? If we cast 
 pearls to swine, we may expect that they will turn again and rend us. 
 ... If it require all our energies in all time to come, to teach the people 
 the rudiments of knowledge, and progress in the arts be incompatible 
 with universal education, then I say, be it so. 
 
 It may be urged, it is true, in mitigation of our negligence that 
 there have ever been in Virginia serious and peculiar obstacles to the 
 universal diffusion of knowledge. They, whose efforts have been directed 
 to the establishment of a general plan for the State, have been met 
 in limine with these obstacles, which are well summed up by another as 
 consisting in "the irregular density of population, the variety of social 
 pursuits in different sections of the State, and the existence of that 
 anomalous institution under which population taxed as property may 
 not participate as persons in the advantage of the system of education 
 established; the slave excluding the scholar, and the owner being re- 
 quired to pay a tax upon the very subject which deprives him often of the 
 opportunity of enjoying the results of his own contribution." [Wm. M. 
 Burwell, Address before the Society of Alumni, University of Virginia.] 
 
 Looking at these difficulties in the way of educational reform, it 
 may, perhaps, be expected of me that I should give a practical direction 
 to this inquiry by suggesting some mode of removing them. . . . But I 
 leave to abler men such duties as these, content with merely exhibiting 
 to you the actual condition of affairs without any speculations whatever. 
 The time is not far distant, I trust, when other friends of education, 
 
 * "The subject of creating an educational system in the State, with a Department of Public 
 Instruction, was debated in the Convention of 1850-51, but no provision was made for such 
 a system by this Constitution." Pulliam, Constitutional Conventions of Virginia, Richmond, 1901, 
 p. 98. 
 
 Henry A. Wise, the reform leader, remarked in this Convention; "The thunder and lightning 
 of reform must strike through the waters of this Commonwealth to purify them and relieve them 
 from their stagnant green scum.'* Henry A. Wise had spoken out earlier. His famous address 
 (regarding universal education) to his constituents in Accomac county on retiring from his 
 congressional career in 1844, "was conspicuous for its almost prophetic outlook into the future." 
 cf. A. D. Mayo, Education in Southwestern Virginia, p. 889, Education Report, 1890-91. 
 
 Dr. Mayo reprinted this speech in fuU in Education Report 1899-1900, Vol I, pp. 397-403. 
 
 Mr. Thompson, in his address of the year 1850, begins by citing the London Times. It is of 
 interest to note the parallels in the recent educational history of England, France and Virginia — 
 British Education Acts of 1833 and 1870 ; French Education Laws of 1792-96, 1833, and 1871 ; 
 Virginia Statutes of 1796, 1829, and 1870. In the preface to his Higher /Schools and Universities 
 in Germany, 1868, Matthew .Arnold remarked : "England, in spite of what patriotic people say, 1 
 must take leave to regard, in educational matters, as a newly-awakened sinner.'* 
 
76 The Beginnings of ' Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 such men as Garnett, and Fitzhugh, and Campbell,* who have passed 
 away, will rise up to wipe out this bar sinister from our escutcheon. 
 
 There is, however, one branch of the subject to which I will make a 
 passing reference, as perhaps the most important in any system of edu- 
 cation. I mean the provision of competent teachers for the management 
 of the established schools. With reform in this matter might be Judi- 
 ciously combined an extension of the system of N"ormal Schools, of which 
 we have seen the auspicious results in the happy operation of the experi- 
 ment recently commenced at the University and before tried successfully 
 at the Military Institute at this place, an establishment firmly seated in 
 the affections of the people of Virginia. The College of Emory and 
 Henry presents another instance of the wise adoption of this plan of 
 educating teachers,t which might well be made a part of the system of 
 instruction at every collegiate institution asking- State aid. Let each col- 
 lege receive a moderate annuity, to be repaid by the gratuitous board and 
 
 *Govemor Campbell (1837-40) had shown an interest in education ; Dr. Samuel L. Campbell, 
 of Rockbridge county, had written articles on the subject for the Literary Messenger; but the 
 reference must be to Alexander Campbell, the founder of Bethany College, a man of genius and 
 great abilities. Dr. Campbell was thoroughly convinced on most subjects, and was intolerant of 
 what he considered the injustice done western Virginia by the "opulent east." Benjamin Watkins 
 Leigh had remarked in the convention of 1829: "This talk of the lowland aristocracy — the landeor 
 aristocracy — the aristocracy of wealth — is downright slang," 
 
 But in this uncertain field Dr. Camnbell knew his ground pretty well. See his statement, in 
 Journal and Documents, 1841-42, Doc. No. 7; 
 
 "The powers of a proner system of education have never been fully developed on a grand 
 scale. Yet from the development already made, we may infer that a time is not far distant 
 when we shall look to the schoolmaster and the district school more than to mighty generals, 
 standing armies, and immense navies, with all the munitions of war, for a nation's peace, a 
 nation's safety, and a nation's honor. It is no freak of fancy, no hallucination of romantic 
 imagination, but the oracle of substantial truth derived from the experiments and experience now 
 being formed, that all will soon be gained by good education in the adjustment of even national 
 wrongs, by mediatorial tribunals, which hitherto have cost millions of gold and torrents of 
 human blood. 
 
 "Our brethren of the east have difficulties that lie not in our way. They have two sorts of 
 population of great political disparity. We are not so unfortunate. That misfortune tends to 
 aristocracy. Now common schools and aristocracy are not quite so homogeneous. A patrician 
 will not have a plebeian system of education. . . , , We of the West are generally too poor — 
 that is, too democratical, for such notions. Poverty and humility have sometimes a little homo- 
 geneity between them, though we find them occasionally divorced. Were we richer than we 
 are, we might perh^s be a little more aristocratic al than we are; for, after all, there is no 
 political aristocracy, but that which,' first, middle, or last, stands upon gold. This is the real 
 sovereign of America, and the nobility are those who have most of it. . . , There are many 
 of us in the West who will be satisfied with nothing short of a wise and just provision for all." 
 
 t See Acts of Assembly. 1849-50, p. 36: "Whereas a loan was made from the Literary Fund 
 to the trustees of Emory and Henry College, by authority of an act passed the twenty-seventh 
 day of February, eighteen hundred and forty-three, the principal and interest of which were secured 
 by a lien on the land and buildings of the college and by personal security ; and whereas, the 
 individual securities have given notice to the president and directors of the Literary Fund, 
 requiring them to enforce the payment of said loan by suit, which requirement, if pursued, will 
 result in the sale of the college buildings and land, and the consequent destruction, it may be, 
 of one of the most efficient and valuable literary institutions of the State; an institution which, 
 it is asserted, has conferred already signal benefit upon the particular region where it is located, 
 and where the facilities of education are less diffused than in any other quarter of the State; 
 and which may be expected still more widely to extend its usefulness, since it combines a liberal 
 and high grade of education with extraordinary cheapness ; and whereas, it is suggested that 
 relief may be granted to this deserving institution, by a measure which will attain that object, 
 and at the same time further the purpose to which the Literary Fund has been consecrated, to-wit, 
 the education of the poor: Therefore, . . . The Trustees aforesaid shall be permitted to discharge 
 the interest heretofore accrued and hereafter accruing on said loan, by receiving into the said 
 college and educating annually therein sixteen indigent and deserving young men as State students, 
 free of all charge for board, lodging and tuition. . . . The young men educated as aforesaid 
 shall be so educated and maintained, upon the promise and understanding on their part, that 
 they will, at the conclusion of their collegiate course, engage in the vocation o^f tutors or pro- 
 fessors in some school or college in this State, and continue in such vocation for two years at 
 the least: Provided, however, that nothing in this section shall be construed to deprive such young 
 men oT their fees or salaries as tutors or professors." 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 77 
 
 education of deserving young men, selected impartially from all parts of 
 the State, subject to the sole condition that they should open and teach a 
 school somewhere in Virginia for a term of years after the expiration of 
 their collegiate course, and a large number of young men might thus be 
 annually returned to their respective counties, qualified to teach and to 
 raise the standard of educational requirements among those who, how- 
 ever incompetent, are now engaged in teaching. 
 
 This consideration brings me to another and more congenial di- 
 vision of my subject — education considered as it is pursued in our col- 
 leges. And I turn to this grateful theme, with much the same sensa- 
 tion of relief, as that with which the eye that has been oppressed with the 
 glare ^nd desolation of a desert, rests upon the grassy slopes of the vernal 
 landscape. 
 
 [Education and Literature in Virginia. Address before the Literary 
 Societies of Washington College, Va., hy John R. Thompson of Rich- 
 mond, June 18, 1850. Richmond, 1850, pp. 11-21.] 
 
 1856. AN ACT TO INCREASE THE NUMBER OF STATE STUDENTS AT THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA. Passed March 13, 1856. 
 
 * * * The annuity is upon condition that the said institution, during 
 its continuance, shall educate fifty young men, (above the age of seven- 
 teen), one from each senatorial district, if there be applicants, and if 
 not, from the State at large, without charge for tuition, use of labora- 
 tories, lecture rooms, public halls or dormitories; to be selected by the 
 visitors and faculty with reference to the character and capacity of the 
 applicants and the inability of the parent or pupil to furnish the means 
 of education, upon such testimonials as may be presented. The said 
 young men shall each sign an engagement to teach as private tutors, or 
 in some school or academy in this State for the term of two years, after 
 leaving the university, in consideration of the education there received. 
 
 This act shall be in force from the first day of July, eighteen hun- 
 dred and fifty-six. 
 
 1857. [1.] THE UNIVERSITY AND THE COLLEGES. 
 
 Education has been making decided progress in Virginia for thirty 
 years or more. Perhaps, this progress has been more rapid during the 
 last fifteen, than it was during the previous fifteen years. The colleges 
 have nearly all been extending their course of classical studies. 
 
 The colleges of the South generally are doing a great work, and are 
 blessed with unparalleled prosperity. In Virginia this work is going 
 forward with marked progress. We have a great system in operation — 
 not yet perfect, it is true, but still great and important. 
 
78 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 Where is the central and controlling influence of our educational 
 system? Just where it ought to be — just where Thomas JefiEerson and 
 his contemporaries designed it should be — just where our legislature 
 and all the true friends of liberal education wish to keep it — in the 
 University of the State. There is no institution in the Union, we ven- 
 ture to assert, now doing so much to elevate every branch of instruction. 
 [Southern Literary Messenger, 1857, pp. 164, 166.] 
 
 [2'.] THE VIEGIJfIA MILITARY INSTITUTE. 
 
 It is distinctly claimed for the Virginia Military Institute : 
 
 1st. That it has had an important agency in the educational progress 
 through which the State has been passing in the last fifteen years. 
 
 2nd. That it has borne a prominent part in elevating the standard 
 of scientific education in our schools and colleges. 
 
 3rd. That it was the pioneer in introducing a more eflScient system 
 of discipline in the schools and colleges of Virginia. 
 
 These points the superintendent endeavors to establish by a series 
 of facts and arguments, the force of which must be judged of by those 
 who may examine them. He exhibits the low patronage of the colleges 
 in 1839, and shows, that with all the incentives of low tuition and de- 
 nominational enterprise, the number of college students in Virginia 
 scarcely exceeded 500. That this state of things resulted, 1st. From in- 
 efficiency of the discipline of the colleges. Slid. From the low standard 
 of their scientific instruction ; and 3rd. From the want of a well qualified 
 corps of school teachers. 
 
 At this crisis of the educational history of Virginia, he shows that 
 the Virginia Military Institute was established, as a normal school for 
 teachers. It presents itself to the patronage of the State upon the dis- 
 tinctive character of its high - scientific instruction. Omitting no part 
 of the ordinary college course but Greek, it establishes itself upon the 
 model, as to discipline and mode of instruction, of the greatest scientific 
 school in the world, the U. S. Military Academy at West Point. 
 
 Thus organized, with none of the prestige which age or acquired 
 reputation could give, it opens its halls for the reception of students. 
 From the first year of its establishment to the present time, it has never 
 been able to meet the demands for admission. While the colleges were 
 languishing for want of patronage, the Virginia Military Institute was 
 full. With no high endowment, but chiefly by its tuition fees, it has 
 maintained its faculty.' It has supplied the State with nearly 150 teach- 
 ers, and with 50 civil engineers. 
 
 Finally, and as resulting directly, in part, indirectly, in part, from 
 the influence and example of the Virginia Military Institute, the super- 
 intendent shows that the West Point course of mathematics has been in- 
 troduced since 1839 into every college of the highest grade in Virginia; 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 79 
 
 I 
 
 a more eflBcient system of discipline has been adopted by all; and that 
 as a direct consequence from these material causes the patronage of all 
 has materially increased. 
 
 Upon these facts, thus presented, the superintendent argues the 
 claims of the Virginia Military Institute to the distinction of having 
 been an "important agent" in the educational reform through which the 
 State has bteen passing. No exclusive claim is set up for the Institute. 
 The powerful influence of the University of Virginia in this great work, 
 is fully and distinctly recognized; which sectional prejudices are re- 
 ferred to, as tending, in an important degree, to augment the number of 
 students at all of the Virginia institutions. 
 
 But there are significant facts exhibited by the colleges themselves, 
 which not only confirm much that has been stated but give to the argu- 
 ment the force of demonstration. 
 
 A convention of delegates from six of the leading colleges of Vir- 
 ginia, was held in Eichmond on the 4th of January, 1844, for the pur- 
 pose of memorializing the legislature for pecuniary aid. In the memorial 
 then addressed to the General Assembly, a most striking picture is drawn 
 
 of the condition of the colleges at that time 
 
 The number of students (not professional) is stated by the memo- 
 rialists at that time to be 401 in the six colleges and University combined, 
 viz: 450 in the colleges and 41 in the University. [See Doc. No. 21, 
 1844, and Doc. No. 16, 1845.] 
 
 It surely has never been the condition of the people of Virginia, 
 that any pecuniary embarrassment should so straiten the means of all 
 classes, that our colleges should be deprived of students, and that a State 
 containing 700,000 white inhabitants, generally so free from poverty, 
 and so easy in their circumstances, could afford to send only 491 stu- 
 dents to college ! Other important causes must have been operating to 
 produce this remarkable state of things, besides a temporary money 
 pressure. We know this to have been the case with respect to the Uni- 
 versity. An inquiry was instituted by the House of Delegates of Vir- 
 ginia, under a resolution of December 23, 1844, and the committee 
 after an elaborate investigation, report three causes as operating to 
 diminish the number of matriculations at the University, neither of 
 which is pecuniary distress — but two are stated to be defective discipline 
 and inadequate preparatory training. At the very time when the memo- 
 rialists were thus addressing the legislature, the Virginia Military In- 
 stitute was enlarging its means of accommodations, had actually in- 
 creased the number of its students to nearly double without being able 
 to admit all who then sought admission. Indeed, the growing popu- 
 larity and influence of tlie Virginia Military Institute, in the midst of 
 these great pecuniary embarrassments, were so sensibly felt at this junc- 
 ture by one of the memorialists, that one of the most remarkable proce- 
 
80 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 I 
 
 dures which the history of education m any State can exhibit, was com- 
 menced, the design of which was to restrain, by the legislative enactment, 
 the operation of the Institute, so that no pay cadet should be admitted 
 into dts course of instruction ! One can scarcely credit the reality of the 
 statement, that the remarkable proposition, that a citizen of Virginia 
 should be denied the privilege of sending his son to the Institute by pay- 
 ing his expenses, was gravely maintained at the time. 
 
 The influence of the Normal character of the Institute was distinctly 
 recognized in the college memorials of 1844 and 1845, for their applica- 
 tion for pecuniary aid is based upon the condition, that 60 students shall 
 be admitted into the colleges, in due proportions, free of college charges, 
 and the students thus admitted "should be brought under an obligation 
 to devote themselves to the business of teaching, as is now the case with 
 the State cadets of the Lexington Military School." 
 
 The application of the colleges was not granted, but a provision was 
 imposed upon the University similar to that existing at the Institute, by 
 which a State student was admitted free of University charges, from 
 each senatorial district of the State, upon the condition that the stu- 
 dents thus admitted should serve the State as teachers two years. 
 
 The Normal character thus given by law to these two Sitate insti- 
 tutions, gave an efficiency and dignity to the profession of school teach- 
 ers, which it did not possess before. Many from both institutions sought 
 it from choice* and have found it profitable. [Progress of Education in 
 Virginia, article in Southern Literary Messenger, 1857, pp. 241-345.] 
 
 1858. [1] THE UNIVERSITY AND THE SCHOOLS. 
 
 When the University was first opened it would have been almost 
 impracticable to gather within the State of Virginia three hundred and 
 thirty-three such young men as were in attendance upon its schools at 
 the last session. It certainly could not have been done without taking 
 all the students from the colleges of the State.t 
 
 We had then, as we have now, abundant material to furnish a much 
 larger number^ but for the want of preparatory schools and academies, 
 the boys of the State were found to be wholly untrained for the high 
 standard of education upon which the University very properly insisted. 
 
 * "Strange (1842) was sent to Norfolk; J. H. Pitti (184'11 and ConnriU (1848) to King ami 
 
 Queen (Rumford Academj') and King William; W. D. Stuart (1850) to Richmond; Brvan (1843) 
 and Nelson (1846) to Petersburg; Mahone (1847 — General William Malione) to the Rappahannock 
 
 Academy; D. Lee Powell (1846) to Fredericksburg." "Strange, sent to Norfolk, was afterwards 
 followed by .1. S. Gamble (1848), then by Robert Gatewood (1849) ; Geo. S. Patton (1853) was 
 
 sent to Richmond; J. J, Phillios (1853) was' sent to Nansemond : J. B. Brockenbrough and 
 Hen Ficklin (1849) to Abingdon ; R. T. W. Duke (1845) to Greenbrier ; J. W. Wildman (1843) 
 to Fredericksburg; and many others to other sections of the State." [Report, Superintendent 
 
 Virginia Military Institute, 1886, n. 10 : and The Virgi-nia Military Institute : Its Building and 
 
 Rebuilding. By Major-General Francis H. Smith, Superintendent, 1839-1889. Lynchburg, 1913, 
 
 p. 78.1 
 
 t The argument would have been stron^ftr if the 333 students had been di-awn wholly from 
 
 the territory of Virginia. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 81 
 
 The want of such schools and academies was the great obstacle to 
 the early success of the University . . . and it was at one time contem- 
 plated by the General Assembly to establish by State authority, and to 
 endow by appropriations from the literary fund, a system of colleges and 
 academies which should serve as schools of preparation for the Univer- 
 sity. Various causes contributed however to prevent the carrying out 
 of this plan, and the University was left to do its work alone. 
 
 It is unnecessary to follow in detail the various steps by which this 
 great obstacle to the success of the University has been encountered and 
 overthrown. The leading feature of the movement has consisted in a 
 reversal of tlie generally received plan of State education ; instead of col- 
 lecting schpols and selecting teachers by public authority, teachers have 
 been educated and sent forth to build up schools by individual effort. 
 The result has been most striking. The teaching of youth has become in 
 Virginia an honored profession. Schools are established and conducted 
 with the discrimination and energy which mark the efforts of individual 
 entejprise — and we have now in Virginia a class of preparatory schools, 
 in which a higher order of education is given than could have been ob- 
 tained in any college of the State at the time the University was estab- 
 lished.* 
 
 The visitors do not desire to be understood as claiming that all 
 these results are due exclusively to the influence of the University, but 
 they do claim for the University the position of leader in this great 
 movement, and for its alumni, that they have been the most active, zeal- 
 ous, and efficient agents in the work. 
 
 These preparatory schools extend the influence of the University 
 and the benefits of its teacliings to many who never attend upon its schools, 
 but who go forth from these preparatory schools into the various pur- 
 suits of life, educated in a manner which, prior to the establishment of 
 the University, would have been wholly beyond their reach. 
 
 These influences of the University are extending gradually, silently, 
 and unobtrusively, untrammeled by the cumbrous machinery of public 
 patronage and control. They have enlisted private interest in the cause 
 of popular education. They are destined to pervade the entire Com- 
 monwealth and to indicate the far-seeing sagacity which induced the 
 State to give its name and influence to the "University of Virginia." 
 [Report of the Rector ami Visitors of the University of Virginia. 18.57 — 
 Documents 1857-8, Pt. 1, Doc. 1-2, p. 43.] 
 
 * cf. Article in the Evangelical and Literary Magazine, IX. (1826), 207, "To the President 
 and Directors of the Literary Fund" : 
 
 "Your University can no more flourish without good inferior schools than the beautiful dome 
 of the Rotunda can be supported by the corn-cob houses built by children for their sport. Every 
 permanent structure must have a good foundation. We ought to see that the magnificent temple 
 of science erected by the people of Virginia be not placed on quicksand." 
 
83 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 [3.] A SYSTEM PROPOSED. 
 
 Having provided munificently for the poor children, we look to a 
 higher grade of instruction, and take the academies as the next step in the 
 movement upwards. To these $30,000 may be appropriated. By offer- 
 ing a bonus of $300 to any and every county which may establish a high 
 preparatory school, many, perhaps in a few years all, will claim it. A 
 better grade of instruction is thus brought nearer to the great mass of 
 the people, and placed at reduced cost within their reach. The ap- 
 propriation is based upon the calculation that ' 100 counties will avail 
 themselves of it in the next 8 or 10 years. This assistance from the 
 State will enable every county to employ a first class teacher, by offering 
 a salary worthy of his avocation. If the citizens desiring such an in- 
 structor can only subscribe for his support $550, the State offers $300 
 additional, and a salary of $750 is thus assured. In a few years, under 
 the system offered for your adoption, this sum will command the services 
 of the first graduates of our literary institutions. These academies will 
 reflect their influence upon the. primary schools, by furnishing Vir- 
 ginia youths to impart the first lessons to Virginia children. 
 
 From the academies the movement towards the colleges is easy, be- 
 cause it is necessary and natural. For these, such provision is made 
 as the means at our disposal allowed. No distinctions of an invidious 
 character are made. They are taken as they are, not perhaps as we 
 would have them. Being chartered institutions, they are free to ac- 
 cept or reject the bounty tendered. If the conditions attached to that 
 
 bounty are complied with, nothing more is required [Report of the 
 
 Committee of Schools and Colleges. Virginia Legislative Documents, 
 1857-58, Part 5, Doc. No. 53.] 
 
 1860. STATUS OF THE YEAK : CENSUS OF 1860. 
 
 "Next to Michigan — ^South Carolina and Virginia received the 
 largest appropriations for college purposes* from the public funds, the 
 latter State having also returned the largest aggregate revenue for col- 
 leges ($346,940) and the greatest amount received for fees, etc., of any 
 in the Union. In Virginia the total average income was $87.44, that 
 from endowments being $17.38, and from fees and other sources $64.85 
 per annum. ... In the Southern States the largest public school income 
 was reported from Virginia ($498,638) . . . J 
 
 •Under Colleges, returned all special schools of theology, medicine, law, science, and its 
 applications, as well as female seminaries. 
 
 Under the head of Academies and other schools, special schools for deaf-mutes, blind juve- 
 nile criminals, orphans, as well as all private schools. * 
 
 fThe report distributes the amount, with no analysis, as follows : Endowment, $4 446 • tax- 
 ation, $72,338; public funds, $104,801; other sources, $317,053. Under endowment' fell' such 
 items as the Dawson Fund of Albemarle county, the Monroe Fund of Orange county (Orange 
 County Humane Society), the Aaron Hall Fund of Hanover county, the Anderson Seminary Fund 
 of Petersburg. In .1853 the entire capitation tax had been appropriated by the General Assembly 
 to' the purposes of education in "primary and free schools" ; certain counties under the act of 
 1846 leTied their own tax for schools, as well as certain corporations. There was the income 
 from the Literary Fund. But the "other sources" of the report, $317,053, still bulks rather large 
 These sources must have been tuition fees. Ibe act of 1846 provides that the county school com- 
 missioners *'shall regulate the number of indigent children to be taught in the schools and the 
 price of their tuition." On the basis of 85,000 pupils, the average tuition fee was about $3 75 ■ 
 the total average cost of the pupils, about $5.75. It is a difficult matter how to define a public 
 school and a public school pupil in Virginia before 1860. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, I^l'e-ISGO 83 
 
 Eeturns were made from the Southern States of 2,445 academies 
 and 106,361 pupils, and the revenue received by them from all sources 
 was $3,327,728, of which $2,656,302 was from tuition. The largest 
 school income in proportion to the number of pupils was in Virginia, 
 where it averaged $41.21 each, whereof $35.47 was. from fees." 
 
 Total white population of Virginia 1,047,299 
 
 Total white population of Virginia between 10 and 20 years 
 
 of age, males 124,548 
 
 Females 122,690 
 
 Xumber of pupils in colleges 3,824 
 
 ]Srumber of pupils in academies, etc 13,204 
 
 Number of pupils in public schools 85,443* 
 
 Number of literary colleges 10 
 
 Number of academies and other schools - 398 
 
 Number of public schools 3,778 
 
 Number of teachers in academies 730 
 
 White persons over 20 years of age unable to read and write. . 74,055 
 Of these, males 31,178 
 
 [Eighth Census of the United States: Mortality and miscellaneous 
 statistics, pp. 502-510. Document published 1866, Joseph C. G. Kennedy, 
 Supt. of the Census.] 
 
 SUMMARY: WITH RESPECT TO THE WOEKI\GS OF THE LITERARY FUXn 
 
 BEFORE 1860. 
 
 In 1884 Superintendent Farr endeavored to get a full Virginia schooi 
 exhibit for the New Orleans World's Fair of that year. The time allowed 
 school officials in the State to assemble their exhibits was very short, and 
 there was little of substantial result so far as the New Orleans Exposi- 
 tion was concerned. But Superintendent Farr was interested and in 
 February of the next year he was able to make a very creditable school 
 exhibit at Eichmond, during the third annual meeting of superintendents 
 and principals of the public high schools of Virginia. "All of the su-' 
 perintendents were requested to furnish a history of the work of the 
 public schools under the old as well as the present system in their respec- 
 tive cities and counties," going just as far back as the local records and 
 traditions would allow.t 
 
 About eighty county superintendents submitted their county school 
 histories, which were printed by Mr. Farr in his 1885 report, Part III, 
 pp. 48-294, material of great interest and historical importance, un- 
 equally so of course. A little more than half of this material contains 
 
 *It is not clear what is meant by the statement in the report, that in Virginia 154,963 
 pupils were "attending school during the year ending June 1, 1860." 
 
 Bishop Meade (Vol. I, Old Churches and Families, p. 91), writing about the year 1857, said: 
 ''Among the upper classes there is far more of academic and collegiate education in Virginia 
 than in any other State of the Union." 
 
 ■!■ Report of Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1885, Part II, p. 74 ; Part III, ii. 47. 
 
84 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 items relative to the period ending with 1860. It is significant that in 
 the year 1885, county superintendents of grSat intelligence, being asked 
 to furnish a history of public education under the old system, produced 
 (if they produced anything) a miscellany of information touching 
 private establishments, with some account of the interrelations of the 
 literary fund. The fact that this was their method, constitutes the best 
 explanation of the method really imposed upon the compiler of the report 
 now submitted, material assembled from January 1913, to February 1917. 
 
 The extracts given below, drawn from the invaluable county school 
 histories of 1885, form an excellent summary of the workings of the 
 literary fund before 1860, from the sea to the mountains. It is plain 
 that the most prosperous and wholesome democracy was found in the mid- 
 dle region. But this matter needs investigation. The Eastern shore was 
 also pretty democratic. The northern Northern Neck and the Southwest 
 appear to have been the least democratic under the old public school 
 system. 
 
 ACCOMAC — .T. C. WEAVER. 
 
 "Like most of the counties of Virginia, Accomae depended mainly 
 upon the literary fund to supply a very scanty primary education to 
 those of her children who were unable to attend the neighborhood p"rivate 
 schools. These schools were dotted about in sections that were fortunate 
 enough to secure the services of some itinerant teacher in quest of a 
 precarious living, or young men preparing for professional life. Some 
 of these teachers were good, some very poor ; not unfrequently the lord of 
 the country school was some unfortunate, bankrupt in purse, broken down 
 in constitution, a slave to intoxication, and a terror to his pupils. Into 
 such schools the beneficiaries of the literary fund were received at about 
 five cents a day, for perhaps three months in the year; then schoolless 
 for the remaining nine. 
 
 "Notwithstanding the drawbacks, the people of the county were fair- 
 ly intelligent. The old English custom of assembling at the "court green," 
 and at public places, to mingle in social intercourse and discuss the issues 
 of the day, imparted a large amount of information to the masses. This 
 school of association very largely took the place of book learning, and left 
 a deep impression upon the multitude, particularly noticeable to the 
 stranger. 
 
 "In the most prominent neighborhoods good private schools were 
 maintained; sometimes by family tiitors." 
 
 BRUNSWICK WILLIAM P. JONES. 
 
 "The discussion of the question from the standpoint of our fore- 
 fathers would now be useless. The opinions and prejudices of the 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 85 
 
 eighteenth are no guide in the light of the higher civilization of these the 
 last decades of the nineteenth century. . . . There certainly was no system 
 of general public instruction in Virginia anterior to the late sectional 
 war. There was, however, a law which enabled any poor child to obtain an 
 elementary education at public expense; upon application to the county 
 court, an allowance could be made to pay the most accessible teacher a 
 per diem for such a pupil, which would be about equal to the annual 
 charge for tuition (passed in this form no doubt to regulate the amount 
 of pay by the pupil's punctuality). Few availed themselves of the privi- 
 lege. 
 
 ["But] there were few families in South-Side Virginia who did not 
 have within horn-blow of their homes, prosperous neighbors who cheer- 
 fully paid the schooling of children where the parents were unable so to 
 do." 
 
 OAMPBELTj — E. A. HAMLET. 
 
 "Previous to the year 1861, the system of education — if indeed it 
 may be called a system^ — was what is known as the "Old Field Schools." 
 These schools were taught by some old invalid, or l)y a man too lazy to do 
 anything else. The number of schools was small, and the instruction 
 given inferior, generally. The usual mode of establishing one was as 
 follows : The teacher would go around to the people with a subscription 
 for the people to sign, stating the number of children they would send, 
 and the amount each would pay for tuition. Children whose parents 
 were too poor to pay their tuition were sometimes allowed to come and 
 at the end of the session the teacher would make an account against the 
 county for the number of days such children had attended school, and 
 after qualifying to the account before a magistrate, he was allowed five 
 cents per day, which was paid by the sheriff. 
 
 "There were some bright exceptions to the above mentioned class of 
 teachers— men and women who conducted their schools in a rational 
 manner, and after approved modern modes. The wealthy usually em- 
 ployed a teacher for their younger children at their homes, while the 
 older and more advanced were sent to boarding schools, academies, etc." 
 
 "Our old 'masters' were a lot of stern, uncompromising old fellows. 
 They were well versed in arithmetic, reading, writing and spelling. The 
 master was generally an influential member of society. Financially he 
 was well-to-do, and was recognized as authority on questions of educa- 
 tional or other import that arose in his vicinity. 
 
 "He selected a site for his school house, usually in a sunny place on 
 the southern exposure of pine woods, about one-half a mile from his dwell- 
 ing, but he would frequently locate the house in a corner of his yard, 
 so as to have a stricter eye on his pupils during play-time." 
 
 0. L. Hardy, Lunenburg county, p. 214., 
 
86 The Beginnings of Public Edtwation in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 CAROLINE — ^B. B. WRIGHT. 
 
 "As a general rule parents preferred educating their sons and 
 daughters beneath their own roof and within the circle of their own 
 homes, and private schools, sometimes anterior to the breaking out of 
 hostilities between North and South were pretty much the order of the 
 day; and the teachers, especially females, came mostly from the North- 
 ern states. 
 
 "These schools, in the majority of instances, were conducted with 
 ability, and entirely to the satisfaction of the employers. It may not be 
 irrelevant to mention the habit that obtained among the more wealthy, of 
 sending their sons and daughters to the Piedmont portion of the State — 
 especially the county of Albemarle — ^which offered peculiar facilities for 
 instruction in the higher branches of learning, to the detriment of home 
 or county schools; and fashion in this, as well as in other enterprises, 
 tended to the loss and impoverishment of home and local institutions. 
 There ever existed a number of schools in the county, in which the rudi- 
 mentary branches of English were taught; but as the patronage was 
 poor, and pay insufBcient for the employment of competent teachers, the 
 work performed added but little to the intellectual culture of its citi- 
 zens." 
 
 GOOCHLAND — E. S. EEETE. 
 
 "A long river frontage cut into very large plantations, held by men 
 of wealth and culture, who were ever liberal patrons of the University 
 of Virginia and other great colleges, and for the primary instruction of 
 their children employed private tutors. Besides this the county always 
 sustained what has been denominated the 'Old Held School,' (an insti- 
 tution peculiar to Virginia and of great merit), often presided over by 
 men of university training, of ripe minds, large hearts, and high moral 
 characters. To these schools the children of the poor were sent, and a 
 per diem allowed by the county for their education. These poor chil- 
 dren were received in all the schools throughout the county, and thus 
 all classes were as much mingled in the schools as at present by our 
 public school system." 
 
 HALIFAX COUNTY THOMAS E. BAEKSDALE. 
 
 [Quoting statement of Major E. L. Eagland.] 
 
 "In the portion of the county south of the Dan, many indigent 
 children received public instruction in the private subscription schools, 
 while in many parts of the county very few were entered. 
 
 "Education made slow progress during the first quarter of the nine- 
 teenth century. Subscription schools began to take the place of salaried 
 teachers. From 1820 to 1830, grammar schools were sparsely estab- 
 
The Beginnings of PuMic Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 87 
 
 liahed, as the true educational spirit began to permeate society. The 
 first grammar schools were taught by Northern men, who aided greatly 
 in formulating a higher and better system of education. The University 
 of Virginia was being established, and a healthy educational spirit per- 
 vaded the intelligent class all over the State. 
 
 "From 1830 to 1840 still greater educational progress was made. 
 Private and family schools were conducted by competent, educated men 
 and women, under improved systems of teaching and better text-books. 
 Only less favored neighborhoods used the log huts after 1845. 
 
 "1840 to 1850. All classes were aroused to the benefits and import- 
 ance of education, and the people with great unanimity were ready to 
 aid in its advancement. 
 
 "From 1850 to 1860, may be regarded, as it certainly was, the 
 highest epoch of our educational history ; for substantial education flour- 
 ished, was appreciated and supported as never before. Hostilities in 
 1861 virtually closed our schools and after the War, until the inaugura- 
 tion of the present free school system, only a few private schools main- 
 tained a precarious existence." 
 
 KING WILLIAJE — COI,. J. C. JOHNSON. 
 
 "The county was fortunate in the number and character of her pri- 
 vate schools, and her people, as far back as their habits can be traced, 
 displayed a high appreciation of education, mental, moral and social, and 
 no expense nor pains were spared in fitting their children for the highest 
 and most honorable positions of public or private life. 
 
 "Then, the second class, whose education for the most part was 
 only such as the more general occupations of life demanded; and this 
 was obtained principally at the "Old Field School," where the birch 
 was a very potent factor in teaching the young idea how to shoot." 
 Many of the teachers were scholarly men, but believed in harsh and 
 vigorous means in government and instruction. They succeeded, though 
 lacking in comfort and school facilities, in giving their scholars a plain, 
 business education, fitting them for the ordinary but responsible duties 
 and positions open to all good citizens. Among this class were foimd 
 some who aspired to and acquired a limited knowledge of the classics and 
 attended for a year or two the most excellent academy of the county. 
 [Eumford Academy]. 
 
 "The third class had little or no education — their means were often 
 too limited even for the "Old Field School ;" but the most potent reason 
 for the neglect of education with this class was, that its importance was 
 not felt or appreciated. No public school discussions or educational 
 meetings awakened an interest or aroused the slumbering ambition of 
 these sons of toil. They were ignorant as a class, and contented in their 
 ignorance. 
 
88 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 "There was before the war a system of public education which was 
 in substance about as follows: Commissioners were appointed by the 
 county court to list all indigent children. Any teacher might receive 
 into his school these children, making out an account, certifying to the 
 same, also stating what progress had been made, taking this to the com- 
 missioners for their approval, then to the sheriff for payment, who kept 
 the account until all similar accounts had been handed in, and then the 
 s^mount which had been appropriated by the county was divided among 
 the teachers, according to the number of days each had taught the coun- 
 ty's poor. This, as a rule, amounted to from four to five cents per capita 
 per day. The mode of getting his pay was tedious to the teacher, and 
 the child or his parent had to feel the sting of recognized poverty. Yet 
 this system had its good fruits, though small in quantity." 
 
 MADISON — H. W. FEY. 
 
 "The ante-waf history of this county, in reference to schools, is 
 full of interest, not so much for its number of schools as for its good and 
 competent teachers. Some teachers, whose names have been handed 
 down in sacred memory, were graduates of the best institutions of the 
 country. It was the pride of every neighborhood to get the "best teacher.' 
 Our best teachers generally came from the public schools of the North, 
 who, knowing our need, would seek their fortunes in Dixie. Parents who 
 were able to educate their sons at college would almost invariably start 
 them to teaching on their return, as a stepping stone to some other em- 
 ployment. Nearly all of our prominent business men once taught school. 
 
 "There was another class of good teachers, known as the 'profes- 
 sional teachers,' who knew something of grammar, could read and write, 
 make the boys 'mind' and the girls 'behave.' They were never known to 
 spare the rod, but would sometimes spoil the child. 
 
 "In the matter of schools Madison seems to have been fortunate in 
 having good teachers, and of course, good schools, but they were all 
 private institutions, in neighborhoods. The poor children were per- 
 mitted to attend, for which the county paid a small pittance. Public 
 education was looked upon as a Yankee notion or invention, and could not 
 be tolerated in the Old Dominion. The idea seemed to prevail with 
 some, that the rich man had a right to educate his son, while the poor 
 must remain 'hewers of wood and drawers of water.' " 
 
 MOXTGOMERY F. D. SURFACE. 
 
 "The general character and qualifications of teachers under the old 
 regime was sadly lacking in uniformity. Forty per cent, perhaps, were 
 persons of fair literary attainments and substantial character ; about forty 
 per cent, had a very imperfect knowledge of the branches taught, and the 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 89 
 
 Temaining twenty per cent, were tramps of a low order who went about 
 •deceiving the people, never remaining in one place longer than a school 
 term." 
 
 NOBTHAMPTON — J. B. DALBT. 
 
 "For a long time there was what we termed the 'Old Field School' — 
 a log house, or poorly framed one at best — where children of all classes 
 picked up some little knowledge, the poorer childrens' [education] always 
 ending at this school." 
 
 NORTHUMBERLAND — ^WILLIAM BROWN. 
 
 "From 1840 to 1868, inclusive, there were in operation in the 
 county from three to twenty-four common schools annually — in no year 
 less than three — at which children of indigent parents might and did 
 receive instruction in the elementary branches, together with text-books, 
 stationery, etc., at public cost." 
 
 SCOTT — DR. J. B. WOLFE. 
 
 "The schools were generally in operation only for the winter 
 months; they were supported, by subscription, and as a consequence, only 
 the well-to-do citizens' children could attend, the poorer class being en- 
 tirely cut off from the benefits of a school, except a few who availed them- 
 selves of the five cents per capita per day allowed by the Literary Fund." 
 
 STAFFORD STROTHEK HARDING. 
 
 "I have mentioned only a few of the good schools Stafford has had, 
 but enough to show her interest at all times in education ; but in all these 
 years, in every neighborhood, there was the 'Old Field School' taught in 
 houses comfortable enough, where all could attend, even the most in- 
 digent, their tuition being paid from the Literary Fund." 
 
 WYTHE COUNTY MAJOR D. G. REPASS. 
 
 "Among the more wealthy and enterprising citizens, there could be 
 found here and there one who had received a collegiate education, but 
 this number was comparatively small. The great mass of the people be- 
 ing too poor to send their sons and daughters to college, availed them- 
 selves of the advantages offered by the 'Old Field School,' in which a plain 
 business education could be acquired at a cost for tuition of almost one 
 dollar and fifty cents per month. 
 
 "Up to about the year 1830, no provision had been made for the 
 education of 'indigent children.' After this time, however, all who by 
 reason of their poverty, were unable to pay tuition could obtain the bene- 
 
90 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 fit of the Literary Fund. This being regarded as an arrangement for 
 
 paupers only, was at first unpopular The treasurer's report [Board 
 
 of School Commissioners] for 1861, shows that there were 954 indigent 
 children in the schools, and that the average length of session was thirty- 
 eight days. From 1861 to 1870, there are no records to be found show- 
 ing that anything in the line of education was accomplished or even at- 
 tempted, except here and there a private or family school." 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 THOMAS JEFFERSON. 
 
 b. Albemarle county, Virginia, 13 April, 1743; d. at "Monticello" in 
 the same county, 4 July, 1826. "Author of the Declaration of American 
 Independence, of the Statute of Virginia for Eeligious Freedom, and 
 Father of the University of Virginia." 
 
 JAMES BAEBOUE. 
 
 b. Orange county, Virginia, 10 June, 1775. d. There 8 June, 
 1842'. "While serving as a deputy sheriff he acquired a knowledge of the 
 law, and was admitted to practice at the age of nineteen. He was a 
 member of the legislature from 1796 to 1812, when he was elected Gov- 
 ernor; elected to the United States Senate in 1815, serving until 1825; 
 Secretary of War, 1825-1828, being appointed Minister to England in 
 the latter year, but recalled in 1829 on the election of Andrew Jackson. 
 He vigorously opposed the Democratic party, and presided over the Whig 
 convention which nominated General Harrison in 1839. Governor Bar- 
 bour was for years president of the Orange County Humane Society. 
 Writing of this society in 1839, he said : "We commenced with a capital 
 of some $13,000; we have educated over a thousand children, and have 
 increased the capital to about $30,000. At my instance the court of 
 Orange have, by appointing the same persons directors of the Humane 
 Society also commissioners of the school fund, united both these bene- 
 volent funds. My hope and purpose have been to create a fund by the 
 aid of the charitable equal to the establishment of a manual labor school, 
 where the indigent might be so instructed as to become useful citizens, 
 and especially where teachers might be reared — a good supply of which 
 to operate through the State in an object of great importance." 
 
 It is of interest to note that the Orange Humane Society, incorpo- 
 rated in 1811, was vested with the funds of William Monroe, left by his 
 will in 1769, for the purposes of education, "The schooling of such poor 
 children as my executors shall think most in want." The will was 
 thought to be void, and nothing was done with the money. ITo heirs ap- 
 pearing, and those interested being unwilling to see the estate escheat. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia^ 1776-1860 91 
 
 the legislature was invoked for an act of incorporation. This Monroe 
 fund, and the proceeds of the sale of glebe lands formed the nucleus of 
 the funds of the Orange Humane Society. 
 
 (ef. Scott, History of Orange County, Eichmond, 1907, pp. 138, 
 143, 183.) 
 
 JOSEPH C. CABELL. 
 
 b. 88 December, 1778, in Amherst county, Virginia, d. February, 
 1856. He was educated at Hampden-Sidney and "William and Mary 
 colleges, graduating at William and Mary in 1798. He studied law, 
 spent three years in Europe, returned to Virginia in 1806, entered the 
 House of Delegates in 1809, and the State senate in 1811. He was 
 the chief coadjutor of Jefferson in the establishment of the University 
 of Virginia; and was a visitor of the University from the beginning, 
 succeeding James Madison as Eector in 1834. He was a member of the 
 Senate of Virginia for many years, and for about ten years was presi- 
 dent of the James Eiver Canal Company. 
 
 JOHN AUGUSTINE SMITH. 
 
 b. Westmoreland county, Virginia, 39 August, 1782. d. In Xew 
 York, 9 February 1865. He was graduated at AVilliam a«d Mary in 1800, 
 studied medicine, and settled as a physician in New York city in 1809, 
 becoming lecturer on anatomy at the College of Physicians and Sur- 
 geons, and editor of the "Medical and Physiological Journal." He was 
 president of William and Mary from 1814 to 1836. Eesigning he 
 resumed practice in New York city, and was president of the College of 
 Physicians and Surgeons, 1831-1843. He published numerous ad- 
 dresses, lectures and essays. 
 
 CHAKLES FENTON MERCEE. 
 
 b. Fredericksburg, Va., 6 June, 1778. d. Near Alexandria, Va.,'4 
 May, 1858. He was graduated at Princeton in 1797, studied law, spent 
 a year in Europe, and then began the practice of his profession. He was 
 a member of the Virginia Legislature 1810-1817, and during the war of 
 1812, was aide to the Governor, and in command of the defences of Nor- 
 folk, with the rank of brigadier-general. He was chairman of the Commit- 
 tee on Finance in the legislature of 1816, and introduced the bill for the 
 construction of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, of which he became presi- 
 dent. He was elected to congress as a Federalist in 1816, and served in 
 congress continuously until 1840. He was an active protectionist, and 
 an opponent of slavery. He visited Europe in 1853, and conferred with 
 eminent men of several countries in the interests of abolition. 
 
92 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 JOHN HOLT EICE. 
 
 b. Bedford county, Virginia, 28 November, 1777. d. At Hampden- 
 Sidney, Va., 3 September, 1831. He was eduacted at Liberty Hall 
 Academy, Eockbridge county, and was a tutor at Hampden-Sidney Col- 
 lege, 1796-1802. In 1812 he was installed as pastor of the First Pres- 
 byterian Church in Eichmond. 1815-1828, he published his religious 
 periodicals, the Christian Monitor and the Literary and Evangelical 
 Magazine. He was elected president of Princeton College in 1822; but 
 accepted the appointment, made a few months later, as dean of Union 
 Theological Seminary, Prince Edward county, an institution founded 
 largely by his own efforts. 
 
