LIBRARY ANNEX ;* The ^nthon LiBE^.iY. COLLECTED BY CHARLES ANTHON !E*rolfessor of GJ-reek: a.Tid. X^atiii in. Columbia OoUege. . Purchased by Cornell Universit,'^ 1^8, Cornell University Library 3 1924 031 194 685 olin.anx Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31 924031 1 94685 A GEAMMAE OF THB LATIN LANGUAGE BY C. G. ZUMPT, PH.f)., rSOFESSOB IN THE TJHIVEESITT, UNO MEMBEK OF THE BOTIL AOilEMT OF BERLIN. rKOM THE NINTH EDITION OF THE ORIOINAL, ADAPTED TO THB VBt OP ENGLISH STHDENTS. BY LEONHABD P^CHMITZ, Ph.D., LATB OF THB UKITERSITT OP BOfnr. CORRECTED AND ENLAReES. BY CHARLES ANTHON. LL.D., PBOFKSSOB OF THE OBEEE AND LATII^ LANSUAQES IN COLUMBIA CSLLBS^ KEW-TOBK, AND EECTOB OF THE ORAHHAB-SCHOOL. THIRD EDITION. NEW YORK: HAKPER & BBOTHBaS, PUBLISHERS 329 & 331 PEARL STREET, FEANKMN SQUAEE. 185 9. .<^,- A. -T ^-T. y^**» -T'-' '^ » ^■'- '^ fi \X V i.„i iJ L '-J « .3 1. S .■ ^ \, _- — . - - -.^ Satered, according to Act of Congresfl, in the year 1848, by Hakpbr & Bkothebs, i ike Clerk's Office of the Southern District of New York PREFACE ro THE AMERICAN EDITION. The Editor conceives that he is rendering an im- portant service to the American student in the repub- lication of the present work. Its excellence is ac- knovsrledged by all European scholars, and now that it has received the last touches from the hand of its learn- ed author, we may confidently regard it as the best work on the subject of Latin Grammar in the English language. The Syntax, in particular, will be fornid exceedingly valuable, and this part of the volume alone would be sufficient to render the work an invaluable aid to the young scholar. The Translator has allu- ded in his Preface to certain additions that might ha\ e been made by him to the etymological part from Eng- lish sources, and has excused himself for not having furnished these, because the Author has himself ab- stained from them. These deficiencies, if they are de- serving of the name, the American Editor has attempt- ed to supply in foot-notes throughout the volume, as well as in two additional Appendices ; and he trusts that he may now recommend the work W'th perfect confidence to the American student, as far superior to any Grammar of the Latin Language at present used in this country. Columbia College, Decemlier 24, 1845. AUTHOR'S PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH TRANSLATION. In the year 1843 I received a letter from two Eng- lish scholars, suggesting to me the necessity of a new translation of my Latin Grammar, and requesting my assistance in the undertaking. Until then I had not been aware of the fact that the existing translation, which had been made from the third edition of my work (of which, however, it was not an exact repre- sentation, as some portions of the original were omit- ted), had remained in its original condition ; and al- though it had gone through several editions, yet had not been adequately improved and corrected, while the German original, by continued labour on my part, had, in its details, become quite a different work. This information was, of course, a sufficient reason for me to promise my best aid and co-operation in the new translation ; for whatever considerations may have in- duced my learned translator to allow my work to be printed again and again in its first and imperfect form it was to me a matter of the highest importance, that a nation which so highly prizes the study of philology, and takes so deep an interest in its progress, should be presented with my work in the best and most perfect form that I am able to give to it. It is unnecessary here to enter into the question why the plan of a new translation was not carried into effect by those gentle- men who originally proposed it to me ; but I was hap- VI AUTHORS PREFACE py to hear that ultimately the execution had been in- trusted to Dr. L. Schmitz, who, I feel convinced, has done ail that can be desired, both in point of correct- ness and good taste. The Latin language is so rich and happy in its or- ganization, and has been so consistently developed by the energetic spirit of the Roman people, as well as by the exquisite tact of the Roman authors, that a contin- ued study of it is amply rewarded. It is now upward of thirty years that I have been before the public as a writer on Latin Grammar ;* my varied studies have always led me bacK to this subject, and I may truly de- clare that, during each fresh revision of my grammar when I was engaged in mcorporating with my system the observations I had made in the njean time, and in considering the doubts and objections which had been raised in my mind, I have become more and more con- vinced of the inexhaustible mine of human wisdom which presents itself in the language of a happily-oi-- ganized nation like the Romans. I am not speaking here of the accidental matter contained in a grammar, nor of the accumulation of similar passages — it will afford far greater pleasure to the pupil to discovei for himself, in the authors whose works he is reading, pas- sages which confirm or illustrate the rules he has learn- ed — nor of niceties of expression, for these are curios- ities rather than anything else ; but I mean real phil- ological discoveries and peculiarities, which arise from the organic structure of the language, derive their ex- planation from it, and, in return, throw light upon the * The first foundation of the present work was laid hi a book which 1 wrote for the use of my pupils under the title " Regeln der LateinischeD Syntax, mit zwei Anhangen fiber die Grundregeln und die nach eint m neuei "ivstein geordneten unregelinassigeE Verba," Berlin, 1814, 8vo TO THE ENGLISH TRANSLATION. VU whole fabric of the language itself; and the result of all this is, that the general principles are belter ascer- tained and established. It is owing to these continued studies that even the present translation of the ninth edition of my Latin Grammar has been enriched by some not unimportant improvements, which I have communicated in MS. to Dr. Schmitz ; and it will henceforth be our united endeavour to remedy every deficiency that may yet be found. My Latin Grammar has met with great favour, or, as the phrase is, " has been a very successful book," as I must infer from the number of editions and cop- ies that have been sold ; but this success has not weak- ened my exertions in labouring without interruption for its improvement. An author is himself rarely able to point out that which has gained for his production the favour of the public ; he is satisfied with being able to labour for the realization of his own ideas ; a comparison with the works of others does not concern him, nor would it be becoming to him. But he can state the principle which has guided him throughout his work ; and, in reference to the present grammar, this principle is no other than the desire to trace the facts and phenomena of the language to a philosophi- cal or rational source. The facts as such must first be established ; and in this respect it has been my endeav- our to examine the texts of the authors, and not to al- low myself to be misled, as has been so often the case, by erroneous traditions ; farther, to distinguish between the periods of the language, the different species of lit- erary productions, the ancient and genuine from later and affected authors, and by this means to ascertain that which is essential and peculiar to the purest Latin VIU AUTHOR S PREFACE idiom ; but, in so doing, I have not left unnoticed those points which must be regarded as frequent, or other- wise justifiable deviations from the ordinary rules. Il is only those things which do not grow forth from the living body of the language that must be passed over in silence. In order to separate that which is genuine and ancient from what is arbitrary or recent, I have adopted the method of distinguishing between text and notes, the one being printed in large and the Other in small type : a distinction which will, I thinjj, be useful also to the teacher. Another great point which I have always endeavoured to keep in view has been a ration- al development of the rules from one another. By this, however, I do not mean a demonstration of the principles of universal grammar ; that is, of those prin- ciples which are common to all languages. I value this branch of philology, as a sort of applied logic, in- deed, very highly ; but my opinion is, that it can be studied with advantage only by those who are ac- quainted with the languages of different nations, both civilized and uncivilized ; and I have confined my- self to explaining the peculiarities of the Latin lan- guage and its characteristic differences from the mod- ern European languages of Roman and Germanic ori- gin, referring only now and then to its connexion with the Greek. But it is my endeavour to reduce these peculiarities of the Latin language to simple and pre- cise principles, to proceed from the simple to the com- plex, and to distinguish that which is in accordance with the rules from that which is of a mixed nature. What I here say refers more particularly to the syn- tax ; for, in regard to etymology, it ought not to be for- gotten that the Latin language is something which li.dt, TO THE ENGLISH TRANSLATION. IX oeen handed down to us in a given form, and which is to be learned in this given form. It would have been easy to go back to certain primitive forms which con- stitute the first elements in the formation of the Ian guage, and thereby to explain many an irregularity in the mixture of forms ; but in teaching a language which is learned, not only for the purpose of training the intellect, but of using it in speaking and writing, the eye and memory of the pupil ought not to be troubled with hypothetical or assumed forms which he is expected to forget, but frequently does not forget, and which he is rather apt to take for real forms. In etymology, a complete analogy alone can be of prac- tical use ; hence I have endeavoured to make the lis* of irregular verbs and the section on the formation of words — important branches of grammar which had been much neglected by my predecessors — as com- plete as possible. In the syntax, on the other hand, it ia right that there should be a philosophical development of the complex from the simple, taking that which is peculiarly Latin as the groundwork. This part of my grammar has arisen from dictations which I made the basis of a course of lectures on Latin syntax ; and I still believe that this method is best suited to teach pu- nils — not indeed the first beginners, but those who ive already made some progress in the understand- mg of Latin sentences — the whole of the Latin syn- tax in a manner which is at once a training of their intellect and their memory. Some example or other aiust be made the basis ; it must be explained and ira- Bressed upon the memory as a model for imitation. The examples given in the text of the present gram- mar may serve this purpose ; all have been selected X AUTHORS PREFACE with special care, and each contains a complete though expressed in a classical form. The teacher must cause his pupils to form a number of other similar sentences, and make the pupils translate them from the vernacu- lar tongue into Latin. It is desirable that such senten- ces should be chosen with taste, or be carefully prepa- red for this purpose beforehand ; but as their object is only to impress the rule upon the mind of the learner, it is advisable to pay attention to variety of expression rather than to particular neatness or elegance. My grammar farther contains a section on the sig- nification of the adverbs, prepositions, and conjunc- tions, which, properly speaking, does not belong to grammar, but to a dictionary. But it is, nevertheless, necessary, since the ordinary dictionaries are partly in- correct and partly incomplete in their explanations of these particles, which contain the life and soul of a lan- guage, and since special books on the particles, such as were formerly used in schools, are either no longer consulted, or do not answer the purposes for which they were written. The syntax has been enlarged by what is called Syntaxis ornata ; and it is strange, that for this part of my work I have been censured by sev- eral scholars, who thought it inconsistent with the strictly progressive spirit of the grammar, and the phil- osophical development of the grammatical laws, be- cause the observations which form the substance of the Syntaxis ornata are not given as necessary princi- ples, but in the form of suggestions, which may be fol- lowed or not at discretion. But this is the very point which I myself have expressly stated in the introduc- tion to that part of my work where I direct attention to the difference between the Syntaxis regularis and TO THE ENGLISH TKANSLATION. XI the Syntaxis ornata. But as those observations on style point out so much that is correct, ingenious, and peculiar to the Latin language, should they not be made at all because their application is left to choice ? or shall we allow them to stand in a somewhat looser con- nexion, and arrange the different observations under rational and intelligible heads ? Surely the latter course must be preferred ; and I see that my critics have, in fact, adopted the veiy same method, except that what I have discussed in separate chapters on " Peculiarities in the Use of the Parts of Speech," od " Pleonasm," " Ellipsis," " Arrangement of Words and Construction of Periods," is treated of by them under the heads of first, second, and third Appendices. The real appendices in the present work on metres, meas- ures and weights, calendar, &c., are of a different na- ture. They do not, indeed, belong to grammar ; but as they contain information on matters important and necessary for the understanding of the authors read in schools, and as this information is either not to be found elsewhere, or is not sufficiently correct, no one, I hope, will grudge it a place at the end of this grammar. I cannot part from the English reader without ex- pressing my delight at the vigour and energy with which classical studies are prosecuted in Germany and England. In the former country, a fresh impulse was given to these studies some thirty years ago, just at the time when the nation was on the point of losing its independence; in England, the revival of classical stud- ies must be dated, I believe, from the time that the con- test between idealism and realism became settled ; and these two branches of human knowledge have now arrived at a point where they recognise each other in xiL author's preface to the English translation. peaceful harmony, the one exerting itself in exploring the treasures of nature, and the other those of mind. Germany owes her safety to her free schools and uni- versities, and builds her hopes upon them ; England to the energy of her people, and to her public institutions ; and the .two countries might with advantage exchange some of their excellences. In England, the educa- tional establishments and teachers appear to be fet- tered by old traditional and conventional forms ; while in Germany the sublimest truths which are promulgated from the professorial chair die within the lecture-rooms of the universities, and produce no fruit. But be the difference between the two countries ever so great, the characteristics of the educated men in both consist in their rising above the immediate necessities of time, jlace, and occupa- tion, and in their recognition of the connexion existing between the individual and the spirit of all mankind. Hence a knowlege of antiquity, and of what it has produced, is necessary to every educated person in proportion to the influence it has exercised upon sub- sequent ages; and the study of antiquity will ever have the most salutary effect upon man m elevating him- above the trivial wants of ordinary life, and affording him the means of mental and intellectual culture. To those among my contemporaries who are anxious to obtain these advantages, I offer the present work as a means of penetrating more deeply and more easily into the spirit of the Roman classics and of Roman an- tiquity. C, G. ZUMPT. Berlin, February 23(2, 1845. TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. When the honourable task of preparing a transla- tion of the ninth edition of Professor Zumpt's Latin Grammar bad been intrusted to me by the publishers, the author himself most willingly consented to co-op- erate with me in endeavouring to present his work to the English public in as perfect a form as possible. His professional engagements in the University of Berlin have enabled him continually to improve the success- ive editions of his grammar, which has thus become infinitely superior to what it was when originally trans lated. Scarcely a year has elapsed since the publica« tion of the ninth edition of the original, yet the au- thor's unceasing labours in this department of philolo- gy have enabled him already to collect a large num- ber of corrections and additions for future use ; and all these improvements he has been kind enough to communicate to me in manuscript for incorporation in the English translation, which hence possesses consid- erable advantages over the German work. In the etymological part of the present grammar, some additions might have been made here and there from English sources, and some English scholars may, perhaps, be inclined to censure me for having neglect- ed to do so, since the etymology of the Latin language has been studied by a few scholars in this country more comprehensively than on the Continent. But Professor Zumpt has abstained, on principle, from in- troducing into his work etymological disquisitions which would have led his readers beyond the imme- diate objects of his grammar ; and it was impossible 2 XIV TRAXSLATORS PREFACE. for me to set aside that principle without making ma terial alterations in the first part of the present work. I may also add, that, on the whole, I coincide with the author's views on this point ; and even if 1 did not, 1 should not think myself justified in introducing into his work that which he himself has purposely excluded. The few points on which I have added any explanato- ry remarks are such as are regarded by the author, in common with all other grammarians, as inexplicable difficulties or anomalies, although it appears to me that the language itself contains sufficient analogies for their explanation. When I undertook the present translation, I expect- ed, as was stated in the advertisement, that the Latin Grammar of Professor Madvig, of Copenhagen, which had appeared about the same time as the last edition of Professor Zumpt's work, would furnish some more or less important improvements, which might be ad- vantageously imbodied in the present translation ; but a comparison of the two books soon showed me that all the new and valuable points in Madvig's grammar were known to Professor Zumpt, and had received from him their due share of attention, Madvig having published his views on several grammatical questions in separate dissertations and elsewhere previously to the appearance of his grammar. In conclusion, I venture to express my hope that the present translation of a work which enjoys the highest reputation in Germany may contribute also in this country towards a more accurate knowledge of the language of a nation which, above all others, deserves to engage the attention of every well-educated Eng- lishman. L. S. London, April, 1846. CONTENTS. ELEMENTARY PART. Cfca^ Pig* I. Of the Vowels and Consonants . . , 1 n. OfSyUables . . 13 in. Of the Length and Shortness of SyJables . . 14 IV. Of the Accent of Words .... .86 The Accidence. V. Division of Words according to their Signification . 89 VI. Nouns Substantive. — General Rules of Gender . 30 VII. Number, Case, and Declension . . .34 VIII. First Declension 36 IX. Greek Words in e, as, and it 37 X. Gender of the Nouns of the First Declension . . 39 XI. Second Declension 39 XII. Greek Words of the Second Declension . . .43 XIII. Gender of the Nouns of the Second Declension . 45 XIV. Third Declension.— Genitive . . . . 46 XV. The remaining Cases of the Third Declension . 53 XVI. Greek Forms in Words of the Third Declension 62 XVII. Gender of Words of the Third Declension. — ^Mascu- lines 66 XVm. Feminines 67 XIX. Neuters 70 XX. Fourth Declension 71 XXL Fifth Declension '73 XXII. Irregular Declension. — Indeclinables. — Defectives . 74 XXIII. Heteroclita. — Heterogenea . 81 XXIV. Nouns Adjective. — Terminations. — Declension . 84 XXV. Comparison of Adjectives 87 XXVI. Comparison of Adverbs and increased Comparison . 89 was alone and exclusively used instead of ae. Examples of the latter likewise occur. Thus, on the Columna Rosirata, we have praeda and aes ; in the S. C. de Bacchan., the form aedem occurs ; and in one of the inscriptions from the tomb of the Scipios, we find aetate.. Still, however, ai was much more commonly employed, as in aidilis, ouaistor, quairatis, aiternus, aire, &c. (Gruter Ind. Gramm., s. v. ai pro ae.) The same remark will apply to ui for oe, the former being the more common, but the latter occurring on the Col. Kostr., "claseis PoeniCas," and elsewhere. In later Latinity, the form oi appears to have been retained only in the interjection oiei, or eoie'i, of the comic writers. (Schneider, Etementarlehre, &C., vol. i., p. 81 ; Bent ley, ad Ter. Em., 4, 4, 47, &c.)]— Am. Ed. t [The i sound here meant is the continental one, namely, that of the long English e in mete.'] — Am. Ed. ^ [This change of « into « or i appears to have arisen from a variety in dialectic pronunciation, some dialects sounding the e, and others the t, more strongly. Compare lAahov., p. IS.I—Am. Ed. VOWELS AND CONSONANTS. S acknowledged, and does not 'require here to be supported by authori ties.* [^ 2.] It was, however, only by degrees that the pronunciation and oi thography became fixed, and this was mainly the worii of the grammarians during the first centuries after Christ. Previously, there existed many fiecuUarities in the pronunciation, which were also adopted in the written anguage, and some of these are still retained in the texts of a few of the early writers, such as Plautus, Terence, and Sallust, for historical reasons, or, so to speak, from diplomatic fidelity. But such peculiarities should n 5t be imitated by us, lor they were gradually given up by the ancients themselves. With regard to pronunciation and orthography, we must necessarily adhere to the rules which were laid down by the ancient grammarians, who certainly did not derive them from the vulgar idiom of the people, but from the uncorrupt and pure language of the educated classes. In the earliest times, the broad pronunciation of the long i was commonly indicated by ei, but without its being pronounced as a diphthong ei, which is foreign to the Latin language : for example, heic for hie, meis for mis {quibus), eidus for idus, and in the accusative plural of the third declension when it terminates in is (see ^ 68), such as omneis, arteis, for omnis and artis, which termination of the accusative was subsequently changed into es, A middle sound between the two short vowels u and-i was preserved, in some words, down to a still later time ; and many per sons pronounced and wrote lubet, ewistumo, clupeus, inctutus, satura, for libet, cxistimo, clipeus, &c. ; the adjective termination umu5 for ivius, asjinitumus ioj fniiiimus, and the superlatives optumus, maxumus, and putcherrumus, for opttmus, maximus, &c. Julius Caesar declared himself in favor of i, which was afterward adopted generally, although the Emperor Claudius wanted to introduce a new letter for the indefinite vowel m those words.t We must farther observe that in early times o was used instead of «, after the letter v, e. g., volt, volnus, avom, and even in the nominative avos instead of avus : in some words o took the place of e ; for example, vorto and its de- rivatives for verto, roster for mster.t V instead of e occurs in the termi- nation of the participle undus for endus, and was retained in some cases in later times also. (See ^167.) Lastly, jve have to mention that the vulgar pronunciation of au was 5; e." g., Claudius was pronounced as Clodius, plmistrum as plostrum, and plaudo as plodo ; but in some words this pronun- ciation, which in general was considered faulty, became established by custom, as in plostellicm, a little carriage, a diminutive form oi plaustrum. This was the case more especially when the common mode of pronoun- cing served to indicate a difference in meaning, as in lotiis, washed, and tautus, splendid or elegant ; and codex, a tablet for writing (or a book), and caudex, a block of wood. In the compounds of plaudo the ioxm plodo thus became prevalent. [§ 3.] 2. The consonants are, B, h; C, c; D, d; F, f; G, g; H, h; (K, h) ; L, I; M, m; N,n; P, p ; Q, q; R, r; S, s ; T, t; X, x; (Z, zj. With regard • [Still it may not be amiss to cite the following : Drakmb. ad Liv., .Txxvi., 14, extr. ; Interpp. ad Vel. Pat., 11, 69, 2 : 11, 87, init. ; Oudend. ad Suetm. Claud., 42.] — Am. Ed. i (The whole subject is fully discussed by Schneider, Element., p. 18, Meqq.\ — Am. Ed. t [The employment of o in early Latin, where at a later day ti was used, appears to have been much-more common than is stated in the text. We find, for example, such forms as consol, primos, captom, exfociont. &c., foi consul, primus, caplum, effugiunt, &c. The employment, on the other hana, of M for o is much more rare. Priscian cites huminem, funtea. saAfrvndfS Cassiodorus (p. -2259) has pr>tslu.}—Aii, Ed 4 LATIN GRAMMAR. to their clasMfication, it is only necessary here to observe that I, m, n, r are called liquids (liquidm), and the rest mutes (mutm), with the exception of «, which, being a sibilant (littera sibilans), is of a peculiar nature. The mutes may again be classified, with reference to the or gan by which they are pronounced, into labials (v, h,2>,f)'> palatals (g, c, A, qu), and Unguals (d, t). X atid 2:_(called zeta) are double consonants, x being a combination of c and s, and z oi d and s. Nate.— It will be observed that there are some letters in our own alpha- bet which do not occur in this list : j and d were expressed by the Latins by the same signs as the vowels i and u, viz., /and V ; but in pronunci- ation they were distinguished ; whence we hear of an i or v consonans ; and, like ordinary consonants, they make position when preceded by another consonant, and do not form an hiatus when preceded by a vowel. It is only in consequence of poetical licenses which are rendered neces- sary by the metre (which, however, at the same time, show the kindred nature existing between the sounds of the vowel and consonant), that the V is at one time softened down into u ; as, for example, when the words solvit and sHva are made to form three syllables, (comp. i) 184) ; and at others, the vowels i and « are hardened into the consonants j and v, which is very often the case with i ; by this means the preceding short syllable is lengthened, as in the words abies^ aries^ consilium^ fluvius^ tenuis^ and some others. Virgil, for example, uses Jluvjorum rex Eridanus ; Ovid, at the close of an hexameter ver&e, CTJiStos erat arjetis aureU for arietis ; Lucretius, copia tenvis and neijue tenvius extat, for tenuis, tenuius. In cases where the preceding syllable is already long, the poet may at least get rid of a sylla- ble which does not suit the verse, as in Juvenal, comitala est Hippia Ludmm and nuper consule Junjo ; and (iv,, 37) Quumjam semjanimum laceraret jFla- riiis orbem. We may therefore, in writing Latin, make use of the signs ;■ and v, which are employed in modern languages, for the purpose of dis- tinguishing the pronunciation before a vowel at the beginning of a sylla- ble, and we need not retain the defective mode of writing of the Romans, since they viewed these letters just as we do, and would willingly have adopted so convenient a means of distinction if they had known it, or if their better knowledge had not been obliged to give way to habit. But this rule cannot be applied to Greek words, since j and v with the Greeks had only the nature of vowels. We therefore read locaste, iambiis, lon^s, Itaius, AgauSj euoe ; and the i at the beginning of these words is treated as a vowel in their connexion with prepositions, as in ab lona, ex Ionia. Some Greek proper names, however, are justly written and pronounced in Latin with a j, as Grajiis, Ajax, Maja, Troja, Achaja.* \t) 4.] H is, only an aspiration ; it is not considered as a vowel, and therefore, when joined with a consonant, it does not lengthen the preceding syllable. The ancients themselves (see Quintil, i., 5, ^ 21) were in doubt, with regard to several words, as to which was the more correct, to pro- nounce it or not ; for example, as t<. whether they should pronounce have * [This is not correct. All these forms should be written with an i. If the author mean to give the j its German sound, which is that of our y before a vowel, this may do well enough to express the pronunciation of the words in question, but certainly not their orthography. Key thinks that the English sound of the_; was not unknown to the ancient inhab- itants of Italy. This, however, is very doubtful ; and if known at all, it must have been a mere provincialism, and i aa, v«Aemens or veemens (uemwis), a^enuTn or aenum^ mihi or wh", prehendo and depreliendo, or prejido and dcprendo, and several other word^, in which, however, the orthography now adopted is the more correct of the two. The letter G arose out of C, for in .the early times the sounds of k (c) ar^d g were not distinguished in writing, on account of their similarity : and although the Romans wrote, for example, leciones, yet they pronounced legiones. The fact of the praenomina Gains and Gnaeus, when indicated only by the initials, being frequently written C. and Cn., is a remnant of the old orthography ; and it is expressly attested by ancient grammarians (see, e. g., Quintil., i., 7, ^ 28), as well as by the Greek mode of writing those names [Tdtog Tvaio(), that they were never pronounced otherwise than Gains and Gfnaeus, which was at the same time the invariable mode of writing them when they were given at full length. Even when the initials only are given, we meet with G. and Cfn. just as often as with C. and Cn.* [ij 5.] K became a superfluous letter in Latin, as its place was supplied by c. In early times it was chiefly used in words beginning with ca, such &s kapuf^ kalumnia^ Karthago ; but this is now done, according to the ex ample of the ancients, in abbreviations only, such as K. for Kaeso, K. or Kal. for Kalends, f Q is, in reality, likewise a superfluous letter, not differing in value from c; but it has been more fortunate than k in maintaining its place, at least in those cases where the sound of c is followed by u, and the latter by another vowel, as in quam, quern, qui, quo, antiquus. The first of these words is to be pronounced cimmf as a monosyllable ; and it remains doubt ful as to whether the u is still a vowel, or assumes the nature of a con sonant cvam. There aj-e some few words in which the pronunciation and orthography hesitate between qu and c; e. g., in coquus and equuteus: in some others c is known to be the correct pronunciation, from the testi mony of the ancients themselves, although we still write qu, partly foi the sake of distinction, and partly for etymological reasons.t Thus we * [The person who first brought in the G was Sp. Carvilius, a freed-man and namesake of the celebrated Sp. Carvilius Ruga, who, in A.U.C. 523 (B.C. 231), furnished the first example of a divorce. From the position in the alphabet assigned to this new character, namely, the seventh place, corresponding to that of the Greek z, there is reason to believe that the Roman C still retained the hard g sound, while the new character repie- sented the soft sibilant pronunciation of the English j and the Greek z, which is also expressed by the modem Italian gi. (Key, Alphab., p. 63; Donaldson, Varronianus, p. 197.)1 — Am. Ed. f [Although the letter K is iiow superfluous, it was not so when the characters of an alphabet were syllabic in power. Thus the letter k appears to have denoted at one time the syllable ka, while anothei character represented ko, and so on. Hence, in the Greek and Hebrew alphabets, the former was called kappa, kaph ; the latter, koppa, koph. This accounts for the fact that in Latin the letter k was never used ex cept before the vowel a, precisely as q is found only before «, and the Greek koppa only before o. Even our own alphabet seems to imply such a limit in the use of this consonant, when it gives it the name of ka, not ke ; though the latter name wonld better agree with be, ce, de, &c. (Key, Alphab., p. 72.)]— ^m. Ed. I [The letter Q, like K, furnishes evidence that the alphabetical charac ters were originally of syllabic power. Thus, the Hebrew koph, and the Greek koppa, as already remarked in a previous note, appear to have been used only in those words where the sound of o follows. Indeed, the name of the letter implies as much. Hence, Cos, CoHnthus, Syracosii. The Greek alphabet probably stopped at one period, like the Hebrew, at t, so w to have no u. On the other hand, the Etrurian alphabet had a u, bui A2 ■6 LATIN GRAMMAR. distinguish the conjunction quum from the preposition cum; and write jm'idie and qmlannis on account of their formation from mot, and teqmtuM and lojvutus on account of their derivation from seguor and loquor, although it is quite certain that all the Romans pronounced, and most of them also wrote, cum, cotidif (coUidie only to indicate the shortness of the vowel), accutits, locutus. The last two must absolutely be spelled secutus and hculus (see Schneider, BtemmtarUhre, p. 332) ; and with regard to the - others, too, it is but just that we should follow the instructions of thf ancients. The reader will find in this work the conjunction spelled quum tiut he ought to remember that it is done only for the purpose of distin guishing it, to the eye, from the preposition, and that it ought to be pro nounced as cum.* Z occurs only in words. borrowed from the Greek, e. g.,gaza, trapeza, and 10 can be used only when modern words are introduced into the Latin language without undergoing any change in their orthography. [§ 6.] 3. Respecting the pronunciation of the conso- nants, it must be observed that the rule with the Latins was to pronounce them just as they were written. Every modem nation has its oviai peculiar way of pronouncing them ; and among the many corruptions of the genuine pronunciation, there are two which have become firmly rooted in nearly all Europe, and which it is, perhaps, im- possible to banish from the language. We pronounce c, when followed by e, i, y, ae, or oe, both in Latin and Greek words, like our s, and when followed by other vowels or by consonants, like a k. The Romans, on the other hand, as far as we can ascertain, always pronounced c like k ; and the G-reeks, in their intercourse with the Romans, did not hear any other pronunciation. The earliest instance in which c was pronounced in this or a similar manner seems to have been when it was followed by i with another vowel after it, for the terminations' tins and tia are so frequently used for cius and cia, that we must infer that they were similarly sounded. But even this similarity seems to have been foreign to the old and correct pro- nunciation. We pronounce ti before a vowel like shi, but likewise without any reason.t But it is esisy to dis- no 0. Hence, in Italy, the q, which, by position in the alphabet, cor responds to the Greek koppa, was limited to words where u followed. Although o is generally followed by a second vowel after its u, the older practice of the Romans did not so limit its use. Thus, Pequnia, peqiuhs, qum, ejtti, are met with. (Xey, Alphab., p. 89.)] — Am. Ed. * Lipsius, in his Diahgus de recta Pronuntiatione LingutB LatintB, ex- resses himself upon the pronunciation of c in this remarkable manner : •Padet non tam erroris quam pertinacise, quia corripi patiur.tur at non corrigi, et tenent omnes quod defendat nemo. Itali, Hispani, German!, Galli, Britanni in hoc peccato : a qua gente initium emendandi ? Audeat enim una aliqua et omnes audient." t [Scheller thinks that such corruptions as c with an s sound, and i •ounded like sh or », arose from the Frankish dialect of the Teutonic Ian VOWELS AND CONSONANTS. ^ cover the transition from the pure pronunciation to that which is now customary, for the ti in all these cases is ihort, and in quick speaking it easily changes into ski. For this reason, it would be quite wrong to pronounce the long ti in the genitivj totius in the same manner, since there can be no excuse for it. But there are some cases in which even the short ti, according to the common pro- nunciation, is not read like shi : 1. In Greek words, such as Miltiades, Bceotia, ^gyptius ; 2. When the t is pre- ceded by another t, by s or x, e. g., Bruttii, ostium, mixtio; and, 3. When it is followed by the termination of the in- finitive passive er, as in nitier, quatier. Note. — In many words it is difficult to determine whether they ought to be spelled with ci or ti. The question must be decided partly by a correct etymology, partly by the orthography adopted by the Greeks, and partly by ancient and authentic inscriptions ; for nearly all our MSS. were made at a time when ci was pronounced in the wrong way, and was accord- ingly confounded with ti. Thus, it appears that m the derivative adjec- tives formed from nouns and participles we must write icius, and not itius e. g., gentilicius, adilicius, novicius, commendaticius, as, indeed, we always write patncivs, and the proper names Fabricius and Mauricius. We now commonly write conditio, though it is better to write condicio and dicio. In nuntius, and all its derivatives, on the other hand, the ti is correct ; and also in otium, infitior (from fateor), and fetialis (Greek ^r}Tid\ELf). In In scriptions and ancient MSS. we find only contio, and not concio. [§ 7.] ' JkZ" at the end of a word (where it is always pre- ceded by a vowel) was pronounced by the ancients more indistinctly than at the beginning of a word ; perhaps in the same manner as in the French le nom, where the m is heard much more indistinctly than in le midi. When the word following began with a vowel, the final m of the preceding word was not sounded at all, according to the testimony of the ancient grammarians, or it formed only a gentle transition from the one vowel to the other.* S, like the Greek a, was pronounced more sharply than with us ; a circumstance which accoimts for some irregu- larities in the early orthography, such as the doubling of the s in caussa, as Cicero wrote according to an express guage, in which the hissing sound of the consonants predominated. (Gr. Lat., vol. i., p. 14, Walker's transl.)] — Am. Ed. * [The omission of M at the end of words does not seem to have beey confined merely to those cases where the next word began with a vowel Thus, it was the rule to omit, in the present tense of active verbs, the im. portant M, which characterizes the first person in many of the other tenses. In fact, the only verbs which rfetara it in the present tense are su-m, and mqua-m, and it is mentioned as a custom of Cato the Censor, that he used also to elide the M at the termination of the futures of verbs in -o, «nd -10. {Donaldson, Varronianua, p. 195.)] — Am Ed. 8 LATIN GRAMMAR. testimony, though it was disapproved of as useless by the ancient grammarians. In the ancient pronunciation there must have been a peculiar resemblance between the letters * and r, since it is mentioned by Varro (ie Ling. Lat., vii., 6) and others, that formerly, that is, before the Latin langifage had assumed a fixed form through its literature, s was pronounced in many words, for which afterward r was substituted, as in Papisms, Valesius, lases, eso, arbosem, melios. Some forms of this kind, such as Tionos, lepos, and arhos, were used down to a very late time, and occur even in the language of the classical writers. Note. — This affinity between the two sounds accounts for various phenomena in the accidence of the Latin language (see Schneider, Ele- mentarlehrej p. 342., foil.) ; but we do not by any means believe that the r in the above-mentioned words, and still less in all cases where it occurs between two vowels, is of later origin, or that it arose out of the s, and that the latter was the original sound. The r after a vowel is just as an- cient and original in the Latin language as the r after a consonant ; and wherever the s is not a mere dialectic peculiarity, as in arbosem, pij^visa, rohose, and majosibus,it has taken the place of r for definite reasons ob- served in the formation of words. For example : we do not think that mosis, ?nosi, and mosem were the earlier and more genuine forms for morts, mori, vwrem ; or that the nominative mos contains the original '"orm ; and that, in the other cases, the s was afterward supplanted by r (a.« has been most confidently stated by Kriiger in his Grammatik der Lai. Sprdche. p 190, foil.) J but we assert that mor is the true root, and that mosis., pronounced, for instance, namqu^ erit tempus, atqu' ego quum viderem. The aspirate h does not remove the hiatus, nor does it therefore prevent the elision of the firsi vowel in verse, so that we pronounce toller'' Tiumo, when we find it written tollere humo. As the m at the end of a word was not audibly uttered when the next word began with a vowel, the vowel preceding the m is likewise passed over in reading verse, although the word is written at full length. The hexameter line, multum ille et terris jactatus et alto, is therefore read muW ilV et terris, &c. In the com- pounds veneo for venum eo, and animadverto foi animum adverto, this elision is made also in vniting. The earlier poets threw out the s in the terminations us and Is when they were followed by consonants. Lucilius, e. g., says, ISim laterali' dolor certissimu' nuntiu' mortis; and even Cicero, in his youthful attempts at poetry, sometimes did the same, as in de terra lapsu' repente, magnu' leo, and torvu' draco ; but, in the refined poetical language of the Augustan age, this elision was no longer customary.* [() 9.] Note 1. — When the Towel thrown out by the elision is preceded by another one, the. latter does not produce a disagreeable hiatus, as in Capitalia ad a/to, which is read in verse CapitoW ad alta. Nor is there any hiatus, and consequently no elision, when a long vowel at the end of a word is shortened, viz., in the case of monosyllabic words in the middle of the thesis of dactylic verses, and in the dissolved arsis of iambic and tro- chaic feet, and in the case of polysyllabic words at the end of the thesis of dactylic verses, t (See, for example, Horace, Serm., i., 9, 38: Si mi amas, inquit, paulum hie ades. Ovid, Metam., iii,, 501 : dictoque vale vali inquit et Echo. Virgil, ^n., iii., 211 : insulae lonio in magna, and man) other passages. (|^ 10.] Note 2. — It was remarked above that the hiatus is not removed in writing ; and that, of the two vowels which produce it, the former is thrown out in reciting a verse. B^it an exception to this rule occurs when a word terminating in a vowel or an m is followed by the word est ; for in this * [The whole doctrine of Hiatus will be found very fully and ably dis- cussed by Schneider, Element., vol. i., p. 113-169.] — Am. Ed. t [It would be much more correct to say that, in all such cases, an elision is only ajmarently neglected, the long vowel actually parting by means of elision with one of its component short vowels. And whenevei the residuary short vowel is in the arsis of the foot, it is lengthened again by the stress of the voice. Consult Anthon's Latin Prosody, ed. 1842, p ;»0.1— Am Ed. 10 LATIN GEAMMAB. case we find, at least in the critical editions of Plautus and Terence, thai the first word is preserved entire, and that est loses its vowel. The texts, therefore, are written and pronounced temulenta Ut mulier, homo st, moUstum ■ V. The same thing has been found here and there in very ancier.t MSS. containing fragments of Cicero's works, e. g., jma notm st difficile st, and in the oration for Milo : quae ilia barbaria. 'st. (See Niebuhr s note on the fragment pro ForUeio,p. 60.)* In like manner, we find es( jomed with a preceding word terminating in us, e. g., opitst and dtctust; but in tnis case It remains doubtful as to whether the s olopus is thrown out, or whethei est has lost its first two letters. Something similar, though more rarely, occurs in the termination is, e. g., quali 'st. Whether the second person « was likewise joined with a preceding word terminatirg in us is uncertain (See Schneider, Elementarlehre, p. 162, foil.) „ , [i 11.] Note 3 —The hiatus which occurs wilhm a word is generally not removed, and for this reason we did not notice it above. It should, how- ever, be observed that two vowels of the same sound are frequently united (contracted) into one long vowel, and the poets always make dero and disse out of deem and deesse. This explains the forms ml for nihil, ami deprendo for deprehendo, which arise from the ehsion of the aspirate. The contraction of two equal or unequal vowels in the perfect of verbs, after the elision of the t>, is still more frequent; e. g., audisti for aiidivisti, audiisti; deleram for deleveram, norunt for noverunt, concerning which see ^ 160. It also not unfrequently happens in verse that two different vowels are united, by a rapid pronunciation, into a diphthong ; in which, however, both vowels are audible. This is called by a grammatical term synaeresis, and occurs when the two vowels of the words dein, deinde, proin, proinde, huic and CM, are united into diphthongs which are otherwise foreign to the Latin language. In this way alone it is possible to make use of the word fartUxtus in the dactylic hexameter ; and it is for the same purpose that m nouns terminating in eus, when this ending is preceded by a long syllable, we must contract into a diphthongnot only the ei in the genitive singular, and iU in the ablative plural, but also ea and 16 ; for example^o/Bei, ouici, Nerei, aurTis (also antFts, from the verb atUeeo), Eurystheo, cerea, just as a synaeresis sometimes occurs in the Greek words Sedf JVE07rr6/i,£/iOf, aiid la. Some harsher kinds of syna;resis, such as quia, via, vietis, and quoad, are found in the comic poets and in Lucretius. [§ 12.] 5. There is no necessity for giving any special r-ales about the orthography in Latin, since there is abso- lutely nothing arbitrary in the spelling of words that re- quires to be learned ; but there are a great many separ- ate wof ds of which . neither the pronunciation nor the spelling is established, and with regard to which the an- cients themselves were uncertain even in the best times of their literature, as we see from the monuments still ex- tant. We shall here notice a few things which have not been mentioned in our previous observations. We spel] and pronounce ariulus, sucus, paulum, helua, litus better with one consonant than with two ; whereas immo, num- * [This species of elision, as Niebuhr remarks, was previously supposed to be peculiar to the comic writers only. The same writer observes that he has found no mention made of it in the ancient grammarians, even after diligent search, save perhaps in a mutilated passage of Velius Longus J). 2238. Niebuhr also cites a somewhat similar usage in the modem Tus can of Florence; as, for example, lo 'mperndore, la 'neisa.l — Am Ed. VOWJi',3 AND CONSONANTS. li Wit.', sollemnis, sollers, sollidtus, Juppiter, and quattuor axe more coiTectly spelled with two consonants than one. It is not cei'tain whether we ought to write lltera or lit tera, though in most MSS. the t is doubled. The author- ity of the ancient grammarians and the best MSS. teach us to spell the singular mille with a double, and the plu- ral milia with a single I. The forms narus and navus are not customary now, though they appear to be better than gnarus and gnavus.* Artus (narrow) is certainly better established than arctus ; auctor and auctumnus, on the other hand, are justly preferred to autor and autumnus.] The insertion of a ^ between m and t, e. g., in emptus, sumpsi, rather facilitates the pronunciation than other- wise ; and the verb temptare is decidedly preferable to the form tentare, which is now commonly used, the former being found in the best MSS. The forms conjunx, quo- tiens, and totiens are demanded by most of the ancient grammarians, and are found in good MSS., instead of ionjux, quoties, and toties. The words caucus, maereo, are more correctly spelled with the diphthong ae than oe, and saeculum, saepire, and taeter are better with the diphthong than with the simple vowel e; whereas in her es, fetus, femina,,a.udifecundus, and therefore probably injenus, fe noris also (which are of the same root), the simple vowel is better than the diphthong. But it is very doubtfiil whether we ought to write scena or scacna, and ohscenus or ohscaenus, or ohscoenus. We do not notice any other points here, because the orthography now commonly adopted is the correct one. Compare Cellarius, Ortho- grapTiia Latina, ed. Harles, Altenburg, 1768, 8vo ; and Schneider, Elementarlehre, Berlin, 1819, 8vo. [§ 13.] 6. The Romans had no other point than the full stop, and our whole artificial system of punctuation was unknovsm to them ; but, to facilitate the understanding ot their worlcs, we now use in Latin the same signs which have become established in our own language. The pe- culiarities, however, in the formation of Latin sentences, * [The forms gnarus and gnavus are the original ones, and were softened lown, in course of time, to narus and navus. So gnatus is older than natvs. There is an evident connexion between gnatus and ylyvo/iai, and a proba- >Ie affinity between gnavus and xvda, or yvdirTU.'] — Am. Ed. 1 [Tnere is here an evident inconsistency. If artus be better than arclus, m what principle can autor be inferior to auctor? Compare Journal of Education, vol. ;., p. 93.] — Am. Ed. 12 LATIN GRAMMAR. the many complications of their parts, and the attraction of the relative pronouns, demand great caution in apply ing the signs of punctuation, in order that we may not by the use of too many signs separate those parts of a sen- tence which belong to one another. 7. With regard to the use of capital and small letters, il must be observed that the Romans, generally speak- ing, wrote only in capital letters (litterae unciales), until in the latest period of antiquity the small letters came into ute, which are now always employed in writing Latin.* Capital initials are at present used : (a) at the beginning of a verse, or at least of a st -ophe ; (b) at the beginning of a new sentence, both in prose and in verse, after a full stop, and after a colon when a person's own words are quoted ; (c) in proper names, and in adjectives and ad verbs which are derived from them, e. g., Latium, sermo hatinus, Latine loqui; (d) in words which express a title or office, such as Consul, Trihunus, and Senatus, but not n their derivatives. 8. The diaeresis (puncta diaercseos) is a sign to facili- tate reading ; it is put upon a vowel which is to be pro- nounced separately, and which is not to be combined with the preceding one into a diphthong, as in a'er, aeris, aerius, poeta ; and also in aurdi, vitdi, since ai is only an ancient form for ae. In cases where the diphthong would be foreign to the Latin language, the diaeresis is unne- cessary, as in diei, Persei, because there can be no fear of any one pronouncing the ei as a diphthong ; Jerreus, too, does not require it, since in a Latin word no one will re- gard eu as. a diphthong. But we must write Gdius and siliice, when the consonants _;" and v are to be pronounced as vowels. The signs to indicate the length or shortness of a vowel or a syllable (" and ") were sometimes used by the ancients themselves. * [The cursive character arose from a principle of rapidity, by which the letters are made to ran on in continuous succession. Such modes of writing were no doubt common in very early times ; and, as regards the Romans, we are not left to mere conjecture, as the British Museum con- tains an inscription of the kind on papyrus, which is referred to the second or third century. The statement in the text,5 herefore, requires correction, /fey. Alphabet, p. 36.)]~.4m. Ed. SYLLABLES. 1 3 CHAPTER II OF SYLLABLES. [§ 14.] 1. A VOWEL or a diphthong may by ilself fom, a syllable, as in u-va, me-o ; all other syllables arise from a combination of consonants and vowels. The Latin lan- guage allows only two consonants to stand at the end of a syllable, and three only in those cases where the last is «. At the beginning of a syllable, also, there can be no more than two consonants, except where the first is a c, p, or s, followed by muta cum liquida; and at the begin- ning of a word there never are three consonants, except in the case of sc, sp, and st being followed by an r or ^ ; for example, do-ctrina, Ba-ctra, corru-ptrix, sce-ptrum, ca- stra, magi-stri. Isthmus; spretus,str€nuus,scriba, splendor 2. It often appears doubtful as to how a word is to be divided into syllables, and where the division is to be made at the end of a line, when the space does not suf- fice. The following rules, however, which are founded on the structure of the language, should be observed. 1. A consonant which stands between two vowels belongs to the latter, as in ma-ter. 2. Those consonants, which, in Latin or Greek, may together begin a word, go togeth- er in the division of syllables ; e. g., pa-tris, and not pat- ris, as tr occur at the beginning of tres.* In like manner, li-bri (brevis), i-gnis (gnomon), o-mnis, da-mnum Qivdoimi), a-ctus, pun-ctum, {KTrifia), ra-ptus, scri-ptus, pro-pter (Ptole- macus), Ca-dm/us (d/iu^g), re-gnum (yvovg), va-fre ( jretus), a-thleta (i9A,t6(o), i-pse, scri-psi (tpavu), Le-sbos (ativvvfii), e-sca, po-sco (scando), a-sper, ho-spes (spes), pa-stor, juu- stus, i-ste (stare). The cases in which three consonants begin a syllable have been mentioned above. When- ever there occurs any combination of consonants which cannot stand at the beginning of words, they are treated according to the analogy of the rest. All combinations of m,uta cum, liquida, for instance, go together, as most of them may commence a word ; and we must therefore di- vide ara-chne, a-gmen, Jra-gmentv^m, Da-phne, Pha-tnae, rhy-ihm/us, smara-gdus, and Lu-gdunum, since gd is to be * [This mode of dividing is well intended, but perhaps too methodical it occasions diiEculty to learners, ani has little use, but rather betrays sonM affectation (.Scheller, L. G., vol. i., 31, Walker's ira-^l.)]— Am. Ed B 14 LATIN GRAMMAR. treated like ct. 3. In compound words, the division must be made so as to kieep the parts distinct, as inter-eram (not inte-reram). because the word is compounded of inter and emm. So, also, ab-utor, ab-rado, ahs-condo, abs-tcmius (from temetum), sus-cipio (from the form subs), dis-quiro, et-iam, ob-latum ; and red-eo, red-undo, -prod-eo, and sed-itio, for the d, here inserted to prevent hiatus, must go with the preceding vowel, because, if added to the second, it would obscure the elements of the compound word. But when the component parts of a word are doubtful, or when the first word has dropped its termination to prevent hiatus, the syllables are divided as if the word were not a com- pound ; e. g., fo-tes (from fote or fotis es), ani-madverto, and not anim-adverto, ve-neo (from venum eo), ma-gnani- mus, am-bages, and loa-gaevus* CHAPTER III. OP THE LENGTH AJID SHORTNESS OF SYLLABLES. [§ 15.] Syllables are long or short, either by the na- ture of the vowel they contain, or they become long by their short vowel being followed by two or more conso- nants, that is, by their position. We shall first speak of the natural length and shortness of vowels. 1. All Diphthongs are long, and also all those single vowels which have arisen from the contraction of two into one, such as cogo (from coago), malo (from mavolo), tibl- cen (from tibiicen and tibia, but tuhicen from tuba), blgae (from bijugae),bubus and bobus (from bovibus),a,ni so, also, dls for diis, gratis for gratiis, and nil for nihil. Note. — The preposition prae is commonly made short when compounded with a word which begins with a vowel, e, g., Ovid, Metam., vii., 131 ; Quos vhi viderunt praeacutae cuspidis hastas. The reason for this peculiarity is explained in the rule following ; but there is no other instance in the Latin language of a diphthong standing before avowel.t It occurs only in Greek proper names, in which, however, the diphthong remains long, as Aeolides Sisyphus, and Aeeta relictu^, for the examples which are adduced as proofs of the diphthong being shortened (Ovid, Heroid., vi., 103, and Trisl., lii., 12, 2) are not decisive. * [The carrying out of this system would lead, it is apprehended, to ■ome ludicrous results ; as, for example, in such cases as fra-gmmtum, a-gmen, &c. (Compare Journal of Education, vol. i., p. 94.)] — Am. Ed. t [The syllable prce being origmally prdi or prae, the latter of the two vowels is tacitly elided. Consult Anthon's Lvin Prasodu, ed. 1812, p. 25t fiot.-]~Am. Ed. LENGTH AND SHORTNESS OF SYLLABLES. 16 2. A Vowel is short when it is Ibllowed by anothei vowel (Vocalis ante vocale/n. brevis est), as in dlus, films, flus, ruo, corruo ; and, as /j is not considered as a conso- nant, also in such words as traho, contraho, veJui, and ad- veho. [^ 16.] Nole. — Exceptions. — 1. The vowel e in ehm is always long, the o in ohe is frequently long, and the i in Diana sometimes.* 2. The e in the termination of the genitive and dative of the fifth declension is long when it is preceded by a vowel, as in diei, specieiA 3. a is long in the ob- solete ending of the genitive in the first declension, as in aurai and pictai, for aurae and pktae, in Virgil.t 4. a and e are long in the vocative terrhina- tions di and ii of the words ending in aius and eius ; e. g., Gii, Vultei. (See chap, xi., note 3.)§ 5. All the genitives in his, except alterius, have •he i commonly long ; the poets, however, use the i in illius, istius, ipsius, umws, totiits, uUius, and utrius, sometinjes as a long and sometimes as a short vowel. The instances of the i in soUtis being shortened cannot be relied upon ; but aUus, being a contraction for aliius, can never be made short. AUertus, on the other hand, is sometimes made long (see ^ 49). 11 6. The verb^o has the i long, except when an r occurs in it. Ovid, Trisi., i.,8, 7: Omnia jam fient, fieri quae posse negabam.% 7. Greek words retain their own original quantity, and we therefore say aer, ios (^wf), Amphlo'i-. Agesildus, and Mentlaus. The e and i in the terminations ea and cmi, or la and ius, therefore, are long when they represent the Greek eia and ctaj * [The interjection eheu is thought to have been abbreviated from lieu hm by the transcribers. The first abbreviation would be heheu, which is common in the MSS., and hence, in process of time, arose eheu. (Compare Wagner ad Virg,, Eclog., ii., 58.) — Ohe follows its primitive O, which, since it cannot be elided, because words of this nature require a strong emphasis, is made either long or short when it falls before a vowel. Diana was originally Deiva Jana, the lunar goddess, contracted subse- quently into Deiana, and at last becoming Diana. The e of the diphthong being dropped gave rise to the double quantity of Diana, since it could be brought under the general principle of one vowel before another. (Ram- say's Latin Prosody, p. 25. Voss, de Art. Gram., ii., 13. Varro, R. R., i., 37. Grcev., Thfs., vol. viii., p. 311. Nigid. ap. Macrob., Sat. i., 19. Creuzer, Sym bolik, par Gfuigniaut, vol. ii., pt. i., p. 433.)] — Am. Ed. t [This peculiarity arises from the old forms of declension. According to some, the nominative of the fifth declension was originally diets, specias, making in the genitive diei-is, speciei-is, which case afterward dropped the s, and became dieii, specieii, and eventually diei, specici, the i of the diph- thong being dropjped. (Ramsay, Lat. Pros., p. 22.) Others, however, make the original form of the nominative to have been die-is, specie-is, and the genitive to have dropped its characteristic ending in s, and to have terminated like the old locative in i, thus making die-i, specie-i, &c. {Bopp, Vergleich. Gramm., p. 141, »J5.)] — Am. Ed. X [The old form of the genitive singular of the first declension was o + is, i. e.,formais, autdis, pictdis. &c., which was afterward abbreviated by d'-'jpping the a, as format, aurai, pictai. {Bopp, I. c. Allen's Analysis^ &c., p. xviii.)] — Am. Ed. ^ [The original forms of these names were Caiius, Pompeiius, &c., and hence the Tocatives Cdi, Pompei, &c., are in reality Caii, Pompei-i, &c., which last undergoes another contraction, in Horace, into Pompei. (Horat Od., ii. 7, 5. Priscian, vii., 5.)] — Am. Ed. II [Bopp considers the Latin genitive ending I'lis analogous to the San- <;rit termination sya, the o being changed to m before the final s, by a very isusl process, in early Latin. {Vergleich. Gram., p. 220.)] — Am, Ed. IT rCompare Anthon's Lat. Pros., ed. 1842, p. 16, nrt.] — Am. FA. 16 LATIN GRAMMAR. (tho Romans, not baring the diphthong ei m their langi age, represent thj Greek ci sometimes by e and sometimes by i, but these vowels, of course are always long) ; e. g., Galatea, Medea, jEneas, Darius or Danus, Iphi tenia, Alexandria, Antiochla, Nicomedia, Samaria, Ssleucia, Thalia, Ariut, Basin-US, noso'comlum, and the adjectives Epicureus, P ythagtireus, spondeus, and the like : but when the Greek is ea or la, the e and i are short, as id idea, philosopMa, theologia. The same is the case with the patronymic words in ides, since the Greek may be idt];, as in Pnamides and JEacides , or cidrii, as in Atrldes, Pelldes, which are derived from Atreus and Peleus. The only exceptions to this rule are, that plaiea (a street) has the e short, though, according to the Greek n?M.Tda, it ought to be long, and that chorea is sometimes used instead of chorea (,xofjeia). Some of the late Roman poets use academU instead of ocademia, although in Greek writers it is always long, whether spelled with ei or with (.* Note 2.— It is a part of the above rule, that a long vowel or diphthong It the end of a word, when the word following begins with a vowel, is usually made short in the thesis of a verse.t (See above, chap, i., 4, note 1). [§ 17.] 3. Usage (auctoritas) alone makes the vowel in the first syllable ot mater, /rafer, pravus, mano (I flow), dico, duco, miror, nitor, scribo, dono, pono, utor, muto, sumo, cura, &c. long ; and short in pater, avus, cado, maneo, gravis, rego, tego, bibo, minor, cola, moror, probo, domus, sono, soror, and others. It must be presumed that the stu- dent makes himself acquainted with the quantity of such words as these by practice, for rules can be given only with regard to derivatives. It must farther be observed that the i in the following words is long : formica, lectica, lorica, vesica, urtica, TierrCma, resina, sagvna, saliva, casfl- go, ?iTiiformido. a. Derivative words retain the quantity of their root, as in declension and conjugation : thus the a in amor and amo is short, and therefore also in amoris, amat, amabam, amavi, &c. except when the consonants after the vowel of the root produce a difference. New words formed from roots likewise retain the quantity ; as from amo — amor, ainicus, amabilis ; from lux, lucis — luceo, lUcidus ; from mater — maternus, matertera ; and fromymi* — -finio, /initio, finitimus, &c. \fj 18.] With regard to Conjugation, however, the following rules also must be observed : 1. The perfect and supine, when they consist of two syllables, and the tenses formed from them, have the first syllable long, even when in the present tense it is short, e. g., video, vidi ; fiigio,Jupi ; lego, legi, legisse, legeram, &c.t (except, however, when one vowel stands before another, * [Compare Anthon's Lat. Pros., ed. 1842, p. 22, not^—Am. Ed. t [Because the long vowel or diphthong loses one of its componen' vowels by elision, and there is no stress of the voice to lengthen again the remaining short one..] — Am; Ed. t TAcco'-ding to the Iheor" o" Grimm (Deutsche Giammatik, vol. : LENyTH AND SHORTNESS OP SYLLABLF.a. 1" In which case the genera, rule remaits in force, as in rUo, rii, dirUi) ; vitfeo, visum ; rnoveOj motum,^ mottis, motunis* Seven dissyllable perfects, however, and nine dissyllable supines, together with theb compounds', make their penultima short ;+ viz., 6161, dedi, /Wi (from ^do), «e(i, sttti, tin, and scidi (from scindo), and datum, ratum, satum, Hum, lilum, citum, quUum, situm^ and rutum. Sisto makes its supine stdtum, whence status^ a, vm, and the compounds adstitum, destUum, restitum. 2. Perfects which are formed by reduplication, as lundo, tuiidi ; caiuj, cecini ; pello, pepOli, have the first two syllables short ; but the second sometimes becomes long by position, as in mordeo, momordi ; tendo, tetmdi. Pedo and cado are the only two words which retain the long vowel m the syllable which forms the root, pepidi, cecidi ; whereas cado, in accordance with the rule, has cedldi.X 3. The perfect posMi and the sa'^ias posiium have the o =hort, although xapino it IS long.^ With regard to Declensio ., we must notice the exception that the words lar, par, sal, and ^es shorten their vowel throughout their declen- sion : saUs, pedis, &c. [() 19.] In the formation of new words oy Derivation, there are several exceptions to the above rule. The following words make the short vowel long ; mdcer, mdcero ; legere, Itv, legis, Ugare ; rego, rex, regis, reguta ; tego, tegula ; secus, secius ; sedeo, sedes ; sero, semen, sementis ; lino, Utera (if we do not prefer littera) ; stips, stipis, stipendium ; suspicor, susjncio ; persona, persona ; voco, vox, vocis ; and homo, humanus. The following words have a short vowel, although it is long in the root : labare, from lahi ; nature, p. 1056;, those verbs which change a short vowel in the root, or present tense, into a long e in the perfect, had originally a reduplication ; thus, venio, veveni, veeni, veni, video, vividi, viidi, vidi, /agio, /ii/tigi, fiftgi, fSgi, foveOj fofovi, foovi, fovi, &c. &c. &c. &c. It must be borne in mind, however, that the remarks here made do iiot apply to such preterites as lUsi, risi, misi, &c., from ludo, rideo, mitto,-&iC, the preterites in these verbs having been formed by the insertion of s, aa bidsi, ridsi, mittsi, and the consonant or consonants before the s having been subsequently dropped for the sake of euphony. {Prilchard, Origin of Celtic Nations, p. 151.)] — Am. Ed. * [The long syllables m visum, motum,Jletum, &c., are owing to a change from earlier forms ; thus, visum comes irom vidsuTn ; nwtum, from movitum, through the intermediate moitvm; fietum, from Jiemtum,fleitum, &c. But rUtum, &c., are formed by syncope, and therefore continue short.] — Am. Ed. t [The seven dissyllable perfects are, in reality, no exceptions at all, but t re all reduplicating tenses, some of which have dropped the first syllable, instead of contracting the first two into one. {Anthonys Lot. Pros., p. 32, not.)] — Am. Ed, t [The first syllable in reduplicating preterites is sho't, as a matter of course, since it consists of a short prefix. The second syllable follows the quantity of the verbal root. Hence arise the two exceptions men- tioned in the text, namely, cado and pedo, where the first syllable of the verbal root is long. The early form of the perfect of cado must have been ceccedi. (Consult Prisciiwi, x., 4, p. 489, ed. Putsch. Pott, Etymol, Forsch., vnl. i., p. 19, seqq. Kiihner, Gr. Gr., vol. i., p. 84, «ejj. Bopp, Vergleich. Gram., p. 697, seqq.)}— Am. Ed. >J [Struve thinks that the old form oCpono was posno, thus accounting for the s m the perfect and supine, this letter having been dripped ir. tht present. (Ueber die Lat. Declin., &c., p. 283.)]— .i4m. Ed. B 2 18 LATIN GKAMMaR. from ndre ; phciscor, frompoa?, pacts ; ambitus and ambilio^ from amtlrf, amM turn ; dicax, from dicere ; fides and perfidus, {lomfido and/IdiK (and w e regu larly find infidus) ; mSlestus, from moles ; nota and notorf , from no(Ms ; odium from odi ; sopor^ from sopire ; duXf diiciSf and redux, redixcis, from dfico , lucerjia, from /uceo ; scafz^s, statio^ stabilis, stabulum must be derived from tisto, unless we suppose that they are likewise shortened from siatum frgm stare). [^ 20.] The Terminations, or final syllables, by means of which an adjective is formed from a verb or a substantive, are of a different kind. -Imong these, alls, arisj arius^ aceus, anus, ivus, and osus have a long vowel ; but idus, icus, and idus a short one ; e. g., letSUs, wlgaris, montanus, asti- Kits, vinosus, atidus, belllcus,patncius. A long i, however, occurs in amicus, apncus, pudicus, amicus, and posticus, and in the substantives mendicus and umbiEcus. The terminations His and bilis have the i short when they make derivatives from verbs, but long when from substantives; e. g.,jFacitis, docilis, and amabilis, but civilis, hostilis, puerilis, semlis, &c. The i in the termination inns may be long or short: it is long in adjectives derived from names of animals and places, as anserinus, asininus, equlnus, lupinus, Caudinus, Latinus, and a few others, such as divlnus, genuinus, clandestinus, intestinus, marinus, peregrinus, and vicinus ; it is short in most adjectives which express time, as crastinus, diutinus, pristinus, serotinus, homotinus, perendinus, and in those which indicate a material or substance, as ada mantinus, bombycinus, crystallinus, elephantmus, cedrinus, faginus, oleaginus Some adjectives expressive of time, however, have the i long, viz., matu tinus, vespertinus, and rependnus. [§ 21.] (b) Compounded words retain the quantity of the vowels of their elements : thus, from avus and nepoi we make aba/vus and abnepos; from pravus, depravo; from probus,improbus ; froiiLJus (juris), perjurus ; from lego (I read), perlego; and itoralegoQ. despatch), oSZcg-o, delego, collega. Even when the vowel is changed, its quantity remains the same : e. g., laedo, illido ; caedo, incldo ; aequus, imguus ; fmices, suffbco ; claudo, recludo ; fScio, effwio; cado,inctdo; ratus,irritus ; rego, erigo ; lego,eligo. We may, therefore, infer from compounded words , the quantity of those of which they consist ; e. g., from ado' ro, admlror, and abutor we conclude that oro, mtror, and utor have the first syllable long ; and from commoror and desuper that the first syllable in moror and super is short, which is not always accurately distinguished in pronun- ciation, because these syllables have the accent. (See Chap. IV.) ^ We shall mention here, by way of example, a few more compounds from which the quantity of the vowels in their elements may be inferred. We shall choose such as cannot be mentioned in any of the subsequent lists, and present them in the third person singular of the present tense We have along vowel in exhalat, concldmat, allatrat, deUbat, constipat, evitat, irritat, deplbrat, enddat, compotat, refutat, obdurat, and communit; and a short one in exarat, comparat, enatat, irrigat, alRgat, perfncat, erudit, txpoUt, devorat, curnprohat, compHtat, recubut, and suppudet. But there are some exceptions, and the following compounded words change the long vowel into a short one : dejero aaipejero, hom jOro; cau- imeus, fatidicus, maledicus, veridicus, from dicere ; agnitus and togruttu, from LENGTH AND SHORTNESS OP SYLLABLES. 19 notus; inni^(us)j -a, and proniib{us)j -o, from nabo.* The case is eversed in in^ecill:(s from bdculus. [^ 22.] In respect to Composition witli Prepositions, it is to be re- marked that prepositions of one syllable which end in a vowel are long and those which end in a consonant are short : deduce, aboleo, perimo. Tra (formed from trans), as in trddo, trdduco, is long ; but the 6 (for ob) in omitto and opcrioT is short. Pro, in Greek words, is short, as in propheta ; but prologus, propola, and propino form exceptions. In Latin worcfs pro is long ; e. g., prado, prandtto ; but in many it is short ; profugio, profugits, pronepos, vrojUeor, profari, prof anus, profestus, p Hfecto, proficiscor, profundus, protervus, procella, and a few others, the deriv:ition of which is doubtful, as proceres, propilius, properare ; in some the quantity is undecided. Se and di (for dis) are long ; the only exceptions are dlrimo and disertus. Re is short ; it is long only in the impersonal verb rjfert:^ in all other cases where it ap- pears long, the consonant which follows it must be doubled (in verse), as in reppuli, repperi, rettuli, rettudi, reccido, redduco, relligio, relliquicB ; the four perfects, reppuli, repperi, rettuli, and rettudi, appear to have been pronounced and spelled m this way, even in prose. J In the same manner, reddo, reddere, arose from do. The termination a in prepositions of two syllables is long, as in contrddico ; all the others are short, as antefero, praetereo. [^ 23.] When the first word of a composition is not a preposition, it is necessary to determine the quantity of the final vowel (o, e, i, o, u, y) of the first word. I. a is long, as m qudre ofid qudpropter, except in qudsL 2. e is mostly short, as in calefacio (notice especially neque, nequeo, nefas, nefastus, nefarius, nefandus), but long in nequam, nequidquam, riequaquam, and nemo (which is contracted from ne and hemo, the ancient form for homo) ; also in sedecim and the pronouns memet, mecum, tecum, and secum ; m venificus, videlicet,^ vecors, and vesanus, 3. i is short, e. g., significo, sacri- legus, coTnicen, tubicen, omnipotens, undique ; but long in compounded pro- nouns, as qulUbet, utnque, ia ibidem, ubique, utrobxque, ilicet, and scilicet ; also in the compounds oi dies, as biduum, tnduum, meridies ; and, lastly, in all those compounds of which the parts may be separated, such as lucrifacio, agncultvra, siquis, becausa the i at the end of the first word is naturally long, and remains so. 4. o is short, hodie, duodecim, sacrosanctus, but long in compounds with contro, intra, retro, and quando (quandoquidem alone forms an exception) ; it is long in alioqui, ceteroqiii, utroque, and in those * [The second syllable in connubium is naturally short, but it is occa- sionally lengthened by the poets in the arsis of the foot. Compare Virg., ^n., i., 73, with iii., 319.]— Am. Ed. t [The re in refert comes, according to some, from the dative rei ; ac cording to others, from the ablative re, of the noun res, and the verb /ero. Verrius Flaccus, the ancient grammarian, as cited by Festils, was in fa- vour of the dative. Reisig, on the contrary, maintains that refert comes from the ablative re and the verb/crl, and makes refert mea, for example, equivalent to re fert med, " it brings (something) to bear in my case." [Reisig, Vorlesungen, p. 640, ed. Haase. Senary, Riimische Ijautlehre, vol. i., p. 37. Hartung, iiber die Casus, p. 84. Schmid, de Pronom.,p. 79.) Key, on the other band, is in favour of the accusative, and considers refert Tned as originally rem fert meam, and, as an omitted m leaves a long vowel, he accounts in this way for the long vowels in re and med. {Key, Alphabet, p. 78.)]— Am. Ed. X [The classification here given is faulty and confused. In reccido, red- iuco, relligio, and reUiquicB the explanation is this, that the ancient form jf re was red, and this final d, in three of the words given, changes to another consonant by the principle of assimi.ation. On tho other hand -eppuli, repperi, rettuli, and rettudi are all deduced from perfects of redupli cation. {Anthon's Lat. Pros., ed. 1842, p. 129 ; Journal of Education, vol. i, p. 95.)]— Am. Ed. i [Compare Journal of Education, vol. i., p. 95 ] — Am. Ed. 20 LATIN GRAMMAB. Greek words in which the o represents the Greek u, as in geoma.ria. 5. ■ and y are short, as in quadrUpes, Polyphemus. 4. In regard to the quantity of Final Syllables, the following special rules must be observed : A. Monosyllabic Words. [§ 24.] 1. All monosyllables ending in a vowel are long, except the particles which are attached to other words : que, ve, ce, ne, te ftutej, pse (reaipsc), and pte, (suopte). Note. — Ne, the interrogative particle, is always short, and is attached to other words as an enclitic, as in videsne, dost thou see ? or dost thou hoi see ? In the ordinary pronunciation it was still more shortened by throw- ing off the vowel, as in credon' tibi hoc nunc ? and, in case of an s preceding, this letter was likewise dropped, as aiv) tu ? for aisne tu ? satin^ recte ? satin^ salvae ? for saiisne rede ? satisne salvae ? The conjunction ne (lest, or that not) is long. Respecting ne, as an inseparable negative particle in com positions, see above, ^ 23. 2. Among the monosyllables ending in a consonant, the substantives are long, as sol, vlr, Jur, jus ; and all those are short which are not substantives, as ut, et, nee, m, an, ad, quid, sed, quis, quot. The following substantives, how- ever, are short : cor, fel, mil, v'vr, and os (gen. ossis), and probably, also, mas, a male being, and vas, a surety, since they have the a short in the genitive : maris, vadis. Some words, on the other hand, are long, although they are not substantives ; as en, non, quin, sin, eras, plus, eur, and par, with its compounds, and also the adverbs in ic or uc, as sic, hie, line. The monosyllabic forms of declension and conjugation follow the general rules about the quantity of final syllables, and das,fles, wad. sets, accordingly, are long, while dat, flet, and sat are short ; lUs, quos, quas are long, like the terminations os and as in declension. So, also, the ablative singular hoc and hac. The nominative hie and the neuter hoc, on the other hand, although the vowel is naturally short, are commonly used as long, becatlse the pronunciation was hiec and hocc (as a compensation for the ancient form hice, hocej.* The abridged imperatives retain the quantity of the root, so that die and diic are long, while_/ac a.nij'er are short. Note. — ^We formerly thought, with other grammarians, thatySc was long, and that we ought to read face in those passages in which it is found short. (See Heinsiiis and Burmann on Ovid, Heroid., ii., 98.) But there is no satisfactory evidence for /oc being long, and the instances quoted by Vossius (^Aristarch., ii., 29) have now been altered for other reasons. •■ [Compare Anthon'a Lat. Pros., p. 82, not'\—Am. Ed. LENGTH AND SHOETNESS OF SYLLABLES. 21 B. Final Syuabi.es in Words cp two or more Syllajles. [§ 25.] 1. Such as terminate in a Vowel. A is sliort in nouns, except in the ablative singular of the first declension and in the vocative of Greek proper names in as which belong to the first or third declension, e. g., jEnea, Palla. A is long in verbs and indeclinable words, such as ama, frustra, ergo, antea, and postea. (ex- cept when separated into post eaj, except ita, quia, eia, and the imperative ^Mio in the sense of " for example."* In the indeclinable numerals, as triginta and quadragin- ta, the a is sometimes long and sometimes short. E is sliort, as in patre, curre, nempe; but long in the ab- lative of the fifth declension and in the imperative of the second conjugation ; the poets, however, and especially the comic ones, sometimes shorten the imperative of the words cave, liabe, juhe, mane, tace, vale, and vide.'i Ad- verbs in e, formed from adjectives of the second declen- sion, are likewise long, as docte, rede : also, Jere, femie, and ohe (but bene and male are always short, and inferne and superne sometimes), and Greek words of the first de- clension terminating in e, as crambe, Circe, and Greek plu- rals, as Tempe and cete. [§ 26.] I is long. It is short only in the vocative of Greek words in is, e. g., Alexi, in the Greek dative in i, which, however, occurs seldom, as in Palladt, Tethyi, and in nisi, quasi, and cid, when it is used as a dissyllable'. The i is cotnmon or doubtful' in mihi, sibl, ill and ubl ; in compounds we commonly find ibidem, and always ubl- quc, whereas in ubivis and ubinam the i is always short. In uti, for ut, the i is long, but in the compounds utinam and utique short. O is common in the present tense of all the conjugations, and in the nominative of the third declension, as in sermo, virgo ; the Greek words in o (w, Gen. ovq), however, re- main long in Latin, as Id, Dido. But o is long in the sec- ond declension, as in lecto, and in adverbs formed from ♦ [Compare Anthon's Lat. Pros., p. 67, not.l—Am. Ed. t [The apparent anomaly in cave is easily explained by the supposition that anciently two forms of the verb were in use, one belonging to the second, and the other to the third conjugation, just as we find both/emco andfervo ; fulgeo andfulgo ; oho and olo, &c. (Slruve, iiber die Lat. DecL, &.C., p. 189.) With regard, however, to hate, jubi, mane, tace, &c., the evidence of their employment seems very doubtful. The question will b« toand discussed by Ramsay (Lat. Ft is., p. 44, «?? )1 — Am. Ed. 22 LATIN GRAMMAR. nouns and pronouns by means of this termination (see § 264); e. g., vulg6,fals6, paulo, eo, quo, and also ergo, iccirco, quando, and retro. In the poets, however, gerunds* and the following adverbs are sometimes short : ergo, in the sense of " therefore," porro, postremo, sera, quando (the compound quandoquidem occurs only with a short oj.'t The adverbs modo (with all its compounds, and also qrto modo), cito, illico, and imtno, and also ccdo (f jr die or daj ego, duo, and octo, are always short, whereae cmho is gen erally long. Note. — 0, as a teimination of verbs, has been here described as common ; it must, however, be observed that it is naturally long, an-i is used so b ■ most poets of the best age, such as Virgil, Horace (ill Lis Ot/es), and Ovid (in his Metamorphoses), in their serious productions. In their lightei poems, however, and in the works of later poets, it is also used shore, according to the example of the comic poets, though this was done at first less frequently, until at last it became the prevalent custom to make the short. (See Lennep's elaborate note on Ovid, Heroid., xv., 32, re- printed in the edition of Loers.) The same is the case with o in substan- tives of the third declension, for the earlier poets always prefer using it as a long syllable. Z7is always long, as in diu, vultu, cornu.% Y, in Greek words, is always short. 2. Such as terminate in a Consonant. [§ 27.] All final syllables ending in a consonant are short,^ and special rules are required only for those end- ing in the sibilant *. Note. — The dissyllabic compounds oipar retain the quantity of the sin- gle word, and the cases of istic an is also long, and likewise the adverbs foris, gralis ingratis. It must be observed that /oris is, in fact, tne ablative plural ol fora, " a door ;" and that gratis and ingratis are contracted datives plura for gratiis and itigratiis, which are found in the open form in the ixmit writers.] — Am. Ed, t [An-«a.]' -Am. Ed. c i'-^ LATIN GBAMMAB. CHAPTER IV, OF THE ACCENT OP WORDS. I§ 32.] It is a general rule that every word has an ac^ cent on one particular syllable. This accent is twofold, either the circumflex (") or the acute {'), for what is call- ed the grave in Greek means only the absence of eithei accent. Some words have no accent, viz., the enclitics ne, que, ve, ce, which never appear by themselves, but are attached to other words. Prepositions lose their accent when they precede the cases which they govern. Note. — The addition of these enclitics produces a change in the accent of the words to which they are attached, and which thus become com pounds. The ancient grammarians have established the rule that, when ever an enclitic has a meaning'of its own, the- accent is thrown back* upon the syllable immediately before the enclitic, and either as the acute (if the vowel of that syllable is short), or as the circamflex (if the vowel is long), as in Musaque (nominat.) /lominegue, and Mtisaque (ablat.) armisipie. When, on the other nand, the enclitic has no meaning by itself, and forms only one word with that to which it is attached, the accent varies, as will be shown hereafter. This is the case with que; for in some compounds it either does not possess the meaning of " and " at all, or only very in- distinctly. Hence, in iiaqjie (and so) the accent belongs to the short penal tima, and in itaque (therefore), in which the meaning of " and " is quite obscured, the pronunciation places the accent upon the antepe nultima. In the same manner, we have to distinguish between utiqve (and that) and itipie (certainly.) By way of exception, the same gram- marians jHace the accent on the penultiraa in utraqiie and pleraque, on ac- count of the accent of the masculine forms ulerque and plerique ; although, according to*the general rule, oa« not meaning " and," we ought to pro nounce utraque and pleraque. They farther inform us that we should pronounce nequando and siq^^ndo, in order that quando may not be taken for a separate word, and atiquando, in order to distinguish it from alijuarao. [§ 33.] 2.. Monosyllables are pronounced with the cir- cumflex, when their vowel is long by nature, and not mere- ly by position, as in dus, mos, fids, jus, lux, sf&s,f6ns, and mons ; but when the vowel is naturally short, they are pro- nounced with the acute, although the syllable may be long' by position ; e. g., drs, pars, fax, dux. Note. — Sic (so) the adverb should be pronounced with the circumflex, * [This phraseology is objectionable. A throwing back of the accent, in the case of enclitics, is the common form of expression, but is calculated to produce a wrong idea of the nature of such words. When the enclitic is joined in pronunciation with the preceding word, a change of accent necessarily takes place, these enclitics increasing the preceding word bi ca many syllables as each enclitic possesses. (Gouline, Elemmls ol' A' ~— '^-. Omf.. 1831, p. \O0.)\—Am. Ed. ACCENT OF WORDS. 27 and SIC, which indicates a wish, with the acute ; e. g , Sic te, diva potent Cx/pri, lie, m Horace. Comp. Priscian.'jDe XII. Vers uEm. 3. Words of two syllables have the accent on the first, either as circumflex, when the vowel of that syllable is nat,»rally long, and that of the second one short ; or as acute, when the vowel of the first syllable is short and that of the second long; or when the vowel of the first, as well as that of the second, is long ; e. g., Roma, milsa, lUce, juris ; but homo, because both syllables are short ; deas, because the first is short and the second long ; arte, be- cause the first is Icng only by position; and doti, for al- though the vowel of the first is naturally long, yet that of the second is likewise long. The ancient grammarians do aot notice those cases where a syllable long by position is, at the same time, long by the nature of its vowel (see above, § 30) ; but it is probable that cdnsul, monte, dente, esse (for ederej, dsthma, and sceptrum were pronounced in the same manner as luce. 4. Words of three syllables may have the accent on the antepenultima and penultima; the acute on the antepenul- tima, when the penultima is short, as in caedere, pergere, homines; the accented syllable itself may be long or short. The circumflex is placed on the penultima on the condi- tions before mentioned, as in amdsse, RomCinus ; and the acute, when those conditions do not exist, and yet the pe- nultima is long, as in Romanis, Metellus. No word can have the accent farther back than the antepenultima, so that we must pronounce Constantinopolis, sollicitudini- biis. Note. — Priscian (p. 803, ed. Putsch) remarks as an exception, that the compounds oSfacere, which sre not formed by means of a preposition, such as calefacil, tepefacit, and (p 739) the contracted genitives in i, iiistead of a (see I) 49), have the accent on the penultima, even when it is short, as in ingeni, Valeri, so that we must pronounce cakfacit, ing'eni. He asserts the same with regard to the vocative of proper names in iua, e. g., VirgiU, Valeri; while other grammarians (A. Gellius, xiii.. 25) leave to this case its regular accentuation, Fir^iii, and not Virgin. [§ 34.] 5. Words of two or more syllables never have the accent on the last, and it appears that it was only the grammarians who invented a different mode of accentua- tion, for the purpose of distinguishing words which would otherwise sound alike. They tell us that the words pone (behind) and ergS (on account of) should have the accfent on the last syllable, to distinguish them from p6ne (put) and ergo (therefore). They farther accentuate the last 28 LATIN GRAMMAR. syllables of the adverbs circum, docte, raro, piimo, solum, and modo, to distinguish them from the cases which haya the same terminations. The interrogatives quando, qualis, quantus, ubi, and others, are said to have the accent on the first syllable, according to the rule ; but vrhen used in the sense of relatives, to have the accent on the last syllable, unless the acute be changed into the grave by reason of their connexion with' other w^ords which follow. The words ending in as, which originally ended in atis, such as optimas, nostras, Arpinas, are said to have the accent on the syllable on which they had it in their complete form, and which is now the last. The same is asserted with regard to the contracted perfects, such as audit for audi- vit. It is impossible to determine how much of all this was really observed by the ancients, since it is expressly attested by earlier writers, such as Q,uintilian, that in Lat- in the accent was never put on the last syllable. But it is certainly wrong to put the grave on the last syllable of all adverbs, as some persons still do, or to use accents for the purpose of indicating the natural length of a vowel, _ which is better expressed by a horizontal line ("). [§ 35.] 6. These rules concerning accentuation ought to lead us to accustom oiu-selves to distinguish accent from quantity ; to read, for example, homines, and not homines, and to distinguish, in our pronunciation, edo (I eat) from " edo (I edit), lego (I read) from lego (I despatch), and in like manner,yiim (thou ravest), legis (thou readest), and regis (thou rulest) from the g&viilxvesfuris, regis, and legis; farther, levis (light) from levis (smooth), malus (bad) from malus (an apple-tree), ^oZu«, udis (a marsh), from palus, i (a post), anus (an old woman) from dnus {npuKTO^), lutum (mud) from lutum (a dyer's weed), and also lu'teus (dirty or muddy) from lutetis (yellow), and po'pulus (the people) from po'pulus (a poplar). In our ovro language accent and quantity coincide, but it is very wrong to apply this oeculiarity to a language to which it is foreign.* * [The student will find some very sensible remarks on this subject in ihe dissertation of M. Burette on Plutarch's Dialogue on Music. {Mem. le Lift., tirez des registres de VAcad. Roy. des Inscriptions, &C., vol. X., p. 1S9.) Kothing can show more clearly the utter absurdity of pronouncing Greek Dy accent alone than the applying of this same system of pronunciation to the Latin language. (Compare Liskovias, iAer die Atissprache des Chiech., p. 250.)]— Am. £d. DIVISION OF WORDS. 29 THE ACCIDENCE. CHAPTER V. DIVISION OF WORDS ACCORDING TO THEIR SIGNIFICATION. [§ 36.] The words of every language are either nouns, verbs, or particles. A noun serves to denote an object or a quality of an ob- ject, and may accordingly be exxher s, substantive, as domus (s. house), 3. pronoun, as ego (I), or an adjective, s& parvus (small). Nouns are declined to indicate their different relations. A verb expresses an action or condition which is ascri- bed to a person or a thing, as scribo, ire, dormire, amari. A verb is conjugated in order to indicate the different modes in which an action or condition is ascribed to a person or a thing. Particles are those parts of speech which are neither declined nor conjugated, and which are neither nouns nor verbs. They are divided into the following classes : 1. Adverbs express the circumstances of an action or con- dition ; as,scribit bene, he writes well ; diu dormit, he sleeps long. 2. Prepositions express, either directly or indirect- ly (§ 295), the relations of persons or things to one an- other, or to actions and conditions ; as, amor meus erga te, my love towards thee ; eo ad te, I go to thee. 3. Con- junctions express the connexion between things, actions, or propositions ; as, ego et tu ; clamavit, sed pater non audivit. 4. Interjections are the expressions of emotion by a single word ; as, ah, oJie, vae. These are the eight parts of speech in Latin ; all of them occur in the following hexameter : Vae tibi ndenti, quia riKrx post gaudia flebis. c a 30 LATIN GRAMMAK. CHAPTER VI. NOUNS SUBSTANTIVE. GENERAL RULES OF GENDER. [§ 37.] Nouns substantive are either proper (nomina ■propria), i. e., the names of. one particular man or thing, or common (nomina appellativa), i. e., such as denote per- sons or things in so far as they belong to a class. All nouns have one of three genders: masculine, femi- nine, or neuter. The manner in which the gender of a noun can be as- certained from its termination will be explained under each declension. Our object here is to show the gender )f nouns, both proper and common, in so far as it depends upon their meaning.* 1. The following are masculine: the names of men and of male beings ; as, homo, vir, scriba, flamen, consul, rex, deus, daemon, Cupido (the God of Love), manes (the spir- its of the departed), lemures (spectres) ; and the names of rivers, winds, and months, the words fiuvius, venius, mensis being themselves masculine. [^ 38.] Exceptions. — There are some substantives which do not origi- nally denote men, but have come to be applied to them by custom ; as, operae, labourers j vigiliae and excubiae, sentinels ; copiae^ troops ; aiurilia, auxiliary troops ; Ttutncipium, a slave ; scortum and prostibuluTti, a prostitute. All such wrords have the gender which belongs to them according to theii termination. The names of rivers in a, belonging to the first declension, vary in their gender. (See Schneider, Formmlehre, p. 14.) Modern writers commonly make them feminine ; but the ancients, in most cases, make them mascu- lines, which is the gender belonging to them. (See ^ 47.) The mytho- * [" Dr. Zumpt, in this part of his Grammar.appears to place too much reliance on the authority of the Latin grammarians. It should be recol- lected that most of these writers lived' long after the authors upon whom their comments are made, and at a time, too, when the very structure, and certainly the very idioms of the language, were materially altered. The living tongue of their times was an unsafe standard of comparison ; while the relation in which they stood to the writings of Caesar and Cicero was the same in kind. as that in which we ourselves stand. On the other ha^d, it is much to be regretted that not one among them possessed any of that philosophical spirit which begins to distinguish modern philology. Those who have been in the habit of consulting the commentaries of Do- natus and Servius, or the more systematic work of Priscian, will admit that the testimony of this class of writers, though of occasional value, should always be received with caution. The judgment of even Varro and Quintilian is not always to be depended upon, and their errors of judgment are often aggravated by the particnlarly corrupt state in which their writings have come down to us." (Jtwnal of Education, vol. i., p. 95. «TO.)1 — Am. Ed. GENUER or gUBSTANnVES. 31 ogical rivers Styx and Lethe are feminine, as in Greek. The names of winds and months are, without exception, masculine ; hence hi Eusia hie Libs, hie Aprilis. With regard to the names of the months, it must be observed that all of them are adjectives, and that the best writers use them only as such, the substantive mensis being understood. Hence, also, Catendae Jantiariae, Notiae Sextiles, Idus Martiae, Maiae, ante Calendas Au- gustas, IdUms Decembribus. See Drakenborch on Livy (iv.,37), who, with most other commentators, is so strongly convinced of this, that he does not hesitate to correct passages in which this rule is not obser^'ed. The names of mountains are generally said to be mascuUne ; but when the word moras is not joined with them, the gender depends upon their termination, as in alia jEtna. [§ 39.