 ALEXANDEK CAMPBELL. 
 
 b. County Antrim, Ireland, 13 September, 1788. d. At Bethany, 
 West Virginia, 11 March, 1866. His father had been a member of the 
 Established Church and a minister, but joined the Scotch sect of Presby- 
 terian "Seceders." Educated at the University of Glasgow at the age of 
 nineteen, Alexander Campbell followed his father to Pennsylvania. After 
 a few years he removed to Bethany, Brooke county. Western Virginia, 
 and spent the remainder of his life there, in restless activity as preacher, 
 college president; editor and head of his church. George D. Prentice, of 
 Louisville, wrote of him in 1858 : "Alexander Campbell is unquestion- 
 ably one of the most extraordinary men of our time. In his essential 
 character, he belongs to no sect or party, but to the world." Whitehill, 
 History of Education in West Virginia, Washington, 1902,, p. 65ff. 
 
 WILLIAM HENKY HTZHUGH. 
 
 b. At "Eavensworth," Fairfax county, Virginia, 9 March, 1790. d. 
 there 29 May, 1830. lie was graduated at Princeton in 1808 ; was a vice- 
 president of the American Colonization Society, and labored zealously in 
 aid of its purposes. His early death cut short his career when he had 
 only served one term in the Virginia legislature, and as a member of the 
 Constitutional Convention of 1829-30, (Va. Mag. of History, etc., Vlll. 
 430.) 
 
 JESSE BTJETON HAEEISON. 
 
 b. Lynchburg, Va., 7 April, 1805. d. Few Orleans, La., 8 January, 
 1841. He was graduated at Hampden-Sidney College in 1821; studied at 
 the Harvard Law School two years, spent two years in Europe, where he 
 talked with Goethe (1830) ; settled in Louisiana, where he was admitted 
 to the bar, and edited a newspaper; was a member of the American 
 Colonization Societv; author of the "Slavery Question in Virginia" 
 (1832), etc. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 93 
 
 JONATHAN p. GUSHING. 
 
 b. Eochester, New Hampshire, 12 March, 1793. d. Raleigh, North 
 Carolina, 85 April, 1835. He was a graduate of Dartmouth College, 1817, 
 and from 1819 -Professor of Chemistry and Natural Philasophy at 
 Hampden-Sidney College, of which he was president, 1831-1835. Author 
 of "An address before the Virginia Historical and Philosophical So- 
 ciety, at an adjourned meeting held in the hall of the House of Dele- 
 gates, February 4, 1833." Eichmond, 1833. 
 
 JAMES MERCEE GAENETT. 
 
 b. Essex county, Virginia, 8 June, 1770. d. there in May, 1843. 
 He was a founder and the first president of the U. S. Agricultural So- 
 ciety, president of the Virginia Board of Agriculture, 1843, and wrote 
 extensively on rural economy. He was interested in educational progress, 
 maintained a female seminary at his house "Elmwood," for twelve years, 
 and was active in introducing into Virginia improved methods of in- 
 struction. He acted with the Democratic party, and engaged in a con- 
 troversy with Matthew Carey, the protectionist. After serving for sev- 
 eral years in the Virginia legislature, he was twice elected to the National 
 House of Eepresentatives, serving in congress from 1805 to 1809. In 
 1839 he was a member of the Virginia Constitutional Convention. 
 
 EDWAED DEOMGOOLE SIMS. 
 
 b. Brunswick county, Virginia. 24 March, 1805. d. Tuscaloosa, 
 Ala., 13 April, 1845. He was graduated at the University of North 
 Carolina in 1824, was professor at La Grange College, Ala., and entered 
 the Tennessee Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church in 1831. 
 After serving two years as a preacher, he became professor of ancient 
 languages at Eandolph-Macon College. He was in Europe 1836-1839, 
 most of the time at the University of Halle, and on his return to the 
 United States became professor of English literature at Eandolph-Macon. 
 Prom 1843, until his death he taught the same subject in the University 
 of Alabama. He was the first to teach Anglo-Saxon in connection with 
 English literature in the South, and was preparing grammars of Eng- 
 lish and Anglo-Saxon at the time of his death. 
 
 JAMES Ji'dO^VELL. 
 
 b. Eockbridge county, Virginia, 19 October, 1796. d. at Lexing- 
 ton, Eockbridge county, 34 August, 1851. He was graduated at Prince 
 ton in 1817; served in the House of Delegates, at the session of 1831 
 making an argument for the gradual manumission of slaves, and "sup- 
 porting in a series of brilliant speeches measures for a public school sys- 
 
94 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 tern and internal improvements" ; Governor of Virginia, 1842-44. Mem- 
 ber of congress, 1846-1851. Although an advocate of State rights, he 
 was vehemently opposed to slavery. McDowell was an orator of the 
 first rank; see the accounts of his speech in the House of Eepresenta- 
 tives, September 3, 1850. 
 
 HEXEY KUFFNEE. 
 
 b. Page county, Virginia, 19 January, 1789. d. in Kanawha 
 county (now W. Va.), 17 December, 1861. He was graduated at Wash- 
 ington College, Va. in 1814, studied theology, and became a minister. He 
 was professor at Washington College (now Washington and Lee Uni- 
 versity) from 1819 to 1837, and its president 1837-1848, when he re- 
 signed and returned to his farm. Published an account of the Origin 
 and Practice of Monkery (3 vols. 1850), an address against slavery, 
 known as the Eufiner Pamphlet (1847), etc., etc. President EufEner 
 was the father of Dr. Wm. H. EufEner, first superintendent of Public In- 
 struction of Virginia. 
 
 FEAXCIS HENNEY SMITH. 
 
 b. Norfolk, Va., 18 October, 1812. d. Lexington, Va., 21 March, 
 1890. He was graduated at the TJ. S. Military Academy in 1833, and was 
 assistant professor there in 1834, but resigned in 1836, was professor of 
 mathematics at Hampden-Sidney College, 1837-1839, and on the or- 
 ganization of the Virginia Military Institute in 1839, became its super- 
 intendent, which office he held until 1889. He was in command of a 
 regiment during the Civil War. General Smith published a series of 
 mathematical text-books; "The Best Methods of Conducting Common 
 Schools," (1849) ; "College Eeform" (1850) ; A report to the legis- 
 lature of Virginia on Scientific Education in Europe (1859) ; "West 
 Point Fifty Years Ago" (1879), etc. 
 
 JAMES BEOWHr^ JE. 
 
 Mr. Brown was a native of Mecklenburg county, the son of John 
 Brown, a Scotchman, clerk of Mecklenburg county about 1784, and then 
 clerk of the General Court. Erom 1823 to 1853 James Brown, Jr., was 
 second auditor and superintendent of the literary fund. The standard re- 
 positories of biographical items have nothing to say about Mr. Brown, 
 one of the most useful citizens of his day. His numerous reports as 
 virtually superintendent of Public Instruction are most careful and in- 
 structive documents. These reports, under the old system, might well 
 be reprinted in one volume or several volumes. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 95 
 
 RICHAED EATCLIFFE PAKE. 
 
 b. near Fairfax Courthouse, Virginia, 1845 ; d. 1892 at school at Ab- 
 ingdon Academy, being a refugee at Abiagdon during the first years of the 
 Civil War. Entered the Confederate Army in 1863 ; twice wounded. Eoa- 
 noke College, October, 1865 — June, 1868. Admitted to the bar, Fairfax 
 county, 1870; held various county ofBces, and served in the legislature 
 as a representative from Fairfax, 1870-1881; State Superintendent of 
 Public Instruction, 1883-1886. United States Marshal for the Eastern 
 district of Virginia, 1889-1893. In his political life Mr. Farr was con- 
 sistently a supporter of General Mahone. Mr. Parr's record as State 
 Superintendent of Public Instruction is fairly well preserved in his re- 
 ports, especially in his very elaborate report for the year 1885, which 
 contains a great deal of matter relative to the history of education in 
 Virginia. On receipt of this report Dr. J. L. M. Curry, then minister to 
 Spain, wrote to Mr. Farr: "The bound volume I shall present to the 
 proper department here, that Spain may see how a comparatively young 
 Commonwealth can establish and maintain a free school system. Your re- 
 port is a monument to your industry and ability, and the conclusive de- 
 monstration of your efficiency as a public officer. In my work as Peabody 
 agent I found no superintendent more devoted to the cause of public 
 schools, more energetic, more faithful, more efficient. I tried to put the 
 more imperishably on the Peabody record my estimate of your services, 
 and I did it the more cheerfully because politically we were not of the 
 same party." [MS. of Wilson M. Farr, Fairfax, Va.] 
 
PART II. 
 
 LIST AND COMMENT 
 
 Secondary Education in Virginia 
 
 1776—1860 
 
Contents 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Prefatory Note 101-104 
 
 1775. Hampden-Sldney Academy : Prince Edward county .... 104 
 
 1776. Liberty Hall Academy: Rockbridge county 105 
 
 1778. Washington Henry Academy: Hanover county 108 
 
 1783. Fredericksburg Academy loy 
 
 Maury's Grammar School: Williamsburg Ill 
 
 1785. Botetourt Seminary 113 
 
 Alexandria Academy 114 
 
 Louisa Academies 117 
 
 1786. Winchester Academy 118 
 
 1787. Randolph Academy: Harrison county 120 
 
 1788. Warren Academy: Fauquier county 121 
 
 1790. Millfield Academy: Southampton county 122 
 
 1791. Warminster Academy: Amherst county 123 
 
 Scottville Lodge Academy: Powhatan county '. . 123 
 
 1793. Shepherdstown Academy: Jefferson county 124 
 
 1794. Harrisonburg Academies 125 
 
 Petersburg Academy 125 
 
 1795. New London Academy: Bedford county 127 
 
 1796. Ware Parish Academy: Gloucester county 127 
 
 Ebenezer Academy: Brunswick county 128 
 
 1797. Charlestown Academy: Jefferson county 129 
 
 1799. Brooke Academy: Brooke county 129 
 
 Leesburg Academy: Loudoun county 130 
 
 ' Culpeper Academies 130 
 
 1800. Prince Edward Academies 131 
 
 1801. Burr Academy: Prince George county 134 
 
 Banister Academy: Pittsylvania county 134 
 
 1802. Halifax Academy 134 
 
 New Glasgow Academy: Amherst county 135 
 
 1803. Abingdon Academy 135 
 
 Albemarle Academy 136 
 
 Middleburg Academy: Loudoun county 137 
 
 Richmond Academy 137 
 
 1804. Norfolk Academy 140 
 
 Rumford Academy: King William county 141 
 
 1805. Hampton Academy 142 
 
 1806. Charlotte Academies 143 
 
 1807. Margaret Academy: Accomac county 143 
 
 1808. Franklin Academy: Nottoway county 144 
 
 ■ Lynchburg Schools 144 
 
 Lewisburg Academy: Greenbrier county 145 
 
 1809. Caroline Academy 146 
 
 1810. Berryville Academy 147 
 
 Staunton Academy 147 
 
 1812. Portsmouth Academy 14g 
 
Page 
 
 1812. Martinsburg Academy ^ 148 
 
 1813. Rappahannock Academy: Caroling county 149 
 
 1814. Hygeia Academy: Prince William county 149 
 
 1815. Monongalia Academy 150 
 
 Mecklenburg Academies 150 
 
 1817. Newmarket Academy: Shenandoah county 151 
 
 Pittsylvania Academy 151 
 
 1818. Romney Academy: Hampshire county 152 
 
 Newington Academy : Gloucester county 152 
 
 Northumberland Academy 152 
 
 1819. Winfield Academy: Dinwiddie county 153 
 
 1820. Boydton Academy 153 
 
 1822. Strasburg Academy 154 
 
 1826. Rockingham Academy 155 
 
 Salem Academy 155 
 
 1827. New Baltimore Academy: Fauquier county 156 
 
 Wheeling Academy 156 
 
 Smithfield Academy: Isle of Wight county 156 
 
 1829. Chesterfield Academy 157 
 
 1831. Keswick School: Albemarle county 157 
 
 1832. Amelia Academy 160 
 
 Virginia Baptist Seminary 160 
 
 1834. Washington Academy: Westmoreland county 161 
 
 1835. Concord Academy 161 
 
 1836. Saint Bride's Academy: Norfolk county 163 
 
 1837. Fox Hill Academy: Elizabeth City county 163 
 
 Front Royal Academy 164 
 
 1838. Marshall Academy: Cabell county 164 
 
 1839. Episcopal High School 164 
 
 Fleetwood Academy: King and Queen county 165 
 
 Rector College: Harrison county 166 
 
 1842. Little Levels Academy: Pocahontas county 166 
 
 1846. Ridgeway School: Albemarle county 166 
 
 1848. Mossy Creek Academy: Augusta county 168 
 
 1849. Hanover Academy Kjg 
 
 1861. Bloomfield Academy Igg 
 
 Addenda. Index by counties to significant items in Superintendent 
 
 Farr's 1885 Report (Historical Section) 170-177 
 
 List of Chartered Schools, 1835-1860 177-183 
 
NOTE 
 
 Martin's Gazetteer, at Virginia, Published at Charlottesville in 1836, 
 is a little known book and one of extraordinary value. Prom this book 
 may be learned very fairly the condition of the State at the time the rail- 
 roads were first coming in. Martin says of transportation (p. 94), "Eail- 
 roads, though of but late introduction into the United States, have at- 
 tracted considerable attention in Virginia." So the year of the publica- 
 tion of Martin's book may be considered as fixing an epoch, as epochs go, 
 in the history of the State. The book registered pretty accurately the 
 progress made by the State since Jefferson's Notes had brought Virginia 
 to the attention of the learned world. About 1836 also, Hugh Nelson, a 
 Master of Arts of the University of Virginia, was teaching in Charles 
 City county. "Kelson was the first full graduate of the University 
 (1833) who taught in Virginia." [The UniversUi/ Memorial, p. "207.] 
 Therefore in the List and Comment given in the following pages^, it has 
 been thought well to show the facts with some particularity from the 
 year 1775 to the year 1836 (adding several important items thereafter) ; 
 beyond 1836 letting the mere list, with a few notes, sufiice in the main.* 
 
 What were the conditions during the last quarter of the eighteenth 
 century, and beyond; and why was Jefferson's Idea a hundred years in 
 coming round to something like reality? The State has been an agri- 
 cultural community, and perhaps a parallel from agriculture may be of 
 use. During the eighteenth century in Virginia, and later, there were 
 not a few men well informed as to the better practices of the modern 
 agriculture. Some of these men obtained good results and influenced 
 their neighborhoods to improvement. But until 1833 there was no sus- 
 tained publicity in Virginia for good agriculture. The system was one 
 altogether of voluntary enterprise, and self-interest as imagined must de- 
 termine whether methods should be strict or lax. Education fared that 
 wa)-. If in a county there were a few people of academic interests they 
 saw to it that something was done for academic interests. Population was 
 sparse. Xeighborhoods underwent changes. There was little provi- 
 vision made for the continuity of the principle. The principle de- 
 pended by who the individuals were, — was not an idea supposed to be 
 fixed regardless of the individual. A great part of the population 
 was African and slave. The telepathic medium, so to call it, could 
 not fail to exhibit certain phenomena. Education went on in this 
 agricultural community, late a part of the British Empire with the 
 Bishop of London for its Diocesan, but an educational programme at 
 
 * In the text reference by date is to year of origin or incorporation, and where possible the 
 institution or group has been followed to 1860. It is hoped that by the method employed the 
 period has been giveii fair representation. 
 
102 TJie Beginningsiyf Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 : 4 ' ■ 
 
 large was slow in formulating* However, there was a great deal to do, 
 and mncli vocational le^ing necessarily to be had. Transportation 
 was a serious matter. The old 'apprenticeship system afforded an excel- 
 lent training in arts and^mysteries for many boys. Muster-day and 
 court-day, with all their ungleasing concomitants, were good educators. 
 
 How is it possible for us to understand the old times, call them bad 
 or good? The will of John Carter, probated in 1669, provides that his 
 son Bobert, (who grew to be "King Carter"), "is to have a man or youth' 
 servant bought for him that hath been brought up in the Latin school, 
 and that he shall constantly tend upon him, not only to teach, him his 
 books, either in English or Latin, according to his capacity (for my will 
 is that he shall learn both Latin and English and to write), -and also to 
 preserve him from harm and from doing evil." [Glenn^ Sortie Colonial 
 Mansions, I, 223].* And as late as 1776, Archibald Alesfander, who was 
 a boy then, says of Eockbridge county, beyond the Blue Ridge— "schools 
 were very scarce. About this time my father went on a trading expedi- 
 tion to Baltimore, and there purchased several convict servants.'*' Among 
 them was a youth about eighteen or twenty, named John Keardon, born, 
 as he said, in Ireland, but reared from a child in London. He had been 
 for some time at a classical school, and had read Latin books as, far as 
 Virgil, as well as a little in the Greek Testament. He wrote a fair 
 hand, and had some knowledge of bookkeeping, but had never been ac- 
 customed to labour. This young' fellow, it was thought, might teach 
 school in default of a better, and accordingly a hut of logs was erected 
 for him near a spring. The place was a mile from our house by the di- 
 rect path along the creek. Hither I trudged along every day when not 
 more than five years old. The master, as being my father's servant, 
 lodged at our house and often carried me in his arms part of the way. 
 The school was large and some of the scholars were nearly grown. It 
 consisted of both boys and girls. The custom was, to read with as 
 loud a voice as we could while getting our lessons, as it was called. 'When 
 within a quarter of a mile of a country school, one might hear like a 
 distant chime the united voices of the scholars. Before the year was out, 
 the war had commenced, and the drum and fife of the recruiting sergeant 
 were heard in all public places. Many companies of regulars 
 were enlisted in that region. All who were in my father's service, namely, 
 
 * cf. Advertisement in Pennsylvania Gazette, August 15, 1745 (quoted in Journal of Neffro 
 History, I, 208) — "Run away from Talbot County School, Maryland, on Monday, the 5th of 
 this instant August, George Ewings, Master of said School, who took -with him a Negroe Man 
 naimed Nero, and two geldings, the one of a grey, the other of a black colour, the property of 
 the Visitors of said School. The said Ewings is an Irishman of a middling stature, and thin 
 visage, is pitted with smallpox, and has the Brogue upon his tongue, and had on when he went 
 away a light blue new coat. 
 
 Whoever anprehends and secures said Ewings, Negroe and geldings, so that thev may be 
 hart again, shall receive a reward of Five Pounds, Maryland Currency, paid by the Visitors of 
 said School Signed by Order, William Goldsborough, Register of said School." 
 
 t cf. Brock, Virginia and Virginians, p. 131. "Col. William Preston purchased at Williams- 
 burg a poet and scholar named Palfrenan about 1787, who taught his son, Gov. Preston." Was 
 this the poet Palfrcyn'an, a sketch of whom is given in the Dictionary of National Biography f 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1 776-1860 103 
 
 James Malbne, an Irish papist, Joe Lyon, a thievish Jew, and John 
 Eeardon, went off. Most of the English convicts, whether they had 
 served out their time or not, enlisted. Eeardon, having been wounded, 
 after the battle of Guilford, returned to school keeping on Timber Ridge." 
 [Life of Archibald. Alexander. New York, 1854, pp. 10-14.] 
 
 It was not possible then to get a general school system all at once — 
 with the precedents of a classical learning for the few, a charity school- 
 ing for another few, and teachers to be had merely by chance. The 
 young woman in the schools, like the young woman in the office, was not 
 yet apparent. But, as observed already, opinion took shape here and there 
 very soon. The School Commissioners of Mathews county spoke up 
 plainly in 1830. "The Commissioners with much deference would sug- 
 gest that a part of the enormous sums annually expended on abortive 
 schemes of internal improvement might be more successfully diverted 
 to the objects of education, and with absolute certainty of success. This 
 is the beginning place. The moral power and prosperity of the people of 
 Virginia should have their foundation laid in enlightening the minds of 
 all, and by providing the means of a general plan of education. Other 
 improvements are of a secondary character, and will follow as a matter 
 of course." Mathews county lay on the sea. The State needed roads and 
 canals badly enough. It is doubtless something of a maxim that, nar- 
 rowly examined, a community will not be observed to show progress ex- 
 cept as a whole. As a matter of course the old system was a system of 
 public education as well as the new. There has been a change in the 
 construction of the word "public." 
 
 It is vastly interesting to know something of what one of our States 
 accomplished under the old system, by which people taxed themselves 
 for "academies," and used a "Literary Fund" for the schooling of those 
 who could not pay for an academy education, and yet wanted some edu- 
 cation out of books. The list of institutions found below is in its most 
 detailed parts too meagre. The purpose has been to exhibit accomplish- 
 ment, and if not that, at least intention. Recourse has been had largely 
 to the statutes of the State, and it is a fortunate circumstance that these 
 are so full of information to the point. After 1776, the people not hav- 
 ing to refer everything to London, showed great elasticity and were con- 
 tinually coming up to the General Assembly for charters. Whoever 
 wishes to know the names of those who cared most for education in Vir- 
 ginia must form a roll from the incorporators on the Statute books. 
 
 This list has been faithfully compiled, with nothing in view but the 
 genuine interest of the seventy and seven chief items of it. The work 
 done, it appears that there has been a very even distribution of these items 
 with respect to time and topography — twenty-three for the eighteenth 
 century, twenty-six from thence to the year 1818, and twenty-six from 
 1818 to 1846. . And although now and then there is more than one entry 
 
104 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 for one county, it is a little remarkable that the items fall with almost 
 exact evenness for the Tidewater region, the region from Tidewater to 
 the Blue Eidg6, and that from the Blue Eidge to the Ohio river. All this 
 may be taken to show that the State throughout its territory was about 
 equally unmindful, or mindful, of the "great concern of schools." 
 
 1775. HAMPDEN SIDNEY ACADEMY, PEINCE EDWARD COUNTY. ESTAB- 
 LISHED FEBEUAEY, 1775, BY THE PEESBYTEKY OE HANOVER.* 
 
 Samuel Stanhope Smith, a graduate of the College of New Jer- 
 sey, was the first President, later President of the College of New Jer- 
 sey. Patrick Henry and James Madison were among the first trustees. 
 More than a hundred students were in attendance at the first session of 
 this academy, the number growing very much less afterwards : the staff 
 of instructors numbered four, all Princeton men. In 1779 President 
 Smith was succeeded by his brother, John Blair Smith, (also a graduate 
 of Princeton, and later President of Union College, New York), under 
 whom the academy was chartered as the College of Hampden-Sidney, in 
 1783. 
 
 In 1784 the entrance requirements to the Sophomore, or lowest class, 
 of this college were: 'The English grammar, Caesar's Commentaries, 
 Sallust, Virgil, and the Eoman Antiquities.' In 1812 it was enacted 
 that the students in the college grammar school should read 'the whole 
 of Corderius's Colloquies; 3 dialogues in Erasmus; Selectae e veteris, 
 part 1st; the whole of Selectae e profanis; Mair's Introduction (to Latin 
 Syntax) ; Caesar's Commentaries, 6 books of the Gallic, and 2 of the Civil 
 War; such parts of the Eoman Antiquities as shall be prescribed by the 
 President, the whole of Sallust; Virgil to the end of the 6th Aeneid; 
 
 * "The cultivation of science is ever esteemed an object of great importance by the wise 
 and good. They who have turned their attention to it with the most success are always the 
 most anxious to promote it amongst others. That liberality of sentiment, that refinement of soul, 
 that capacity for public usefulness, and that unaffected morality and religion, which usually ac- 
 company real knowledge, are strong inducements to the judicious, to desire an extensive dif- 
 fusion of its salutary influence. 
 
 The Presbyterian Clergy in Virginia have uniformly aimed at this from their drst settle- 
 ment in the country. In their collective capacity they are known by the name of the Presbytery 
 of Hanover: they have in general a good share of learning, and have the promotion of morality 
 and religion much at heart. Engaged by such motives, they have repeatedly instituted and 
 patronized Seminaries of learning in their different circles. But the small degree of influence 
 which they possessed in the older country under the establishment of an Episcopal Church, and 
 the narrowness of their private fortunes, rendered their efforts of that sort very feeble, and no 
 remarkable advantage was derived from their small, local schools. 
 
 Convinced of the necessity of something more extensive and popular, they endeavored to 
 erect and promote by subscription, a public Academy; in which the various parts of Science 
 should be taught, and which should render education more conveniently attainable, in counties 
 remote from the seat of government, where the College of William and Mary had been long before 
 established. In the year 17Y2 an attempt of this kind was made, but through some fatality, the 
 benevolent design miscarried. Two years afterwards, when they had recovered a little from their 
 discouragement, it was repeated with greater success 
 
 Such was the original of the Academy since distinguished by the name Hampden Sidney, 
 
 expressive of those ideas of liberty, both civil and religious, which the Institution was designed 
 
 to cherish; and such were the principles upon which it was reared." [MS. Record preserved in 
 
 the Library of Hampden Sidney College, composed in 1782, and printed in the Calendar of Board 
 
 Minutes of the College, p. 7ff.] 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 105 
 
 Horace (the indelicate parts excepted); commit the Greek Grammar; 
 and read in Greek Testament St. John's Gospel, the Acts of the Apostles, 
 the Epistle to the Eomans, the Epistle to the Hebrews, and 33 dialogues 
 of Lucian — the student shall then enter the Freshman Class.' In 1834 
 a committee of the trustees of Hampden-Sidne}' College reported a re- 
 vised Course of Study, beginning with the 'Academy attached to the col- 
 lege: Adam's Latin Grammar; C'orderius; Epitome Historiae Sacrae; 
 Latin Tutor ; Caesar's Commentaries ; Virgil and Latin Prosody ; Sallust ; 
 Cicero's Orations; Hackenberg's Greek Grammar, by Goodrich;, Greek 
 Delectus ; Jacobs' Greek Header ; Dalzel's Collectanea Graeea Minora, and 
 Greek Prosody; Neilson's Greek Exercises, and Knappius's Greek Testa- 
 ment — Lempriere's Classical Dictionary, Tooke's Pantheon, and Adams' 
 Eoman Antiquities to be consulted and studied so that the student may 
 explain all Classic allusions — Murray's English Grammar, Webbers' 
 arithmetic. Elements of Geography and Ancient History. The students 
 are to perform such exercises in elocution and composition as the Precep- 
 tor may direct.' 
 
 The earliest distinct reference to this preparatory department of 
 Hampden-Sidney College is for the year 1809. With brief intermis- 
 sions, the department seems to have been maintained from that time 
 until 1860. 
 
 [Calendar of Board of Minutes; llainpden-Sidneij College 1776-1876, 
 Eichmond, 1912, pp. 9, 11, 39, 64, 93, 140.] 
 
 Of the academy of 1776, President Smith stated: "The system of 
 education will resemble that which is adopted in the college of Xew Jer- 
 sey, save that a more particular attention shall be paid to the cultivation 
 of the English language than is usually done in places of public educa- 
 tion." 
 
 Eegarding the work done by the College of Hapden- Sidney, Presi- 
 dent Gushing made an interesting statement in 1834: "Although the 
 institution has had to encounter many difficulties for want of funds, yet 
 it has generally been in successful operation, and has educated upwards 
 of 2,000 young men; many of whom have been of eminent usefulness, 
 and some of great abilities. More instructors have emanated from this 
 institution than from any other in the Southern country." 
 
 Calendar of Board Minnies, etc., p. 14. 
 
 Gazetteer of Virginia. By Joseph Martin. Charlottesville, 1836, p. 266. 
 
 1776. LIBERTY HALL ACADEJIT : EOCKBEIDGE COUXTY. 
 
 Established by the Presbytery of Hanover in ]\Iay, 1776. In 1749, 
 Eobert Alexander conducted a mathematical and classical school near 
 Greenville in Augusta county, called the Augusta academy. Mr. Alex- 
 ander was a Master of Arts of Trinity College, Dublin, and his school, the 
 "first classical school in the Valley of Virginia, was continued by an un- 
 
106 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 interrupted succession of principals and assistant instructors, on successive 
 sites, until it gradually developed into Washington and Lee University." 
 
 Eobert Alexander was succeeded by the Eev. John Brown, a graduate 
 of Princeton (1749), who in 1774 employed William Graham (Prince- 
 ton, 1773) as his assistant, Graham becoming principal of the school in 
 1776. It was this school that the Presbytery of Hanover took over in 
 1776. The academy was chartered, with college powers but without 
 the title, in 1783, becoming Washington College by charter in 1812. 
 {Catalogue of the Officers, etc., of Washington and Lee Universiti/, ISSB, 
 p. 7.) 
 
 William Graham, the first rector of Liberty Hall Academj^, was a 
 remarkable man. His method of instruction, as described by an eye- 
 witness, 1780, was effective: "It was noon, the hour of recreation. Here 
 was seen a large assemblage of fine, cheerful, vigorous looking youth, ap- 
 parently from ten to twenty years of age. They were mostly engaged 
 in feats of strength, speed, or agility. Presently the sound of the horn 
 summoned all to the business of the afternoon. The sports were dropped 
 as by magic* Now you may see them seated singly or in pairs, or in 
 small groups, with book in hand, conning over their afternoon's lesson. 
 One portion resorted immediately to the hall, and ranging themselves 
 before the preceptor in semiTcircular order, handed him an open book, 
 containing their recitation. He seemed not to look into the book, and 
 presently closed it; thinking, as I supposed, that he knew as well as the 
 book. Of the recitation I understood not a syllable. It was observable 
 that during the recitation, the preceptor gave no instruction, corrected no 
 errors, made no remarks of any kind. He seemed to sit merely as a 
 silent witness of the performance. The class itself resembled one of 
 those self-regulating machines of which I have heard. Each member 
 stood ready, by trapping and turning down, to correct the mistakes of 
 his fellows. During the recitation an incipient smile of approbation was 
 more than once observed on the countenance of the preceptor, maugre his 
 native gravity and reserve. This happened when small boys, by their 
 superior scholarship, raised themselves above those who were full grown. 
 This class having gone through, several others in regular order, pre- 
 sented themselves before the teacher and passed the ordeal. The busi- 
 ness of the afternoon was closed by a devotional exercise. The systematic 
 order of the place struck my attention. A signal called the whole school 
 together ; a signal announced the hour of recitation ; each class was sum- 
 moned to its recitation by a signal. These signals were obeyed without 
 delay — and without noise. The students might pursue their studies in 
 the hall or the open air as pleased them best. Talking or reading aloui 
 in the hall was not permitted except to the class reciting. The dignity 
 
 * cf. Description of "Willington Academy," South Carolina, 1804— in Waddel, Academic 
 Memorials, Richmond, 1891, pp. 49ff. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 107 
 
 of the preceptor and his well-known fitness for the station, gave him re- 
 spectability and he was respected." {Washington and Lee Historical Pa- 
 pers, No. 1, pp. 108-110.) 
 
 As to the number of pupils who attended Liberty Hall Academy 
 during its earlier career there is no record, but it is inferred that the 
 number was as often under as over twenty-five. The tuition fee was 
 4 pounds per annum. From 1796 to 1812 the academy was called Wash- 
 ington Academy, General Washington having endowed it. For several 
 years before 1805 the number of students was extremely small, and they 
 chiefly were grammar boys. Towards 1809, the average attendance was 
 about fifty, including the grammar school which at that time was taught 
 by the same instructors as those who taught the more advanced classes. 
 The scale of studies in the grammar school began at the end of the four 
 fundamental rules of arithmetic and ended with Virgil. But little at- 
 tention was bestowed upon the English language. (Washington and Lee 
 Historical Papers, 1, 38; IV, 25, 27.) 
 
 "After Washington Academy became Washington College, in 1812, 
 the grammar school was continued until 1843. This school "which had 
 practically been a part of the college, was in 1839 set ofl' to itself under 
 the title of the preparatory department. Nicholas Brown Seabrook (guar- 
 anteed $450, but irregularly paid) was made its first principal. The 
 number of pupils did not much exceed a dozen, and their age ranged 
 from six to fourteen years. The educational doctrine which prevailed at 
 that time required boys to be put to studying Latin as soon as they had 
 acquired English enough to read the rules of the Latin grammar with- 
 out much difficulty. In 1830 I passed into the preparatory department 
 of the college from the Franklin school, which was taught by Dr. John 
 W. Paine in Lexington. I entered that school at about five years of age, 
 and studied the 'three E's' chiefly, with, I think, some effort at geo- 
 graphy, and in two years was considered sufficiently advanced to take up 
 Latin : so that at six and a half years I was sent to Mr. Seabrook. My 
 recollection is that whilst a very short Latin grammar lesson was re- 
 quired daily, the most of my time was occupied in prosecuting the same 
 primary studies which I had been pursuing in Dr. Paine's school. These 
 studies, with the exception of geography, were not noticed in the great 
 and awful day of examination before the college faculty and trustees. 
 Only the Latin was thought worthy of their official notice. 
 
 These examinations were semi-annual, and were conducted orally in 
 the presence of the entire faculty and board of trustees. They sometimes 
 commenced at six o'clock in the morning, were suspended for breakfast, 
 and continued all day with an intermission for dinner. The examina- 
 tions began with the preparatory department on Monday morning, and 
 were continued day after day for a week or more, including the college 
 classes. The examination in March, 1831, was a typical case. They first 
 
108 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 made a microscopic examination of a boy of seven years of age, the young- 
 est specimen, to see whether they could find in him the parts of speech, 
 and the first four declensions according to Adams' Latin grammar. Then 
 came two boys, who were examined on some more advanced parts of the 
 grammar. Then arose three boys, one of whom was Samuel Wallace, 
 subsequently the Texas hero, who read and parsed certain passages from 
 Selectae Veteri Testamenti Historicae 
 
 Others were examined on Cornelius Nepos and Cicero's Orations. 
 Finally, Warwick of Bath county, passed an approved examination upon 
 Jacob's Greek Eeader, and Selectae e Profanis. These eleven grammar 
 school boys were under the fire of this heavy ordnance for two days — 
 certainly a high testimony to the faithfulness of the faculty and trus- 
 tees. Their estimate of the boys was recorded thus : One distinguished, 
 seven approved, and three disapproved 
 
 At a meeting of the board, June 30, 1842, it was resolved to discon- 
 tinue the grammer school as an appendage to the college : no doubt the 
 expectation being that more than one classical school would be conducted 
 in the county by private teachers, which proved to be the case ; James H. 
 Paxton and Jacob Fuller having each established a classical school, the 
 one near his home on North river, and the other in Lexington. Col. 
 Paxton's school was continued for many years and did a work of great 
 value to the community and to the college. But for some unexplained 
 reason, classical schools have not been maintained in Rockbridge county 
 (written in 1893) with the zeal and success which their importance de- 
 mand." 
 
 nVashinafov avrl Lee Historical Papers, No. 4, by Dr. William H. 
 Eufiner, pp. 13-15, 68.] 
 
 1778. WASHINGTON-HENRY ACADEMY: HANOVER COUNTY. 
 
 "Hanover, January 26, 1778. 
 
 "We, the subscribers taking into serious consideration the present 
 affecting circumstances of our country, and being fully convinced of the 
 high importance of learning and virtue, to promote and support the pub- 
 lic weal, from an unaffected attachment to the interest of the American 
 States in general, and of this in which we live in particular, have un- 
 animously agreed and resolved in reliance on the kind concurrence of 
 Divine Providence to use our utmost endeavors to establish an academy 
 under the direction of the Eev. Mr. Daniel McCauley for the instruction 
 of youth in the learned languages, arts and sciences, etc., in Hanover 
 county, and parish of St. Paul's." 
 
 More than two hundred subscribers paid their subscriptions, and 
 those who had paid as much as 10 pounds met in March, 1778, and elected 
 trustees. This board soon after purchased 500 acres of land for the 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 109 
 
 academy, and had suitable buildings put up. The beginning was very 
 auspicious, for in a few years, as appears from the records, the Board was 
 obliged to restict the number of students. 
 
 The Eev. Daniel McCalla,* the first President, was a graduate of 
 Princeton, 1766. He was succeeded by the Eev. John Blair, (Princeton, 
 1775), who came into his perquisites of "houses, lands and orchards" 
 in 1782', and remained in charge until 1792; when he removed to Eich- 
 mond, and later established his own school there. From 1790 to 1797 
 there is a gap in the records. In 1802 a lottery was resorted to, the funds 
 being inadequate. In 1806, under the principalship of the Eev. Thos. 
 Hughes, there was a fire, which destroyed the buildings. During the ten 
 years from 1809 to 1820 there were eight principals in charge, one of 
 whom had to be removed on a warrant of forcible detainer. In 1824 
 there was a regulation adopted by the Board that "no teacher should be a 
 farmer" — ^that is, himself farm the academy lands. By 1841 the build- 
 ings had become dilapidated notwithstanding a slight aid from the Liter- 
 ary Fund of the State in 1838, and the trustees sold off 200 acres of land. 
 In 1858,t the academy session was ten months, with a $20 fee for the 
 English branches, and $30 for the languages. 
 
 From the records of the Board of Trustees, (which have been pre- 
 served), it appears that Washington-Henry Academy was in operation 
 pretty continuously up to 1860. The school is now a County High School 
 with five teachers, the Academy Trustees giving the use of their buildings 
 and grounds. 
 
 The Eev. Thomas Hughes, principal of the academy from 1805 to 
 1809, has been described by one of his pupils of the year 1809. "This 
 school had, at that time, been in operation half a century (?) and was 
 still prosperous. Mr. Hughes was an Episcopal minister, rather of the 
 colonial stamp, who dressed neatly and in the fashion of that day, wear- 
 ing a coat with very broad skirts and enormous pockets, vest with flaps, 
 small clothes, snow-white stockings, large knee and shoe buckles of pure 
 silver, and a white flowing wig. Every day at noon the boys were as- 
 sembled for prayers, when a portion of the Psalter and a prayer were 
 read." 
 
 MS. Records of the Board of Trvstecs of Washington Henry Academy: in State 
 
 Library, Richmond. 
 Virginia Educational Journal. VIII, 258-261. 
 William S. White and His Times: An Autobiography. Rchmond, 1891, p. 23. 
 
 1783. FREDERICKSBURG ACADEMY : SPOTSYLVANIA COUNTY. 
 
 In May 1783 the General Assembly passed an act to vest the gun- 
 factory and public lands at Fredericksburg in trustees for the purposes 
 
 * Dr. McCalla, who died in South Carolina in 1809, was a prolific author. Among his 
 works. Hints on Education; in Fourteen Numbers, cf. Alexander, Princeton College in the 18th 
 Century. 
 
 t In 1849 Lewis Minor Coleman established his famous "Hanover Academy*' at Taylorsville, 
 Hanover county. 
 
110 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 of an academy — "AVhereas all institutions for the education of youth, and 
 the advancement ■ of science, have particular claim to the encouragement 
 and patronage of the legislature ; and it is represented to this present gen- 
 eral assembly, that the gun-factory at Fredericksburg, and the lands be- 
 longing to the public thereto adjoining, -will, if converted to the purposes 
 of an acaderiiy for the education of youth, and particularly of those whose 
 indigence of situation will otherwise deprive them of that advantage, : be 
 of great utility Therefore enacted, that the said gun-factory and the 
 lands thereto adjoining belonging to the public, together with all the 
 buildings and appurtenances thereon, bcj and the same are hereby vested 
 in Eichard Henry Lee, junior, Joseph Jones, John Skinkery William 
 Pitzhugh, Charles Garter, Edward Stevens, French Strother, William 
 Moore, Thomas Towles, Mann Page, Edmund Pendleton, and Thomas 
 Lomax, trustees,, and their successors forever." The proviso was at- 
 tached, that if the trustees did not convert' the gun-factory into an acad- 
 emy within five years, the grant should revert to the Commonwealthi . 
 
 In 1796 a Charity School was established in Fredericksburg, and 
 four years later (Hening: Statutes, Supp. II, 333) the funds of the 
 academy, which had been discontinued severa,! years, passed to the Charity 
 School. In 1834, according to Martin's Gazetteer, there were in Fred- 
 ericksburg "5 male and 7 female schools, besides 3 free schools, 1 male 
 and 1 female, which' are incorporated and endowed, the former having 
 forty and the latter eighteen pupils," and to each of the five churches 
 was attached a Sunday school. It is possible that the Charity School of 
 1796 was a school for both boys and girls. A distinct charity school 
 for girls, (existent as early as 1803: Frederichshurg Gazette, March 7), 
 was incorporated in 1808 ; and a distinct Male Charity School was fur- 
 ther endowed with land in 1815. The Fredericksburg academy as first 
 established, locked especially to charitable 'purposes, and seems to have 
 been converted entirely to those ends. Formally, nothing seems at once to 
 have taken the place of the first establishment. But Frderieksburg after- 
 wards was not without schools of the academy type. Thomas Bitchie, 
 the celebrated editor of the Richmond Enquirer, had a school there which 
 he gave up to found the Enquirer in 1804 (McOabe, Virginia Schools, p. 
 65). Before 1835 the Goolrick School at Fredericksburg* was well es- 
 tablished. (Slaughter, William Green, p. 14). Before 1833 there was 
 
 * John Goolrick was an Irishman. He was assisted in his school by his son, George. Mr. 
 John Goolrick was assuredly one of the eminent .characters of Fredericksburg* He was deeply 
 skilled in mathematics. He believed in geometry, and such was the thoroughness of his methods 
 that several pupils in his school were able to stand .jip , before him, and upon his calling by 
 book and, number for any proposition in; Euclid, to repeat' the theme instantly and give the 
 demonstration. The blackboard in his day was unknown, but the geometrical figures were pro- 
 jected by rule, scale, and . compasses, and were, therefore, far' more symhietrical thin any 
 that now appear on the blackboard. He not only delighted to teach geometry, but trigonometry, 
 both plane and spherical — surveying and navigation^^algebrai even to the differential calculus, and 
 conic sections to the hyperbola and the asymptotes. His modes of discipline were only two^- 
 keeping in after school hours and the rod. 
 
 Thomas, H. Hanson was originally from GeorgetpwB, and was educated for the bar. He was 
 a fine classical ^holar; and the Greek and Latin 'languages, the history, and the antiquities' of 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 111 
 
 Thomas Hanson's classical school (Minor, Southern Literary Messenger, 
 p. 246.) Eichard Sterling, a graduate of Princeton, kept a classical 
 school in Fredericksburg about 1846. 
 
 General Dabney Maury in his Recollections, (p. 13), mentions Ijaw- 
 renee's Classical School as well known.* About 1834, the famous "Con- 
 cord Academy" was established near Fredericksburg. Hardly less fam- 
 ous, in its time (c. 1835) was John Lewis's "Llangollen" school also in 
 Spotsylvania county. "Mr. Lewis^ had been a lawyer, and had law stu- 
 dents. He taught English, Mathematics and Latin. Students in Greek 
 took lessons from Mr. Boggs, a neighboring Episcopal minister. The 
 chief end of Mr. Lewis's teaching was to make his pupils understand and 
 appreciate the beauties of thought and expression in the standard Latin 
 authors, and translate them into pure idiomatic English." (Slaughter: 
 William Green, p. 14). 
 
 Spotsylvania county was in a region of schools before 1860. The 
 Colemans, for three generations, were teachers at "Concord," in the ad- 
 joining county of Caroline, beginning their work soon after the Eevo- 
 lution (McCabe, Virginia Schools, p. 40.) 
 
 Hening^ Statutes at Large, XI, 204. 
 
 Martin's Gazetteer of Virginia, p. 281. 
 
 McOabe, Virginia Schools Before and After the Revolution, Charlottesville, 1890. 
 
 Slaughter, Brief Sketch of the Life of William Green, Richmond, 1883. 
 
 Minor, The Southern Literary Messenger, Washington, 1905. 
 
 Maury, Recollections of a Virginian, New York, 1894. 
 
 1783. maury's grammar school: williamsbueg. 
 
 After Christmas (1781) John Randolph and his brothers were sent 
 to Walker Maury's school in Orange county. At the school in Orange, 
 the young Eandolphs remained until about the middle of October, 1782, 
 when it was broken up and Mr. Maury removed to the city of Williams- 
 Greece and Rome were sedulously taught in his school. [Robert R. Howison, Fredericksburg, 
 Past, Present, and Future. Fredericksburg. 1898, pp. 50-51.] 
 
 Dr. Howison unfortunately has assigned no dates for these schools. He remarks (p. 46), 
 ''the material th'at has reached me would enable me to treat quite fully of the schools in and 
 about Fredericksburg from the year 1800 to the present time"; and (p. 67) "the schools ot 
 Fredericksburg have always. been good." 
 
 Dr. Howison left a manuEicript autobiography which gives a, few more school details for that 
 region, but the material has not -been released for publication. 
 
 In 1826 the General .Assembly, authorized a lottery of $50,000 'for the purpose of establishing 
 and endowing an academy in the town of Fredericksburg.' Trustees were incorporated in 1838. 
 It may have been Hanson's Classical School that was thus incorporated. The new Fredericksburg 
 Academy received aid from the Literary Fund for a few years after 1840. In 1845 there was 
 a principal, and two assistants. In 1846, the report stated that the building was of three rooms, 
 and that the number of pupils was 65. 'The instruction, classical, mathematical and English, 
 thorough, and seldom fails to make superior scholars.' {.Journal and Documents, Doc. ^o 4, 
 1842.-43, 1845-46, 1847-48.] 
 
 The Rev. John Woodville, of Whitehaven, England, for years Minister of St. Mark's Parish, 
 Culpeper county, was about 1789 Professor of the Humanities at the Fredericksburg Academy, 
 Gilbert Harrow being the Professor of Mathematics. [Slaughter, History of St. Mark's Parish, 
 Culpeper, p. 49.] 
 
 • John G. Lawrence, of South Garden, upper part of Caroline county, advertised his school in 
 the Richmond Enquirer, for January 16, 1827. 
 
 t Mr. Lewis went to Kentucky about 1832. See his letter dated "Llangollen," Ky., printed 
 in Southern Planter, IV, 22 ; he is described by the editor as a 'distinguished writer on agricul- 
 ture and the most practical farmer, of his day.' 
 
112 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 burg. He had been invited to that place to establish a grammar school as 
 an appendage to William and Mary College, in which there was no pro- 
 fessorship of humanity existing at the time. The school was regulated 
 most judiciously; and was soon attended by more pupils than any other 
 grammar school that had Jjeen before established or for a long time after- 
 wards existed in Virginia. More than one hundred, at one time, were 
 in attendance, including boys from every State in the Union from 
 Georgia to Maryland, both inclusive. Such a number of pupils made it 
 necessary that they should be divided into classes. The greater propor- 
 tion of these classes were consigned to assistants, of whom there were 
 four. John Bandolph was placed in the fourth class, which was the head 
 class, assigned to the superintendence of the chief usher, a Mr. Elliott. 
 T7hen the class was so augmented, it was reading, and had nearly fin- 
 ished, Eutropius. In a short time after young Eandolph joined it, the 
 class had made such progress that it was transferred from the usher's de- 
 partment to that of the principal. It then became the third class. While 
 John Eandolph continued a member of it, which was more than a year, 
 it was engaged in reading Sallust and Virgil, and had made some progress 
 in learning the Greek and French languages, and the elements of Geome- 
 try. Though he complained of having learned but little at this school,* 
 Li? attainments for the short time he was connected with it must have 
 been very considerable. While there (aetat. 10) he learned to repeat the 
 Westminister Greek grammar by heart. 
 
 It was around the base of Lord Botetourt's statue, in the old Capi- 
 tol,'*' the great clock, now removed to the church in Williamsburg, vibrat- 
 ing overhead, that he committed his lessons to memory. His attainment 
 in Latin also must have been very considerable. The boys were in the 
 habit of acting plays in the original from Plautus and Terence. (Life of 
 John Randolph of Roanoke, by Hugh A. Garland, New York, 1850, voL 
 I, P- 20-) 
 
 * Walker Maury was the son of the Rev. James Maury, teacher of Thomas Jeiferson. James 
 Maury's son Matthew (uncle of Commodore Maury) kept up the Maury School in Orange county. 
 cf. Life of William Fitzhugh Gordon. By A. C. Gordon. New York. 1909. pp. 48, 49, 63, 66, 67. 
 
 Mr. Maury died in his 36th year, Oct, 11, 1788, "Minister of Elizabeth River parish,, 
 and Master of the Norfolk Academy." {Virginia Mag. of History and Biography, XIII, 426.) 
 Therefore he was not long in charge of this Williamsburg Grammar School ; the school seems to- 
 have been independent of the college. From the History of the College of William and Mary 
 (Richmond, 1874), it appears that there were regularly appointed Masters of the College Grammar 
 School only from 1742 to 1764, before the Revolution, and that there was no College Grammar 
 School after the Revolution until 1866. Among the early masters, the most conspicuous was 
 Goronwy Owen (1768-1760), the last of the Welsh minstrels. 
 
 The Faculty of the College ordered in 1756, "yt ye young gentlemen, when they leave the- 
 Grammar School, shall be obliged to appear in Academical dress." 
 
 t cf. Schoepf, Travels in the Confederation, 1783-1784. Philadelphia, 1911. Vol. II, p. 78. 
 "The Capitol at Williamsburg is spacious and well carried out, and since at the time no better- 
 use can be devised for it, a Latin school is to be there installed." 
 
 In 1849 the Corporate authorities of Williamsburg were authorized to convey to the trustees, 
 of a Williamsburg Academy in that year, the lot of ground "whereon the capitol formerly stood^. 
 together with the appurtenances thereto belonging." At the same time the charter of the Female- 
 Academy of Williamsburg, granted in 1839, was repealed. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 113 
 
 1785. BOTETOURT SEMINARY: BOTBTOtTRT COUNTY. 
 
 An act incorporating trustees for establishing and conducting a semi- 
 nary of learning, at the town of Fincastle, in the county of Botetourt : 
 
 "Whereas it is the interest of all wise, civilized and free govern- 
 ments, to facilitate as much as may be, the diffusion of useful knowledge 
 among its inhabitants: And whereas to this end sundry persons of the 
 county of Botetourt have given considerable donations, for the purpose 
 of endowing and supporting a seminary of learning, at the town of Fin- 
 castle, in the said county, and have represented to this present general 
 assembly, that their designs would be much accelerated were a law to pasa 
 incorporating them into a body politic, etc., etc. 
 
 The said president, wardens, and directors, or any seven of them, 
 shall have full power and authority to meet at such times as they shall 
 think proper, and determine in all cases where a greater number of poor 
 and indigent apply for admission than the funds can support, (to whom 
 the preference shall be given) and to continue those so admitted for such 
 length of time as they, or a majority of them, shall think necessary, 
 having regard to the genius and capacity of the students, and of directing 
 the study of such to any branch of literature, to which in their opinion 
 the genius of the student is best adapted. . . . The treasurer, previous to 
 his entering on the duties of his office, shall give bond, with security to 
 be approved by the corporation, in the penalty of three thousand pounds." 
 
 This act of incorporation was amended and re-enacted in 1834, pro- 
 vision being made for a new board of trustees (as if the institution had 
 lapsed) ; the powers of the new board were the same as those of the old. 
 Botetourt Seminary, as planned was an institution of extraordinary 
 designs. 
 
 Martin's Gazetteer gives the town of Fincastle an academy in 1834. 
 This may or may not have been the seminary, for in their first report to 
 the second auditor, the trustees of the seminary state that the institution 
 "opened in May 1837," with forty students, the Eev. Thomas Brown, 
 principal, and that there were fifty to sixty students in sight. This re- 
 port may be taken to mean that Botetourt seminary had been closed for 
 some years before 1837. The next report of the trustees gives the semi- 
 nary fifty students, a principal and assistant, supported by the tuition 
 fees, plus an appropriation of $500. Apparently the guaranteed salary 
 was from endowment. In their report for the year 1841, the trustees 
 give the number of pupils as fifty-seven. Major Joseph W. Anderson (b. 
 1836), was a pupil at Botetourt seminary about 1845: "When not yet 
 ten years old, he was sent to the Botetourt seminary, then under the 
 <;harge of a graudate of the Virginia Military Institute." 
 
114 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 It is regretted that more information is not to be had regarding 
 this interesting foundation.* 
 
 In 1838 the James Eiver Academy, Botetourt county, was incorpo- 
 rated. 
 
 Hening, Statutes at La^ge, XII, 201. 
 
 Acts of Assembly, 182i, p. 76. 
 
 Martin, Gazetteer of Virginia, p. 328. 
 
 Doc. No. 4, in Journal and Documents, 18S9, 1841-42, 1842-43. 
 
 Johnson, The University Memorial, Baltimore, 1871, p. 383. 
 
 1785. ALEXANDRIA ACADEMY. + 
 
 "For incorporating the academy in the town of Alexandria, be it 
 enacted by the General Assembly (1786), that it shall be lawful for those 
 persons or their respective heirs, who s&all or may have contributed the 
 sum of five pounds each, to the use of said academy, or a majority of them, 
 to meet at the said academy on the second Monday in April annually, and 
 then and there elect by ballot, thirteen fit and able men to serve and act 
 as trustees of the said academy. . . . Provided always and le it further en- 
 Acted, that the first annual election of the said trustees shall not take 
 i'-lace, or be made, until the year one thousand seven hundred and eighty- 
 eight ; and that in the rr ^antime, and until such election be made, George 
 Washington, William Brown, David Stewart, John Fitzgerald, Charles 
 Lee, William Baker, Isaac S. Keith, Samuel Hanson, James Hen- 
 
 • The Rev. Robert Logan, pastor of the Fincastle Presbyterian Church from 1800 to 1828, 
 taught a classical and promiscuous school during that period. The Rev. Thomas Brown, an Eng- 
 lishman, had a large school at Fincastle from 1837 to 1845. His scholars were all boys, at 
 times as many as a hundred, from Southwest Virginia and Botetourt county. His school building 
 "was for the second story a Masonic Hall. Mr. Brown was a most excellent teacher and a most 
 excellent flagellator. His" switches were supplied from Catawba by the Thompson boys, and were 
 never under five feet in length. After l^r. Brown, the Rev. John Anderson, an Irish Presby- 
 terian, was the principal, a man of great ability. He was succeeded by a Mr. Downs, who 'whipped 
 off all the buttons on the coats of his scholars.' By 1856 the Academy, and a girls' school which 
 had been well supported, were on the decline. Both were revived before 1860 by John S. Grasty, 
 pastor of the Presbyterian Church. When he assumed charge he said, "To build up a church 
 we must have good schools." 
 
 HoUaday, A Partial History of Fincastle Presbyterian Church, Richmond, 1902, pp. 45-47. 
 
 t While there is evidence obtainable that there was a school at Alexandria as early as 1739, 
 the first record I have come across is in the old Ordinance book of Alexandria Town, which con- 
 tains the minutes' of the meeting of the Trustees of the town from its foundation until some 
 years after the Revolution. I made a , complete copy of this book last year. In 1767 the town 
 school was taught in a part of the building on Market Square, then known as the Town Hall, 
 and which occupied the site of the present Courthouse in the Market building. In February, 
 1767, there was much complaint of the negligence of the school masters who were responsible 
 for the good condition of the school rooms. From time to time in the records this was men- 
 tioned, until in 1786 a schoolhouse was built on Washington Street, and Peter Wagoner, the 
 town clerk, allowed to take possession of the school rooms as an office for the town and county 
 records. The school was called the Alexandria Academy, and General Washington endowed a free 
 department here in 1797, and on the 22d of February of that year gave a sum for clothing poor 
 children. These children assembled at Gadsby's Tavern and walked in procession to the school- 
 house on Washington Street. It is a strange thing, but no one seems to know just what became 
 of the fund that General Washington left for the maintenance of the free department. Rev. Dr. 
 McWhirr, a Presbyterian minister, was the teacher of the Alexandria Academy between 1792-1807. 
 William B. Leary succeeded him and taught the school when Robert E. Lee was. a pupil (previous 
 to his entering the school of Benjamin Hallowell). Mr. King-Shay taught the Alexandria Academy 
 for a number of years, and was s\icceeded by Samuel Beach, who was there when the school was 
 closed during the Civil War. After the war Mr. Beach resumed his school and was In charge 
 until the establishment of the Public School. It has been suggested that the 'Washington fund 
 was used in the expenses incident to building the present structure. [Statement of Mrs. M. G. 
 Powell, of Alexandria. The Cameron Club of Alexandria is collecting data in regard to the 
 older schools of the city.] 
 
 A reference to ■ this and the Alexandria Academy, which afterwards grew into the Wash- 
 ington School of today, will be found in the February number of Harper's Magazine for 1880. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 11-') 
 
 dricks, William Hartshorne, Josiah Watson, Benjamin Dulany, and 
 Charles Simms, gentlemen be, and they are hereby constituted trustees 
 of the said academy." 
 
 For many years before his death in 1799 General Washington had 
 given fifty pounds a year towards the education of orphan children, or 
 the children of indigent parents; ant by will he left to the trustees of 
 the academy in the town of Alexandria, four thousand dollars towards 
 the support of a free school, established at and annexed to the Alexandia 
 Academy, "for the purpose of educating orphan children, or the chil- 
 dren of such poor and indigent persons as were unable to accomplish it 
 by their own means." Already in 1785 General Washington had pro- 
 posed to the trustees of the Alexandria Academy that they should apply 
 the fifty pounds a year he was determined to give to the poor children of 
 Alexandria. The trustees accepted the proposal, and gave it as their 
 opinion that the whole of the annuity should be used for schooling. 
 
 About 1880 General Lee, then a boy in his teens, was a student at the 
 Alexandria Academy under the tuition of Mr. Leary. Before entering 
 West Point in 1825, he attended the famous school of Mr. Benjamin 
 Hallowell, in Alexandria. 
 
 "Ben Hallowell, was a Quaker of the Quakers. His school stood 
 high. 'Brimstone Castle,' the bays called it, on account of its color. ]\Ir. 
 Hallowell said that young Lee was an exemplary student." 
 
 It was no doubt Hallowell's school that Martin describes in his 
 Gazetteer — "At Alexandria there is a boarding school for young men, in 
 which the languages, mathematics, philosophy, and every useful branch of 
 education is taught. A part of the course consists of a series of lectures 
 on astronomy, chemistry, etc., in which the principles of the sciences 
 treated of are illustrated by experiments with suitable apparatus." "There 
 are also," adds Martin, "boarding schools for young ladies, one of tliem 
 under the charge of four Sisters of Charity from Emittsburg, in the State 
 of Maryland. There are also in Alexandria free schools for children of 
 both sexes, and about 30 other schools, exclusive of Sunday schools." 
 Martin does not mention the academy; it is possible his correspondent 
 ranked it as the free school for boys, the free schools of the time being pay 
 schools as well. There was an 'Alexandria, Academy' in 1861. 
 
 Benjamin Hallowell's, 'Alexandria Boarding School,' was prepar- 
 ing boys for the University of Virginia in 1854.* The school was sold 
 
 * "The celebrated Quaker school teacher, Benjamin Hallowell, was born in Montgomery county, 
 Pernia., the 17th of August, 1799. He was prepared for teaching in the school of John Gum- 
 mare at Burlington. After some experience as a teacher in Pennsylvania and Maryland, he came 
 to Alexandria in the fall of 1824, where he opened a boarding and day school for boys on Orinoka 
 Street. Robert Lee, who was then about seventeen years old and was preparing for West Point, 
 was one of his first pupils. In the spring of 1826 Mr. Hallowell removed to the southwest comer 
 of Washington and Queen Streets, to the large colonial house then owned by the Hooe family. In 
 1832 the property was sold to settle an estate and was bought by Mr. John Lloyd. This necessi- 
 tated another move for Mr. Hallowell. Be then purchased from the same estate the old sugar 
 house and warehouse, which were about the middle of the square and adjoining his former resi- 
 dence. After thoroughly altering and renovating the two houses, the warehouse as a school 
 
116 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 to William H. Kemper, before 1860, who conducted it until the outbreak 
 of the Civil War, being assisted by his two sons, Kosciuszko and Dela- 
 ware Kemper (Lieut.-Col. C. S. A., Professor in Hampden-Sidney Col- 
 lege, 1866-1882). 'After the war. Captain John S. Blackburn had a 
 school for boys in the same building, fotmerly occupied by Benjamin Hal- 
 lowell and William Kemper. Captain Blackburn died in 1912, and his 
 school with him.' " 
 
 Hening, Statutes at Large, XII, 392. 
 
 Sparks, Writings of Washington, X, 394 ; IX, 151. 
 
 Fitzhugh Lee, General Lee, New York, 1895, p. 22. 
 
 Martin, Gazetteer of Virginia, p. 479. 
 
 Johnson, The University Memorial, p. 637. 
 
 Men of Mark in Virginia, IV, 66, 116. 
 
 Statement of Col. Francis L. Smith of Alexandria, March, 1913. 
 
 room, the sugar house for his residence and dormitories, Mr. Hallowell entered a season of pros- 
 perity which yearly increased. His school had now gained a reputation almost boundless. Pupils 
 came from Texas and Maine, from South America and the West Indies, and even a number from 
 England. Soon his family consisted of over a hundred souls, including assistant teachers and 
 professors of Drawing, Mathematics, Astronomy and the Languages. Constantly were pupils de- 
 clined. Mr. Hallowell's weekly lectures on Astronomy, History and other subjects were largely 
 attended 'by the citizens of Alexandria. About 1834 a number of gentlemen of the town estab- 
 lished a Lyceum in order to have weekly lectures. A fine edifice was erected on the comer of 
 Prince and Washington Streets, with a large auditorium and accommodation for the Alexandria 
 Library, which was founded in 1793, and had until this time no permanent abiding place. Ben- 
 jamin Hallowell was unanimously elected as President of the Lyceum Association, and for many 
 years succeeded in making it an educaitional institution from which his pupils, as well as the 
 public, derived much entertainment and improvement. Some of the most distinguished mw of 
 the country lectured here to large audiences. Among these were John Quincy Adams, Caleb Gush- 
 ing, Samuel Goodrich ("Peter Parley"), and others. Mr. Hallowell, having been appointed 
 City Surveyor, made use of his office in instructing his pupils, who derived great ben^t from 
 practical surveying in and around Alexandria. 
 
 In the spring of 1842, Mr. Hallowell's health broke down under the heavy strain of his 
 duties as school master, and he gave up his school for several years to his nephews, Caleb and 
 James Hallowell, who kept up the reputation of the school during Mr. Hallowell's sojourn at 
 his farm in Montgomery county, Maryland. During his retirement, his proximity to the city of 
 Washington enabled him to accept the chair of Chemistry at Columbian College. In 1846 lie re- 
 turned to Alexandria. He then built an observatory in the rear of his residence and here 
 mounted a fine refracting telescope. He made many observations, jnd from time to time gave 
 the results to various scientific journals. He also added a laboratory to his schoolhouse, where 
 he was enabled to instruct his pupils in Chemistry. ^ 
 
 Mr. Hallowell continued his educational labors until 1868, when feeling his responsibilities 
 too heavy for his infirm health, he finally sold his property, and the good will of his school, to 
 Mr. Wm. Kemper, of the University of Virginia (who, I may say here, remained in Alexandria 
 until the commencement of the Civil War). Mr. Hallowell lived on his farm at "Rockland," 
 Sandy Spring, Montgomery county, Maryland, for nearly twenty years among the Friends' Society 
 and the sweet companionship of his wife and children. Not an idle life, but one full of good 
 works for the betterment of his fellow men. The part he bore in the Indian Commission is k 
 matter of history. While in Alexandria he succeeded in a project for providing the town with 
 water and became in consequence the first president of the Alexandria Water Company. In 
 appreciation of his benevolent works the city had engraved his portrait on its bonds issued shortly 
 after the Civil War. Mr. Hallowell died the 9th of September, 1877. 
 
 As an example of Mr. Hallowell's discipline I may relate an anecdote. The school bell 
 disappeared one night. After making a thorough search for it Mr. Hallowell called his boys 
 together and told them that he could not keep young men who were guilty of so flagrant an act 
 of insubordination, and he dismissed his whole school, except one little boy named Estes Sawyer, 
 who slept in a trundle bed in Mrs. Halloweirs room. The next year Mr. Hallowell had a larger 
 school than ever. Many -years^tter this occurrence a former pupil wrote from California and 
 told Mr. Hallowell that the belFwas buried under the floor of the observatory, where it was soon 
 located. The boys had employed a young carpenter of Alexandria to take up the floor one Sat- 
 urday night. And the job was so well done that no sign of recent work was visible. Like all 
 boys, they were uo to a great many larks. One was ringing the bell of old Christ Church during 
 the night and arousing the town. A boy would slip up in the belfry during the day and fix a 
 piece of twine through the handle or ring of the bell. After dark a stout rope was hauled up, 
 and the peals that rang out on the night air were something startling to the sleeping citizens 
 [Statement of Mrs. Mary G. Powell, 1913, Chairman of the Historical Section of the Cameron 
 Club of Alexandria.] 
 
 Mr. Hallowell was Superintendent of Indian Affairs for Nebraska about 1869-70. See his 
 Memorandum of Proceedings of the Baltimore yearly Meeting in Relation to the Western Indians 
 1869. See also letter to Hallowell from Samuel M. Janney, Indian agent, 1870. in Memoirs of 
 Janney, Philadelphia, 1881. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia. ITT'e-lSSO 117 
 
 1785. LOUISA ACADEMIES : LOUISA COUNTY. 
 
 The Eev. James "Waddell, celebrated as the "blind preacher," (de- 
 scribed by Wirt in his Life of Patrick Henry), for the advantage of his 
 own family opened a classical school at his house in Louisa county, 'over 
 which he presided with a becoming reputation.' Dr. Waddell was a native 
 of the Xorth of Ireland, educated in Pennsylvania, and was of very con- 
 siderable classical learning. He died in 1805, and became blind during 
 the last years of his life. The Eev. John Todd of Louisa county (Prince- 
 ton, 1749) had conducted a classical school at his home, earlier than 1785, 
 and in his youth Dr. Waddell had assisted Mr. Todd in his school. 
 
 Eobert Lewis Dabney (b. 1820), a native of Louisa county, was 
 taught at first in a neighborhood school conducted by his brother who 
 had been a student "in the best private schools of the country and pos- 
 sessed an excellent and thorough knowledge of Latin (Cicero, Virgil, 
 Tacitus, and Livy), of arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and surveying, and 
 was well read in old English literature." Dr. Dabney's next school, in 
 1831, was presided over by Caleb Burnley,* an excellent young man of 
 the neighborhood. Ftom 1833 to 1835 Dr. Dabney was at school to 
 Thomas Meredith, entering Hampden-Sidney College in 1836. His text- 
 books at Meredith's school were: Pike's arithmetic, and Madam Wil- 
 lard's Astronomical Geography; the New Testament as a reading-book; 
 Euddiman's Institutes of Latin Grammar, Ainsworths' Latin Dictionary, 
 Corderius; Colloquia Scholastica, Caesar, Sallust, and Virgil, Cicero's 
 Orations, and the whole of Horace; Bullion's Greek Grammar, Schreve- 
 lius' Lexicon Manuale Graecorum Latinum (Greek dictionary, the words 
 defined in Latin), a part of the New Testament in Greek, Xenophon's 
 Anabasis, apd a compilation in two volumes octavo, called Graeca Minora 
 and Graeca Majora, containing some simple Greek fables, and extracts 
 from Xenophon, Herodotus, Plato, Homer, Anacreon, and other au- 
 thors. "We parsed extensively, an excellent way now out of fashion." 
 Dr. Dabney stated, in his old age, that he had 'prior to entering college, 
 accomplished more work in the classics than is now required of a candi- 
 date for the degree of Bachelor of Arts, in order to his graduation.' For 
 a few months before entering college Dr. Dabney rode seven miles once 
 a week for special work in Day's Algebra and Simpson's Euclid, under the 
 Eev. James Wharey. At Hampden-Sidney College he entered the So- 
 phomore Class, half advanced; remaining at this college about a year 
 and a half, he entered the University of Virginia in 1839 and was 
 graduated Master of Arts in 1843. 
 
 John E. Massey (Superintendent of Public Instruction, Virginia, 
 1890-1897) attended in 1836 the Virginia Baptist Seminary. In 1839 
 he ■\\-as a student at Dr. Gillespie's school in Louisa county, and the fol- 
 
 • About 1840, Caleb Burnley was principal of a large school at Jeffersonton, in Culpcper 
 county, cf. Johnson, The University Memorial, p. 110. 
 
118 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 lowing year taught a large school in that county. In 1836 Martin states, 
 p. 219, "there is but one permanent classical school in Louisa county." 
 About 1860 Captain John Eichardson's Pine Hill Academy, and Kemper 
 (C. T.) and Harris's (T. M.) Aspen Hill Academy were active in Louisa 
 county. 
 
 About 1850, in the adjacent county of Goochland, Napoleon B. Kean 
 'taught a classical, and mathematical school of high reputation.'* 
 
 Foote, Sketches of Virginia, Philadelphia, 1850, I, 379. 
 
 Jas. W. Alexander, Life of Archibald Alexander, New York, 1854, p. 227. 
 
 Alexander, Princeton College in the 18th Century, p. 7. 
 
 Johnson, Life of Robert Lewis Dabney, Richmond, 1903, pp. 25-30. 
 
 Autobiography of John E. Massey. Washington, 1909, pp. 17-18. 
 
 Men of Mdirk in Virginia, V, 326. 
 
 -Johnson, The University Memorial, p. 423. 
 
 Life of William Fitzhugh Gordon. By A. 0. Gordon. New York, 1909, pp. 48, 49. 
 
 Atlantic Monthly, 1870, pp. 163-166 — the schooling of Lucian Minor. 
 
 1786. WINCIIBSTEE ACADEMY : . FBEDEEICK COUNTY. 
 
 A contributor to Martin's Gazetteer, writing of ^Hnehester in 1834, 
 says, "there is one academy for youth founded by an act of the Legisla- 
 ture as far back as 1788 (Winchester Academy Chartered in 1786). It 
 has been in operation the greater part of the period since, and has had as 
 many as 80 pupils in one year. It is estimated that at least 1,000 young 
 men from different and distant parts of the State have been educated 
 in part or entirely at this institution. This academy has maintained per- 
 haps as high a reputation as any other similar institution in the State. 
 
 There are, besides the academy, an institute for young ladies, and 
 eleven other schools. There are few places in the State, which present 
 greater inducements to parents, desiring to have their children well edu- 
 cated than than Winchester." ( Gazetteer of Virginia. By Joseph Mar- 
 tin, Charlottesville, 1836, p. 344.) 
 
 T. K. Cartmell, author of a recent history of Frederick county states : 
 "Before 1787 there was a classical scTiool firmly established in Winches- 
 ter on Boscawen street. The old Winchester Academy building was an 
 imposing structure of brick and stone. The writer was a member of the 
 class of 1855-58, of which many fell in battle near the old academy. 
 
 Mr. Thorpe's Winchester High School, at the west end of Piccadilly 
 street — then called Angerona, was closed by the Civil War. (cf. Marshall, 
 The American Bastille. Philadelphia, 1872, pp. 621-23. Cartmell, His- 
 tory of Frederich county, Winchester, 1909, p. 158ff.) 
 
 * WOODLAWN ACADEMY. 
 
 The third session of this school will commence on the 10th of September, 1856, and continue 
 until 10th July following, making a session of ten months! Instruction will be given in Greek, 
 Latin, French, and Soanish (in which languages the subscriber graduated at the University of 
 Virginia) ; also in the elementary branches of Mathematics. The school is convenient to Louisa 
 Courthouse, at which place scholars will be met with a conveyance. 
 
 Terms — Board and tuition for ten months, including everything, $160. Tuition for classical 
 scholars, SfiO ; English, $30 — one-half invariably in advance. No scholar taken for less than 
 Ave months. D. M. QUARLES. 
 
 Address D. Jf. Qiiarles, or John T. Quarles, Ellisville, Louisa county, Va. 
 [Advertisement, Southern Phnter. Seotember, 1856.1 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 17"J'6-1860 119 
 
 The late Jas. E. Graham, D. D., for many years a resident of Win- 
 chester, made the following statement in March, 1913, shortly before his 
 death : 
 
 "Mr. D. Holmes Conrad, of Martinsburg, wrote in his old age his 
 early recollections of Winchester. Mr. Conrad was born in the year 1800. 
 He entered the Winchester Academy in 1810. The school had then been 
 taught for a number of years by Mr. Heterick, a Scotchman, a fine clas- 
 sical scholar and very enthusiastic and successful as a teacher, especially 
 of Latin. When teaching the Latin classes he addressed his pupils and 
 required them to address him only in the Latin language. 
 
 He was succeeded, though not immediately, by Mr. John ( ?) Bruce, 
 also a Scotchman, and in his boyhood an acquaintance of the famous Dr. 
 Chalmers. I cannot discover the exact year in which he took charge of the 
 academy, but Mr. Conrad's brother, Eobert Y. Conrad, wlio entered West 
 Point in 1819, was prepared for entrance by Mr. Bruce. Between 
 Heterick and Bruce, Col. Augustine C. Smith, a distinguished lawyer, 
 had charge of the academy for a short time, probably from 1814 to 1816. 
 He was the father of Professor A. Magill Smith, now living, and at one 
 time the principal of the present "Shenandoah Valley Academy," of 
 Winchester; associated with Mr. Bruce as teacher was William L. Clark. 
 I cannot learn positively whether Mr. Clark became principal after the 
 retirement of Mr. Bruce, but that is my impression, formed sixty years 
 ago. 
 
 Next came for a short time jMr. Nicholas Murray (of Ballynaskea.. 
 Ireland, later a Presbyterian minister), and also for a ^ort time Mr. J. 
 J. Smythe, another Scotchman. The dates of their administrations I 
 cannot give, but in the late 30's and early forties Mr. Thorpe was in 
 charge, a fair scholar and good teacher, but with a temper that made it 
 difficult for either trustees or pupils to get along comfortably with him. 
 Yet when he left the academy, he established a private school in Win- 
 chester that was well patronized and quite successful. 
 
 Then about 1850 William Johnston, from Ireland, was principal and 
 continued until a short time before the outbreak of the Civil War, when 
 Mr. Peyton Clark assumed charge. While he was principal the war com- 
 pelled the closing of the school. The building was destroyed. The acad- 
 emy was never reopened, at least under the old name. This academy 
 maintained a fine reputation throughout its entire existence." 
 
 Soon after the Civil War the existent Shenandoah Valley Academy was 
 established at Winchester, on the endowment of Eichard Eobinson of 
 Louisville, Ivy., a native of Winchester. The Eev. Dr. Graham was in- 
 strumental in merging the old aeadeniy into this. 
 
130 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 1787. RANDOLPH academy: haerison county (Clarksburg). 
 
 Whereas the inhabitants of the counties of Harrison, Monongalia, 
 Kandolph and Ohio, are, from their remote situation, deprived of the 
 advantages arising from the establishment of the public seminaries within 
 this State ; and it is just and reasonable that the one-sixth of the fees of 
 the surveyors of the said counties, which are now applied towards the 
 support of William and Mary College, should be applied to the establish- 
 ment of a public seminary within one of the said counties. 
 
 Be it therefore enacted by the General Assembly, that his excellency 
 Edmund Eandolph, Benjamin Harrison, Patrick Henry, Joseph Pren- 
 tis, James Wood, George Mason, George Nicholas, John Harvey, Thomas 
 Matthews, William Eonald; Henry Banks, William McClerry, John 
 Evans, William John, Francis Worman, John Pearce Duvall, George 
 Jackson, Benjamin Wilson, Nicholas Carpenter, John Powers, Archibald 
 Woods, Moses Chapline, Ebenezer Zane, David Chambers, John Wilson, 
 Jacob Westfall, junior, Eobert Maxwell, and John Jackson, junior, 
 gentlemen. Shall be, and they are hereby constituted a body politic and 
 corporate, to be known by the name of "The trustees of the Eandolph 
 Academy," and by that name shall have perpetual succession and a com- 
 mon seal 
 
 The surveyors of the said counties of Monongalia, Harrison, Ean- 
 dolph and Ohio, shall not be accountable to the president and masters 
 of William and' Mary College, for any part of the fees which shall accrue 
 to them after the first day of January, in the year one thousand seven 
 hundred and eighty-eight: And the bonds given by them for the yearly 
 payment of one-sixth part of their fees to the president and masters of 
 the said college, shall be, and are hereby declared to be null and void. 
 
 Each of the surveyors of the said counties shall, within one month 
 after he shall be required by the board of trustees, give bond with suffi- 
 cient security in a reasonable sum, for the yearly payment of one-sixth 
 part of the fees which shall become due to him after the said first day 
 of January, to the said trustees ; and in case any one of the said surveyors 
 shall fail or refuse to give such bond and security, he shall forfeit and 
 pay to the said trustees the sum of one hundred pounds.* (Hesing: 
 Statutes at Large, XII, 638). 
 
 * In 1787 the General Assembly also enacted that the one-sixth ot the surveyors' fees there- 
 after arising in that part of the Commonwealth known by the name of the Kentucky district, 
 instead of being paid to the professors of William and Mary College, should be paid by the 
 surveyors to the trustees of the Transylvania Seminary, 
 
 Large powers had been conferred upon Transylvania Seminary and an endowment of 8,000 
 acres of land, by act of assembly in the year 1780. The school was first opened in 1785, as a 
 grammar school, taught by James Mitchell, at the house of the Kev. David Rice, both closely 
 associated with Hampden Sidney College. This Seminary, by uniting with Kentucky Academy 
 (opened in 1795 and also well endowed), became Transylvania University. 
 
 In 1788, Salem Academy, at Bairdstown, Nelson county (District ot Kentucky), was char- 
 tered. Under the celebrated Dr. James Priestly, whO; assumed charge at once, this school was 
 for some time one of the most noted in the region. The District of Kentucky was early interested 
 in education, and with excellent results, cf. Lewis, History of Higher Education in Kentucky. 
 (U. S. Bureau of Education.) Washington, 1896, pp. 12, 30, So. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 121 
 ( . 
 
 The Eandolph Academy seems to have been succeeded by* the Xorth- 
 western Academy at Clarksburg, opened about 1843. "Hon. T. H. 
 Pierpont, West Virginia's war governor, taught in the Eandolph Acad- 
 emy at Clarksburg, in 1839-40. The building was then an old one. And 
 it was not adapted for school work. The course of study included the 
 primary as well as the more advanced branches, and the instruction was 
 thorough. Gov. Pierpont, at the age of 80, took great pleasure in re- 
 calling the list of his pupils in the old-time academy, and in tracing their 
 careers.'' 
 
 Whitehill, History of Education in West Virginia. U. S. Bureau 
 of Education, Washington, 1902, p. 105.) 
 
 At Beverley in Randolph county a substantial brick building was 
 erected by the citizens and just completed at the beginning of the Civil 
 War. Federal troops took possession of the building the summer of 
 1861, subsequently destroying it. It was never rebuilt. 
 
 Arnold, Early Life and Letters of Gen. T. J. Jackson. Xew York, 
 1916, p. 237. 
 
 1788. WARREN academy: FAUQUIER COUXTT. 
 
 In the act for incorporating this academy, passed October, 1788, 
 the item occurs, "The lands conveyed to the former trustees of the said 
 academy by Eichard Henry Lee, Esquire, shall be vested in the trustees 
 appointed by this act. The next year a lottery was authorized for the 
 academy. In 1802, John Davis, the traveller, who at the time was about 
 opening his school at Mr. Spencer Ball's, in Prince William county, 
 speaking of the fervor of the neighbors for education, says : "Every 
 farmer came to my house, who had any children to send to my academy, 
 for such they did me the honor to term the log hut in which I was to 
 teach. Each man brought his son, or his daughter, and rejoiced that the 
 day was arrived when their little ones could light their tapers at the 
 torch of knowledge ! No price was too great for the services I was to 
 render their children. If I would continue with them seven years ! only 
 seven years, they would erect for me a brick seminary on a hill not far 
 off ; but for the present I was to occupy a log hut, which, however homely, 
 would soon vie with the sublime college of William and Mary, and con- 
 
 This most interesting charter of Randolph Academy is one proof of the early null between west 
 and east in the State. These fees were continued to Randolph Acadmy until 1819, when hy the 
 Revisal of that year, both the College and the Academj^ were denied any such fees. (Code 1819, 
 I, 324.) 
 
 * But cf. -Howe, Historicai Collections of Virginia (1845), p. 301 — "At Clarksburg two fine 
 classical academies." 
 
 And see, Mcmoirs-of Stonewall Jaclison. By his wife. 2nd ed. Louisville, Ky., 1895, p. 8 — - 
 "The Clarksburg Male Academy was conducted solely by George Torvis [Gowres?], an old Eng- 
 lishman, a thorough scholar, with long experience as a teacher. Jonathan Jackson (d, 1827), 
 father of General Jackson, was at school to him." 
 
 For a good discussion of the earlv schools of western Virginia, see Miller and Maxwell, 
 History of West Virginia and Her People. New York. 1913. Vol. I, pp. 194, 550-567. 
 
122 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 sign to oblivion the renowned academy in the vicinity of Fauquier Court- 
 house." 
 
 The academy of 1788 was at the courthouse, or near the courthouse 
 (Warrenton). In 1834, Martin speaks of four primary schools at the 
 courthouse, but does not mention the academy. Counties changed their 
 seats of justice now and then, and academies were at times removed from 
 their original place of establishment. The first aecademy may not have 
 thrived, and Davis may not have been sure of his distances. However, 
 Martin says : "In the vicinity of Somerville, 20 miles S. E. of Warren- 
 ton, is one large and flourishing male seminary, in which is taught all 
 the usual branches of education taught in our schools, and averaging gen- 
 erally from 60 to 80 pupils." In 1844, there was a "Warren-Green Acad- 
 emy" at Warrenton, where Gen. G. C. Wharton was prepared for the Vir- 
 ginia Military Institute.* Shortly before the war Eichard M. Smith 
 (later editor of the Kiehmond "Sentinel" and Professor at Randolph-Ma- 
 con College) was the Principal of Warrenton Academy. The Wise Broth- 
 ers, of Accomac county, seem to have succeeded Professor Smith. And 
 about 1860 George Lewis Ball (Lindsay and Pope, successors) had an 
 academy at Warrenton. Fauquier county was well supplied with classical 
 schools for twenty years before 1860. Add the Armstrong Military and 
 Classical Academy at XJpperville ; John Ogilvie's Academy at Xew Balti- 
 more ; Gray Carroll's Academy at Markham ; J. Blaekwell Smith's Acad- 
 emy at Bethel, and Major A. J. Jones's school at Morrisville. 
 
 Heningr, Statutes at Larrge, XII, 685. 
 
 John Davis, Travels of Four Years and a Half in the United States, 1798-1802. 
 
 New York, 1909, pp. 395-396. 
 Martin, Gazetteer of Virginia. Charlottesville, 1836, p. 174. 
 Men of Mark in Virginia. Washington, 1908, IV, p. 418. 
 Statement of A, R. Bartenstein, Deputy Clerk, Fauquier Circuit Court. 
 
 1790. MILLFIPILD .VCADEMY: south iMPTONilOUNTY.T 
 
 Enacted by the General Assembly, December the 20th, 1790. "That 
 it shall and may be lawful for John S. Mills, Benjamin Blunt, James 
 Wilkinson, William Urquhart, John Taylor, Francis Boykin, George 
 Purdie, James Wills and Samuel Kello, to raise by one or more lotteries, 
 a sum not exceeding three hundred pounds, to be by them applied towards 
 erecting an academy in the county of Southampton, which shall be called 
 by the name of Millfield Academy." 
 
 Millfield Academy seems not to have prospered. Martin's correspon- 
 dent (Temp. 1835) states: "Millfield Academy, a flourishing and well 
 conducted seminary, on the main road leading from Jerusalem to Smith- 
 
 * In 1850 the Principal of the Warrenton Male Academy was R. A. Ezell, A. M. See "Ad- 
 dress delivered to the students of the Warrenton Male Academy, of which R. A. Ezell is Prin- 
 cipal, in June, 1860, by, David A. Barnes, Esq., of Jackson, North Carolina." Raleigh, Seaton 
 and Gales, 1850, p. 20. 
 
 t cf. Van Home: Life of General Genrc/e H. Thomas. New York. 1882, n. 2 — "Tliomas fln- 
 ished in his 20th year [1846) the prescribed course of studies at Southampton Academy, near 
 his home. He then wrote for a short time in the office of his uncle, clerk of the county." 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 123 
 
 field in Jsle of Wight, 14 ms. from the former, and 18 from the latter. 
 This school was first commenced in 1830, under the superintendence of 
 Mr. Edward Smith, a gentleman distinguished for his classical knowl- 
 edge, and his happy facility of imparting instruction. It is now under 
 the superintendence of Mr. Wm. C. Clarke, a gentleman eminently quali- 
 fied to discharge the duties of principal. The course of instruction is 
 quite extensive, embracing all the higher branches of science and litera- 
 ture usually taught in schools of the first class. In 1835, it numbered up- 
 wards of fifty pupils — some of them from adjacent counties and a neigh- 
 boring State. The institution is under the direction of a president and 
 eighteen trustees." 
 
 Hening, Statutes at Large, XIII, 173. 
 Martin, Qazetteer of Virginia, p. 279. 
 
 1791. "VVAEMINSTER ACADKMY : AilHEKST COUNTY, (lATEE NELSON 
 
 county). 
 
 A lottery was authorized in 1791 for raising a sum not exceeding 
 two thousand pounds, to be applied towards erecting an academy in the 
 town of Warminister, in the county of Amherst. There is proof that th« 
 trustees acted until 1795, but it is not certain that Warminster Academy 
 had any existence. The statement is made in Martin's Gnzetteer : "Though 
 called a village, Warminster consists at present (1834) of biTt three 
 dwelling houses, and 2 store-houses, and a masonic hall nearly in ruins, 
 which is sometimes used as a place of public worship. A classical school 
 has been annually kept here, or in the immediate vicinity. Warminster 
 for a number of years carried on a profitable commerce with the surround- 
 ing country, to the extent of 40 or 50 miles. The foundations of several 
 of the largest estates in Virginia were laid here. The statute book pre- 
 sents several enactments authorizing lotteries for raising money to build 
 an academy, a church, and for opening roads to this place ; but it is not 
 known that any of these were ever carried into effect." 
 
 Hening, Statutes at Large, XIII, 315-16. 
 
 Brown, The Cabells and Their Kin. Boston and New York, 1895, pp. 109, 214, 228. 
 
 Martin, Gazetteer of Virginia, p. 242. 
 
 1791. SCOTTVILLE LODGE ACADEMY : POWHATAN COUNTY. 
 
 "Whereas the Scottville Lodge of Free Masons have made appli- 
 cation to this assembly to pass an act authorizing them to raise by way of 
 lottery, a sum of money to be applied towards erecting a building in or 
 near the town of Scottville, for the purpose of an academy, with a re- 
 servation of the upper story thereof to the use of the said lodge of Free 
 Masons, etc., John Pride, Edward Carrington, William Giles, senior; 
 William Eonald, William B. Giles, Samuel Pleasants, William Fleming, 
 Littleberry Mosby, senior; Eichard Crump, William Bentley, Tarlton 
 
124 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 Woodson, Frederick Woodson, John K. Eead, John Eoyall, James Hen- 
 derson, James Worrall, William E. Fleming, Peter F. Archer, Wade 
 Woodson, John Ligon, James Clarke, Brett Eandolph, John Archer and 
 Joseph Eggleston, constituted the trustees of Scottville Lodge Acad- 
 emy." 
 
 This is the act of incorporation (abbreviated) for the Scottville 
 Lodge Academy, to be found in Hening, Statutes at Large, XIII, 393. 
 It would be interesting to know with accuracy how close was the connec- 
 tion in Virginia, before 1860, existing between the Masonic and other 
 fraternal orders, and secondary, or for that matter, primary education. 
 As was the case with the Scottville Lodge Academy, it is here and there 
 clear that this connection was merely one of occupancy, by a lodge and a 
 school, of the same building. See, for example. Acts of Assemhly 1853- 
 63, pp. 341 and 343, charters of the Meadesville (Halifax county), and 
 White Post (Clarke county) academies, authorizing co-occupancy of 
 the premises on the part of Odd Fellows, Masons or Sons of Temperance, 
 in the one case the fraternal order to pay rent, in the others, to hold by 
 trustees appointed. 
 
 Fraternal orders had their schools in the larger towns after 1840. 
 These schools perhaps were charity schools, and the instruction not much 
 beyond the primary grade. In 1841 was incorporated the Odd Fellows 
 Male and Female Institute of Lynchburg;* in 1842, the Odd Fellows 
 Male and Female Institute of Eichmond; in 1847, the Petersburg Odd 
 Fellows School; and in 1848, the Masonic School of Virginia, in Staun- 
 ton. The anti-Masonic party had disappeared shortly after 1833. In 
 1853 the Abingdon Lodge of Odd Fellows undertook to establish a girls' 
 school of high grade in the town of Abingdon, to be called the Martha- 
 Washington College. The property passed from the hands of the lodge 
 in 1858. [cf. Summers, History of Washington County. Eichmond, 
 1903, pp. 569,571]. 
 
 1793. SHEPHEEDSTOWN ACADEMY: JEPFEESOX COUKTT. 
 
 William Clarke had a school in Shepherdstown in 1793. In 1805 
 Dr. Moses Hoge, later president of Hampden-Sidney College, was con- 
 ducting a classical school there. The Shepherdstown Academy was in- 
 corporated in 1813. In the Martinsburg Gazette (edited at one time by 
 Nathaniel Willis, grandfather of IST. P. Willis, the poet) for Dec. 9, 1813, 
 there appeared a notice of the new chartered academy. The first and 
 second classes were to pursue studies in Greek, Latin, surveying, Euclid, 
 rhetoric, the use of the globes, history, grammar, natural . and moral 
 
 * cf. Calendar of Board Minutes, Bampden-Sidney College, 1776-1876, p. 108. "Oct, 3, 1834. 
 Committee to confer with Mr. Edward Colston; regarding a proposition made by him to the 
 Trustees on the subject cf the funds of the Grand Lodge of Virginia ; and the education of indi- 
 gent sons of Master Masons." 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 125 
 
 science, composition and elocution. The third class was composed of 
 such pupils as "are engaged in the acquisition of the minor branches of 
 the English education." The price of tuition was for the first class $35 
 per annum ; for the second class $20 per annum, and for the third, $15. 
 
 In 1816 N. S. Eead was in charge of the academy. In 1832, a lottery- 
 was authorized for the institution. Jesse L. Frary was the principal from 
 1853 for a number of years. 
 