} 2. The following are feminine : the names of women and female beings; e.g., uxor, wife; soror, sister; anus, an old woman; socrtis, mother-in-law ; Juno, Venus ; and even when they end in U7n, as P/ianium, Gly'cerium, Ideontium. Most of the names of trees, towns, countries, and islands, just as the words arbos, urbs, terra (regio), and insula themselves are feminine ; e. g., alta cedrus, pinus, abies, the high cedar, pine, fir; umbrosa Jagus, the shady beech ; Jicus Indica, opulenta Corinthus, antiqua Tyrus, dura Lacedaemon, Aegyptus superstitiosa, clara Salamis. Exceptions. — The names of trees and shrubs ending in er, and following the third declension, are neuter ; as, acer, cicer, papaver, to which we must add robur, the oak. Masculine are oleaster and pinaster, which belong to the second, and styrax, which belongs to the third declension : also many shrubs and smaller plants in us, i; e. g., amarantrus, asparagus, calamus, dumus, hetkborus, intubus, rhamnus, and spinus. The following vary, and «iay be used as masculine or feminine : cytisus, raphanus, rubus, and grossus, as unripe fig. Among the names of towns the following are masculine : 1. All plurals in i, as Argi, Delphi, PuJeoli, Veii ; 2. Four names in o ; Hippo (with the surname regius), Narbo Marcius, Frusino, and Sitlmo ; the analogy of which is followed, also, by Croto, although the regular form in Greek is ij Kporuv; 3. Tunes, itis, and Canopus, as in Greek 6 KuvuSoc. Some names ui Us, untis, such as Pessinus, Selinns, and in us, i, such as Pharsalus, Abydus, and also Marathon, are masculine, accordirjg to the Greek custom, though they are sometimes also used as feminines. The following are neuter: 1. Those ending in um, and the Greek names in on, as Tusculum, Ilion ; 2. The plurals in a, orum, e. g., Susa, Arbela, Ecbatana, Leuctra ; 3. Those ending in e and ur, which follow the third declension ; as, Caere, Reale, Praeneste, Trrgeste, Nfpete, or Nepet, Anxur, and Tilmr ; Twder is likewise neuter ; 4., The indeclmable names in i and y ; as, Illiturgi, Asty, ind some others, particularly barbarous names, the declension of which is defective ; as, Suthul, Hispal, Gadir, whereas their Latin forms, Hispalis and Gades, turn, are feminine. Argos, as a neuter, occurs only in the nominative, otherwise Argi, orum, is used. The many exceptions we have here enu- merated might render us inclined altogether to drop the rule respecting the feminine gender of names of towns ; but we must adhere to it on ac- count of the numerous Greek names in us, i, and of the Greek or non- Italian names in on (o), onis; and there appears, moreover, to have been a tendency to make feminine even those which are of a different gender, provided they are in the singular. This is the case, besides those we have already mentioned, with Craton, and may also be observed in the case of Praeneste ; for Virgil says, Praeneste sub ipsa, and Ju'enal gelidd Praeneste but otherwise the neuter gender is well established (Liv., vi., 29. SiL 32 LATIN GRAMMAR. Ital., ix., 404.) The poeta change the names of some places ending in um into MS, e. g., Saguntus. and use them as feminines. (See Schneider, Formenl, p:'479.) Among the names of countries, those in nm and plurals in a are neuter, as Lfttium, BacJra ; the ndmes Bosptmts, Pontus, and Hellespont tts, which properly denote the seas adjacent to these countries, are masculine; the same Is the case with Isthmus, when used as the name of a country, for originally it is a common noun, signifying "a neck of land." Of the names of islands, some ending in um axe neuter, as is also the Egyptian Ddia. It must farther be observed that most names of precimis stones are fem- inine, as in Greek ; but beri/llux, carbuTiculus, opal-us, and smaragdus are masculine. The names of dramatic compositions are used in the early and good language as feminine, the word f^tnda being understood; e. g., htec Tmculaitu.1 (Plauti), Eiitmchis ( TereTiiii), acta est, &c. (See Quintil,, i., 5. 52, with Spalding's note.) Juvenal (i., 6), however, says, Orestes nondam finitus. [§ 40.] 3. There are many names of persons which are common to both sexes, as they denote an occupation or quality which may belong either to a man or a woman, although the one is more frequently the case than the oth- er. Such words are called common (communia). Those found in Latin with two genders are contained in the fol owing hexameter lines : Antist.es, xmtes, adolescens, auctor eX. augur. Dux, judex, index, testis, cum cive sacerdos, Municipi adde parens, patrueli affinis et heres, Artifici conjux atque incola, miles et hostis. Par, juvcnis, martyr, comes, ivfans, obses et Jiospes, Interpres, praesul,, custos, vindexque. satelles. Some other words are not noticed here, because they are used only in apposition to feminines ; those mentioned above, however, may be accom- panied by adjectives in either gender ; e. g., Cic, Cat., 2 : In hoc suwus sapientes, qiujd vntnram optima'in duce?n, tamquam denm, sequimur. Pro Balb., 24 : Sacerdos ilia Cereris civis Romana facta est. Virg., JSn., x., 252 : Alma parens Idaea deum, Liv., i., 7 : Mater mea, veridica interpres deurn. To these we may add contuhernalis, properly an adjective, which cannot be accem modated to verse, and perhaps also exul and princeps, with regard to which -the passages of the ancients are not decisive, since the non aha exul in Tficit., Ann., xiv., 63, may be explained as apposition, and Romana prin ceps in the Eleg. ad Liviam, 356, may be taken as an adjective, as in othei cases. Obses is well attested as a nomen commune by Plin., ///>(. Nat. xxxiv., 13 ; Obsidibas, quae Porsenae miltebantur. Auspex yet await.* a bet ter authority than praeclaram auspicem in the Declam. {Porcii Latronis) r> Caiil., c. 16. It is farther to be observed that antistes and hospes, in the sense ol priestess and hostess, are not attested as well as the feminine form antist.Ua, ae, and hospita, ae. [§ 41.] 4. Substantiva mabilia are those substantives in which the root receives different terminations for the masculine and feminine genders. The termination for the feminine is always a or trix, and the latter occurs in those cases in which the masculine ending in tor is derived fi-om GENDER OF SUBSTANTIVES. 33 transitive verbs, as in victor, victrix ; ultor, ultrix ; prae- ceptor, praeceptrix ; inventor, inventrix. The feminine is indicated by a when the masculine ends in us or er, or some other termination, e. g., coquus, coqua ; puer, puera; or more frequently the diminutive form puella ; magister, magistra ; leno, lena; caupo, copa ; tibicen, tibidna; avus, avia ; rex,regina; antistes, antistita. The feminine tei- mination tria is Greek, and is formed from masculines in tes or ta ; as, psaltes, psaltria ; poeta, poetria. [§ 42.] 5. Some names of animals have special forms to distinguish the two sexes: agrnos, agna; cervus, cerva; columbiis, columba ; equus, equa ; gallus, gallina ; juven- cus, juvenca ; luptes, lupa ; leo, lea and leaena ; porcus, porca; vitulzis, vitida; ursus, ursa. In some cases the words are altogether different, as in taurus, vacca, a bull and cow ; aries, ovis, ram and sheep ; hoedus, capdla ; catiiSjJelis. Most other names of animals are common (epicoena); that is, they have only one grammatical gender, which comprises both sexes, e. g., passer, anser, corvus, canis, cancer are masculine ; aguila,felis, anas, wipes are femi- nine, though they may denote animals of either sex. With regard to those names which may distinguish the genders by terminations, it should be observed that one form (gen- erally the masculine) predominates, such as equus, leo, lu- pus as masculine, and_/eZis, ovis as feminine. If the sex of the particular animal is to be stated, the word mas or femina is added to the same ; as, anas mas, anas Jiemi- na,femina anguis, musca femina, femina piscis, and lupus or porcus femina, although we have the forms lupa and porca. Instead of m,as we may also use masculus or mas cula, e. g., vulpes mascula, a male fox ; pavo masculus, s peacock. Some of these nouns epicene, however, in which the dif- ference of sex is more frequently noticed, are used as real common nouns, so that they are masculine when the male animal, and feminine when the female animal is particu- larly specified. Of this ^ind are hos, canis, elephantus, lepus, vespertilio, mris, which are masculine when the dif- ference of sex is not noticed ; but feminine when the fe- male is designated. Thus we generally find, e. g., ele- phantz prudentissimi lidbentur, lepores timidi sunt ; but, at the samo time, canes rdbidae, elephantus gravida, lepus fe 34 LATIN GRAMMAR. cunda; and Horace, abandoning the usual gender, takes the liberty of saying (Serm., ii., 8, 87), membra grms sparsi, and jccur anseris albae. (See Bentley's note.) The following nouns are sometimes maseuline and sometimes feminine, without regard to difference of sex : unguis and serpens, a serpent ; dama, fallow-deer ; taVpa, a mole ; also sus, a pig ; and tigris, tiger ; but svs is com- monly feminine, while tigris is commonly masculine. Oth- ers are of uncertain gender, in as far as they have both a masculine and a feminine form, which, however, are used indiscriminately and vnthout regard to sex. Thus we have the feminine forms colubra lacerta, luscinia, and simia along with the masculines coluber, lacertus, luscinius, and simim, without simia, for instance, having any refer- ence whatever to a female monkey. In like manner, ^rt- lumbus and palumba (the same as palumbes) are used in- discriminately. [§ 43.] 6. The following are neuter. All indeclinable substantives, as gummi, pasdha, sinapi, and pondo, which is used as an indeclinable noun in the sense of " pound ;" ,he names of the letters of the alphabet, as c triste, o Ion- gum, Chaecum digamma, &c., and all words and^ expres- sions which, without being substantives, are conceived and used as such, or quoted merely as words ; e. g., ultimum vale, scire tuum nihil est, vivere ipsum turpe est nobis, ter- geminum aog, hoc ipsum diu mihi molestum est (Cicero), lacrimas hoc mihi paene movet (Ovid), where the words diu and paene are quoted from the sayings of another per- son, and it is said that the very word diu or paene is pain- fiil. Note. — The names of the letters of the alphabet, however, are sometimes used as femininqs, the word littera being understood ; e. g., Quintil., i., 4, 11: Sciat etiam Ciceroni placuisse' diio Maiiamque geviinata i scribere. The names of the Greel; letters in o,as beta, gamma, delta, are used as femininea only by Ausonias, Technop, de Liu. CHAPTER Vn. NUMBER, CASE, AND DECLENSION. [§ 44.] The Latin language distinguishes, in nouns and verbs, the singular and plural fnumerus singularis and pluralisj by particular forms ; it has also different forms to distinguish six different cases (casus) in the relation? NUMBER, CASE, AND DECLENSION. 35 and connexions of nouns. The ordinary names of these cases are nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, and ablative. The different forms of these cases are seen in the terminations which are annexed to the crude form of a word. Declension is the deriving of these diiferent forms, both in the singular and plural, from one another, the nominative forming the starting point. The nomina- tive and vocative are called casris recti, and the others ca- tus obliqui. There are five declensions distinguished by the termi- nation of the genitive singular, which ends : 12 3 4 5 ae i is us ei All declensions have the following points in common : 1. In the second, third, and fourth declensions thete are neuters which have three cases alike, viz., nominative, accusative, and vocative. 2. The vocative is like the nominative, except in the second declension, and some Greek words in the first and third. 3. Where no exception arises from neuters, the accu- sative singular ends in m. 12 3 4 5 am um em um em 4. The genitive plural ends in um. 12 3 4 5 5. The dative plural is in all declensions like the abla- tive plural • 1 2 3 4 5 IS Is thus ibus(ubus) ebus The following table contains the terminations of all th« five declensions : SiNGlTLAR. neut. neut. Nom. a (e, as, esj us er, um a, e, c, I, n, r, s, t, X us. u es. Gen. ae (es) i is us ei. Dat. ae i ui d A.CC. am (en) vm, em (imj um. u Cfti. Voc. a (e) e. er, um like nom. us. u Is. AbL ii(t) e(ij u (. 36 LATIN GRAMMAR. IT I^U neut. neut. neut. Nom. ae if a es, a (iaj us, va es. Gen. arum Dat. is orum is um (ium) ihns uum ibus(uhus) erum. ebus. Ace. a OS, a es, a (ia) us, ua es. Voc. ae Abl. is i, is a es_ a (iaJ ibui us, ua ibus(ubus) es. ebus. CHAPTER VIII. FIRST DECLENSION. . [§ 45.] The first Jet-lension comprises all nouns which form the genitive singular in ae. The nominative of gen- uine Latin words of this kind ends in a. Greek words in a, as musa, histtyria, stoa, follow the example of the Latin ones, and shorten the final vowel when it is long in Greek. Some Greek words in e, as, and es have pe culiar terminations in some of their cases. (See Chap. IX.) Plural. Nom. vi-ae, the ways. SiNGBLAK. Nom. vi-d, the way. Gen. vi-ae, of the way. Dat. vi-ae, to the way. Ace. vi-am, the way. Voc. vi-d, O way ! Abl. vi-a, from the way. Gen. vi-arum, of the ways. Dat. vi-is, to the ways. Ace. vi-as, the ways. Voc. vi-ae, O ways ! Abl. vi-is, from the ways. In like manner are declined, for example, the substan- tives barba, causa, cura, epistola, fossa, hora, mensa, no- verca, penna, porta, poena, sagitta, silva, Stella, uva, victo- ria, and the adjectives and participles with the feminine termination a ; as, longa, libera, pulchra, lata, rotunda, lecta, scripta. Note I. — An old fonn of the genitive singular in as has been retained' even in the common language, in the vtorifamilia, when compounded vtitb pater, mater, filius, and filia ; so that we say paterfamilias, patresfamilias JUiosfamilias. But the regular iorra familiae is not uncommon ; sometimes, though not often, we find /asitliarum in composition with the plural ol those words.* Note 2. — An obsolete poetical form of the geniL sing, is ai for the diph- thong ae or ai, as in aulai, aurai, pictai, which three forms occur even il Virgil. * rConsult Appendia v., on the ancient forms of declension.]— ./Im. Ed. GREEK WORDS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION. 37 A'ofe 3. — Poets form the genith t plural of patronymics in es and a, of several compounds in cola and gena, and of some few names of nations, bj the termination um instead of arum ; as, A meadnm, Dardanidum, coelicolum, terrigmmn, Lnptlhum. Of a similar kind are the genitives amphorum, drachnmm, which^re used even in prose, instead of amphorarum, drachma- rum. (Comp. if 51.) JVo«e 4. — Some words lorm the dativa and ablative plural in ahut instead ot IS — such as anima, dea^Jitia, libertay nata^ mula, equa^ asina — for the pur pose Of distinguishing them from the dative and ablative plural of the masculine forms, which would otherwise be the same. The regular tcr inination is, however, is generally preferred, notwithstanding the possi bility of ambiguity ; and it is only dsabus and fiUabus that can be recom- mended, for the former is used in a solemn invocation by Cicero : dis dea- basque omniinLi ; and the latter by Livy (xxiv., 26), cum duabus fiLiabus vir- ginibus- Libertabus frequently occurs in inscriptions. The termination abus has remamed in common use for the feminine of duo and ambo: duabus, ambabus.* Nom. e Gen. es Ace. en Voc. e Abl. e CHAPTER IX. GREEK WORDS IN C, OS, AND eS. [§ 46.] 1. In the dative singular and throughout the plural, Greek words in e, as, and es do not differ fi-om the regular declension. In the other cases of the singular they are declined in the following manner : as es. ae ae. am (sometimes an) en. a e and a. a a and e. Words of this kind in e are : aloe, cramhe, epitome, Cir- ce, Danae, Phoemce ; in as : Aeneas, Boreas, Gorgias, Midas, Messias, Satanas ; in es : anagnostes, cometes, dy- nastes, geometres, pyrites, satrapes, sophistes, Anchises, and * [This terminatfon in abus, however, though now appearing in but few words, was originally the common ending of the dative and ablative plural of the first declension, and was merely retained afterward in a few, as a convenient mode of dietinguishing between certain feminines and mascu lines. In the change from abus to is, Bopp thinks that there must have been an intermediate form ibus after a-bus had weakened the stem-vowel i into I, and that this t was subsequently lengthened as a compensatioK for tile removal of bu. Hence rerrls would arise from terri-bus, for terra-bus^ just as the verb mdlo arose from mavolo. {Bopp, VerglHch. Gram., p. 282. Besides the vvords given in the text, many more occur in inscriptions ana ancient writers. Thus, we have Mirabus (Gruter, 92, 1); nymfatna (W. 93, 8) ; and also raptabus, paucabus, puellabus, pudicabus, pnrtabus, lerjms &c. There is, therefore, no foundation whatever for the opini i 'Iial »uch forms as these were merely brought in by the ancient juri.!tr C'-r the •ake of convenient distinction in testaments, although this is ass red b- Pliny (Apud Charts., p. 103, kj.)]— -dm. Ed. D !iS I.ATIN QEAMMAK. Thersites, patronymics (i. e., names of persons derived fi-om their parents or ancestors, see § 245) ; e. g., Aene ades, Alcides, Peltdes, Pria7nides, Tydides. Note. — Common nouns, such as epistola and po'ita, which, on their adoption into the Latin language, exchanged their Greeli termination n or )7f for the Latin a, are treated as genuine Latin words, and no longer fol- low the Greek declension. But a great many other common, as well as proper nouns likewise follow the Latin declension ; and it must be espe- cially remarked that the early Latin writers, including Cicero, show a tendency to Latinize the declension of those words which they have fre- quent occasion to use. Thus we prefer, with Cicero, gramnutlica, rhetorica, dialeclica^ musica, to grammatice, rhetorice^ diaUctice^ musicBj and we n^ay say Creta and Penelopa just as well as Hscuba and Helena, although some writers, especially the later poets, with an affectation of emdition, pre- ferred CreU and Penelope. But there is no fixed law in this respect. In the words in es Cicero prefers this Greek termination to the Latin o ; e. g., Philoctetes, Scytl^es, Perses, sophistes, to Persa, aophista, &c. In the accu sative he sometimes uses en; as, Arsinoen, Circeji, Sinopen. (See my note on Cic, m Verr., iv., 18.) But although he would use the nominative Sinope for Sinopa, yet he makes the genitive Sinopae in the adverbial sense of " at Sinope," e. g., in Rull., ii., 20. As to the practice of Horace, see Bentley on Epod., xvii., 17. 2. Greek words in as commonly take the accusative an in poetry, and Virgil uniformly uses Aenean. In prose the Latin am is much more frequent, although Livy, too, has Aenean, and in Quintus Curtius we not unfrequently find the forms Amyntan, Philotan, Perdiccan, and others, along with Amyntam, Philotam, Perdiccam. The vocative of words in is is usually e, as in Virgil : Gonjugio, Ancliise, Veneris dignate superho ; but the Latin vocative in a also occurs frequently, e. g., at the end of an hexameter in Horace, Serm. ii., 3, 187 : Atrida, vetas cur? and in Cicero : Aeeta, Thyesta ! The vocative in a sel- dom occurs, as in the oracle mentioned by Cicero, De Di- vin., ii., 56 : Aio te, Aeacidd, Romanos vincere posse.*' Words in es form their ablative regularly in a, e. g., in Cicero : de Philocteta, de Protagora Abderita. The po- ets, however, sometimes use the termination e, as in Vir gil : Uno graditur comitatus Achate. 3. Generally speaking, however, the patronymics in t/c, genit. ov, are the only Greek words that follow the second declension ; and the majority of proper names ending in es follow the third declension ; as, Aldbiades, Miltiades, Xerxes. But many of them form the accusative singular in en (as Euphraten, Mithridaten, Phraaten), and the voc- ative in e, together with the forms of the third declension in em and es. (See Chap. XVI.) * [The a i( her* lengthened by the arxu.] — Am. Ed. FIKST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS. 39 JVofe.— The word satrapes {aarpavriQ, m) is best declined after the first declension ; but no example of the genit. sing, being sairapae is known : tiepos {Lysand., 4) uses satrapis. This does not necessarily presuppose the existence of a nominative sairaps, which occurs only in later times but may be the same as Miltiades, genitive Miltiadis. Instances of the ilative satmpae, accus. satrapen, and ablat. salrape, occur in other writers, as well as in the correct texts of Q. Curtius. The form salrapm must be rejected ; but the Latin form satrapam may be used'. The plural is throughout after the first declension, satrapae, satraparum, &c. CHAPTER X. GENDER OP THE NOUNS OP THE FIRST DECLENSION. [§ 47.] Nouns in a and. e are feminine, and those in as and as (being chiefly names of men) are masculine. Note.— Jiouns denoting male beings are of course masculine, though they end in a : as, awiga^ coUega, nauta, panicida, poeta, scriba. Names of rivers in a, such as Gaxumna^ Trehia, Sequana, HimeTa (to be distinguished from the town of the same name), and Hadria (the Adriatic), are mascu- line, according to the general rule. (See Chap. VI.) The three rivers Altia, Albula, and Murona, however, are feminine. Cameta and planeia, which are usually mentioned as masculines, do not occur in ancient writers, who always use the Greek forms cometps, plancUs ; but comela and planeta would, according to analogy, be masculine. CHAPTER XI. SECOND DECLENSION. [§ 48.] All nouns which form the genitive singular in i belong to the second declension. The greater part of them end in the nominative in us, the neuters in um ; some in er, and only one in ir; viz., vir, with its compounds, to which we must add the proper name, Trevir. There is only one word ending in ur, viz., the adjective satur, sa- tura, satvLrum.* * [Originally this declension had but two terminations, us for the mas- culine and feminine, and um for the neuter. All the forms, therefore, be- longing to this declension, which subsequently ended in er, ir, or ur, ter- minated in early Latin in ems, ims, tirus. This is plain from the remain of the early language that have reached us, as well as from other sources. Thus, in Plautus {Mm. v., 5, 84) we have socrrus instead of socer. The same writer, and others also, employ the vocative form puere, which sup- poses, of course, a nominative puerus. In later Latin we have even SUer and Silerus both occurring, the former in Lucan, ii., 426 ; the latter in Pompimius Mela, ii., 4, 9 ; and with these we may compare Vesper and Vespenis. That the Latin vir arose from virus is also highly probable, and is in some degree confirmed by the existence n! vira, as a feminine, in ear- lier Latinity. {Festus, t. v. Querqaetulans. Serv. ad Virg. .<£n., zii.. 40 LATIN GRAMMAR. The genitive of those in ks and um is formed by chan ging these tenninations into i. The vocative of words in us ends in e ; as, Ofelix anne, O happy year ! In all other cases the vocative is like the nominative. SlNQULAR. Nom. gladi-us, the svirord. Gen. gladi-l, of the sword. Dat. gladi-o, to the sword. Ace. gladi-um, the sword. Voc. gladi-e, O sword ! Abl. gladi-o, from tlie sword. Plhral. Nom. gladi-l, the swords. Gen. gladt-orum, of the swords. Dat. ^Zad!i-M, to the swords. Ace. gladi-os, the swords. Voc. gla^i-i, O swords ! Abl. gladi-is, from the swords. The neuters in um are declined in the same way ; but in the plural they have the termination a, and the nomina- tive, accusative, and vocative are alike in the singular as well as in the plural. Singular. Nom. scamn-um, the bench. Gen. sca7rm-i, of the bench. Dat. scamn-o, to the bench. Plural. Nom. scamn-a, the benches. Gen. scamn-orum, of the benches. Dat. scamn - is, to the benches. Ace. scamn-a, the benches. Voc. scamn-a, O benches ! Abl. scamn-is, from the benches. Ace. scatnn-um., the bench. Voc. scamn-um, O bench .! Abl scamn-o, from the bench. Vir and its compounds, as well as satur, simply add the terminations of the different cases to the nominative. Some of the words in er are likewise declined by mere- •y adding the terminations to the nominative ; as, puer, pu- er-i, puer-o, puer-um, puer-orum, puer-is, puer-os ; others reject the short e in the oblique cases ; as, liber (a book), lihr-i, libr-o, lihr-um, &c. Those which retain the e are not very numerous, viz., adulter, gener, puer, socer, vesper liiher (the god Bacchus), and liberi (the children, only in 68.) So Iber is only shortened from Iberus, and satur from saiurus, &c. riany Greek words likewise appear in Latin shorn of their appropriate ter- mination; as, dypoc (agrus, agerus), ager; EvavcTpof, (Eitandrjts^) Euander, &c. It may be added that, in most words of this cl ass, the e in the mi-idl* is syncopated ; as, Ubn, iibri ; ager, agri. That this is a true syncotie i» clearly shown by dexter, gen. dexteri and dextri (Siruve. iiber die Lot Peclin., &c., p. 11.)]— Am. Ed. riEST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS. 4] the plural) ; the adjectives aaper, lacer, liber (free), miser prosper, and tener. To these we must add the compound* oi ferre and gerere; as, Lucifer, armiger, and the words presbyter, Iber, and Celtiber (plural CeltiberiJ. The adjec live dexter has both forms, dextera and dextra, dexterwm and dextrum, although the elision of the e is more frequent. [<) 49.] Note 1. — The genitive of nouns, both proper and common, in iiis and iTOTi, in the best age of the liatin language, was not ii, but i ; as, JiH im jiliiy and, in lilie manner, A-ppi, ingeni, imperii coiisili, negoti. So, at least, it was pronounced in the poets before and during the Augustan age, as in Virgil, Horace, and Tibullus. Propertius is the first who, in a few in- stances, has H, which occurs frequently in Ovid ; and in the later poets, who preferred regularity of formation to euphony, it is quite common. (See Bentley on Terence, Andr., ii., 1, 20.) With regard to poets, the metre must determine this pomt ; and it was in consequence of the metre that Lucretius (v., 1004), though one of the early poets, wrote namgii, be- cause otherwise the word would not have suited the hexameter. But the orthography of prose writers who lived before the Augustan age isdoub ful, on account of the great discrepancy which, on this point as on every thing connected with orthography, prevails in the MSS., even in the most ancient ones of Cicero, which have recently been discovered. Jt is, how- ever, probable that, although ii may have been written, only one i was pronounced, as was always done in the words dii and diis. The genitive mancipi for mancipii, which occurs in many legal expressions, is a lemnant of the ancient practice, and remained in use m later times. Concerning the accent of these contracted genitives, and of the vocatives of proper names in tzts, of which we shall speaii hereafter, see above, ^ 33, and Bentley, I. c. Note 2. — The following nine adjectives or adjective pronouns, unus, solus, totus, ulluSy utsr, neuter, alter, mtllus, and alius, together with theii compounds lUerque^ utervis, uterlibet, utercunque, and alteruter, form the geni- tive in all their three genders in ius, and the dative in i ; in addition to which, uter and jieuter eject the c preceding the r. The i of this genitive is long in firose, but in verse it is sometimes made short. (See ^ 16.) Alterius alone las the i short both in prose and in verse (with a few exceptions, as in Terence, Andr., iv., 1, 4 ; see ^ 850), according to the statement of Pris- .ian, p. 694, 958. It is true that alterius cannot be used in the dacty'ic lexameter without the i being short, but it is used in the same manner io a tfochee by Plautus (Capt., ii., 2, 56). There are only a few instances in which these words follow the regular declension. (See below, ^ 140.) [4 50.] Note 3. — The vocative of proper names inTusendsiniinsteado' I'e, e. g., Antoni, MercUri, Terenti, Tulli, Virglti. In lilte manner, the prope. names in iius, being sometimes softened down into lus, make the vocativv in a simple i ; as, Gii, Pompei. But this rule cannot be applied to prope names in ius from the Greek etoi, as in Anus, Heractius ; nor to thos* names which are in reality adjectives, and are used as proper names onlj vihen filius, deus, or heros is understood, such as La'ertius, the son oi Laertes, i. e., Ulysses ; Cynthius, Delius, the Cynthian or Delian god, i. e. Apollo; TiryrUhius, the Tirynthian hero, i. e., Hercules. All such words retain ie in the vocative ; and in like manner Pius, when used as a prrper name, probably formed the vocative Pie; for all common nouns »nd adjectives, iiccording to the testimony of the ancient grammarians, r"gu- larly formed their vocative in ie ; as, nuntie, adversarie, impie, although t'fere are no passages in ancient writers to prove it. Bntjilius and genius n *ke their vocative jili, zeui, and meus (though n^t mea or meum) makef mi Dnts, in the vocative, is like the nominative ; as, O dcus ! mi deus !* * [The form dee, as a vocative, first occurs at a later period, ii tht Christian writers ; as, for example. Prudent*; s and TertuUian.] — Air Ed D2 12 LATIN GRAMMAR. What has here been said of deus alone is applied by poets to otha words also : they not unfrequently imitate the Greeks by making the voc- ative like the nominative, e. g., Terent., Phorm., ii., 2, 10 : O virfortu atquc amicus! Horat., de An. Peel., 292, vos,0 Pomjnhus smgiml Cam.. i., 2, 43, almaeftlim Maine. Ovid, Fast., iv., 731, populus In Llvy, too. it occurs in some ancient formute ; as, viii., 9, agedumponlifexpubhcua pojmh Rom. ; and i., 24, tu populus Albanus; but there is no reason for doubting the form poDKle, which occurs in other passages. .„ , [6 51.] Note 4.— The genitive plural of some words, especially those which denote money, measure, and weight, is commonly urn* instead of OTum, particularly nummum, sestertium, denarium, cadum, medimnnm, modium, jugerum, talentum. Nummum is commonly used in this way in connexion with numerals ; whereas otherwise, when it merely denotes money in general, nummorum is the usual form, e. g., tanium nummorum, acemi mm- riiorum. There are some other words in which this is the usual form in certain combinations, such as praefeclus fabrum, or socium, from faber and socius ; so, also, duumvirum, tnumvirum, decemvirum. Liberi and deus have both forms, liberorum, dforum, and liberum, deum. Poets indulge in still greater licenses, especially with names of nations ; they say, e. g., Argi- vum, Danaum, Poermm, &c., instead of Argi-nnrum, DanaoTum, Poenorum, and in Livy we find Celtiberum, as well as Celtiberorum. We might point out several more isolated peculiarities of this kind ; as, ephorum in Corn. Nepos, Agrsil., 4. Respecting the genitive of numerals (cardinal, and especially distributive numerals), see below, Chap. XXIX. and XXX. Note 5.— Deus has three forms in the nom. and ablat. plur., viz., dei, dii, and di, and dels, diis, and dis. The forms in i are the most usual, and in reality only one of them, since dii and diis were pronounced as monosylla- bles {Priscian, p. 737), and are most frequently found thus spelled in the ancient MSS. The following words may sei-ve as exercises of" declen sion : Annus, year ; corvus, raven ; hortus, garden ; lectus, bed ; medicus, physician ; morbus, illness ; nuntius, mes- senger ; populus, people ; rivus, brook ; taurus, bull ; ven- tus, wind. Neuters in um : Astrum, star ; helium, war ; collum, neck ; dolium, cask ; donum, present ; memhrum, limb ; negotium, business ; ovum, egg ; pocMlum, cup ; proe- lium, battle; sepulcrum, sepulchre; signum, sign; tergwn, back ; vinculum, fetter. Those in er, genit. eri, have been mentioned above. The following are the most common among those which reject the e before the r : Ager, field ; aper, boar ; arbiter, arbitrator ; auster, south wind ; cancer, cancer, or crab ; coluber, snake ; culter, \aMe; faber, work- man ; liber, book ; magister, teacher ; minister, servant. To these must be added the proper names in er, e. g., Al- exander, genit. Alexandri. The adjectives which reject * We do not write Um, as is done in most editions, for several reasons : 1. Because it is doubiful whether this form arose from contraction j 2. Be- ■-ause, according to the testimony of the ancient grammarians, no final syllable in m with a vowel before it is long (which would he implied in the circumflex), whence no one would be able to disting'; ish by his ear such a genitive as nummum from the accus. sing., as Quintilian, i., 6, 17, Utcsts; and, 3. Because no accents are used in Latin. GREEK WORDS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. 43 the e are aeger, ater, creher, glaher, macer, niger, piger, imjnger, pulcher, rubers sacer, scaler, sinister, taeter, vafer. CHAPTER XII. GREEK WORDS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. [§ 52.] Greek words in oq and neuters in ov, which fnaie ov in the genitive, are commonly Latinized in the nominative by the terminations us and um, such as the common nouns taurus, antrum, theatrum, and the proper names Hortccrus, Pyrrhits, Corinthus. Other common nouns, which are more rarely used, admit of both termi- nations in the nominative ; as, arctos and arctus, harbitos and barbitus, scorpios and scorpius ; and this is still more frequently the case in proper names, so that, e. g., Paros, Delos, Isthmos, and Ilion are used along with Parus, JDe- lies, Istlimus, and Ilium. Generally speaking, however, the Greek forms belong more particularly to poets and the later prose writers. Greek names in poq, with a con- sonant before it, sometimes become Latinized by the ter- mination er, and sometimes they change poq into rus, and make their vocative in c. The former takes place in by far the greater number of cases, e. g., Alexander, Maean- der, Teucer ; the only instances in which the termination rus is found are, Codrus, Hebrus, Locrus, Petrus* In the compounds of {lerpov, and a few others, both forms are used, as hexameter and Aexametrus,'ihovigli the latter oc- curs more frequently. Words ending in os in the nomi- native may make the accusative in on instead of um ; as, Delon, Bosporon, Tarson. The nominative plural some- times ends in oe (the Greek diphthong ot), as in canepho- roe, Cicero, in Verr., iv., 3, 8; Locroe, Quintil., x., 1, 70.1 * [To these Schneider subjoins Myriandrus, Antandrus, hydrus, amphi macrus, diametrus, and perimetrus. (L. G., vol, iii., p. 75.)] — Am. Ed. + [This ending belongs properly to the earlier state of the language. Thus, in Plautus (Cos. prol., 31) we have clemmtnw, and also (Pom., i., 1, 9) Urm. In many MSS., too, the Comedy of Terence which we enti- tle Adelphi, is called Adelphm. Besides Cicero and Quintilian, hovfever, we find it in Nepos {Milliad., iv., 3), hemerodrtma ; in Pliny (fl. N., 37, 10), boUx; and most frequently in the names of nations and cities; as, Sdla (Lucan, iii., 180); Holnux (Plin., H. N., v., 27); Arimaspa (Pomp. Mela, ii, I, 2), &c. (Consult Schneider, L. G., vol. iii., p. 82, seq.)']—Am. Ed. •t4 LATIN GRAMMAK. The genitive plural in m, instead oiorum, occurs in the titles of books, such as Bucolicon, GeorgiconJ^ 2. Greek proper names in ovg, contracted from oo.c, are in Latin either resolved into ous or end in us; as, Alcinoti-s, Aristonus, Panthus. The vocative of the latter form is u ; as, Panthu. _ . _ 3. Some Greek proper names in uc, which in Greek follow the second Attic declension (as, Athos, Ceos, Coi Teas J, in Latin either follow the Greek declension, e. g., Athos, gen. and dat. Atko, accus. Atko or Athon ; or they take the Latin form ; as, Tyndareus for Tyndareos, and Cous (for Cos, Kfcjf), Coo, Coum, ablat. Co, e. g., in Co in- sula. Athos, however, is also declined as a noun of the third declension with the nominative Athon or Atho — Athonem, Athene. 4. Greek words in evg of the third Greek declension, such as Orpheus, Idomeneus, Phalereus, Prometheus, w^ere pronounced in Latin sometimes "ms, as one syllable, and sometimes ms. The best way is to make them follow entirely the second Latin declension; as, Orphei, Orpheo, Orpheum, with the exception of the vocative, which (ac- cording to the Greek third declension) ends in eu. The Greek terminations, gen. ios, dat. ei (contracted Ti), accus. ea,t are chiefly found in poetry ; but the accusative is frequent also with prose writers, though Cicero (ad Att., vii., 3) does not approve of it ; as, Phalerea, Promethea, Tydea. The terminations f/, eo, ea are sometimes con- tracted by poets into a diphthong, because the metre re- quires it. (See above, § 11.) Horace makes the genitive of Achilles and Ulixes — Achillei, JJlixei, or contracted Achillei, Ulixei, as though the nominative still ended in evg. The name Perseits is usually formed by Cicero af- ter the first declension : nom. Perses, gen. and dat. Per- sae, ace. Persen, abl. Perse and Persa. Livy preferred the second declension : Perseus, Persa, Perseo (rarely Persi, according to the third, like the Greek Ilspcret), but in the accusative he has more frequently Persea than Per- seum. * [And in some unusual geographical names ; as, Colonia Theraon (Sail, Jug., xix., 3) ; Philenon arcB {Id. ib,) ; TegestrcEon {.Prise, Perieg., 375.)]— Am. Ed. ' t In some words also ea, if the verse requires it; as, Idomenea, Iliorua fa and ed are Ionic forms, aad the Attic ea is not customary in Latin OENDEK OF NOUNS OF SECOND DECLENSION. 45 CHAPTER XIII. OENDER OP THE NOUNS OP THE SECOND DECLENSION. [§ 53.] 1. N^UNS in US, er, and ir are masculine; thoae in um, and the Greek nouns in on, are neuter. 2. Of those in us,howe\eT, the following are feminine: the names of plants and precious stones, as well as those of towns and islands, with a few exceptions. (See above, § 39.) It must be observed that in many cases where the name of a tree ends in us fem., there is a form in um de- noting the iruit of the tree, e. g., cerasus, cerasum ; malus, malum ; Tnorus, morum ; pirzis, pirum, ; prunus, prunum, ; 'pomus, pomv/m ; but_/?cMs signifies both the tree and the fruit. There are only four other genuine Latin words in us which are feminine, viz., alvus, humus, vannus, and co- lus, which, however, is sometimes declined after the fourth declension, gen. us. Pampinus, a branch of a vine, is rarely feminine, but commonly masculine. Virus (juice or poison) snA. pelagus [to veXayo^, the sea) are neuter. Vulgus (the people) is sometimes masculine, but more fre- quently neuter. [^ 54.] Note. — With regard to the numerous Greek f=mmines in us (or os) which have been adopted into the Latin language, such as the compounds of 71 o(5of : exodus, nwlhodus, periodus, and synodus, the student must be re- ferred to his Greek grammar, for the Latin differs in this respect from the Greek. The words biblus, and ■papyrus (the Egyptian papyrus), byisns, and carbasus (a fine flax and the linen made out of it), are feminine, being names of plants ; but they retain this gender also when they denote things manufactured from them. Phams, being the name of an island, is femi- nine ; but it is also feminine in the sense of a light-house, which meaning it obtained from the fact of the first light-house being built in that island near Alexandria; it is, however, now and then used as a masculine (Sueton., Ctavd., 20). Arctus (os), denoting a bear, is properly both masc. and fem. ; but as the name of a constellation, it is in Latin always femi- nine. Bavbitus (a lyre), or barbitos, is sometimes used as fem. and some- times as masc, but we also find hoc barbiton. We must iiotice here especially a number of words which in Greek are properly adjectives, and are used as feminine substantives, because a sub- stantive of this gender is understood. Such words are : abyssus, atomus, dialeclus, diphthtmgus, eremus, paragraphus, diametrus, and perimetrus, the last two of which, however, are used by Latin writers also with the Greek termination os. For the substantives understood in these cases, see the Greek Grammar. As different substantives may be understood, we have both antidotus and antidotum. The word epodus also belongs to this class, but its gender varies according to its different meanings : when it denotes « lyric epilogue, it is feminine ; when it denotes a shorter iambic verse after a longer one, or when it is the nam* of the peculiar species of Hora- lian poetry, it is masculine. 46 LATIN SKAMMAB. CHAPTER XTV. THIRD DECLENSION. GENITIITE. [§ 55.] Nouns of the third declension form their genl tive in is. The nominative has a great variety of tenni nations, for sometimes there is no particular ending, and the nominative itself is the crude form,* such as it usually appears after the separation of the termination of the geni- tive ; frequently, how^ever, the nominative has a special ending ("sj. The former is, generally speaking, the case with those words the crude form of which ends in I or r, so that the nominative ends in the same consonants, and the genitive is formed by simply adding is; e. g., sol, con- sul, calcar, agger, auctor, dolor, murmur. Words like pa- ter and imber, the crude form of which appears in the genitive and ends in r, with a consonant before it, a.a patr-is, imbr-is, admit of a doable explanation : either the nomi- native was increased for the purpose of facilitating the pronunciation, or the genitive rejected the short e; the former, however, is the more probable supposition. Id some words the nominative has s instead of r; ss,flos, gen. flor-is; tellus, tellur-is ; in addition to which the vowel sometimes undergoes a change, as in corpus, cor-por-is; onus, oner-is. When the crude form ends in n, with a vowel before it, the formation of the nominative is like- wise accompanied by changes : on throws off the n, and in becomes en, or is changed into o. Thus, leo is made fi-om lean (leon-is), carmen from carmin (carmin-is), and virgo from virgin (virgin-is.J Only when the genitive ends in enis, the nominative retains en, as in lien-is, lien, 2. The particular termination which the nominative re- ceives in other cases is e for neuters ; as, mar-is, mar-e, and *, or x, which arises out of s, for masculines and femi nines. This s is sometimes added to the final consonan' of the crude form without any change, as in urb-is, terb-s; * [See some excellent remarks on the crude forms of nouns, in Allm'i Etyinoiogical Analysis of Latin Verbs, p. 8, seqq. As every crude form must end either in a consonant or a vowel (a, e, i, o, n), we have the more philosophical arrangement of the consonant-dedlension on the one hand, and the n-declension, »-declension, i-declension, o-deelension, and u'declen- •ion on the other. The term crude form was first employed, as is thought by Bopp, in the Annals of Oriental Literature, vol. i.] — Am. Ei. thihd declension — genitive. 47 iuc-is, dux fditcsj ; legis, lex (legs) , when the crude form ends in d or t, these consonants are dropped before the «/'e. g., Jrond-is, Jrons ; mont-is, mons ; aetat-is, aetas ; seget-is, seges; in addition to this the vowel i, also, is some- times changed .into e, as in milit-is, miles ; judic-is, judex. In all theso cases where the nominative is formed by the addition of an s to the final consonant of the crude form, the nominative has one syllable less than the genitive, or, in other words, the s assumes an e or f before it, and then the nominative has the same number of syllables as the genitive, or, in case the nominative assumes t, both cases are quite the same ; e. g., nub-es, civ-is, pan-is. These are the most essential points in the formation of the nominative in the third declension. We shall now proceed to the particulars, taking the nominative, as is the usual practice, as the case given, and we shall point out in what way the genitive is formed from it. [§ 56.] 1. The nouns in a, which are neuters of Greek origin, make their genitive in dtis ; as, po'ema, poematis. 2. Those in e change e into is ; as, mare, maris ; Prae- neste, Praenestis, and probably also caepe, caepis,{or which, however, there is also the form cepa, ac. 3. The nouns in i and y are Greek neuters. Some of them are indeclinable; as, gummi; and others have the regular genitive in is; as,sinapi,sinapis (there is, however, a second nominative in is, as in several other words end- ing in i, as haec sinapis) ; Tnisy, misyis and misys or mis- yos. The compounds of m,eli (honey) alone make their genitive according to the Greek in itis; a.s,melomeli,melo- meluis. 4. Those in o (common) add nis to form the genitive, sometimes only lengthening the o, and sometimes chan- ging it into t. Of the former kind are carbo, latro, leo, ligo, pavo,praedo, sermo ; and all those ending in io; &s, actio, dictio, pugio. Of the latter kind (genit. mis) are all ab- stract nouns in do ; as, consuetudo, mis ; most nouns in^o ; as,imago,virgo,origo ; and a few others ; as,cardo,hirundo, turbo, homo, nemo. Cava has carnis. The names of na- tions in o have this vowel mostly short; za.Macedones, Se nones, Saxones ; it is long only in limes, Lacones, Nasa- mones, Suessones, and Vettimes. 5. The only nouns ending in c are alec or allec, alUx, gen. allecis ; and lac, gen. lactis. tS LATIN GRAMMAR. 6. Nouns ending in I form the genitive by merely add ing is, such as sol, sal, ccmsid, pugil, animal. Mel has mellis, and in plur. mella ; fel ha.s fellis, but is without a plural. 7. Those in en (which are all neuters, with the excep- tion ofpectenj make inis; a.B, carmen, flumen, lumen, nomen. Those in in retain the long e and have enis; but there and there is no doubt but that honor in the fragm. Pro TulUo, ^ 21, (id. Peyron, must likewise be changed intokenet. 52 LATIN GRAMMAR. fij Among the nouns ending in s preceded by a con- ionanl, those in Is (ex<;ept fuls),ni, and rs change the j mto tis, e. g., fons, mms, pons, ars, pars. Mars — fontis, partis, &c. There are only a few, such' as frtms (a \siK(i(iC), glans,juglans, and some 6thers, which make , also forms the genitive in i, although Valerius Probus (p. 1473) a<'.duce« from Cicero the genitive Verri. Neither are we to assign this ending in I to the genitive of those Greek words which do not terminate in es, gen. i», and hence Gcerenz is wrong in thinking that we ought to read Calli- p'lonti as a genitive in Cic. Ttise., v , 31, 87 (GoBreni oil Cic. de Fin., u , 11 35 )1—Am. Ed. REMARKS ON THB SEPARATE CASES. 65 ( a) All Greek nouns, propeB as well as common, and Biich as have passed through the Greek into Latin, and form the accusative in that language in iv; but those which have in Greek both terminations w and tda (i. e., the bary- tones in tf, gen. t, dm,fles, mSfjut, latu, mot, pet with its compounds (except comptdet, of wliich tlia form eompti&um is well attested), pratt, tut, Cret, Trot, iux,faa,fnm, and 60 LATIN GRAMMAR. prex (which occvir only in the plur.), grtx, lex, nux, rci vox, Phryx, &na IVtrax. Fur and rm have furum, rmum ; lar, too, has more frequently Jarjon than /arium. Of those words which have not beer, noticed here a genitive cannot be proved to exist; but it is probable that the gerat. plur. of vas IvSdis) was vadium ; and, in like manner, cor, par, and aitl probably had cerdium, parium, Galium, in order to avoid the ambiguity _which would anse from vadum, coTdum,parum, solum. Cordium occurs in the Vulgate, Jerem., iv., 4. (^dj Substantives of two or more syllables, ending in m and rs, have ium and um, though the latter occurs more rarely ; e. g., cliens, cohors, Picens, Veiens, Camers ; and, n like manner, those which, like adoleseens, infans, parens, fopiens, serpens, are properly participles, and admit. 2e. Q^., i,, 4.0; JSijjgar crat&n and Mpicyden, in.Livy* , Some words are in Gre^ deplined in two ways, either. after the first or after the third declensipn, such SaA^?-, Xpep.Ti^, gen. ov and rjTog; in Latin they may have the shorter form and yet follow the third declension (e. g., the ablat. , J%cfe^, and. in the ac- cusative they adjnitgilso of the, termination en, e.g., CJtre- metem, and Chremen, Tlwlem or Thaletem .^xiA. Thalen. . [§,72.] 3. The vocative singular, is in most Greek wprds like the nominative ; but those ending in s form a distinct vocative by rejecting that consonant, both in Greek and Latin. Thus, the vocative of words iii.M, ys, eu3 : DaphnifFJi-ylli, Thai, Coty, ^iphy, Orpheu, Persei4. Wqrds in ig, idis, however, make the vocative jtist as often like, the nominative ; as, BaccMs, .Mysis, Thais. Nouns in as, antis, make their , vocative in Greek dv and o, but the latter only is used in Latin, e.g., Afla, Cahha. Proper names in e«, gen. M, have, the vocative of the first declension in c, together with the regulai- one. This is the case with those which in Greek follow' the first de- clension (e. g., Cameade, Simonide, and Achille, see above), and with those which, although they follow the third in all other .respects,, yet adrnit of the accusative in .j/v. Thus, we sometimes find Damocle, Pericle, Sophocle, Socrate. [§ 73.] 4. The plural of those Greek proper names which by the forms of their accusative and vocE^tive ^ing show their tendency to follow the first declension, is sometimes formed after that declension. Thus, we find in Cicero, De Orat., ii., 23, the r\om. Naticratae ; anJ Orat., 9, the accua. Thucydidas. GENDER FORMS IN THE THIRD DEC'LENSION. 65 5. The Greek termination of the nom. plur. es, instead of the Latin es, is not uncommon in poetry, e. g., Arcades Atlantides, ErinnySs ; but the metre must decide. The termination tf, Latin is, occurs even in the nominative of the names of towns Trallis and Sardis,* though princi- •pally in the latter. Horace, Epist., i., 11, 2, says: Croesi regia Sa?-dis. In the nominative plural the neuters in on have the Greek termination e/ as, cete, mele, and the plui-al Tempe, T(i TsfinTj. Note. — No other cases are formed from these neuters in of, and in the singular, too, they occur only in the nom. and accus., and we must, there fore, use the Latin Yprms celus and medim (accordmg to the second declen- •sion). So, also, chaos, gen. chai, abl. citao. See ^ 87. 6. In the genitive plural only a few words retain the Greek termination ■ era (wv), and that generally only in titles of books, e. g., metamdrphoseon, epigrammaton. Note. — Curtius, iv., 50 (13), iKakes the genitive Malean, from MaZefif, oi MaXiEjf (sing. Mdlisvg), entirely in the Greek fashion, for the Latin name is Matienses. ^ 7. In the dative plural the Greek termination si, or sin, is used very rarely, and only by poets. Ovid, e. g., has Lemniasi and Troasin, from Lemniades and Troades. In prose vmters there, are very few examples that can be re- lied upon ; such as ethesi, from to ^^T^.t [§ 74,] 8, The aqcusatiye plural in a« is admissible in all words which have this termination in Greek. It is, however, seldom used in prose, though in common nouns it occurs more frequently than the accusative singular in o ; e. g., harpagoncCs, phalaiig^^, pyramidas, and even in Cicero we find asptdoLf,, ca/ntharidas. He also uses the proper names Aethiopas, Arcadas, and Cyclopas, and Livy always has the accusat, Macedonas. It is surprising to find that the same termination is now and then given also to barbarian names of nations, e. g., Allobrogas in Caesar, and lAngonas, Nemetas, Ordovicas, Briganias, SHurat, and Vangionas in Tacitus. * [In Greek we find, at one time, TpdX^et^ and 'LapdeiQ ; at another, TpdXXif and Sopdff. The former are nominatives plural in the Attic dia- lect, the latter m the Ionic. (Consult Maitlaire, JJial. L, O., p. 145, ed. StTirz.^l—Am. Ed. + [According to Pliny, as quoted by Charisius (p. 38), Varro often.mada use of these datives in « or «m, but probably only with Greek characters. Pliny adduces as an instance the form schemnsin, for schematis, and in a fragment of the same Varro, in Nonius (iv., 377), we have " in ethesin Tt- rmlms palmam poscil," Quintilian, also, has allowed' himself to say, "tii Ovidius tofcivire in Metarnorphosesi solet" (iv., i., 77.)] — Am. Ed. F 2 60 LATIN GRAMMAR. CHAPTER XVII. MENUER OF WORDS OF THE THIRr DECLENSION. MAS- CULINES. [§ 75.] Masculine are those which end in o, m; os, and er, and those in es which increase in the genitive, espe- cially those in es, itis ; e. g., sermo, error, sudor, flos, mos, venter, stipes. Exceptions in o. — Words ending in do, go, and io, aro feminine ; e. g., consuetudo,formido,grando, imago, oratio, dictio, lectio, auditio, communio, &c. ; also caro, and the Greek words echo and Argo (the ship of the Argonauts). The following, however, are masculine : in do, the words cardo and ordo, together with udo and cudo, or cudon ; in go : ligo, mar go, and Jutrpago ; and all words in io which are not abstract nouns derived from verbs and adjectives, but common names of things, such as pugio (a dagger^, scipio (a staff), septentrio (north pole), titio (a fire-brand); several names of animals, as, curculio* papilio, scorpio, stellio, vespertilio, and a few others of rare occurrence ; and, lastly, those formed from numerals, such as unio, bi- nio or duplio, ternio, quaternio, quinio, senio, &c. Vtiio, in the sense of a particular pearl (margarita), is like- wise masculine ; but when it signifies unity (unitas), and ■ is used in an abstract sense, it is feminine ; but it is only in ecclesiastical writers that it has this meaning. Note. — Cupido, desire, therefore is feminine, but masculine when it is the name of the god of Love. Poets, however, sometimes use it as a mas- culine, even in the former signification, and Horace does so always ; as, pravus cupido,/atsus cupido. Margo may have either gender, but the mas- culine is more frequent, as was remarlted above. [§ 76.] Exceptions in or. — The following words in m, oris, are neuter: ador, aequor, marmor, and cor, cordis. Arbor is feminine, according to the general rule. (See § 39.) Exceptions in qs. — Cos, dos, and the Greek eds are fem- inine. Os, ossis, and os, oris, and the Greek words chaos, ethos, epos, mdos, are neuter. Exceptions in er. — A great many words in er are neu- * Also ipell»1 gurgulio ; it is masculine in its two significations of " air pipe" and ' wo )d worm." GENDER OF WORDS Or THE THIRD DECLENSION. 67 ter, viz., cadaver, iter, apinther, tUber (a hvimp), uher, ve? and verber (rarely used in the singular, but very frequent- ly in the plural, verbera), and all the names of plants in er : acer, deer, laser, papaver, piper, siler, siser, suber, and zingiber. Tuber (a kind of peach-tree) is feminine, but when it denotes the fruit it is masculine. Linter is com- monly used as a feminine, but is well attested also as a masculine. Exceptions in es increasing in the genitive. — The fol- lowing are feminine: rnerges, itis ;• seges and teges, etis ; merces, edis ; quies, etis, with its compounds inquies and requies. Compes, which, however, does not occur in the nominative sing., but only in the plural compedes, is femi- nine. Aes, aeris, is neuter ; ales and quadrupes are prop- erly adjectives, but as substantives they are mostly used as fen: ^nines. CHAPTER XVIII. GENDER OF WORDS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. FEMI- NINES. [§ 77.] Feminine are those which end in as, is, yg, ata, and X, those in es which do not increase in the genitive, and those in s preceded by a consonant, e. g., aztctoritas, navis, chlamys, laus andjraus,pax, radix, arx, nubes,pars, mors, hiems. 'Exceptions in as. — The following are masculine : as, gen. assis, and its compounds, though they have different terminations ; as, quadrans, a fourth of an as ; bes, two thirds of an as ; decussis, ten ases ;* and the Greek words which make their genitive in antis ; as, adamas, elephas, and the names of mountains : Acragas, Atlas, Mimas. Mas, maris, and vas, vadis, are, of course, masculine. The following are neuters : Greek words in as, which make their genitive atis ; as, artocreas, erysipelas (see § 58), and the Latin words vas, vasis, and Jas and nefas, which, however, occur only in the nom. and accus. Exceptions in is. — The following are masculine : 1. Those in is, gen. eris ; as, cinis, cucumis, pulvis, and vomis {covamorAY vomer); 2. The following, which increase in * See the Appendix on Roman weights, coina, and measure*. 68 LATIN GRAMMAR. the genitive : glis, lapis, pollis, and sanguis ; 3. The fo. lowing, which do not increase: apinis,,a^h callis,canalU cassis (used especially; in the plural cagses,a. hunter's net, an4 not to be confounded with c,assis,,idis, ^ helmet); caulis or colis, coUis, crinis, ensis, fascis (generally in the plural,^sce*j, finis, fcillis, funis, fustis, ignis, mensis, or- i>is, panis, piscis, pestis, scrobis, spitis, torqiiis, torris, un- guis, vectis, vermis. Some of these words, however, are used hy good authors also as feminities, though not often, especig.lly callis, canalis, scrohis,, torquis, and fints, dnis, in the singular ; whereas the plural ^»es, in the sense of boundary or territory, and dneres, in the sense of the ashes of a corpse, are always masculine. As mensis is masculine, Aprilis, Quintilis, and Sextilis have the same gender. Some substantives in is are prop- erly adjectives, and a substantive masculine being always understood, they are themselves used as masculines ; e. g., annalis, commonly in the plural annates (librij, annalis; jugales Cequijftwo horses yoked together ; molaris (lapis I, a millstone ; or, if dens is understood, a back tooth rr grinder ; natalis (dies J, birthday ; pugillares (libelli), a tablet for writing. Note. — Anguis and tigris may hav.e either gender; canis is generally masculine, but when it denotes a dog used in bunting, it is very often feminine, (See ^ 42.) Aijualisj ftdlis, corbis, and clunis, plur. ,cZune5, are nJed by good writers as words of either gender^ Delphis is -masculine ; but the more common forms. are etslphirats, or delphin:. : Cosa> has not been mentioned above, because.tbe only authority we have for it is a doubtful passage in Pliny, Hist. Nat.^ xxx., 39, and cossus, i, is more probable. That the names of rivers in is are masculine follows from the general rule (^ 37); thus we read horridiis Albis, flavus Tiberii, rapidus Tigrit, Names of mountains with this termination are not numerous : Lucretilis, a hill in Latiura, is masculine ; for Horace says, amoenus Lucretilis. The Greek names Caramhis, a promontory on .the Asiatic coast of the Black Sea, and Peloris- in Sicily, are .feminine, the word u/cpa being understood. All the masciilines in is, whatever may be their genitive, are contained in the following hexameter lines : M.ascula sunt panis, piscis^ crinis, cinis, ignis, Funisyglis, vectis, folUs, fascis, lapis, amnis. Sic fustis, postis, scrobis, axis, vermis et ungms, Et penis, collis, callis, sic sanguis et ensis, Mugilis et mjensis, pollis, cum caule canalis, 'Et vomis, sentis, pelvis, finis, cucumtsque, Anguis, iterti torquisj torris, cum cassibus orots. ' Eoceeptions in ys. — Names of rivers and moimtains with this termination are masculine, according to the rules laid dovm in Chap. VI. ; e. g., Halys, Othrys. [§ 78.] Exceptions in a;. — The following are masculine: I . The Greek words in ax : as, anthrax, cordax, thorax SENDER OF WORDS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 69 2. The majority of those in ex: apex, caudex, codex, ct mex, cortex, culex, Jhttex, grex, irpex, latex, murex, ohex, podex, pollex, pulex, pumex, ramex, silex, sorex, ulex, ver- tex or vortex. 3^ Some in ix : viz., cdlix,fomii;, phoenix, sorisa ; and generally, also, varix. 4. One word in ux ; viz., tradux, properly an adjective, palmes being under- stood. 5. The following Greek words, in yx : calyx, coccyx, onyx, oryx and bombyx (in the sense of silk-worm ; it is feminine when it. signifies silk); and the names of mountains, such as Eryx. 6. The subdivisions of an as which end in unx ; as, quincwp/x,^ septunx, deunx. (See Appendix III.) Note. — Many words in ex, commonly enumerated in these lists, are mas- culine from their signification ; such as rex, pontifex, caTnifex,foenisex, ver- vex. Some words vary between the masculme and feminine genders; as, cortex, obex, pumex, and sikx, which have been mentioned above, but the masc. is better attested. To these we must add imbrex and rumex, both genders of which are suppotted by equal authority. It may be remarlied that the number of masculines in ex is greater than that of feminines j for if we put aside the above-mentioned masculines, there remain only the following feminines : for/ex, lex, nex, supellex, prex (not used in the nom.), saifaex. Pellex, Hex, vitex, and carex are feminines from their ineaning, ac cording to the general h>le, Atriplex isthe only neuter in ex, and is rarely used as a feminine. t Onyx is masculine when it denotes a species of marble, or a vessel made of it; but as the name of a precious stone (see I) 39) it is feminine. Calx IS sometimes used as a masculine like the diminutive calculus, biit it does not occur in ancient writers. Lynx occurs as masculine only in a single passage of Horace {timidos lyncaa), and is otherwise feminine, as in Greek; The archaic own prima hici is believed to be preserved in a passage of Gicero(X)e O^., iii., 31. Comp. Varro, jQe i. £., vi., 9). Exertions in es, gen. is, without increase.— The Greek ■word acinaces alone {aKivaKrig, ov) is decidedly masculine. V^res, which rarely occurs. in the singular, and palumbes, though Commonly masculines, are found also as femininesa Exceptions in * preceded by a consonant.— The follow- ing are masculine : dentf, Jbm, mans, and pons' ; a^epi commonly, 9ad forceps sometimes. Some. words are prop- erly stdjectivfes, but are used as masculine substantives, because a substantive of that gender is understood i cort' fluens ox eoi^uenfes^atnnes), torrent (ainnis), oriens and occidens (sol), rud^ns (fwnis), hidens and trtdxhls ; and several Greek words,, such as elops, epops {JLat, upitp/ij, merbps, gryps (grypMs), hydrops, chalyhs. iVo(e.—^The divisions of the at endlnginiw, e. g.,«M;(ani, guodron*, precedes it, has been changed from o by the influence of this 1. This may serve, according to him, to explain why we have oc- casionally two forms for the nominative, one of the fifth and the other of the first declension ; the latter of these will follow, therefore, the analog; of the Greek, and allow a to remain unaltered before i, as in aofia. Tho Ionic form, on the other hand, follows the Zend ; aa, ffii^/i;.]~^»i. JBd. 84 LATIN GRAMMAR. delicitim, deliciae ; epulum, cpulae ; halneum, balneae (in the sense of a public bath balnea is more frequent) ; (c) Both masculines and neuters : rastrum, rastri and rastra; frenum,fren,^ axiA-Jre^a. CHAPTER XXIV. NOUNS ADJECTIVE. TERMINATIONS. DECLENSION. [§ 100.] 1. The noun adjective denotes a quality of a person or a thing, expressed either by a substantive or b pronoun. The partici])le is an adjective formed from a verb, and, as far as its fonn is concerned, is an adjective. An adjective has three genders, >nd can thus be joined with substantives of different genders. But there arc only tw^o classes of adjectives in which the three genders are indicated by three different teiminations, namely, the adjectives and participles in us, a, um ; such as bonus, bona, bonum ; amatus, amata, amatum ; and those in er, a, um ; such as liber, libera, liberum ; and the isolated satur, satura, saturum. To these adjectives of three terminations the following thirteen in er, is, e must be added : acer, acris, acre ; ala- cer, alacris, alacre ; campester, campestris, campestre ; cele ber. Celebris, celebre ; celer, celeris, celere ; eguester, eques- tris, equestre ; paluster, paluttris, palustre ; pedester, pedestris, pedestre ; puter, putris, putre ; saluber, salubris, ialubre ; Silvester, silvestris, silvestre ; terrester, terrestris, terrestre; volucer, volucris, volucre. Originally they had only two terminations, is for the masculine and feminine, and e for the neuter. The tei-mination er for the mascu- line exclusively was afterward added to them ; but as the termination is is not very often used in good prose for the masculine, it will be best to treat them as a class of ad- jectives which have three terminations for the three gen ders. Note 1. — Ernesti, on Tacit., Annal., ii., in fin., goes too far in asserting that the masculine in is is not suited for prose. He himself quotes twi ^AjSrtges from Tacitus for Celebris, and one in the Auct. ad Herenn., ii., 4 'i}ciis Celebris, Several others may be added from Curtius. In Cicero De'Divin., i., 57, we find amtus salubris; and, in like manner, locus, venttis * The nominative freni, for which Schneider {FormenJehrej p. 476) hot ov authority, occurs in Curtius, iii., 34 ; vii., 40. Valer. Maxim., ii, 9, S Saceca, dt Ira, i., 7 ; Sil. Itol., i, 240. NOUNS ADJECTIVE. 85 tgectus salviris in Celsus, i., 3 j ii., 1 ; iii., 6 ; in Llvy, xxTii., 1 : tumvXtui tmieslris; xrix., 35: exercilus terrestris ; and xxvii., 26; tumuUus silvestris; also collis and fonts silvestris in Caesar, Bell. Gall., ii., 18, vi.,3i; vomiita acTis in ('elsus, viii., 4. Note 2. — The names of the months September, October, November, De- cember, also belong to this class of adjectives. As adjectives, however, they are defective, since the neuter never occurs, and the masculine and fejninine scarcely in any other connexion than with mensis (masc), Calen- doe, Nonae, and Idas. Horace uses tibertate Decembri. [§ 101.] 2. Other adjectives tave in reality two forms, the one for the masculine and feminine in common (gen- eris communis), and the other for the neuter. This class consists of those in is, neut. e ; as, levis (masc. and fem.), leve, and the comparatives in or (masc. and fem.), us (neut.) ; as, levior, hvius. Note. — Some adjectives have a double form ; one in ns, a, urn, the othei in is, e. Hilarus, a, um. — hitaris, e. Imbecillus, a, um. — imbecitlis, e (rare). Imbertms, a, um (rare). — imberbis, e. Inermus, a, um (rare). — inermis, e. Semermus, a, um. — semermis, e. Semisomnus, a, um. — but insomnis, c. Exanimus, a, um. — exardmis, e. Semianimtis, a, um. — semianimis, e, Unanimus, a, um. — unanimis, e (rare). Bijugiis, a, um. — bijugis, e (rare). Quadrijugus, a, um. ' — quadrijugis, e. Multijugiis, a, um. — multijugis, e. The forms acdivus, declivus, proclivus, and a few others not mentioned here, are but rarely used for acdivis, decUvis, and proclivis. [§ 102.] 3. All other adjectives have only one termina- tion for all three genders ; as, felix, prudens, anceps, sai- lers, pauper, dives, vettis, Arpinas. So, also, the present participles in ns ; as, laudans, monens, legens, audiens. But all the adjectives of this class have the termination ia in the nom., ace, and voc. plural of the neuter gender. •(Very few, and, properly speaking, only vetus, veteris, have the termination a, respecting which, see above, § 65.) E. g.jjelicia, prudentia, ancipitia,sollertia, laudantia. Op- uJens and violens are only different forms of opulentus, vi- Note 1 . — Dives is an adjective of one termination, and the neuter, there- fore, is dives ; as, dives opus, dives munus. Tliere is another form of the word with two terminations, dis, neut. dite, but it very rarely occurs in the nominative singular; dis being found only in Terence, Adelpk., v., 1, 8, and dite in Valer. Flacc, ii., 296 : but in the. other cases and in the plural it is frequently used ; as, ditem Asinm,diti gaza, ditia stipeudia facere, ditibw promissis ; the nominative plural diviiia does not seem to occur at all. 1 1 the comparative and superlative both forms, (iivifior, dim'/isstmu;, and ditio- iitistimus, are equally in use ; the longer forms in the prose of Cicero, anJ 86 LATIN GRAMMAR. the "shorter ones iu poetry and later prose writers Puhes, genit. ptAern, is an adjective of one termination ; but the compound impubes, ens, appears also In the form impubis, e, genit. impubis, e. g., impube corpus. Note 2.— Substantives in tor derived from transitive verbs may likewise be classed among adjectives ; as, praeceptor, victor ; for as they may easily form a feminine in trix (see ^ 41), they have almost the character of ad- jectives ; and even in prose we read, e. g., victor exercilus, victrices litterae, in tarn corruptrice provincia. Thus Livy says of L. Brutus, ille liberator populi Romani animus ; that is, aliquando liberaturus populum Rom. ; and Tacitus, eductMs in domo regnatrice. (See Bentley on Horace, Carm., iv., 9, 39.) The use of these substantives as adjectives is limited in prose ; but the poets extend it much farther, and use even the Greek patronymics in as and is in the same manner. Ovid, e. g., says, Pelias hasta, laurus Pamdsis, Ausonis ora, Sithonis unda ; and Virgil, ursa Libystis, &c. A singular feature of these words is, that, together with the feminine ter- mination of the plural trices, they have also a neuter termination, tricia ; e. g., victricia bella, ultricia tela ; hence in the plural they become adjective of three terminations ; as, victores, victrices, victricia. The substantive hospei too, has in poetry a neuter plural, hospita, in the sense of an adjective. [§ 103.] 4. With regard to the declension of adjectives it must be observed that the feminines in a follow the first declension ; the masculines in ws and er, which make the feminine in a, and the neuters in um, follow the second. All other terminations belong to the third declension. As, therefore, adjectives follow the same declensions as sub- stantives, the former also have been treated of above, and their irregularities have been pointed out. (See § 51 and 66, &c.) JVofi!. — The following table shows the declension of adjectives of one termination : \ SiNGDLAK. Plural. Nom. — Nom es, neut. ia. Gen. IS. Gen. ium, sometimes urn. Dat. t. Dat. Urns. Ace. em, neut. like nom. Ace. like nom. Voc. like nom. Voc. like nom. Abl. r, sometimes e. Abl. ibus. 5. Indeclinable adjectives are : nequam ; Jrugi (prop- erly a dative of the obsolete _^Ma;, but is used quite as an adjective ; its dematxveJrugaUs is not found in any an- cient writer) ; praesto (occurs only in connexion with the verb esse J ; and semis, which is always added to other numerals in the sense of " and a half," the conjunction being omitted, e. g., recipe uncias quinque semis, take five ounces and a half. It must not be confounded with the substantive semis, gen. semissis. Potis, or potc, is obso- lete, and occurs only in poetry in connexion with ess- (whence arose the contracted form posse). Damnas, guilty, is used only as a legal term, in connexion with eit0 and nmto. COMPAEISON or ADJECTIVES. 87 Adjectives defective in number arepawci and plerigtie] which, in ordinary language, have no singular. The di- minutive of patecus, however, occurs as a nentei pattxillum at pauxillulum, though rarely in other genders. The sva- galar plerusque is obsolete, and is found only in Sallust, who was fond of old foiins of expression, e. g., pleraque juventus, nohilitas ; plerumque exerdtum ; but the neuter plerumque (the greatest part) likewise occurs, though only in an isolated passage of Livy. It is usually an ad- verb, signifying " mostly," or, " for the most part." (See § 266.) Of adjectives defective in case there are several of which the nominative is not in use, or, at least, cannot be proved to have been used ; e. g., sons, seminex (or semi, necisj, and a few similar compounds. We farther do not find ceterus and ludicrus (or ceter, ludicer ?J, but the other genders occur in the nominative. The genitive primoris has neither a nominative (primor or primoris) nor the neuter forms. Cicero uses the word only in the phrase primorihus lahris (equivalent to primis J; others frequently use the plural in the sense of principes, or the grandees of a nation. Parum, too little, is the neuter of the obsolete partis, connected with parvus, and is used as a substantive only, in the nom. and accusative. Necesse exists only as a neuter in connexion with est, erat, &c., and with Aabeo, Aabes, &c. ; necessum, which is likewise used only with est, eratj Sec, very rarely occurs except in old Latin, the adjective nccessaritts, a, um, being used in its stead. Vo- hipe is likewise obsolete, and is used only with est, erat, &c. Of macttis, a, um, which is believed to be a con- traction of magis auctus, we have only macte and macti with the imperative" of the verb esse. (Comp. § 453.) The genitive of plerique is. wanting; hut plurimi, which has the same meaning, supplies the deficiency. CHAPTER XXV. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. [§ 104.] 1. Adjectives (also the present and past par- ticiples when used as adjectives) may, by means of a change in their termination, be made to indicate that the quality they denote belongs to a subject in a higher, or in 88 LATIN GRAMMAR. the highest degree. The degrees of comparison Cgradui comparationis), as this change is called, are, the compara- tive, when a comparison is made between two (persons, things, or conditions), and the superlative, when a com- parison takes place among three or more. The funda- mental form of the adjective in this respect is called the positive. Note.— An object may be compared either with another, or with itself at different times, or one of its qualities may be compared with another; e. g., Gains doctior est quam Marcus, or Gaius dactior nunc est quamfidt, or Gaius doctior est quam justior. (Respecting this peculiarity of the Latin language, see ^ 690.) The comparative, however, is also used, in an ellip- tic mode of speaking, instead of our "too" {nimis); e.g., si tibi quaedam videbuniur obscuriora; that is, too obscure, or more obscure than it should be {quam par eral), or, as we may say, " rather obscure," in which sense pauio is sometimes added, as in paulo liberius locutus est, he spoke rather freely. In like manner, the superlative, when used without the objects of comparison being mentioned, indicates only that the quality exists in a high degree, which we express by the adverb very, e. g., homo doctissimus does not always mean " the most learned," but very often " a very learned man ;" and intemperanlissime vixit, he lived very intemper^tely. 2. The comparative has the termination lor for the masculine and feminine, and ms for the neuter; and these terminations are added to the stem of the word such as it appears in the oblique cases. The rule may be practically expressed thu^ : to form the comparative, add or or v,s to that case of the positive which ends in i, that is, in words of the second declension to the genitive, and in those of the third to the dative, e. g., doctus fdoctij, doctior ; liber (liberi), liberior ; pulcher (pulchri), pul- chrior ; levis, levior ; acer (acri), acrior ; prudens, pru- dentior ; indulgens, indulgentior ; audax, audabior ; dives, divitior ; velox, velocior. Sinister alone makes the com- parative sinisterior (which has the same meaning as the positive), although its genitive is sinistri, and sinisteri. , Note. — Some comparatives, also, have a diminutive form ; as, grandiuscu- lus, majusculvs, longiusculus, melinscuhts, minusculus, tardiusculus, plusculum. Their signification varies between a diminution of the comparative and of the positive ; e. g., minusculus may mean rather small, or rather smaller. 3. The superlative ends in issimits, a, um, and is form- ea as the comparative by adding' this termination to the stem of the positive, such as it presents itself in th6 gen- itive, and the other oblique cases, after the removal of the terminations, e. g., doct-issimus, prudent-issimus, audac- issimtis concord-issimus. It has already been remarked (§ 2) that this termination of the superlative was original- ly written and pronounced umus, and it is even jiow r©- COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 89 tained in the editions of some ancient authors, as the comic poets and Salhist. f§ 105.] 4. The following cases must be noticed as ex- ceptions : (a) All adjectives in er (those in er, a, um ; as, liber ^\A pulchcr, as well as those in er, is, e; as, acer, celeber, and those of one teimination ; as, pauper, gen. pauperis) make the superlative in errimus, by adding rimus to the nommative of the masculine gender ; as, pulcher-rimus, acer-rimus, ccleber-rimus, pauper-rimus. Vetus and nupe- rus, too, have veterrimus, nuperrim.'us. Maturus has both forms, maturissimus and maturrimus, though the latter chiefly in the adverb. (b) Some adjectives in His, \\z,., Jadlis, difficilis, simi- lis, dissimilis, gracilis, and humilis, make the superlative in ilUTtius, by adding limus to the positive after the re- moval of the termination is ; as, facil-lim'us, humil-limus. Imbecillus, or imbecillis, has two forms, imbecillissimus and imbecillimus ; agilis, on the other hand, has no superla- tive. (c) Adjectives compounded with dicus,ficus, and volu^ (from the verbs dicere,facere, velle) make the comparative in entior and the .superlative in entissimus, from the unu- sual and obsolete forms dicens, volens,faciens, e. g., male- diceniior, benevolentior, munificentior, munificentissimus, magnificentissimus. Note. — Terence {Phorm., v., 6, 31) makes mirijicissimua, from mirijictts, but this and similar forms are considered by the ancient grammarians as anomalies, and mirijicejitissimus is the usual form. Several adjectives ir dicus, and most of those in^ct«, have no comparative and superlative, at least they are not found m our writers. Adjectives compounded with loquux (from locpti), such as gravditoquus, vaniloquus, are said to form their degrees of comparison from /oyuens, but no instance of the kind occurs; in Plautus, however, we find mmdaciloqums and amfidentiloquius. CHAPTER XXVI. COMPARISON BY ADVERBS AND INCREASED COMPARISON. [§ roe.] 1. Instead of the peculiar forms of the com- parative and superlative, we sometimes find a circumlo- cution, magis and maxime, or adverbs of a similar mean- ing (as summe), being added to the positive. This rarely occurs in the case of adjectives which form their degrees of comparison in the regula • way, and for the most part H 2 00 LATIN GRAMMAR. only in poetry (Horace, e. g., uses magts beatus and magii aptusj; but where the regular or grammatical compari- son cannot be used, its place is supplied by circumlocu- tion. (See below, § 114.) [§ 107.] 2. A degree is also expressed by the adverbs admodum, bene, apprime, imprimis, sane, oppido, valde, and multum, and by the particle per, which is united with the adjective (or adverb) into one word, as in perdifficilis (though per is sometimes separated by some intervening word, e. g., per mihi difficilis locus), and, like sane, it is made still more emphatic by the addition of quam, e. g., locus perquam difficilis, an extremely difficult passage. Generally speaking, all simple adjectives, provided their meaning admits of an increase or decrease, may become strengthened by being compounded with per. Some few (especially in late writers) are increased in the same way by being compounded with prae, e. g., praedives, praepin- guis, praelongus. Adjectives to which ^er or prae is pre- fixed admit of no farther comparison ; praeclarus alone is treated like a simple adjective. Note. — Oppido, for the etymology of which we must refer to the diction- ary, is of rare occurrence, and belongs to the more ancient language, (hough it is now and then used by Cicero, e. g., opjpido ridiculus, and in- creased by iruam: oppido quam pauci. Multum, alsO| is but rarely used in this way. Voids is indeed frequent in Cicero ; J)ut it has a peculiar and ethical shade of meaning, and is rarely used in the prose of later times. [§ 108.] 3. When the adverb etiam (still) is added to the compara:tive, and longe or multo (far) to the superla- tive, the sense of the degrees is enhanced. Vel, even, and quam, as much as possible, likewise serve to denote an increase of the meaning expressed by the superlative. Both words have acquired this signification by ellipsis: vel by the ellipsis of the positive, e. g., Cicero vel optimus oratarum Romanorum ; i. e., Cicero, a good, or, rather, the very best of Roman orators (so, also, vel, with a compara- tive in the only passage of Cicero where it is known to occur, De Orat., i., 17 : ingenium vel majus) ; quam, by the ellipsis of posse, which, however, is frequently added to it ; e. g., quam, maximum potest militum numerum colli- git ; quam maximas possum tibi gratias ago. As' these words increase the sense, so paulum or paulo, paululum or paululo, on the other hand, diminish it ; as, paulo doc- tior, only a little more learned. Aliquanto increases the sense, and has an affirmative power; it maybe expressed by ■■' considerably" or "much." (See Chap. LXXIV.. If'.) IRBEGULAR AND DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. 91 CHAPTER XXVII. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. [§ 109.] 1. Some adjectives make their degrees of comparison from obsolete forms, or take them from other words of a similar signification. Bonus,* mdior, optimus. Mains, pejor, pessimus. Magnus, major, maximus. Multus, plus, {■p].plure{, plurimus (equivalent in pluraj, the plural to^^erijwe,^. Parvus, minor, minimus. Nequam, ) See§103. ( wejmor, nequissimus. Frugi ) indeclin. \frugalior, frugalissimus. Egenus, egentior, egentissimus (egens). Providus, providentior, providentissimus (provi- dens). Nole. — Multus and plurimus as numerals are used only in the plural. In the singular multus is equivalent to " manifold," or " great ;" as, multus labor, multa cura, and sometimes plurimus has the same sense, e. g., plurimam sa- lutem dico. Poets, however, use the singular multus and plurimus, also, in the sense of the plural, e. g., multa and p/un'ma avis, i. e., multae, plurimae aves, a great many birds; multa canis, many dogs. Of the comparative the neuter only occurs in the nom. and accusi singular (plus), and is used as a substantive ; in the genitive pluris and ablat. plure, with the ellipsis ot pretii or pretio, it is used with verbs of value, in the sense of " for more," or " at a higher price." The plural is complete, gen. plurium (better than plurum) ; but the neuter is commonly plura, and rarely pluria. (See ^ 65, 86.) The superlative plerique is derived from the obsolete plarusque (see ^ 134), and has no genitive. In ordinary language plerique only means " most people," or " the majority ;" but plurimi both " most people" and " a great many." All writers, however, do not observe this difference. Ne- pos often uses plerique in the sense of " a great many," and Tacitus quite reverses the signincations ; comp. Hist., ^., 86, and iii., 81, where plerique is followed by plures, and iv., 84, where we read, Deum ipsum multi Aescu' lapium, quidam Osirim , plerique Jovem, plurimi Ditem patrem conjectant. The sense of plerique is sometimes enhanced by the addition of omnes ; as, plerique omnes, by far the greater number. [§ 110.] 2. The following adjectives have a double ir- regular superlative : Exter or exterus, a, um, exterior, extremus and exUmus. (Infer or inferus), a, um, inferior, irtfimus and imus. , Super or superus), a, um, superior, supremus and sum- mus. (Poster or posterus J, a, um, posterior, postremus and postu- mus. * [Consult the treatise of Key, " On the Adjectives Good, Better, Betl, Borms, MelioT, Optimus," &c.] — Am. Ed. 92 LATIN GRAMMAR. JVofe.— The fo atis enclosed in brackets are either not found at a..; as poster, posterus, or occur only in obsolete Latin, which, however, does not prevent the use of the oblique cases and of the other genders. £xter sig nifiej " being without," and the plural exieri, foreigners ; inferus, " being below," superus, "being above," e. g., mare superum and injerum, the two seas wliich surround Italy. Posterns (that it once existed is clear from pratposterus) signifies that which succeeds or follows, but the flat, posteri, descendants. The superlative exlimus is much less common than exire- mus, and postumus occurs only in the sense of a last or posthumous child. [§ 111.] 3. There are some forms of the comparative and superlative which have no adjective for their posi tive, but an adverb which is derived from an adjective, and has the signification of a preposition. (citraj, citerior, dtimus. (ultra), ulterior. ultimus. (intra), interior. intimus. (prope), whence pro- pinquusj, p7opior. proximu The following, on the other hand, have neither an ad jective nor an adverb for their positive : deterior, deterrimus. odor, odssimus. potior, potissimus. prior, primus. Note. — Deterior and deterrimus may be compared, but not confounded, withpeyor tOiA pessimvs. Pejjor generally means "worse than something which is bad," and is therefore used as comparative of maha, whereas deterior means something which is inferior, or worse than something which is good, so that it is a descending, just as melior is an ascending comparative of bonus. Potior and potissimus are derived from the obsolete positive potis (see ^ 103), and prior may be traced to the adverb prae. [§112.] 4. The following adjectives have a superlative, but no comparative : FalsuSjJalsissimus; diversus, diversissimus ; inclitus, in- clitissimus ; novus, novissimus ; sacer, sacerrimus ; vetus (the comparative is supplied by vetustior), veterrimus (ve- tustiasimus); and some participles which are used as ad jectives ; as, meritus, Tneritissimus. [§ 113.] 5. Most adjectives in tlis and btlis, derived from verbs, together with those in tlis, derived from substan- tives (see § 250), have no superlative. To these we must add the following : agrestis, alacer, ater, caecus, declivis, proclivis, deses (comparative desidior),jejunus,longinqutis, prapinquus, protervus, salutaris, satur, surdus, teres, and vulgaris. In like manner, there is no superlative of ado- lescens, juvenis (comparative junior, contracted from juve- IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. 93 niorj, and senex (comparative senior J, which words are re garded as adjectives. Note. — The verbal adjectives amabilis, fertitis, nobilia, ignobilis, nu/biliSi and utilis^ however, have their degrees of comparison complete. 6. The two adjectives, anterior and seguior, exist only as comparatives. The neuter of the latter, sequius, and the adverb secius (otherwise), differ only in their orthog- raphy. [§ 114.] 7. Many adjectives have no degrees of com- parison at all, because their signification precludes com- parison; such are those which denote a substance, origin, possession, or a definite time ; e. g., aureus, adamantimis, Graeeus, peregrinus, equinus, socialis, patermis, aestivus, hibernus, vivus. Note. — Dexter and sinister seem, likewise, to belong to this class ; the comparatives dexterior, simsterior, and the irregular superlative dexiimus, do indeed occur (^sinislimus is mentioned, but its use cannot be proved), but without differing in meaning from the positive. Dexter also signifies skilful, and in this sense dexterior is used as a real comparative. Others do not form the comparative and superlative in the usual grammatical manner by the terminations ior and issimus, but by the adverbs magis and maxime, which are put before the adjective, and by the particles mentioned above. Such adjectives are : (a) Those in which the termination us is preceded by a vowel ; as, idoneus, dubius, necessarius, noxius, arduus, ingenuzis : comparative magis necessarius, superlative maxime necessarius, &c. In qu, however, the u is not re- garded as a vowel (see above, § 5) ; hence antiquus, e. g., has its regular comparative, antiquior, and superlative antiquissimtis. Note. — As this rule depends entirely upon euphony, respecting which opinions differ, we cannot be surprised to find exceptions. Adjectives in uiu, in particular, frequently make the superlative in the regular gram- matical way. Cicero and Suetonius use assiduissivms ; Sallust, strevuissi- mus ; and Ovid, exiguissimus and vacuissimus, while the comparative of these words occurs only in much inferior authorities. Adjectives in ius are found much more seldom with the grammatical degrees of comparison than those in uus, and whenever they do occur, they reject one i ; as, noxior, in Seneca, De Clem,, 13 ; industrior, in the Pseudo-Cicero, De Domo, 11 ; egregius, in Juvenal, xi., 12. The only superlatives that occur are egregiissimus, in Gellius, wni piisaimus very frequently in the Silver Age of the language, in Curtius, Seneca, and Tacitus, though Cicero had censured the triumvir Antony for having used this wholly un-Latin form. {^Philip., xiii.,,9.) The forms {piens) pientes and pieniitstmus are found in inscriptions only. Among the adjectives in eus there are no excepUons, and it is only the later juiists that use the comparative idoneor for the inharmonious idoneior. fbj M^y adjeetives compounded with substantives and 2)4 LATIN GRAMMAB. verbs, e. g., degener, inops, magnanimus, ccmsonus, foedi- fragus, pestifer ; and those which have the derivative ter- minations icus, Idws, ulus, alls, ilis, bundus, e. g., modicus credidus, trepidus, rabidus, rubidus, garrulus, sedulus, ex- itialis, mortalis, principalis, anilis, hostUis, scumlis,Jiiri- Note. — This remark cannot form a rule, for there are a great many com- pounded adjectives and derivatives lilie the above, which have their de- grees of comparison ; for example, those compounded with rnms and cor : amensj demens^ concorSj discorsj vecars, and the a(^ectives ending in dims, ficus, and volus, which were mentioned above (i 105, c). Although it is useful to classify the whole mass of such words under certain divisions, still the dictionary can never be dispensed with. fcj A great number of adjectives which cannot be said to form a distinct class ; their want of the degrees of com parison is surprising, and they must be carefully commit ted to memory: albus, almus, caducus,calvus, canus,curvus, ferus, gnarus, lacer, mutilus, lassus, mediocris, mcmor, me- rus, mirus, mutus, navws, nefastus,par, parilis, dispar, pro- perus, rudis, trux (the degrees may be formed from trucu- lenttcsj, vagus. CHAPTER XXVIII. NUMERALS. CARDINAL NUMERALS. [§ 115.] Numerals are partly adjectives and partly ad- verbs. The adjectives are : 1. Cardinal, denoting simply the number of things ; as, tres, three ; 2. Ordinal, indica- ting the place or number in succession ; as, tertius, the third ; 3. Distributive, denoting how many each time ; as, temi, each time three, or' three and three together ; 4. Multiplicative, denoting how manifold; as, triplex, three- fold; 5. Proportional, denoting how many times more; as, triplum, three times as much ; and, 6. Adverbial nu- merals, denoting how many times ; as, ter, thrice or three times. I. CARDINAL NUMERALS. The cardinal numerals form the roots of the other nu- merals. The first three, unus, duo, tres, are declined, and have forms for the different genders ; the rest, as far as one hundred, are indeclinable.* The hundreds; as, 200, * [" It is a remarkable fact that the first four numeral? in Greek and Sanscrit, and the first three in Latin, are declined, while all the others remain without inflection. There must be some reason for this. Now w* know that the oldest Greek year was divided into thxM seaiona of CAIIDINAL VITMERALS. 95 300, 400, &c.; are declinable, and have different termina- tions for the genders. Mille, a thousand, is indeclinable, but has a declinable plural for the series of numbers which follows. A higher unit, such as a million or billion,*does not exist in Latin, and a million is therefore expressed by the form of multiplication : decies centena milia, i. e., ten times a hundred thousand, or decies alone, with the omission of centena milia, at least when sestertium (HSj is added ; and in like manner, vicies, two millions ; octo- gies, "eight millions ; centies, ten millions ; millies, a hun- dred millions ; bis millies, two hundred millions. Singular. Plural. Nom nnus, una,unum, one. Nom uni, unac, una. Gen. unius. • Gen. unorum, unarum, unorum. Dat. uni. Dat. unis. Ace. unum, unam, unum. Ace. unos, Unas, una. Voc. utie, una, unum. Voc. . Abl. uno, una, uno. Abl. unis. Note. — The genitive singular uni and the dative uno, unae, are of rare occurrence, and unclassical. (Compare, however, ^ 49.) The plural uni, unac, una, occurs as a numeral only in connexion with pluralia tantum, i. e., such nouns as have no singular, e. g., unae nupliae, one wedding, una castra, one camp ; unae Utterae, one letter. (See Chap. XXX.) Unui is used also as a pure adjective, by dropping its signification of a numeral and taking that of " alone," or " the same," e. g., Cass., Bell. Gall., iv., 16: wti Ubii legatos miserant, the Ubians alone had sent ambassadors ; Cic, Pro Flacc, 26. Lacedaemomi septingentos jam annos unis moribus vivunt, with the same manners. Duo and tres are naturally plurals. Nom. duo, duae, duo. Nom. tres (mas. and fem.), tria. Gen. trium. Gen. duorwm, duarum, duo- D at. duohus, duabus, duobus. Ace. duos aadduo, duos, duo. Abl. duobus, duabus, duobus. Dat. tribus. \tna. Ace. tres (mas. and fem.), Abl. tribus. f, which is evidently a contraction of CIO. M, which is used for the same number, is the initial of milte* Note 2. — Wherever, in the above list, two numerals are put together, the brst is always preferable. Forms like octodedm and novendeciyn, which are not mentioned in the list, are not supported by any authority ; even septendecim^ according to Priscian (De Sign. Num.f 4), is not so good as decern et septem, althoagh it is used by Cicero (In Verr., v., 47 ; De Leg. AgT., ii., 17; Philip., v., 7), and also by Tacitus {Annai, riii., 6). Seplem et decern, in Cicero (Cat., 6), and ccto et decern, in Pliny (Epist., viii.,'18), are isolated peculiarities. Instead of octoginta we sometimes find octua- ginla, and, corresponding with it, octnagies ; but these forms cannot be recommended. [§ 116.] The intermediate numbers are expressed in the following manner : from twenty to a hundred, either the smaller number, followed by ct, precedes, or the great- er one precedes without the et ; e. g., quattuor et sexagin- ta, or sexaginta quatticor. For 18, 28, 38, 48, &c., and for 19, 29, 39, 49, etc., the expressions duodeviginti, diwdetri- ginta, up to undecentum,, are more frequent than decern et octo, or octo et viginti. In such combinations neither duo nor un (unus) can be declined. Above 100, the greater number always precedes, either with or without et ; as, mille unus, mille duo, mille trecenti, or jnille et unus, mille et duo, mille et trecenti sexaginta sex. The et is never used twice, and poets, when they want another syllable, take ac, atque, or que, instead. There are, indeed, ex- ceptions to this rule ; but, being less common, they cannot be taken into consideration, and some of them are mere racorrect readings. (See my note on Cic, in Verrem, iv. 55.) The thousands are generally expressed by the declina- ble substantive milia and the cardinal numbers ; as, dua milia, tria milia, quattuor milia, decern milia, unum et vi- nician or Palmyrene notations, which otherwise much resemble the Ro- man in their principle of notation, though they approiimale to pure vice- naiy scales, both adopting distinct symbols for twenty." (Penny Cyclop., vol. xvi., p. 367.)]— iim. Ed. ,„„,.. * [For anot ler scheme of explanation, consult Penny Cyclop., vol x»l, p. 367.]— Am. Ed. 08 LATIN GRAMMAR. gtnti milia, quadraginta quinque milia. The distributive numerals are used more rarely ; as, hina milia, quina milia, dena milia, quadragena sena milia. The ohjecta counted are expressed by the genitive, which depends on the substantive milia ; e. g., Xerxes Mardonium in Grac- cia reliquit cum trecentis milibtis armatorum, unless a low- er declined numeral is added, in which case things count- ed may be used in the same case with milia ; e. g., hab- uit tria milia trecentos milites, or m,ilites tria milia trecen- tos hahuit ; but even then the genitive may be used, e. g., habuit militum tria m,ilia trecentos, or habuit tria milia militum et trecentos. (See the commentators on Livy, ^xxix., 7.) It is only the poets that express the thousands by the indeclinable adjective mille, preceded by an ad- verbial numeral; as, bis mille equi, for duo milia equorum; they are, in general, fond of expressing a number by the form of multiplication; Ovid (Trist., iv., 10, 4), for ex- ample, says, milia decies novem, instead of nonaginta milia. Note. — ^With regard to the construction of the word mille we add the fol- lowing remarks. Mille is originally a substantive, which is indeclinable in the singular, but occurs only in the nom. and accus. As a substantive it governs the genitive, like the Greek ^t^idf, e. g., Cic, Pro Milan., 20, quo in fundo propter insanas illas subsiructiones facile mille hominum versabatta valentium. ; Philip., vi., 5, quis L. Antonio mille nummum ferret expensum and, very frequently, mille passuum. Livy joins mille as a collective nour (see ^ 366) to the plural of the verb, xxiii., 44 ; mille passuum inter urbem grant castraque : xxv., 24, jam mille armatorum ceperant partem. ^ But mille is also an indeclinable adjective, and as such is most frequently used in all its cases, e. g., equites mille praemissi ; senatus mille hominum numero consta- bat ; da mihi basia mille ; rem mille modis temptavit, &c. With this adjec live mille, as with numerals in general, a genitivus partitivus may be used, according to % 429, and thus we read in Livy, xxi., 61, cum octo milibus jiedilum, mille equitum, where the genitive stands for the ablative, owing to Its close connexion with the word peditum ; and xxiii., 46, 'Romanorvm minus mille interfecti. CHAPTER XXIX. II. ORDINAL NUMERALS. [§ 117.] The ordinals denote the place in the series which any object holds, and answer to the question qtio- tus ? All of them are adjectives of three terminations, tis, a, um. 1. primus. 