 The present Shepherd College, of Sheperdstown, is the direct out- 
 growth of the classical school, conducted for four years after 1865 by 
 Joseph McMurran. Mr. McMurran, a native of Jefferson county, spent 
 thirty years after 1852 in teaching, in Alabama, South Carolina, Vir- 
 ginia and West Virginia. 
 
 ,, Dandridge, Historic Sheph^dstown. CharlottesviUe, 1910, pp. 347, 289. 
 Biographical Catalogue o/ Princeton Theological Seminary^ 1909, p. 103. (6ub. 
 
 Frary. ) 
 Foote, Sketches of Virginia. 1st Series. Philadelphia, 1850, p. 562. 
 Sprague, Annals of the American Pulpit, IV, 483. 
 Acts oj Assembly, 1813, 1832. 
 
 1794. ?IAERIS0NB[7KO ACADTOJIIES: KOCKIXUll Ajr COUNTY. 
 
 The Methodists of Ilarrisonburg establislied a school in 1794, which 
 was opened by Bishop Asbury. The rules adopted were that there should 
 be no more than thirty scholars, at thirty-three shillings each per year; 
 the school should begin in summer at 8 o'clock and be dismissed at 6, 
 with two hours for recess, in winter beginning at 8 1-2 o'clock, dismissed 
 at 4, with one hour for recess. In 1795 a grammar school department 
 was added. This school seems to have been in operation in 1820. Early 
 teachers were the Eev. Mr. Cole, the Rev. Joseph Smith, and Richard 
 Fletcher. 
 
 In 1885 S. M. Hunter and Eichard P. Fletcher opened the Harrison- 
 burg Classical School. In 1840 the Harrisonburg Academy was incor- 
 porated; and in 1851 the Rockingham Male and Female Seminary was 
 chartered as a Joint stock company. Joseph Salyards was principal of 
 the Eockingham Male Acamey at Harrisonburg from 1857 to 1860; 
 John W. Taylor reopened this school in 1860. 
 
 Wayland, History of Rockingham County. Dayton (Va.), 1912, pp. 283£f. 
 Acts of Assembly, 1850-51, p. 141. 
 
 Life of Daniel Baker, Philadelphia, 1859, pp. 97-98. About 1818 Dr. Baker 
 taught Gessner Harrison, and Henry Tutwiler. 
 
 1794. PETERSBURG ACADBMY : DINWIDDIE COUNTY. 
 
 Incorporated in 1794, all the property of this academy was trans- 
 ferred in 1835 to the Anderson Seminary,* named in honor of a Seotch- 
 
 * Charles Campbell, the historian of Virginia as a Colony, was Principal of Anderson Semi- 
 nary after 1855. From 1842 to 1855, he taught a classical school in Petersburg. 
 
 The Anderson Seminary, although for primary education, is worth a note. 
 
 On the 18th of June, isiS, David Anderson, for many years a merchant of Petersburg, died 
 bequeathing his entire property as follows : 
 
 "After the death of Jingo (a negro man-servant), I hereby will and bequeath all the property. 
 
126 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 i '■ i 
 
 man, David Anderson, who left a bequest, effective in 1819, for the edu- 
 cation of the poor of the city. The Petersburg Academy was succeeded by 
 the Petersburg Classical Institute, incorporated in 1838, and of which 
 Principal Saunders was in charge. In 1844 President Eichard Mcllwaine 
 (Hampden-Sidney College) was a pupil of the Classical Institute, then 
 conducted by the Eev. Ephraim D. Saunders, assisted by five or six men. 
 "The institute was one of the finest, if not by all odds ahead, of all schools 
 of its grade in the Commonwealth. Its scholars as I remember them, 
 ranged in age from ten to seventeen or eighteen years, and numbered from 
 one hundred and forty to one hundred and fifty. The building had five or 
 six class rooms on the lower floor, and a commodious study hall on the 
 second floor, which was also used as an auditorium. This room had a 
 rostrum stretching from wall to wall, at the rear of which was a large 
 case with sliding glass doors, containing a full ^upply of the most ap- 
 proved scientific apparatus. Maps hung on the walls, and globes stood on 
 the ends of the rostrum. Mr. Saunders was a first rate principal and 
 manager of boys. Three or four years later he removed to West Philadel- 
 phia, where he established a school even more successful than the one in 
 Petersburg." {Memories of Three Score Years and Ten. Washington, 
 1908, p. 36.) The building used by the Classical Institute has in re- 
 cent years been used as a public school. In 1848 the superintendent 
 of the public armory was authorized to deliver to William McGee, prin- 
 cipal of a classical and military school in the town of Petersburg, fifty 
 of those muskets in the armory, condemned as iinfit for use. Williams 
 Thomas Davis, before 1850 in charge of the preparatory department 
 of Eandolph-Macon College, (and from 1863 to 1888, head of the South- 
 er^ Female College at Petersburg), conducted a boys' school at Peters- 
 burg, 1851-1856. Branch and Christian's school was in operation Just 
 before 1860. About 1808, John Davis taught in the old Petersburg 
 Academy. Davis was the author of a good many books, among them 
 
 which I have now will'd to him, and of which he had a lite rent, to the Corporation of the 
 town of Petersburg, of which the magistrates for the time being are the guardians, and in like 
 manner this sum, which then ultimately becomes the property of the Corporation, is given to it 
 under the express stipulation, that the interest shall be applied and expended in the education 
 of poor Boys and Girls (white children) whose parents, on a fuU inquiry into their circumstances, 
 are found unable to educate them in reading, writing, and the common rules of arithmetic; and 
 in order that children may partake of this small donation as far as the fund will allow, I limit 
 the period of any child's schooling to three years, from this fund, and that the children, as vrell 
 as the parent or parents, shall be residents within the limits of this Corporation during said time." 
 
 In 1821, the fund having become available, a school on th« Lancasterian plan was established, 
 under the direction of a board of twelve trustees, chosen by the Common Council, three from 
 each ward. The income, about $600, was supplemented by the quota of the Literary Fund, about 
 $200, allotted to the town. For a number of years from sixty to seventy pupils were in attendance, 
 the Common Council appropriating additional moneys from time to time. In 1838, a benevolent 
 individual gave $2,000 towards a building. This was erected on the lot of the old Petersburg 
 Academy, the trustees of which had been authorized to transfer the property in 1835, (Act of 
 Assembly, March 10th). The school was continued, with varied success, the Common Council 
 appointing trustees annually, until the organization of the public school system under the act 
 of 1870. (Virginia School Beport of Wm. H. Buffner, Sunt of Public Instruction, 1873, p. 152.) 
 
 In their report to the Second Auditor for 1838 (Journal and Documents, 1839, Doc. No. 4), 
 the trustees say: 'The Seminary educates all children whose parents are willing they should receive 
 gratuitous instruction.' 
 
Th& Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 187 
 
 i • ' 
 
 "Travels of Pour Years and a Half in the United States." (1798-1802.) 
 He was of Salisbury, England, and returned to England. 
 
 ^hree Centuries of an Old Virginia. Town. By Arthur K. Davis, Petersburg, 
 
 1912, p. 11. 
 Martin, Gazetteer of Virginia. Charlottesville, 1836, p. 162. 
 Acts of Assembly, 1847-48, p. 355. 
 
 Men of Mart: in Virginia, Washington, 1908, IV. 87, 97. 
 Farmers' Register, IV, 768. 
 
 1795. NEW LONDON ACADEMY: BEDFOED COUNTY.* 
 
 Chartered in 1795, the next year the trustees were authorized to 
 raise by lottery the sum of ten thousand pounds to defray the expense* of 
 erecting buildings and establishing a permanent fund. Among the early 
 principals were James Mitchell, George A. Baxter (later president of 
 "Washington College, Va.), Dani»l Blain and Edward Graham (profes- 
 sors in Washington College, which in 1837 elected George E. Dabney pro- 
 fessor of Ancient Languages, at the time principal of New London Acad- 
 emy). Dr. Baxter, Professors Blain and Graham were the principals 
 perhaps until 1813. In 1826 Prof. J. McConnell resigned the office of 
 principal, and was succeeded by the Bev. Nicholas H. Cobbs (1836-1830), 
 later Episcopal Bishop of Alabama. Prom 1830 to 1854, principals were 
 H. L. Davis, George E. Dabney, Alex. P. Campbell, the Eev. Thomas 
 Brown, E. W. Horsley, and Castor J. Harris. The academy was further 
 endowed in 1849, by will of Harrison Chilton, late a trustee. A de- 
 scription of the year 1834 states: "There were 50 pupils this year. 
 The buildings consist of a handsome and commodious academy, a presi- 
 dent's house, and a large brick church well enclosed. At this institution 
 a student may be prepared to enter any of the colleges or universities 
 with credit." 
 
 This academy in its time was one of the most useful in the State. 
 Its reputation was very high. During the civil war the principal's house 
 was burnt down, and troops destroyed all documents and papers in the 
 desk of the Secretary of the Board. "i" 
 
 General Catalogue, Washington and Lee University, 1889, p. 49. 
 Historical Sketch of Bedford County. Lynchburg, 1907, p. 112. 
 Washington and Lee Historical Papers, No. 6, p. 32. 
 Martin's Gazetteer, p. 141. 
 
 1796. WARE PARISH ACADEMY: GLOUCESTER COrXTY. 
 
 A lottery was authorized in 1796 for erecting an academy on the 
 glebe land of Ware Parish, in the county of Gloucester. This academy 
 perhaps had no existence. In 1814 the proceeds ($12,801.93) of the 
 
 * Assigned to Campbell county in Martin's Gazetteer, 1836. At New LotnJon was the United 
 States arsenal, later removed to Harper's Ferry. 
 
 t In 1871 an effort was made to reopen this academy as a free school, but without success. 
 In 1884 an arrangement was made by which the academy was run in connection with the public 
 school system. It is now an excellent high school. The Minute and Record Books of the Board 
 of Trustees are in the possession of S. S. Lambeth, Jr., Bedford City, Va. 
 
128 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 sale of the glebe lands, Abingdon, Petsworth and Ware Parishes, Glou- 
 cester county, were appropriated to the purchase of a suitable site and 
 the erection thereon of a poor house, work house and school house, the 
 whole establishment to be denominated the Gloucester Charity School. 
 After an experiment of two or three years the trustees were convinced 
 that the cost exceeded the benefit, and accordingly resolved to sell the 
 establishment and hold the proceeds as a poor fund. "It was thought 
 best not to sell a part of the land vested in the trustees, called Peasly's."* 
 
 Hening, Statutes at Large, supp., II, 67. 
 Journal and Documents, 1830-31, Doc. No, 9. 
 
 1796. EBEXEZEE academy: BRUNSWICK COUNTY. 
 
 Samuel G. Eamsey was principal of this academy before 1817. 
 
 "This academy was founded by Bishop Asbury."^ In 1840 my father 
 entered me as a scholar. The academy was five miles distant from mj 
 home, and I rode horseback, every morning, carrying my dinner in a lit- 
 tle basket, and my horse's dinner in a wallet or bag which was tied be- 
 hind my saddle. When I entered, Mr. Hogan was the teacher; an old 
 Irishman, of fine classical education, and a good teacher and disciplin- 
 arian. He was a true believer of the old school in corporal punishment^ 
 not only disobedience and mischief, but when he failed to impress a les- 
 son on a boy's mind as he thought he should, he applied the birch with- 
 out fail. 
 
 * cf. Hening, Statutes at Large, VII, 41ff (1756) : 
 
 "Whereas Henry Peasley, formerly of the county of Gloucester, deceased, was in his lifetime, 
 and at the time of his death, seized in fee-simple of a tract or parcel of land, containing six: 
 hundred acres or thereabouts, lying and being in the parish of Abingdon, in the said county* 
 and being so seized, by his last will and testament, in writing, bearing date the seventeenth day 
 of March, in the year of our Lord, one thousand six hun-dred and seventy-five, devised the same 
 by description of the land he then lived on, together with ten cows and one breeding mare, for 
 the maintenance of a free school forever, to be kept with a schoolmaster for the education of the- 
 children of the parishes of Abingdon and Ware, forever. 
 
 And whereas several slaves have been by different persons, since the above devise, givei> 
 for the same purpose, but by reason of the inconvenient situation of the said land few children 
 frequent the free-school kept there, so *hat the charitable intention of the said Henry Peasley^ 
 and the other donors is of little benefit to the said two parishes. 
 
 And whereas, it is represented to this present General Assembly, by the ministers, church- 
 wardens and vestrymen of the said two parishes of Abingdon and Ware, that if proper persons 
 were empowered to lease out the said land and slaves, the annual rents thereof would be suflScient 
 to support and maintain a free-school in each of the said parishes for the education of the children 
 residing there. Therefore, appointed as trustees and governors of the said land, slaves and other 
 premisses the ministers, churchwardens, and vestrymen of the parishes of Abingdon and Ware, 
 to have perpetual succession ; they empowered to erect and found a free-school in some convenient 
 part of each of the said parishes of Abingdon and Ware ; they and their successors to nominate- 
 and appoint masters of the said free-schools — 'which masters, before tiiey be admitted to keep 
 school, shall undergo an examination before the minister of the parish in which the school he- 
 shall be appointed master of shall be situated, and produce a certificate of his capacity, and 
 
 also a license from the governor or commander in chief of this dominion* ; the said trustees 
 
 and governors to have full power and. authority to visit the said free-schools, to order, reform^. 
 and redress all disorders and abuses, to remove the masters. 
 
 "Saving to the King's most excellent majesty, his heirs and successors, etc., etc., all such 
 estate, right, title, claim, and demand, which they, or any of them, should or might have, <rf>. 
 in to, or out of the premisses, or any of them, or any part thereof." 
 
 t cf. "An address to the students of Ebenezer Academy, delivered in December, 1827, at the- 
 request of Henry Clary, A. M., President, in Essays, [Anonymous], Petersburg, Va. c. 1830. 
 
 Mar. 4, 1861. The trustees of this Academy were authorized by Act of Assembly to seW 
 the real estate and pay the money arising therefrom to the superintendent of schools for indigent: 
 children in the county. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 129 
 
 After two sessions of my stay at the Bbenezer, Mr. Hogan left, and 
 the school was taken charge of by a gentleman named Thompkins Eice. 
 Mr. Eice was a Virginiau and a native of Brunswick county, but he had 
 been abroad for many years, and was educated at Oxford, England. He 
 was among the best teachers I have ever met. He was moreover, a very 
 genial man, and was greatly beloved by the boys ; but he never abated a 
 jot of his dignity. Mr. Eice never lost his temper or his equilibrium, 
 but with great grace and good humor he could plant a birch, without 
 ever missing the mark. 
 
 Our next master was a Mr. Lanier, a mild-mannered gentleman, no 
 great scholar, but a good teacher — a man who made himself a companion 
 to the boys in their sports, who won their love and ruled by love. Under 
 his domination the rod ceased to appear. In January 1843 (age 15), I 
 was sent to Eandolph-Macon College to enter the freshman class, half 
 advanced." 
 
 Asbury's Journal, II, 310. 
 
 General Catalogue Washington and Lee University, 1889, p. 54. 
 Seventy-five Years in Old Virginia. By John Herbert claiborne, M. D., Wash- 
 ington, 1904, pp. 21, 27-29. 
 Calais-Morale, Autobiography of W. H. Wesson, Richmond, 1882, p. 10, p. 16. 
 
 1797. chaelestown academy: jefferson county (then berkeley 
 county). 
 
 The subscription papers of 1795 run: "It is proposed therefore to 
 erect a seminary of learning in Charlestown, in which the Latin and 
 Greek languages are to be taught, and in case of sufficient encourage- 
 ment the French, likewise the English in all its branches ; geography, as- 
 tronomy, criticism, natural and moral philosophy, and all the different 
 branches of the mathematics to encourage learning and dif- 
 fuse knowledge, which are the ornaments and safeguard of liberty."'* 
 
 Charlestown was founded by General Washington's brother Charles, 
 and the lot on which the academy has stood for over a century was given 
 by Samuel Washington. This academy has had practically an unbroken 
 existence. (Whitehill, History of Education in West Virginia, p. 93.) 
 
 1799. BROOKE academy: beooke county (at wellsburg). 
 
 This was one of the earliest schools in existence in the territory now 
 included in West Virginia. The deed conveying the ground upon which 
 the building was located was dated April Si, 1778. Philip Doddridge 
 was of the board of trustees when the academy was incorporated in 1799. 
 The school was continued with varying success for many years. + In 
 1848 the old building (described in 1836 as a two-story brick building; 
 
 * The elaborate plan of this academy at its founding occasioned an essay by Benjamin Henry 
 Latrobe on a "National System of Education." See his letter to Ferdinand' Fairfax, dated Rich- 
 mond, May 28. 1V98. Journal of Latrobe, New York, 1905, p. 64-82. 
 
 t cf. Martin's Oazetteer, p. 332 — "At Wellsburg (1834) one academy in which are taught 
 the Greek and Latin languages ; 3 female and 1 male English school." 
 
130 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 the academy in successful operation) was torn down and a new one 
 erected. In 1852 the property was taken over by the Meade Collegiate 
 Institute, under the auspices of the Episcopal Church. The institute not 
 proving successful, the building was for some years used Tor school pur- 
 poses by W. H. Martin, and later by Geo. W. Eussell. In 1862 the 
 property reverted to the trustees of Brooke Academy, who sold it in 1865, 
 when the building was converted into a dwelling. (Whitehill, History of 
 Education in \fest Virginia, p. 102. Journal and Documents, 1839, Doc. 
 No. 4.) 
 
 1799. LEESBUEG ACADEMY: LOUDOUN COUNTY. 
 
 Although chartered in 1799, there had been a Latin school at Lees- 
 burg before that year. Dr. Schoepf, on his travels to the South, in No- 
 vember, 1783, was at Leesburg. He says: "From the high, pleasant, 
 and healthful situation of this place, the proposal has been made to es- 
 tablish a Latin school here, and on the door of the tavern there was a 
 special notice recommending the institution to the public which should 
 certainly give it support, there being everywhere in America, outside 
 the chief cities, a lack of suitable schools and educational establishments." 
 
 In 1834, Martin's Gazetteer describes Leesburg: "Three schools foi 
 males, one classical and two English; three for females, two of which 
 have attained some celebrity." Howe's Historical Collections gives Lees- 
 burg "a very handsome academy recently erected;" (statement to be as- 
 signed to 1844). In 1850, the Leesburg Academy was under the direc- 
 tion of W. N. Benedict. 
 
 Schoepf, Travels in the Confederation, II, 30. 
 
 Martin's Gazetteer, p. 212. 
 
 Howe, Historical Collections of Virginia: sub Loudoun county. 
 
 Johnson, The University Memorial, p. 168. 
 
 1799. cuLPEPEK academies: culpepee county. 
 
 In the year 1805, a lottery was authorized for the benefit of the 
 Stevensburg Academy, Culpeper county, which had been incorporated in 
 1799. Martin's Gazetteer mentions no such academy in 1834. In 1835 
 the Jefferson Academy of Culpeper was incorporated, the elementary 
 school of 1834 at JefEersonton possibly having been so dignified. In 1840 
 Caleb Burnley taught "a large school of young men and boys at Jeffer- 
 sonton. The Fairfax Academy of Culpeper (county seat called Fairfax) 
 was incorporated, in 1845. David Turner had a school in this county, 
 in 1855, which was perhaps a classical and mathematical school. 
 
 John Robertson, of Scotland, conducted a classical school for thirty 
 years in Albemarle and Culpeper counties. He died in 1818 in Cul- 
 peper county, leaving a large collection of Latin and Greek authors. He 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 131 
 
 was succeeded by the Eev. Samuel D. Hoge, and he, by the Eev. Herbert 
 Marshall.* 
 
 Hening, Statutes at Large, supp., II, 176. T 
 
 Index to Enrolled Bills, General Assembly of Virginia, 1776-1910. 
 
 Men of Mark in Virginity, IV, 418, 430. 
 
 Woods, History of Albemarle County, Charlottesville, 1901, p. 86. 
 
 Great American Lawyers, Philadelphia, 1907, Vll, 133. 
 
 Alumni Bulletin, University of Virginia, V, 84. 
 
 Johnson, The University Memorial, p. 110. 
 
 u 
 
 1800. PRINCE EDWARD ACADEMIES: PRINCE EDWARD COUNTY. 
 
 Drury Lacy (1791-1796, acting president of Hampden-Sidney Col- 
 lege) about the. year 1800^' established a "grammar school" at his house, 
 'Ararat,' in Prince Edward county. This school was kept up by its foun- 
 der until his death in 1815, and was continued for several years after- 
 wards by his son, the Eev. William Lacy, later of Arkansas. Before 1813 
 John Eandolph's home was near by, and he sent his three wards to the 
 Ararat school. It was Mr. Lacy's custom to hear his boys recite their 
 Latin and Greek grammar lessons before breakfast, and Mr. Eandolph 
 was known more than once to come from Bizarre and enter the school 
 house by sun up. At 9 o'clock the school was formally opened, when all 
 the boys read verses about in the Bible, until the chapter or portion as- 
 signed was iinished. Mr. Eandolph always seemed highly pleased with 
 this exercise, read his verse in turn, and with Mr. Lacy would sometimes 
 ask questions. On one ocoasion, while reading one of the books of the 
 Pentateuch, he stopped a lad with the question: "Tom Miller, can you 
 tell me who was Moses' father?" Another of the customs in the school 
 at Ararat, was to review every Friday afternoon the studies of the pre- 
 ceding days, and spend the afternoon in spelling, in which the whole 
 school took part — in reading select passages from the Bible, the Specta- 
 tor, Shakespeare or Milton, and in declamation. The first exercise, spell- 
 ing, afforded great amusement occasionally. ]\Ir. Eandolph would al- 
 ways take the foot, and usually got to the head pretty soon, when he 
 would leave the circle and take his seat. Xow and then, however, he was 
 kept at the foot until the exercise closed, much to the gratification of 
 some of the smaller lads, who had been stimulated to prepare the two 
 columns of the Dictionary (AYalker's) with perfect accuracy. In reading 
 also, Mr. Eandolph would take his turn, and after a trial of a given se- 
 lection had been made by two or three boys, he would take the book and 
 show them how it ought to he read. He was wonderfully gifted by nature 
 with an ear that could detect the slightest shades of tone, with a voice 
 
 * Adam Goodlet kept a grammar and classical school in Culpeper county about 1775, later 
 removing to Orange county. He was from Scotland. O'Neill, an athletic Irishman, minister and 
 schoolmaster, was in Bromfield Parish [Madison and Rappahannock counties] about 1792. 
 
 Slaughter, History of St. Marie's Parish, Culpeper county, 1877, pp. 106, 91, 56, 64. 
 
 t As early as 1763, before the establishment of Hampden-Sidney College, William Cassells 
 had a' school in Prince Edward county, of enough reputation to draw students from North Caro- 
 lina. Cassells prepared Ephraim Brevard (accounted the author of the Mecklenburg Declaration 
 -of Independence), for Princeton College. — Graham, The Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence: 
 >mth Lives of its Signers. Washington, 1905, p. 104. 
 
132 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 that was music itself, and with a taste that was faultless. Boys, when he 
 was reading, actually seemed to doubt if it was the same piece they had 
 read but a few minutes before. During recess, or playtime, Mr. Ean- 
 dolph would sometimes take part in the sports of the boys, and engage in 
 them with the greatest interest. The games then most common were, 
 bandy, chumney, cat, and marbles, with all its variations of long taw, 
 short taw, and knucks. 
 
 Hugh Blair Grigsby was prepared for Yale at this Ararat school. 
 He said of it in 1876 : "It was in the capacity of the principal of a classi- 
 cal shool that Drury Lacy rendered most valuable service to his country. 
 His pupils came from a distance, and lived in his family or at the house 
 of some one of his neighbors. I was one of those pupils and bear my testi- 
 mony to his thorough teaching of the Latin tongue. Though sixty-one 
 years have passed since I was under his care, I feel the influence of his 
 teaching on my mind and character at this moment, pointing the very 
 
 thought which I am now pressing upon you In Mr. Lacy's school 
 
 were trained numerous students who have become prominent in every 
 sphere of social action. It is to such private schools that Virginia owes a 
 debt which she can never repay." 
 
 Drury Lacy, Recollections of John Randolph in Southern Literary Messenger, 
 1859, 461-466 (copied in Union Seminary Magazine (Va.), Vol. V, pp. 1-10). 
 
 cf. Sketch of the life of Roger Ascham, in Dictionary of National Biography: 
 'While still a child (about 1525) he was received into the family of Sir Anthony 
 Wingfield, who ever loved and used to have many children brought up in leamynge 
 in his house, together with his own sons. Roger made rapid progress in English 
 as well as classical studies. His physical education was not neglected, and Sir 
 Anthony himself taught the boys archery, which was always Ascham's favorite 
 exercise.* 
 
 '^ .-e 1822 Franklin Gillette Smith, a native of New England and 
 a very accomplished man, kept a^chool in Prince Edward county. Mr. 
 Smith was one of the founders and for many years the principal of the 
 Columbia Female Institute of Tennessee. 
 
 About 1819 David Duncan, a native of Scotland, had a classical 
 school at or near Prince Edward courthouse.* About 1820, William 
 Branch, author of a Poem called Life (Richmond, 1819), was teaching 
 school at 'Golgotha' in this county. From 1822 to 1827 William S. 
 White, (at the time pursuing his studies in theology), taught a clas- 
 sical school in Farmville, Prince Edward county. Before 1828, 
 Hiram P. Goodrich (Union College, 1823, Princeton Seminary, 1826, 
 later president of Marion Coll., Mo.) taught in Prince Edward county. 
 In 1834 Martin describes Prince Edward courthouse: "There are here 
 two flourishing academies : the female seminary deserves the high repu- 
 
 • statement of A. R. Venable, Esq. (b. 1830), Hampden Sidney, Va. ' ' . ■ 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 13^^ 
 
 tation which it enjoys.* The present number of pupils is about 80. Tlie 
 other institution is for males, and prepares pupils to enter colleges witli 
 credit; the annual number is between 40 and 50." The principal of this 
 classical school for several years after 1839 was the Eev. E. Ballentine, 
 later professor in Lane Theological Seminary, Cincinnati. Dr. Ballen- 
 tine for a year or two was assisted by the Eev. Stephen Taylor, a gradu' 
 ate of Williams College, 1826. About 1845 the 'Tiongwood" school, at 
 the home of Nathaniel E. Yenable, near Farmville (afterwards in Farm- 
 ville) was in charge of Andrew W. Millspaugh, who had come from the 
 North (a graduate of Union College, '1835) a man excellently fitted for 
 the business of a teacher. He was a small man but very active, given to 
 boyish sports along with his pupils on the playground, but their master in 
 the schoolroom; a great whittler, and fond of trimming his long dog- 
 wood switches with great care in full view of his little republic. Andrew 
 Millspaugh taught and whittled with method. He made with his pocket- 
 knife a model of a spike for railroad cross ties ; submitted it to the judg- 
 ment of competent authorities, and became a manufacturer of railroad 
 spikes. 
 
 White, William S. White and His Times, RichmoiK^, 1891, p. 43. 
 
 Martin, Gazetteer of Virginia^ p. 269. 
 
 Spragiie, Annals of the American Pulpit, IV, 673-674. 
 
 Union Seminary (Virginia) Magazine, Vol. XXIII, p. 18. 
 
 Hall, Forty Years' Familiar Letters of James W. Alexander, D. D., New York, 
 
 1860, I, 116. 
 Cabell, Sketches and Recollections of Lynchburg, Richmond, 1858, p. 154. 
 (cf. Higher Education in Tennessee, Bull. U. S. Bureau of Education, p. 246.) 
 R'obert Lewis Dabney, Discussions, Vol. IV, pp. 476-477. 
 
 * This seminary, rather famous in its time, was established about 1831 by E. Root, of New 
 York, a graduate of Williams College, 1821. 
 
 The Southern Litentp'y Messenger iCVol. I, 1836, p. 519), rommends this school: "This in- 
 stitution has been established about four years, and has met with great success, as is, Fl^qwn by 
 th-e fact that it had upwards of one hundred pupils the past year. It has been the X-j, of its 
 director to fix upon a thorough course of study, rigidly to be pursued, under the superintendence 
 of the best teachers in the various departments ; rendering solid study the main object of atten- 
 tion, but not neglecting those ornamental branches which embellish and refine the more im- 
 portant requirements. Music and the French language are taught by proficients in each. We can 
 conscientiously recommend the Prince Edward Seminary for its efficient method of instruction." 
 
 Mr. Root became the first Superintendent of Common Schools of the State of Wisconsin. 
 (Report, Bureau of Education, Washington, 1896-97, I, 800 ; 1898-99, I, 415-417.) This Prince 
 Edward county Seminary was active until shortly before 1860. Mr. Root sold to Daniel Woods, a 
 son of Dr. Leonard Woods, of Andover. Robert G. Branch, for many years Professor in Hampden 
 Sidney College, was th-e last owner. (^Calendar of Board Minutes: Hampden Sidney College, 1776- 
 1876. Richmond, 1912, p. 104.) 
 
 The commendation of the Messenger has singled out for advertisement this Prince Edward 
 county girls' school. Girls' .schools lie outside of this investigation, but it may be as well to 
 assemble a few notes for the period before 1840. The Rev. Dr. William S. Reid's school in 
 Lynchburg was very well known for many years after 1815. In 1817 a Bill was drawn pro- 
 viding for the endowment by the State of the Anne Smith Academy at Lexington. Mrs. James M. 
 Garnett had an excellent school for girls at her home in Essex county, called "Elm-Wood," 
 around 1825. [See Lectures on Female Education, delivered to Mrs. Garnett's Pupils. By James 
 M. Garnett. 4th edition. Richmond, 1825.] The Rev. Samuel B. Wilson, D. D., had a suc- 
 cessful school at Fredericksburg for a good many years before 1840. Williamsburg had a girls' 
 school in 1805, as appears by the advertiseff-ent of Mr. M. L. Anderson in the Richmond Enquirer 
 for April 30 of that year. There was a large school for girls in Charlotte county in 1838. To- 
 wards 1835 the number of chartered institutions of this kind increased rapidly: e. g., 1831, the 
 'Danville Female A'cademy; 1834, Fincastle Female Academy; 1835, Bedford County Female 
 Academy; 1836, Clarksville Female Academy and Lynchburg Female Academy; 1837, the Female 
 Collegiate Institute of Buckingham county: 1839, Charters for Morgantown, Williamsburg, 
 Warrenton, Charlottesville, and Farmville. Out of this Farmville School grew the State Normal 
 School, established about 1884. 
 
134 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 1801, BELFIELD ACADEMY: GREENSVILLE COUNTY. 
 
 This academy seems to have begun work immediately upon incorpora- 
 tion in 1801. There is an advertisement in the Norfolk Herald (Library 
 of Congress) for January 3, 1801 : "Belfield Academy — will be opened 
 in the town of Belfield. Boys 12-15 years, 50 dollars; boys 15-3'0 years, 
 60 dollars. 
 
 The languages, natural and moral philosophy, trigonometry, naviga- 
 tion and surveying. Andrew Ehea, A. M. Principal; Belfield Starke, 
 Secretary Board of Trustees." 
 
 In 1910, the General Assembly passed an act repealing the act incor- 
 porating Belfield Academy. What the hf.story of the academy was in the 
 interval does not appear. 
 
 1801. BUEE academy: prince GEORGE COUNTY. 
 
 This academy incorporated in 1801, and endowed with funds 
 arising from the sale of glebe lands in Prince George county, had a brief 
 career. The act of incorporation was repealed in 1806, and the funds 
 diverted to the overseers of the poor of the county. 
 
 Burr Academy may have been named for Aaron Burr, and its signifi- 
 cant dates were also important years in his history. 
 
 1801. BANISTER academy: PITTSYLVANIA COUNTY. 
 
 Incorporated in 1801, the trustees of this academy in 1804 were au- 
 thorized to raise the sum of $10,000 by lottery. In 1816 the Act of in- 
 corporation was repealed, 'it being represented to the General Assembly 
 that the trustees of Banister Academy wish the law constituting them a 
 body politic and corporate may be repealed.' 
 
 Abner W. Clopton, the Virginia Temperance reformer, was a stu- 
 dent there about 1806. 
 
 Iiening, Statutes at Large, supp., II, 334; III, 52. 
 Taylor, Virginia Baptist Ministers, p. 336. 
 
 1802. HALIFAX ACADEMY: HALIFAX COUNTY. 
 
 The trustees of this academy were granted a charter in 1803, the in- 
 terest of the Commonwealth jin certain lands being vested in the trus- 
 tees; in 1836 a Halifax academy was again incorporated. There was a 
 preparatory school at Halifax courthouse in 1850 called the Samuel 
 Davies Institute. Eobert Massie (Washington College, Va., 1853), was 
 in charge of the classical school at Halifax courthouse 1853-1855. I-n 
 18S3 the Meadesville Academy, in Halifax county was chartered, the local 
 orders of Odd Pellows and Sons of Temperance to have an interest in 
 the building; and in the same year the Halifax Dan Eiver Institute was 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 135 
 
 incorporated, its real property not to exceed five hundred acres at any 
 one time. 
 
 The existent academy of Cluster Springs, at tha village of Black 
 Walnut, in Halifax county, had its origin before 1860. There was a 
 Black Walnut Academy in 1853. 
 
 Hening, Statutes at Large, supp., II, 380. 
 
 Johnson, The University Memorial, p. 418. 
 
 Acts of Assembly, 1862-63, pp. 241-246. 
 
 Halifax County, Virginia: A Handbook, Richmond, 1907, p. 29. 
 
 Men of Mark in Virginia, II, 216 ; III, 181. 
 
 1802. NEW GLASGOW ACADEMY: AMHEEST COUNTY. 
 
 In the act of incorporation, 1803, it is recited that large sums of money 
 had been subscribed for this academy. In 1818, the Rev. James AMiarey 
 (Hampden- Sidney College), was the principal. The trustees, in 1837, 
 for the purpose of raising funds to repair the buildings of the Xew Glas- 
 gow Academy, in the county of Amherst, were authorized to sell not ex- 
 ceeding three acres of the academy land. In 1858 the trustees were given 
 authority to sell the academy, and land thereto attached, to the trustees 
 of the Baptist Congregation at New Glasgow, as a place for public wor- 
 ship, provided the sale was made on condition that the basement of the 
 building should be dedicated to the use of the public as a school room. 
 About this time there was an Amherst Academy active. 
 
 Hening, Statutes at Large, supp., II, 461. 
 
 Ads of Assembly, 1836-37, p. 170. 
 
 Acts of Assembly, 1857-58, p. 213. 
 
 Sprague, Annals of the American Pulpit, IV, 602. 
 
 Brown, Cabells and Their Kin, Boston, 1895, p. 532. 
 
 1803. ABINGDON academy: WASHINGTON COUNTY. 
 
 About the year 1783 William Webb, who had come to America in the 
 employ of Lord Fairfax and had written in his Land Office for a number 
 of years, settled at Abingdon and taught school there until 1786, when 
 he removed to a place near what is now Tazewell courthouse, keeping a 
 school there until his death in 1818. He was succeeded at Abingdon by 
 Turner Lane, an Irishman, who had previously taught at the Eoyal Oak 
 in Smyth county, where the town of Marion now stands. Lane removing 
 to Tennessee after 1790, a school was conducted at Abingdon, in the 
 building put up for I^ane, until the organization of the Abingdon Male 
 Academy in 1808. This academy was chartered in 1803, and work was 
 carried on until 1830 in the Masonic Hall of the town. An advertise- 
 ment of the academy appeared in the "Political Prospect," an Aljingdon 
 newspaper in 1812 : "The trustees of this institution have the happiness 
 to announce to the friends of Erudition, that the Muses are about to pour 
 out their treasures from the Pierian Springs in this seminary. To the 
 American youth who thrist for literary acquirements, they offer the 
 draughts of : 
 
136 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE 
 
 under the Eev. Thomas Erskine Birch, whose talents as a preceptor have 
 been so nniversally authenticated that any encomium is unnecessary. 
 
 PRICES FOR TUITION. 
 
 For a novitiate $10 00 
 
 Eeading and writing 13 00 
 
 English grammar, arithmetic, etc, 15 00 
 
 Language and mathematical science, elocution, phi- 
 losophy. Belles-lettres and astronomy, bookkeeping, 
 
 geography and navigation, etc 20 00" 
 
 William King, an Irishman who had become much interested in the 
 academy, bequeathed to it in 1808, $10,000 payable in 1816. After a suit, 
 the trustees got a court order in the matter, and were able to put up a 
 good brick building, ready for use in 1827. After 1849, for a number 
 of years, the academy was run as a military school. Names of prin- 
 cipals: 1822-27, Nathaniel Holley; 1827-1833, William Ewing; 1833- 
 1837, Peter McViecar (formerly professor at Hampden-Sidney College, 
 and a graduate of Union College) ; 1837-38, Eev. Ephraim D. Saunders, 
 of Cumberland county; 1838-40, George Clive, of Albemarle county ,- 
 1840-43, Eev. Samuel Matthews; 1843-49, John T. Winniford; 1849- 
 50, B. P. Ficklin (V. M. I) and W. A. Woodson; 1850-52, Woodson and 
 J. M. Brockenbrough (V. M. I.) and W. Y. C. Humes, (V. M. I.) ; 
 1852-53, J. E. Blankenship, (V. M. I.); Eev. Henry T. Lee; 1855-56, 
 Stephen T. Pendleton, of Williamsburg; 1856-59, Eev. Thomas Brown; 
 1859-60, Chas. T. Brown ; 1860-61, E. H. Hall.* 
 
 History of Southwest Virginia and Washington C:ounty. By L. P. Summers. 
 Richmond, 1903, pp. 657-565, V82. 
 
 1803. ALBEMARLE ACADEMY: ALBEMARLE COUNTY. 
 
 Incorporated in 1803, this academy continued a paper institution, 
 and is of interest merely for its connection with the University of Vir- 
 ginia into which it passed by successive statutes. 
 
 In the spring of 1814, Thomas Jefferson was elected a trustee of 
 Albemarle Academy. His ideas led the people of Albemarle county to 
 subscribe largely to the academy, and the trustees were induced to essay 
 the enlargement of the plan. A petition to the Legislature for further 
 endowment, and incorporation as a college was sent up in 1815. In 1516 
 the Legislature passed an act for establishing a college in the county of 
 
 * Principal Hall resigned to enter the army. In 1861, the Scott county volunteers were 
 allowed to occupy the Academy as barracks. The building being damaged, the Trustees pe- 
 titioned the Secretary of War, C. S. A., to (orbid such use, and the petition was granted. In 
 
 1872 the Trustees put up a new building, and residence near by. These buildings are in use 
 
 at present. — Summers, pp. 564-566. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 137 
 
 Albemarle, to be called "Central College," and further enacted that the 
 rights and claims existing in the Albemarle Academy should be vested in 
 this "Central College;" and that the proceeds of the lottery authorized 
 for the academy in 1803, all subscriptions to the academy, and monies 
 arising from the sales of the glebe lands of the parishes of Saint Ann and 
 Fredericksville, in the county of Albemarle, or such part thereof belong- 
 ing to the county of Albemarle or its citizens, should be employed for the 
 purposes of the "Central College." The corner-stone of the first pavilion 
 was laid on the 6th of October, 1817, — 'the scene was gi'aued by the pres- 
 ence of Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, late Presidents of the 
 United States, and of James Monroe, the actual President' (Eichmond 
 Enquirer, October 10, 1817). These three had been appointed by the 
 Governor Trustees of the College in 1816. January 35, 1819, it was 
 enacted by the General Assembly, 'that the conveyance of the lands and 
 other property appertaining to the Central College in the county of Albe- 
 marle, which has been executed by the proctor thereof, under authority of 
 the subscribers and founders, to the President and Directors of the Liter- 
 ary Fund, is hereby accepted, for the use, and on the conditions in the 
 said deed of conveyance expressed. And, that there shall be established, 
 on the site provided for the said college, an university to be called "The 
 University of Virginia.' " 
 
 Thus by wise procedure, but not without difficulty, Albemarle Acad- 
 emy became the University of Virginia. 
 
 Hening, Statutes at Large, supp., II, 427. 
 
 Acts of Assembly, 1816, p. 191. 
 
 Acts of Assembly, 1819, p. 16. 
 
 Early History of the University of Virginia. Richmond, 1856, pp. XXIII-XXV. 
 
 1803. MIDDLEBUEG ACADEMY: LOUDOUX tOCXTY. 
 
 The Fredericksburg Gazette for September 13, 1803, contains an 
 advertisement of the Middleburg. Academy. In 1827 an act was passed 
 authorizing the Executive 'to allow to Enos W. Xewton and Ozro P. Jeni- 
 son, principals in the military academy at Middleburg, in the county of 
 Loudoun, seventy-five stand of muskets, of the smallest calibre, with 
 the like number of eartouch boxes and belts, for the use of tiie pupils in 
 the said seminary.' In 1834, Martin describes Middleburg as having '1 
 classical school, 1 English school for males, and 3 female acadamies.' 
 
 Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, XIII, 433. 
 Acts of Assembly, 1826-27, p. 111. 
 Martin, Gazetteer of Virginia, p. 212, 
 
 1803. EICHIIOXD ACADEMY. 
 
 An observer of 1834, says of Richmond: "The city has not been 
 very fortunate in institutions for the cultivation of the mind. A few 
 
138 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 ( — ■ 
 
 good schools it is true have occasionally existed, where a competent knowl- 
 edge of the classics and some of the sciences might be obtained,* but 
 none of these sources of instruction have been commensurate with the 
 wants of the citizens. It is a remarkable circumstance, that the metro- 
 polis of the State, containing as it does considerable wealth and popula- 
 tion, — many distinguished and well-informed men, and much boasted 
 refinement, should yet be destitute of a single academical institution. 
 As far back as 1803, a charter was obtained from the State by some of 
 the prominent citizens, for the establishment of an academy by lottery 
 and private subscription. A few thousand dollars were raised — a site 
 was injudiciously selected a mile beyond the limits of the city — and the 
 basement story of the building erected, but no further progress was made. 
 Within the present year, however, the vacancies in the Board of Trus- 
 tees have been filled, and there is some prospect of reviving the institu- 
 tion."t 
 
 * The generous plans of the Chevalier Quesnay de Beaurepaire for a Richmond Academy looked 
 further than to the education of youth. His proposed foundation bore the title Academy des 
 Sciences et Beaux Arts des Etats-Unis. The plans' for this establishment were carefully worked 
 out, and received with some enthusiasm as early as 1786. In 1790 (Fredericksburg Gazette, 
 Oct. 7) the building had been turned into a theatre. The Virginia Federal Convention met there. 
 
 In 1801, the Rev. John D. Blair, formerly President of the Washington-Henry Academy of 
 Hanover county, opened a school in Richmond. George Wythe Munford, in his extraordinary 
 book, The Two Parsons (Richmond, 1884, chap. XI), gives an interesting chapter to Mr. Blair's 
 school. "He possessed the rare faculty of interesting the youthful mind." He understood boys, 
 and himself had worked out the .problem of the school distich: 'One a me newry Ochra Ann, 
 Mulberry wax and tarry tan; Ciscum garricum — very good tim.e ; Humblum bum blum — twenty-nine. 
 Mr. Blair's school became the Richmond Hill Academy in 1811. Mr. Blair died in 1823. Wil- 
 liam Burke was then teaching in Richmond. Poe was a pupil at Burke's school. It is possible 
 this was the school incorporated in 1835, as the Richmond Academy. Adams, Thomas Jefferson 
 and the University of Virginia, (U. S. Bureau of Education), p. 22fE; CJhristian, Richmond Past 
 and Present, pp. 52, 75 ; Harrison, Life and Letters of Edgar Allan Poe, New York, 1903, pp. 
 25, 27. 
 
 General Scott was at school in Richmond before 1805. The master was James Ogilvie. an 
 eccentric Scotchman, who went home to set up claim to a peerage. *'Here were taught, besides 
 the ancient classics, rhetoric, Scotch metaphysics, logic, mathematics, and polifical economy. 
 Several of them by lecture. Most of the pupils were approaching manhood. Too much was at- 
 tempted within a limited time.'* 
 
 [Memoirs of Lieut.-Gen. Scott, LL. D., Written by Himself. New York, 1864, I, pp. 7-9. 
 cf. Trent, English Culture in Virginia. Baltimore, 1889, pp. 30-32.] 
 
 t In 1834 Dr. Gwathmey had a school in Richmond, where Juds-e Crumu (one of the bonds- 
 men for Jefferson Davis) was a pupil — Men of Mark in Virginda. Washington, 1909, V. 77. 
 
 About the same time Rowland Reynolds, 'a New Yorker but a graduate of Trinity College, 
 Dublin, had a very successful school. He had formerly been many years in Norfolk ; an excellent 
 classical school, good teacher (without using the rod), and an a<:complished gentleman — Schools 
 and Schoolmasters of Virginia in the Olden Time. Address before the Educational Association of 
 Virginia. July, 1873. By Gen. Francis H. Smith. Richmond, 1874, p. 13. 
 
 Regarding the inovement of 1835 for a revived Richmond Academy, the Literary Messenger 
 for 1836 (I, 258) prints a note supplementary to the gloomy description of Martin's Gazetteer — 
 copied in the Messenger: "We are happy to have it in our power to state that by the liberality 
 of the City Council, an elegant and costly building has been erected by the trustees, which is now 
 near completion. It may be mentioned, however, with regret that an unsuccessful apolication 
 has been made to the Legislature for an annual endowment out of the surolus of the Literary 
 
 Fund The munificent patronage bestowed by the Legislature of 1834-5 upon works of intjrnal 
 
 improvement is of itself sufficient to exemnt that body from the reproach of leaving to its successors 
 something to do for the cause of education." 
 
 During the earlv forties Richard Sterling kept a classical school at Richmond. Mr. Sterling 
 was a graduate of Princeton. He was, about 1850, Professor of Physical Science at Hampden- 
 Sidnev College, and later in charge of the Edgeworth Seminarv. Greensboro, N. C. 
 
 cf. Life and Letters of Moses Drury Iloge. Richmond, 1899, p. 85. 
 
 Mr. Edward V. Valentine, of Richmond, the sculptor, has in preparation a book on the history 
 of Richmond, in which it is understood there will be much attention given to the older schools 
 of the city. In 1853 Mr. Valentine was a pupil in the school of Dr. Socrates Maupin. This 
 school was continued (on Eleventh Street between Marshall and Clay) by Philip Montague and 
 George W. Bassett. Professor Gildersleeve, of the Johns Hopkins Univei'sitv, was for a time an 
 
 assistant in Dr. Mannin's school. Girardin, who translated "Familv Feuds" (performed 
 
 on thp night of the burning of the Richmond Theatre, in 1811), had a school in Richmond. Mr. 
 Girardin was a member of the faculty of the College of William and Mary about 1803. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 139 
 f— — ' 
 
 At the session of 183-1-35 the General Assembly amended the act in- 
 corporating the Eichmond Academy; the institution came up rapidly, 
 and in 1839 there were 69 students over twelve years of age. In their 
 report to the Second Auditor, the Trustees say (Report 1840-41) : "The 
 trustees are acquainted with no similar institution in the State which 
 holds out greater facilities for instruction in English, Classical and 
 Mathematical studies." The modem languages also were taught. The 
 Cambridge course of Mathematics as far as calculus was used, with es- 
 pecial reference to the University of Virginia and Professor Bonny- 
 castle. In 1843 (Eeport 1844-45), there were 127 pupils; and a year 
 or two later, Howe {Historical Collections), could make the statement: 
 "The Eichmond Academy, Wm. Burke, principal, is a school for the 
 preparation of youth for college in the higher branches of classical and 
 mathematical education. There are ^nq teachers and some ninety or 
 one hundred pupils. The pupils are allowed the privilege of being en- 
 rolled in a corps of cadets, at their option, in which the exercises of drill 
 and military tactis are taught by a competent professor." 
 
 About 1850, Dr. Socrates Maupin (later chairman of the faculty 
 of the University of Virginia), was conducting a classical school in 
 Eichmond, which was continued after 1853 by E. Beale Davis and oth- 
 ers {University Memorial, 671). Little in his History of Richmond (p. 
 SI) ; writing in 1850, says, "Education is well provided for in Eich- 
 mond, by its numerous and well appointed schools and academies. The 
 Lancasterian school is supported partly by the funds of the town, and 
 partly by voluntary subscription.* By it the benefits of a good educa- 
 tion are brought to all who will take them." 
 
 Martin's Gazetteer of Virginia, p. 190. 
 Howe, Historical Collections of Virginia, p. 312. 
 Johnson, The University Memorial, 18V1, 
 Little, History of Richmond, 1851. 
 
 * The Lancasterian school of Richmond was an interesting foundation. The first effort towards 
 Ats establishment was made in 1815 by Andrew Stevenson, (later minister to Eng-land), William 
 Munford, and Thomas Ritchie, editor of the Enquirer — a committee of four in each ward of the 
 city was appointed to solicit funds, and $3,500 was subscribed by the citizens. In January, 1816, 
 the city granted the school $5,000 for a building, as much land as was necessary, and a subsidy 
 of $600 a year. The first session of the school was held May, 1816. The inscription on the comer- 
 stone, laid in the month of June following, was — "Dedicated to the elementary principles of 
 education, 'To teach the young idea how to shoot.' Erected by the munificence of the Corporate 
 Body of Richmond, and many worthy liberal citizens thereof. The children of the wealthy are 
 taught at the most reasonable rates, and the children of the poor gratis." 
 
 In 1834, the school, 'having had some fluctuations in its progress,' was in a prosperous 
 condition. It was under the superintendence of trustees appointed by the City Council, and 
 subsidized by the Literary Fund — 'for the education of poor childrai of both sexes.' 
 
 A few years before, in 1829, the Board of School Commissioners for Richmond had reported 
 to the Second Auditor that the Lancasterian school had cost for the year $1,523.08; schooling 
 273 pupils, 164 boys and 109 girls. In 1844, the school celebrated its anniversary. May 15th. 
 The Rev. Philip Courtney, the principal instructor, headed the procession. — Asbury Christian, 
 Richmond Past and Present. Richmond, 1912, pp. 91, 148; Martin's Gazetteer, p. 190. 
 
 When the establishment of this school was first broached, John Holt Rice, in an early number^ 
 ■of his Christian Monitor, (Vol. 1, 151, Nov. 1815), wrote in commendation of the plan : '^0 
 fortunatos nimium si sua bona norint Americanos! But also, we have not understood nor appre- 
 ciated our own advantages! We have made it our study to be rich; when it should have been 
 our great object to make the people wise. Instruction ought to be carried to every man's door. 
 Our country calls us in a tone of loud and affecting supplication to awake from our lethargy." 
 
 Scattered references to schools at this early period: Auguste Guigon's School, c, 1800 (.)fen 
 of Mark in Virginia, V. 184) ; John Wood's evening classes, drawing, astronomy, arithmetic, etc. 
 
 1804. (Richmond Enquirer, Dec. 1, 1804. — Wood was the author of a number of most interesting 
 Virginia county maps, about 1820; J. Ogilvie's School, in which Mr. Wood is to teach drawing, 
 
 1805. (Richmond Enquirer. Dec. 21, 1805) ; James Oswald's School on Shockoe HJU, (Richmond 
 Enquirer, Dec. 31, 1805.) 
 
140 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 1804. NORFOLK ACADEMY. 
 
 From an obituary notice of the Eev. Walker Maury, in the Fred- 
 ericksburg Gazette for September 4, 1788 (Virginia Magazine of His- 
 tory, XIII, 436), it appears that there was an academy at Norfolk* 
 in that year, of which Mr. Maury had been master. Walker Maury died 
 at the age of thirty-six, but had in a few years become famous in Vir- 
 ginia as a teacher, first in Orange county, then in Williamsburg, and 
 finally in Norfolk. 
 
 The Norfolk Academy was chartered in 1804, and in 1904 cele- 
 brated its centennial. The school is today [1913] doing excellent work, 
 with a faculty of five college and university men, and more than seventy 
 pupils. An advertisement of 1804 recites, — "Youths will be carefully 
 and expeditely instructed in the Latin and Greek languages, also English 
 grammar and accounts, with the most useful and necessary branches 
 of mathematics. Terms for the Latin and Greek languages, forty dol- 
 lars per annum; for English, twenty dollars." The first principal was 
 the Rev. James Whitehead, 'f succeeded after a short time by Michael 
 Smith, a graduate of Edinburgh. Before 1817, David Duncan, of Scot- 
 land, was in charge. In 1814 Dr. Augustine Slaughter died, and be- 
 queathed $3,000 in trust, after the death of annuitants (certain slaves), 
 the fund to be used for the education of worthy boys. In 1837, this 
 fund was loaned to the Trustees of Norfolk Academy, who then sold 
 their old property (glebe land property bought by them in 1806), and 
 erected the present academy building. The architect, Thomas U. Walter, 
 was the architect of Girard College, the Treasury Building at Washing- 
 ton, etc. The school moved into its new quarters in 1841, John P. Scott 
 being in charge. In 1843, W. F. Hopkins (late Professor of Chemistry 
 at the West Point Military Academy ; Professor, William and Mary, 1848) 
 was principal,! assisted by Mr. Eexford, of Yale, and Mr. Dwight. Under 
 this administration the academy became a military school, and so re- 
 mained until 1861. 
 
 The administration (1845-1855) of John B. Strange (Virginia 
 Military Institute) and Eichard B. Tschudi (Univ. of Pa.), assisted 
 
 * cf. Proceedings of the President and Masters of the College of William and Mary, Jany. 
 1st, 1756. "Richard Collhyon was examined, and is thought capable of teaching the Grammar 
 school at Norfolk." History of the College of William and Mary. Richmond, 1874, p. 48. 
 
 t cf. statement of Hugh Blair Grigsby in Gen. F. H. Smith's Schools and Schoolmasters of 
 Virginia in the Olden Time. An address. Richmond, 1874, pp. 12ff. Mr. Grigsby mentions the 
 Rev. Alexander Whitehead and his brother James, Scotchmen ; Mr. Edmund, an Irishman ; Row 
 land Reynolds, a graduate of Trinity College, Dublin ; and others not principals of the Academy. 
 
 i In their full reports to the Second Auditor the Trustees say: Under John P. Scott, Super- 
 intendent (Report 1842-43) eighty pupils; the Norfolk Academy (Report 1844-45) has a staff 
 - of four. — William F. Hopkins, (West Point) , John B. Strange, (Virginia Military Institute) , 
 H. Maguire, (University of France), and a fourth, (University of Pennsylvania) ; the Report 
 for 1845-46 shows four teachers and 95 scholars; that for 1846-47 states — "Natural philosophy 
 and chemistry are taught from books and by lectures, illustrated by experiments — Mathematics 
 upon the principles pursued at the military academy at West Point — Latin and Greek upon the 
 most approved modem methods — and no pupil can go through a course of French as taught at 
 the Academy without being able to speak French fluently — all the professorships are filled by 
 men zealous in the discharge of their duties. — Military tactics^ are taught." 
 
 flovse Journal and Documents, Doc. No. 4, for the years cited. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 141 
 
 by George W. Sheffield (Yale), was a notable one. John S. Gamble (V. 
 M. I.) succeeded Mr. Strange; the yellow fever was in Norfolk in 1855, 
 and Principal Gamble was soon succeeded by Mr. Sheffield, who was 
 followed by William B. Gait (Univ. of Virginia) . In 1862, during Mr. 
 Gait's administration, the academy building was seized by the United 
 States authorities and converted into a hospital. 
 
 Under the terms imposed by the use of the Slaughter fund, it is es- 
 timated that beneficiaries have been given instruction to the amount of 
 $30,000 to $40,000. The Norfolk Academy is now in obeyance. 
 
 Centennial Celebration of the Norfolk Academy: Address by Robert W. Tunstall. 
 Norfolk, 1904, p. 35ff. 
 
 1804. EUMFOED academy: king WILLIAM COUNTY. 
 
 The trustees of this academy were authorized in 1806 to raise money 
 by lottery for its benefit. In 1834 the academy is described : "Bumford 
 Academy is the only seminary in the county worthy of notice. It is an 
 excellent brick building, calculated to accommodate 40 or 50 pupils with 
 board, situated immediately on the road leading from Aylett's to the 
 courthouse, and 5 ms. distant from either place, in a very healthy and 
 agreeable part of the county. This has been always esteemed an insti- 
 tution of considerable merit, and has generally enjoyed an excellent 
 school, in which the usual branches of an academic education are taught. 
 It is now in good hands, and may be justly recommended to the public. 
 There is a postoffice at this academy." 
 
 An advertisement in the Southern Planter for 1853 runs: "Classi- 
 cal and Mathematical School. Eumford Academy, King William, Va. 
 On the stage road between Richmond and Eappahannock. So healthful 
 is the location, that but few cases of serious sickness have occurred in the 
 school since its establishment in 1804. No expense is spared in pro- 
 viding for the physical comforts of the pupils; treated in every respect 
 as young gentlemen, they are required to conduct themselves as such. 
 
 The subscriber who has been engaged eight years in guiding and in- 
 structing youth, will be aided by competent assistants. 
 
 The usual English Course, including Chemistry and Philosophy, an 
 extensive course of Mathematics, and the Latin, Greek and French lan- 
 guage will be taught. A recess of one week will be given at Easter. 
 Terms: For board and tuition, with every necessary except lights and 
 stationary, from 15th of January to 1st of July, $84; payable one-half 
 1st of May, the other half 1st of July.* John H. Pitts/' 
 
 [Virginia Military Institute, 1844.] 
 
 Martin's Gajietteer of Virginia, p. 203. 
 Southern Planter, XIII. (Feb. 1853). p. 60. 
 
 * A later adyertisement of this most interesting school (in Southern Planter, December 1854) 
 «hows the foUowing statements: The subscriber is aided by Dr. F. W. Perscher and Mr. J. R. 
 Sclater — the latter a graduate of the University of Virginia in Latin and Greek, and in three 
 Modern Languages. Dr. Perscher writes and speaks with elegance the French, German, and Latin 
 
142 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 1805. HAMPTON academy: ELIZABETH CITY COUNTY 
 
 The-^ymms and Eaton Free Schools, well endowed before 1650, 
 were in 1805 ("being shamefully neglected"), incorporated as Hamp- 
 ton Academy; the trustees to be chosen by the election of freeholders. 
 In 1837 the charter was amended, requiring the trustees to make an an- 
 nual report to the couit of Elizabeth City county "of the manner in 
 which the funds of said academy shall have been disbursed, which re- 
 port shall be recorded by the clerk of the court in a separate book, to be 
 kept for that purpose, and deposited in the office of the said clerk for 
 the inspection of all who may think proper to examine the same." It was 
 added that from and after the first day of March, 1838, it should not be 
 lawful to lend to any trustee any portion of the funds of the academy 
 nor should any trustee be appointed treasurer thereof. 
 
 The funds of Hampton Academy were vested in the school commis- 
 sioners of Elizabeth City county, in the year 1853, and in 1860 the .com- 
 missioners were authorized to sell the property, and with the money to 
 purchase other lots, and erect or purchase other buildings, 'to be used for 
 the purposes for which the Hampton Academy lot and buildings have 
 been heretofore by law used, and for no other purpose,' provided a fiia- 
 jority of the voters of said county should assent thereto. The Symms- 
 Eaton endowment is therefore active today in the school affairs of Hamp- 
 ton.* 
 
 Bruce, Institutional History of Virginia in the nth Century. New York, 1910, 
 
 I, chap. 7. 
 Hening, Statutes at Large, Supp. Ill, 164. 
 Acts of Assembly, 1836-37, p. 170. 
 Acts of Assembly, 1862, p. 179. 
 Acts of Assembly, 1859-60, p. 575. 
 
 Languages, and is also an accomplished Greek and Hebrew scholar. He has taught on the conti- 
 nent of Europe, and for some years past in the best schools in England. His recommendations 
 as a teacher are from the highest sources. 
 
 Circulars containing full Information can be obtained by addressing JOHN H. PITTS, 
 December 1, 1864. Rumtord Academy P. O. 
 
 Recommendations. 
 
 University of Virginia, Jan. 16, 1854. 
 Dear Sir, — It gives me great pleasure to express my conviction, founded upon the best 
 sources of information, and a personal acquaintance with some of your former pupils, who have 
 eminently distinguished themselves at the University, that in recommending your school with 
 great earnestness, I am doing but justice to an excellent institution and a capital teacher. 
 
 For your own sake, and for the interests of the Commonwealth, I wish you the very best 
 "success, and remain, with sincere respect. Your very humble servant. 
 
 To John H. Pitts, Esq. M. SCHELE DE VERB. 
 
 Virginia Military Institute, April 18, 1854. 
 It gives me great pleasure to recommend to public patronage the Rumford Academy. Its 
 Principal, Mr. J. H. Pitts, is a distinguished graduate of this Institution, and the grade of 
 scholarship which his pupils have maintained here, gives abundant evidence of his ability and 
 fidelity as a teacher. p. H^ SMITH, 
 
 Superintendent Virginia Military Institute. 
 
 * W. Gordon Mc. Cabe was at school about 1855, at Col. John B. Gary's Hampton Academy, 
 an excellent school. — Mc. Cabe, Virginia Schools Before and After the Revolution p. 63 ■ Men of 
 Mark in Virginia, III, 234. 
 
 See also Southern Planter, Oct. 1866, Supplement, p. 9. — "Hampton Male and Female 
 Academy. John B. Gary, A. M. Principal. — Session of ten months, beginning first Monday in 
 October. Ancient and modern languages, mathematics, the elements of physical science, military 
 tactics ; music, drawing, and painting extra. Tuition, according to advancement, from $30 to 
 $50. Board, including washing, fuel, and lights, $170." 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 143 
 
 1806. CHARLOTTE ACADEMIES: CHARLOTTE COUNTY. 
 
 For some five years before 1812, John Holt Eice conducted a classical 
 school at his house near Charlotte courthouse. The pupils numbered,, 
 on the average, about twenty, drawn from Southside Virginia counties. 
 In 1834 Martin mentions a classical school at Charlotte courthouse. This 
 may have been Thomas T. Bouldin's Academy. Mr. Bouldin (Univ. of 
 Va., 1833), gave up the school for the bar, and was succeeded first by a 
 young man of the name of Shelbourn, and then by David Comfort, a 
 graduate of Princeton, 1826. Mr. Comfort's "Moldavia" school was of 
 high reputation from about 1840 to 1860. 
 
 Maxwell, Memoir of John Holt Rice, Philadelphia, 1835, pp. 33, 37. 
 
 Memorandum Book of John Holt Rice. (MS, in Library of Hampden-Sidney 
 College.) 
 
 Foote, Sketches of Virginia. Philadelphia, 1S66, II, 302. 
 
 Martin, Gazetteer of Virginia, p. 150. 
 
 Johnson, Sketch of the Life of Clement Read Vaughn (in Union Seminary Maga- 
 zine, Va., XXni, 16). 
 
 Hall, Forty Years' Familiar Letters of James W. Alexander, D. D. New York,, 
 1860, I, 269. 
 
 1807. MAKGAEET Af'ADEJIY : ACC03IAC COUNTY. 
 
 In 1785 Margaret Ann Onley, a maiden lady and a resident of the 
 old town of Pungoteague, died and left a valuable property, which she 
 willed to be used as a. school for both sexes, and desired that Xorthamp- 
 ton county should share equally with Accomae in the benefits of the in- 
 stitution. Her will is on record in the Clerk's office of Accomae. 
 
 In compliance with her bequest, the General Assembly in 1786 
 granted a charter for the establishment of "Margaret Academy," giving 
 it that name in honor of the donor. The school was located on a com- 
 manding site near the ancient village of Pungoteague, then the leading 
 town of Accomae* .Just across the main higliway leading north out of 
 the village was old St. George's Episcopal Clmrch, even at that day a 
 \ery old structure. Here a substantial main building of brick was 
 erected, and the school opened for the reception of pupils in 1807. 
 
 Margaret Academy was kept in successful operation until the out- 
 break of the Civil War. It was then in charge of Joseph H. Hebard, 
 a graduate of the Virginia Military Institute, and was run as a military 
 school in the boys' department. There were about 350 students that 
 year, 150 boys.t — Statement of Thomas B. Robertson, 1913, Eastville, Va. 
 
 * Henry A. Wise was a student at Margaret Academy about 1816. His biographer says: 
 "The boys who were sent at that time learned nothing but mischief, and to murder Greek and 
 Latin." Hambleton's Life of Wise, etc. Richmond, 1856, p. XII. 
 
 t Mr. Robertson's statement continues: "During the Civil War the school w.3s suspended 
 and the building used as barracks by the Federal army. These troops left it in a very bad 
 condition after the war, and there were no funds to rehabilitate it. In 1892 the Academy was 
 an abandoned and neglected structure standing out in an old deserted field. The trustees then 
 sold the property, and took the offer made by the town of Onancock, and there the Academy 
 was run successfully for several years, with 150 students part of the time. A few years ago 
 the Onancock Public High School took away most of its patronage, and the school has been 
 closed since. There are good buildings, and grounds of fourteen acres, still in the hands of the 
 trustees of Margaret Academy. The Board is a self-perpetuating body, seven members from 
 Northampton and seven from Accomae." 
 
 Further data as regards the earlier history of Margaret Academy have been published by 
 Barton H. Wise in his Life of Henry A. Wise (New York, Macmillan, 1899, pp. 16-17). From 
 
144 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, lY^e-lSBO 
 
 1808. FRANKLIN ACADEMY: NOTTOWAY COUNTY. 
 
 Franklin Academy, at Nottoway courthouse, 'on the land of Donald 
 Stuart,' was chartered in the year 1808. In the description, for 1834, 
 of Nottoway courthouse, given in Martin's Gazetteer, there is no men- 
 tion of an academy. In 1839 the Nottoway Academy, in the county of 
 Nottoway, was incorporated, the trustees to hold property not exceeding 
 twenty thousand dollars. Judge Branch Bpes was prepared for Hamp- 
 den-Sidney College at this academy, about 1849. 
 
 Hening, Statutes at Large, Supp. HI, 410. 
 Acts of Assembly, 1839, p. 126. 
 Men of Mark in Virginia, III, 122. 
 
 1808. LYNCHBIIEG SCHOOLS. 
 
 The Eev. William S. Eeid, a graduate of Princeton, 1802, removed 
 to Lynchburg, from Hampden-Sidney College in 1808. He at once 
 opened a school for boys. After a time he converted this into a school 
 for girls "which stood first among similar institutions in Virginia." Its 
 average attendance for many years was upwards of sixty. This school for 
 girls was active until about 1840.* 
 
 J. Burton Harrison entered Hampden-Sidney College in 11818, 
 graduating with first honor in 1821. "He owed his early maturity of 
 mind in large measure to the excellent private classical schools which it 
 was his good fortune to find established in Lynchburg.'* 
 
 About 1830 Church street, in Lynchburg, might very properly have 
 heen called 'School Street,' its schools being so numerous. One of these 
 
 an old minute book of the trustees it appears that during the first third of the nineteenth century 
 "the portion of each classick to be studied by each student" was as itemized below — 
 
 Cordery: 50 colloquies, 
 
 Erasmus : 4 colloquies. 
 
 Selectae e veteris: 1st part, and 2nd part, 15-20 pp. 
 
 Selectae e profanis: 3 books. 
 
 Caesar : 6 books. 
 
 Ovid: 1-4, and 13. [Metam:] 
 
 Sallust: all. 
 
 Vergil : Eclogues, Georgies, Aeneid 1-6. 
 
 Horace: all. 
 
 Cicero : Catiline. 
 
 4 Evangelists and Acts of the Apostles. 
 
 "No musical instruments to be suffered during hours of study — English 
 translations discouraged — students with the itch to be removed." 
 
 Accomac county had had its academy, in conjunction with Somerset county, Maryland, before 
 1790. "These counties had jointly contributed to build their first academy of learning (Wash- 
 ington Academy, near Princess Anne in Maryland). Land in Accomac was given for this purpose. 
 "When population so increased that Accomac could build her own academy (Margaret Academy 
 ■near Pungoteague in Virginia), the Legislature of Virginia authorized the Accomac land to be sold." 
 
 Report and Journal of the Proceedings of the Joint Commission- to Adjust the Boundary Line 
 of the States of Maryland and Virginia. Annapolis, 1874, p. 308. 
 
 As early as 1724 there was an endowed school in Accomac county. See Report to the Bishop 
 ■of London of William Black, Minister of the Parish of Accomako, on the Eastern Shore (in Perry: 
 American Colonial Church, I, 302) — "W« have a school endowed by one Mr. Sanford, late of 
 liondon: John Morogh, an Irish Man, is at present Master of it." ' 
 
 • In 1829 the Rev. Franklin Smith, a native of New England, established an excellent girls' 
 school in Lynchburg. He removed to Columbia, Tenn., in 1837. Sketches and Recollections of 
 Jjynchburg. Richmond, 1858, p. 180. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 145 
 
 institutions was kept by John Eeid, a younger brother of Dr. William S. 
 Eeid; he was remarkable for steady discipline: Mr. Eawson, a native of 
 New England, kept an excellent classical school for boys on Church 
 street. A school was always kept in the old Masonic hall of Lynchburg. 
 In the year 1832, one was established there by the Eev. F. G. Smith; 
 and in a few years he was succeeded by John Gary, who then as now 
 (1857)* exercised a powerful influence in this town. Mr. Cary had 
 great success in his profession, for one reason because he made it his 
 profession. In 1856, the Lynchburg College was chartered. This seems 
 to have been a military school at the opening of the Civil War. P. H. 
 Cabell was the professor of Greek at that time. 
 
 "In the year 182'8, a man of the name of Watson appeared in Lynch- 
 burg, with hand-bills and advertisements, affirming that in sixteen les- 
 sons he would give a thorough knowledge of the English grammar. This 
 personage was a spare, sedate looking man, his hair was ornamented with 
 a queue, and his dress composed entirely of light pea-green cloth. He was 
 the beau-ideal of one of the greatest humbugs that ever gladdened Lynch- 
 burg." 
 
 Many Quakers settled in Lynchburg during the early nineteenth 
 century. About the year 1819, Charles Fisher, an English Friend, was 
 the beloved instructor of all the children belonging to Quaker families 
 in Lynchburg and its vicinity. He was succeeded by K. B. Townley, who 
 continued to occupy his post as teacher for many years in Lynchburg. 
 
 Sprague, Annala of the American Pulpit. IV, 389. 
 
 Grigsby, Centennial Address, Hampden-Sidney College, Richmond, 1913, p. 31. 
 
 Harrison, The Harrisons of Skimino. Privately printed, 1910, p. 84. 
 
 Brown, The Cabells and Their Kin, Boston, 1895, p. 323. 
 
 Cabell, Sketches and Recollections of Lynchburg by the Oldest Inhabitant. 
 
 Richmond, 1868, pp. 152flf, 180, 27. 
 Meade, Old Churches and Families of. Virginia, II, 17. 
 
 1808. LEWisBUEG academy: geeenbeiee county. 
 
 A private school, taught by the Eev. Dr. John McBlhenney, first 
 suggested the idea of a school of high grade in Lewisburg. Dr. McEl- 
 henney was a native of South Carolina, and an alumnus of Washington 
 Academy, Eockbridge county. The school was incorporated in 1812. Dr. 
 McBlhenney was president of the Board of Trustees from 1812 to 1860, 
 and principal of the acedemy until 1834. The building was of brick, 
 substantially built, and is the same in use today (1893) as an institution 
 of learning. It was put up before 1812. There were seven assistant 
 
 * Westwood School, near Lynchburg, Va. — The fourth session of this school will begin on the 
 flrst Monday in September, and end on the last Friday of June, 1867. A recess of two weeks 
 will be given at Christmas. The terms are $200 for everything; payable one-half on the flrst of 
 September, the other half on the first of February. No reduction made for any cause except 
 protracted sickness. 
 
 The subjects taught are the Latin, Greek, French, and Spanish Languages, Mathematics, and 
 Civil Engineering, together with the usual branches of an English education. 
 
 In the plan and management of the School, it has been the subscriber's aim to combine the 
 advantages of Home Education with those of a well regulated academy. 
 
 For further information: apply to the subscriber at Lynchburg, Va. John H. Winston. 
 
 [Advertisement in Southern Planter, September 1857.] 
 
146 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 teachers before 1824 — The Eev. Alexander Curry, Launcelot G. Bell, 
 Eev. Francis Button, Rev. John Spotts, William Dalton ('an old field 
 school teacher'), William Graham, and Mr. Herron. The older pupils 
 were permitted to use the upper floor of the building as a study hall, and 
 sometimes had to be remanded below. Debates wre held in the upper 
 room, and occasionally a play was acted during Dr. McElhenney's time. 
 There is mention of "She Stoops to Conquer," being presented. Dr. Mc- 
 Elhenney had a controversy with the trustees on the subject of alumni 
 balls, February 33, and July 4. The board cited the example of Hamp- 
 den-Sidney and Washington Colleges. 
 
 Scholars from abroad flocked to the new academy ; three French boys 
 came all the way from Louisiana, one from South Carolina, and others 
 from the border States of Ohio and Pennsylvania. Francis Dutton was 
 from Massachusetts. Dr. Henry EufEner, president of Washington Col- 
 lege, Virginia, was a pupil at the academy. Girls* were not excluded 
 from the school. 
 
 The school was probably most popular and prosperous under Dr. 
 McElhenney, and later under the Eev. Thomas Brown,^' about 1845. E. 
 T. W. Duke was principal in 1848. 
 
 RecollecHojiS of the Rev. John McElhenney, D. D., By Rose W. Fry, Rich- 
 mond, 1893, chap. VII. 
 ^ Whitehill, Education in West Virginia, pp. 37-88. 
 
 1809. CAEOLINE academy: CAROLINE COUNTY. 
 
 The principal academies of Caroline county for the period, 1834, 
 to 1860, were the celebrated Concord Academy, and the Eappahannock 
 Academy. It is not certain, from any legislative enactment, that the 
 .Caroline Academy, incorporated in 1809, had an existence at all con- 
 spicuous.t In 1837 John G. Lawrence advertised in the Eichmond En- 
 quirer his South Garden School, situated in the upper part of Caroline 
 county. Samuel Schooler (brother-in-law of Lewis Minor Coleman, the 
 founder of Hanover Academy) had a school, preparatory to the Univer- 
 sity of Virginia at Guinney's depot, Caroline county, very near Concord 
 Academy. This school was active in 1857, and was known as the''"Bdge- 
 hill School." It is pretty certain that the establishments of Lawrence 
 and Schooler were of a high order. 
 
 Martin, Gazetteer of Virginia, p. 142. 
 
 Richmond Enquirer, Jan. 16, 1827. 
 
 Maury, Recollections of a Virginian, New York, 1894, p. 13. 
 
 Johnson, The University Memorial, pp. 315, 424. 
 
 Men of Mark in Virginia, V. 43. 
 
 ♦ In 1876 the academy with its beautiful lot was deederl by the trustees to the corporation 
 known as the Lewisburg Female Institute. 
 
 Whitehill, History of Education in West Virginia, p. 87. 
 
 t Lewisburg Academy received grants from the Literary Fund for a few years after 1840. 
 The following statements were made in the Reports of the Trustees to the Second Auditor— 
 1842-43. "112 to 115 scholars"; 1844-45: — "flourishing," the Rev. Thomas Brown succeeded 
 by Albert Pierson ; 1845-46 ; "61 boys, 29 girls ; we hope to have our academy not inferior 
 to any in the state ; a philsosophical and chemical and astronomical apparatus in use'." 
 
 J See note under Concord Academy, 1835. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 147 
 
 1810. BEKEYVIl.LE ACADEMY: FREDERICK COUNTY (lATEK CLARKE 
 
 county). 
 
 The trustees of this academy, incorporated in 1810, were in 1845 
 authorized to sell the land and buildings and reinvest the proceeds as 
 should seem best for the interest of the academy; the trustees first re- 
 ceiving from the subscribers a confirmation of the authority given by the 
 legislature. In 1856 the trustees were further authorized to sell the 
 property and transfer the proceeds to the county of Clarke, the interest 
 on the fund to be applied by the school commissioners to the education of 
 such indigent boy or boys as they might select. 
 
 The county of Clarke (formed in 1836) had other academies within 
 its territory : The White Post Academy, 1819 ; the Wickliffe Academy, 
 1826 (possibly the school mentioned by Martin as 'flourishing and under 
 the superintendence of the Eev. John Lodor') ; the Oak Grove Academy, 
 1835 (in 1847, 'property not to exceed $50,000') ; the Clarke Female 
 Seminar)', 1846; the White Post Male and Female Academy, 1853, its 
 building used also as a hall 'for the accommodation of the societies of 
 Odd Fellows, Masons and Sons of Temperance.' 
 
 (1) Berryville Academy — Acts of Assembly, 1844-45, p. 107. 
 
 Acts of Assembly, 1855-S6, p. 208. 
 Manual of Public Libraries in the U. S., kc. By William J. Rhees, of the 
 Smithsonian Institution. Philadelphia, 1859, p. 480. 
 
 (2) Clarke Co. Academies — Acts of Assembly, 1818-19, p. 134. 
 
 Acts of Assembly, 1825-26, p. 78. 
 Martin, Gazetteer of Virginia, p. 339. 
 Acts of Assembly, 1846-47, p. 111. 
 Acts of Assembly, 1852-53, p. 243. 
 
 1810. STAUNTON ACADEMY : AUGUSTA COUNTY. 
 
 Although the trustees of the Staunton Academy were incorporated 
 in 1792, their schoolhouse seems not to have been completed till about 
 1810. Judge Archibald Stuart gave the lot. A part of the funds em- 
 ployed was raised by general subscription in the county, and a part was 
 donated by the State, out Of the proceeds of sale of glebe lands. The 
 Masonic fraternity also had an interest in the building, occupying an 
 upper room as their hall.* In 1810 the principals of the academy were 
 James G. Waddell and Bartholomew Fuller. The former taught the 
 classics and the latter mathematics. Mr. Fuller was head master in 1817, 
 a man of much learning and of a plodding character. He prepared W. 
 M. Peytoii for college, sending him to Princeton in 1822. About 1830 
 the Eev. Joseph Smith was principal. 
 
 For nearly seventy years, — until the building was turned over to 
 
 * In 1848 there was chartered a "Masonic School of Virginia in Staunton." 
 
148 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 the trustees of the public free schools,* — a succession of teachers had 
 charge of the academy. In 1833, Littleton Wa^idell and William D. 
 Cooke became joint principals. The latter continued for a short time 
 only, but the former conducted the school for more than twenty years. 
 During most of that time the institution was highly prosperous, attract- 
 ing many pupils from abroad. 
 
 The report of the trustees for 1836, to the Second Auditor, shows 
 3 teachers and 55 scholars — and "all branches of a liberal education." 
 Report for 1838, 39 students, 12 studying the dead languages, 15 the 
 mathematics (excluding arithmetic) ; for 1843', 39 students, 10 months' 
 session, Littleton Waddell and J. J. Smith in charge. John Newton 
 Opie was a student at the "old academy school in Staunton, at the out- 
 break of the Civil War. He left school to enlist in the West Augusta 
 Guard." * 
 
 Jos. A. WaddeU, Annals of Augusta County^ Staunton, 1902, p. 384. 
 
 J. L. Peyton, Memoir of Wm. M. Peyton, London, 1873, p. 13. 
 
 Reports to the Second Auditor (.Journal and Documents, 1838-1844, Doc. No. 
 
 4 in each volume.) 
 Men of Mark in Virginia, IV, 319. 
 Memoir of John Bowe Peyton. Staunton, Va., 1894, pp. 25-27. 
 
 1812. POETSMOUTPI ACABEMT: NORFOLK COUNTY. ^ 
 
 Incorporated in 1813, this academy was re-incorporated in 1835, 
 with the stipulation that the overseers of the poor in the county of Nor- 
 folk should convey to the trustees any sum of money arising from the 
 sale of the glebe lands belonging to the parish of Portsmouth, in the 
 county of Norfolk, the trustees being authorized to obtain judgment 
 against the overseers upon failure to do so. 
 
 From this enactment it appears that the Portsmouth Academy was 
 already a sort of public school. In 1846, it became so wholly, being or- 
 dered sold, and the funds to be applied to the public free schools of the 
 town under the general act of 1846. 
 
 Acts of Assembly, 1824-25, p. 80. 
 Acts of Assembly, 1845-46, p. 115. 
 
 1812, MAETINSBURG ACADEMY: BERKELEY COUNTY. 
 
 John B. Hoge was principal of the Martinsburg Academy in 1813. 
 
 For the year 1834, Martin's Gazetteer assigns to Martinsburg "1 
 male and 1 female academy, 3 common schools, 4 well-organized Sunday 
 schools, a temperance, missionary, Bible and colonization society." The 
 
 • The Academy Trustees seem not to have assigned their charter. In 1898, the charter was 
 amended and re-enacted (Acts of Assembly, 1897-98, p. 276.) Pike Powers, M. A., (University 
 of Virginia), conducted a classical school near Staunton, the Eastwood School, for'a number of 
 years after 1844, "preparing students thoroughly for the highest classes in the University and 
 other colleges." cf. The University Memorial. Baltimore, 1871, pp. 435, 643 ■ Southern 
 Planter, XVII, No. 9, supp., p. 15. 
 
 For much information regarding the earlier schools of Augusta county, see Lyman Chalkley, 
 Records of Augusta County, published by the Daughters of the American Revolution. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 149 
 
 Martinsburg Academy had been incorporated in 1822. In 1839 N"orman 
 Miller was the principal. In 1840 the number of pupils was twenty. 
 
 MiUer and Maxwell, History of West Virginia and Her People. New York, 
 
 1913, p. 562. 
 Acts of Assembly, 1821-22, p. 65. 
 Martin, Gazetteer of Virginia, p. 327. 
 Journal and Documents, 1840-41, 1841-42, Doc. No. 4. 
 
 1813. EAPPAHANNOCK ACADEMY: CAROLINE COUNTY. 
 
 This academy was in existence in 1813. In 1834, Martin says of it: 
 "A flourishing and useful school a few years since, but we believe there 
 has been no teacher there for some time past. We now, however, see an 
 advertisement which states that the school will be opened on the 15th of 
 January, 1835, with teachers fully competent to teach all the branches of 
 education usually taught in our schools." The arms lately used by the 
 Port Eoyal Guards in the county of Caroline, were authorized to be 
 transferred to the trustees or principal of the Rappahannock Academy 
 in 1848. About this time the- principal was William Mahone, Virginia 
 Military Institute, 1847, later a general in the Confederate Army. In 
 1873, the trustees were authorized to sell the academy, and 264 3-4 acres 
 of land appurtenant, the proceeds to be turned over to the county school 
 board of Caroline county, to be by them applied to the use and benefit 
 of the public free schools of the county. 
 
 Martin's Gazetteer of Virginia, p. 143. 
 
 Acts of Assembly, 1847-48, p. 22. 
 
 Smith, The Virginia Military Institute, Lynchburg, 1912, p. 178. 
 
 Acts of Assembly, 1872-73, p. 61. 
 
 1814. HYGEIA academy: prince WILLIAil COUNTY. 
 
 Regarding this academy, an act was passed by the General Assembly 
 in 1822, authorizing sale — "Whereas it is represented to the General As- 
 sembly, that a number of individuals associated themselves in the pur- 
 chase of two and a half acres, and two perches of land with the buildings 
 thereon, situated in the county of Prince William, adjoining the town 
 of Haymarket, which was sold by virtue of an Act of Assembly, 1812, en- 
 titled 'An Act concerning the public property near Haymarket', the 
 object of the subscribers to which association was to convert the said 
 buildings into an academy, which was duly incorporated (1814), etc. ; that 
 in the purchase and repair of the buildings, and in changing them from 
 their original destination into such as were suited to a literary institu- 
 tion, considerable sums of money were expended, and large debts in- 
 curred; that from various adverse circumstances, the academy did not 
 succeed, and the buildings not having been used for the purpose of the 
 academy for six years, are rapidly sinking into decay, and with them the 
 only means of paying the debts of the institution." 
 
150 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 1815. MONONGALIA ACADEMY: MONONGALIA COUNTY (aT MOKGAN- 
 TOWN'). 
 
 This academy seems to have been in existence before its incorpora- 
 tion in 1815. At first it was doubtless a school for both sexes. By 1834 
 it had become an academy for girls, described in Martin's Gazetteer as 
 "one of the cheapest and best conducted seminaries of the kind in the 
 United States." In 1839 {Acts of Assembly, p. 124) its property passed 
 to the Morgantown Female Academy. Its funds were considerable, sev- 
 eral lotteries having been authorized for its benefit. The building was of 
 brick, 70x40, two and a half stories high. The institution became in 
 1859 the Morgantown Female Collegiate Institute. It was at that time 
 one of the best established schools in Western Virginia. In 1867 the 
 property was given over to the State of West Virginia, on condition that 
 the State University should be placed at Morgantown. 
 
 Martin's Gazetteer of Virginia, p. 391. 
 
 cf. Whitehill, Education in West Virginia, pp. 102-104. 
 
 1815. MECKLENBURG ACADEMIES : MECKLENBURG COUNTY. 
 
 The Pleasant Grove Academy of Mecklenburg county was incor- 
 porated in 1815. Christiansville (now Chase City) in Mecklenburg 
 county, (a settlement made by English Wesleyans in the eighteenth cen- 
 tury and recruited later), had its academy by charter in 1832. The 
 trustees of the Male and Female Academies of Clarksville were incor- 
 porated in 1821 ; those of the Clarksville Female Academy in 1836 ; and 
 in 1839, the trustees of the Eoanoke Classical and Scientific Institute of 
 Mecklenburg county, 'for the purpose of establishing male and female " 
 seminaries in the town of Clarksville.' 
 
 Of Mecklenburg county in 1834, Martin's Gazetteer has this to say : 
 "At Christiansville, 1 incorporated academy, and 1 common school; at 
 Clarksville, 1 academy; at Boydton a female academy which 
 deservedly ranks high as a boarding school for young ladies ; 2' other very 
 respectable boarding schools for young ladies in the county. But the 
 general plan of education in this county is the old-fashioned mode of 
 building a little log house in each neighborhood, where there are as many 
 scholars to be had as will employ a teacher, at about $100 or $150, and 
 the price which is generally paid for tuition, is from $7 to $10 for each 
 pupil, for the scholastic year of from 10 to 11 months. The number of 
 common schools in the county is 62, and the average number of pupils to 
 each is 16 — making 990 pupils in the common schools; — there are 64 
 in the young ladies' boarding schools, 66 in the Randolph-Macon Pre- 
 paratory School, and 87 in the college, making the whole number of 
 students in the county 1,207." 
 
 In the adjoining county of Lunenburg, the minister of Cumberland 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 151 
 
 parish for a good many years before 1815, was the Eev. Dr. John Cam- 
 eron, who had been educated at King's College, Aberdeen. "In Lunen- 
 burg county he was obliged to resort to school-keeping, for which by his 
 scholarship he was eminently fitted. He was made a Doctor of Divinity 
 by William and Mary College. If for his strictness he was even then 
 complained of how would such a school as his be now endured by either 
 parents or children ? But he made fine scholars." After the Revolution 
 the Eev. George Micklejohn was minister of the parish of St. James, 
 Mecklenburg county. The war being over, he refused to teach boys 
 again, saying "he would have nothing to do with their little American 
 Democrats; it was hard enough to manage them before the Eevolution, 
 and now it would be impossible." Meade, Old Churches and Families of 
 Virginia, Philadelphia, 1857, 1, 185, 188. 
 
 Acts of Assembly, 1820-21, p. 111. 
 Acts of Assembly, 1821-22, p. 58. 
 Acts of Assembly, 1839, p. 130. 
 Martin, Gazetteer of Virginia, pp. 232-235. 
 
 cf. Memoir of John William Draper. By Geo. F. Barker. (Read before the 
 National Academy, April 21, 1886.) p. 4. 
 
 1817. NEWMARKET ACADEJIY : SHEXAXDOAH COUXTY. 
 
 Apparently this academy was proposed as early as 1806. It was 
 incorporated in 1817. In 1831 its plant was a large and commodious 
 brick building, 'in which were taught all the branches of liberal and 
 polite education.' About 1840 the building was Imrnt (Acts of As- 
 sembly, 1841-42, p. 94). In 1844 the trustees reported to the Lit- 
 erary Fund (haying received aid from the fund ) , that the number of 
 pupils averaged about 60, and that Latin, Greek, French, (ienmetry. 
 Trigonometry, Astronomy and Calculus were among the subjects 
 taught. Joseph Salyards, the famous teacher and poet of the Shen- 
 andoah Valley, was principal, 184.5-.i5. In 1870 the charter was 
 amended and the academy became the Newmarket Polytechnic Institute. 
 
 Martin's Gazetteer of Virtiiifia, p. 451, 
 Journal and Documents, 1841-45. 
 
 cf. Wavland, German Element of the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia. Char- 
 lottesviUe, 1907, p. 156. 
 
 1817. PITTSYLTAXIA ACADEMY': PITTSYLVAXIA COUXTY (at DAXVII.LE). 
 
 The trustees of this academy were authorized in 1826 to raise $10,- 
 000 by way of lottery, — ''Whereas it has been represented to the General 
 Assembly that the inhabitants of Danville and adjacent country, im- 
 pressed with the importance of having a school among them, combining 
 classical instruction ivith the useful branches of general education, under- 
 took to found an academy, the trustees of which were incorporated by an 
 act passed February the eighth, one thousand eight hundred and seven- 
 teen; but that their funds, raised entirely by individual munificence, 
 
152 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 have been effectual only so far as to erect a small and unfinished house, 
 and to put the school in partial operation ; that the establishment was de- 
 signed for male instruction only, while females have been left almost 
 without education; or, as an alternative, have been sent to distant semi- 
 naries, exposed, remote from their parents and friends, to all the casual- 
 ties incident to tender years ; to enable them to enlarge and complete the 
 present building ; to procure books and apparatus, and to found a female 
 department, the trustees desire to be authorized, etc." 
 A Danville Academy was active in 1855. 
 
 Acts of Assembly, 1825-26, p. 77. 
 
 Brown, The Cabells and Their Kin. Boston, 1895, p. 476. 
 
 1818. EOMNET academy: HAMPSHIRE COUNTY. 
 
 In the year 1839, a new board of trustees was incorporated for this 
 academy, "in place of such trustees named in the act of incorporation, 
 passed February the eleventh, eighteen hundred and eighteen,* as have 
 died or removed out of the Commonwealth." It was enacted by the Gen- 
 eral Assembly in 1844, that the Literary Society of Eomney should have 
 authority to transfer to the trustees of the Eomney Academy any part of 
 such sums as the said society might have received, or- afterwards receive, 
 from a lottery authorized for the benefit of the Literary Society in the 
 year 1832. The existent Potomac Academy at Eomney, was founded in 
 1851 by "William Henry Foote, author of the invaluable Shetches of Vir- 
 ginia. 
 