2. aecundus ('alter). 3. tertius. 4. quartus. 5. quintus. 6. sextua. ORDINAL NUMERALS. 9if 7. 8. octavus. 9. nanus. 10. decimus. H. undedmus. 12. duodedmus. 13. tertius decimus. 14. quartus decimus. 15. quintus decimus. 16. sextus decimus. 17. Septimus decimus. 18. octavus decimus, or Virgil, Aen., i., 317, bina manu crispans hastilia. No prose writer goes beyond this in the use of the distributives instead of the cardinals (except in combination with milia, see ^ 116). Poets and Pliny the elder use these numerals in the singular in the sense of multiplica- tives, e. g., Lucan, viii., 455 ; septeno gurgite, with a sevenfold whirl : Plin., xvii,, 3 ; campus fertilis ceniena quinquagenia fruge, with one hundred and fifty fold corn. In the ordinary language they occur only in the plural, and as adjectives of three terminations, i, ae, a. quaterni deni. 60. sexageni. quint deni. 70. septuagent. seni deni, 80. octogeni. septeni deni. 90. nonageni. octoni deni. 100. centeni. 19. noveni deni. 200. viceni. 300. viceni singuli. 400. viceni bini. 500. viceni temi, 600. triceni. [&c. 700. 40. quadrageni. inquageni. A longer form of the hundreds, ditcenteni, trecenteni, quadringenteni. Sec, which is mentioned by Priscian, can- not be proved to exist. Here, too, there is some freedom in the combination of the numerals ; instead of viceni qua- terni, we may say quaterni et viceni, or quaterni viceni, and for 18 and 19 we have, also, the forms duodeviceni and un- deviceni. The genitive of these numerals is commonly in um instead of arum; as, hinum, ternum, quatemum, qui- num, &c., but not singulum for singulorum. " A thousand each time" might, according to analogy, be expressed by milleni, and then continued bis milleni, ter millejii, &c. ; but this form is not in use, and instead of it we say singula milia, bina, tema, quaterna, quina milia : e, g., SuetOTj., Octav., extr. ;" Legavit Augustus praetorianis militibus singula milia nummum (that is, one thousand to each), cohortibus urbanis quin- genos, legifmariis trecenos nummos : Livy : in singulis legionibus Romanis quina milia peditum, treceni equiies erant. Milia alone is frequently used for singvl0 mili'it, if its distributive meaning is indicated by some other word ; » g. 12 1. singuli. 14 2. bini. 15 3. terni, or trini. 16 4. quaterni. 17. 5. quini. 18 6. seni. 19. 7. septeni. 20. 8. octoni. 21 9. noveni. 22 10. dent. 23 11 undeni. 30 12. duodeni. 40 13. terni deni. 50 treceni. quadringeni sexcent. septingeni. 800. octingeni. 900. nongeni. 102 LATIN GBAMMAB. Livy, zzxvii., 45; daUtis milia talentumpcr duodecim annost i. e., one thou sand lalunts each year : Curtius, v., IJ) ; singtdis vestrum milia denarium dan jussi, wiiere mille is an incorrect reading ; comp. Liv., xxii., 36. This use of the plural, which occurs in other words also; as, asses, librae, jugera, with the ellipsis of tinguli, ae, a, has been established by J. Fr. Gronovius »n Livy, iv., 15, and xxix., 15 ; and by Bentley on Horace, Serm., ii., 3, 156. From these distributives are derived adjectives in arius, which indicate of hovir many units or equal parts a thing consists, whence they are termed partiaria, e. g., nume- rus binarius, a number consisting of two units, i. e., two ; scrobes temarii, holes of three feet; versus senarius, a verse of six feet ; nummus denarius, a coin of ten units, that is, asses ; senex octogenarius, an old man of eighty ; rosa cen- tenaria, a rose with one hundred leaves ; cohors quingena- ria, of 500 men. " T^» word numerus is most frequently combined with these adjectives, to supply the place of the substantives unio, binio, ternio, which are not based on very good authority. (See § 75.) Singularis and millia- rius are more commonly used instead of singularius, mil- lenarius. CHAPTER XXXI. IV. MULTIPLICATIVE NUMERALS. [§ 120.] MuLTiPLicATiVES auswer to the question, " How many fold V (quotuplex ?) They are, simplex, duplex, tri- plex, quadruplex, quincuplex, septemplex, decemplex, centu- plex. These are the only ones that can be shown to have been in use. Sixfold does not occur in Latin ; it might be sexu- plexorseplex, but not sextuplex, as some grammarians assert. Octuplex is attested by the derivative octuplicatus, and no- vemplex by the analogy of septemplex. (Modem writers use, also, undecimplex, duodecimplex, sededmplex, vicecu- •plex, tricecuplex, quadragecvplex, quinquageciiplex, sex- agecuplex, septuagecuplex, octogecwplex, nonagecuplex, du- centvplex, trecentuplex, quadringentuplex, quingentuplex, octingentuplex, &c., and millecuplex.J* It will not be out of place here to add the Latin ex- pressions for fractions, which are always denoted hy pars: * [Such forms as undecimplex, duodecimplex, &c., violate analogy, and though employed by modem writers, as the text states, are nevertheless decidedly objectionable. Instead, moreover, of vicecuplex, tricecuplex, i&c, the forms vicuplex, tricuplex, &c., would have the advantage of being analogous with those of the same class known to exist. {Journal of Edu- cation, vol. i., p. 96.]— jlm. Ed. PROPORTIONAL NUMERALS NUMERAL ADVERBg. 103 I 's dimidia pars, i tertia pars, i quarta pars, quinta, sex- to, septima pars, &c. In cases where the number of the paits into which a thing is divided exceeds the number of parts mentioned only by one, as in f , |, A, the fractions are expressed in Latin simply by duae, tres, quattiwr partes, that is, two out of three, three out of four, and four out of five parts : f- maybe expressed hjoctavapars, or by dimidia quarta. In all other cases fractions are ex- pressed as in English : ^, duae septimae ; ^, tres septimae. Sec, or the fraction is broken up into its parts, e. g,, f by pars dimidia {^) et tertia (f ) ; and i^ by tertia et septima. CHAPTER XXXII. V. PROPORTIONAL NUMERALS. [§ 121.] Proportional numerals express how many times more one thing is than another, but they cannot be used throughout. They answer to the question quotiiplus ? They are, simplus, a, um ; duplus, triplus, qnadruplus, quinqwiplus (probably sexuplus), septuplus, octuplus (per- haps nonuplus), decuplus, centuplus; and, according to the same analogy, we might form ducentuplus, and so on, as in the multiplicatives above. But they are almost univer- sally found only in the neuter. CHAPTER XXXIII. VI. NUMERAL ADVERBS. [§ 122.] 1. The numeral adverbs answer to the ques- tion, " How many times 1" (quotiens 1) to which totiens is the demonstrative s.x^d.dliquotiens the indefinite. The form in ns is the original, and prevailed in the best periods of the language ; subsequently the termination es was pre- ferred in numera,ls, but ens still remained in the words just mentioned. 7. septies. 8. octies. 9. navies, 10. decies. 11. undecies. 12. duodecies 1. semel. 2. his. 3. fer. 4. 5. quater, quinqu 6. sexies. 104 LATIN GRAMMAR. 13. terdecies, or tredecies. 14. quaterdecies, or quattuor decies. 15. quinquiesdecies, or qttin- decies. 16. sexiesdecies, or sedecies. 17. septiesdedes. 18. duodevicieSf or octiesde- cies. 19. undevides, or noviesde- 20. vit^es. [cies. 21. semel et vicies. 22. Jjs ei vicies. 23. ter et vicies, &c. .30. tricies. 40. quadragies. 50. quinqttagiei. 60. sexagies. 70. septuagies. 80. octogies. 90. nonagies. 100. centies. 200. ducenties. 300. trecenties. 400. quadringenties. 500. quingenties, &c. 800. octingenties, Sec. 1,000. millies. 2,000. ^j* millies. 3,000. ier millies, &c. 100,000. eenties millies. 1,000,000. millies millies. With regard to the intermediate numbei's, 21, 22, 23, &c., the method above adopted is the usual one, but we may also say vipies semel and vicies et semel, thouB;h not ie»ieZ vicies; for 5j* vicies, for example, would mean twice twenty, i. e., forty. [§ 123.] 2. The numeral adverbs terminating either in K?» or o, and derived from the ordinals, or, rather, the or- dinals themselves in the ace. or ablat. singular neuter gen- der, are used in answer to the question " of what num- ber 1" or "what in number?" (the Latin quotum 1 or quota ? cannot be proved to have been used in this way); e. g., primum, or prim,o, for the first time, or first; secun- dum or secundo, tertium or tcrtio, &c., decimum, undecimum, duodecimum., tertium, decimum,, duodevicesimurn. The an- cients themselves were in doubt as to whether the tenni- nation um or o was preferable (see Gellius, x., 1) ; but, according to the majority of the passages in classical wri- ters, we must prefer um; the form secundum, alone is less common ; and instead of it we find iterum, a second time, and secundo, secondly, for which, however, deinde is more frequently used. The difference between primum and primo is this, that the signification " for the first time" is common to both, but that of "first" belongs exclusively to primum, while primo has the additional meaning of " at first." [^ 124.] Note.— It may not be superfluous to notice here some «ubstan- .'ives compounded with numerals ■ thus, from anmti are formed i»"*miuM, PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 105 (riennium, quadriennium, sexmnium, septumnium (more correct than seplm nmm), decennium, a period of two, three, four, six, &c., years. From die$ we have biduum, triduum, quatridwcm^ a time of two, three, four days. From viri are formed duovirij tresviri, quattuorvirij quinqueviri, se- or sex-viri^ \ septemviri^ decemviri^ quirtdecemviri, all of which compounds, if they may be so called, denote a commission consisting of a certain number of men, ap- ' pointed for certain purposes. A member of such a commission is called duumvir, triumvir, from which is formed the plural triumviri, which, properly speaking, is ungrammatical, and, in fact, still wants the sanction of a good authority. In inscriptions triumviri does not occur, and duomviri only once (Gruter, p. 43, No. 5) : the ordinary mode of writing it was JIviri, III viri. Printed books, without the authority of MSS., are not decisive. To these words we may add the three, bimtu, trimut, and quadrimus ; i. e., a child of ti^o, three, four years. CHAPTER XXXIV. PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. [§125.] 1. Pronouns are words which supply the place of a substantive; such as, I, thou, we, and in Latin, ego, til, nos, &c. These words are in themselves substan- tives, and require nothing to complete their meaning; hence they are called pronouns substantive (jrronomina substantiva), but more commonly personal pronouns, pro- nomina personalia. Note. — Sui is a pronoun of the third person, but not in the same way that ego and tu are pronouns of the first and second persons. For the third person (he, she, it) is not expressed in Latin in the nominative, and is implied in the third person of the verb ; but if it is to be expressed, a demonstrative pronoun, commonly ille, is used. The other cases of the English pronoun of the third person are expressed by the oblique cases ot is, ea, id, the nominative of which belongs to the demonstrative pronouns Thus we say, pudet me met, tui, ejus ; laudo me, te, eum. Sui, sibi, se, is the pronoun of the third person in a reflective sense ; as, laudat se, he praises himself, in which proposition the object is the same as the subject. The use of this reflective pronoun in Latin is somewhat more extensive than in our language ; for sui, sibi, se, and the possessive suus, sua, suum, are used not only when the subject to which they refer occurs in the same sentence, but also when in a dependent sentence the subject of the prin- cipal or governing sentence is referred to ; e. g., jmtat hoc sibi nocere, he thinks that this injures him (instead of himself ). The beginner must ob- serve that wherever he may add " self" to the pronoun of the third per- son, he has to use the reflective pronouns and the possessive suus, sua suum; e. g., Gaius contemnebat divitias, quod se felicem reddere non possent, because they could not make him (i. e., himself, and not any other person) happy ; but quod eum felicem reddere non possent would mean, because they could not make him (some other person, e. g., his friend) happy. [§ 126.] 2. Besides these there is a number of words which are adjectives, inasmuch as they have three distinct forms for the three genders, and their meaning is not com- plete without a substantive e'ther expressed or under- lOG LATIN GRAMMAB. Stood. But their inflection diflfers so widely from what are commonly called adjectives, and they are so frequent- ly used instead of a substantive, that they are not unjustly tenned pronouns. They are : 1. The adjunctive : ipse, ipsa, ipsum, self. 2. The demonstrative: hie, haec, hoc; iste, ista,istud, ille, ilia, illud; is, ea, id, and the compound idem, eadem, idem. 3. The relative: qui, quae, quod, and the compounds quicunque and quisquis. 4. The two interrogatives : viz., the substantive inter- rogative, quis, quid ? and the adjective interrogative, qui, quae, quod.1 5. The indefinite pronouns : aliquis, aliqua, aliquid and aliquod; quidam, quaedam, quiddam and quoddam ; ali- quispiam, or, abridged, quispiam, quaepiam, quidpiam and quodpiam ; quisquam, neuter quidquam ; quivis, quilibet, and quisque ; and all the compounds of qui or quis. Respecting the use of these pronouns, see Chapter LXXXIV., C. The following observations are intended to develop only the fundamental principles. [i 121.'] Note 1. — Signification op the Demonstrative Pronouns. — Hie, this, is used of objects which are nearest to the speaker, whereas more distant objects are referred to by illc. The person nearest of all to the speaker is the speaker himself, whence Ate homo is often the same as ego (see some passages in Heindorf on Horace, Sat., i., 9, 47) ; and in this respect hk is called the pronoun of the first person. Iste points to the person to whom I am speaking, and to the things appertaining to him. Thus, iste liber, ista vestis, tstud negotium, are equivalent to thy book, thy dress, thy business ; and iste is, for this reason, called the pronoun of the second person.* Ille, that, is the pronoun of the third person ; that is, it points to the person of whom I am speaking to some one, hence ille liber means the book of which we are speaking (Compare, on these points, i) 291.) Is is U5ed:_ 1. To point to something preceding, and is somewhat less emphatic than " the person mentioned before ;" and, 2. As a sort ol logical conjunction, when followed by qui, is qui answers to the English " he who." Idem, the same, expresses the unity or identity of a subject with two predicates ; e. g., Cicero did this thing, and he did that also, would be expressed in Latin, idem illudperfecit,hencG idem may sometimes answer to our " also ;" e. g., Cicero was an orator, and also a philosopher : Cicero orator erat idemque {et idem) philosophus. [i 128.'| Note 2. — The Compounded Relatives. — They are formed by means of the suffix cunque, which, however, is sometimes separated from its pronoun by sohtie intervening word. It arose from the relative adverb cum (also spelled quum) and the sul£ix que, expressive of universality (as in * [So completely was this the meaning of the pronoun iste, that it has descended to the derivative costi in the modem Italian ; and a lawsuit as to the place where a bill was payable once turned upon the meaning of this adverb. Journal of Education, vol. i., p. 97.] — Am. Ed. PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 107 fuaipie, ^ 129 ; and in adverbs, ^ 288). Cwnjtie, therefore, originally signi- fied " whenever." By being attached to a relative pronoun or adverb, e. g., qualiscunquet qiwtcunquey ubicimquej utcunque, quandocunquCf it renders the relative meaning of these words more general, and produces a relativum generate ; and as qui signifies " who," quicunque becomes " whoever," oi " every one who f * e. g., quemcunque librum legeris^ ejus summam paucis verbis in commentaria refexto-, or utcunqite se res habuit^ tua tamen culpa est. It thus always occurs in connexion with a verb, as the subject of a proposi- tion. The same signiHcation is produced by doubling the relative ; e. g., quotquot, qualisqualis ; and in the case of adverbs, ubiubi^ utut^ quoqw}, &c. Thus we should have quiqui, quaequae, quodquod = quicunqtie, quaecunque, quodeunque ; but these forms are not used in the nominative, and instead of them quisquis, quidquid, were formed from the substantive interrogative quis .? quid ? and the doubled relative qvisquis retained its substantive sig- nitication, " every one who," whereas quicunque has the meaning of an ad jective. So, at least, it is with the neuter quidquid, whatever. The mas- culine quisquisj by way of exception, is likewise used as an adjective ; e. g., in Horace : quisquis erit vitae color ; and Pliny : quiemas erit ventus (nay, even the neuter quidquid in Virgil, Aen., x., 493, and Horace, Carm., ii., 13, 9, which is a complete anomaly). In tl^ oblique cases the sub- stantive and adjective significations coincide. [^ 129.] Note 3. — The Indefinite Peonodns. — All the above-men- tioned words are originally, at once substantives and adjectives, and for this reason they have two distinct forms for the neuter. According to the ordinary practice, however, quisquam is a substantive only, and is often ac- companied by the adjective uUus, a, urn. Quispiam, too, is principally used as a 'substantive ; but aliquispiam, in the few passages where it occurs (it is found only in Cic, Pro Sext., 29, alifuapiam vi : and Tuscul., iii., 9, ali quodpiam membrum), is used as an adjective ; and alibis, which has the same meaning, is found in both senses. Quisquam, with the supplement- ary ulba, has a negative meaning ; e. g., I do not believe that any one (^quisquam) has done this : quispiam and aliquis are affirmative, and quidam may be translated by " a certain." By adding the verbs vis and libet to the relative we obtain qvivis and quilibet, any one ; and by adding the particle que we obtain quisque and the compound vnusquisque. All of these words express an indefinite generality: respecting their difference, compare Chap. LXXXIV., C. [§ 130.1 3. The possessive pronouns are derived from the substantive pronouns, and in form they are regular adjectives of three terminations : meus, tuus, suus, noster vester ; to which we must add the relative cujvs, a, um and the pronomina gentilicia (which express origin), nos tras, vestras, and cujas. 4. Lastly, we include among the pronouns, also, what are called pronominalia, that is, adjectives of so general a meaning that, like real pronouns, they frequently sup- ply the place of a noun substantive. Such pronominalia are, (a) those which answer to the question, who? and are partly single words and partly compounds : alius, ul- lus, nullus, nonnulltis. If we ask, which of two ? it is ex- pressed by uter ? and the answer to it is alter, one of two ; neuter, neither ; alteruter, either the one or the other ; utervis and uterlibet, either of the two. The lelative pro- Iu8 LATIN GKAMMAR. noun (when referring to two) is likewise uter, and, in % more genera . sense, utercunque. (b) Those which denote quality, size, or number, in quite a general way. They stand in relation to one another (whence they are called cor relatives), and are formed according to a fixed rule. The interrogative beginning with qu coincides with the foim ■)f the relative, and, according to the theory of the ancient gi'ammarians, they differ only in their accent (see § 34) ; the indefinite is forme:, by prefixing ali ; the demonstra- tive begins with t, and its power is sometimes increased by the suffix dem (as m idem) ; the relative may acquire a more general meaning by being doubled, or by the suf- fix cunque (§ 128) ; the indefinite generality is expressed (according to § 129) by adding the words libet or vis to the (original) interrogative form. In this manner we ob tain the following pronominal coirelatives, with which we have to compare the adverbial correlatives mentioned in § 288. Interrog. Demonst. qualis, talis, quantus, tantus, tan- twidem, quot, tot, totidem, qiiotus, totus. Relat. Retat. generale. Indefin. Indef. gener qualis, qualisquatis, , quali'slibet. qualiscunque. quantus, quantusquantus, aliquantus, quantuslibet. quantuscunque, quantusvis. quot, quotquot, quot- aliquot, quottibet. cunque, quotus, quotuscunque, (aliquotus), . To these we must add the diminutives quanlulus, quantulusctmque, tanlu lut, aliquantulum. CHAPTER XXXV. DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS. [§ 131.] 1. Declension of the personal pronouns ego, tu, sui : Singular. Tu, thou. tui, of thee. Nom. Ego, I. G-en. mei, of me. Dat. mihi, to me. Ace. me, me. Voc. like nom. Abl. me, from me. (ibi, to thee. te, thee, like nom. te, from thee. sui, of himself, her. self, itself. sibi, to himself, &c, se, himself, &c. se, from himself, &C. DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS. 10S> Nom. Nos, we. Gen. nostri, nos- trum, of us. Dat. nobis, to us. Ace. nos, us. Voc. nos, O we. Abl. nobis, from us. Plubal. Yds, you. vestri, vestrum you. vobis, to you. vos, you. vos, O you ! vobis, from you of sui, of themselves sibi,to themselves se, themselves. se, from selves. them- Nofe. — The suffix met may be added to all the cases of these three pro nouns to express the E:;g!ish emphatic self; as, egomet^ mihimet, temet^ semeij and even with the addition of ipse after it ; as, mihimet ijjsi, temet ipmm. The genit. plur. and the nominat. tu alone do not admit this suffix. Instead of it the emphasis is given to tu by the suffix te; as, tute, and to this, again, by the addition of met ; as, tutemet. The accus. and ablat. singu- lar of these pronouns admit a reduplication, mane, tete, sese ; of sui alone it is used in the plural also. The contracted form of the dative, mi for mihi {like ml for nihil), is fre- quently found in poetry, but rarely in prose. The genitives mei, tui, mi. nostri, vestri, are properly genitives of the possessive pronouns meum, tuum, suum, nostrum, vestrum, for originally the neuters meum, tuum, &c., were used in the' sense of " my being," or of " as regards me, thee," &c. (th« Greek to ifxov), instead of the simple I, thou, &c. In like manner, th** genitives nostrum, vestrum, are properly the genitives of the possessives nostri and vestri. (See ^ 51.) The beginner may pass over the origin "^ these forms, since they are used as the real genitives of the personal pro- nouns; but he must be reminded of it in the construction of the gerund, ^ 660. Respecting the ditference between nostri, vestri, and nostrum, vestrum, see ^431. [§ 132.] 2. Declension of the demonstrative pronouns and ipse : Singular. Nom. and Voc. Hie, hoc, this. Gen. hujtts, of this. haec, Dat. Jiuic (or Tiuic), to this. Ace. hunc, hanc, hoc, this. Abl. hoc, hoc, hoc, from this. Plural. Nom. and Voc. hi, hoe, haec, these. Gen. Jiorum, harum, horum, of these. Dat. his, to these. Ace. hos, has, haec, these Abl. his, from these. Note. — The ancient form of this pronoun was hice, haece, hoce, in which ^e recognise the demonstrative ce, which, when a word by itself, appears m the form ecce. The cases ending in c arose from the omission of the e, which is still found in old Latin, e. g., hance legem, hace lege. (This ex- plains the obsolete form haec, for kae or haece, ii, Terence. See Bentley on Ter., Andr., i., 1, 99.) In ordinary language the cases in s alone some- times take the complete ce to render the demonstrative power more em- phatic, e. g„ hujusce, hosce. By adding the enclitic interrogative ne to ce 01 c, we obtain the interrogative hicine, haecine, hocine, &c. The pronouns iste, ista, istud, and ille, ilia, illud, are declined alike, and in the following manner : K 110 LATIN GRAMMAR. ' Singular. Plural. Nom. and Voc. ille, ilia, il- lud, he or that. Ten. illius. Dat. illi. Ace. ilium, illam, illud. A.bl. illo, ilia, illo. Nom. and Voc. illi, illae, ilia, they or those. Gen. illorum, illarum, illo- Dat. illis. [rum. Ace. illos, illas, ilia. Abl. illis. Note. — Besides the forms iste, ista, istud, and ille, ilia, illud, there exist in early Latia the forms istic, islaec, istoc or istuc, and illic, iUaec, illoc or illuc, which, with regard to inflection, follow hie, haec,hoc, but occur only in the cases ending in c, except the dative ; that is, in the accus. istunc, islam:, illujic, illano ; ablat. istoc, istdc, Hide, , iliac ; neut. plur. istaec, illaec. {Istuc and istaec sometimes occur even in Cicero.) Priscian regards these forms as contractions from iste and ille with Mc, but it probably arose from the addition of the demonstrative ce, according to the analogy of hie, for ir early Latin we find also istace, istisee, illace, illisce, illosee, illasce, though very rarely.* By means of the connecting vowel i, both c and the com- plete ce may be united with the interrogative enclitic ne, e. g., istueine. istoeine, illicine, illaneine, istoseine. Illi and isti are obsolete forms of the genitive for illius and istius, ani the dative istae, illae, for isti, illi ; and the nom. plur. fem. istaec, illaec, fov istae, illae. (See Bentley on Terence, Hec, iv., 2, 17.) Virgil uses olli as a dative sing, and nom. plur., and Cicero, in an an tique formula (De Leg., ii., 9), the plural olla and olios, from an ancient form ollus. Ipse (in the ancient language ipsus), ipsa, ipsum, is de- clined like ille, except that the neuter is ipsum, and not ipsud. Note. — This pronoun is called adjunctive because it is usually joined to other nouns and pronouns. In connexion with some cases of is, viz., eo, ea, eum, earn, it loses the i in early Latin ; thus we find eapse (nom. and ablat.), eopse, eumpse, eampse, in Plautus ; and in Cicero the compound reapse = re ipsa, or re ea ipsa, in fact, is of common occurence. The sulliz pte in possessive pronouns is of a similar kind. Singular. Plukal. Nom is, ea, id, he, or that. she, it, Nom ii (ei), eae, ea, they or those. Gen. ejus. Gen. eorum, earum, eorum. Dat. ei. * Dat. iis feisj. Ace. eum, earn, id. Ace. eos, eas, ea. Abl. so, ea, eo. Abl. iis feisJ. By the addition of the suffix dem we form from is—f idem, eadem, idem (as it were isdem, eadem, iddemj, which b declined in the other cases exactly like the simple is, * [This latter is the true account, namely, that the demonstrative ce is added. Throwing aside the aspirate from isthic, we may safely conclude that istic and illic were formed, not from hie, but by the addition of tha same emphatic syllable which is found in hie. Independently, too, of this, iste-hic seems impossible, because it is a contradictory combination {Journal o/Edueatim, vol. i, p. 97.)]— Am. Ed. DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS. HJ ea, id. In the accusative, eundem and eandem are prefer able to eumdem, eamdem, and, in like manner, in the geni- tive plur. eorundem, earundem. Note. — Eae as a dative singular feminine for ei, and ibus and eabus for Us, are obsolete forms. The plural ei is rare, and eidem is not to be found at all. In the dative and ablative plural, too, eis and eisdem are not as com- mon as Us, iisdem. It must, however, be observed that iidem and iisdem were always pronounced in poetry, and therefore, probably, in the early prose also, as if they had only one i : but whether it was ever written with one i cannot be determmed, on account of the fluctuation of the MSS. In. most passages, however, only one t is written. In what man- ner it and lis were dealt with cannot be ascertained from the poets, be- cause the.}; dislike the pronoun is in general, and more particularly these cases of it, for which they use the corresponding forms of hie (see 9 702) ; but Friscian (p. 737, and Super xii. vers., p. 1268) asserts that in this word, as in <2ii, diis, the double i was formerly regarded in poetry as one syllable, and that in his time it still continued to be thus pronounced. By composition with ecce or en (behold! the French voildj, we obtain the following expressions, which were of frequent use in ordinary life : cecum, eccam, eccos, eccas ; ecdllwm, or ellum, elldm, ellos, ellas ; eccistam. [§ 133.] 3. Declension of the relative pronoun, qui, quae, quod: Singular. Plural. Nom. Qui, qtiae, quod, who or which. Gen. cujus fquojus, obsol.), of whom. Dat. cuioTcm('quoi,ohsdl.), to whom. Ace. qztem, quam, quod, whom. [whom. Abl. qrto, qua, quo, from Nom. qui, quae, quae, who or which. G-en. quorum, quarum, quo- rum. Dat. qmbus. Ace. quos, quas, quae. Abl. qwhus. Note. — An ancient ablative singular for all genders was qui. Cicero uses it with cum. appended to it, quicum for quocam (^ 324), when an indefinite person is meant, and when he does not refer to any definite person men- tioned before (compare the examples in 6 561 and 568). Quicum, for qua- -cum, is found in Virgil, Aen., xi., 822. Otherwise the form qui, for quo, oc- curs in good prose only in the sense of " in what manner?" or " how ?" as an interrogative or relative, e. g., qui Jit ? how does it happen ? qui conve- nit ? qui sciebas ? qui hoc probari potest cuiquam ? qui tibi idfacere licuit ? qui isla inteUecta sint, debeo discere, &c., and in the peculiar phrase with uti : habfo qui utar, est qui utamur (I have something to live upon), in Cicero Instead of quibus, in the relative sense, there is an ancient form quis, or queis (pronounced like quis), which is of frequent occurrence in late prose writers also. [§ 134.] There are two interrogative pronouns, quis, quid ? and qui, quae, quod ? the latter of which is quite the same in form as the relative pronoun, and tho former 113 LATIN GRAMMAR. differs from it only by its forms quis and quid. The in- terrOgatives quisnam, quidnam 1 and quinam, quaenam, quodnam 1 express a more lively or emphatic question than the simple words, and the nam answers to the Eng- lish " pray." Note. — The difference between the two interrogative pronouns, as ob served in good prose, is, that nuis and jutd are used as substantives, an., jui, us answer is statur, or viviivr. "When the subject is to be added it is done by means of aft, as in Livy, lOymam frequerUtr migratum est a paren iibus raptarumj which is equivalent to parentes migraverunt; and in Cicero, tjus orationi vekementer ab omnibus reclamatum est, and occurritvr autem. nobis et juidem a doctis et crudilis, equivalent to omnes reclomanmt and docti occurrunt. [^ 145.] Note 3. — With transitive verbs the subject itself may become the object, e. g., moveo, 1 move, and moveo me, I move myself. It often^occurs in Latin that the pronoun is omitted, and the transitive is thus changed into an intransitive. The verb abstineo admits of all three constructions ; transitive, as in manus ab aliqua re abstineo, 1 keep my hands from a thing ; with the pronoun of the same person, abstineo me, and intransitive, aAslmeo aliqita re, I abstain from a thing. There are some other verbs of this class, consisting chietiy of such as denote change; e. g., vertere and convertere, mutaTe, fiectere and deflectere, inclinare ; hence we may say, for instance, incliiio rem, sol se declinat ; and in an intransitive sense, dies, acies, vnclinat ; animvs inclinat ad p&cem Jaciendam ; verto rem, verla me ; detrimentum in bo- aum vertit, ira in rabiem vertit ; fortuna rei pubticae mulavit ; mores populi Ro- mani magnopere jmUaverunt. In like manner the following verbs are used both as transitive and intransitive, though with greater restrictions : augere, abolere, decoquere, durare, incipere, continuare, insinuare, laxare, remittere, lavare, movere (chiefly with terra, to quake, in an intransitive sense, though now ind then in other connexions also), praecipitare, mere, suppeditare, turbare, jihrare. The compounds of vertere — devertere, divertere and revertere- are jsed only in this reflective sense, but occur also in the passive with the same meaning. f ^ 146.] We must here observe that the passive of many words has not only a properly passive meaning, but also a reflective one, as in crucior, I torment myself; detector, I delight myself; fallor, I deceive myself ; /tror, I throw myself (upon something) ; mm>eor and commoveor, I move or excite myself; homines rffunduntur, men rush (towards a place); vehicula fran- guntur, the vehicfes break ; lavor, I bathe (myself) ; inclinor, I incline : mutor, I alter (myself) ; vertor, but especially de- di- and re-vertor. Many of these passive verbs are classed among the deponents, the active from which they are formed being obsolete, or because the intransitive meaning greatly differs. [§ 147.] 3. It is a peculiarity of the Latin language, that it has a class of verhs of a passive form, but of an ac- tive (either .transitive or intransitive) signification. They are called deponents (laying aside, as it vi^ere, their pass- ive signification), e. g., amsolor, I console ; imitor, I imi- tate ; fateor, I confess ; seqtwr, I follow ; mentior, I lie ; norior, I die. These verbs, even when they have a trans- itive signification, cannot have a passive voice, because there would be no distinct form for it. Note. — Many deponents are, in fact, only passives, either of obsolete sctives, or of such as are still in use. The latter can be regarded as de- ponents only in so far as they have acquired a peculiar signification: i. g., gravor signifies, originally, " I am burdened ;" hence, " I do a thing mwillingly," " I dislike," " 1 hesitate ;" vehor, I am carried, or I ride, equo, on horseback, curru, in a carriage. Several passives, as was re- marked above, have acquired the power of deponents from thair redective 118 LATIN GRAMMAR. BJgnification J e. g.,pasmr, I feed myself; versor, I tum myself, ai i thence I find myself, or I am. The following deponents are in this manner de- rived from obsolete actives : laetor, I rejoice iproficiscor, I get myself for- ward, I travel ; rescor, I feed myself, I eat. With regard to the greatex number of deponents, however, we are obliged to believe that the Latin language, like the Greek, with its verba media, in forming these middle verbs, followed peculiar laws which are unknown to us. It must be especially observed that many deponents of the first conjugation are de- rived from nouns, and that they express being that which the noun denotes, e. g., Micillor, architector^ argutor, ajwupor, auguror, &c., as may be seen from the list in % 207. [§ 148.] 4. Before proceeding, we must notice the fol- lowing special irregularities. The three verbs Jio, I be- come, or am made, vapulo, I am beaten, and veneo, I am sold, or for sale, have a passive signification, and may be used as the passives oifacio, verhero, and vendo; but, like all neuter verbs, they have the active form, except that_^o makes the perfect t&asefactus sum, so that form and mean- ing agree. They are called neutralia passiva. The verbs audeo,Jido, gaudeo, and soleo have the passive form with an active signification in the participle of the preterite, and in the tenses formed from it; as, ausus, Jisus, gavisus, solitus sum, eram, &c. They may, therefore, be called semideponentia, which is a more appropriate name than neutro-passiva, as they are usually termed, since the fact of their being neuters cannot come here into considera- tion. To these we must add, but merely with reference to the participle of the preterite, the werhs jurare, coenare, prandere, and potarc, of which the participles juratus, coe Ttatus, pransus, and potus have, like those of deponents, the signification : one that has sworn, dined, breakfasted, and drunk. The same is the case with some other in- transitive verbs, which, as such, ought not to have a par- ticiple of the preterite at all ; but still we sometimes find conspiratus and coalitus, and frequently adulttes and obso letus (groyro. up and obsolete), in an active, but intransl live sense, and the poets use cretiis (from cresco) like natus.* * [" No allusion is made in this chapter to the more philosophical di- vision of the conjugations adopted in all Greek grammars, the division, namely into conlracled and wncontracted verbs. The more correct name foi the. same division would be, verbs in which the crude form (that part in- dependent of inflection) terminates in a vowel, and those in which it ter minates in a consonant ; contraction is not the criterion, as we see in tha forms /«■(, vuU. We believe s'lch a division is preferable even for a be- ginner. One great advantage of a natural division over that w"hich is arti- ficial consists in the facility the former affords of explaining, on solid principles, those numerous irregularities which appear in every language MOODS.— TENSES. 119 CHAPTER XXXVIII. [§ 149.] There are four general modes (moods, modi) in which an action or condition expressed by a verb may We vyould even carry the division first alluded to somewhat farther. Sup pose, then, in Latin we were to assign one conjugation to those verbs in which a consonant is the characteristic, viz., the conjugation usually placed third in order, and five others to the respective vowels : 1st, a, {amati) amo ; 2dly, e, neo ; 3dly, i, audio ; 4thly, o, as in the stem no or gno, whence the perfects Tw-vi, and co-grw-vi ; and, 5thly, «, (stem ar^), as in arguo. Le' us press this system a little farther and judge of it by its results. If th« perfects of these verbs are uniform, they will be amavi, nevi, audivi, novi, arguvi. The first four are the common forms ; in the last, as the repeti tion of the same vowel was unnecessary, argui became the form in com mon use ; but the perfect was still distinguished by the older writers from the present. Thus, we have a line of Ennius {Priscian, n., 2, Krehl, p. 480), as follows : ' Annait sese meaum decemere ferro^ \X may well oe doubted whether, even in the age of Cicero, the present arguil was altogether confounded in pronunciation with the perfect of the same writ- ten form. All these perfects, too, were susceptible of contraction in some of the persons, so that we have no reason to be surprised at manvi, habui. That habtm must once have existed is sufficiently proved by the form of habeasit^ which is contracted from habeverit, exactly as caniassU from canta- verit. Contractions are always more likely to occur in long than short words. Hence neo, fieo, with a few others, retained the original form, while the longer words could afford to spare one of thei'r letters. The examination of the so-called supines would again confirm the 'simplicity of the system. To this mode of viewing the verbs it has been objected that if amat be really formed from amait, the last syllable should be long. The inference is legitimate, and, accordingly, we find in the earlier writers that such is the case. At the beginning of the De Smeciute there occurs the line, * Quce nunc te coquit, et versdt in ppctore jira* where, in the old editions, as Gravius observes, some critic, alarmed for the metre, had substituted sub pectore. The same editor gives another line, quoted by Priscian from Livius Andronicus : * Cum socios nostras mandlsset impius Cyclops,' where the long e in mandisset corresponds with the long- vowel in the other persons of the same tense. A secoiid "objection to the pro- posed division may be founded on the class of verbs fugio, aipio, fodio, &c. This objection, it might be replied, is equally applicable to every division. The true explanation is to be found in the fact that many of the Latin verbs had different forms at different periods of the language, or even at the same period in different places. That cupio was looked upon by many as of the fourth conjugation, we have the express authority of Priscian ; cupivi and cupitum are formed according to the analogy of that conjugation, and in Plautus and Lucretius we find cupis and cupiri. St. Augustin was in doubt whether to write /iigire. This is far below the age of pure Latinity. On the other hand, in the Marcian prophecy, given by Livy, it has been long perceived that the verses were originally hexame- ters. The word/uge at the end of the first line has been altered by some to fruge, to complete the metre. Perhaps it would be more correct to read fugito, the more so as the imperative in -to, from its msre solemn power (arising, probably, from its greater antiquity), is better suited to the digniMd language (if prophecy. Lastly, many of the verbs of this tenoF J 20 LATIN BRAMMAR. be represented : 1. Simply as a fact, though *he action o condition may differ in regard to its relation and to time ; this is the Indicative; 2. As an action or condition which is merely conceived by the mind, though with the same differences as the indicative, Conjunctive, or Subjunctive ; 3. As a command. Imperative; 4. Indefinitely, without defining any person by whom, or the time at whicTi, the action is performed, although the relation of the action is defined, Infinitive* [§ 150.] To these moods we may add the Participle, which is, in form, an adjective, but is more than an ad- jective by expressing, at the same time, the different rela- tions of the action or suffering, that is, whether it is still lasting or terminated. A third paiticiple, that of the fu- ture, expresses' an action which is going to be performed, or a condition which is yet to come. The Gerund, which is in form like the neuter of the participle passive in dus, supplies by its cases the place of the infinitive present ac- tive. The two Supines are cases of verbal substantives, and likewise serve in certain connexions (which are ex- plained in the syntax) to supply the cases for the infini- tive.t When an action or condition is to be expressed as a definite and individual fact, either in the indicative or sub- junctive, we must know whether it belongs to the past, the present, or the future, or, in one word, its time, and time is expressed in a verb by its Tenses. We must far- ther know its position in the series of actions with which it is connected, that is, the relation of the action, viz., whether it took place while another was going on, or whether it was terminated before another began. If we nation ; as, morior, orior, fodio, &c., are generally allowed to partake of both conjugations." (Journal of Edncationf vol. i., p. 99, seq. Consult, also, AUen't Analysis of Latin Verbs, London, 1836.)] — Am. Ed. * [" The Latin language has two active infinitives : the one termina- ting in -re or -«e [dic-e-re, dic-si-S'se, esse) ; the other in -turn {dic-tum), which in the modern grammars is absurdly enough called the supine in ■urn. In the passive voice -er is subjoined to the former infinitive ; thus, from videre we have videri-er ; this full form, however, is generally con- tracted by the omission either of the active termination -re, as in dici-er, or of the last syllable -er, as in videri ; or of both at once, as in did. The latter infinitive is written -(« (dic-tu). Modern grammars call it the su- pine in -u. The Sanscrit infinitive is perfectly analogous to the Latin in- finitive ill -turn. Thus, the root fru (Greek k7^>-), ' to hear,' makes fro-tvm, ' to hear,' " &c. (Donaldson, New Cratyhs, p. 492.)} — Am. Ed. t [Consult previous note, as regards the true character if 'he Lttin »o-called Supine.]— Am. Ed. NUMBERS. PERSONS. 121 connect these considerations, we shall obtain the follow- ing six tenses of the verb : I An action not terminated in the present time ; I write, scribo : P'esent tense. J An action not terminated in the past lime; I wrote, smbebam: Imperfect \ tense. I An action not terminated in the future ; I shall write, scribam : Future ^, tense. 'An action terminated in the present time; I have written, scnpsi: Per- fect tense. An action terminated in the past time ; I hs.d written, scripseram : Plu perfect tense. An action terminated in the future ; I shall have written, scripaero : Fu- ture perfect tense. The same number of tenses occurs in the passive voice, but those which express the terminated state of an action, can be formed only by circumlocution, with the partici- ple and the auxiliary verb esse : scribor, scribebar, scribar, scripius sum, gcriptus eram, scriptus ero. The subjunctive has no futm-e tenses : respecting the manner in which their place is supplied, see § 496. The infinitive by it- self does not express time, but only the relation of an action, that is, whether it is completed or not completed. By circumlocution we obtain, also, an infinitive for an action, or a sufiering which is yet to come. CHAPTER XXXIX. N tl M B E K S . V E R S O N S . [^ 151.] The Latin verb has two numbers, singular and plural, and in each number three persons. These three persons, /, the one speaking, thou, the one spoken to, and lie or she, the one spoken of, are not expressed in Latin by special words, but are implied in the forms of the verb itself The same is the case in the plural with we, you, they, and these personal pronouns are added to the verb only when the person is to be indicated in an emphatic manner. The following is a general scheme of the changes in termination, according to the persons, both in the indica- tive and subjunctive : In the Active. Person: 1. 2. 3. Sing. — s, t. Plur. mus, tis, nt. L 122 LATIN 6EAMMAR. The termination of the first person singular cannot be stated in a simple or general way, since it sometimes ends in o, sometimes in m, and sometimes in i (see the follow ing chapter). In the seconi person singular the perfect indicative forms an exception, for it ends in ti. Respect- ing the vowel which precedes these terminations, nothing general can be said, except that it is a in the imperfect and pluperfect indicative. In the Passive. Person: 1. 2. 3. Sing. r. ris, tur. Plur. mur, mini, ntur. This, however, does not apply to those tenses of the passive which are formed by a combination of the parti- ciple with a tense of the verb esse. The imperative in the active and passive has two forms, viz., for that which is to be done at once, and for that which is to be done in future, or an imperative present and an imperative future. Neither of them has a first person, owing to the nature of the imperative. The im- perative present has only a second person, both in the singular and plural ; the imperative future has the second and the third persons, but in the singular they have both the same form, to in the active, and tor in the passive voice. The imperative future passive, on the other hand, has no second person plural, which is supplied by the future ol the indicative, e. g., laudahimini. CHAPTER XL. FORMATION OF THE TENSES, [§ 152.] 1. There are in Latin four conjugations, dis- tinguished by the infinitive mood, which ends thus : 1. are. 2. ere. 3. ere. 4. ire. The presents indicative of these conjugations end in, 1. o, as. 2. eo, es. 3. a, is. 4. w, is. Note. — Attention must be paid to the difference of quantity iji the ternii nation of the second pnrson in the third and fourth conjugations, in order to distinguish the presents of the verbs in io, which follow the third con jugation, e. g., fodio, fugio, capio (see Chap. XLVI.), from those verb* which follow the fourth, such as audio, trudio. This difference between the long « eris, thou wilt be. ple/ulunu is used with sim. eril, he will be. )"•». eiimus, wu shall be, Futurus sim, sis, &c., I may b(i eritis, ye will be. about to be. erunt. they will be. 128 LATIN GBAMMAU. Indioativi. Sdbjto.ctivb Perfect* Sing. Fui, I have been. Sing. Fuerim, I may have been. fuisti, thou hast been. fueris, thou mayest have been fiat, he has been. fuerif, he may have been. Plur. Jmmus, we have been. Plur. fuentmus, we may have been. fuistiSf ye have been. fueritis, ye may have been. fidre^' \ "'^y ^*™ \>een. fuerinl, they may have been Ptupsrfect Sing. Fuieram, I had been. Sing. Fuissem, I should, or would have been. fueras, thou hadst been. fuitset, thou shouldst, &e. fueratf he had been. fuissetj he should, &c. P.ur. fuerdmus, we had been. Plur. fuissemus, we should, &:c. fuerdtiSf ye had been. fuissetis, ye should, &c. fuerant, they had been. fuiseenl, they should, &c. JViwrc Perfect. Sing, fuero, I shall have been. No Subjunctive. fuerit, thou wilt have been. fuerit, he vrill have been. Plur. fuenmus, we shall have been. fue/itis, ye will have been. fuerint, they will have been. Ihfebative Present, Sing. Es, be thou. +Plur. este, be ye. Future, Sing. Eslo, thou shalt be. Plur. estate, ye shall be. etto, he shall be. sunto, they shall be. Infinitive. Present, state not terminated, esse, to be. Perfect, terminated, /«isse, to have been. Future, /wfurum (am, vm) esse, or fore, to be about to be. Pakticiples. •Present, not terminated (ens), being. FmIutq, futurus, a, um, one who is about to be. Note. — The participle en? is only used as a substantive in philosophica. >anguage (see above, ^ 78, in fin.), and also in the two compounds, absens and vraesens. The compounds absum, adsum, desum., insum, intersum, obsum, praesum, subsum, supersum, have the same conjugation as sum. Prosum inserts a d when pro is followed by e ; e. g., prodes, prodest, &c.t Possum, I can (from pot, for potis, and sum), has an irregular conjugation. (See the irregular verbs, ^ 211.) The i in simus and sitis is long, and the e in eram, ero, &c., is short, as ik indicated above in the conjugation itself, and also in the compounds ; pro- simus, proderam, proderant, proderit, &c. Siem, sies, siet, sient, ^ndfuam,fuas,fuat,fuant (from the obsolete /uo),^ '^ [The Perfect has often the force of an aorist, and is to be translated accordingly. In some grammars the perfect and aorist are given separ. ately in inflection. Compare (j 500.]— jlm. Ed. t [For an explanation of this mode of translating the imperative, consult the author's remarks, ^ 583.]— Am. Ed. t [This " insertion of d," as it is commonly called, is nothing more than the bringing back of the full form of pro, which was anciently prod, and with which we may compare the Greek Trpor-l, for Trpof, it being now ad- mitted that Trpo and irpof are, in fact, one and the same word.] — Am. Ed. ^ [There is in Sanscnt the verb bhavami, from the root bhu, allied to the THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 129 »re antiquated forms for the corresponding persons of aim, and occur in the comic writers and in Lucretius. Instead of essem we hare another form for the imperfect subjunctiTej/ornn (likewise from/uo), in the sin- g. M SUBJUNCTITB. Present. Sing, ^iw^-ia™* 1 may hear. Plur. aud-idmus. aud-iatis. aud'iant. ImperfecL Sing, aud-irem, I might hear. aud-ires. aud-iret. Plur. aw2-ir«nus. aui-tre. aud-irent. Future. Perfect. Sing, awi-tvmm, I may have heard. aud-iveris. aud-iverit. Plur. aud-ivenmia. aud-iventis. aud-iverint. Pluperfect. Sing, aud-ivissenit I might liave heard aud-ivisses. avd-ivisaet. Plur. aud-ivisshmts. aud-ivisMetiM. aud-ivisseTU. 134 LATIN GRAMMAR. Imperative. Present, Sing, aud-i^ hear thou. Plur. avd-ite, hear ye. Future, Sing, oud-ito, thou shalt hear. Plur. aud-itole, ye shall hear. aud-ito, he shall hear. aud-iuntOf they shall hear Infinitive. Pres. and Imperf., aud-ire, to hear. Perf. and Piuperf., aud-ivUse, to have heard. Future, aud-itwrum else, to be about to hear. Gerund. Gen. aud-imdi ; Dat. aud-iendo ; Ace. aud-iendum ; AbL aud-iendo. Supine. avd-ttum; aud-^tu. Participles. Pres. and Imperf., aud-iens, hearing. Future, aud-ilunie, about to hear. tt 158.] II. PASSIVE VOICE. First Conjugation. Indicative. Subjunctive. PreseTit. Sing. Am-or, I am loved. Sing. Am-er, I may be loved. am-aris (e). am-eris (e). am-atur, a'm-etuT. Plur. am-amur. Plnr. am-emur. am-amini. am-emini. am-antur. am-entur. Imperfect, Sing, am-abar, I was loved. Sing, am-arer, I might be loved. am-abdris (e). am-areris (e). am-abatur. am-aretur. Plur. am-abamur. Plur. am-aremur. am-abamini, am-aremini. am-abantur. am-arentur. Future, Sing, am-abor, I shall be loved. am-aberis (e), arn'Ohitur. Plur. ani-a6imur. am-a6immi. am-a&U7t2ur. Perfect. Sing, ont-attu (a, um) turn, I have Sing, am-atiu (a, um) sim, I may have been loved. been loved. am-afiM es, am-dha sis. am-atu3 est, am-dtus sit, Plur. am-ati (oe, o) sumus. Plur. am-dti {at, a) sirmis, am-ati estis, am-dti sitis. am-ati sunt, am-dti sint. Pluperfect. Bins. om-afiM (a, rt-ati (oe, o) sumus. Perfect, ver-itus (a, um) secu-tus (o, um) sum. sum. ver-iti (ae, a) su- seeU-ti {ae, a) su- mus. . mm. bland-ilus {a, um) sum bland-iti (ae, a) re- mus. S. hort-atus (a, um) eram. P. Iiort-ati {ae, a) eramus. Pluperfect. ver-itus (a, um) secu-tus (a, um) eram. eram. ver-iti {ae, o) era- secu-ti (oe, o) era- mus. mus. bland-itus {a, um*, eram. bland-iti {ae, a) era- mus. S. hort-atus (o, um) ero. V. hort-ati (ae, a) erimus. Future Perfect. ver-itus (a, um) secu-tus (a, um) ero. ero. ver-iti {at, a) eri- secu-ti {ae, a) eri- mus. mus. bland-itus {a, um) ero. bland-iti {ae, a) eri- mus. 140 LATIN GRAMMAR. 1st Conjug. S. hort-er. P. hort-emur. S. hort-drer. P. hoTt-artmur. S. kort-atus {a, um) sim. P. hort-ati {aey a) simus. S. kort-atus (a, um) essem. P. hort-ati (ae, a) 4th CoDjUff bland-iar. bland-iamur bland-irer. bland-iremut . S. 2. ?ioH-are. P. 2. hort-amini. S . 2. Aort-ator, 3. horl-atoT. P. 2. (is wanting, 3. hort-aTttor, hort-ari. hort-atum (amf um) esse. hort-aturum {am, urn) esse. Gen. hort-andi. Dat. hort-ando. Ace. hort-andum, Abl. koTt-ando. hort-atuSf a, um. W/-af uruj, Of um. hort-aiidus. a, um. B. SCBJUNCTITE. 2d Conjug. 3d Conjug Present, ver-ear. sequ-ar. ver-eamur. sequ-amur. Imperfect. ver-erer. sequ-erer. ver-eremur. sequ-eremur. Perfect. ver-itus {a, um) secu-tus (a, wn) bland-itus (a, um} sim. sim. sim. ver-iti (ac, a) si- secu-ti (ac, a) si- bland-iti (ae, o) si' mus. mus. mus. Pluperfect, ver-itus (a, um) secu-tus (a, um) bland-ittis (a, um) essem. essem. essem. ver-iti (ae, a) es- secu-ti (ae, a) es- bland-iti (ae, a) «■• 5emT«j. semus. semus. C. Imperative. Present. ver-ere. sequ-ere. ver-emini. sequ-imini. Future, ver-etor. sequ-itor. ver-etor. sequ-itor. bland-Ire. bland-imini. bland-ttor, bland-itor. but is supplied by the Future Indicative.) ver-entor. sequ-untor. bland-iuntor, D. Infinitive. Present and Imperfect, ver-eri, sequ-i. bland-iri. Perfect and Pluperfect. ver-itum{amfUm) secu-tum (amj um) bland-itum{amfW ) esse. esse. esse. Future, ver-iturum {am, secu-turum {am, bland-iturum {an um) esse. um) esse. um) esse E. Gerund. ver-endi. sequ-endi. bland-ienA ver-endo. sequ-endo. blandriendo. ver'Cndum. sequ-endum. bland-iendum. ver-endo. sequ-endo. bland-iendo. F. Participles. Present and Imperfect, ver-ens, sequ-ens. bland-iens. Perfect and Pluperfect, ver-^tus, a, um. secu-tus, a, um, bland-itus, a, um. Future. ver-iturus, a, um. secu-turus, a, um. bland-iturut, a,vm^ Future, with Passive Signification. ver-endus, d, um. sequ-endus,a,um. hland-iendus a^um REMARKS ON THE CONJUGATIONS. 141 G. Sdpine. 5 horl-atum. ver-itum. secH-tum. btand-itum. 2, kort-atu. uer-im. secu-tu. bland-ztu. Note. — The supine secutum and the participle secutns are analogous to tobuum and solulus, from solvo, in pronunciation and orthography ; for the ;.onsonant v, which is audible in the present seqwtr, is softened into the »owel u, and lengthened according to the rule mentioned above, ^ 154. In Kfuutum, as some persons write, the additional vowel u cannot be explained m any way. The same is the case with loautum, from loqwtr. (Compare .bove, ^ 5, in fin.) CHAPTER XLIII. • REMARKS ON THE CONJUGATIONS. [§ 160.] 1. In the terminations avi, evi, and ivi of the tenses expressing a completed action, viz., of the perfect and pluperfect, indicative and subjunctive, and of the fu- ture perfect, as well as of the infinitive perfect active, a syncopation takes place. faj In the first conjugation the v is dropped and the vov>rels a-i and a-e are contracted into a long a. This is the case wherever avi is followed by an s, or ave by an r; e. g., amavisti, amasti ; amavissem, amassem ; amavisse, amdsse; amaverunt, am&runt; amaverim, amarim; ama- veram, am&ram ; amavero, amtro, Sic. Both forms, the entire and the contracted one, are, on the whole, of the same value, but the latter seems to be chiefly used when the contracted vowel is followed by an s; whereas the entire form was preferred in those cases where an r fol- lows, although even in this case Livy is rather partial to die contracted form ; e. g., vindicarimus, oppugnartTnus, aecarimus, maturarimus ; in Cicero, too, it is not uncom- xnon. A contracted form of the verb juvare (adjuvare) occurs only in the more ancient language ; e. g., adjuro loT adjuvero in a verse of Ennius (ap. Cic, Cat. Maj., 1). (bj The termination evi in the second and third conju- 'jations is treated in the same manner ; e. g., neo, I spin, nevi, nesti, nestis, nerunt. Thus we often find complessem, deleram, and in the third conjugation consuerunt for con- meverunt, quiessem, decressem, decrease for decrevisse; siris, 'irit, for siveris and siverit. The termination ovi, howev- *r, is contracted only in novi, novisse, with its compounds, *nd in the compounds otmoveo, movi; e.g.,noTunt, nosse, ■■ognSram, cognCro, comm6ssem. (c) In the fourth conjugation ivi is frequently contract- ed before */ Jience, instead of audivisae, audivisti, audivis- i42 LATIN GRAMMAR. tern, we find audhse, aiedisti, aadissem, and in the time of Quintilian the latter forms must have been more common- ly used than the others. But there is another form of the tenses expressing a completed action, which arises fi-om simply throwing out the v : audii, audiissem, audieram, audiero. But it must be observed that those forms in which two I's meet are not used at all in good prose (as in Cicero), except in the compounds of the verb Ire (see § ^5), and are found only here and there in poetry, as in Virgil : audiit, mugiit, muniit, especially when the word would not otherwise suit the dactylic hexameter; as, for example, oppetii, impediit. In those forms, on the other hand, where i and e meet, the v is frequently thrown out even in good prose ; e. g., audierunt, desierunt, definie ram, quaesieram. Note. — A contraction occurs in the perfect of the first, second, and ' fourth conjugations when a < or m follows ; the forms of the perfect then become externally like those of the present tense, and can be distin- guished only in some cases by the length of the vowel. This contraction occurs only in poetry, but not very commonly. Some grammarians have denied it altogether, and have endeavoured to explain such passages by supposing that they contain an enalla^e, that is, an interchange of tenses ; but such a supposition involves still greater difficulties. Friscian, in several passages, mentions the contracted forms fumdt, audit, cupit, for fumavit, audivit, cwpivit, as of common occurrence, which at least supi.ort9, in general, the view of the ancient grammarians, although it does not ren- der an examination of the particular passages superfluous. We shall pass over the less decisive passages ; but it for iit is undeniable in petit (in Virg., Aen., ix., 9) ; desit (in Martial, iii., 75, 1 ; and x., 86, 4) ; ahit, obit, and peril (in Juvenal, vi., 128, 559, 295, 563, and x., 118). We accordingly considei that quum edormit, in Horace (Sena., ii., 3, 61), is likewise a perfect. In the first and second conjugations there are some instances which cannot be denied. To view donat in Horace (Serm., i., 2, 56) as a present would be exceedingly forced ; but if we consider it as a contracted perfect, it quite agrees with the construction. Compare Terent., Adelph., iii., 3, lO: wnnem rem modo seni quo pacta habere enar ramus ordine ; Propert., ii., 7,2, f I emus uterque diu ne nos divideret. Lastly, the first person in ii is found contracted into i: Persius, iii., 97, sepeli: Seneca, Here. Oet., 48, redi. Claudian, in Rufin., ii., 387, ujide redi nescis. 2. Another syncopation, which frequently occurs in early Latin, and is made use of even in the later poetical language of Virgil and Horace, consists in the throwing out of the syllable is in the perfect and pluperfect of the third conjugation after an s or an x; e. g., evasti, tt)r eva- sisti; dixti, for dixisti; divisse, for divisisse , admisse, for admisisse ; is), too, is rejected in forms like surrexe, for surrexisse; conswmpse, tor consumpsisse ; &o, also, abstraxe, for abstraxisse; abscessem, for abscessissem ; erepsemus, for eiepsissemus, and others. [§ 161.] 3. The forms of the future perfect and of tha KEMABKS ON THE CONJUGATIONS. 14ist.,iy., 15. So, also, the compound adjivo, adjUvi, adjutum, in the participle adju turus (Liv., ixxiv., 37), and adjuvalurus, in Petron., 18. Frequentative, adjUto. Lavo, lavi, lavatum, lautum, latum, lavare, wash, or bathe, which is properly lavari. The infinitive lavere, whence the perfect lavi seems to come, is pre served in old Latin, and is found in poetry, e. g., Hor.; Carm., iii., 12, init., mala vino lavere, Neco, kill, is regular ; but from it are formed, with the same meaning, eneco, avi, atum, and enecui, enectum, both of which forms are equally well established, but the participle is usually eneetus ; interneco has inter- necatus. From Plico, fold, are formed appltco, avi, atum, and ui, ttum ; so explico, avi, atum, unfold, explain ; implico, implicate. Cicero regularly uses applicavi and expli- cavi ; otherwise usage, on the whole, decides in favour of the perfect ui and the supine atum. But those de- rived froni nouns in plex form the perf. and sup. regu- larly : supplico, duplico, m.ultiplico. Of replico, whose perfect replicavi occurs in the Vulgate, replicatus only is in use (replictus is an isolated form in Statins,- Silv., iv., 9, 29). Poto, drink, is regular, except that the supine usually, in- stead oi potatum, is potum, whence potus, which is both active and passive, having been drunk, and having drunk. Compounds, appotus, active ; and epotus, pass- ive. Do, dedi, 'datum, dare, give. Circumdo, surround ; pessundo, ruin ; satisdo, give security ; venundo, sell, are formed like do. The other compounds, addo, condo, reddo, be- long to the third conjugation. (See Chap. XLVU.) From a second form duo, we find in early Latin the subjunctive duim, duis, duit, also in the compounds credo and perdo — creduam and creduim, perduim. Cic, p. Reg, Deiot.,'1 : di ie perduint. See ^ 1G2. to, steti, statum, stare, stand. The compounds have Hi in the perfect ; e. g., conslo, to consist of; ex- f (0, exist, or am visible ; insto, insist ; obsto, hinder ; persto, persevere ; uraesto, surpass ; rgsto, remain over and above. Only those compound- sd Vt'.th a preposition of two syllables retain eft' in the perfect, viz., an- •Mi«, v'rcum'lo, interi » \ ••lO'ver it is found it is Ctum. The supine praesMum rf SECOND CONJUGATION. 15J praesto is certain in late authors only, whereas praestaturus is frequent. Of disto, the perfect and supine are wanting. The active verbs juro and coeno have a participle with a passive form, but an active signification : jtiratws (with the compounds conjuratus and injuratusj, one who has sworn ; and coenatus, one who has dined. From the anal- ogy of conjuratus, the same active signification was after- ward given to conspiratus, one who has formed a conspir- acy or joined a conspiracy. CHAPTER XLV. SECOND CONJUGATION. [§ 172.] The irregulai-ity of verbs of the second conju gation consists partly in their betng defective in their forms, and partly in their forming the perfect and su- pine, or one of them, like verbs of the third conjugatiow. With regard to the first irregularity, there are a great many verbs in this conjugation which have no supine, that is, which not only have no participle perfect passive (whi.ch cannot be a matter of surprise, since their mean- ing does not admit of it), but also no participle future ac- tive. (See § 153.) The regular form of the perfect is ui, and of the supine itum ; but it must be observed, at the same time, that some verbs throw out the short i in the su- pine ; and all verbs which in the present have a v before eo undergo a sort of contraction, since, e. g., we find cavi, cautum, instead of cavui, cavitum, firom cavco ; but this can scarcely be considered as an irregularity, since v and u was only one letter with the Romans. Respecting the lengthening of the vowel in dissyllabic perfects, see § 18. We shall subjoin a list of the regular verbs of this con- jugation as exercises for the beginner, confining ourselves to the form of the present. CaUo, am warm. Inchoat. catesco. Caret), am without. Dibeo, owe. DoUo, feel pain. Habeo, have. Compounds : adhibeo, cahiben, &c., a being changed into i. JaceOf lie. Liceo, am to be sold. Not to be confounded with the impersonal licet, it is permitted. See Chap. LX. Mereo, merit. Moneo, admonish. NSceo, injure. Pareo, obey (appear). Compound : appdreo, appear Placeo, please. Praebeo, ofier, afford. TSceo, am silent. The partic. tadlm, is commonly an adjective. Terreo, terrify. Valeo, am well 152 LATIN GRAMMAR. To these regular verbs we may first add those o* which we spoke shortly before, viz. : [§ 173.] (a) Those which make the Perfect in vi instead of vui. Caveo, cavi, cautum, cavere, take care. Praecaveo, take precaution. Conniveo, nivi, or nixi (neither very commoa), no supine; close the eyes. Faveo,fdvi,fautuin, am favourable. Fovea, fdviffotum, cherish. Moveo, movi, motum, niove. Commoveo and permoveo strengthen the meaning ; amoveo and svbtno veo, remove ; adrtioveift bring to ; promoveo, bring forward ; removeo, bring back, or remove. Paveo, jiavi (no supine), dread. Hence the compound inchoat. expavesco, expavi, is more commonly used, especially in the perfect. Voveo, vovi, votum, vow ; devoveo, devote with impreca- tion. FerveOjfirvi, axidjerhui (no supine), glow, am hot. Fervit,fervat, fervere, after the third (comp. Virg., Georg., i., 455, witli^ Quintil., i., 6, 7), is an archaism. The inchoatives of the third conju- gation, effervesco. refmtesco, have the perfect m vi and bui (vi is more fre quent in Cicero) ; in con/ervesco, bui alone is known. [§ 174.] (b) Those which make the Perfect in evi in- stead, ofvS.. Deleo, delevi, deletum,, extinguish, destroy. Fleo, Jlevi, jletum, weep. Neo, nevi, netum, spin. (From Pleo),compleo,complevi,completum, fill up; expleo, implex). From oleo, grow, we have the compounds, aholeo, abol- ish ; abolesco, cease ; adoleo, adolesco, grow up ; exoleo or exolesco, and ohsoleo or obsolesco, grow obsolete ; all of which have evi in the perfect ; but the supine of ab- oleo is abolittim, of adolesco, adultum, and the rest have etum : exoletum, obsqletum. Besides abolitum, howev- er, there exist only the adjectives acZato*, exoletus, ob- to' [§ 175.] (c) Those which throw out the short i in the Supine. Doceo, docui, docttfrn, teach. Compounds : edoceo and perdoceo, strengthen the meaning j deAi- . teach otherwise. SECOND CONJUGATION. 153 2^60, tenui ftentum, rare), hold, keep. AbstineOf abstain ; attineo, keep occupied by or at a thing ; contineo keep together ; detineo, keep back ; distineo, keep asunder j retineoy re- tain ; sustineo, keep upright. All these have in the supine IcTitum. Per. tinco, belong to, has no supine. Misceo, miscui, mixtum or mistum, mix. Mixtum is better attested by MSS. than mislum. Compounds are, ad- misceOj commisceo, immisceOf permisceo. Torreo, torrui, tostum, roast. To these we may add, Censeo, censui, censum (participle also cenntus), estimate, believe. Percmseo, enumerate, without supine. Of accmseo, reckon with, we find accensus ; of succenseo^ am angry, succen-^unis ; and recenseo^ examine, makes both recensum and recmsitum, the latter of which is, perhaps, bet- ter attested. [§ 176.] fdj Those which make the Perfect regularly in ui, hut have no Supine. Arceo, arcui, arcere, keep off. But the compounds coerceoy coerce ; exerceo, exercise, hare a supine in itum. Galleo, have a hard skin, am skilled in (callidusj. Candeo, shine, glow (candidus). Egeo, want. Compound, indigeo. (From Tnineo), emineo, stand forth. Floreo, flotu-ish. Frondeo, have foliage ; effrondui. Horreo, shudder, am horrified (horridvsj. Compounds : abhorreo, and a number of inchoatives; as, hmraco,fr horresco. Langueo, am languid (languidusj. hateo, am concealed. Compounds : interlateo, perlateo, sublateo, Madeo, am wet ('madidusj. Niteo, shine (nitidus). Compounds : eniteoj intemiteOj praentteo. Oleo, smell. Compounds: ahoUo and redoleo, have the smell of; suhdiB nneU A little. Palleo, am pale. Pateo, am open. Rtgeo, am stiff (rigid/us). Rubeo, am red (ruhidus). SUeo, am silent. Sorbeo, sorhui, sip. Perf. aorpai, very rs re. Compounds : aitorico and atmhtt. 154 LATIN GRAMMAR. Sordeo, am dirty (sordidusj. Splendeo, am splendid (splendidusj. Studeo, endeavour, study. Stupeo, am startled, astonisiied (stupidus). Tlmeo, fear (timidus). Torpeo, am torpid. Tumeo, swell, am swollen ftumidusj. Vtgeo, am animated. Vireo, am green, or flourish. Besides these, there is a number of similar verbs which are derived from adjectives, and occur more rarely, and chiefly in the form of inchoatives, for the Latin language has great freedom in the formation of these intransitive verbs, and in that of inchoatives either with or without 3 primary fonn. Compare Chap. LII. The following are really irregular verbs, and follow the analogy of the third conjugation : [§ 177.] 1. Verbs which make the "Perfect in si and the Supine in sum. Ardeo, arsi, arsum, ardere, bum. Haereo, haesi,haesum, cleave. Compounds ; adhaereOj cohaereOf inhaereo. Juheo, jussi, jussum, command. Maneo, mansi, mansum, remain. (But mono, as, flow.) Pfirmaneo {permanes), wait ; remaneOj remain behind. Mulceo, tnulsi, mulsvm, stroke, caress. The compounds aemulceo and permutceo strengthen the meaning. The participle permutsus is certain, but demulctus and permulctus like wise occur. Mulgeo, mulsi, mulsum, milk. Participle comp. emuUus. The derivative nouns mulctus, Us, the milk ing, mulctra, and mulctrale, show that formerly mulctum also existed. Rideo, risi, risum, laugh. Compounds: arrideo (arrlda), smile upon or please : derideo and irri- deo, laugh at, scorn ; subrideo, smile. Suadeo, suasi, suasum, advise. Dissjiadeo, dissuade ; persuadeo, persuade ; but, like suadeo, with the dative. Tergeo, tersi, tersum, tergere, wipe ; is used also as a verb of the' third conjugation : tergo, tersi, tersum, tergere. Cicero uses tergo more frequently as a verb of the third conjugation, whereas the compounds abstergeo, deterged, extergeo, incline more towards the second (abstergebo, Cic, ad Q. Frat., ii., 10), although in these com pounds, too, the forms of the third .are not uncommon. Of denseo, the ancient and poetical form for denso, den tare condense (see Bentley on Hrrace, Carm., i., 28, 19), SECOND CONJUGATION. 155 the perfect densi is mentioned by the grammarians, and the existence of a supine is attested by the adjective dcn- sus. [§ 178.] 2. Verbs which make the Perfect in si, but have no Supine. Algea, aid, algere, shiver with cold. The supine is wanting, but from it is derived the adjective alstu, a, um, cold. Fulgeo,fulsi,f%lgere, shine, am bright. (Fulgere is poet- ical.) Turgeo, tursi (rare), swell. Urgeo or urgueo, ursi, press. 3. Verbs with the Perfect in si and the Supine in turn. Indulgeo; indulsi, indultum, indulge. Torqueo, torsi, tortum, twist. Compounds : conlorqueo, twist together ; distorqueo, twist away; extor- queo, wrest out or from. 4. Verbs with the Perfect in xi and the Supine in. tiun. Augeo, auxi, auctum, increase. Luceo, luxi, litcere, shine ; has no supine. Jjugeo, luxi, lugere, mourn ; has no supine. Frigeo,frixi, frigere, am cold; has no supine. [§ 179.] 5. Verbs with the Perfect in i and the Supine in sum. Prandeo, prandi, pransum, dine. The participle pransu* has an active signification : one who has dined. Sedeo, sedi, sessum, sit. Assideo (^assides)^ sit by ; desideo, sit down ; circumsedeo or circumsideo, surround ; imidea, sit upon ; swpersedeo, do without ; possideo, possess ; dissideo, dissent ; praesideo, preside ; resideo, settle down. The last three have no supine. Video, vidi, visum, see. Jnvideo {invides)^ envy, aliciu ; pervideo, see through ; praevideo, fore- see ; provideo, provide. Strldeo, stridi, without supine. In poetry stridere. 6. Verbs with a Reduplication in the Perfect. Mordeo, momordi, morsum, bite. Pendeo, pependi, penaum, am suspended. DepeTideo, depend, and impendeo, soar above, am impending, lose the reduplication. Spondeo, spospondi, sponsum, vow. .Despondeo, despondi, promise ; rpxpondeo, respondif answer, aie Uko* wise \vi.fhout thp re.lupliraMon. ' 156 LATIN GKAMMAK. Tondeo, totondi, lonsum, shear. The compounds lose the redupUcalion ; as, altmdeo, detmdtm [§ 180.] 7. Verhs witlwut Perfect and Supine. Aveo, desire. Compare Chap. LIX., 9. Calveo, am bald (calvus). Cdneo, am gray (canus). Clueo (also in the passive clueor, and after the third con- jugation, duo, cluere), am called, is obsolete. Flaveo, am yellow (fiavus). Foeteo, stink (foetidus). Hebeo, am dull, stupid (Tiebes). Humeo, am damp (humidus). Llveo, am pale oi envious (lividus). (Mineo) immineo, to be imminent, threatening. Promt- neo, am prominent. Maereo, mourn (maestus). Polleo, am strong. Rentdeo, shine, smile. Scdteo, gush forth (Scatere in Lucretius). Squaleo, am dirty (squalidus). Vegeo, am gay fvegetitsj. Cieo, ciere, is the same word as the rare and obsolete cio, cire, stir up ; both make the perfect clvi, according to the fourth conjugation; in the supine they differ in quantity, cieo making citum, and do, dtum. Note. — In the compounds, too, e. g., concieo, excieo, the forms of the sec- ond and fourth conjugation cannot be separated ; bat we must observe that, in the signification of " to call," the forms of the fourth are preferred, - e. g., imperf. cibanij cirem ; infinit. ciri ; the participles concftus and excitus signify " excited ;" whereas exdtus means " called out." Percieo and in- cieo retain the signification of " to excite," hence vercUus and incUus; but accire, to call towards, summon or invite (of which the present indicative does not occur), has only acdtus. Derived from ctlxim are : dto, quick ; the frequentative citare, and hence excito, inctto, and susclto. [§ 181.] 8. Semideponents. (See above, § 148.) Audeo, ausus sum, venture. (Partic. future auswrus.) The ancient future subjunctive (see ^ 162) ausim, ausis, ausit, atuinl, is a remnant of the obsolete perfect ausi. The participle ausus and its compound inausus are used in poetical language with a passive signifi cation. Gaudeo, gavlsus sum, rejoice. (Partic. fut. gavisurus.) Soleo, solitus sum, am accustomed (to do something). The impersonal compound assolet signifies " it usually happens.* THIRD CONJUGATION. 157 CHAPTER XL VI. THinD CONJUGAT ON. In the list of verbs of this conjugation it seems to be Btill more necessary than in the preceding one to include those verbs vsrhich, according to Chapter XL., form their perfect and supine regularly. We divide them into sev eral classes according to the characteristic letter which precedes the o in the present, agreeably to the method which has long since been adopted in Greek grammars. f§ 182.] 1. Verbs which have a Vowel before o, including those in vo. The following have the Perfect and Supine regular : Acuo, acui, acutum, sharpen. ExacxM and peractto, strengthen the meaning ; praeanut, sharpen at the end. Argtio, accuse, convict of (perf. passive in the latter sense usually convictus, from convincere). Argutus, as an ad- jective, signifies "clear." Coarguo, the same ; redarguoy refute a charge. Tmbuo, to dip, imbue. Tnduo, put on ; exuo, strip off. "Lug (participle luiturus), pay, atone for. Abhw and eluo, wash oflf ; polliio, defile ; diluo, refute, are deriveo aom another ltu> (lavo), and all make the supine in lutum. Minuo, lessen. ComminuOj deminuOj dimmuOj imminuOj strengthen the meaning. ^Nzto, nod, does not occur ; from it are formed) Abnuo, refuse ; anmio^ assent ; inmto, allude, or refer to j renuOf de- cline ; all of which have no supine ; abnuo alone has a participle fu- ture, abrndtunis, Ruo (supine ruitum, ruiturus, at least is derived from it : rutum occurs only in compounds, mid is otherwise ob- solete), fall. DiruOf dirjit, dirHtum, destroy j obruOf overwhelm ; pronto^ rush for ward. Conuo, fall down ; and irruo, rush on, have no supine, Spuo, spit. Compuo, spit on ; dctpao, reject with disgust. Staiuo, establish. Ctmstituo and instituOf institute ; resti:uo, re-establish stthsiiluOy c« tablish instead of ; dntituo, abandon. o 158 LATIN GRAMMAR. Stermio, sneeze (without supine) ; the frequentative *<»•' nuto is more commonly used. Stto, sew. Consvo, sew together ; dissuo and resuo, unsew. 7H5«w, allot to. Attribuo, the same ; distribuo, divide ; conlTibuo, contribute Solvo, solvi, solutum, loosen. Absoho, acquit ; dissolvo, dissolve ; exsolvo, release ; persolvo, pay Volvo, roll (frequentative volutoj. volvp, unroll ; involm, roll up ; pervolvo, read through. The following are without a Supine : tJongruo, congrui, agree, and ingruo, penetrate. The sim- ple verb (gruo or ruo 1) does not exist. Metno, metui, fear, f Timeo, likewise without supine.) So Priscian. But metutum occurs in Lucret., v., 1139. Pluo, pluvi, usually impersonal, it rains. Priscian know; only the perfect plui, which often occurs in Livy. Cha risius mentions pluxi. Impluvi or itnplui are doubtful The comp. compluo and perplva do not occur in the per feet. The following are/irregular : [§ 183.] Capio, cepi, captum, capere, take hold of. The compounds change a into ?, and in the supine a into e, except en tecapio. Accipio, receive ; excipio, receive as a guest, succeed ; recipiOf recover; suscipio^ undertake; decipio, deceive ;, percipio, comprehend' praecipio, give a precept. Facio, feci, factum, do, make. Arefacioj dry up ; assuefacio and consue/acio^ accustom ; calefacio and tepefacio, warm ; frigefacio, cool ; labefacio, make to totter ; patefacio, open ; satisfacio, satisfy. These have, in the passive, ~Jio, -foetus sum, ■fieri. But those which change a into f form their own passive in -Jicior, and make the supine in "fectrnn: afficio, affect ; conficio and perficio, com- plete ; deficiOf fall off, am wanting ; interfUio, kill ; proficio-f make prog* ress ; reficio, revive, repair ; officio, stand in the way, injure. Confit, confieri, however, is used as a passive of conficio, but only in the third person, and not by Cicero. Seftt, it is wanting, is common in the comic writers. Other compounds of facio follow the first conjugation : amplifico, sac- rifico, and the deponents gratificor, ludificor. Jacio, jeci, jactum, throw. The compounds change a into i, and in the supine into e, except ju- perjacio, of which, however, superjectum also is found. Abjicio, throw away; oif/icto, a^d; de/icio, throw down ; c/icio, throw out ; in;icio, throw in; objicio, throw against; re/icj'o, throw back ; transjicio or trajicio, throw or carry across. These compounds are sometimes found with i instead ofji: abicere,inicere,reicere (in the last ei is a diphthong in Virg., Eel., lii , 96 : a fluminc reice eapellas) ; and this pronunciation was with the ancients much more frequent, or, perhaps, the common one, for in MSS. it is written so almost everywhere; ana Priscian mentions a form THIRD CONJUGATION. 159 k;o as synonymous with jacio. No certain conclusion, however, can be come to, as the most ancient MSS., such as the Codex Mediceus of Vir- gil, have a simple i where the length of the preceding syllable shows the existence of the consonant j. [§ 184.] The following have x in the Perfect: (From the obsolete lacio, entice, of which lacio is the frequentative), allicio, exi, ectum, allure; illicio, entice in; pellicio,\ea,i astray; but elicio makes elicui, elidtum, dia,yi out. (From specio, xi, ctum, see, of which the frequentative is specto), aspicio, exi, ectem, look on; conspicio, the same; despicio, look down, despise ; dispicio and perspicio, un- derstand ; inspicio, look into ; respicio, look back , sits- picio, look up, reverence. FluOjiluxi, fiuctum, flow. Affluo, flow in ; confluo, flow together ; effluo, flow out ; interfiuo, flov between. Struo, struxi, striictum, build, pile. Construo and exstruo, build up ; destruo, pull down ; instruo, set 1X1 order. Vivo, vixi, victum, live. [§ 185.] Other Irregularities. Fodio,fbdi,fossum, dig. Effodio, dig out ; confodio and pcrfodio, dig, pierce through ; tuffadtt, undermine. Fugio,fugi,fugitum, flee. Aufigio and rffiigio, flee away, escape ; confugio and perfugio, take refuge. Cupio, -ivi, -itum, desire. Discupio, percupio, strengthen the meaning. Concupio only in the participle coneupiens, otherwise concupisco. Rapio, rapui, raptum, rob, snatch. Arripio, arripui, arreptum, seize ; abripio and eripio, snatch away ; daripio, plunder ; mrripio, steal clandestinely. Pario, peperi, partum, bring forth. (But the particip. fut. act. pariturus.) Lucretius has pariri. Quatio (quassi is not found), quassum, shake. Cinstd saipinsiypinsitum axiApistum {also pitisum J, povmd, grind. Vho, visi, visere, visit. The supine visum belongs to vi- dere, from which visere itself is derived. Texo, texui, textum, weave. Compounds frequently with a figurative signification: attexo, add; context), put together : ohtexo, cover ; perlexo, carry out ; praetexo, add i hem; retexo, to undolhat which is wovei^ destroy. After the Analogy of the Fourth Conjugation : Arcesso, or accerso, -ivi, -itum, summon. Both modes of writing this word are found in good MSS. and edi tions ; compare Schneider's Elementarlehre, p. 257, foil., and the quota- tions in Kritz on Sallust, Catil., 40. The infinitive passive arcessiri oc curs sometimes, as in Caes., Bell. Gall., v., 11, Oudendorp. Capesso, undertake. Facato, give trouble, especially with negotium and peri- culum, also equivalent to prq/iciscor, get off (facesseri*, in Cic, Div., in Q. Caec., 14). Incesio, attack ; no supine. Perfect, incessivi : incessi is doubtful (Tac, Hist., iii., 77), unless we refer to this root, and not to incedo, the frequently occurring phrase, cura, desperatio, &c., incessit animos. hacesso, provoke, [§ 203.] 7. Verbs in sco, either not Inchoatives,* or of which ike Simple is no longer found. Cresco, crevi, creium, grow. ' ! "**■ * [On an accurate examination of their meaning, however, such verbt ■s creeco, notco, &c., will be found to be actual inchoatives, and might u wsU have been arranged under the succeeding chapter.]— ilni. Ed. THIED CONJUGATION. 171 So, also, con-, de-j excreitco^ and without a supine, aaraco, increse* grow up, and succresco, grow up gradually. Jidsco, novi, notum, become acquainted with. TLe ori ginal form is gnosco (Greek ytyvwa/cu), and the g reap pears in the compounds, if possible. The perfect novi takes the sigmfication of the present, " I lun-w (^221); the supine is mentioned only on account of the compounds for the participle noius has become an adjective, and the participle fu ture does not occur. The comp. agnosco, recognise, cognotco (perf._ cog novi, I know), and recognosco, recognise, have, in the supine, agmtum cognllum, recogmtum ; ignosco, pardon, has ig;not\an ; digTuaco wad inter nosco have no supine. Pasco, pavi, pastum, feed. Dtpasco, feed down. The deponent pascor, feed or eat. Quiesco, quievi, quietum, rest. AcjiuMco, repose with satisfaction ; cmuptietco, reqmaco, rest. SueKO, suevi, suetum, mostly intransitive, grow accustom- ed, or, more rarely, accustom another. But sueius sig nifies " accustomed." So, also, assuescOf consuesco, insuesco, generally accustom one's self desuKsco, disaccustom one's self. Some passages where they occur ii a transitive sense (in which otherwise the compounds with facio art used, see $ 183) are referred to by Bentley on Horace, Serm., i., 4, lOl Gompesco, compescui (no supine), restrsiin. Dispesco, dispescui (no supine), divide. Disco, didici (no supine : discitums in Appuleius), leara Addisco, addidici, learn in addition ; dediseo, unlearn ; editco^ learn b] heart. Pos'M, poposci (no supine), demand. Dejpoaco, depoposcij and reposco, demand back ; exposeo, expcpoad, clial lenge. Glisco, gliscere, increase. Hitco, hiscere, open the mouth, gape. CHAPTER LII. INCHOATIVES. [§ 204.] The inchoatives (see § 234) in sco are partly formed from verbs (chiefly of the second conjugation*), and partly from nouns (substantives or adjectives), and are accordingly called inchoativa verbalia, or inchoativa nomtnalia, that is, verbal or nominal inchoatives. The first have no other perfect than that of the simple verb ; * According to a passage in Gellius, vi., 15, they were probably pro. Bonnced with a naturally long < ; as. calitco, palletco. 172 LATIN GRAMMAR. the Others either have none, or form it in a similar way. in ui. Few of the verbal inchoatives have the supine of the Bimple verb. Only those which are of most frequent occurrence are given in the following list. There are a great many more, but their formation is easy and analogous. Thus we may form inchoatives to the intransitive verbs in Chap. XL v., if there is any occasion for it, and we may be assured that it occurs in some passage or other of the ancients. 1. Verial Inchoatives with the Perfect of the Simple Verh. Acesco {aceo)j acui, grow sour ; coaceseOf peraeesco. Albtsco and exalbesca (atbeo)f exalbuit grow white. Aresco {areo)^ ami, grow dry. Calaco (caleo), caba, become warm. • Canesco {canxo), caniti, become gray. Conticetco ((occo), amtiaii, am reduced to silence. Contremisco {tremo), contremui, tremble. Defervesco (Jmieo), drferbvi, gradually lose my heat. Dditnco (latm), delitui, lurk. Effervesco {ferveo), ifferbui, grow hot. Excayuieseo {candeo), excandm, grow of a white heat; figuratively, am enraged. ExtimescOf pertimesco (timeo), extimuif am terrified. FlorescOf de-, effloresco (Jioreo), effiorui, bloom. HMreseo, and ad-, inhaeresco (haereo), ad; tnAoesi, adhere to. Horresco, exhorresco, perhorresco {horreo), exhorruij am struck with ilorrOT. Xngemiaco {gemo), ingeTnui, groan. IntuTnesco (lumeo), irUuTnui, swell up. Irraueisco {raucio), irrausi, become hoarse. Languesco, elanguesco, retanguesco (Jangneo), elangui, become feeble. Li^fuescQ (/tjueo), licui, melt away. Madesco (inadeo), madia, become wet. Marcesco {mareeo), comp. commarcescOf emarcesco, emarcw, fade. OccalUsat {calko), occaibti, acquire a callous surface. Paltesco, expallesco {palUo), paUui, turn pale. Putreseo {putreo), putrui, moulder. Resipisco («ap£o), resipui and resipivi, recover wisdom. Rubeseo, trubesco (niAm), grow red, blush. SenescOj amsenesco (seTieo), constmd, grow old. The participle «eneehM^ grown old, is little used. Stupesco and obttupesco (stupeo), obstupui, am struck. Tttbeaco (tabeo), taimi, pine, wa^te away. Tepesco {tepeo), tepui, grow lukewarm. Viraco, comp. conviresco, eviresco, revireseo (virw), vtrwi, grow green. 2. Verbal Inchoatives which have the Sitpine as well at Perfect of the Simple Verb. JAbolesco, aholevi, abolUum, cease am annihilated. Exolaco, txolevi, exolitum, grow useless by age. So, llso, cttolwc*, Adolaco, adolevi, adultum, grow up. See (j 174, Olto. Caaleseo (alere), coo/ui, coaRtum, grow together. Concupiseo (eupere), concupivi, concupitum, desire. Omnd ltKo (voirre), coHvatui, canvaRtum, recover health. FOURTH CONJUGATION 17J Esardtsco {arc&Tt\ exarsif exarsum^ am inflamed. Indolesco (dolere)^ indolui^ ttum, feel pain. Invelerasco {inveterare), mveteravi, alum, grow old. Obdomisco {dormire), hi, itum, fall asleep ; edormisco, sleep out. Revivisco (vtucre), revixi, revictum, recover life. Sdsco, \sdre), acivi, icilum, resolve, decree. Hence plebUatum,peptilutihm [§205.] 3. Inchoatives derived from Nnr. (a) Without a Perfect. jLegrtsm (atgef), grovT sick. Sitnco (diva), grow rich. Dulcesco {dttlcis), grow sweet. Grandesco {grandis), grow large. Gravesco and ingravesco (gravis), grow heavy. Incttrvesco (curvus), become crooked. Integrasco (integer), become renovated. Jwvenesco (juvenis), grow young. Mitesco l.7nitis), grow mild. MoUesco (mollis), grow soft. Pinguesco (pinguis), grow fat. Plumesco (pluma), get feathers. Puerasco, reputrasco (puer), become a child (again). Sterilesco (sterilis), become barren. Teneresco, tenerasco (tmer), become tender. CbJ With a Perfect. Crebresco, increbresco, and percrebresco (creber), crebrui, grow freqaeci^ CT W» rent. Duresco, cbduresco (dunis), durui, grow hard. Evanesco (vanus), evanui, disappear. Innotesco (noftw), innotui, become known. Macresco (macer), macrvi, grow lean. Mansuesco (mansuettts), mansuevi, grow tame. Maturesco (matums), maturui, grow ripe. Nigresco (niger), nigrui, grow black. Obmittesco l^mutus), obmutui, become dumb. Obsurdesco (surdus), obsurdui, become deaf. Recrudesco (crtidus), recrudui, to open again (of a wound that iad bem closed). Vilesco and nilesco (vilis), evilui, become cheap or worthless. CHAPTER LIII. FOURTH CONJUGATION. [§ 206.] The desiderative verbs (see § 232) in urio, e. g., coenaturio, dormiturio, empturio, have neither per- fect nor supine, with the exception of es«rio, desire to eat, perfect esurivi, participle esuriturus ; nupturio, desire ti. marry, and parturio, am in labour, have only perfects, nuptwrivi and parturivi, but no supine. The following verbs vary, either in the perfect or in the supine, or in both, from the regular form fivi, Itum ). P2 174 LATIN GEAMMAR. do, civi, dtum, regular; but see § 180. Eo, ivi, ttum, with its compounds. See Defective Verbs, § 215. Farcio,fard,fartum (also \mX.te-Dfarctum),farcire,t,lu^. The supine _/Br««»t is more rare, and not as good. Cmferao and refercio, fersi, fertum, fill up ; efferdo, infercio, are UASja gated like the simple verb. Fulcio,Jklsi,Jultum,Jitlcire, prop. The perfect thus presents no external difference from the perfect of fulgeo. Haurio, hatisi, haustum, Tiaurire, draw. The supine Aaiuum is rare, but the participle hauaums is as commoD as hausiuTua. Queo, quivi or quii, quitum, quire. See § 216. Raticio, raud, rausum, raucire, am hoarse (raucusj. The compound irrausmt, in Cic, de Oral., i., 61. See (j .204, Saepio, saepsi, saeptum, saepire (some write sepio), hedge in. Salio, salui, more rarely salii (saltum), salire, spring. In the comp. desUio, exilio, insilio, &c., the perf. -silui is far better than the forms in silii and salivi, and must be restored in the authors of the best age from the MSS. See Drakenb. on LiT.,ii., 10, and Schwarzon Pliny, Paneg., 66. The supine does not exist either in the sunple verb or in the compounds, though the derivatives taltut. Us, desidtor, mndtare, lead us to a form saltum, and in compounds suhuTn. Th.fl r'^-h' "Tb satire, salt, must not be confounded with salire, spring.- The former is synonymous with the obsolete salire or sallere, from which salsus is de nved. Sancio, sttnxi, sancitwn and sandum, sancire, decree, sane tion. Sanctus is found as a participle, though it is com- monly an adjective, but sandtus is more common. Sarcio, sarsi, sartum, sarcire, patch. Resarcii, repair. Sentio, sensi, sensum, sentire, feel, think. CoTisentio, agree ; dissentio, disagree ; praesentio, perceive beforehand. The compound assentio is not as common as the deponent assentior, but is founded on good authority, e. g., Cic., ad Att., ix., 9, assmtio : ad Fam., T., 2, assensi ; and three other instances of the perfect, which are quotediiy Btinemann on Lactant, L, 15, 19. Sepelio, -ivi, sejmltum, sepelire, bury. Venio, veni, ventum, venire, come. Advenio, arrive ; convenio, meet ; obvenio, encouj2f.9i j<^'^^-r {awspex), I practise sooth- Despicor, despise ; despido, but dapi Hanator (hanalus), f saying. catus is passive, despised. VatidnoT (vata), I Deversor, lodge. * The words to which an asterisk is prefixed are used also as actives but better as deponents. Some deponents have been omitted in the list' which are either of very rare occurrence or more commonly used as ac- tives. Respecting the latter, see the note at the end. t [The Latin deponents are in fact middle verbs, the active voices of which have passed out of use. Many of these old actives may be found in the fragments of the early writers ; as, for example, Ennius. What are called common verbs are, in fact, nothing more than verbs which have the middle and passip» loice, each more or less in use but have lost th« »ctive.]— jlm. Ed 176 LATIN GRAMMAB. J)igladior, fight. Dignar, think worthy. Cicero, how- ever, sometimes uses it in a pass- ive sense, "I am thought wor thy." Dedignor, disdain. DominoT, rule {dmninus). ElucibTor, produce by dint of labour. EputoTj feast. ExecroTj execrate. *FabncoT^ fashion. FabutoTy confatnUor, talk. Favattori serve {famubis). Ftneror, lend at interest (the active, " to restore With interest," occurs in Terence ; in later writers it is the same as the deponent). Fmar, keep holyday. Frustrur, disappoint. Furor, suffia-or, steal. GlorioTj boast. Graecor, live in the Greek style, that is, luxuriously. Grassor^ advance, attack. Gratifcor, comply with. Grator and gratUlor, give thanks, present congratulations. {GravoT, think heavy, is the passive Kii gravo.) Helluar, gluttonize (.helluo). Uortor, exhort; adhortor, exkortar, dehortor. Hospitor, am a guest {hospet), lodge. I7naginar, imagine. Imitor, imitate. IndignoT, am indignant, spurn. Infitior, deny. Instdiory plot. Interprctor, explain, am an inttrpres. Jacidor, throw, dart. Jocor, jest. LaetoTf rejoice (laetus). Jjamentory lament. Latrocinor, rob, am a latro. Ijenocinor (aticui). Hatter. Libidinor, am voluptuous. Licitor, bid at an auction. Lucror, gain. LuctoT, strive, wrestle {Muctor and reluctorj resist). *Ludifiair, ridicule. MachinoT, devise. Medicor, heal. Medilar, meditate. Mercor, buy. *Meridior, repose at noon. Metmr, measure out. Mhim- and minitor, threaten. MiroT, wonder ; demiror, the same ; admiror, admire. Miseror, commiseror, pity. Moderor, restrain, tempier. Modular, modulate. Morigeror, comply, am morigerua. Moror, delay ; trans, and intraiia. comp commoTor. *Munfror, remuneror, a/iguem aliph re, reward. Mutuor, borrow. Negotior, carry on business. JVidSlor, build a nest. Nugor, trifle. NundinoT, deal in buying and selliug Nutricor, nourish. OdoTOT, smell out. Ominior, prophesy ; abominm, aboml nate. Opernr, bestow labour on. OpinoT, think. Ogitulor, lend help. *Osdtor, yawn. Osculor, kiss. Oiior, have leisure. *Palpor, stroke, flatter. Pariisi(or,acttheparasite(pio'aii{ii(). Patrocinor, patronise. Perconlor, inquire. Pmgrinor, dwell as a stranger. Periclitor, try, in later writers, am in danger. Fkilosophor, philosophize. *Pigneror, take a pledge, bind by ■ pledge. Pigror, am idle (piger). Piscor, fish. *Poputor, lay waste. Praedor, plunder. PraestoloT, wait for, with the dat. 01 accus. (the quantity of the o is un- certain, though probably short). PraevariaiT, walk with crooked le^s, act dishonestly, as a praevaricator, that is, as a false accuser. Precor, pray ; camprecor, invoke ; da* precor, deprecate : imprecor, impre cate. Proeliar, fight a battle. Ratiocinor, reason. Recorder, remember. Refragor, oppose. Rimor, examine minutely. Rixor, wrangle. Runticor, live in the country. Scitor and sciscitor, inquire. (Scrufor, perserittor, search. Sector, the frequentative of eejim, follow ; assector, consector iTUectar Sermocinor, hold discourse Sotor, cojisblor, comfort. Spatior, expatior, walk. DEPONENT VERBS. 177 Sptculor, keep a look ou.. Vador, summon to trial. Slipular, make a tiargain ; adstipidor, Vigor and palor, wander. agree. Vetificor^ steer towards (figuratively, Stomachor^ am indignant. gain a purpose), whence it is con Swatiar, kiss. strued with the dative ; as, honon Suffragor (the contrary of refragor), mm. assent to. VtStor, skirmish with light troops. SuspicoTj suspect. Veneror, venerate. Tergiversor, shuffle. Vmor, hunt. 7'estor and teslificor, bear witness. Yaremndor, feel shame at doing. Tricor, make unreasonable difficul- Verior (properly the passive olvtrso), ties {tricas). dwell, am occupied in; auers,fers,ferl. Pres. Sing, /n-or./erm./o-hir. Plur. ferimus,fertis,ferunt. Plur. /erimur,feriimnifferuntiM iMrEEATivB. Imperative. Pres. Sing. fer. Plur. ferle. Pres. Sing. /ore. Plur. ferinuni. Fat. Sing. /trto. Plur. /ertole. Fut. Sing. /ertor. Plur. /CTuntor. ferto, ferunto. /ertor. Nate. — ^The rest is regular; imperfect, ferebam; future, /eram, -m; fti ture passive, /iirar,/«rerij (ferere),feretiir, &c ; present subjunctive./erom, ferns; passive, ferar,feraris,f eratur ; imperfect subjunctive, /errem ; pass- ive, /trrer. The compounds of fero^afferOf aniefero, eireurnfero, conferOf Aefero^ and others, have little that is remarkable. Aufen (originally atfero) makes abstuli,* ablatmn, tmferre. Suffero has no perfect or supine, for nuIuZi, sub- latum, belong to toUo. Cicero, however (iV. Z>., iii., 33), has poenat sustu- lie, but tastinui is commonly used in this sense. Differo is used only in the present tense, and those derived from it in the sense of " differ ;" distuli and dilatwn have the sense of " delay." 4. Volo, I wrill. 