 Acts of Assembly, 1817-18, p. 148. 
 
 Acts of Assembly, 1839, p. 131. 
 
 Acts of Assembly, 1843-44, p. 83. 
 
 Rhees, Manual of Public Libraries, Philadelphia, 1859, p. 490. 
 
 Catalogue of Potomac Academy, 1897. 
 
 1818. NEWINGTON academy: GLOUCESTER COUNTY. 
 
 Incorporated in 1818, this academy was known to Martin in 1834, 
 and was in operation in 1859. The first building was burned in 1838. 
 It was situated at Gloucester courthouse. 
 
 Acts of Assembly, 1817-18, p. 151. 
 
 Martin, Gazetteer of Virginia, p. 179. 
 
 Men of Mark in Virginia, V. 238. 
 
 Report, Supt, of Public Instruction, Va., 1885, II, 78. 
 
 1818. NORTHUMBERLAND ACADEMY: NORTHUMBERLAND COUNTY. 
 
 Eeceiving its charter in the year 1818, Northumberland Academy 
 was for a good many years a sort of public school ; its endowment arising 
 from the glebe lands of the county, the fund from the sale of which hav- 
 ing been before 1818 lodged with the agent of the overseers of the poor 
 
 , * In this year was charterer! Mercer Academy of Mercer county, an institution said to have 
 been "very important for the preat Kanawha Valley." Miller and Maxwell, History of West Vir- 
 ginia, &c. New York, 1913, I, 562. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 153 
 
 ■of the county. The public character of ISTorthumberland Academy was 
 marked enough to require the taking of a poll in 1848 on the question 
 of the repeal of the charter {Acts of Assembly, 1847-48, p. S67). 
 
 Subsidized for a few years from the Literary Fund, this academy 
 filed several reports with the Second Auditor. In 1839 it was stated: 
 ''Notwithstanding the number of private schools in this and the ad- 
 jacent counties, the academy has had, the past session, fifty students. 
 It is believed that the expenses are less than for any similar institution in 
 the State; 3 reading Greek, 13 Latin, 8 F'rench, 8 Mathematics, 8 Xatural 
 Philosophy, etc. ; small boys at usual tasks." The report for 1841 says, 
 "the trustees are persuaded that the citizens of the surrounding country 
 will give this institution the preference over private schools, seeing the 
 decided advantages which are to be- derived from the excellent library." 
 The session was a ten months' session then, and the number of pupils 
 around 50. The next year the statement was made that Northumberland 
 Academy was the "best in the Northern Neck." December 12, 1842, 
 Lucien C. Boynton, "a gentleman fully qualified," was president. A few 
 years later Professor Peter McViccar, late of Hampden-Sidney College, 
 was in charge. 
 
 The vote taken in 1848, or authorized to be taken, was apparently 
 against keeping the charter. In 1853, an act was passed authorizing the 
 sale of Northumberland Academy; the funds thus arising to be invested 
 by the Board of School Commissioners of the county, and the interest ap- 
 plied annually to the purposes of education in the county, under the act 
 of 1846 for a system of primary and free schools. 
 
 Acts of Assembly, 1817-1818, po. 147-148. 
 
 Journal and Documents, 1839, 1841-42, 1842-43, Doc. No. 4 in each volume. 
 
 Acts of Assembly, 1847-48, p. 267. 
 
 Acts of Assembly, 1852-53, p. 240. 
 
 1819. wiNFiELD academy: dinwiddie county. 
 
 This academy by its charter, 1819, was authorized to hold property 
 in value not exceeding $5,000. The institution was active in 1844. Jn 
 1853 the Second Auditor was authorized to sell the academy and pay ver 
 the proceeds to the Superintendent of Schools in the county of Din- 
 widdle. 
 
 Acts of Assembly, 1818-19, p. 136. 
 Acts of Assembly, 1844-45, p. 25. 
 Acts of Assfjnbly, 1852-53, p. 213. 
 
 1820. BOTDTON academy: mecklexbueg corxTY. 
 
 The trustees of the Boydtown Male and Female Academy were in- 
 corporated in 1820. About this time the Eev. Stephen Taylor, Williams 
 College, 1816, was principal. This institution doubtless had no con- 
 nection with Eandolph-ilacon College, but the establishment of that 
 college ten years later at Boydton (where it remained until 1868) makes 
 
lf>4 The Beginnings of Pvhlic Educaiion in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 it pretty certain that there was a school of the academy type at Boyvlton 
 for forty years before 1860. 
 
 In the Eandolph-Macon College catalogue for 1857 the statement 
 is made : "In the preparatory school there is a principal and assistant, 
 or assistants, as the number of students may require ; and the studies are 
 such as to present the same facilities for improvement presented by other 
 high schools, and at the same time prepare the student thoroughly for 
 his college course." The course of studies in this school for 1856, was: — 
 
 "First Book in Latin — McClintock & Crook. 
 Second Book in Latin — McClintock & Crook. 
 Caesar's Commentaries (six books) — Schmitz & Zumpt. 
 Virgil (six books of the Aeneid) — Schmitz & Zumpt. 
 First Book in Greek — McClintock & Crook. 
 Second Book in Greek — McClintock & Crook. 
 Xenophon's Anabasis — Owen. 
 Arithmetic — Eay. 
 English Grammar — Smith. 
 Modern Geography — Mitchell. 
 
 It is recommended to students preparing for college, to supply them- 
 selves with Freund's, Leverett's or Andrews' Latin Lexicon, Liddell a\ d 
 Scott's Greek Lexicon, Smith's Dictionary of Antiquities, Smith's Clas- 
 sical Dictionary, Zumpt's Latin Grammar and Kuhner's Greek Gram- 
 mar (College Edition)." 
 
 In 1856 the principal of this school was Charles W. Crawley, a 
 graduate of Hampden-Sidney College. Before 1850, Williams Thomas 
 Davis was the principal, later president of the Southern Female Coll ^^e 
 of Petersburg. 
 
 Acts of Assembly, 1819-20, p. 81. 
 
 Catalogue of Randolph-Macon College, 1856-57. 
 
 Men of Mark in Virginia, IV, 87. 
 
 cf. Adams, Thomas Jefferson and the University of Virginia, chap. XVII. 
 
 1822. STRASBUEG ACADEMY : SHENANDOAH COUNTY. 
 
 "It has been represented to the General Assembly, that certain real 
 estate in and adjoining the town of Strasburg, in the county of Shenan- 
 doah, with the ground rents accruing thereon, were devised 1)y the late 
 Christian Stover (of Peter), to the use of a sen^nary of learning to lie 
 kept thereon." Therefore it was enacted by the General Assembly, Jan- 
 uary 9, 1823, that the three trustees for Christian Stover's property, ap- 
 pointed by the county court, should be the trustees of the Strasburg 
 Academy. 
 
 In 1834 this academy was described by Martin as "a handsome 
 building with a valuable lot of land attached, on which has been erected 
 out of the income an excellent house as a residence for the principal.'' The 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 155 
 
 three Shenandoah county academies, Strasburg, Woodstock, and New- 
 market were in 1840 granted any surplus from the Literary Fund in the 
 hands of the school commissioners of the county. The reports filed in 
 consequence by Strasburg Avademy are not specific. In 1873 the trus- 
 tees of the Stover Fund were authorized to sell all of the property, less 
 one and one quarter acres, and to apply the proceeds for the betterment 
 of the remainder, or 'in well secured loans as they may deem best cal- 
 culated to carry out the purposes of the devisor.' 
 
 Acts of Assembly, 1821-22, p. 57. 
 Martin's Gazetteer of Virginia, p. 450. 
 Acts of Assembly, 1872-73, p. 51. 
 
 1826. 
 
 ROCKINGHAM ACADEMY : KOCKINGHAM COUXTY. 
 
 Possibly the year of its incorporation, (the charter providing that 
 this academy shall in all things and at all times be subject to the con- 
 trol of the Legislature), certainly the next year, the Eockingham Acad- 
 emy was put in operation, and has continued to the present time, with 
 occasional brief interruptions. The site of the school is on the east side 
 of the Little Shenandoah river, near the Shenandoah county line. The 
 name 'Eockingham Academy' has long been out of use, and the place i'^ 
 now called 'The Plains.' The original building was a log house, with a 
 single room 33x2'8 feet. This structure was removed in 1857, and the 
 present building put up — a double, one-story house, one part of wliich 
 is used for the school, the other as a church. Xever at any time have the 
 courses of study been more than partly devoted to advanced work. 
 
 The original trustees were members of the Primitive Baptists nnd 
 the Bunker denominations, and their descendants still hold the propeviy. 
 
 Wayland, The German Element of the Shenandoah Valleri* CharlottesviUe, 1907, 
 p. 158. 
 
 1826. SALEM academy: eoaxoke corxTY (foemed in 1838 feom 
 
 BOTETOURT COUNTY). 
 
 A lottery was authorized in the year 1836, $50,000, a part of the 
 amount raised to go to the building of an academy in the town of Saiem, 
 other moneys to be subscribed. Martin's Gazetteer lists for the town 
 of Salem in 183-t two female schools and one male school. The Salc:n 
 Academy was incorporated in 1837, not to hold property beyond the sum 
 of $20,000. In their reports to the Second Auditor, 1841-42, and 
 1842-43, the trustees stated that the number of pupils was from forty 
 to seventy, both boys and girls, AV. G. Williams, A. M., and wife in 
 charge. In 1854 the Salem Male Academy was incorporated, the prop- 
 
 * cf. Wayland, Ilistory of Rockinphom Count)/, p. 2S3ff: — 
 
 From about the year 1825 through the civil war, Joseph Funk's school at Mountain Valley, 
 in Rockingham county, was very successful. 'A number of young men were in attendance from 
 v.irious parts of the country.' In 1859 this school, among other things, engaged to teach the 
 art" of teaching music. 
 
156 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 erty of the institution vested in nine trustees, and deemed personal es- 
 tate. Eoanoke College, at Salem, had been chartered in 1853, an in- 
 stitution growing out of the Virginia Collegiate Institute, incorporated 
 in 1845. 
 
 Act3 of Assembly, 1825-26, p. 76. 
 
 Martin, Gazetteer of Virginia, p. 330. 
 
 Acts of Assembly, 1836-37, p. 171. 
 
 Journal and Documents, 1841-42, 1842-43, Doc. No. 4. 
 
 Acts of Assembly, 1853-54, p. 70. 
 
 Acts of Assembly, 1852-53, p. 238. 
 
 Acts of Assembly, 1844-45, p. 104. 
 
 1827. NEW BALTIMOEE ACADEMY : FAUQUIER COUNTY. 
 
 Martin, in his invaluable Gazetteer, speaks of this academy: '-'A 
 flourishing academy in high estimation." This academy was incorpo- 
 rated in 1827. From 1835 to 1855 the Eev. John Ogilvie was the prin- 
 cipal. 
 
 Martin, Gazetteer of Virginia, p. 173. 
 
 Acts of Assembly, 1826-27, p. 99. 
 
 Statement of A. R. Bartenstein, 1913, Deputy Clerk Fauquier Circuit Court. 
 
 1827. VFHEELING ACADEMY. 
 
 Of Wheeling, Martin says (to be referred to the year 1834) : "There 
 are a number of very excellent institutions here. 1st. The Wheeling 
 institute, contains 4 departments, viz: infant — ^primary — classical, and 
 female — under the superintendence of six teachers; 150 to 160 pupils. 
 2nd. The Wheeling Lancasterian Academy.* 3rd. The Wheeling 
 Classical Academy. 4th. The Wheeling Female Seminary. 5th. The 
 Wheeling University, not yet organized (chartered in 1831), an^l nine 
 common English preparatory schools." (Population in 1830, S.^SS : es- 
 timate for 1834, 8,000.) 
 
 Martin's Gazetteer of Virginia, p. 406, 
 1829. SMITHFIELD ACADEMY : ISLE OF WIGHT COUNTY. 
 
 Of Smithfield, Martin says in 1834: "A male and a female academy, 
 in which are taught all the branches of polite education, 4 other schools 
 containing generally 150 pupils jointly, children being sent here to school 
 from the surrounding country, and some from great distances, in conse- 
 quence of the healthiness of the place." This academy, a brick building 
 of two large rooms, one upstairs and the other down, was incorporated 
 in 1829, and kept in constant and successful operation until 1861. From 
 1872 to 1906 Smithfield Academy was used and occupied as a public 
 school. The school board then bought the Smithfield Male and Female 
 Institute, and since 1906 the academy has been vacant and unoccupied. 
 
 Martin, Gazetteer of Virginia, p. 197. 
 
 Statement of Major R. S. Thomas, February, 1913. 
 
 * On the foundation of Noah Linsly, a native of Connecticut ; chartered in 1815. In operation, 
 with different methods, in 1902. In 1856 Messrs. Willis and Hehry Harding established an 
 excellent classical school in Wheeling, which was closed by the Civil War. — ^Whitehill, Education 
 in West Virginia, pp. 80-83 ; p. 90. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 157 
 
 1829. chesterfieXjD academy: chesterfield county. 
 
 As early as 1809 there was a Manchester Academy, at Manchester, 
 in the county of Chesterfield. The Eev. John Kirkpatrick, a graduate 
 or Hampden-Sidney College, was in charge of a classical school at Man- 
 chester from 1815 to 1819. During this period Mr. Kirkpatrick also 
 made experiments, with success, in the teaching of deaf mutes. In 1829 
 the Chesterfield Academy was incorporated, "William S. Archer (late TJ. 
 S. Senator) being one of the trustees. In 1852 the Clover Hill Acad- 
 emy, Chesterfield county, was granted, incorporation. Dr. E. B. Win- 
 free had a school in this county in 1855. 
 
 Chesterfield county had an endowed free school for forty years after 
 1818, under the will of Margaret Faulkner, who had bequeathed for the 
 purpose all of her lands and some personal estate. This school was 
 called "The Faulkner School." 
 
 Spragrue, Annals of the American Pulpit, IV, 510. 
 
 White, William S. White and His Times, Richmond, 1891, p. 2fi. 
 
 Acts of Assembly, 1828-29, p. 122. 
 
 Acts of Assembly, 1817-18, p. 152. 
 
 Men of Mark in Virffinidi, III, 22. 
 
 1831. KESWICK school: albemaele county. 
 
 The following note, regarding schools in the Keswick (formerly 
 Turkey Hill) -neighborhood, is all the more interesting from its per- 
 sonalities, and gives every evidence of being authentic, although tlie 
 source is not indicated. It is printed at pp. 132-145, Genealogy of the 
 Page family in Virginia. By Dr. E. C. M. Page, Xew York, 1893 : 
 
 "Eegarding the present Keswick school, in former years there was a 
 school here, or' in the neighborhood, for teaching the children of the 
 various families, as follows : 
 
 1831-32. William W. Hawkins taught for a short time at the old 
 Bentivoglio Tavern, which was kept at that time by Mr. Joseph Camp- 
 bell. The school was then removed to a log house in the woods near by, 
 called the Tick Hill Academy. Among the pupils were Frank W. Page, 
 Carter H. Page, James Parish and John T. Parish, twin brothers; 
 Eeuben Gordon, William F. Gordon, Jr., Lewis Miller, and others. Mr. 
 John T. Parish died in New York a few years ago, a millionaire. 
 
 The old Bentivoglio Tavern, called old Benti for short, stood on 
 tlie South side of the public road about a quarter of a mile East of the 
 mouth of the Turkey Sag. The latter is the name of the public road that 
 runs Northwest over the mountains, along Peather-Bed Lane, across 
 Turkey Eun, and through Turkey Gap. The tavern was originally built 
 by Hon. Francis Walker of Castle Hill for the accommodation of travel- 
 ers in those days. It has long since gone to ruin and nothing but a de- 
 pression in the ground now remains to mark the original site. The post- 
 office at Lindsay's turnout on the railway, some two miles distant, is 
 
158 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 known as Bentivoglio. This and other beautiful Italian names for places 
 in the neighborhood, such as Modena and Monticello, were doubtless 
 given by Italian laborers imported in early times by Thomas Jefferson 
 for the purpose of introducting grape culture. [It is more likely that 
 Mr. Jefferson was directly responsible for the name Monticello at least.] 
 1833-33. Mr. Crawford taught at the same place with the same 
 scholars. Crawford was an exhorter in the Baptist Church, and used the 
 hickory freely. The boys were much afraid of him. Sometimes he 
 would be absent the whole day preaching, and the boys would be afraid to 
 go home. In the evening he would return, and the whole school, drawn up 
 in a line in the public road, would be put through a course of spelling. 
 
 1833-34. James L. Gordon taught at Edgeworth, the residence of 
 his father, with much the same scholars. 
 
 1834-35. William W. Hawkins rented the Bentivoglio Tavern and 
 taught school again. Mr. Campbell having left, the scholars were nearly 
 the same. 
 
 1835-36. Mt. Provost, a graduate of Princeton, taught at Castle 
 Hill, the residence of Hon. William C. Eives. There were a limited num- 
 ber of pupils, among whom were Prank W. Page, Carter H. Page, Fred- 
 erick W. Page, Francis E. Eives, and William C. Eives, Jr. Provost was 
 one of the best teachers. He also courted all the marriageable girls in the 
 neighborhood. [Mr. Provost seems to have been a capable man all round, 
 cf. Life of William Fitzhugli Gordon, by Armistead C. Gordon, New 
 York and Washington, 1909, p. 59.] 
 
 1836-37. Edwin Hall, of Maine, a pupil of the poet Longfellow and 
 a graduate of Bowdoin, taught at Bentivoglio. Among the pupils were 
 Prank W. Page, Carter H. Page, Frederick W. Page, Eeuben Gordon, 
 William Gordon, Henry Michie, Johnson Michie, and Lewis Miller. 
 
 1837-38. Giles Waldo, a graduate of Yale, taught at Bentivoglio. 
 The scholars were the same, with the addition of William Anderson and 
 Eichard Anderson, of Eichmond, Va., as boarders. 
 
 1838-39. Mr. Janes, of Burlington, Vermont, taught at Benti- 
 voglio, and among the scholars were Eobert W. Nelson, W. Douglas 
 Meriwether, William C. Eives, Jr., Lewis Miller, William Lewis (col- 
 onel), and brothers William, Eichard, and Jack Anderson, and Carter 
 and Frederick Page. 
 
 1839-40. Jacob Belville, of Princeton, taught at Bentivoglio, with 
 the same scholars, except E. W. Nelson, and William and Eichard An- 
 derson. 
 
 1840-41-42. James Chisholm, of Harvard, taught at Keswick, in 
 the old schoolhouse down in the lot. Among the scholars were Frederick 
 W. Page, Mann Page, Jr., Wilmer Page, Lindsay Walker, George and 
 Charles Gordon, twin brothers ; Alexander Gordon and Alfred Eives. 
 
 1842-43. Thomas W. Cattell, of New Jersey, graduate of Prince- 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 159 
 
 ton. He taught at the same place, and the scholars were Frederick, Mann, 
 Wilmer and Thomas Page; George, Charles, Churchill and Alexander 
 Gordon, and William C. Cattell. [This was no doubt Dr. William C. Cat- 
 tell, president Lafayette College and father of James McKeen Cattell. 
 In 1849, after graduating at Princeton, Dr. William C. Cattell spent a 
 year himself teaching in Virginia.] 
 
 1843-44. George JefEery, of Cambridge, England, taught at the 
 same place with the same scholars, except Frederick W. Page. It was 
 about this time that F. W. Meerbach, a famous German pianist, gave 
 music lessons to young ladies in the neighborhood. Mr. JefEery was a 
 very eccentric man, and the two had a quarrel, resulting in Mr. Jef- 
 fery's going next session to Edgeworth. 
 
 1844-45. George Jeffery taught at Edgeworth, the residence of Gen. 
 William P. Gordon. The same boys, except William C. Cattell. 
 
 1845-46. Mr. Taylor, a Princeton man, taught at Edgeworth, with 
 ■the same scholars. 
 
 1846-47-48. Frederick W. Page [Univ. of Va., and very much later, 
 Librarian, Univ. of Va.] taught at Keswick, in the old schoolhouse in the 
 lot. The scholars were Frank Hopkins, Churchill and Alexander Gordon, 
 Mann, Wilmer, Thomas and Channing Page. The latter wore a check 
 ■apron, much to his annoyance. 
 
 1848-49. Calvin S. Maupin, of North Carolina, taught at Edge- 
 worth, with the same boys except Channing Page, who was too young to 
 wallc there. Mr. Maupin was not a very literary man, nor did he much 
 «nJoy conversation at meals, being usually blessed with a ravenous ap- 
 petite. Thus while General Gordon was telling some anecdote about 
 President Jackson, when he was a member of Congress, Mr. Maupin in- 
 terrupted him in the middle, at the most interesting part, by remarking, 
 "General, you got my bread." 
 
 1849-50. Mann Page taught at Keswick. The scholars were 
 Churchill, Alexander and Mason Gordon; Henry Lewis; and Wilmer, 
 Thomas and Channing Page. 
 
 1850-51. Dabney C. T. Davis taught at Keswick. He was a grad- 
 uate of the University of Vriginia. The scholars, in addition to those 
 mentioned next above, were John and Hugh Nelson, t^win brothers and 
 iDoarders at Keswick ; and John and Rice McGhee, also twin brothers. 
 
 1851-53. Samuel S. Carr, of the University of Virginia, taught 
 at Keswick. Lewis McGhee, brother of John and Eice, was a scholar this 
 year. The McGhees came from Bedford county, and boarded at Logan, 
 the residence of Captain M. Lewis Walker. 
 
 After that there were so few boys left in the neighborhood, that there 
 was no occasion for a school. It was not until within a few years past 
 that the present (1893) Keswick school, James M. Page, headmaster, was 
 «stablished." 
 
160 The Beqiiinhigs of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 This is a valuable record. Showing among other things the conditions- 
 of such schooling at the time the University of Virginia was established, 
 and how the University supplied the demand more and more. 
 
 1832. AMELIA academy: AMELIA COUNTY. 
 
 The Southern Planter for May 1856, contains this advertisement: 
 "Amelia Academy. The 34th Session of this Institution will open on 
 October 1, 1856, and close August 1, 1857. Terms per session of 10' 
 months. Board and tuition, $200; $100 payable October 1st, and the 
 other $100 March 1st. The course of studies is preparatory for the 
 University of Virginia, and the text-books generally the same. The 
 principal treats his pupils as members of his family, and aims at their 
 improvement in all respects. For further particulars, see catalogue of 
 Amelia Academy for 1856. Direct Lodore P. 0., Amelia. Wm. H. 
 Harrison."* 
 
 In 1840 the Washington Academy of Amelia was incorporated. A 
 school of that name was in existence in 1873, (cf. Men of Marie in Vir- 
 ginia, V, 413,) Dec. 26, 1800, a college was chartered, to be called Jef- 
 ferson College, in the county of Amelia. The trustees were authorized te 
 take action at law against subscribers failing to pay, but doubtless this- 
 Jefferson College never had being. 
 
 Southern Planter, May, 1856, supp. p. 6. 
 Acts of Assembly, 1839-40, p. 102, 
 Hening, Statutes at Large, Supp. II, 259. 
 
 1832. VIRGINIA BAPTIST SEMINARY. 
 
 This institution grew out of the Virginia Baptist Education So- 
 ciety, organized in 1830 for the education of candidates for the ministry 
 of the Baptist Church. In 1832 the society bought a small tract of land* 
 near Eichmond, and opened a manual labor school, with the Eev. Eobert 
 Eyland as teacher. The school was called the Virginia Baptist Seminary. 
 There were fourteen students the first year. During the second session, 
 which began in February, 1833, the number of students was twenty- 
 six. The course of studies was, 'arithmetic, geography, grammar, alge- 
 bra, geometry, Latin and Greek, natural and moral science, with the- 
 ology :^ an optional study.' This seminary was incorporated as Eich- 
 mond College in 1840,^ having been removed in 1833 to the site at pres- 
 ent occupied by Eichmond College. 
 
 The manual labor feattire of the Virginia Baptist Seminary was, at 
 
 • cf. Southern Planter, Sept. 1857-Siippl. p. 3 — "University of Virginia, June 23 1857. 
 We believe the Amelia Academy, under the management of Mr. W. H. Harrison, one of the best- 
 preparatory schools m Virginia. Gessner Harrison, John "B. Minor, James L. CabeU, S. Maupin, 
 Jas. P. Holcombe." 
 
 About 1825 the Hon. William B. Giles had a classical school at his home, called "Wisrwam "' 
 in Amelia county. See letter of Thomas .Jefferson to Giles, Dec. 25, 1826. ' 
 
 t The institution was not formally turned over to the Trustees of Richmond College until 
 January 1st, 1843. At that time there were three teachers, at salaries of $900, $600, and $500_ 
 
The Beginnings of Puhlic Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 161 
 
 the first, emphasized, but gradually 'faded from view' and was virtually 
 gone in 1841. 
 
 During the ten years of the existence of the seminary the number of 
 pupils rose to more than seventy per annum. The corps of instructors 
 consisted of Dr. Eyland and two tutors. Among the assistants were Wil- 
 liam F. ISTelson, F. W. Berryman, Caleb Burnley, E. A. Claybrook, Elias 
 Dodson, I. G. Barker, J. C. Clopton, S. C. Clopton, George Struve, and 
 Charles L. Cocke (later president of Hollins Institute). In 1848 the 
 trustees of Eichmond College declared : "The trustees are determined to 
 avoid pecuniary embarrassment, and they propose to conduct the college 
 classes only so far as their resources may Justify, taking care to have the 
 students thoroughly taught as far as they shall go. It is not their pur- 
 pose to confer degrees till they shall have afforded facilities equal to 
 those of other chartered institutions." The first award of the degree of 
 Bachelor of Arts was made in the year 1849. As early as 1793 the Bap- 
 tists of Virginia had proposed to found a seminary of learning. 
 
 Adams, Thomas Jefferson and the University of Virginia, (U. S. Bureau of 
 
 Education), pp. 271-274. 
 Semple, Rise and Progress of the Baptists in Virginia. Edited by G. W. Beale, 
 
 Eichmond, 1894, p. 113. 
 
 1834. WASHINGTON* ACADEMY t AVESTIMOEELAXD COUNTY. 
 
 Incorporated in 1834, in 1836 and 1837 the principal was H. J. 
 Foster, A. M. In his report to the Second Auditor for 1841, Henry 
 Taylor, President of the Board of Trustees (Lawrence Washington, 
 Secretary), said: "It is the desire of the trustees to render this acad- 
 emy useful as a normal school, and they regret that its very limited means 
 heretofore have prevented the carrying out their wishes to their full ex- 
 tent." In 1843 there were fifteen pupils. 
 
 Journal and Documents, 1838, 1839, 1842, 1843, Doc. No. 4 in each volume. 
 
 1835. CONCORD academy: Caroline county. 
 
 Concord Academy was Frederick Coleman. He came to the school in 
 1835, immediately after his graduation as a Master of Arts at the Uni- 
 
 * It is quite possible that this Washington Academy was the outcome, after a hundred years, 
 of the glebe school of 1724, in Washington Parish, Westmoreland county. The minister of the 
 parish, Lawrence De Butts, in his report to the Bishop of London, dated July 1st, 1724, said in 
 answer to the Query, Have you in your Parish any public school for the instruction of youth? 
 If you have, is it endowed? and who is the master? "The gentleman who bequeathed my glebe 
 to the parish left the whole tract* (containing 440 acres), to be disposed of by the Vestry for the 
 better maintenance of a minister and schoolmaster, the Vestry made no division of the land, 
 but gave it entirely to me as a glebe, with this proviso, that I provide a sufficient person to 
 instruct the youth in reading, writing and arithmetic under my inspection, which condition I 
 have complied with." 
 
 See Queries to he answered by every Minister, in "Historical Collections relating to the 
 American Colonial Church." Edited by William Stevens Perry, D. D., [Volume I, VirglniaJ, 
 p. 292. 
 
 How interesting to trace, as might at times be done, the passage of glebe lands to Acad- 
 emies, of Academies to High Schools. That is to say, several of our High Schools descend direct 
 from ancient glebes. 
 
163 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 versity of Virginia. His brother, Atwell Coleman, was in charge of the 
 school at the time,* but shortly after removed to Alabama. 
 
 'There has been — fortunately, perhaps, there can never be — such an- 
 other school. Every man for himself — that was all. Be a man — be a 
 gentleman — nothing more. Obedience and truthfulness — ^these were the 
 only virtues recognized or inculcated; obedience absolute to Fred. Cole- 
 man. His wrath was something terrible, a tornado, in its irresistible and 
 undisciplined fury. Lying and cowardice were not forgiven — for they 
 were impossible at Concord. Fighting was not prohibited ; only it must 
 be a fair fight. Old Fred, would see to that. 
 
 There was in the school absolutely no method. No hour was ap- 
 pointed for any of the classes. We never knew at what hour of the day 
 or night any class would be called for. Ben, the trusty servant, who 
 equally feared and worshipped his master, would ring a bell and an- 
 nounce the class at any hour. 'Sophocles, with your candles, gentlemen,' 
 was a familiar cry. Many and many a time, each fellow with the tallow 
 'dip,' we have read till midnight — often later — and never a sleepy eye, 
 while Old Fred, expounded to us Antigone or AJax. The law of place 
 was as uncertain as that of time. The classes would meet anywhere. 
 Without law or method, in disregard of every rule of order or even de- 
 corum, was laid the foundation of that scholarship which made Concord 
 famous among schools. Old Fred, was a dear lover of horses. He drove the 
 best team between Eichmond and Washington^a pair of magnificent 
 Hacks, worth easily a thousand dollars. To ride with him behind thai 
 span was the supreme joy of the school. 
 
 Coleman held that the first book of Livy contained all Latinity, and 
 that all the glory that was Greece, was to be found in the Hecuba of 
 Euripides. He taught these as they were never taught before or since. 
 From these as starting points, his teaching of Latin and Greek proceeded. 
 A copy, for example, of the Hecuba, as taught by Coleman would be a 
 literary curiosity. . Every line, phrase, form, idiom, was made a centre 
 of citation. We used only complete texts, without notes, at Concord. A 
 Latin or Greek grammar I never saw there. Coleman's teaching cannot 
 be analyzed, except by saying it was Fred. Coleman himself. He was 
 a man of massive power of body, mind, will. Through this power he 
 dominated all his boys — impressed himself upon them — wrought himself 
 into them — controlled them by his immense will power — moved them by 
 his mighty sympathy— startled them into life by his stentorian voice and 
 
 , 1 *I^% '*"""■ "' ^^^^ brothers had been a teacher in the same county. "From a letter of 
 John Taylor, of Oarohne, it appears that there was a fairly prosperous boarding school in Caro- 
 line county in 1817^" cf Trent: English Culture m Vwgmia, [Johns Hopkins University Studies 
 m Historical and Political Science. Seventh Series], Baltimore, 1889, p. 12 Professor Trpnfs 
 summarv of ronfUtions, pp. 9.12, is erroneous. He did not have the facts before him 
 
 Curiously, there was a newspaper established at Port Royal, Caroline county in 1851 called 
 The Port Royal Times and School Advocate. ^' ' '^*"'" 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 163 
 
 moulded them by his dynamic mind. As a teacher he was the greatest 
 of his age; there has been no other like him.' (Professor Joynes).* 
 
 'However, surely the system pursued at Concord, or rather want of 
 system, would have proved a miserable failure in the hands of any other 
 man, with Coleman certainly it was a wonderful success. His academy in 
 its comparatively brief existence, won a reputation as a preparatory 
 school to the IJniversity, which has never been surpassed by any of the 
 excellent fitting schools which have sprung up and flourished in Virginia 
 since that day.' (Professor Abbott.) 
 
 Edward S. Joynes, Old Concord Academy, in University of Virginia Alumni 
 Bulletin, III, 25-32. (c£. pp. 74, 105.) 
 
 William R. Abbott, in University of Virginia Alumni Bulletin, V. 63. 
 
 W. Gordon McCabe, Virginia Schools Before and After the Revolution, with 
 a Sketch of Frederick William Coleman, M. A., and Lewis Minor Cole- 
 man, M. A. Charlottesville, 1890, p. 40ff. 
 
 1836. SAINT bride's academy : nokfolk county. 
 
 Incorporated in 1836, Saint Bride's Academy was in 1845 made a 
 part of the free school system of Xorfolk county, begun in that 
 year. The school commissioners of the county were empowered to make 
 such arrangements with the trustees of the academy as might be agreed 
 upon, 'for converting the said academy into a free school for the ordinary 
 branches of reading, writing and arithmetic,' a moderate charge to be 
 made for such higher branches as might be taught in the academy. Saint 
 Bride's Academy was at the time receiving assistance from the Literary 
 Fund, and its report for the year before showed that it was 'prosperous.' 
 In 1840, S. H. Lowell, of Waterville College, Maine, was the principal, 
 receiving a salary of $500 plus fees. August 1843; William T. Davis 
 was principal, and new buildings had been erected. 
 
 Acts of Assembly, 1844-45, p. 32. 
 
 Journal and Documents, 1841-42, 1843-44, 1845-46, Doc. No. 4. 
 
 1837. FOX Hii.L academy: Elizabeth city county-. 
 
 This academy, incorporated in 1837, seems never to have flourished, 
 and was possibly established very largely as a charity school. As far as 
 traceable. Fox Hill Academy received aid from the Literary Fund, under 
 the act of 1836-37, and may have lapsed entirely into a primary school, 
 after the act of 1846. From the reports of its trustees to the Second 
 Auditor, Fox Hill Academy was begun in 1837, with 68 students, of whom 
 33 were paupers. In 1840 there were thirty to fifty pupils, the majority 
 being paupers. December 16, 1842, the statement was that the school 
 
 * Coleman gave up this school in 1849, the year of the establishment by his relative, Lewis 
 Coleman, of the more conventional but hardly less famous Hanover Academy. Fred. Coleman 
 died in 1868 ; he had been a member of the Senate of Virginia. The Concord estate was a large 
 one, nearly 2,000 acres. Coleman was a bachelor, and there was not a" woman on the place, 
 except a few old negroes. Almost everything used was raised on the farm. Including the fore- 
 man, all the staff belonged to Coleman. The fare was rough, simple and abundant. Coleman 
 once summoned the cook and threw at him all the bread on the table. 
 
164 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 was accommodating with instruction a large section of the county. In 
 1842, Mr. C. W. Thompson had given place as principal to Dr. C. Hub- 
 bard, and the humber of pupils averaged 20 ; in 1844 Pox Hill Academy- 
 was 'not flourishing,' Dr. Hubbard in charge. 
 
 Journal and DocumenU, 1839, 1841-42, 1843-44, 1844-45, 1845-46, Dae. No. i. 
 
 1837. FRONT ROYAL ACADEMY: WARREN COUNTY. 
 
 Chartered in 1837, the trustees of this academy in 1847 were willed 
 a parcel of land in the town of Front Koyal, whereon they erected an- 
 academy, incurring an indebtedness which was not extinguished until 
 1869, and by the sale of the property. In 1848 thirty muskets were is- 
 sued the trustees, for the instruction of the pupils in military exercises. 
 In 1876 the proceeds of the sale of the academy were applied to the erec- 
 tion of a public free school building. 
 
 Acts of Assembly, 1875-76, p. 252. 
 Acts of Assembly, 1847-48, p. 356. 
 
 1838. MARSHALL ACADEMY: CABELL COUNTY. 
 
 Conducted as an academy with varied success for twenty years after 
 its incorporation in 1838. Incorporated as a college in 1858, and in 1867 
 changed to a State ISTormal School, called Marshall College, situated now 
 about one mile from the business portion of Huntington, West Virginia. 
 
 Whitehill, Education in West Virginia, pp. 39-41. 
 
 1839. EPISCOPAL HIGH SCHOOL: FAIRFAX COUNTY. 
 
 Dr. George T. Wilmer opened the Howard School in 1831, on the 
 site of the Episcopal High School; the teachers were the Eev. Jonathan 
 Loring Woart (pronounced Wirt) and the Eev. John Woart, once chap- 
 lain in the U. S. Army. The school continued three years. It was 
 limited in number to eighteen pupils, and the prices were such as to in- 
 sure the most valuable patronage. The boys were devoted to Mr. Woart, 
 a successful teacher. 
 
 When Bishop Meade wished to establish a Church School, the How- 
 ard tract was bought in 1838, and five thousand dollars paid for the sixty 
 acres and the buildings. There was something of a prejudice at that 
 time against the colleges and the University, and the idea of establishing 
 this school was to fit students for professional study, and to subject them 
 to very close discipline. 
 
 On Tueday, October 15, 1839, the Episcopal High School opened, 
 with four teachers and thirty-five boys in attendance during the session. 
 Eev. William K. Pendleton, late of Newark College, Delaware, was rector, 
 and his chief assistant Milo Mahan, from near Suffolk, Va. Mr. Mahan 
 was a man of much intellect, an able Greek scholar, and a successful 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 165 
 
 teacher. The charge to students was $200 for the ten months' session, 
 bedding and towels extra, and sons of clergymen received at half price. 
 The second session, an additional building having been put up, there 
 were 101 pupils, and 110 the third. Assistant teachers at this time were 
 John Page, of Hanover county, and Eobert Nelson. The professors in 
 the nearby theological seminary gave instruction at times. In 1844, the 
 numbers fell to 47, and in July of that year the school was suspended, 
 owing to a deficit of about $7,000. The financial failure of the school was 
 due to Dr. Pendleton's generosity in receiving too many pupils at re- 
 duced rates, and often nothing at all. During the Civil War, Dr. Pendle- 
 ton (a graduate of West Point) became Chief of Artillery, Army of 
 Northern Virginia. 
 
 The Episcopal High School was opened in 1845, under the Rector- 
 ship of Eev. Edwin A. Dalrymple. He himself taught seven hours a day, 
 and he had two assistants, Henry C. Lay, and Francis M. Whittle, both 
 afterwards Bishops of the Episcopal Church. Dr. Dalrymple had the 
 Latin classes, Mr. Whittle the mathematical, and Mr. Lay the Greek 
 classes. Dr. Dalrymple was a very exact scholar, and a most thorough 
 and successful teacher, and under his control the school reached the num- 
 ber of eighty-five pupils. His discipline was very severe, but that was a 
 day when Solomon's precept was generally followed. Some of Dr. 
 Dalrymple's old scholars can remember the slow unwilling footsteps of 
 those whq, having missed a lesson, descended to the rector's study for a 
 private interview later on. Dr. Dalrymple was a learned man of great 
 social gifts. He had a "bushel of anecdotes," always fresh and flowing. 
 
 In 1853, Eev. John P. McGuire succeeded to the rectorship, and 
 under him the school was most successful. It was closed May 1, 1861, 
 by the war.* 
 
 Joseph Packard, Recollections of a hong Life, Washington, 1902, pp. 181-189. 
 1839. FLEETWOOD ACADEMY: KING AXD QUEEX COUXTY. 
 
 "About the year 1839, a Scotchman of culture and wise forecast, 
 came to us and established an academy at Fleetwood, some six miles above 
 Bruington Church. This gentleman, Mr. White, deserves the everlast- 
 ing gratitude of our people, within and beyond the borders of the county. 
 He erected a standard which is telling today upon a number of pupils who 
 do him honor.'' 
 
 Apparently Fleetwood Academy was active from 1839 to 1860. It 
 was issued forty muskets by the State in 1848, for the instruction of the 
 pupils in military exercises. 
 
 From about 1800 to 18-27, Dr. Eobert Baylor Semple had a prosper- 
 ous school at his home "Mordington," King and Queen. "At this place, 
 
 * The Episcopal High School was reopened in 1866, and has long been one of the best schools 
 in the country. Immediately after the war, McGuire's school was established in Richmond by 
 ■John P. McGuire, a son of Rector McGuire. 
 
166 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 for a number of years, he conducted a school. As an instructor of youth, 
 he was much approved and highly useful. In this employment in con- 
 nection with the cultivation of a farm, he was soon placed in very com- 
 fortable circumstances." Virginia Baptist Ministers, p. 249. 
 
 Bagby, History of King and Queen County * Washington, 1908, p. 86. 
 Johnson, TKe University Memorial, p. 178. 
 Men of Mark in Virginia, III, 176. 
 Acts of Assembly, 1847-48, p. 356. 
 
 1839. HECTOR college: HARRISON COUNTY, [pRUNTYTOVSTnJ . 
 
 In 1838 the Western Virginia Education Society was incorporated. 
 This title in 1842 was changed by amended charter to Eector College. 
 Howison, writing in 1847, says: "Eector College, in Harrison county, 
 is under the care of the Baptists. It was established in 1839, and has 
 about fifty students." Whitehill (History of Education in West Vir- 
 ginia), makes no mention of Eector College. 
 
 Acts of Assembly, 1841-42, p. 88. 
 
 Howison, History of Virginia. Richmond, 1848, II, 472. 
 
 Rhees, Manual of Public Libraries. Philadelphia, 1859, p. 486. 
 
 1842. LITTLE LEVELS ACADEMY : POCAHONTAS COUNTY. 
 
 Established in 1842. The Eev. Joseph Brown was the first principal 
 of this academy. After seven years of successful work, he was succeeded 
 by the Eev. M. D. Dunlap, who remained in charge of the institution un- 
 til it was closed at the opening of the Civil War. In 1865 the building 
 was purchased by the county for public school purposes. This academy 
 was well patronized during the eighteen years of its existence, and aided 
 largely in the educational development of Pocahontas and adjacent coun- 
 ties. 
 
 Whitehill, Education in West Virginia, p. 106. 
 C. 1846. RIDGEWAY SCHOOL : ALBEMARLE COUNTY. 
 
 "The next session of my school will begin on the first Monday in 
 September and end on the last Friday of June, 1856. There will be a va- 
 cation of two weeks at Christmas. I charge $220 for a whole session, or 
 $25 a month for any period less than a whole session. I furnish my pupils 
 board, lodging, light, fuel, washing, and all else necessary to comfort, 
 and make no extra charges for anything. I have three assistant teachers, 
 and am prepared to give instruction in every branch of education proper 
 to fit boys to enter the University of Virginia. For further particulars, 
 apply to me, at Charlottesville, Va. 
 
 FEANKLIN MINOE." 
 
 * Dr. Bafrby mentions other King and Queen county schools of this neriod — John Bagby 
 and John Pollard's School at Stevensville, "English, the classics, and mathmeatics" ; Jas. G. 
 White, R. H. Bagby, W. T. Berryman, headmasters. — A school at Newtown conducted by Lewis 
 Kidd, 1860-1857, and Spenrer Coleman, 1857-1861 ; very successful. — Prof. Gogerty's Academy 
 at Centreville, 1S56-1861. Prof. Gogerty was killed by the brother of a chastised pupil. 
 
The Beginninys of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 167 
 
 [Advertisement in Southern Planter, January, 1856. cf. adv., Sep- 
 tember, 1857, p. 529.] 
 
 This advertisement of the Eidgeway School, may be supplemented 
 by the following letter of reminiscence. Such an establishment v^ill 
 doubtless never be seen again in any part of the world. 
 
 "I was a school boy at Eidgway from 1851 to 1857, in which year 
 the school was closed because of Mr. Minor's ill health, and there got 
 all my education preparatory for the University of Virginia, as did many 
 other boys from Virginia and the South. Mr. Minor ran the school 
 very successfully for ten years or more. I was born in 1840, and I know 
 as far back as I can remember that I was to go to Eidgway as soon as I 
 was old enough to walk, which I did for six years through a ten months 
 session, getting to school by sunrise, winter and summer, and missed but 
 one day during the time. 
 
 "The school was located about four miles from Charlottesville, and 
 averaged in my day 60 boys, boarders, besides eight or ten day scholars. 
 The boarders were housed in dormitories, built for the purpose, very plain, 
 unpretentious buildings, 2, 4 and 6 rooms, the larger part 4-room frame 
 or log buildings. Mr. Minor owned a large and productive farm [about 
 1,000 acres], which he managed himself, with a sensible, practical over- 
 seer to carry out his orders ; it was well managed and furnished an abun- 
 dant supply of meats, salt and fresh, corn for meal and wheat for flour 
 (with a considerable surplus of wheat), also plenty of vegetables and ap- 
 ples. Mr. Minor kept a good table for the boys and his family, all eating 
 together, and had a genius for managing boys sucli as I never saw sur- 
 passed, and though his rules were strict and strictly enforced, and he 
 practiced flogging when needed, I never knew a boy there, who had good 
 in him, who did not respect and like him, and very many of them loved 
 him and showed it as long as he lived, and the few of us still living, I be- 
 lieve, retain this feeling. Yet we thought, when at school, that we had 
 some grievances, and were ruled very strictly, the boys had to. cut their 
 wood and make their fires and wait on themselves, though their water was 
 brought and room cleaned up by servants, and worst of all, that having to 
 get up and go into school by sunrise. There were plenty of servants to cut 
 wood, make fires, but old Frank (his appellation) thought cutting wood 
 was good for boys and made them do it. He had usually two assistant 
 teachers, besides a native Frenchman, who taught only French, and his 
 fine judgment of men enabled him to select most competent and efficient 
 men for the important parts. Capt. Willoughby Tebbs, Col. Leroy 
 Broun, John Henry Powell, among them, each of whom proved most suc- 
 cessful teachers through life. Major Wm. X. Bronaugh, too, who taught 
 at Eidgway 4 years. Franklin Minor was a man of broad views and ex- 
 tensive reading on all subjects of interest in his day, particularly educa- 
 tional, agricultural and political, and was recognized as a leading man 
 
168 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, IT^B-ISGO 
 
 in his county, and served on the Board of "Visitors of the University, 
 and as a member of the Legislature, and long as a member of our old 
 "Magistrates Court," but it was as a teacher of boys and young men 
 that he excelled, and very many old "Eidgway boys" made their mark 
 in after-life in their several callings, while many others were most dis- 
 tinguished in our Southern Army and gave their lives for their native 
 South, and they came not from Virginia alone, but many from Ga., Ala., 
 La., Texas, Ark., Mo. and Tenn. The survivors are few now, so far as I 
 have been able to ascertain, and scattered through the South, and I know 
 of no one, now alive, who can probably give as much information about 
 Eidgway school and its founder and manager, as myself, or who would 
 give it more willingly. When the school at Eidgway was closed because 
 of the health of its head, it was taken up by Dr. Chas. Minor (brother- 
 in-law of Franklin), established after vacation, at his residence, "Brook 
 Hill," about 6 miles from Eidgeway, and successfully carried on by him 
 for several years, until broken up by the war.* 
 
 [Statement of William W. Minor, Esq., of Albemarle county, April 
 2, 1913.] 
 