5. Nolo, I will not. 6. Malo, I will rather. [§ 214. Nolo is compounded of ne (for nonj and volo. The obsolete ne appears in three persons of the present in the usual form of ?um ; malo is compounded of mage (i. e., magis) and volo, properly mavolo, mavellem, con- tracted malo, •maUem, Indicative. Present. Sing. Valo. Nolo. Mala, vis. non vis. mavis, vult. non vult. mavxdt. Plur. volUmus. noWmus. rjialUmus. vultis. non vultis. mavultis. volunt. nolunt. mdlunt. * [This apparent anomaly may easily be explained by supposing the on in aufiro to bai e been originally ab, and to have been softened down in pro Dunciation before / This would be the more easy, since ab mnst hav* bad a sound approximating to av in English.] — Am. Ed, IRREGULAR VERBS. 183 8ing. volfbcarif &.C. Plur. voUbamus, &C Sing, volavtt volesy et. Plur. volemuSf etis, enf. Sing. vohU. vohastif &C. volueramt &c. volueroj u, &c. Sing, velinu veRs. velit. Plur. velimus. veRtis. velint. Sing. veUenit &c. Plur. vellemusj &c. Sing, voluerim, &c. Plur. vo/uenmtu, Acc. Sing. voZumffm, &c. Plur. voluissemiiSf &c. Sing. 2d Pers. noli. Indicjltitb. Imperfect, nolebamj 6lc. nolebamuSf dec. Future, nolanit noles, et. nolemuSf etis, ent. Perfect, nolui. notuisti, &C. Pluperfect, nolueramf &c. Future Perfect, noZuero, is, 6z;c. Subjunctive. Present. noZim. noliff. no/ic. no/ifTHu. noA/ir. no/inf. Imperfect, nollem, &c. 9io/femuf, &c. Perfect nohterimj &c no/uenmuf, &c. Pluperfect, noluissemf &C. noluissemus, &c. Imperative. Plur. nolite. Sing. 2d 3d Fres. velU. Perf. vo/uM5f . volens. volendi, volendo. Infinitive. noluisse. Participle. no/en5. Gerund. noZeiuIi. mtUebamj &C. ma/e6amiM, &c. nuilamf maleaf et. malemuSf etts, en/. malui. maluisti, &c. nutZufram^ &C. maluerOf if, &C* 9 maZtm. maHs, malit, malimus. maRtis. malirU. t/uUlemt &c. mallemuSf &e. mafuerim, &c. maluenmus, dcc. maluMsem, &c. maluissemuSf &c. Fu(wre. Pers. RoZtto. Plur. nolitots. Pers. nofito, noZunIo, malle. mahiisMt, 7. ^0, 1 go. [§ 215.] The verb eo, tvi, %tum, ire, ia for the most part f>rraed regularly, according to the fourth conjugation; only the present, and the tenses derived from it, an^ .rregular. 184 LATIN GEAMMAE. Indicative. Subjdnctite. Present. Siiig. Eo, if, it. Sing, eam^ eas, eat. Plur. imiu, itis, eunt. Plur. eamus, eatit, eant. Imperfect. Sing, iham, ibas, ibat. Sing, irem, ires, fet. Plur. ibamus, ibatis, ibant. Plur. iremus, irnis, ircat. Future. Impkbatite. Sing, ibo, ibis, ibil. Pres. Sing. 2, i. Plur. its, Plur. ibimus, ibitis, ihmt. Put. 2, ito. itote. 3, ito. eunio. Infinitive. Pres. ire. Perf. ivisse or isse. Fut. iturum {-am, -urn) esse. Gerund. Supine. Gen. eundi. Dat. eundo, &c. itam, itu. Participles. Pres. ietis^ftntis. Fut. iturus, -a, -uin. In the passive voice it exists only as an impersonal, itur, itum est. Some compounds, however, acquire a transitive meaning ; they accordingly have an accusative in the ac tive, and may also have a complete passive : e. gr., adeo, I approach; ineo, I enter; praetereo, I pass by. Thus the present indie, pass, adeor, adiris, adttur, adimwr, adi- mini, adeuntw ; subjunct. adear ; imperf. adibar ; subj. adirer ; fiit. adihor, adiberis (e), adibitur, &c. ; imperat. pres. adire, adimini ; fut. adltor, adeuntor ; participles, adMus, adeundtis. These and all other compounds, dbeq, co'eo, exeo, intereo and pereo (perish), prodeo, redeo, have usually only ii in the perfect : peril, redii. Circumeo and circueo, I go round something, differ only in their orthography, for in pronunciation the m was lost ; in the derivatives, circuitui and circuitio, it is, therefore, with more consistency, not written. Veneo, I am sold, a neutral passive verb with- out a supine, is compounded of venum and eo, and is ac- cordingly declined like iVe/> whereas ambio, 1 go about, which changes the vowel even in the present, is declined regularly according to the fourth conjugation, and has the participle ambiens, ambientis, and the gerund ambiendi. The part. perf. pass, is ambitus, but the substantive am- bitus has a short i. See the Commentators on Ovid; Metam., i., 37. Note.— A second form' of the future, earn instead of i6o, is mentioned b] Priscian, but is not found in any other writer. It is only in compounds though chiefly in late and linclassical authors, that we find -ram, ies. iet lent, along with, ibo, ibis, &c. See Bunemann on Lactant., iv., 13 20 lUREGULAR VEBBS. 185 Transiel in Tibull., 1., 4, 27, is surprising.* Veneo, I am si Jd, Bometimea abandons the conjugation of eo, and maKes the imperfect veiielam instead of vembam, for so, at least, we find in good MSS. of Cicero, Philip., ii,, 37 and in Var., ill., 4". Ambio sometimes follows eo; e. g., ambibal in Ovid, Melam.. v., 361 : Liv., Txvii., 18 : Plin., Epist., vi., 33 : Tac, Ann., ii., 19 ; ana ambibunt, for amiienc, is said to occur in Pliny iH. N., viii, 35 ?). 1§ 216.] 8. Queo, I can. 9. Nequeo, I cannot. These two verbs are both conjugated like eo : perfectj quivi, nequivi ; supine, qwtwm, nequitum. Most of theii forms occur ; but, with the exception of the present, they are not very frequent in prose, and some authors, such as Nepos and Caesar, never use this verb at all.t Instead of nequeo, non queo also was used, and in Cicero the latter is even more frequent. Quis and quit are found only with non. Indicative. Present. Nequeo, non quit, non quit, neqiamus, neqvitis, ntqwhmi. Imperfect. neqmbam, nequibat, -ant. Future. Sing Plur. nequibunt. Perfect. nequivi, nequisti, nequivit (iit). nequiverunt or He quierunt (e). Sing. Queo, quis, ^uit. Plur. quirrau, quitis, queunt. Sing. Quibam, quibat. Sec. Sing. Quito. Plur. qmbunt. Sing. Quivi, quivit. Plur. quivertmt. Pluperfect. nequierat, nequierant. SOBJDNCTIVB. Present. Sing. Queamt queas, queat. nequeamj nequeas^ nequeat. Plur. ijueamuSf queatiSj quearU. nequeamus^ nequeatiSf nequeatit. Imperfect. Sing. Quirem, quiret. Tiequiremt nequiret. Plur. qwrent. neqmremus^ nequirent. Perfect. Sing. qtdverit. nequiverim, nequierit, nequierinU Pluperfect. Rinn- .... _ ■ . Plur. quissent. nequissent. * [We ought very probably to read transiit with Hnnsius, on MS. au- thority, making, at the same time, a change in the punctuation. (Consult Lachmann, ad loc] — Am. Ed. i IQueo is much weaker than possum, and appears to denote mere possi bility under existing circumstances. Compare DUderlein, Lat. Syn., vol jv., p. 160.]— jlm. Ed. 0.2 18A LATIN GRAMMAB. Infinitive. Quire, quiviue (juum). nequire, nequivUu (nc{iun<;. Pabticiple. Quimi (gen. queuntu). ntquims (gen. nequeunlii). There is also a passive form of these verbs ; quitur, nequitw, quita eat, tie- paium est, but it occurs very rarely, and is used, like coeptus turn, only when an infinitive passive follows : e. g., in Terence ; forma m (nu&ru Roici non quita eat, the figure could not be recognised. [§ 217.] 10. Fio, I become, or am made.* Fto is properly an intransitive verb, the Greek <^va), without a supine. But owing to the affinity existing be- tween the ideas of becoming and being made, it was used also as a passive ofjacio, from which \t took the perfect /actus sum, and the latter then received the meaning " I have become," along with that of " I have been made." In consequence of this transition into the passive, the in- finitive became Jieri instead of the original form _fiere. Hence, with the exception of the supplementary forms ^omjaeere (f actus, faciendus,f actus sum, eram. Sec), and the passive termination' of the infinitive, there is no ir- regularity in this verb. In the present, imperfect, and future it follows the third conjugation ; for the i belongs to the root of the word, and is long, except in fit and those forms in which an r occurs in the inflection. (See §16.) Indicative. Subjunctive. Present. Present, Sing. Fio,fis,ft. fiam,fiaa,fiat. Plur. jimus, fitis, Jiunt, fiamus, jiatis, jiant. Imperfect. Imperfect, Sing. JUbam, as, at. ^erem, es, et. Plur. fiebamua, atis, ant. fieremua, etis, ent. Future. Impekative. Sing. fiam,fies,fiet. Pres. Sing.fi. Plm. fite. Plur. fiemus,fietia,fient. (rare, but well attested). Infinitive. fieri {factum esse, factum in). Part. Pres. is wanting. Note. — Among the compounds the following must be noticed as detes tives : infii, which is used only in this third person sing., he or she begins ; e. g., lomi, or with the ellipsis of loqui; and defit, drfiat, defiunt, defieri which does not occur in prose. Respecting confit, see above, ^ 183. * [As regards the old forms, and the quantity of^, consult Anihon'i L>t. Pros., p. 16, not. {ed. 18*2).}— Am. Ed. DEFECTIVB VERBS. 187 CHAPTER LIX. [§ 218.] DEFECTIVE VERBS. The term Defective Verts is here applied to those only in which the defectiveness is striking, and which are found only in certain forms and combinations, for there are, besides, a very large number of defective verbs, of which certain tenses are not found on account of their meaning, or cannot be shown to have been used by the writers whose works have come down to us. Many of them have been noticed in the lists of verbs in the pre- ceding chapters ; with regard to others, it must be left to good taste, cultivated by reading the best authors, as to whether we may use, e. g., cupe, from cupio, like cape, from capio, and whether we may say dor, I am given, like pro- dot, or putatua sum, like habitus sum. (Putatum est oc- cuis in Cicero, p. Muren., 17.) We shall here treat of the verbs aio and inqtiam, I say ; fari, to speak; the per- fects co^, memini, novi and odi; the imperatives apage, ave, salve, vale ; cedo and qtiaeso ; and, lastly, oiforem. 1. Aio, I say, say yes, or affirm.* Indicative. Subjunctive. Present. Present. Sing. Aio, Sis, ait. Sing. aias, ait. Plur. aiunt. Plur. aiant. Imperfect. (The imperative oi is obsolete. The Sing, aiebam, aiebas, aiebat. participle aiens is used only as an ad- Plur. aiebamus, aiebatis, aiebant. ject. instead of affirmativus.) Perfect. All the rest is wanting, or unclass- Sing. ait (like the present).! icaL Note. — In prose, as well as in poetry, oiV ? do you think so ? is frequent- ly used for aisne, just as we find viden', abin', for videsne, abime. See i 24. The comic writers, especially Terence, use the imperfect mbam, &;c., as a word of two syllables. [§ 219.] 2. Liquam, I say.J This verb is used only between the words of a quota- * lAio is evidently connected with the Sanscrit aha O'dixi," "inquam") and also with the Greek rj-iil'ioi ^n-fil. (Compare Pott, Etym.Forseh. vol. 1., p. 281.) \—Am. Ed. f [This third person of the perfect is very doubtful. (Compare Struve, iiber die Lat. Decl. und Cmj., p. 213.) Late church writers, however, have titti, aierunt, &c.] — Am. Ed. • t [Injuam and sum are the only two Latin verbs which still show traeei 188 LATIN 6BAMMAK. tion, while ait, aiunt, are found most frequently in the oratio obligua. Indicative. Subjunctive- Pi ssent. Present, Sing. Inquam^ inquiSf inquit* Sing. inquiaSf inquiat. Plur. inquimus, inqiatisj mquiimt Flur, inquiatiSf inquiant Imperfect. Future. Sing, inquiehamj &c. Sing. iriquies^ inquiet, Plur. inguiebamus, &c. Plur. — — Perfect. Impeeatite. Sing. inquisti^ inquit. Sing, inque^ tTiquito, Plur. — — inqvistis, . Plur. inquite. Note. — The first person of the perfect (more probably in^i than inquit) is not fonnd ;t the present inqnam is used instead, and inquit may, there- fore, just as well be taken for the present. The present subjunctive has been nere given according to Friscian, p. 876, but has not yet been con firmed by any other authority. [§ 220.] 3. Fari, to speak, say.J This very irregular verb, vyith its compounds affari, ef- fari, prof aril is, generally speaking, more used in poetiy than in ordinary prose. The third persons of the present,' fatur,fantwr, the imperativeyare, and the participle _/«i«*, a, um (effatum is used also in a passive sense), occur most frequently. The ablative of the gerund, yare(^o, is used in a passive sense even in prose, in the phraseyaraiio audire, to know by hearsay. Compounds : affamur, Ovid ; affamim, Curtius ; affabar, Virgil ; effabor and effaberis, also occur in poetry. The first person for, the subjunctive fer,firis,felur, &c., and the participle fans in the nominative, do not oc- cur, though the other cases oi fans are found in poetry. Fundus, a, vm, onl^ in the combination fandum et nefandum ; fanda, nefanda, which are equivalent to fas et nefas. [§ 221.] 4. Goepi, 5. Memmi, 6. Novi, 7. Odi, I have begun. I remember. I know. I hate. These four verbs are perfects of obsolete presents which have gone out of use, writh the exception of nosco, of the m termination in the present tense, and the original forms of these verbs were undoubtedly inquani and sunu. This ending in -mi connect! them at once with the Greek verbs in -ui, and also with the Sanscrit.l— Am. Ed. * [Compare with in-quit the English quoth, the Anglo-Saxon qu^than and the Welsh gwedyd-l — Am. Ed. + [Scaligtr, however, reads' inquii in Catullus (x., 27), and is foilowe« by During and others. The metre and context both require inquii, whicl cannot, therefore, be said to be a-form " not found."]— .4m. Ed. X [Pott ojmpares Fa-ri with the Sanscrit hha-sh, " loqui," and the Greek ttllii-l — Am. Ed. DEPEUTIVE VERBS 189 axiii coepto, coepere. They consequently have those tenses only which are derived from the perfect. In meaning, meniini, nbvi, and odi are presents ; novi, I know, shows the transition most clearly, for it properly means " I have learned to know." (See §203.) Hence the pluperfect has the meaning of an imperfect : memineram, I remember- ed ; noveram, I knew ; oderam, I hated, not " 1 had ha- ted," and the future perfect has the signification of a sim- ple future, e. g., odero, I shall hate ; meminero, I shall re- member. Otherwise the terminations are quite regular. Indicative. Perfect. Novi. novisti {noati). novit. novimus. novistis (nostis). noverwit (norunt). Pluperfect, memineram, &c. noveram, &c. {noram.) Future. memiTiero, &c. novero, naveris, &c. (nom.) Sdbjdnotivk. Perfect, meminerim, &c. noverim, &c. (norim.) Pluperfect, meminissem, &c. novissem, &c. (nossem.) Impekatitb. only the sing, me- meiUo and plur. Coepi. coemsti. coepit. coepimus. coepietis. coeperunt. eoeperam, &c. €oepero. Ice. catperim, &c. 400pinem, &c. Memini. meministi. meminit. meminimus. meministis. meminerunt. on. odisti. odit. odimus. odistis. oderunt. oderam, d&c. odero, &c. odenm, &c. odistem, &c. mementote. Infinitive. meminisse. novisse. Pabticiples. odisse, {perosus, exotxu, with an active meaning.) oeurus. coeptsse. Porf. pass, coeptus (begun). Fut. act. coeptunu. Note. — Hence coepisse has a perfect passive coeptus (a, urn) sum ; e. g., Liv., ixi., 30; quia a me helium coeptum est: xxviii., 14; quum a neutris pugrut coepta esset; but it is used especially in connexion with an infinitive passive, as in pons imtitui coeptus est ; Tyrus septimo mense, quam appvgnari eoepta erat, capta est ; de re publica coiisuti coepti sumus ; the attive forms nepit, coeperat, however, may likewise be used in this connexion. Com- pare desitia est, § 200. Oompouniis are occocpi, which is not iin/reqMrntly ■sad along with the regular occipio (the same as inapio) and commemini. 190 LATIN GEAMMAK. f§ 238.] 8. Apage, 9. Ave, 10. Salve, 11. Yale, be gone. haiL hail. farewell. Nott. — ApSge is the Greek imperative inaye of ivdya, and akin tu abigo ; apage islas sormres ! away with them ! especially apagt te, get thy- self off, or, with the omission of the pronoun, apage, begone. Salveo in Plautus, Trucul., ii., 2, 4, may he regarded asihe present of salve. Comp. Probus, Instil. Gram., p. 141 , ed. Lindemann. Vale and ave, on the other hand, are regular imperatives of Weo, I am well, and aveo, I desire; and th^ are mentioned here only on occount of their change of meaning. The plural is, avete, salvete, valete ; the imperat. fut. avetd, siUveto, valeto. The future, salvebis, valebis, is likewise used in the sense of an imperative, and the infinitives mostly with jubeo : avere, solvere, valere. [§ 223.] 12. Cedo, give, tell. This word is used as an imperative in familiar lan- guage, for da and die, both wdth and virithout an accusa- tive. A plural cet{e occurs in old Latin. The e is short in this word, which thus differs from the complete verb cedo, I yield, give way. [§ 224.] 13. Quaeso, I beseech. Quaeso is originally the same as quaero, but in good ■prose it is generally inserted in another sentence. Be- sides this first person singular, we find only the first per (ion plural quaesumus. 14. Forem, I should be. This imperfect subjunctive, which is conjugated regu- larly, has arisen from jkerem, of the obsolete yexhjm, and belongs to sum. (See above, § 156.) CHAPTER LX. IMFERSONAL VERBI (§ 225.] 1. The term Impersonal Verbs strictly appliet y to those of which no other but the third person sin gular is used, and which do not admit a personal subjees (I, thou, he), the subject being a proposition, an infinitive, or a neuter noun understood. (See § 441, &6;). Verb* of this kind are : Miseret (me), I pity, perfect miseritum est. Piget (me), I regret, piguit or pigitum est. Poenitet (me), I repent, poenituit, fiit. poenitebit. IMPERSONAL V£RBS. 191 Pudet (me), I am ashaxaeA, puduit ot pudifum est. Taedet (me), I am disgusted with, Ctaeduit, very rai-e), pertaesum est, Oportet, it behooves, oportuit, tat. oportebit. Note.—Miseruit, the regular perfect of miseret, occurs so seldom, that we have not here noticed it. The form commonly used is miseritum or misertum tst, which is derived from the impersonal me mistretur tui, which is not uncommon, although the deponent miserm is otherwise used only as a personal verb, misereor (ui. Compare the passages, Cic, p. Ligar^ 5 ; cave tefratrumpro salute fratris obsecrantium misereatur: in Verr., i., 30; jam me tui misereri rum potest, where the verb is likewise impersonaL [§ 226.] 2. Besides these impersonals, there are some others, which likewise have no personal subject, but yet are used in the third person plural, and may have a nom- inative (at least a neuter pronoun) as their subject. Such verbs are : liibet fmihi), I like, choose ; perf. lihuit, or libitum est. Licet fmihi J, I am permitted; perf. licuit, ovlicitum est. Decet (me J, it becomes me, ana dedecet, it does not be come me ; perC decuit, dedecuit. Liquet, it is obvious ; perf. licuit. Note. — Libuit has been mentioned here as a perfect of libel, but it is usu ally found only as a present, in the sense of libet. [§ 227.] 3. There is also a considerable number of verbs which are used impersonally in the third person, while their other persons occur with more or less differ- ence in meaning. To these belong: interest and refert in the sense of " it is of importance to," with which no nominative can be used as a subject ; farther, accidit, fit, evenit, and contingit, it happens ; accedit, it is added to, oi in addition to ; attinet and pertinet (ad aliquid), it con cems ; condiicit, it is conducive ; convenit, it suits ; con- stat, it is known or established ; expedit, it is expedient ; delectat and juvat, it delights, pleases ; fallit, fugit, and praeterit me, it escapes me, I do not know; placet, it pleases; per£.placuit ajid pladtum est; praestat,it isbet- ter ; restat, it remains ; vacat, it is wanting ; est, in the sense of lieet, it is permitted or possible, e. g., est videre, non est dicere verum, but especially in poetry and late prose writers. [§ 228.] 4. The verbs which denote the changes of the weather ; pluit, it rains ; ningit, it snows ; grandinat, it hails ; lapidat (perf. also lapidatum est), stones fall from heaven ; fulgurat axidfahninat, it lightens (with this dif- ference, matjutminat is used of a flash of Hgbtning which 192 LATIN GRAMMAR. Strikes an objdct) ; tonat, it thunders ; lucescit and iUuces- cit (perf. illuxit), it dawns ; vesperascit and advesperascit (perf. advssperavitj, the evening approaches : in all these cases the subject understood is supposed to be dens or caelum, which are, in fact, often added as their subjects. [§ 229.] 5. The third person singular passive of a great many words, especially of those denoting movement or saying, is, or may be used impersonally, even when the verb is neuter, and has no personal passive, e. g., currittir, they or people run ; itur, ventum est, clamatur, fletur, scri- hitur, hibitur, &c. [§ 230.] 6. All these impersonal verbs, as such, have no imperative, the place of which is supplied by the pres ent subjunctive, e. g., pudeat te, be ashamed of! The participles, also (together with the forms derived from them, the gerund and the infinitive future), are wanting, with a few exceptions, such as libens, licens and liciturns^ voenitens and poenitendws, pudendus. CHAPTER LXI. ETYMOLOGY OP NOUNS AND VERBS. [§ 231.] "We have hitherto treated of the changes which one particular form of nouns and verbs, supposed to be known (the nominative in nouns, and the infinitive in verbs), may undergo in forming cases and numbers, per- sons, tenses, moods, &c. But the origin of that form it- self, which is taken as the basis in inflection, is explained in that special branch of the study of language which is called Etymology. Its object is to trace all the words of the language to their roots, and it must, therefore, soon lead us from the Latin to the Greek language, since both are nearly allied, and since the Greek was developed ^at an earlier period than the Latin. Other languages, too, must be consulted, in order to discover the original forms and significations. We cannot, however, here enter into these investigations, and must cotitent ourselves with as- certaining, within the Latin language itself, the most prominent laws in the formation of new words from other more simple ones ; a knowledge of these laws is useful to the beginner, since it facilitates his acquiring the language. But we shall here confine ourselves to nouns (substantive ETYMOLOGY OF NOUNS AND VEKBg. 193 and adjective) and verbs, for the derivation and composi- tion of pronouns and numerals have been discussed in a fonner part of this work ; vifith regard to the (unchangea- ble) particles, on the other hand, etymology is necessary, as it supplies the place of inflection. The formation of new words from others previously existing takes place either by Derivation, or the addition of certain teiminations ; or by Composition. In regard to derivation, we have to distinguish primitive and deriv- ative words ; and, vidth regard to composition, simple and compound words. We shall first treat of derivation. I. Verbs. Verbs are derived either from other verbs or from ununs. A. With regard to the former, we distinguish four classes of verbs : 1. Frequentative; 2. Desiderative ; 3. Diminutive ; and 4. Inchoative. 1. Frequentatives, all of which follow the first conjuga- tion, denote the frequent repetition, or an increase of the action expressed by the primitive verb. They are de- rived from the supine by changing the regular atum in the first conjugation into ito, itare ; other verbs of the first conjugation, as well as of the others, remain un- changed, the termination of the supine, um, alone being changed into o, are. Of the former kind are, e. g., clamo, clamito ; impero, imperito ; rogito, volito ; of the latter, domo, Aorratum, domito ; adjuvo, adjutum, adjuto ; and from verbs of the third conjugation : curro, cursum, curso ; cano, cantum, canto; dico, dictum, dicto ; nosco, notum. noto ; and so, also, accepto, pulso, defenso, gesto, quasso. tracto. Some of these latter frequentatives, derived from verbs of the third conjugation, serve, again, as primitives, froni which new frequentatives are formed; as, cursito, dictito, defcnsito. Ther^ are some double frequentatives of this kind, without the intermediate form of the simple frequentative being used or known ; such as actito from ago facto J; and bo, also, Icctito from lego, scriptito from scrlho, haedto from haereo, visito from video, ventito from venio, advento. Some few frequentatives with the termination ito, itare, are not derived from the supine, but from the present of the primitive verb. This formation is necessaiy when R 194 LATIN GRAMMAR. the primitive verb has no supine, as is the case with lateOf paveo — latito, pavito. But the following are formed in this manner without there being such a rea;]on : agito, noscito, quaerito, cogito. Some frequentatives have the deponential form ; as, amplexor, from amplector, minitor fi'om minor, tutor iroxn tueor,scitora.nisciscitor&oiascisco. [§ 232.] 2. Desidcratives end in urio, urire (after the fourth conjugation), and express a desire of that which is implied in the primitive. They are formed from the su- pine of the latter, e. g., esurio, esuris, I want to eat, from edo, esum ; so, also, coenaturio from coenatum, dicturio from dictum, empturio from emptum,, parturio froni partum, and in this manner Cicero (ad Att., ix., 10) jocosely formed Sullaturit et proscripturit, he would like to play the part of Sulla and to proscribe. Note. — Some verbs in urio after the fourth conjugation, such as ligurire, scaturire, pmrire, are not desidcratives, and it should be observed that the ii in these words is long. [§233.] 3. Diminutives hsive the termmaiioniUo, illan, which is added to the stem of the primitive verb without any farther change, and they describe the action expressed as something trifling or insignificant ; e. g., cantillare, from cantare,to sing in an under voice, or sing with a shaking; conscribillare, scribble ; sorhillare, from sorhere, sip. The number of these verbs is not great. [§ 234.] 4. Inchoatives have the termination sco, and follow the third conjugation. They express the beginning of the act or condition denoted by the primitive ; e. g., caleo, I am warm ; calesco, I am getting or becoming warm; areo, I am dry; aresco,\ begin to be dry; langueo, I am languid ; languesco, I am becoming languid. It fre- quently happens that a preposition is prefixed to an in- choative, as in timeo, pertitnesco ; taceo, conticesco. The vowel preceding the termination sco, scire, is either a (asco), e (esco), or i fiscoj, according as the inchoative is derived from a primitive of the first, second, or third and fourth conjugation (in the last two cases it is isco); e. g., lahasco from lahare, totter. pallesco from pallere, be pale. ingemisco from gemere, sigh. ohdormisco from dormire, sleep. Many inchoatives, however, are not derived from verbs, out from substantives and adjectives, o. g.. ETYMOLOGY OF NOUNS AND VEKBS. 196 puerasco, I become childish, from puer. maturesco, I become ripe, from tnaturus, a, um. All inchoativos take their perfect and the tenses deri- ved from it from the primitive verb, or form it as it would be in the primitive. (See Chap. LII., the list of the most important inchoatives.) It must, hovirever, be observed that not all verbs ending in sco are inchoatives. See § 203. [§ 235.] B. In regard to the derivation of verbs from nouns, we see that in general the language followed the nrinciple of giving the termination of the second conju- gation to verbs of an intransitive signification, and that of the first to such as have a transitive signification. Thug we have, e. g., (a) fios, floris, florere, bloom. and from adjectives : fnms^frorulisjfronderef have fo- albuSj albere, be white. liage. catvus, calvere, be bald. • visy vtreSj virere, be 'strong. fiavus^ Jiavere, be yellow. IvXf lucisy lucerEf shine. hebes^ keberej be blunt or dull but, albas, albare, whitewash. • (b) numerus, numerare, count. a])tuSj aptare, fit. signwHy signarCf mark. liber, a, um, liberare, liberate. fraus,fTaudis,fraudaTe,iece\Ye. celeber, bris, bre, celebrare, make fto nomen, nominis, nominare, name. quent, or celebrate. vulnus,vulneris,vulnerare,'WO\ind. Tnemor, memorare, mention, arma, armare, arm. communis, communicare, communi- cate. Both kinds are found compounded with prepositions, without the sim- ple verbs themselves being known or much used ; e. g., Laqueus, illaqueare, entwine ; acervus, coacervare, accumulate ; stirps, ex- tirpare, extirpate ; hilaris, exhilarare, cheer. The observation of § 147 must be repeated here, that many deponents of the first conjugation (in arij are deri-- ved from substantives for the purpose of expressing " to be that which the substantive indicates ;" e. g., among the first verbs in the list there given, we find aemulari, ancil- lari, architectari, aucupari, augurari; and, in like man- ner, comes, comitis, comitari; dominws, dominari ; fur, fwari. See § 237. The Latin language has much free- dom in formations of this kind, and we may even now form similar words, just as Persius invented (or was the first, aa far as we know, that used) comicari, chatter like a crow, and Horace graecari, live luxuriously, like a Graf etdiu. 196 LATIN GRAMMAR. II. Substantives. [§ 236.] Substantives are derived : A. From Verbs. 1. By the termination or, appended in place of the um of the stipine in transitive verbs, to denote a man perform ing the action implied in the verb ; e. g., amator, monitor, lector, auditor, adulator, fautor, conditor, conditor, adjutor, censor, petitor, largitor, and a great many others. Those which end in tor form feminines in trix; asjjautrix, adjutrix, victrix ; and if in some cases no such feminine can be pointed out in the vmtings that have come down to us, it does not follow, considering the facility of'their formation, that there nev- er existed one. In regard to the masculines in sor, the fomfation of feminines is more difficult, but tonsor makes tonstrix ; defensor, defenstrix ; and expulsor, throwing out the-*, makes expultrix. Some few substantives of this kind ending in tor are formed, also, from nouns ; as, aleator, gambler, from alea ; janitor, frova janim ; viator, from via. 2. The same termination or, when added to the unal- lered stem of a word, especially of intransitive verbs, ex- oresses the action or condition denoted by the verb sub- stantively ; e. g., pavere, pavor, fear ; furere, furor, fury ; nifere, nitor, shine or gloss. So, also, e. g., clajnor, albor, horror, favor, ardor, amor, rubor, timor, maeror, splendor. [§237.] 3. Two terminations, viz., JO, gen. zoreij, and M«, gen. us, when added to the supine after throwing off the um, express the action or condition denoted by the verb abstractedly. Both terminations are frequently met with in substantives derived from the same verb, without any material difference ; as, concursio and concursus, consensio and consensus; so, also, contemptio and contemptus, digres- sio and digressus, motio and motus, potio and potus, tracta tio and tractatus, and others. Some verbs in are which have different forms of the supine (see § 171), make, also, substantives of two forms ; thus we h^^efricatio and f-ic- tio, lavatio and lotio, potatio and potio, and, according to their analogy, also cubatio and cubitio, although the supine of r.ubare is cubitum only. ETYMOLOGY OF NOUNS AND VERBS. 191 In this manner are formed from actives and deponents, for example, (a) sectio. motio. lectio. auditio. cunctatio. cautio. ultio. sortitio. acclamatio. admonitio. actio. largitio: (b) crepitus. fietus. cantus. ambitus, sonitus. visiis. congressus. ortus. Note. — Strictly speaking, the Latin langnage makes this difference, that the verbal substantives in io denote the action or condition as actually go- ing on, and those in us as being and existing ; but this difference is fre- quently neglected, and it is to be observed that the writers of the silver age (especially Tacitus) prefer the forms in us without at all attending to the difference. Jl»third termination, producing pretty nearly the same meaning, is ura ; as in pictura, painting ; amjectura, conjecture ; cultura, cultivation. Sometimes it exists along with the other two, as in potitio, positus^ positura ; censio, censusj censura. Usually, however, one of them IS preferred, in practice, with a definite meaning. Thus we have mercatus, the market, and mercatura, commerce. In some substantives the termi- nation eta produces the same meaning ; as, quereUy complaint ; loquehj speech ; corrupteta, corruption. [§ 238.] 4. The termination men expresses either the thing to which the action belongs, both in an active and passive sense; ajs,yulme!i,{TOTaJulgere,lightiimg ; Jlumen, irora fluere, river; agmen, from agere, troop or army in its march ; exam,en, from exigere, a sw^arm of bees di-iver out : or, the means of attaining what the verb expresses ; e. g., solamen, a means of consolation ; nomen a means of recognising, that is, a name. The same thing is ex- pressed also by the termination mentum, which sometimes occurs along with men ; as, tegmen and tegumtntum, vela- men and velamentum,, but much more frequently alone, as in adjumentum, from ad^uvare, a means of relief; condi- mentum, from condire, condiment, i. e., a means of sea- soning ; documentum, a document, a means of showing or proving a thing. Similar words are : allevamentum. momimentum. additamentum. experimentum. omamentum. Jbmentum. alimentum. hlandimentum Some substantives of this kind are derived from nouns thus, from ater, black, we have atramentum. The con- necting vowel a before mentum, however, may show that a link was conceived to exist between the primitive ater and the derivative atramentum, such, perhaps, as a verb atrare blacken. In like manner, we have calceamentum, a cov- ering for the feet ; capillamentum, a headdress, wig. [§ 239.] 5. The terminations hulum and culum (or ulum when c ox g precedes) denote an instrument or a place R2 198 LATIN GEAMMAK serving a certain purpose ; e. g., venabulum, a hunter's Bpear; ye/jicWaw, a vehicle ;^'ac2«ZaOT, a javelin; cingulum, a gii'dle. So, also, umhraculum. cuhiculum. ferculum. vinculum.* poculum. latibvlum. stabulum. operculum. The termination culum is sometimes contracted into alum, as in vinclum; and clum is changed into crum, and hu- lum into brum, when there is already an I in the stem of the word; e. g., fulcrum, support; lavacrum, bath; sepul- crum, sepulchre ; Jlagrum, scourge ; ventilahrum. A simi- lar meaning belongs to trum in aratrum^\ou^ ; claus- trum, lock ; rostrum, beak. Some words of this class are derived from substantives ; as, turibulum, censer (tus, tu- ris); acciaSaZMTO, vinegar cruet: candelabrum, csxidielzhTe. 6. Other and less productive terminations are a and o, which, when appended to the stem of the word, denote the subject of the action: conviva, guest; advena, stran- ger ; scriba, scribe ; transfuga, deserter ; erro, vagrant ; bibo, drunkard; comedo, glutton. By means of the termi- nation io words are derived from substantives, denoting a trade to which a person belongs ; as, ludio, the same as histrio, an actor ; pellio, furrier ; restio, rope-maker. -ium expresses the effect of the verb and the place of the action ; e. g., gaudium, joy ; odium, hatred ; collo- quium, colloquy ; conjugium and connubium, marriage ; aedificium, building, edifice ; re- and confugium, place of refuge ; comitium, place of assembly. Igo expresses a state or condition; origo, frova oriri, origin ; vertigo, giddiness ; rubigo, a blight ; petigo and impetigo, scab ; prurigo, itch ; and hence, porrigo, scurf". A similar meaning belongs to Ida in cup'ido, libido, formido. [§ 240.] B. From other Substantives. 1. The diminutives, or, as Quintilian, i.,5, 46, calls them, vocahula deminuta, are mostly formed by the terminations alua, ula, ulum, or cuius, a, um, according to the gender of the primitive word : ulus, a, um, is appended to the stem after the removal of the termination of the oblique cases, e.g.,virga,virgula; servus, servulus ; puer, puerulus ; rex (regis), regulus; caput (capitis), capitulum.^ So, also, * [The student ought Io have been informed here that in vinc-ulum, as in jac-ulum, the c belongs to the stem, while in oper-culum it belongs to the termination.] — Am. Ed. t [A much simpler classification than the one here given may be found in Priscian, viz. : ETYMOLOGY OP NOUNS AND VERBS. 199 portula. nummulus. rapwlum. facula. litterula. hortulus. (^pidulum, adolescentulus. Instead of ulus, a, um, we find olus, a, urn, when the ter- mination of the primitive substantive, lis, a, um, is prece- ded by a vowel ; e. g., filiolus. gloriola. ingeniolum. alveolus. lineola. horreolum. The termination cuius, a, um, is sometimes appended to the nominative without any change, viz., in the words in I and r, and those in os and us of the third declension, which take an r in the genitive ; e. g., corculum. fraterculm. Jlosculus. munusculum. tuberculum. sororcula. osculwrn. corpusculum. And so, aho, pulvisculus, vasculum, from vas, vasis; arbus- cula, from the form arbos ; and, in a somewhat different manner, rumusculus, from rumor ; lintriculus and ventricu- lus, from linter and venter. Sometimes the s of the nora- mative terminations is and es is dropped, as in igniaulus. aedicula. nubecula. diecula. pisciculus. pellicula. vulpecula. plebecula. In words of other terminations of the third declension, and in those of the fourth, i steps in as a connecting vow- el between the stem of the word and the diminutive ter- mination cuius ; e. g., ponticulus. denticulus, versiculus. anicula. particula. ossiculum. articulus. corniculum. coticula. reticulum. sensiculus. geniculum. The termination ellus, a, um, occurs only in those words of the first and second declensions which have I, n, or r in their terminations. Thus, oculus makes ocellus; tabula, tabella ; asinus, asellus; liber, libellus ; libra, libella ■ lu- crum, lucellum. So, also, popellvs,fabella, lamella, patel- (A) If the primitive be of the first or second declension, -vlus, -a, -um, is adopted ; the gender depending on that of the primitive. (B) If it be of the third, fourth, or fifth, -cului, -a, -um, is preferred. The exceptions arise from contraction, or euphonic variety. If the stem of the first or second declension terminate in I, n, r, a contraction generally takes place, prolucing the temunation -ellus, -a, -um, or -illus, ■a, -ftm. Thus, besides puerulus, we have puellus ; and the secondary form puellula. If it end in i or e, then -olus is written for -ulus. With respect to the other declensions, if the stem end in any of the harsher Consonants, c, g, t, d, the first termination without the guttural is naturally preferred. If It end in on, then -unmlus is written instead of -oncufcs. {Journal of Kducation, vol. i., p. '[Ol.)]—Am. Ed. 200 LATIN GRAMMAR. la, agellus, cultellus, Jldbellum, flagellum, labdlum, sacel- lum. Cistella is the same as cistula, and thence we have again cistellula, just as priellula from puella. Catellui from canis, and porcellm from porous, cannot be brought under any rule. The termination illus, a, um, occurs more rarely, as in hacillum, sigillum, tigillum, pupillus, like pupulus, from the obsolete pupus; villum from vinum. So, also, codicillus, lapillus, anguilla. The termination unculus, a, um, is appended chiefly to words in o, gen. onu or inis ; as, sermunculus. ratiuncula. homunculus. pugiuTiculus. quaestiuncula. virguncula. A few diminutives of this sort are formed also from words of other terminations, viz., avunculus from avus, domuncula from domus, furunculus from fur, ranunculus from rana. The diminutive termination leus occurs sel dom ; but it is found in equus, equuleus ; acus, aculcus Mnnus, hinnuleus. Note, — Only a few diminutives differ in gender from their primitive words ; as, aculeus, from acus, fem. ; cuTTiculum, from currus, masc. ; and, also, ranuncuhis, from rana, and scamillus (a footstool), from scammt-mj along with which, however, we also find the regular diminutives ra}i"li and scamellum. Hence there are instances of double diminutives 311 <:iispa where the primitives have double forms (see ij 9Hj ; e. g., catillu^ am: .,ifil- lum ; piteolus and pileolum, and a few others. The diminutives M common nouns (^ 40) are said to have regularly two fo.'ms, one in us and thc^ i.th- er in a, to designate the two sexes ; as, infantulus and infantula, Urunculus, a, from ivfans and tiro. [§ 241.] 2, The termination ium appended to the radi- cal syllable of the primitive expresses either an assem blage of things or persons, or their relation to one anoth- er ; e. g., collega, collegium, an assembly of men who are collegae (colleagues) of one another; so convivium, recast, or assembly oi convivae ; servitium, the domestics, also servitude; sacerdotiiim, the office of priest; minister, min- isterium, service ; exul, exilium, exile ; censors, consortium, community. When this termination is appended to ver- bal substantives in or, it denotes the place of the action as in repositorium, repository; conditorium, a place where a thing is kept, tomb ; auditorium, a place where people assemble for the purpose of listening to a person. [§ 242.] 3. -arium denotes a receptacle ; e. g., grana- rium, a granary or place where grain is kept ; armarium (arma), a cupboard; armamentarium, arsenal, or place where the armamenta are kept So also, plantarium and ETYMOLOGY OF NOUNS AND VEBBS. 201 teminarium, aerarium, columbarium, tabularium, valetudi- Harium. [§ 243.] 4. -etum, appended to the names of plants, de- notes the place where they grow in great number ; e. g., quercus, quercetum, a plantation of oaks ; so, also, vinetum, lauretum, esculetum, dumetum,, myrtctum, olivetum, ; and, after the same analogy, saxetum, a field covered with stones ; and, with some change, salictum (from salixj, pasture, instead of salicetum ; virguUum instead of vir- quletum ; arbustum, from arhos (for arbor), instead of ar- boretum. [§ 244.] 5. -iZe, appended to names of animals, indicates the place in which they are kept ; e. g., bubile (rarely bo- vile), stall of oxen ; equile, stable (of horses) ; so, also, caprile, hoedile, ovile. Some which are formed from verbs indicate the place of the action expressedby the verb; as, cubile, sedile. All these words are properly neuters of adjectives, but their other genders are not used. Com- pare § 250. [§ 245.] 6. "With regard to patronymics, or names of descent, which the Latin poets have adopted from the po- etical language of the Greeks, the student must be refer- red to the Greek Grammar. The most common termina- tion is ides; as, Priamus, Priamides; Cecrops, Cecropides; names in eus and cles make ides (eidrj^) ; e. g., Atrides, Pe- lides, Hcraclidae. The names in as of the first declen sion make their patronymics in a^es; as, Aeneas, Aeneades. The termination iades should properly occur only in names ending in ius, such as Thestius, Thestiades ; but it is used also in other names, according to the requirements cf the particular verse; as, Laertes, Laertiades ; Atlas, Atlantiades ; Abas, Abantiades; Telamon, Telamoniades. The feminine patronymics are derived from the mascu- lines, ides being changed into is. Ides into eis, and iades into ias ; e. g., Tantalides, Tantalis; Nereus (Nerldes), Nereis; Thestius (Thestiades), Thestias. Aeneades (from Aeneas) alone makes the feminine Aeneis, because the reg- ular feminine, Aeneas, would be the same as the primitive. In some instances we find the termination me or ione ; as, Neptunine, Acrisione. [§ 246.] C. From Adjectives. 1. The termination itas is the most common in forming substantives denoting the quality expressed by the adjec 202 LATIN GRAMMAR. tive as an abstj-act notion, and is equivalent to the English' ty or ity. The adjective itself, in appending itas, under- goes the same changes as in its oblique cases, especially in the one which ends in i. Thus, from atrox, atrod, we obtain atrocitas ; from cupidus, cupidi, cupiditas. So, also, capax, capacitas ; celer, ccleritas ; saluber, saluhri- tas-; crudelis, crudelitas ; facilis, facilitas ; clarus, clan- tas ; fecundus, fccunditas ; verus, Veritas. Libertas is formed without a connecting vowel, axidJacuUas and diffi- cultas with a change of the vowel, as in the adverb diji- culter. The adjectives in ius make their substantives in ietas ; e. g., anxietas, ehrietas, pietas, varietas ; those in stus make them in sias : lionestas, venustas, vctustas; in a sim- ilar manner, potestas and voluntas are formed from posse and velle. 2. Another very common termination is ia, but it oc- curs only in substantives derived from adjectives of one termination, which addio to the crude form of the oblique cases. From audax, dat. audaci, we have audacia, and from concors, concordi, concordia. So, also, clemens, de- mentia ; constans, constantia ; impudentia, elegantia ; ap- petentia and despicientia occur along with appetitio and appetitus, despectio and despectus. Some adjectives in us and er, however, likewise form their substantives in ia ; e. g., miser, miseria ; angustus, angustia ; perfidus, per- fidia; and several verbal adjectives in cundus; zs,,facun- dus, facundia ; iracundus, iracundia ; verecundus,' vere- cundia. [§ 247.] 3. There are numerous substantives in which tudo ia appended to the case of the adjective ending ini/ e. g., acritudo, aegritudo, altitudo, crastitudo, longitude, magnitude, fortitudo, similitude ; and in polysyllables in tus, tudo directly grows out of this termination, as in consuetude, mansuetude, inquietude, sollicitudo. Valetudo stands alone. Some of these substantives exist along with other forms ; as, beatitude, claritudo, Jirmitudo, lenitudo, and sanctitudo, along vnth beatitas, claritas, firmitas, &c. In these cases the words in udo seem to denote the dura- tion and peculiarity of the quality more than those in itas. To these we must add the termination monia, which pro- duces the same signification, e. g., sanctim,onia, castimo- nia, acrimonia, after the analogy of which parsimonia ETYMOLOGY OP NOUNS AND VERBS 203 and querimonia (stronger than querela) are fo:"med from verbs. 4. Substantives in itia, from adjectives in us, are of more rare occurrence; SiS,jiistitia,ixora. Justus, justi. So, avaritia, laetitia, maestitia, 2>udicitia ; but also tristitia from tristis. 5. Tbe termination eda occurs only in a fev? substan- tives ; as, albedo, dulcedo, gravedo (heaviness or cold in the head), pinguedo (along with pinguitudo). III. Adjectives. Adjectives are derived : A. From Verbs. [§ 248.] 1. With the termination bundus, chiefly from verbs of the first conjugation, e. g., errabundus, from er- rare, cogitabundus, from cogitare, gratulabundus, from gratulari, populabundus, from populari. Their signifi- cation is, in general, that of a participle present, with the meaning strengthened, a circumstance which we must express in English by the addition of other words ; e. g., Jiaesitabundus, full of hesitation ; deliberabundus, fiill of deliberation ; Ttiirabundus, full of admiration ; venerabun- dus, full of veneration; lacrimabundus, weeping profusely. Thus Gellius explains laetabundus as one qui abunde lae- tus est. There are but few adjectives of this kind derived from verbs of the third conjugation : fremebundus, geme- bundus, furibundus, ludibundus, moribundus, nitibundus There is only one from a verb of the second conjugation, viz., pudibundus ; and, likewise, only one from a verb of the fourth, lascivibundus. Note, — These verbal adjectives in bundus, however, cannot be regarded as mere participles, for in general they do not govern any case. But we find in Livy the expressions vitabundus castra, mirabundi vanam speciem. A considerable list of such expressions is given in Ruddimannus, /nsfiV. Grammat. Lat., torn, i., p. 309, ed. Lips. Some verbal adjectives in cUndus are of a similar kind: facundus, eloquent ; iracundus, irascible ; verecwndus, full of bashfulness ; rubicundus, the same as rubens, reddish. [§249.] 2. The ending ji^Mi, chiefly in adjectives formed from intransitive verbs, simply denotes the quality ex- pressed by the verb : calidus, from calere. rubidus, from rubere, algidus, from algere. turgidus, from turgere, madid,us. from madere. rapidus, from rapere. 204 LATIN GRAMMAR. The teiinination uus is of more rare occurrerKe ; e. g., eongrv/us, from congruo, agreeing ; assiduus, nocuus and innocuus. When derived from transitive verbs, it gives to the adjective a passive meaning, as in irriguus, v/eW vra- tpred ; conspicuus, visible ; individuus, indivisible. 3. The terminations ilis and Mlis denote the possibility of a thing in a passive sense ; e. g., amabilis, easy to love, hence, amiable ; placahilis, easy to be conciliated ; dele- bilis, easy to be destroyed; mncibilis, easy to be con- quered ; Jacilis, easy to do ; docilis, docile ; fragilis, fra- gile. Some of these adjectives, howrever, have an active meaning: /iomiiZu, producing horror, horrible ; terribilis, terrible, that is, producing terror ; fertilis, fertile. 