 1848. MOSSY CREEK ACADEMY : AUGUSTA COUNTY. 
 
 Major Jed Hotchkiss, distinguished during and after the Civil War 
 as a topographer and engineer, took charge of this school (established 
 for him) about the year 1848, and kept it for ten years, making it 'one 
 of the best schools for boys in the State.' Major Hotchkiss was a native 
 of Few York (Windsor, Broome Co.) ; and a member of the Staff of 
 General T. J. Jackson during the Civil War. Professor John H. Lecky 
 succeeded Major Hotchkiss as principal of the Mossy Creek Academy. 
 
 Men of Mark in Virginia, V. 214, II, 389. 
 
 1849. HANOVEE academy: HANOVER COUNTY. 
 
 This school was established by Lewis Minor Coleman, a Master of 
 Arts of the University of Virginia. He was a nephew of Fred. Coleman, 
 and for a year or two was an assistant to Frederick Coleman at Concord 
 Academy. That school closing its career in 1849, the younger Coleman 
 began on his own account at Taylorsville, Hanover county, his academy 
 enrolling the first year 40 boys. During the ten years Coleman was in 
 charge of the school, the numbers reached eighty, the largest school then 
 perhaps in the State. This school was established exclusively with a 
 view to prepare students for the University of Virginia; the text-books 
 and plan of instruction were the same. The student was prepared for 
 any class he proposed to take at the University, and in many cases the 
 
 * Governor Thomas Walker Gilmer was at school at 'Ridgeway' before 1820, then the home 
 of Peter Minvyr, father of Fratiklifi Minor. Brock, Viratn-a and Vijginians, p. 183, 184. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 169 
 
 course at the school embraced the entire course at the University. But 
 there was great attention paid to the lower classes of the school, a con- 
 trast to the method practiced by Frederick Coleman at Concord. 
 
 There is a bare announcement of the Hanover Academy to be found 
 in the Southern Planter for September, 1857: Session to commence the 
 1st of October and close the 31st of July, following. Lewis M. Cole- 
 man, M. A. Principal, Hilary P. Jones, M. A.; Walter Wrenn, M. A.' 
 The inquirer is referred to the school catalogue. 
 
 Coleman was elected professor of Latin in the University of Vir- 
 ginia, July 1, 1859, at the age of thirty-two. He was killed in 1862 (at 
 the battle of Fredericksburg), Lieutenant-Colonel of the First Regiment 
 of Virginia Artillery. Hanover Academy was taken over after 1859 by 
 Major Hilary P. Jones.* 
 
 Johnson, The University Memorial. Baltimore, 1871, pp. 301-328. 
 McCabe, Virginia Schools before and after the Revolution. CharlottesviUe, 
 1890, pp. 53£f. 
 
 1861. BLOOMFIELD ACADEMY: ALBEMARLE COUNTY. 
 
 Pive miles West of the University of Virginia — W. L. Broun, M. A., 
 
 Principal. 
 
 The object of this academy is to prepare students for the University 
 of Virginia, or to fit them for the duties of life. The course of instruc- 
 tion embraces all those subjects requisite for a preparation for any of the 
 academic schools of the University, and the method, as far as practicable, 
 is adapted to that pursued at that Institution. The session continues for 
 ten months, Ipeginning on the 1st of September and closing the last week 
 of June. 
 
 The following departments are included in the course : 
 
 1. The English Language and Literature. 
 
 2. The Latin and Greek Languages and Literature. 
 
 3. The Modern Languages and Literature. 
 
 4. The Mathematics. 
 
 5. Chemistry, Natural Philosophy and Astronomy. 
 Instructors : 
 
 W. Leroy Broun, M. A. (U. of Va.) ; H. W. Luckett, M. A. (U. of 
 Va.) ; C. L. C. Minor, M. A. (U. of Va.) ; Wm. Allen, M. A. (U. of 
 Va.) The expenses are $280 a year, payable semi-annually in advance. 
 
 Address, the Principal, Ivy Depot, Albemarle Co., Va. [Ad. in 
 Presiyterian Historiai Almanac for 1861.] 
 
 * As regards Hanover, there were schools there at an early date. The Virginia Gazette for 
 July 24, 1754, prints this item : "The famous Tom Bell left this place [Williamsburg] without 
 molestation, intending for his school in Hanover." 
 
 See also the recommendatory letter of Peter Nelson, Esq., Professor of Wingfleld Academy, 
 Hanover, August 30, 1810, in Scrapie's History of the Baptists in Virf0hia. Dr. Semple went to 
 school to Peter Nelson first in King and Queen county, and then at the Forks of Hanover, Mr. 
 Nelson removing to that place. Dr. Semple was born in 1769. Dr. Taylor {Virginia Baptist 
 Ministers, p. 244) refers to Peter Nelson "as known throughout lower Virginia as one of the 
 most distinguished teachers of the State." 
 
170 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 ADDENDA. 
 
 The compiler must confess his ignorance. Having given attention 
 for four years to the school history of the State before 1860, only at the 
 last moment before going to press was he made aware, (by the present 
 Superintendent of Public Instruction), of the monumental Eeport is- 
 sued by Superintendent Parr in 1885. The matter of these addenda is' 
 taken from the Third Part of that Eeport, rearranged alphabetically, 
 with page reference. The purpose has been merely to give an index to 
 the chief items of interest supplied by the County Superintendents of 
 1885. Their work should long since have been issued in separate form. 
 
 p. 48. Accomac. J. C. Weaver. 
 
 1] Margaret Academy. 
 
 2] The Samuel Sanford Free School Fund, established 
 
 1710. 
 3] The Charles Piper Free School Fund, established 
 
 about 1830. 
 
 p. 164. Albemarle. Annie P. Huckstep. 
 
 1] Ogilvie's classical school at Milton : "William C. Eives 
 
 a pupil. 
 2] Benjamin Sneed, died about 1812, aged 90, who 
 boasted that he had taught three generations. 
 
 p. 167. Bath. S. S. Eyder. 
 
 1] Timothy Holcomb, whose illustrations and argu- 
 ments were always clinched by quotations from Mil- 
 ton or Hudibras : about 1820. 
 
 2] Master Sproul, of Ireland; about 1800. 
 
 p. 169. Bedford. Captain J. G. Board. 
 
 1] Sydney L. Dunton : classical school at Liberty. 
 2] William G. Claytor, William E. Duncan, Mahlon A. 
 Hensley. 
 
 p. 64. Caroline. B. B. Wright. 
 
 1] Concord Academy. 
 
 2] Eappahannock Academy. 
 
 p. 160. Dinwiddie. C. M. Harris. 
 
 1^ Winfield Academy. 
 
 2] Classical school established by Dr. Peterson Harper: 
 about 1820. 
 
The Beginnings of FuMic Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 171 
 
 3] Jeiierson Academy, at White Oak Church. 1835- 
 
 1860. 
 4] Dr. H. C. Worsham's 'school for girls; and Girard 
 
 Heartwell's school for girls. 1840-1860. 
 
 p 178. Essex. B. G. Eennolds. 
 
 Public school near Loyds, 1837-1840. 
 
 p. 181. Fauquier. W. H. Strother. 
 
 1840-1860 : Eichard M. Smith, Ezra Abbott, F. M. Ed- 
 wards, J. Blackwell Smith, E. Jacquelin Ambler, 
 Stephen Lindsay, William B. Eedd, N. W. Pope, 
 Mr. Armstrong; the Misses Milligan's school, first 
 at Eock Hill, then at Eingwood. 
 
 p. 183. Fluvanna. John E. Haden. 
 
 1] David S. Farrar's classical school at Edgewood near 
 
 Palmyra: 1854-1860. 
 2] Fluvanna Female Institute: 1855-1859. 
 
 p. 76. Gloucester. Eobert H. Franklin. 
 
 1] Full history of Newington Academy by Gen. Wil- 
 liam B. Taliaferro, with list of teachers and names 
 of many pupils: 1818-1838. 
 
 2] The Ben venue Academy for Girls, contemporary 
 with Newington Academy, and situated very near it. 
 
 3] John Tabb's Gloucester Academy, near Gloucester 
 Court House. 
 
 4] Abingdon Parish School: [Eev. Mr. Hughes] 1783 — 
 
 5] John McPherson's school, 1816-1818 : seventy-five 
 scholars : the principal, a Scotchman, removed to 
 Williamsburg. 
 
 p. 191. Goochland. E. S. Eeeve. 
 
 1] Springfield School, conducted for many years by 
 
 Mr. and Mrs. Philip Pleasants. 
 2'] John Woodson (at one time associate editor of the 
 
 Richmond Whig, with John Hampden Pleasants), 
 
 succeeded by A. Briscoe Stuart. 
 3] School at Dr. W. T. Walker's. 
 4] Dr. 0. W. Kean's school. 
 
 p. 195. Greensville. John S. Spencer. 
 
 1] Academy at Belfield Depot, 1850, removed to Hicks- 
 fcrd; large patronage — succeeded by Captain Wil- 
 
172 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 liam H. Briggs's school at Hicksford. 
 3] Classical school at T. E. Spencer's, 1856. 
 3] School for a number of years before the civil war at 
 
 Samuel Hardy's, taught by Mr. Hardy. 
 4] School of E. W. Jones, 1858-1860. 
 5] Miss Mary Jones's school for girls at Dr. George 
 
 Mason's, 1842-1862. 
 
 p. 86. Halifax. Thos. E. Barksdale. 
 
 1] Black Walnut Latin School, 1838— 
 
 2] Black Walnut Female Seminary, and Spring Hill 
 
 Academy, near Black Walnut, both for girls: 1840- 
 
 1858. 
 3] A list of teachers in the county before 1860. 
 
 p. 200. Hanover. J. L. Valentine. 
 
 1] The Williamson Free School fund. 
 2] Hall's Free School, 1845. 
 3] Hanover Academy. 
 
 p. 198. Henrico. D. E. Gardner. 
 
 Extracts from the County Order Books, showing action 
 by the Board of School Commissioners in 1818, 1826, 
 1828, 1829, and 1836. 
 
 p. 95. King George. W. McDaniel. 
 
 Note regarding the old Free School System of the 
 County, from 1850 to 1860: "The schools were 
 opened January 1850, with a full attendance . . . 
 but in the space of ten (10) years they had died 
 pretty well a natural death." 
 
 p. 293. King and Queen. J. G. Cannon. 
 
 1] Fleetwood Academy. 
 
 2] Stevens ville Academy for girls, conducted by the 
 brothers Berryman. 
 
 3] The Obadiah Merrett Free School fund for Stratton 
 Major and St. Stephen's parishes : before 1800 : en- 
 dowment, one thousand acres of land, and six thou- 
 sand dollars in cash. 
 
 p. 92. James City. C. W. Taylor. 
 
 William Ludwell Lee Free School fund: endowment, 
 one thousand acres of land: 1802. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 173 
 
 p 307. Loudoun. Col. William Giddings. 
 
 1] Leesburg Academy. 
 
 2] Franklin Taylor's school near Hughesville : 1825- 
 1860 [Society of Ftiends]. 
 
 3] William Williamson's Middleburg School: 1805- 
 1830; and other Middleburg schools. 
 
 4] Waterford School: 1800-1861 [Society of Friends]. 
 
 5] Hillsborough Academy, 1845-1855 ; and other Hills- 
 borough schools. 
 
 6] The Eev. Ben. Bridges's School in Broad Eun Dis- 
 trict: 1845-1860. 
 
 This history of education in Loudoun shows the results 
 of much careful investigation. 
 
 p. 214. Lunenburg . 0. L. Hardy. 
 
 'During the period 1840-1860 there were (by verbal re- 
 port) five boarding schools in the county. They 
 were in session the usual nine months per annum. 
 The teachers were mostly of northern birth and edu- 
 cation. When the school was small, the principal 
 would give all the instruction, but larger schools had 
 two and sometimes three teachers. The assistant 
 teachers were usually selected from among the best 
 students of the neighborhood. Admittance to these 
 schools was pretty costly for the times. These schools 
 had great influence in raising the tone of lower 
 grade schools, and by employing assistants, as stated 
 above, we soon had a native element sufficiently well 
 qualified to take charge of our advanced education, 
 and the foreign teacher quietly disappeared. 
 
 This was a long step upward and toward the threshold 
 of that educational system, which, while stern in its 
 realities and hard in seme of its requirements, is still 
 one of the greatest blessings which our land has ever 
 enjoyed.' 
 
 p. 322. Mecklenburg. H. E. Coleman. 
 
 1] Jesse J. Gee's school: 1835-1870. 
 
 2] The old Academy near Christiansville. 
 
 3] Colonel Weldon Hall's school near Union Level, 
 
 1856— 
 4] Hugh A. Garland's school for girls at Boydton, 
 
 1830— 
 
174 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 p. 2'39. Nansemond. V. S. Kilby. 
 
 The YeatesFree Schools, 1725— 
 
 p. 115. Nelson. T. J. Hudson. 
 
 1] Schools and Teachers from 1770 to 1860. 
 2] Mr. Harlowe Heath's Academy at Fleetwood, on 
 Tye Eiver, below Massie's Mill, 1840— 
 
 p 235. New Kent. Dr. J. D. Turner. 
 
 Notes on Schools and Teachers from 1830 to 1861. 
 
 p. 236. Norfolk County. J. E. Baker. 
 
 1] Craney Island School, 1810-1885. 
 
 2] St. Bride's Academy, at Hickory Ground. 
 
 3] The old Norfolk County Free School System, be- 
 ginning in 1845 with twenty schools, ending in 1861" 
 with thirty schools. 
 
 4] "Many items of interest may be gathered from an 
 educational paper called the Rermanethian and 
 Journal of the Virginia Collegiate Institute, pub- 
 lished at Portsmouth and edited by the faculty of 
 the school of that name. This must have been among 
 the first, if not the very first, educational publica- 
 tions of the State. The first issue was in June 1853." 
 
 p. 242. NorfolTc City. E: G. Banks. 
 
 Memorandum regarding the System of Public Schools 
 established in Norfolk in the year 1857, under the 
 .direction of the Hon. Thomas Tabb. 
 
 p. 247. Northumberland. "William Broun. 
 
 Eegarding the history of Northumberland Academy, 
 "which for many years was the classical school of 
 the lower Northern Neck." 
 
 p. 117. Orange. F. L. Marshall. 
 
 Information regarding the Orange Humane Society, 
 1767-1885. 
 
 p. 251. Page. Edward T. Broyles. 
 
 1] Private Schools and Teachers before 1861. 
 
 2] Operation of the old Free School System, 1851-1861. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 175 
 
 p. 123. Petersburg. Major E. B. Branch. 
 
 Some account of the origin and progress of Anderson 
 Seminary: 1813-1868. 
 
 p. 257. Pittsylvania Dr. J. W. Wilson. 
 
 1] Joseph Godfrey's school, 1830, and other schools. 
 2] School for girls at Chatham, 1855. 
 
 p. 133. Pulaski. M. J. Alexander. 
 
 1] Schools and teachers from 1821. 
 
 2] McNutt and Heuser's Academy at the county seat, 
 "the best school ever in the county," 1851-1863. 
 [James McNutt, of Tennessee, and Charles Heuser, 
 a German exile, later "a professor in one of the Ger- 
 man universities"]. 
 
 p. 261. Rappahannock. A. H. Buckner. 
 
 "Prom the best information I can get, there were fifteen 
 common schools in Eappahannock county in 1800. 
 There were three in each district. In these schools 
 were taught orthography, reading, writing, and arith- 
 metic. The schools were opened early in the morn- 
 ing and closed at sunset. In some neighborhoods 
 the schools continued only through the winter, as the 
 children were kept at home in summer to work. In 
 1808 and 1809, W. \Y. Covington taught a school 
 at what is now called Hollandshurg. In 1810 he 
 went to Alexandria and studied geography and gram- 
 mar, returned and taught school a number of years 
 in the county ; said to be first school in which gram- 
 mar or geography was ever taught. It is said these 
 schools were very rigid in their discipline. Xo play- 
 time was allowed, and the children were whipped 
 for the most trifling cause. The celebrated William 
 F. Broadus taught a number of years in the county, 
 beginning in 1820. 
 In 1830 there were twenty-five schools in the county. 
 In 1835 there were two high schools taught, one 
 for girls and one for boys, which were well patron- 
 ized. From 1835 to 1860 children that were not 
 able to pay their tuition were paid for by the county. 
 But few children attended school and ignorance was 
 universal." 
 
176 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 p. 263. Richmond County. G. H. Northam. 
 
 1] AVilliam Webb's school near Warsaw. 
 
 2] Parnham schools. 
 
 3] "From 1819 there seems to have been held an annual 
 meeting of school commissioners, appointed by the 
 court, up to the breaking out of the late war — 1861."' 
 
 p. 269. Russell. E. D. Miller. 
 
 Teachers at Lebanon and elsewhere in the county. 
 
 p. 278. Stafford. Strother Harding. 
 
 1] Charles Tackett's Harwood Academy, 1816-1834, 
 continued by Barber, Spindle and Tackett: "pupils 
 from all parts of the State and a number from other 
 States." 
 
 2] Daniel Bell's school for many years after 1815 at 
 Stafford Court House. 
 
 3] Colonel John T. Brook's Mill Vale school; William 
 Brent's Richland school ; John B. Hedgman's Wind- 
 sor school; Milton Henry's school; Jefferson Spin- 
 dle's school. 
 
 4] Dr. John M. Daniel's school for girls, for some years 
 after 1825. 
 p. 139. Westmoreland. H. H. Fones. 
 
 Some account of the "Westmoreland Poor-School So- 
 ciety," incorporated 1813, controlling in 1885 a fund 
 of a little over $12,000. "It thus appears that for 
 full seventy years public education has been dis- 
 pensed to the indigent children of Westmorelanc! 
 county." 
 
 p. 2-91. Yorh. L. U. Evans. 
 
 "Have endeavored to get all the information possible, 
 by making enquiries of the oldest citizens of the 
 county, but did not succeed in getting anything 
 tangible, except in one or two instances.* 
 
 There were no high schools in the county, so far as 
 learned, except Mr. Salter's school in Nelson dis- 
 trict, he having kept his school in operation for a 
 period of eighteen years, until 1861, and prepared a 
 large number of youths for higher schools and col- 
 leges; and after the war he again opened his school 
 and kept it in operation until the public free schools 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, ITYe-lSeO 177 
 
 were opened, when his services was secured as teacher 
 in public schools, where he is employed. Mr. Salter 
 has been teaching in York county for about fifty 
 years, and is one of the most competent and efficient 
 teachers we have." 
 
 It may be as well to say here that it was the careful reading of 
 Martin's Gazetteer that set the compiler about the business of gathering 
 these facts. Joseph Martin published his Gazetteer in 1835, sending out 
 an impression in 1836 with no hint that the book had been published in 
 183S. It is the impression of 1836 to which reference has been made 
 in these pages. No matter — the book is of great value; and so far as 
 appears, Joseph Martin has vanished from the face of the earth, leaving 
 no trace beyond his Gazetteer of 1836. With his book he marked the 
 end of an era and has vanished. What is given below will serve to indi- 
 cate how much school history there must have been in the State, after 
 the railroads got started for five and twenty years until the war. 
 
 1835. BEDFOBD FEMALE ACADEMY: BEDFORD COUXTY. 
 JEFFERSON ACADEMY : OULPEPEE COUNTY. 
 OAK GROVE academy: CLARKE COUNTY. 
 UNION ACADEMY OF SUSSEX COUNTY. 
 
 1836. CHAELESTOV\fN ATHENAEUM AND FEMALE ACADEMY: JEFFERSO.N' 
 
 COUNTY. 
 ESTILLVILLE ACADEMY: SCOTT COUNTY. 
 LYNCHBURG FEMALE ACADEMY. 
 MARTINSVILLE ACADEMY: HENRY COUNTY. 
 
 (A Martinsville Academy incorporated in 1794.) 
 
 SUFFOLK ACADEMY : NANSEJ[OND COUNTY. 
 UPPEEVILLE ACADEMY : LOUDOUN COUNTY. 
 
 (In 1833, a Hillsborough Academy, Loudoun county, and in 
 1834, a Eehoboth Academy, Loudoun county.) 
 
 1837. BIEOKHEAD AND WELLS ACADEMY : TYLER COUNTY. 
 
 (Eli Wells and Abraham S. Birckhead. In 1827 a Tyler Acad- 
 emy had been incorporated, in the county of Tyler. See also 
 Acts of Assembly 1828-29, pp. 105-106.) 
 
 BRUNSWICK academy: BRUNSWICK COUNTY. 
 
 (There was a Brunswick Academy existent in 1810.) 
 
 FEMALE COLLEGIATE INSTITUTE: BUCKINGHAM COUNTY. 
 
 (Sold in 1843, this school was reincorporated in 1849.) 
 
 * For some account of Edward Bates'9 Friends' School in York county about 1785, see 
 Harrisons of Skimino, p. 53. 
 
178 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 SPEINGMELD ACADEMY : HAMPSHIRE COUNTY ( ?) 
 WASHINGTON ACADEMY: RAPPAHANNOCK COUNTY. 
 WEST LIBERTY ACADEMY : OHIO COUNTY. 
 
 (In 1844 a loan of $5,000 to this academy from the Literary 
 Fund was authorized. This act was revised and re-enacted 
 March 4, 1861; but by an ordinance of Convention June 28, 
 1861, the act was repealed.) 
 
 1838. JAMES RIVER ACADEMY: BOTETOURT COUNTY. 
 LOVINGSTON MALE AND FEMALE SCHOOL: NELSON COUNTY. 
 
 (Eeal estate authorized to be conveyed by trustees for public school 
 purposes, 1871.) 
 
 MARSHALL ACADEMY: CABELL COUNTY. 
 
 (Became Marshall College in 1858 : property transferred to the 
 State of West Virginia for a Normal School, 1867. cf. White- 
 hill, Education in West Virginia, p. 40.) 
 
 PAEKERSBURG ACADEMY ASSOCIATION : WOOD COUNTY. 
 
 (March 18, 1861, the trustees of the Parkersbnrg Classical and 
 Scientific Institute were incorporated, 'for the purpose of estab- 
 lishing male and female seminaries in the town of Parkers- 
 bnrg.') 
 
 PETERSBURG CLASSICAL INSTITUTE: DINWIDDIE COUNTY. 
 
 PRINCE EDWARD SEMINARY FOR YOUNG LADIES: PRINCE EDWARD 
 
 COUNTY. 
 UNION ACADEMY OE PRINCE EDWARD COUNTY. 
 
 (Site now in Appomattox county.) 
 
 WESTERN VIRGINIA EDUCATION SOCIETY: HARRISON COUNTY. 
 
 (Fame changed to Hector College in 1842.) 
 
 1839. CHARLOTTESVILLE FEMALE ACADEMY: ALBEMARLE COUNTY. 
 COVE ACADEMY: ALBEMARLE COUNTY. 
 
 (In 1844 a Covesville Male and Female Academy incorporated.) 
 
 [EMORY AND HENRY COLLEGE.] 
 
 FARMVTLLE FEMALE SEMINARY ASSOCIATION: PRINCE EDWARD 
 COUNTY. 
 
 (The state bought this property in 1884, and nsed it for its first 
 Normal School for girls. There had been a girls' school at 
 Farmville as early as 1834. cf. Martin's Gazetteer, p. 268.) 
 
 FEMALE ACADEMY OF WILLIAMSBURG. 
 
 (This seems to have become the 'Williamsburg Academy' in 1849.) 
 
 MATHEWS academy: MATHEWS COUNTY. 
 
 (Eeceived aid, by loan, from the Literary Fund in 1846.) 
 
 MOUNT JACKSON ACADEMY : SHENANDOAH COUNTY. 
 NEW STORE ACADEMY : BUCKINGHAM COUNTY. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 179 
 
 PEAEISBUEG ACADEMY ASSOCIATION: GILES COUNTY. 
 POWHATAN academy: POWHATAN COUNTY. 
 PSINCESS ANNE ACADEMY: PRINCESS ANNE COUNTY. 
 SLATE EIVBR ACADEMY: BUCKINGHAM COUNTY.* 
 
 (School in operation eight or ten j^ears; about 35 pupils; ten 
 months' session — Eeport for 1842, in Journal and Doc, 1843- 
 44.) 
 
 UNION ACADEMY OE CAMPBELL COUNTY. 
 
 (ef. Journal and Documents 1843-43, Doc. No. 4: "forty stu- 
 dents"; situated at Spout Spring.) 
 
 WAERENTON FEMALE INSTITUTE: FAUQUIER COUNTY. 
 
 1840. ABINGDON FEMALE ACADEMY: WASHINGTON COUNTY. 
 BLACKSBURG FEMALE ACADEMY: MONTGOJtEEY COUNTY. 
 
 (Eeceived aid from the Literary Fund, 1842.) 
 
 [BETHANY COLLEGE: WEST ¥IEGINIA.] 
 
 CONCORD FEMALE SEMINARY :, CAMPBELL COUNTY. 
 
 WBLLSBUEG JEFFERSON SEMINARY: BROOKE COUNTY. 
 
 1841. ODD fellows' male and FEJEALE INSTITUTE : LYNCHBURG. 
 PRESTON academy: PRESTON COUNTY. 
 
 REEDY SPRING ACADEMY : CAMPBELL COUNTY. 
 
 (Eeineorporated in 1849, Appomattox county having been set off 
 in 1846.) 
 
 SHEMARIAH ACADEMY: AUGUSTA COUNTY. 
 WOODLAWN ACADEMY : SPIENANDOAH COUNTY. 
 
 1842. ASBURY academy: WOOD COUNTY (at parkersburg). 
 
 GREENBANK ACADEMY : POCAHONTAS COUNTY. 
 HUNTERSVILLE ACADEMY: POCAHONTAS COUNTY. 
 JEFFERSON ACADEMY: DINWIDDIE COUNTY. 
 
 (In 1812 there was a Dinwiddle Academy existent. And in 1827 
 the Mount Pleasant Academy, Dinwiddle county, was incor- 
 porated.) 
 
 ODD FELLOWS'" MALE AND FEMALE INSTITUTE OF RICHMOND. 
 PRINCE GEORGE ACADEMY : PRINCE GEORGE COUNTY. 
 WARM SPRINGS ACADEMY: BATH COUNTY. 
 
 (In 1805 a lottery was authorized for a Hot Springs Seminary, 
 Bath county.) 
 
 * cf. The publication in 1810 o£ Elijah H. Hendrick of Buckingham : "A new and plain 
 system of arithmetic . . . the whole particularly adapted to the easy and regular instruction 
 of youth, and to the trade and commerce of the United States." Richmond: Lynch and Davis. 
 12rno. 204 pp. [really an elegant small treatise.] 
 
180 The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 1843. BEANDON academy: peeston county. 
 
 EINSALE ACADEMY : NANSBMOND COUNTY ( ?) 
 
 (cf. Men of Marie in Virginia, IV, 36.) 
 
 LITTLETON ACADEMY: SUSSES COUNTY. 
 
 1844. NBWMAEKET FEMALE SEMINAEY : SHENANDOAH COUNTY. 
 VALLEY UNION EDUCATION SOCIETY. 
 
 (Passed to Hollins Institute, 1855; now Hollins College.) 
 
 VIEGINIA FEMALE INSTITUTE: AUGUSTA COUNTY (aT STAUNTON). 
 WESTEEN BEANCH ACADEMY : NOEFOLK COUNTY. 
 WESTON academy: lewis COUNTY. 
 
 1.845. AUGUSTA FEMALE SEMINAEY: AUGUSTA COUNTY. 
 
 (Became Mary Baldwin Seminary, 1896.) 
 
 BEENTSVILLE ACADEMY: PEINCE WILLIAM COUNTY. 
 FAIEFAX academy: CULPEPEE COUNTY. 
 MAESHALL ACADEMY : AUGUSTA COUNTY. 
 VIEGINIA COLLEGIATE INSTITUTE. 
 
 (Incorporated as Eoanoke College, at Salem, 1853.) 
 
 1846. CLAEKE FEMALE SEMINAEY : CLAEKE COUNTY. 
 HILLSVILLE ACADEMY: CAEHOLL COUNTY. 
 JACKSONVILLE ACADEMY : FLOYD COUNTY. 
 
 (Passed to Floyd Institute in 1849.) 
 
 1847. COLUMBIA ACADEMY : FLUVANNA COUNTY. 
 
 HUGUENOT academy: POWHATAN COUNTY (at HUGUENOT 
 
 SPEINGS?). 
 LEWIS COUNTY SEMINAEY. 
 
 (Fame changed to Weston College, in 1858.) 
 
 MALE AND FEMALE ACADEMY OF BUCHANAN : BOTETOUET COUNTY. 
 
 (The Buchanan Male Academy, incorporated 1851.) 
 
 OAK GEOVE academy: CLAEKE COUNTY'. 
 PETEESBUEG ODD FELLOAVS' SCHOOL. 
 PIEDMONT institute: BEDFOED COUNTY. 
 WOODSTOCK FEMALE SEMINAEY. 
 
 1848. CPIEISTIANSBUEG FEMALE ACADEMY : MONTGOMEEY COUNTY. 
 HEBREW AND ENGLISH INSTITUTE OF NOEFOLK. 
 MASONIC SCHOOL OF VIEGINIA IN STAUNTON. 
 WHEELING FEMALE SEMINAEY. 
 
 1849. BUFFALO ACADEMY : PUTNAM COUNTY. 
 FINCASTLE FEMALE INSTITUTE : BOTETOUET COUNTY. 
 
 (A Pincastle Female Academy, incorporated 1834.) 
 
 RED OAK ACADEMY OF BEUNSWICK. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 181 
 
 SHENANDOAH COLLEGE : SHENANDOAH COUNTY (AT NEWMARKEt) . 
 WESLEYAN FEMALE INSTITUTE OF STAUNTON. 
 
 1850. ACADEMY OF THE VISITATION: OHIO COUNTY. 
 HIGGINBOTHAM ACADEMY : AMHERST COUNTY. 
 HIGHLAND ACADEMY: HIGHLAND COUNTY (AT MONTEREY). 
 
 1851. FAIRFAX ACADEMY: FAIRFAX COUNTY. 
 
 (Geo. A. Smith, a graduate of Princeton 1821, and from 1847 
 to 1855 editor of the Southern Churchman, was principal of 
 Fairfax Institute, 1838-1849.) 
 
 LEBANON ACADEMY : RUSSELL COUNTY. 
 
 (In 1878, act amended and name changed to Lebanon Male and 
 Female Academy. In 1814 an Amity Hall Academy, of Eus- 
 sell county, had been incorporated.) 
 
 MEADE COLLEGIATE INSTITUTE: WOOD COUNTY (at PARKERSBURG) . 
 
 (In 1853 transferred to Brooke county, absorbing Brooke Acad- 
 emy.) 
 
 ROCKINGHAM MALE AND FEMALE SEMINARY : ROCKINGHAM COUN- 
 TY. 
 SOUTH BRANCH ACADEMICAL INSTITUTE: HARDY COUNTY (at 
 
 moobefield). 
 (In 1838 a Se^^mour Academy of Hardy county had been in- 
 corporated.) 
 
 WELLSBURG FEMALE SEMINARY: BROOKE COUNTY. 
 
 (cf. Education in West Virginia, p. 10'2.) 
 
 1852. CLOVER HILL ACADEMY : CHESTERFIELD COUNTY. 
 EDUCATION SOCIETY OF WESTERN VIRGINIA. 
 FAEMVILLE INSTITUTE: PRINCE EDWARD COUNTY. 
 FAIRMONT academy: MARION COUNTY. 
 
 (Became Fairmont Male and Female Seminary, 1856.) 
 
 TAYLORSVILLE ACADEMY: PATRICK COUNTY. 
 
 WESLEYAN MALE COLLEGIATE INSTITUTE: ROCKINGHAM COUNTY 
 (at HARRISONBURG.) 
 
 1853. GRAY SULPHUR HIGH SCHOOL : GILES COUNTY. 
 HALIFAX DAN RIVER INSTITUTE : HALIFAX COUNTY. 
 MEADESVILLE ACADEMY: HALIFAX COUNTY. 
 MORGAN ACADEMY : MORGAN COUNTY. 
 
 PIEDMONT FEMALE ACADEMIC INSTITUTE: CULPEPER COUNTY. 
 
 RICHMOND FEMALE INSTITUTE. 
 
 WHITE POST MALE AND FEMALE ACADEMY : CLARKE COUNTY. 
 
183 The Beginnings of Pvilic Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 
 
 1854. CENTEEVILLE ACADEMY : KING AND QUEEN COUNTY. 
 CHESAPEAKE FEMALE COLLEGIATE INSTITUTE (aT NORFOLK?). 
 
 (Passed to Chesapeake Female College, 1856.) 
 
 LYNCHBUEG FEMALE COLLEGIATE INSTITUTE. 
 
 MARTHA WASHINGTON COLLEGE: WASHINGTON COUNTY (aT 
 
 ABINGDON). 
 OLIN AND PRESTON INSTITUTE : MONTGOMERY COUNTY : AT OR NEAR 
 
 BLACKSBURG. 
 
 (This institution was the basis of the Virginia Polytechnic In- 
 stitute. See Code of Virginia (Pollard),!, 835, §1586.) ' 
 
 SALEM MALE ACADEMY: ROANOKE COUNTY. 
 
 1855. LYNCHBURG COLLEGE. 
 
 *1856. ASHTON INSTITUTE : KANAWHA COUNTY. 
 
 DANVILLE FEMALE COLLEGE: PITTSYLVANIA COUNTY. 
 
 (Danville Female Academy, incorporated 1831.) 
 
 FAUQUIER FEMALE SEMINARY: FAUQUIER COUNTY. 
 
 HABPER's ferry female INSTITUTE : JEFFERSON COUNTY. 
 
 JACKSONVILLE FEMALE ACADEMY : FLOYD COUNTY. 
 
 LEAVENSWORTH FEMALE COLLEGE: PETERSBURG. 
 
 PETERSBURG FEMALE COLLEGE. 
 
 POINT PLEASANT ACADEMY: MASON COUNTY. 
 
 POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE: LOGAN COUNTY (aT ARRACOMa) . 
 
 SPRINGDALE BOARDING SCHOOL ASSOCIATION: LOUDOUN COUNTY. 
 
 (Established in 1839. See Memoirs of Samuel M. Janney. 
 Friends' Book Association, Philadelphia, 1881. Mr. Janney 
 was most active in the educational movements of this period.) 
 
 SULPHUR SPRING ACADEMY ( ?) . 
 VIRGINIA college: FREDERICK COUNTY. 
 
 1858. ALBEMARLE FEMALE INSTITUTE: ALBEMARLE COUNTY. 
 ASHLAND FEMALE INSTITUTE: HANOVER COUNTY. 
 
 (Authorized to confer degrees.) 
 
 CAPPAHOSIC ACADEMY: GLOUCESTER COUNTY. 
 CROTON FEMALE COLLEGE: KING AND QUEEN COUNTY. 
 FLUVANNA FEMALE INSTITUTE: FLUVANNA COUNTY. 
 GREENVILLE ACADEMY: AUGUSTA COUNTY. 
 
 (Authorization of sale and reinvestment, lot and appurtenances 
 conveyed in 1823 by Eachel Hope.) 
 
 LEWISBURG FEMALE INSTITUTE: GREENBRIER COUNTY. 
 
 * March 11, 1856, an act was passed authorizing circuit or county courts to grant or refuse 
 charters of incorporation to three or more persons desirous of forming a company for the estab- 
 listment of academies, libraries, literary associations, etc., etc. Hence an added difficulty in 
 tracing the record after 1856. 
 
The Beginnings of Public Education in Virginia, 1776-1860 183 
 
 LUKAT INSTITUTE : PAGE COUNTY. 
 
 (Incorporated 'for the purpose of establishing a seminary for the 
 education of males and females.') 
 
 UNION FEMALE COLLEGIATE INSTITUTE OF HENRICO COUNTY. 
 
 (To confer degrees.) 
 
 VALLEY FEMALE INSTITUTE: FREDERICK COUNTY (AT WINCHES- 
 TER). 
 
 WOODBURN FEMALE SEMINARY COMPANY: MONONGALIA COUNTY: 
 AT MORGANTOWN. 
 
 (Passed into the possession of the State of West Virginia, 1867. 
 cf. Education in West Virginia, pp. 53, 105.) 
 
 WYTHEVILLE FEMALE COLLEGE: WYTHE COUNTY. 
 
 1859. UNION FEMALE COLLEGE: PITTSYLVANIA COUNTY (aT DANVILLE ). 
 
 1860. ALLEGHANY COLLEGE (?). 
 
 .DAVIDSON FEMALE COLLEGE: PETERSBURG. 
 
 LEVELTON MALE AND FEMALE COLLEGE: POCAHONTAS COUNTY. 
 NORFOLK HEBREW AND ENGLISH LITERARY INSTITUTE (aND HOUSE 
 
 OF JACOB) . 
 UNION COLLEGE:* MONROE COUNTY. 
 
 * In 1820, at which time the academy was already built, there had been chartered a Union 
 Academy of Monroe county, cf. Acts of Assembly, 1819-20, p. 80. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Abingdon Academy 135 
 
 Abingdon Parish School 128,171 
 
 Abbott, Ezra 171 
 
 Abbott, William R 163 
 
 Academies to be endowed. .. .41-43, 82 
 Academy Period in America. .. .Preface 
 Academy charters, granted by 
 circuit or county courts; Act 
 
 of March 11, 1856 182 (note) 
 
 Adams, John Quincy 116 
 
 Address to the People of Virginia 
 
 (1845) 65-66 
 
 African slaves 101 
 
 Agriculture (1796) 23-24 
 
 Agriculture in Virginia 101 
 
 Agricultural Convention of Vir- 
 ginia (1836) 43 
 
 Albemarle Academy 9, 25, 136 
 
 Albemarle county, education in.. 86 
 Albemarle Free Schools (1845).. 72 
 
 Alexander, Archibald 102 
 
 Alexander, Robert 105, 106 
 
 Alexandria Academy 21, 114 
 
 Allen, "William 169 
 
 Ambler, R. Jacquelin 171 
 
 Amelia Academy 160 
 
 American Education Society 55 
 
 Amherst Academy 135 
 
 Anderson, David (will of) 125 
 
 Anderson Seminary 125, 126, 175 
 
 Anderson Seminary Fund 82 
 
 Anderson, Jack 158 
 
 Anderson, John (Rev.) 114 
 
 Anderson, Joseph "W 113 
 
 Anderson, M. L. (Williamsburg 
 
 School) 133 
 
 Anderson, Richard 158 
 
 Anderson, Samuel C 54 
 
 Anderson, William 158 
 
 Anne Smith Academy 33, 133 
 
 Apprenticeship system 102 
 
 Archer, John 124 
 
 Archer, Peter F 124 
 
 Archer, William S 157 
 
 Armstrong, Mr 171 
 
 5Vrmstrong Military Academy 
 
 (Fauquier) 122 
 
 Armstrong, William J 55 
 
 Asbury, Francis (Bishop) 125, 128 
 
 Ascham, Roger 132 
 
 Aspen Hill Academy (L/ouisa) . . . 118 
 Augusta Academy 105 , 
 
 Bagby, John 
 
 Bagby, R. H 
 
 Baker, Daniel 
 
 Baker, William 
 
 Ball, George Lewis 
 
 Ball, Spencer 
 
 Ballentine, Blisha (Rev.). 
 
 166 
 166 
 125 
 114 
 122 
 121 
 54 
 
 School of, Prince Ed- 
 ward county 133 
 
 Banks, Henry 120 
 
 Barnes, David A 122 
 
 Banister Academy 134 
 
 Banister, John. Jr 19 
 
 Baptist Education Society 160 
 
 Baptist Seminary (Virginia) 160 
 
 Barber, Spindle and Tackett 176 
 
 Barbour, James... 25, 34, 43, (biog.) 90 
 
 Barker, I. G 161 
 
 Barksdale, Thomas E 86 
 
 Barnard, Henry 13, 65 
 
 Bassett, George W 138 
 
 Baxter, iGeorge A 55, 127 
 
 Beach, Samuel 114 
 
 Belfleld Academy 134, 171 
 
 Bell's (Daniel) School (Stafford) 176 
 
 Bell, Launcelot G 146 
 
 Bell, Tom (Hanover County 
 
 School) 169 
 
 Belvllle, Jacob 158 
 
 Benedict, W. N 130 
 
 Bentivoglio Tavern 157, 158 
 
 Bentley, William 123 
 
 Benvenue Academy (Gloucester). 171 
 
 Berryman, F. W 161 
 
 Berrj'man, W. T 166 
 
 Berryville Academy 147 
 
 Bethany College 76, 179 
 
 Beverly Academy (Randolph Co.) 121 
 Bickley's Tazewell County His- 
 tory 15 
 
 Birch, Thomas Erskine (Rev.).. 136 
 
 Bishop of London 101, 161 
 
 Blackburn, John S 116 
 
 Blain, Daniel 127 
 
 Blair, John D. (Rev.) 109, 138 
 
 Black, William (Rev.) 144 
 
 Black Walnut Academy (Halifax) 135 
 Black Walnut Latin School (Hal- 
 ifax) ^ 172 
 
 Blankenship, J. E 136 
 
 Bloomfleld Academy 169 
 
 Blunt, Benjamin 122 
 
 •This index does not cover, (excep t for personal items), the list of char- 
 tered schools, pp. 177-183. 
 
Index 
 
 185 
 
 Board of Public Instruction 
 
 (1817) 32 
 
 Botetourt, Lord . . : 112 
 
 Botetourt Seminary 113 
 
 Bouldin, Tliomas T 143 
 
 Boydton Academy 153 
 
 Boykin, Francis 122 
 
 Boynton, Lucien C 153 
 
 Bracken, Jolin (Rev.) 52 
 
 Branch, Robert G 133 
 
 Branch, "William 132 
 
 Branch and Christian's .School 
 
 (Petersburg) 126 
 
 Brent, William 176 
 
 Brevard, Ephraim 131 
 
 Bridges' (Rev. Ben) School 
 
 (Loudoun) 173 
 
 Briggs' (Capt. Wm. H.) School 
 
 (Greensville) 172 
 
 Brimstone Castle 115 
 
 Brittain, Rufus 15 
 
 Broadus, William P 175 
 
 Brookenbrough, J. B 80 
 
 Brockenbrough, J. M 136 
 
 Bronaugh, William N 167 
 
 Brooke Academy 129 
 
 Brook Hill School (Albemarle) . . 168 
 
 Brooke, Henry L 66 
 
 Brooke, Col. John T 176 
 
 Broun, W. Leroy 167, 169 
 
 Brown, Charles T 136 
 
 Brown, James, Jr 94 
 
 Brown, John (Rev.) 106 
 
 Brown, Joseph (Rev.) 166 
 
 Brown, Thomas (Rev.), 
 
 113, 114, 127, 136. 146 
 Brown, William (Alexandria).... 114 
 Brown, William (Northumber- 
 land), 89 
 
 Bruce, John 119 
 
 Burnley, Caleb 117, 130, 161 
 
 Burke, William 138, 139 
 
 Burr Academy 134 
 
 Burwell, William M 75 
 
 Buying teachers 102 
 
 C 
 
 Cabell, James L 160 
 
 Cabell, Joseph C..30, 34, 37, 69, (biog.) 91 
 
 Cabell, N. P 27 
 
 Cabell, P. H 145 
 
 Cabell, W^illiam H. (gov.) 9 
 
 Cambridge (Mass.) 21 
 
 Cameron Club (Alexandria) ... .114, 116 
 
 Cameron, John (Rev. Dr.) 151 
 
 Campbell, Alexander. .11, 76, (biog.) 92 
 
 Campbell, Alexander P 127 
 
 Campbell, Charles 125 
 
 Campbell, David (gov.) 76 
 
 Campbell, Joseph 157 
 
 Campbell, Samuel L 76 
 
 Canal Company, Gen. Washing- 
 ton's shares in 38 
 
 Caroline Academy 146 
 
 Carpenter, Nicholas 120 
 
 Carr, Peter 9, 20, 25, 34 
 
 Carr, Samuel S 159 
 
 'Carrington, Edward 123 
 
 Carroll's Academy (Fauquier) . . . 122 
 
 Carter, Charles 110 
 
 Carter, John 102 
 
 Carter, Robert, schooling of 102 
 
 Cartmell, T. K 118 
 
 Cary, John 145 
 
 Cary, John B 142 
 
 Cassells, William 131 
 
 Cattell, J. McKeen 169 
 
 Cattell, Thomas W 158 
 
 Cattell, William C 159 
 
 Census 1860 (educaion estimates), 82-83 
 
 Central College 25, 137 
 
 Chalkley, Lyman 148 
 
 Chambers, David 120 
 
 Charles City county, Nelson's 
 
 School in 101 
 
 Charlestown Academy 129 
 
 Charlotte Academies 143 
 
 Charlotte County Girls' School.. 133 
 
 Chapline, Moses 120 
 
 Chatham Girls' School 175 
 
 Chesterfield Academy 157 
 
 Chilton, Harrison 127 
 
 Chisholm, James 158 
 
 Christianville (Chase City) Acad- 
 emy 150, 173 
 
 Christian Monitor 35 
 
 Claiborne, John Herbert 129 
 
 Clarke, James 124 
 
 Clark. Peyton 119 
 
 Clarke, "William C 123 
 
 Clark, William L 119 
 
 Clarke's School (Shepherdstown) 124 
 
 Clarksville Academy 150 
 
 Clary, Henry 128 
 
 Claybrook, R. A 161 
 
 Claytor, William G 170 
 
 Clive, George 136 
 
 Clopton, Abner W 134 
 
 Clopton, J. C 161 
 
 Clopton, S. C 161 
 
 Clover Hill Academy (Chester- 
 field) 157 
 
 Cluster Springs Academy 135 
 
 Cobbs, Nicholas H. (Bishop) 127 
 
 Cocke, Charles L 161 
 
 Coleman, Atwell 162 
 
 Coleman, Frederick. .. .161-163, 168, 169 
 
 Coleman, Lewis Minor..l09, 146, 168, 169 
 
 Coleman, Spencer 166 
 
 Collhyon, Richard 140 
 
186 
 
 Index 
 
 Colston, Edward 124 
 
 Comfort, David 54, 143 
 
 Committee Reports on Schools 
 
 and Colleges 14, 15, 16 
 
 Common Schools (1823), defence 
 
 of 46 
 
 Concord Academy 146, 161, 170 
 
 Conditions of 1850 73-76 
 
 Conrad, D. Holmes 119 
 
 Conrad, Robert T 119 
 
 Constitutional Convention, 1850- 
 
 51 75 
 
 Convention of Virginia Colleges, 
 
 1844 79 
 
 Cooke, William D 148 
 
 County Aldermen 8, 22 
 
 County Normal Schools 12, 14 
 
 Court-day 102 
 
 Courtney, Philip (Rev.) 139 
 
 Covington, W. W. (Rappahannock 
 
 School) 175 
 
 Cowardin, J. A 66 
 
 Craney Island School 174 
 
 Crawford, Mr 168 
 
 Crawley, Charles W 154 
 
 Crump, Judge 138 
 
 Crump, Richard 123 
 
 Culpeper Academies 130 
 
 Curriculum: 
 
 Abingdon Academy 136 
 
 Bloomfleld Academy 163 
 
 Hampden-Sidney Prep 104, 105 
 
 Hampton Academy 142 
 
 Louisa county 117 
 
 Margaret Academy 144 
 
 Newmarket Academy 151 
 
 Norfolk Academy 140 
 
 Northumberland Academy... 153 
 
 Randolph-Macon Prep 154 
 
 Richmond Academy 139 
 
 Rumford Academy 141 
 
 Shepherdstown Academy. . .124, 126 
 
 Virginia Baptist Seminary.. 160 
 
 "Westwood School 115 
 
 Curry, Alexander (Rev.) 146 
 
 Curry, J. L. M. (Hon.) 96 
 
 Cushing, Caleb 116 
 
 Gushing, Jonathan P., 
 
 12, 54, 55, (biog.) 93, 105 
 
 D 
 
 Dabney, (Jeorge B 13, 61, 127 
 
 Dabney, Robert Lewis 60, 117 
 
 Dalby, J. B 89 
 
 Dalrymple, Edwin A. (Doctor) . . 165 
 
 Dalton, William 146 
 
 Daniel's (Dr. John M.) School 
 
 (Stafford) 176 
 
 Daniel, Peter V., Jr 66 
 
 Daniel, R. T 6G 
 
 Danville Academy 152 
 
 Danville Female Academy 133 
 
 Davis, Dabney C. ' T 159 
 
 Davis, H. L. 127 
 
 Davis, John (of Salisbury), 
 
 121, 122, 126, 127 
 
 Davis, R. Eeale 139 
 
 Davis, Williams Thomas 126, 154 
 
 Davis, William T 163 
 
 Dawson Fund (Albemarle) 72, 82 
 
 Dawson, Martin 72 
 
 De Butts, Lawrence 161 
 
 Decline of Learning (1817) 35-37 
 
 Decline of Letters (1827) 52 
 
 Democracy and Education, 
 
 17, 22, 56-57, 76, 103 
 
 Dickinson College 20 
 
 District School Law (1829) 12,53 
 
 Dodson, Ellas 161 
 
 Downs, Mr 114 
 
 Duke, R. T. W. SO, 146 
 
 Dulany, Benjamin 115 
 
 Duncan, Judge 13 
 
 Duncan, David 132, 140 
 
 Duncan, William E 170 
 
 Dunlap, M. D. (Rev.) 166 
 
 Dunton School (Bedford) 170 
 
 Dutton, Francis (Rev.) 146 
 
 Duvall, John Pearce 120 
 
 Eastwood School (near Staunton) 148 
 
 Ebenezer Academy 128 
 
 Edgehill School (see Guinney's 
 
 Depot School) 146 
 
 Edmund, Mr 140 
 
 Education: 
 
 Bill of 1779 17-19 
 
 Act of 1796 22-23 
 
 Committee of 1809 (Noland, 
 Preston, Stevenson, etc., 
 
 etc.) 26 
 
 Bill of 1817 (Mercer) 32 
 
 Jefferson's Draft (1817) 35, 69 
 
 Act of 1818 10, 37 
 
 Act of 1821 60 
 
 Act of 1829 53, 64 
 
 Act of 1836 60 
 
 Conditions of 1841 58-61 
 
 Act of 1841 68 
 
 Act of 1846 14, 68-72 
 
 Conditions of 1857 81 
 
 Acts, France, England, Vir- 
 ginia, 1796-1870 75 
 
 Education Conventions: 
 
 Virginia 1841-1856 13 
 
 Richmond 1841 61 
 
 Richmond 1846 64-60 
 
 Education and Literature in Va. 
 
 (1850) 73-77 
 
Index 
 
 187 
 
 171 
 124 
 
 133 
 43 
 
 Edwards, F. M 
 
 Eggleston, Joseph 
 
 Ellis, Thomas H 
 
 Elniwood School (Essex) 48 
 
 Emigration 
 
 Emory and Henry College 13, 76 
 
 Empie, Adam (President) 55 
 
 Epes, Branch 144 
 
 Episcopal High School 164 
 
 Eppes, John "W 20 
 
 Europe, compared with Virginia. 19-20 
 
 Evans, John 120 
 
 Ewing, William 136 
 
 Swings, George (runaway teach- 
 er) 102 
 
 Ezell, R. A 122 
 
 Fairfax Academy (Culpeper) .... 130 
 
 Fairfax, Ferdinand 129 
 
 Farish, James 157 
 
 Farish, John T. 157 
 
 Farmers' Register 24, 43 
 
 Farmville Female Seminary As- 
 sociation 178 
 
 Farham Parish Schools 176 
 
 Farr, Richard Ratcliffe, 
 
 83, (biog.) 95, 170 
 
 Farrar's School (Fluvanna) 171 
 
 Faulkner School (Chesterfield)... 157 
 
 Faulkner, Margaret 157 
 
 Female education. .. .33, 47, 48, 55, 133 
 
 Ficklin, Ben 80 
 
 Ificklin, B. F 136 
 
 Fincastle Academy (Botetourt 
 
 Seminary) 113 
 
 Fincastle Female Academy 133 
 
 Fisher, Charles 145 
 
 Fitzgerald, John 114 
 
 Fitzhugh, William 110 
 
 Fitzhugh, William H..57, 76, (biog.) 92 
 
 Fleetwood Academy 165, 172 
 
 Fuller, Jacob , • • • • 
 
 Funk's School (Rockingham) . 
 
 G 
 
 108 
 155 
 
 Fleming, William 
 
 Fleming, William R 
 
 Fl'eteher, Richard T 
 
 Fluvanna Female Institute 
 
 Foote, William Henry 
 
 Foster, H. J 
 
 Fox Hill Academy 
 
 Franklin Academy 
 
 Franklin School (Lexington) . . . . 
 
 Jfrary, Jesse L. 
 
 Fredericksburg Academy 
 
 Fredericksburg Charity School.. 
 
 Fredericksburg Girls' School 
 
 Friends' School (Lynchburg) . . . . 
 (Loudoun) 
 
 123 
 124 
 125 
 171 
 152 
 161 
 163 
 144 
 107 
 125 
 109 
 110 
 133 
 145 
 173 
 
 Gadsby's Tavern 114 
 
 Gallagher, John S 66 
 
 Gait, William B 141 
 
 Gamble, John S 80, 141 
 
 Garland, Hugh A 112, 173 
 
 Garnett, James Mercer, 
 
 14, 55, 76, (biog.) 93 
 
 tJarnett, Mrs. James M 133 
 
 Gatewood, Robert . 80 
 
 Gee's School (Mecklenburg) 173 
 
 Gildersleeve, Basil L 138 
 
 Giles, William, Sr 123 
 
 Giles, William B 47, 123, 160 
 
 Gillespie's School (Louisa) 117 
 
 Gilmer, Thomas W^alker 168 
 
 Girardin, Louis Hue 138 
 
 Glebe funds.. 128, 137, 147, 148, 152, 161 
 
 Gloucester Academy 171 
 
 Godfrey's School (Pittsylvania). 175 
 
 Goff. D. (of Randolph) 14 
 
 Gogerty's Academy (King and 
 
 Queen) 16C 
 
 Goolrick, George 110 
 
 Goolrick, John 110 
 
 Gooch, Richard B 66 
 
 Goodlet, Adam 131 
 
 Goodrich, Hiram P 54, 55, 132 
 
 Goodrich, Samuel (Peter Parley) 116 
 
 I'Gordon, Alexander 158. 159 
 
 Gordon, Charles 158, 159 
 
 Gordon, Churchill 159 
 
 Gordon, George 158, 159 
 
 Gordon, James L 158 
 
 Gordon, Mason 159 
 
 Gordon, Reuben 157, 158 
 
 Gordon, William F 159 
 
 Gordon, William F.. Jr 157, 158 
 
 Graham, Edward 127 
 
 Graham, James R 119 
 
 Graham, William (Rector) 106 
 
 Graham, William (Greenbrier) . . 146 
 
 Grasty, John S 114 
 
 Grigsby, Hugh Blair 57, 132, 140 
 
 Guigon, Auguste 
 
 Guinney's Depot School (Caro- 
 line) 
 
 Gummare, John (Pennsylvania) .. 
 Gwathmey's School (Richmond) . 
 
 H 
 
 Front Royal Academy 
 
 Fry, H. W 
 
 Fuller, Bartholomew 147 1 Hall's Free School (Hanover) 
 
 Halifax Academy 
 
 Halifax Dan River Institute.... 
 
 16'4 I Hall, Aaron (Hanover School 
 
 88 I Fund) 
 
 139 
 
 146 
 115 
 138 
 
 134 
 134 
 
 82 
 172 
 
188 
 
 Index 
 
 Hall, Edwin • 158 
 
 Hall, R. H 136 
 
 Hall's (Colonel Weldon) School 
 
 (Mecklenburg) 173 
 
 Hallowell, Benjamin ^..114, 115, 116 
 
 Hallo-well, Caleb 116 
 
 Hallowell, James 116 
 
 Hamlett, R. A 85 
 
 Hampden-Sidney Academy 104 
 
 Hampden-Sidney College, 
 
 12, 34, 38, 53, 105, 116, 120, 124, 144, 146 
 
 Hampton Academy 142 
 
 Hanover Academy 109, 168, 172 
 
 Hanson, Samuel 114 
 
 Hanson, Thomas H 110,111 
 
 Harding-, Strother 89 
 
 Hardy, O. L,. 85 
 
 Hardy's School ((Greensville) .... 172 
 
 Harper School (Dinwiddle) 170 
 
 Harris, Castor J 127 
 
 Harrison, Benjamin 120 
 
 Harrison, Gessner 125, 160 
 
 Harrison, Jesse Burton, 
 
 53, (biog.) 92, 144 
 
 Harrison, William H 160 
 
 Harrisonburg Academies 125 
 
 Harrow, Gilbert Ill 
 
 Hartsh-orne, "William 115 
 
 Harwood Academy (Stafford).... 176 
 
 Harvey, John 120 
 
 Hawkins, -William" W 157, 158 
 
 tieath's (Harlowe) Academy 
 
 (Nelson) 174 
 
 Heath, James E 66 
 
 Heartwell, Girard • 171 
 
 Hebard, Joseph H 143 
 
 Hedgman, John E 176 
 
 Henderson, James 124 
 
 Hendriok, Elijah H 179 (note) 
 
 Hendricks, James 114 
 
 Henrico School Commissioners.. 172 
 
 Henry College 34 
 
 Henry's (Milton) School (Staf- 
 ford) 176 
 
 Henry, Patrick 104, 120 
 
 Hensley, Mahlon A 170 
 
 Hermanethian and Journal of the 
 "Virginia Collegiate Institute 
 
 (Portsmouth) ' 174 
 
 Heterick, Mr 119 
 
 Heuser, Charles 175 
 
 Hicksford Academy (Greens- 
 ville) 171 
 
 Hillsborough Academy (Lou- 
 doun) 173 
 
 Hogan, Mr 128 
 
 Hoge, John B 148 
 
 Hoge, Moses (President) 124 
 
 Hoge, Samuel D 131 
 
 Holcombe, James P 160 
 
 Holcomb, Timothy 170 
 
 H»lladay, Albert L 54 
 
 HoUey, Nathaniel 136 
 
 Hopkins, Prank 159 
 
 llopkins, -William P 140 
 
 Hotchkiss, Major Jed 168 
 
 Howard School (near Alexan- 
 dria) 164 
 
 Howison, Robert R 73, 111 
 
 Hubbard, Dr. C 164 
 
 Hughes, Thomas (Rev.) 109,171 
 
 Humes, W. Y. C 136 
 
 Hunter, S. M 125 
 
 Hygeia Academy 149 
 
 I 
 
 Illiteracy (1816) 30 
 
 Illiteracy in England 74, 75 
 
 Index to Enrolled Bills 15 
 
 'Indigent Children' 40 
 
 Institute of Education of Hamp- 
 den-Sidney College... 12, 54, 56, 57 
 
 Internal Improvements 103, l38 
 
 .1 
 
 Jackson, George 120 
 
 Jackson, John, Jr 120 
 
 Jackson, Jonathan 121 
 
 Jackson, T. J. (Gen.) 121, 168 
 
 James River Academy (Bote- 
 tourt) 114 
 
 Janes, Mr 158 
 
 Janney, S. M 66, 116, 182 
 
 Jeffery, George 159 
 
 Jefferson, Thomas, 
 
 7, 8, 9, 10, 17, 19, 25, 26, 27, 30, 34, 
 
 52, 69, 90, 112, 136, 137, 158, 160 
 
 Jefferson's Idea 101 
 
 Jefferson Academy (Culpeper) . . . 130 
 
 Jefferson Academy (Dinwiddie) .. 171 
 
 Jefferson College 160 
 
 Jeffersonville Historical Society. 15 
 
 Jenison, Ozro P 137 
 
 John, "William 1?0 
 
 Johnson, Col. J. C 87 
 
 Johnston, "William 119 
 
 Jones's (Major A. J.) School 
 
 (Fauquier) 122 
 
 Jones, Hilary P 169 
 
 Jones, Joseph 110 
 
 Jones. Miss Mary (School in 
 
 Greensville) 172 
 
 Jones, R. "W 172 
 
 Jones, -William F 84 
 
 Joynes, Edward S 163 
 
 K 
 
 Kean, Napoleon B. (School in 
 
 Goochland) 118 
 
Index 
 
 189 
 
 Kean, Dr. O. W. (School In 
 
 Goochland) 171 
 
 Keith, Isaac S 114 
 
 Kello, Samuel 122 
 
 Kemper, Delaware 116 
 
 Kemper, Kosciuszko 116 
 
 Kemper, "William H 116 
 
 Kentucky Academy 120 
 
 Kentucky District (education in) 120 
 
 Keswick (Turkey Hill) School.. 157 
 
 Kidd, Lewis 166 
 
 King George Free Schools 172 
 
 King, William 136 
 
 Kirkpatrick, John (Rev.) 157 
 
 Lacy, Drury 131. 
 
 Lacy, William 131 
 
 Lambeth, S. S., Jr 127 
 
 Lancasterian School (Richmond) 139 
 
 Lancasterlan School (Wheeling). 156 
 
 Lane, Turner 135 
 
 Latrobe, Benjamin Henry (essay 
 
 on national education) 129 
 
 Lawrence, John G Ill, 146 
 
 Lay, Henry C. (Bishop) 165 
 
 Leary, William B 114, 115 
 
 Lecky, John H 168 
 
 Lee, Charles 114 
 
 Lee, Henry T. (Rev.) 136 
 
 Lee, Richard Henry 121 
 
 Lee, Richard Henry, Jr 110 
 
 Lee, Robert B 114, 115 
 
 Leesburg Academy 130, 173 
 
 Leigh, Benjamin Watkins 76 
 
 Letters and -Taste in Virginia 
 
 (1827) 49-53 
 
 Lewis, Henry 159 
 
 Lewis, Jolln (Llangollen School). Ill 
 
 Lewis, William 158 
 
 Lewisburg Academy 145 
 
 Lewisburg Female Institute.... 146 
 
 Liberty Hall Academy 105 
 
 Ligon, John 124 
 
 Lindsay, Stephen 171 
 
 Literary Fund: 
 
 Established (1810) 25 
 
 Augmented (1816) 30 
 
 Report of President and Di- 
 rectors (1S17) 27-30 
 
 Application ot (1822) 41 
 
 Application ot (1841) 58-61 
 
 Literary Fund items. 
 
 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 32, 33, 34, 81, 
 126, 138, 139, 146, 151, 153, 155, 163 
 Literary Fund Schooling in the 
 Counties: 
 
 Accomac 84 
 
 Brunswick 84 
 
 Campbell 85 
 
 Lunenburg 85 
 
 Caroline 86 
 
 Goochland 86 
 
 Halifax 86 
 
 King William 87 
 
 Madison 88 
 
 Montgomery 88 
 
 Northampton 89 
 
 Northumberland 89 
 
 Scott 89 
 
 Stafford 89 
 
 Wythe 89 
 
 Literary and Evangelical Maga- 
 zine, 38, 41, 43, 45, 47, 48, 49, 81, 92 
 Literary Messenger. .. .13, 55, 57, 65, 73 
 
 , Papers on education 
 
 in the S'outh and West 65 
 
 Literary and Philosophical Socie- 
 ty at Hampden-Sidney Col- 
 lege 53 
 
 Little, John P 11, 74 
 
 Little Levels Academy 166 
 
 Llangollen School (Spotsylvania) 111 
 
 Lloyd, John 115 
 
 Lodor, John (Rev) 147 
 
 Logan, Robert (Rev.) 114 
 
 Lomax, Thomas 110 
 
 Lottery 123, 130, 137 
 
 Louisa County Schools 117 
 
 Lowell, S. H 163 
 
 Loyds School (Essex) 171 
 
 Luckett, H. W 169 
 
 Ludwell Lee Free School Fund 
 
 (James City) .../ 172 
 
 Lunenburg schooling 173 
 
 Lynchburg College 145 
 
 Lynchburg Girls' School 133 
 
 Lynchburg Schools 144 
 
 Mc 
 
 McCabe. W. Gordon 110, 142, 163 
 
 McCalla (McCauley), Rev. Daniel, 
 
 108, 109 
 
 McClerry, William 120 
 
 McConnell, J 127 
 
 McDowell, James (gov.), 
 
 13, 62, 65, 66, 67, (biog.) 93 
 
 McBlhenney, John (Rev.) 145, 146 
 
 MacParland, William H 66 
 
 McGee, William 126 
 
 McGhee, John 159 
 
 McGhee, Lewis 159 
 
 McGhee, Rice 159 
 
 McGuire, John P. (Rev.) 165 
 
 McGuire's School (Richmond).... 165 
 
 Mcllwaine, Richard (President).. 126 
 
 McMurran, Joseph 125 
 
 McNutt, James 175 
 
 McNutt and Heuser's Academy 
 
 (Pulaski) 175 
 
190 
 
 Index 
 
 MoPherson, John 171 
 
 McViccar, Peter 136, 153 
 
 McWhirr, Dr 114 
 
 IMC 
 
 Madison, James (Bishop) 38 
 
 Madison, James 57, 104, 137 
 
 Maguire, H 140 
 
 Mahan, Milo 164 
 
 Mahone, William (Gen.) 80, 149 
 
 Manchester Academy 157 
 
 Mann, Horace 65 
 
 Margaret Academy 143, 170 
 
 Marshall Academy (Cabell coun- 
 ty) 164 
 
 Marshall, Herbert (Rev.) 131 
 
 Martha Washington College 124 
 
 Martinsburg Academy 148 
 
 Martin, Joseph 177 
 
 Martin's Gazetteer 101, 177 
 
 Martin, W. H 130 
 
 Mason, George 120 
 
 Mason, George (Dr.) 172 
 
 Masonic Schools 124 
 
 Masonic School of "Virginia 
 
 (Staunton) 124, 147 
 
 Massie, Robert 134 
 
 Massey, John B 117 
 
 Mathews County School Commis- 
 sioners (1830) 103 
 
 Matthews, Samuel (Rev.) 54, 136 
 
 Matthews, Thomas 120 
 
 Maupin, Calvin S 159 
 
 Maupin, Socrates..... 138, 139, 160 
 
 Maury, Dabney (Gen.) Ill 
 
 Maury's Grammar School Ill 
 
 Maury, James 112 
 
 Maury, Matthew 112 
 
 Maury, Walker Ill, 112 
 
 Maxwell, Robert 120 
 
 Maxwell, William 55 
 
 Mayo, A. D 15, 75 
 
 Meade, William (Bishop) 83,164 
 
 Meade Collegiate Institute 
 
 (Brooke county) 130 
 
 Meadesville Academy (Halifax) . . 134 
 
 Mecklenburg Schools 150 
 
 Meerbach, F. W 159 
 
 Mercer Academy 152 
 
 Mercer, Charles Fenton, 
 
 10, 15, 34, (biog.) 91 
 
 Meredith, Thomas 117 
 
 Meriwether, W. Douglas 158 
 
 Merrett Free School Fiind (King 
 
 and Queen) 172 
 
 Message of 1809 (Tyler) 24 
 
 Message of 1843 (McDowell) .... 62 
 
 Message of 1845 (McDowell) 67 
 
 Michie, Henry 158 
 
 Michie, Johnson 158 
 
 Micklejohn, George (Rev.) 161 
 
 Middleburg Academy 137 
 
 Middleburg Schools 173 
 
 Millfleld Academy \ 122 , 
 
 Miller, Lewis 157, 158 
 
 Miller, Norman 149 
 
 Miller, Tom 131 
 
 Milligan, Misses (Ringwood 
 
 School) 171 
 
 Mills, John S 122 
 
 Millspaugh, Andrew W 133 
 
 Millvale School (Stafford) 176 
 
 Minor, Charles 168 
 
 Minor, C. L. C 169 
 
 Minor, Franklin.. 166, 167, 168 
 
 Minor, John B 160 
 
 Minor, Lucian 56, 57 
 
 Minor, Peter 168 
 
 Minor, William W 168 
 
 Mitchell, James (Rev.) 120,127 
 
 Moldavia School (Charlotte) 143 
 
 Monongalia Academy 150 
 
 Monroe, James 9, 137 
 
 Monroe Free School Fund (Or- 
 ange), [See Orange Humane 
 
 Society] 82, 90 
 
 Montague, Philip 138 
 
 Moore, William 110 
 
 Morgan, Charles 11 
 
 Morgantown Female Academy. .. 150 
 
 Morogh, John 144 
 
 Mosby, Littleberry, Sr 123 
 
 Mossy Creek Academy 168 
 
 Munford, George W 66, 138 
 
 Munford, John 66 
 
 Munford, William 30, 139 
 
 Murphey, Judge (North Carolina 
 
 Education Report, 1817) 32 
 
 Murray, Nicholas ^. . . 119 
 
 Muster-day 102 
 
 Myers, Gustavus A 66 
 
 Nelson County Schools 174 
 
 Nelson, Hugh (M. A., Univ. Va. 
 
 1833) 101 
 
 Nelson, Hugh 159 
 
 Nelson, John 159 
 
 Nelson, Peter 169 
 
 Nelson, Robert 165 
 
 Nelson, Robert W 158 
 
 Nelson, Thomas (Dr.) 66 
 
 Nelson, William 66 
 
 Nelson, William F 161 
 
 New Baltimore Academy 156 
 
 New England Township 69 
 
 New Glasgow Academy 135 
 
 New Kent Schools 174 
 
 Newington Academy 152, 171 
 
 New London Academy 127 
 
Index 
 
 191 
 
 Newmarket Academy 151 
 
 Newmarket Polytechnic Institute 151 
 
 Newton, Enos W 137 
 
 Nicholas, George 120 
 
 Nicholas, Wilson C 30 
 
 Nisbets' Academy (Pennsylvania) 20 
 
 Norfolk Academy . 112, 140 
 
 Norfolk Beacon 57 
 
 Norfolk County Aldermen 9 
 
 Norfolk County Free School Sys- 
 tem (1845) ; 72, 174 
 
 Norfolk Free Schools 175 
 
 Normal School tor Women 
 
 (origins of) 133, 178 
 
 North Carolina (education report 
 
 1817) 32 
 
 Northumberland Academy 152, 174 
 
 Northwestern Academy 12] 
 
 North Western Virginia Educa- 
 tion Convention (1841) 13 
 
 Nottoway Academy 144 
 
 O 
 
 Odd Fellows' School of Abing- 
 don (Martha Washington 
 
 College) 124 
 
 Odd Fellows' Institute of Lynch- 
 burg 124 
 
 Odd Fellows' School of Peters- 
 burg 124 
 
 Odd Fellows' Institute of Rich- 
 mond 124 
 
 Ogilvie's Academy (Fauquier) .122, 156 
 
 Ogilvie's School (Albemarle) .... 170 
 
 Ogilvie, James 138, 139 
 
 Ogilvie, John (Rev.) 156 
 
 'Old Virginia,' retrospect of 1827. 49-53 
 Olin and Preston Institute (Mont- 
 gomery) 182 
 
 Onancock High School 143 
 
 O'Neill's School (Bromfield Par- 
 ish) : 131 
 
 Onley, Margaret Ann 143 
 
 Opie, John Newton 148 
 
 Orange Humane Society. .. .82, 90, 174 
 
 Osborne, Charles F 66 
 
 Oswald, James 139 
 
 Owen, Goronwy 112 
 
 P 
 
 Page, Carter H 157, 158 
 
 Page, Frank W 157, 158, 159 
 
 Page, Frederick W 158, 159 
 
 Page, James M 159 
 
 Page, John 165 
 
 Page, Mann 110, 159 
 
 Page, Mann, Jr 158 
 
 Page, R. C. M 157, 159 
 
 Page, Thomas 159 
 
 Page, Wilmer 158, 159 
 
 Page County Schools and School- 
 ing 175 
 
 Paine, John W. (Dr.) 107 
 
 Palfreyman, poet and teacher... 102 
 
 Patton, George S 80 
 
 Paxton, James H 108 
 
 Peasley, Henry (Gloucester 
 
 County School Fund) 128 
 
 Pendleton, Edmund 17, 110 
 
 Pendleton, Stephen T 136 
 
 Pendleton, William N 164 165 
 
 Pendleton College 34 
 
 Perscher, F. W 141 
 
 Pestalozzi 12 
 
 Petersburg Academy 125 
 
 Petersburg Classical Institute... 126 
 
 Peyton, W. M 147 
 
 Pierpont, T. H. (gov.) 121 
 
 Pierson, Albert 14S 
 
 Phillips, J. J 80 
 
 Philomathes 21 
 
 Piper Free School Fund (Acco- 
 
 mac) 170 
 
 Pitts, John H SO, 141, 142 
 
 Pittsylvania Academy 151 
 
 Pleasant Grove Academy (Meck- 
 lenburg) 150 
 
 Pleasants, John Hampden 171 
 
 Pleasants, Mr. and Mrs. Philip.. 171 
 
 Pleasants, Samuel 123 
 
 Pluraer, William S 55, 66 
 
 Poe, Edgar Allan 138 
 
 Pollard, John 166 
 
 Poor Children' 10 
 
 Pope, N. W 171 
 
 Portsmouth Academy 148 
 
 Port Royal Times and School Ad- 
 vocate 162 
 
 Potomac Academy (Hampshire 
 
 county) 152 
 
 Powell, D. Lee 80 
 
 Powell, John Henry 167 
 
 Powell, Mrs. Mary G 114, 116 
 
 Powers, John 120 
 
 Powers, Pike 148 
 
 Prentis, Joseph 120 
 
 Presbyterian Clergy in Virginia. 104 
 
 Presbytery of Hanover. .. .104, 105, 106 
 
 Preston, Col. William 102 
 
 Pride, John 123 
 
 Priestly, James 120 
 
 Prince Edward Academy 21 
 
 Prince Edward Schools 131 
 
 Princeton College 104, 106 
 
 Progress of Education (1857).... 80 
 Prospects of Letters and Taste 
 
 (1827) 49 
 
 Provost, Mr 158 
 
 Pulaski Schools 175 
 
192 
 
 Index 
 
 Purdie, George 122 
 
 Q, 
 
 Quarles, D. M 118 
 
 Quarles, John T 118 
 
 Quesnay de Beaurepaire 138 
 
 R 
 
 Ragland, Major R. L 86 
 
 Railroad in Virginia 101 
 
 Ramsey, Samuel G 128 
 
 Randolph, Brett 124 
 
 Randolph, Edmund 120 
 
 Randolph, John Ill, 112, 131 
 
 Randolph, Thomas Mann 20 
 
 Randolph Academy (Clarksburg) 120 
 
 Randolph-Macon College, 12, 58, 129, 153 
 
 Randolph-Macon Prep. School.. 126, 154 
 
 Rappahannock Academy .. .146, 149, 170 
 Rappahannock Schools and 
 
 Schooling 175, 176 
 
 Rawson's School (Lynchburg)... 145 
 
 Read, John K 124 
 
 Read, N. S 125 
 
 Reardon, John 102 
 
 Rector College 166 
 
 Redd, "William B 171 
 
 Rees's Encyclopedia 40 
 
 Reeve, B. S , . 86 
 
 Reid, John 145 
 
 Reid, William S 133, 144 
 
 Repass, Major D. G 89 
 
 Report, Supt. of Public Instruc- 
 tion 1885 (historical items 
 
 in) 170 
 
 Revival of Learning (in Vir- 
 ginia) 11, 35 
 
 Revisers, Committee of (1776)... 17 
 
 Reynolds, Rowland 138,140 
 
 Rhea, Andrew . '. 134 
 
 Rice, David 120 
 
 Rice, John Holt, 
 
 11, 35, 37, 40-46, 47, 55, 
 
 (biog.) 92, 143 
 
 Rice, Thompkins 129 
 
 Richardson's Academy (Louisa). 118 
 
 Richland School (Stafford) 176 
 
 Richmond Academy 137 
 
 Richmond College 160 
 
 Richmond County School Com- 
 missioners 176 
 
 Richmond Education Convention 
 
 (1841, 1845) 13, 66 
 
 Ridgway School 166 
 
 Rights of Man 7, 8 
 
 Ritchie, Thomas 61, 139 
 
 Rives, Alfred 158 
 
 Rives, Francis R 158 
 
 Rives, William C 73 
 
 Rives, William C, Jr 158 
 
 Roanoke College 156 
 
 Roanoke Institute (Mecklenburg) 150 
 
 Robertson, John 130 
 
 Robertson, Thomas B 143 
 
 Robinson, Richard 119 
 
 Rockbridge County Schooling 
 
 (1776) 102 
 
 Rockingham Academy 125, 155 
 
 Rogers, Asa 66 
 
 Rogers, William B 48 
 
 Ronald, William 120, 123 
 
 Romney Academy 152 
 
 Root, B 54, 133 
 
 Root's School (Prince Edward) . . 133 
 
 Rosset, John D. D 14 
 
 Royall, John 124 
 
 Royal Oak School (Smyth) 135 
 
 Ruftner, Henry. 13, 14, 61, (biog.) 94, 146 
 
 Ruffner, William H 61, 108 
 
 Rumf ord Academy 87, 141 
 
 Russell, George W 130 
 
 Russell County Schools 176 
 
 Ryland, Robert (Rev.) 160 
 
 S 
 
 Sabbath Schools 40 
 
 Paint Bride's Academy 163, 174 
 
 Salem Academy (Kentucky) 120 
 
 Salem Academy (Roanoke coun- 
 ty) 155 
 
 Salyards, Joseph 125, 151 
 
 Salter's School (York) 177 
 
 Samuel Davies Institute (Hali- 
 fax) 134 
 
 Sanford Free School and Fund. 144, 170 
 Saunders, Bphraim D. (Rev.).. 126, 136 
 
 Scheie de Vere, Professor 142 
 
 Schoepf, Johann David 112,130 
 
 Sclater, J. R 141 
 
 Schooler, Samuel 146 
 
 Schoolhouses in Virginia ^ and 
 
 Massachusetts 59, 60 
 
 Scots education in Virginia 51, 52 
 
 Scott, John P 140 
 
 Scott, Winfleld 138 
 
 Scottville Lodge Academy 123 
 
 S'eabrook, Nicholas. Brown 107 
 
 Semple, Robert Baylor 165, 169 
 
 Shay, King — 114 
 
 Sheffield, George W 141 
 
 Shenandoah County School Com- 
 missioners (1840) 16 
 
 Shenandoah Valley Academy.... 119 
 
 Shepherdstown Academy 124 
 
 Sims, Edward Dromgoole 93 
 
 Simms, Charles 115 
 
 Skinker, John 110 
 
 Slaughter, Augustine (Dr.) 140 
 
 Smith, Augustine C 119 
 
TXDEX 
 
 193 
 
 Smith, A. Magill 119 
 
 Smith, Benjamin Mosby 54, 55 
 
 Smith, Blackwell (Fauquier uo. 
 
 Academy) 122 
 
 Smith, Edward 123 
 
 Smith, Pranlclin G. (Rev.), 132, 144, 145 
 Smith, Francis H., 
 
 13, 14, 61, 62, 80, (biog.) 94, 138, 142 
 
 Smith, 'George A 181 
 
 fvmitli, John Augustine, 
 
 10, 12, 30-32, (biog.) 91 
 
 Smith, J. Blaclcwell 171 
 
 Smith, John Blair 104 
 
 Smith, J. Brookes 57 
 
 Smith, Joseph (Rev.) 125, 147 
 
 Smith, J. J 148 
 
 Smythe, J. J 119 
 
 Smith, Michael 140 
 
 Smith, Richard M 122,171 
 
 .Smith, Samuel Stanliope 104 
 
 Smithfield Academy 156 
 
 Sneed, Benjamin 170 
 
 South Carolina education 46 
 
 South Garden School (Caroline) . 146 
 
 'Southern Enterprize' 41 
 
 Southern Female College (Pe- 
 tersburg) 154 
 
 Spencer School (Greensville) .... 172 
 
 Spindle's School (Stafford) 176 
 
 Springfield School (Goochland) . . 171 
 
 Spring Hill Academy (Halifax) . . 172 
 
 Spotts, John (Rev.) 146 
 
 Sproul, Master 170 
 
 Starke, Belfield 134 
 
 State Normal School for Women 
 (see Farmville Female Semi- 
 nary Association) 178 
 
 Statute Books, source of educa- 
 tional history 103 
 
 Staunton Academy 1 17 
 
 Stearnes, R. C 170 
 
 Sterling, Richard Ill, 138 
 
 Stevens, Edward 110 
 
 Stevensburg Academy (Culpeper) 130 
 
 Stevenson, Andrew 66, 130 
 
 Stevensville Academy (King and 
 
 Queen) 172 
 
 Stewart, David 114 
 
 Stover, Christian (of Peter) 154 
 
 Stover School Fund (Shenandoah) 155 
 
 Strange, John B 140 
 
 Strasburg Academy 16, 154 
 
 Strickland, William (Report Brit- 
 ish Board of Agriculture, 
 
 1796) 24 
 
 Strother, French 110 
 
 Struve, George 161 
 
 Stuart, Archibald 147 
 
 Stuart, A. Briscoe 171 
 
 Stuart, W. D 80 
 
 S^'unday Schools in Delaware 46 
 
 Superintendent of the Literary 
 
 Fund 94 
 
 Surface, F. D 88 
 
 Symmes and Eaton Free Schools. 142 
 
 Tabb, John 
 
 Tabb, Thomas 
 
 Tackett, Charles 
 
 Taliaferro, William B 
 
 Taylor's School (Loudoun). 
 Taylor, Henry 
 
 171 
 174 
 176 
 171 
 173 
 161 
 
 Taylor, John (of Caroline) 24, 162 
 
 Taylor, John (Southampton) 122 
 
 Taylor, Stephen (Rev.) 153 
 
 Taylor, Mr 169 
 
 Teachers, supply of (1816) 31 
 
 Tebbs, Willoughby 167 
 
 Telepathy 101 
 
 Thomas, George H. (gen.) 122 
 
 Thomas, Major R. S 156 
 
 j Thompson, C. W 164 
 
 Thompson, George W 14 
 
 Thompson, John R 73, 77 
 
 Thorpe's School (Winchester)... 118 
 Tick Hill Academy (Albemarle) . 157 
 
 jTimber Ridge- 103 
 
 Tinsley, J. B 55 
 
 Todd, John (Rev.) 117 
 
 Towles. Thomas 110 
 
 Townley, K. B 145 
 
 Transylvania Seminary 120 
 
 Thinity College (Dublin) 105, 138 
 
 Tschudi, Richard B 140 
 
 Tunstall, Robert W 141 
 
 Turner, David 130 
 
 Tutwiler, Henry 125 
 
 Tyler, John (gov.) 9, 24, 25 
 
 U 
 
 Union College (New York), 
 
 104, 132, 1S3, 136 
 Union Theological Seminary 
 
 (Prince Edward county) .... 55, 92 
 
 University of Virginia (1786) 20, 21 
 
 University of Virginia (1818-1860), 
 
 9. 10, 13, 15, 25, 45, 61, 75, 77, 78, 
 79, 80-81, 137, 159, 160, 163, 16S 
 University of Virginia Normal 
 
 School 76, 77 
 
 University of West Virginia.... 150 
 Urquhart, William 122 
 
 V 
 
 Valentine, Edward V 138 
 
 Venable, A. R 132 
 
 Venable, N. E 133 
 
 Virginia Baptist Seminary 160 
 
194 
 
 Index 
 
 Virginia Collegiate Institute 15B 
 
 Virginia Capitol (Williamsburg) 112 
 
 Virginia Historical Register.... 73 
 
 Virginia Historical Society 55, 7a 
 
 Virginia Magazine of History.... 21 
 Virginia Military Institute, 
 
 12, 78-80, 113 
 
 V. M. I. Normal School 62, 80 
 
 Virginia Parish Schools 'Colo- 
 nial) 50-51, 161 
 
 Virginia Polytechnic Institute 
 (see Olin and Preston Insti- 
 tute) 182 
 
 Virginia School Exhibit: 
 
 New Orleans (1884) 83 
 
 Richmond (1885) 83 
 
 'Virginia Schools before the Rev- 
 olution, &c.' (by W. Gordon 
 
 McCabe) Ill, 163 
 
 w 
 
 Waddell, James 117 
 
 Waddell, James G 147 
 
 Waddell, Littleton 148 
 
 Waldo, Giles 15S 
 
 Walker, Francis 157 
 
 Walker, Lindsay 158 
 
 Walker, M. Lewis 159 
 
 Walker, Dr. W. T. (Goochland 
 
 School) 171 
 
 Walter, Thomas U 140 
 
 ■^'are Parish Academy 127 
 
 War 102, 30. 126, 164, 
 
 119, 121, 127, 168 
 
 Warminster Academy 123 
 
 Warren Academy 121 
 
 Warren-Green Academy (Fau- 
 quier) 122 
 
 Warrenton Academy 122 
 
 Washington, Charles 129 
 
 Washington, George 38, 114, 115 
 
 Washington, Lawrence 161 
 
 Washington, Samuel 129 
 
 Washington Academy (Amelia).. 160 
 Washington Academy (Rock- 
 bridge) 107 
 
 Washington Academy (West- 
 moreland) 161 
 
 Washington Academy (Somerset 
 
 Co., Maryland) 144 
 
 Washington Parish School 161 
 
 Washington County School Com- 
 missioners 12 
 
 Washington College. .. 34, 38, 61, 77, 107 
 Washington College Prep. ^School, 
 
 107-108 
 Washington and Lee University 
 
 (origins of) 106 
 
 Washington School (Alexandria) 114 
 
 Washington-Henry Academy 108 
 
 Waterford School (Loudoun) .... 17.') 
 
 Watson, Josiah • 1? 5 
 
 Weaver, J. C 84 
 
 Webb, William 135,176 
 
 Wellsburg Academy 129 
 
 Wesson, William H 129 
 
 Westfall, Jacob, Jr 120 
 
 West Point Military Academy... 78 
 Western Virginia (education in) 12; 
 Western Virginia Education So- 
 ciety 166 
 
 Westmoreland Poor S'chool So- 
 ciety 176 
 
 Westwood School (near Lynch- 
 burg) 145 
 
 Wharey, James (Rev.) 117,135 
 
 Wharton, G. C. (gen.) 122 
 
 Wheeling Academies 156 
 
 Whiskey 11, 40 
 
 White, James G 166 
 
 White, William S 109, 132 
 
 White, Mr 165 
 
 Whitehead, Alexander 140 
 
 Whitehead, James (Rev.) 140 
 
 White Post Academy (Frederick) 147 
 
 Whittle, Francis M. (Bishop) ... 165 
 
 WicklifEe Academy (Frederick).. 147 
 
 I 'Wigwam' School (Amelia) 160 
 
 Wildman, J. W 80 
 
 I Wilkinson, James 122 
 
 William and Mary College, 
 
 8, 18, 19, 20, 21, 25, 30, 34, 38, 
 
 52, 104, 112, 120, 121, 140 
 
 Williamsburg Academy 21, 112 
 
 Williamsburg Girls' School 133 
 
 Williams, W. G 155 
 
 Williamson Free School Fund 
 
 (Hanover) 172 
 
 Williamson, William (Rev.) 173 
 
 Willington Academy (South Car- 
 olina) 106 
 
 Willis, Nathaniel 124 
 
 Willis, N. P 124 
 
 Wilmer, George T. (Dr.) 164 
 
 Wilson, Benjamin 120 
 
 Wilson, John 120 
 
 Wilson, Samuel B. (Rev.) 133 
 
 Wills, James 122 
 
 Winchester Academy 119 
 
 Windsor School (Stafford) 176 
 
 Winfield Academy (Dinwiddle), 153, 170 
 
 Wingfield Academy (Hanover) . . 169 
 
 Winfree, R. B. (Dr.) 157 
 
 Winniford, John T 136 
 
 Winston, John H 145 
 
 Wise, Barton H 143 
 
 Wise, brothers 122 
 
 Wise, Henry A 75, 143 
 
 Woart, Jonathan Loring (Rev.) . 164 
 
 Woart, John (Rev.) 164 
 
Index 
 
 195 
 
 Wolfe, Dr. J. B 
 
 Wood, James 
 
 Wood, John 
 
 Woodstock Academy 
 
 Woodlawn Academy (Louisa) . 
 
 Woods, Archibald 
 
 Woods, Daniel 
 
 Woods, Leonard 
 
 Woodson, Frederick ......... 
 
 Woodson, John 
 
 Woodson, Tarlton 
 
 Woodson, Wade 
 
 Woodson, W. A 
 
 Woodville, John (Rev.) 
 
 Worman, Francis 
 
 in Dinwiddle) 171 
 
 Wrenn, Walter 169 
 
 Wright, B. B S6 
 
 Wythe', George 17, 19 
 
 Wythe College 34 
 
 89 Worrall, James 
 
 120 Iworsham, Dr. H. C. (girls' school 
 139 ■ 
 
 16 
 118 
 120 
 133 
 133 
 124 
 171 
 124 
 124 
 136 
 111 
 120 
 
 124 
 
 Yeates Free 
 mond) . . . 
 
 Y 
 
 Schools 
 
 (Nanse- 
 
 Zane. Ebenezer 
 
 174 
 
 120 
 
H^^ 
 
 ^M/JG 
 
 "?.%-iw« 
 
 W,.^^ 
 
 ^-^M 
 
 
 -fm- 
 
 '*■.::- 
 
 ■ r-.,!>v 
 
 '^"'^f^: 
 
 
 M^-^ 
 
 1^1- -^^- 
 
 A' ■^*^.A^'