4. -ax, appended to the stem of the verb, expresses a propensity, and generally a faulty one : pugnax. furax. edax and vorax. audax. loquax. rapax. The few adjectives in ulus have a similar meaning; as credulus, credulous ; bibulus, fond of drinking ; querulits, querulous. [§ 250.] B. From Substantives, viz. (a) From Appellatives : 1. The ending eits denotes the material, and sometimes similarity; e. g., firreus. ligneus. plumbeus. virgineus. aureus. citreus. cinereus. igneus. argenteus. buxeus, corporeus. vitreus. \ Some adjectives of this kind have a double form in -netis and -nus ; as, eburneus and eburnus, Jiculneus and ficulnus, iligneus and ilignus, quemeus and quernus, sa- ligneus and salignus. 2. -icus expresses belonging or relating to a thing; e. g., classicus, from classis'; civicus, relating to a citizen; dominicus, belonging to a master; rusticus, rural; aulicus, relating to a court ; belli(MS, relating to war, &c. 3. The termination His (compare § 20) has the same meaning, but assumes also a moral signiiication ; e. g., civilis and hostilis, the same as civictis and hosticus, but also answering to our civil and hostile. So servilis, seni- lis, anilis, juvenilis, puerilis, virilis. 4. The endings aceus and icitis sometimes express a ma ETYMOLOGY OP NOUNS AND VH^.B^. 205 terial and sometimes the origin; e. g., ckartacew, ^ncvthiv- naccus, papyraceus ; caementicius, latericius, jja'rwiz-i- tr> bunidus. So, also, those derived from participles : colic ticius, arisen from contributions ; commentici'us, fictitious suhditicius, supposititious, and others. [§ 251.] 5. The termination alis (in English alj is ap- pended not only to words in a, but also to substantive.s of other terminations, in which, however, the termination is appended to the crude form of the oblique cases ; e. g., ancora, conviva, letum — ancoralis, convivalis, letalis ; but from rex, regis, we have regalis ; virgo, virginalis ; sacer- dos, sacerdoialis ; caput, capttalis; corpus, corporalis. So, also, auguralis, aditialis, comitialis, annalis, Jluvialis, mor- talis, novalis, socialis, and others. Also from proper names ; as, Augustalis, Claudialis, Flavialis, Trajanalis, to denote classes of priests instituted in honour of those emperors. The ending aris is somewhat more seldom, and principally occurs in such words as contain an I ; .such as articularis, consularis, popularis, puellaris, vul- garis, Apollinaris. The termination atilis denotes fitness for the thing ex- pressed by the root ; as, aquatilis,jluviatilis, volatilis. 6. The termination ius occurs most frequently in de- rivatives from personal nouns in or ; e. g., accusatorius, amatorius, aleatorius, censorius, imperatorius, praetorius, uxorius. It occurs more rarely in substantives of other terminations, though we have regius, patrius, aquilonius. From substantives in or which do not denote persons, but abstract notions, adjectives are formed by simply append- ing us ; as, decor, decorus; and so, also, canor'us, odorus, honorus (less frequently used than JionestusJ. [§ 252.1 '''• '^^'"^ ^® found especially in derivations from names of animals (especially to denote their flesh) ; e. g., asininus. ferinus. haedinus. anserinus. caninus. eguinus. cahallinus. anatinus. camelinus. taurinus. arietinus. viperinus. But it also occurs in adjectives derived from names of other living beings; e. g., divinus, lihertinus, inquilinus (from incolaj, masculinus, femininus (marinus, living in the sea, stands alone). Medicina, sutrina, tonstrina, pis- trinum, textrinurn,, are to be explained by the ellipsis of a substantive, and denote the locality in which the art or trade is earned on, 9 206 LATIN GBAMMAR. The termination inus, on the other hand, occurs chiefly in derivations from names of plants and minerals, to de- note the material of which a thing is made ; e. g., cedri- nus, faginus, aiamanfmus, crystallinus, and the ending Gnus in derivative adjectives denoting time; as, crastimis, diutmus, hornotmus, annotmus. See § 20. 8. The termination arius expresses a general relation to the noun from which the adjective is formed, but more particularly the occupation or profession of a person; e. g., coriarius. carbonarius. scapharius. ostianus. statuarius. acrarius. navicidarius. consiliariiis. sicarius. argentarius. codicarius. classiarius. 9. The ending osus denotes fulness or abundance; as in aerumnosus. aquosus. hellicosus. animosus. lapidosus. caliginosus. artificiosus. vinosus. ienebricosus. The ending uosus occurs exclusively in derivations from words of the fourth declension : actuosus, portuosus, saltu- osus, vultuosus ; but also monstruosus, which is used along with monstrosus. 10. The termination lentus denotes plenty, and is com- monly preceded by the vowel u, and sometimes by o : fraudulentiis. vinolentus. pulverulentus. turbidentus. opulentus. violentus. esculentus. potulentus. sanguinolentus. 11. Less productive and significant terminations are: ■amis, which denotes belonging to a thing ; urbanus, mon- tanus, humantis (from homo) (respecting the adjectives formed from numerals by means of this termination, see § 118. Thus, we findifebris tertiana, quartana, a fever re- turning every third or fourth day) ; ivns generally denotes the manner or nature of a thing : furtivus, votivus, aesti- vus, tempestivus ; also from participles : captivns, nativus, sativus ; emus denotes origin : fratemus, maternus, pater- nus, infernus, extemus. The same termination and urnus occur in adjectives denoting time : vernus, hibernus, Ties- tcrnus, aeternus (from aeviternusj, diurnus, nocturnus ; liimus occurs in finitimus, legitimus, maritimus. The termination -ster, in the adjectives mentioned in § 100, de- notes the place of abode, or a quality. [§ 253.] A very extensive class of derivative adjectives end in atus, like participles perfect passive of the first ETYMOLOGY OF NOUNS AND VERBS. 207 conjugation, but they are derived at once from substan- tives, vv'ithout its being possible to show the existence of an intermediate verb. Thus we have, e. g., aurum and auratm, gilt ; but a verb aurare does not occur, and its existence is assumed only for the sake of derivation. Some adjectives of this kind are formed from substantives in is and end in ttus;* as, auritus, provided with ears; pel- litus, covered with a skin ; turritus, having towers ; and so, also, meUitus, sweet as honey. Some few are formed Dy the ending ut^ls from substantives in us, gen. us ; as, cornutus, astutus ; and, according to this analogy, nasutus^ from nasus, i. Those in atus are very numerous ; e. g., harhatus. calceatus. aeratus. togatus. clipeatus. dentatus. galeatus. oculatus. fdlcatus. [§ 254.] (h) From Proper Names. We may here distinguish four classes : ! , names of men ; 2, of towns ; 3, of nations ; 4, of countries! 1. The termination ianus is the most common in form- ing adjectives from Roman names of men, not only from those ending in ius, such as TulUanus, Servilianus, but also from those in us aiid other endings ; as, Crassianus, Marcellianus, Paulianus, Cacsarianus, Catonianus, Cice- ronianus : anus occurs only in names in ; Fru- Ano, Frusinas. Antium makes Antias, but we find also Antiense templum and Antiatinae sortes. ((J) -anus, from names of towns in a and ae; e. g., Roma, Romamis ; Alba, Alhanus ;* Sparta, Spartanus; Cumae., Cumani/s ; Syracusae, Syracusanus ; Tkehae, Thebanus; also from some in um and i: Tusculum, Tusculanus; Fmi- it, Fundanus. [§256.] Greek adjectives, however, formed from names of towns, or such as were introduced into Latin through the literature of the Greeks, follow different rules, which must be learned from a Greek Grammar. We will here only remark that the most frequent ending is ms, by means of which adjectives are formed, also, from GSreek names of countries and islands ; e. g., Aegyptus, Aegyptius; Les- bos, Lesbius ; Rhodus, Rhodius ; Corinthus, CorintJiius ; Epliesus, Ephesius ; Chius, Chins (instead of Oliiius) ; Lacedaemon, Lacedaemonius ; Marathon, Marathonius ; Salamis, Salaminius ; Eretria, Eretrius. Other names in a take the termination aeus ; as, Smyrna, Smyrnaeus ; Tegea, Tegeaeus ; Larissa, Larissaeus; Perga, Pergaeus, and so, also, Cumae {Kviirj) makes the Greek adjective Owmaeus. In the case of towns not in Greece, even when they are of Greek origin, we most frequently find the ter- mination mus : Tarentum, Tarentinusj Agrigetitum, Agri- gentinus ; Centuripae, Centuripinus ; Metapontum, Meta- pontinus ; Rhegium, Rheginus, whereas the Latin Regi- * Albania is formed from Alba Longa ; Albemis from Alba, on Lake Fu cin IS. S2 210 LATIN GRAMMAR. wm Lepidl makes the adjective Regiensis. It not unfre> quently happened that the Romans, as may be observed in some instances already mentioned, formed adjectives from Greek names of towns in their own way, and with- out any regard to the Greek forms ; e. g., Atheniensis in- stead of Athenaeus, Thehanus instead of Thebaeus (while Thehaicus is an adjective derived from the Egyptian Thebes), Erctriensis along with Eretrius, Syracusanus along with Syracusius, Eletisinus more frequently than the Greek form Eleusinius. The Greek ending evg was most commonly changed into ensis ; sometimes, however, it vyas retained along vnth the Latin form ; as, Halicar- nasseus and Halicarnasscnsis. In like manner, the Greek lTr]g was sometimes retained, as in Abderites ; and some- times of verus, true, is vere; but vera is used in answers in the sense of " ill truth," or " certainly," but it is more commonly applied as a conjunc- uon in the sense of " but," or "however." We vyill explain its use m an- swers by ao example. When I am asked, adfuistine heri in convivio ? 1 an- swer, ego vero adfui ; or, without a verb, ego vero, mintme vera ; and vera thus being merely inoicfitive of ^ reply, will often be untranslatable into Eng- lish. The ease of certe and certo \3 generally different from that of vne and t'rro .- the adverb which usually takes the meaning of its adjective is certo, while cefte takes the signification of " at least," to limit an assertion; e. g,, vipii ^uniux, rtut, si dtgnitas i/in^i nan potest ^fracti certe, Certe, howev- er, is freijuently used, also, in the sense of our " certainly," especially in the phrase certe scin, which, in Cicero, is even more frequent than certo scio See my note on Cic, lib. i., in Verr., (, iYo'?2.— Omnino, from iminis, altogether, or in peneral. may also be reckoned in this class of adverbs. The etymology of opjtido, very, is very doubtful.* Pro/ecto, truly, also belongs to t^is class, it it be de-rived from profectus a, um ; but if it be I he same as jpro/acfo, which is more probable, It belongs to those which wc shall mention under No. 10. [§ 267,] 7. fb) In some ai^ectives of the third declen- sion the neuter singular supplies the place of the adverb ; as, facile, difficile, recens, sublime, impune, and abunde, which, however, is not derived from an adjective abvndii; but fron; abundus. To these we must add some belong- ing to adjectives of the second declension : ccterum, ple- rumquc, plurimum, potissimurn. more frequent thanpotissime, wa/toOT,and paulum (for which, however, in combination with cop:iparatiYes, thq ablatives multo and paulo are more soinmoply used), nimium (the same as nimis), parum, and, lastly, the numeral adverbs ^nV»M»», iterum, tertium, quar- tum. 3fc„ which have also the termination o (see 5 123). and postiemurjn, (o), and ultimum (o), which are formed according to the analogy of the numeral adverbs. Poets in pajticniar, and Tacitus, who follows their example, are acoustcHjaed to use the neuter of adjeptives, of the second as well 33 of the third decleusiqn, as adverbs \ e. g-, mut- * [Probably to be traced to the Saosci-vt root jwJ, " to go," and hence the primitive meaning wou W ^)^, pejhws. '" in, cirvuAt," '* from on all sides,"' i. e., ••very," &c. (Put, Etymi/I. fm-sch., \o\. i., p. 24i.) Donaldson, however, connects it with the Greek iirimdov, and makes it synonymous with fiemt < Vanroniaiuis, p> 62.)}— Am, Ed, 318 LATIN GKAMMAK. turn aimilis, acutum cernere, mite, dulce, crassum, 2 says, id adeo ex ipso senatusconsulto cognoscite ; id adeo sciri facillime potest exlitteris publicis civilatum {in Verr.,iv., 6i ; iii., 51), and puts the adeo al- ways after a pronoun. (Comp. Spalding on Quintil., ii., 16, 18.) [% 282.] Ut, as, must be mentioned here as a relative adverb expressive of similarity. From it is formed utjque by means of the suffix que, which will be considered in () 288. It signihes " however it may be," and hence " certainly." Curt., iv., 44, nihil quidem habeo venule, sed fortunam meam utique Hon vendo. The compounds sicut, velut, tamquam, to which we must add quasi, when used without a verb and as an adverb, signify " as" or " like." The dif- ference in their application seems to be, that tamqvam and quasi express a merely conceived or imaginary similarity, whereas sicut denotes a real one. Hence Cicero says, tamquam serpens e latibulis intuUsti te ; gloria virtutem tamquam umbra sequitur ; philosophia omnium artium quasi parens est, where the similarity mentioned is a mere conception or supposition ; but it ap- proaches nearer to reality in me sicut alterum parentem diligit ; defends te sicut caput meum. Velut is used by late authors in the same sense as quasi ; but in Cicero it has not yet acquired this signification, but has the pecu- ■ liar meaning of our " for example ;" as, bestiae, quae gignuntur e terra, velut crocodili ; non elogia monumenforum hoc significant, velut hoc ad portam ? and other passages. All these adverbs occur, also, as conjunctions ; in Cicero, however, only tamquam (besides quasi), with and without the addition of si. Perinde and proinde have the same meaning, and are adverbs of similar- ity ; but perinde is- much more frequently found in prose writers. The reading is often uncertain ; and as proinde is well established as a con- junction in the sense of " therefore" (see ^ 344), many philologers have been of opinion that prozn<2e, wherever the sense is " like," is only a cor- ruption of perinde. But this supposition is contradicted by the authority of the poets, who use proinde as a word of two syllables. (Comp. Ruhn ken on Rutil. Lupus, p. 31.) We most frequently find the combinations perinde ac, perinde ac si, as if, as though j perinde ut, in proportion as, to connect sentences. (See ^ 340.) But without any such additions, Cice- ro, for example, de Fin., i., 21, says, vivendi artem tantam tamque operosam tl perinde fructuosam (and as fruitful) relinquat Epicurus ? [^ 283.] iSecttihas been classed among the primitives, because its deriva lion is uncertain. We believe that it is derived from sequor ; and we might, therefore, have in6luded it, like motdiau, among those adverbs mentiuiied 226 LATIN GRAMMAR. in ^ 26Q. W« hold that its primary signification is " in jiursuancfc," " af ter," "beside," which still appears in the compounds intrinsecus and ex- trinsecus. {ij 289.) Hence it comes to signify " less," or " otherwise," viz., " tha': it should be." Thus we say, miki aliter videiur^ recte secmne, nilul ad te, justly or less justly, where we might also say an minus ; stores aecus ceciderii, if the thing should turn out differently, that is, less well. A com- f)arative secius (also spelled seqnius) occurs very rarely, because secus itseli las the signification of a comparative ; it is joined with an ablative, nihilo seci7is, not otherwise, nevertheless ; quo secius the same as quo minus, in or- der that not. [i 284.] To y,nquam, ever, and usquam, somewhere, we must apply thai which has already been said o{quisquam, ^ 129 : they require a negation in the sentence ; and although this negation may be connected with another word, unquam and usquam become the same as nunquam and nus- quajn ; e. g., neque te usquam vidi, the same as te nusquam vidi. The place of a negative proposition may, however, be taken by a negative question ; as, num iu eum unquam vidisti ? hast thou ever seen him 1 But uspiam is not negative any more than the pronoun quispiam ; but it is the same as alicubiy except that its meaning is strengthened, just as quispiam is the same as aliquis. In the writings of modern Latinists and grammarians we find the form nuspiam, which is said to be the same as nusquaTn, But nus- piam does not exist at all, and its formation is contrary to analogy. [^ 285.] It is difficult to define the difference between tum and tunc, because the editions of our authors themselves are not everywhere correct. But in general the difference may be stated thus ; tunc is " then," " at that time," in opposition to nunc ; tum is " then," as the correlative of the relative quum ; e. g., quum omnes adessent, tum ille exorsics est dicere, when all were present, then ne began to speak. Without a relative sentence, tumia used m the sense of our " hereupon," " thereupon ;" but we may always sup- ply such a sentence as " when this or that had taken place." The same difference exists between etiamnunc and etiamtum, which we translate by '* still" or "yet," and between nunc ipsum and tum ipsum, quummaxime and tummaxime, just or even then; for etiamnunc, nunc ipsum, and quummaxime refer to the present ; hut' etiamtum, tum ipsum, and tummaxime to the past ; e. g., etiamnunc puer est, and etiamtum puer erat ; adest quummaxime frater meus, and aderat tummaxime frater, my brother was just then present Compare % 732. [() 286.] Jam, combined with a negative word, answers to our "longer;" 6. g., nihil jam spero, I no longer hope for anything ; Brutus Muiinae vixjam sustinebat, could scarcely maintain himself any longer. It is also used for the purpose of connecting sentences, and then answers to our "further' or " now." [/i^«e, ever and anon, does not occur very frequently in this sense ; e, g., in Horace, Epist., i., 10, 24, naturam expellas furca, tamen usque re- curret. It is commonly accompanied by a preposition, viz., ad and in, or ab and ex, and denotes time and place ; e. g., usque ad portam, usque a prima aetate. See Chap. LXV., 4. [^ 287.] Nuper, lately, is used in a very relative sense, and its meaning depends upon the period which is spoken of ; for Cicero (d« Nat. Dear., ii., 50) says of certain medical observations, that they were nuper, id est ^laucis ante saeculis reperta, thinking at the time of the whole long period 111 which men had made observations. In like manner, the length of time (Expressed by modo (see ^ 270) and mox is indefinitfe. The latter word, as was observed above, originally signified "soon alter," but is very often used simply in the sense of '• afterward." Dudum is probably formed from diu (est) dum, ani answers to the English "previously" or "before," in relation to a time which has just passed away ; whence it may often be 'ranslated by " shortly before ;" e. g., Cic, ad Att., xi., 24, gtioe dudum ad f time is set forth more strongly ia jamdudum, long before, or long since PniMlTIVE ADVERBS. 227 This wi rd, with poets, contains tlie idea of impatience, and tignifies 'witiiout delay," "forthwith," as in the line of Virgil, Aen., ii,, 103, jam- dudiim sumite poenas. The same strengthening of the meaning appears in jamprtdem, long since, a long time ago. Tandem, at lengtfi, likewise serves to express the impatience with which a question is put, and even more stronglythan nam (9 134) ; e. g., Cic, Philip., i., 9, kaec utrum tandem 'ex est an legum omnium dissolutio ? [§ 288.] 3-. The Adverbs of Place, mentioned above, No. 2, ubi, where 1 and undc, whence ? together with the adverbs derived from the relative pronoun, viz., quo, whither 1 and qua, in what way ] are in relation to other adverbs, demonstratives, relatives, and indefinites, which are formed in the same manner. All together form a sys- tem of adverbial correlatives similar to that of the pro nominal adjectives. (See above, § 130.) We shall be- gin with the interrogative form, which is the simplest [ts form (as in English) is the same as that of the relative and differs from it only by its accent. The relative ac- quires a more general meaning, either by being doubled, or by the suffix cunque, which is expressed in English by " ever," as in " wherever." Without* any relative mean- ing, the simple form acquires a more general signification by the suffix que, or by the addition of the particular words vis and lihet. (We call it an adverhium loci generale.J The fact of the suffix que not occurring with quo and qua is easily accounted for by the possibility of confounding them with the adverb quoqiiQ and the ablative quaque ; but still, in some passages at least, quaque is found as an adverb, and so also the compound usquequaque, in any way whatever. The demonstrative is formed from the pronoun is, and its meaning is strengthened by the suffix dem. The indefinite is derived from the pronoun aliquis, or by compositions with it. We thus obtain the follow- ing correlative adverbs : * We say wilhout in regard to the general analogy. There are, how ever, passages in which the suffix que forms a generalizing relative, and in which, e. g., quandaque is used for quandoamqite, as in Horat!, Ara Poet., J59, qimiaque bamis dormitat Honwrus, and freiiuently in Tacitus. Se« he comn entators on Livy, i., 24, 3. 228 LATIN GRAMMAR. Interru^. | Relative. DeiiioiiMtr. Itiitetiiiitc. UiiiverBO. Ubij wliure i ufn, where. i/n, there. alieubi, (fuiuu- ubique, > ^„_„ ubiubi. ibidem. where. ubtlibet, r^here. ubicunaue. Undt^ whence ?'un(ic, whence inde, thence. aHevnde, frooi vn^quct ) from undeviSf / every- undefibetf ) where. \undeumlp.. indidem. some pl.ice undecunque. QiiM, whither? quo. whiiher. CO, thither. aliguOf to some quQviSf \ to guoquo. eodem. place. guotibet, ? every ) place. quozunque. Qua^ IL v/haiqua iii the ea, in that aliqua, in soma quaviSf \ in direction 1 in way in which. way. way. qualibet, * every J way. what way ? quaqua. eadem. quncunqve. [§ 289.] To these we must add those which are formed isy composition with alius, nullus, utcr, and answer to the q.;3Sti on where] a/z6i, elsewhere; wwWiiJ, nowhere (whicli, however, is based only on one passage of Vitruvius, vii., I , its place being supplied by nusqitam) ; titrubi or utrobi, in which of two places 1 with the answer utrablque, in each of the two places. Inibi is a strengthening form of ibi, and signifies " in the place itself." To the question whence ? answer aliunde, from another place ; utrimque, from both sides, which formation we find again in intrin- secus, from within, and extrinsecus, fi-om without. To the question whither 1 answer alio, to another place j to utro, to which of two sides 1 answer utrogue, to both sides, and neutro, to neither. The following are formed with the same termination, and have the same meaning : quopiam and quoquam, to some place (the former in an affirmative, and the latter in a negative sentence, like quisquam) ; intra, into ; retro, back ; ultra, beyond ; citro, this side, chiefly used in the combination of uJtro et citro, ultra citro- que (towards that and this side), but uZtro also signifies "in addition to," and " voluntarily," Porro is formed from_pro, and signifies "onward" or "farther," e. g., porro pergere. In the latter sense it is used also as a conjunction to eon- nect sentences. Compounds of eo are : adeo, up to that degree or point, so much ; eousque, so long, so far ; ana )f quo: quousque and quoad, how long] We have farthei .0 notice the adverbs with the feminine termination of the ablative a (which is probably to be explained by supply- ing via), which have become prepositions ; viz. : citra, contra, extra, intra, supra, dei'ived from the original forms, cis, con,, ex, in, super ; also, irifra, below; and ultra, beyond (from the adjectives infer and ulter, which, however, do not occur) ; circa, ai-oun^ ; and juxta, by the sides or in PRIMITIVE ADVEKBS. 229 like manner. The derivation of the last two is doubtful, but they belong to the adverbs of place. In this way arose, also, ncquaquam, and haudquaquam, in no way ; usquequaque, in all points, in all ways, composed of the above-mentioned quaque and usque. [§ 290.] We here add the correlatives to the question whither % qnorsum or quorsus ] (contracted from quover- sum, or quoversusj. The answers to them likewise end in us and um (but sometimes the one and sometimes the other is more commonly used) : horsum, hither ; aliquo- versum, towards some place ; aliorsum, towards another place ; quoquoversus, towards every side ; utroqucversum, introrsum, prorsum, forward (prorsiis is better known in the derivative sense of " entirely") ; rursum, or more fre- quently retrorsum, backward (rursus remained in use in the sense of "again"); «2c 230 LATIN GRAMMAR. what wayl we answer by the demonstiatives Aa::, istac, lilac, which are properly ablatives, the word via beiug understood. Note 1. — Cicero Ihus writes to Afticus, who was staying >.t Rome, while he himself lived in exile at Thessalonica, in Macedonia (iii., 12) : Licet tibi sigTjiJicariTi} , ut ad me venires, id omittam tamen ; intetUgo te re istic pro- desse, hie ne verbo quidem tevare me posse. Istic, where you are, that is, at Rome, you can be really useful to me ; hie, here where I live, that is, at Thessalonica, you would not even be able to comfort me with a word. In this manner the Romans, in their letters, briefly and distinctly express the localities of the writer and the person addressed, as well as of the persons written about. [^ 292.] JVote 2. — Adhuc expresses the duration of time down to the pres ent moment, and therefore answers to our "still," when it signifies "un til now" (we also tind usque adhuc) ; and, strictly speaking, it should noi be confounded either with etiammmc, which does not contain the idea of duration of time, and answers to the question when? or with usque e and etiamtum, which are the corresponding expressions of the past time But even good authors apply the peculiar meaning of the word to the pres ent, and use adhuc, also, of the relative duration 'of the time past ; e. g. Liv., ixi., 48, Scipio quamquam gravis adhuc vulnere erat, tamen — profectus est ; Curt., vii., 19, praecipitatus ex eqiio barharus adhuc tamen repugnabat. " Not yet" is expressed by nondum, even in speaking of the present, more rare 'y by adhuc non. CHAPTER LXIV. COMPARISON OP ADVERBS. [§ 293.] 1. The Comparison of Adverbs is throughout dependant upon the comparison of adjectives, for those adverbs only have degrees of comparison which are de- rived from adjectives or participles by the termination e (o) or ter; and wherever the comparison of adjectives is wanting altogether or partly, the same deficiency occurs in their adverbs. 2. The comparative of adverbs is the same as the neu- ter of the comparative of adjectives (majus only has the adverb magis, § 265), and the superlative is derived from the superlative of the adjectives by changing the termina- tion us into e ; e. g., doctior, doctius ; elegantior, eleganti us; emendatior, emendatius; superlative, doctissijnus,doc- tissime ; elegantissime, emendatissime ; summits, summe. The positives in o (e. g., cito, raroj also make the supe la- tive in e ; meritissimo and tutissimo, however, are more commonly used than meritissime and tutissime. Note. — Thus the positive (see ij 111) is wanting of deterius, delerrime ; potius, potissime (we more frequently find potissimuin) ; vrius, primum or frimo (for prime is not used, but apprime, principally) ; the positive ociter, to Which on'uj and ecittimt belong, occurs very jarely, since the compara. PKEPOSITIONS. 23] live ocius has, at the same time, the meaning of a positive. Of vaMe, very {contracted from valide, rae me f era. prae se fert^ ptae tobis lulistia, which denote the open display of a thing 01 of a sentiment. Prae is commonly used in comparisons ; as in Cicero, prae se omnes con- temnit : ut ipse Cortsut in kae caitsa prae me minvs etiam^qiutm privatus esse videatur, in comparison with me ; Romamprae sua Capua irridebunt ; omni- um minas atque omnia pericula prae salute sua levia du^erant. It is frequently used, also, m the sense of " on account of," implying an obstacle; e. g., solem prae sagittarum mulfitudine non videbitis ; non mediiis fdius prae lacrimis possum reliqua ncc cogilare nee scribere ; non posstvm prut flelu et dolore diutius in hoc loco commorari, and so always with a negative particle, which, however, is sometimes implied in the negative significa- tion of the verb ; e. g., Liv,, vi., 40, quum prae indtgnilate rerum stupor silen- tiumque ceteros patrum defixisset ; xxxviii., 33, silentivnn prae meiu cetcroruirx fuit. [^ 31 1.] Pro, in regard to place " before," or " in front of a thing ;" e. g., pro vallo, pro castris aciem instruere, that is, in the front of, close by, or un- der the wall ; capias pro oppido collocare ; pro templis omnibus praesidia collo- cata sunt ; hasta posita est pro aede Jovis Slaloris ; Antonius sedens pro aede Castoris in for o. It also signifies, "at the extreme point of a thmg," so that the person spoken of is in or upon the thing, e. g., pro suggestu aliquid pronuntiare, pro tribunali edicere, pro rostris laudare Hence, also, pro testi- monio dicere, to declare as a witness, and other expressions denoting place, where pro is the same as in ; e. g., Tacit., Ann.^ i., 44, stabant pro coutione^ the same as in contione; ibid, ii., 81,jDro muris vocans, on the edge of the wall. The signification of soniething standing "before" a thing is the origin of that of "for," both in the sense of "instead," and that of protection Unus Cato est pro centum milibus ; Marcelli statua pro patibulofuit ; homo jam pro damnato est ; se gerere or esse pro cive ; habere pro hoslibus, pro snciis ; ha- bere pro cnrto ; aliquid pro mercede, pro praemio est ; aliquid pro nihilo estimar^^ habere, putare ; also " for" in speaking of payment, pro vectura solvere^ ta^ pay for freight ; dixit se dimidiwm, quod pactus esset, pro illo carmine d<^turupi jj praemia mihi data sunt pro hac industria maxima. " For," th© opposite of " against," hoc pro me est, or valere debet; Cicero pro Murtna oTrafioji^^ habuif^ and in numerous other instances. [^ 312.) Pro, " in accordance with," or " in proportion to,** occurs very frequently ; e. g., civitatibus pro rtumero militum pecuniarum summns descri, here, according to the number of soldiers fnrnish.ed by them,; ego vos pr^ mea summa et vobis cognita in rempublicam ditigentia m-oneoj pro auctoritate con sulari hortor, pro magnitudine pericuH ohtestor^ ut pad consulatis. Hence, ii; many particular phrases ; as, pro temppxe or pro temporibus^ in accordance with the circumstances of ^he tinie, that is^;;ro conditione f.emporumj but by no means *' for the time being," or " for a, time ;" pro. re or pro re nata, ac- cording to circumstances o^ emergencies ; pro meo jure, according to my right ; pro eo uf, pro en af, a,cco;'di.iig as ; e. g.^^Di gratiam mihi r^J^er^t pr.o eo ac mereor, \, e., pTQ eo tj^uod, quantum^ according to my merits ; especiatly to denote divisions or share ; pro parte, or pro mea^ tua, sua, part^ for my part, as far as lies iu me. ; pxo viT>ili pq^rje, according to the capacity of an indi- vidual ; as inj pro virili parte r^m^uhlicam defendere ; pro portionfyin propo^« tion ; prtf rata portione, or pto rata parte, in a correct proportion. In th^ phrase pro s€ qu{sque, every pn,e for his part, the tl^ree words have almost grown into one ; p. g., pro se quisque aurum, argentum et aes in publicum covi- ferunt, every one, thoiigh with a somewhat strengthened meaning. " every one without exception." Quam pro after comparatives deserves especial potice ; e. g.,^ major qi^am pro numer^. horskinum pugna editur ; s^d^s exceUiv fuam pro kabilu eorpojtis^ [^ 313.] Tenus is used to denote limitation ; e. g., Antiochv-s Tauro tenus v»giuire juBB%ia eat, »s f»r 98 Mouat Taurus, especially in the combination PROPOSITIONS, 24,1 of verba and nomine temtSy as far as the word or the name goes. So also. ore terms sapientia cxercitatus in Tacitus, that is, that he could speak wisely but not act wisely. It is only in poetry that this preposition is connected with a genitive, and chiefly with a genitive plural ; e. g., labrorum tenus, up to the hp ; crurum tenusy latencm tenus ; but in Livy, xxvi., 24, too, we find Corcyrae tenus. The accusative is still more rare. 3. Prepositions with the Accusative and Ablative. [^ 3H-] ^n with the accusative expresses the point in space towards which a movement is directed, like our " to," or *' into :" in aedem ire, in publicum prodire, in Graeciam proficisci^ in civitatem recipere j also the direc- tion in which a thing extends, e. g.j decern pedes in latitudinem, in longi- tudinem, in altitudinem, in breadth, length, height ; further, independent of locality, it denotes the object towards which an action is directed, either with a friendly or hostile intention : amor inpatriam, odium in malos cives^ in duces vekemens^ in milites hberalis, dicere in ali(iuemj and so, also, oratio in aliquem, a Speech against some one. It also denotes an objector purpose : haec commutari ex veris in falsa non possunt ; in majus celebrare, for something greater, so that it becomes some- thing greater ; w imperator in poenam exercitus expetitus esse vid&tur ; pecunia data est hi rem militarem ; paucos in speciem captivos ducebant, for the sake of appearance ; in contumeliam perfugae appellabantur; for the purpose of dis- gracing them ; cum in eam sententiam multa dixissety in support of this flpinion; in hanc formulaniy in has leges^ in haec verba, &c., scribere,foedus facere. [^ 315.] When joined with words denoting time, it expresses a prede *ermination of that time like the English '• for ;" e. g., invitare aliquem in posterum diem, for the following day ; praedicere in multos annos, in paucos dies, in multos menses subsidia vitae habere, in hodiemum diem, for this present day ; and so in many phrases ; as, in diem vivere, to live only for the day ; rnfuturum, inposterum, in retiquum, for the future ; in aetemum, in perpetuum, for ever ; in praesens, for the present ; in all these cases the word tempus 5tiay be addea. Without denoting time, in is used also with the accusa- tive of other words to express the future; e. g., Patres in incertum comi' tiorum eventnm auctoresjiunt, give their sanction to the yet uncertain reso- lutions of the comitia. When joined with the numeral singuli, or when this word is to be un derstood, in expresses a distribution, like the English "on," "for," or "over;" e. g., in sing-ulas 'civitates binos censores describere ; queritur Sicilia tota, Verrem ab aratoribus profrumentu in modios singulos duodenos sestertios exegisse ; so, also, pretium in capita statuere ; i. e., in singula capita ; temis numm.is in pedem tecum transegit, \. e., in. singulos pedes. We must here no- tice also the expression in singulos dies, or in dies alone, " from day to day," with comparatives and verbs containing the idea of a comparative, such as crescere, augere. . It, lastly, denotes, in some phrases, the manner of an action ; servilem, hostitem, miserandam in modum ; mirum, mirabilem, mirandum in modum ; in universum, in general ; in commune, in common ; in vicem, alternatelv, or rnstead of; in Bruti locum consulatum peter e, in the place or instead of. [^ 316.] In with the ablative, when it denotes place, most commonly expresses " being in a place or in a thing," while with the accusative it indicates a movement or direction towards it. It may sometimes be translated by "on," or "upon." but always answers to the question Where ? e. g., coronam in collo habere; aliquid in humeris ferre ; in ripa flu- minis ; in litorc maris urbs condlta est ; pons injlumine est. When a number or quantity is indicated it answers to " among ;" e. g., esse, haberi, poni, nUTnerari in bonis civibus ; in magnis viris, in mediocribus oratoribus, in septem vagantibus, among the seven planets, so that in is equal to inter. A par- ticular phrase is aliquid in mariibus est, a thing is In hand, or has been commencet^ ; as in Livy, haec contentio trmime idoneo tempore^ quum tantum A 242 r.ATIN GRAMMAS. belli in majiilms esset, occuparat cogitationes hominum. In manibus habere, < be engaged upon a thing ; as in Cicero, Quam spent nunc habeat in manib et quid moliatur, breviter jam exponam. AHquid in oculis est, a thing is o. vious. Now and then we find, in good authors, in with the accusative, wheit the grammatical rule requires the ablative. See the commentators oi Livy, ii., 14 ; but this is limited to a very few political and legal expres- sions, such as in potestatem, in amicitiam dicionemque esse, manere (Cic. Divin. in Q. Caecil.^ 20 ; in Verr., v., 38), in vadimonium, in moram esse, a:. preferred in subdivisions, whereas the main propositi ms are connected bj et ; e. g., Cic, in Verr., v., 15, Cur tibi fasces ac secures, et tantam vim imperii tantaque ornamenta data censes 1 Divin.^ 12, Di_fficile est tantam causam et diligentia consequi, et memoria complectif et oratione expromerCf et voce ac viribus sustinere. [4 33t.] Neque is formed from the ancient negative particle and que, and is used for et nan. Et non itself is used when the whole proposition is affirmative, and only one idea or one word in it is to be negatived ; e. g., Cic, Brut., 91, Athenis apud Demetrium Sj/rum, veterem et non ignobilem di- cendi magistrum, exerceri solebam ; in Verr. ,i.,\,patior et non molests fero ; de Orat., iii,, 36, videris mihi aliud quiddam et non id quod suscepisti disputasse, and when our " and not" is used for " and not rather," to correct an im- proper supposition; e, g., Cic, in Verr., i., 31, si quam Rvhrius injuriam suo nomine ac non impulsu tuofecisset. See ^ 781. Et non is, besides, found in the second part of a proposition when et precedes, but neque may be and frequently is used for et non in this case ; e. g., Cic, ad Fam., xiii., 23, Manlius et semper me coluit, et a studiis nostris non obhorrH; ad Att., ii., 4, id et nobis erit perjucundum, et tibi non sane devium. Nee {neque) non is not used in classical prose in quite the same way as et to connect nouns, but only to join propositions together (see Ruhnken on Veil. Pat., ii., 95), and the two words are separated ; e. g., Nepos, Att,, 13, Nemo Auico minw fait aedificator, neque tamen non imprimis bene habitavit. Cicero several times uses nee veto non, and the like ; but in Varro and later writers, such as Quintilian, nee non are not separated, and are in all essential points equivalent to et. [^ 335.] Etiam and quoque are in so far different in their meaning, that eiiam, in the first place, has a wider extent than quoque, for it contains also the idea of our " even ;" and, secondly, etiam adds a new circum- stance, whereas guogue denotes the addition of a thing of a similar^kind Hence etiam is properly used to connect propositions. This difference seems to be correctly expressed in stating that etiam is " and farther," and quoque " and SO, also." As in this manner quoque refers to a single word, It always follows that word etiam, in similar cases, is usually placed be- fore it, but when it connects propositions its place is arbitrary. Et, too, is sometimes used in the stose of " also," in classical prose ; e. g., Curt., iii., 31, non errasti, mater, nam et hie Alexander est ; Cic, de JJegg., ii., 16, quod et nunc multis in fanis jit, for nunc quoque; in Verr., iv., 61, simul et verebar; and v., 1, simul etde illo vulnere — multa dixit ; and often non modo— sed et; e, g., Cic, in Verr., i., 1, non modo Romae, sed et apud exteras naiiones; Nepos, Thrasyb., 1, non solum princeps, sed et solus bellum indixit. (See Bremi's remark on this passage, who states that sed et is not merely "but also," but always " but even.") But passages of this kind are not very numerous, and not always certain, for the MSS. usually have etiam, so that this use of et in prose (for poets cannot be taken into account) must at least be very much limited, and it should not be used to that extent in which modem Latinists apply it. [^ 336.] The disjunctive conjunctions differ thus far, that aut indicates a difference of the object, and vel a difference of expression. Vel* is con- nected with the verb ?js"e (vel — vel, will you thus, or will you thus ?), and the single vel is used by Cicero only to correct a preceding expression, com- monly ' combined with dicam, or potius, or etiam; e. g., peteres vel potiua rogares; stuporem hominis vel dicam pecudis videte {Philip , li., 12); laud^-nda est vel etiam arruinda (p. Plane., 9) ; it very rarely occurs without SL a an * tCompare Cronfbie^s Gijmnasium vol. i., p. tUl.] — Am. Efl. iJ54 LATIN GRAMMAR. addition, but even then its meaning is corrective ; e. g., Tusc, ii., 20, sum mum bonum a virtute profectum, vel (or rather) m ipsa virlute positum ; tie Nat. Deor.j ii., 15, in ardore coelesti, qui aether vel caelum Twminatw, where it like- wise denotes not so much the equivalence of the terms, as the preference which is to be given to the Latin word. (Concerning the use of vel to de note an increase, see 4 108 and I) 734, where, also, its signification of " for example," velut, is explained. Both these significations are derivable from what has here been said.) From this in later, though still good prose, arose the use of vel in the sense of " or," that is, that in point of fact one thing is equal to another, a meaning which ve, in connecting single words, has even in Cicero ; e. g., Philip., v. 19, Consules alter amlovefaciatt, that is, in point of fact, it is the same whether both consuls or only one of them do a thing; Top., 5, Esse ea dim, quae cemi tangive possunt, that is, either of the two is sufficient. Sive either retains the meaning of the conjunc- tion « (which is commonly the case), and is then the same as vel si, or it '.OSes it by an ellipsis (perhaps of dicere mavis), and is then the same as vel, denoting a difference of name, as in Quintilian, vocabulum sive appellatio ; Cic, regie seu potius tyrannice. The form seu is used by Cicero very rarely, and almost exclusively in the combination seu potius ; but in poetry and later prose it occurs frequently. [^ 337.] The disjunctive conjunctions atu and ve serve to continue the negation in negative sentences, where we use "nor;" e. g., Verres non Honori aut Virtuti vota debebat, sed Veneri et Cupidini; and we may say, also, non HoTiori neque Virtuti, and in other cases we might use ve, analo- gous to the. ajfirmative que. See Ruhnken on Veil. Pat., ii., 45, and the commentators on Tacit., Ann., i., 32, in fin. Examples: Cic, p. Flacc.. 5, Itaque non optimus quisque nee gravissimus, sed impudentissimus loquacissi musque deligitur ; Horat., Serm., i., 9, 31, Huncnec hosticus auferet ensis, nee laterum dolor aut tarda podagra ; ibid., i., 4, 73, Nee recito cuiquam nisi amicis, non ulivis coramve quibuslibet ; Cic, ad Fam., v., 13, Nullum membrum reip reperies, quod rum fractum debilitatumve sit ; and in negative questions, Cic. . Philip., v., 5, Num leges nostras moresve novit? in Verr., v., 13, Quid rne attinet dicere aut conjungere cum istius jlagitio cujusquam praeterea dedeeas ? 0! after comparatives, Cic, p. Mur., 29, Accessit istuc doctrina nonmoderata nee mitis, sed paulo asperior et durior, quam Veritas aut natura patidtur. It is only in those cases m which both words are to be united mto one idea that a copulative conjunction is used ; e. g., Cic, m Verr., iii., 86, nummos non erarat arator, rum aratro ac manu quaerit. Comp. the longer passage in Cic. De Nat. Dear., ii., 62, in fin. [^ 338.] The Latin language is fond of doubling the conjunctions of this kind, whereby words and propositions are more emphatically brought un der one general idea. The English " as well as" is expressed by et — et, which is of very common occurrence ; et — que occurs not unfrequently in late writers, in Cicero by way ol exception only ; que — et connects single words, but not in Cicero ; que — que is found only in poetry. The only prose writer who uses it is Sallust, Cat.,9,seque remque publicum curabant ; Jug., 10, meque regnumque meum gloria horutravisti ; but It is not uncommon in the case of the conjunction being appended to the relative pronoun; e. g., quiqueeaissent, quique ibi tmtnsissent; captivi, quique Campa^ norum, quique Hannibalis militum erant, in Livy ; or junctis exercitibus, quique sub Caesare fuerant, quique ad eum venerant, in Velleius, The latest critics have removed similar passages from the works of Cicero ; see the com- ment, on de Urat.f \., 26, and de Fin.^ v., 21 ; ruictetque diesque, in de Fin,, i., 16, is an allusion to a passage in a poem. Negative propositions are con- nected in English by " neither— nor," and in Latin by neque — nrque, or nee — 7iec ; neque — nee, which is not unfrequent, and by iipc — neqiie, which seldom occurs. CONJUNCTIOXS. 25{, Propositions, one of which is negative and the other affirmative, ' on the one hand, but not on the other," or " not on the one hand, but on thi other," are connected by et—ruque (uec) > ^^^^^ of very frequent occurrence. neque [nee) — et J -^ ^ nee (neoMc) — que^ occurs occasionally. [^ 339.] Our " either — or," is expressed by aut — avt, denoting an oppo sition between two things, one of which excludes the other, oihyvel — vel denoting that the opposition between two things is immaterial in respect of the result, so that the one need not exclude the other. E. g., Catiline. in Sallust, says to his comrades, vel imperatore vel milite me utimini, that is it is indiflFerent to me in which capacity you may make use of me, only do make use of me. A similar idea is described more in detail by Ter- ence, Eun., ii., 3, 28, Hanc tu mihi vel vi, vel clam, vel precario fac tradas . mea nihil refert, dumpotiar modo ; i. e., you may effect it even in a fourth way, if you like. Sive — sive is the same as vel si — vel si, and therefore transfers the meaning of tit/ — vel to the cases in which it is applied; e. g., Cic, Jllo loco libentissime soleo uti, sive quid mecum cogito, sive aliquid seriht aui lego. If there is no verb, and nouns only are mentioned in oppositior to each other, an uncertainty is expressed as to how a thing is to be called, e. g., Cic, Tusc, ii., 14, Cretum leges, quas sive Juppiter sive Minut sanxit, laboritms erudiunt juventulem, i. e., I do not know whether I am tc say Juppiter or Minos; ad Quint. Frat., i., 2, His in rebus si apud le plui auctoritas mea, quam tua sive natura paulo acrior, sive quaedam dulcedo ira cundiae, sive dicendi sal facetiaeque valuissent, nihil sane esset, quod nos poe niteret. [§ 340.] 2. The following express a comparison, "as,' "like," "than as if" (conjunctiones comparativae) ; ut oi uti, sicut, velut, prout, praeut, the poetical ceu, quam, tarn quam (with and without si), quasi, ut si, ac si, togethei with ac and atque, when they signify "as." Note. — Ac and atque are used in the sense of " as," or " than," after tht adverbs and adjectives which denote similarity or dissimilarity; aeque. juxta, par and pariter, perinde and proinde, pro eo, similis, dissimilis and si militer, talis, totidem, alius and aliter, contra, secus, contrarius ; e. g., rum alite: scribo ac sentio ; aliud mihi ac tihi videtur ; saepe aliud jit atque existimamus . simile fecit atque alii ; cum totidem navibus rediit atque erat profectus. Quam after these words (as in Tacit., Ann., vi., 30, perinde se quam Tiberium falli potuisse) is not often used, except in the case of a negative parti cle being joined with alius ; e. g., Cicero, virtus nihil aliud est, quam in si perfecta et ad summum perducta natura, where nisi might be used instead ol quam. Respecting proinde ac, instead of the more frequent perinde ac, see above, ^ 282. Et and que do not occur in this connexion like ac and atque and wherever this might appear to be the case, from the position of the words, as in Sallust, juxta b. Mil., 23, Ca-asa Milomp romper a senatu probata est ; videbant enim sapientissimi homijies facti Tp.ti(mini, vraesei tiam animi, defensionis constantiam. An vera obliti estis, &,c. ,* de I'm., 1., 8, "iVed ad haec, nisi Tnolestum est, habeo quae velim. An me, mquam,n'si tc cu^Hts vellem, cerises haec dicturum fuisse ? In this sentence we have to suppl) b.'fore an, dicesne? An, after a preceding question, is rendered by "nttl" anvi it then indicates that the answer cannot be doubtful; e. g., Cic, ^ Verr.,v,, 2, Quiddicis? An belief ugitivorum Siciliam airtute tualiberatim { Do you not say that Sicily, &c. (In Latin vve must evidently supply utrum aliud 7) So, also, Cat. Maj., 6, A rebus gerendis senectus abstrahil. Qii.'6u«?' Anhis,quae gerunturjuventuteacviribus? Sup- ply Aliisne? de Ofi.,\., 15, Quidnam benejicio provocati facere debemus ? An imitari agrosfer tiles, qui 7KUi:ii plus efferunt quam acceperunt? Must we not imitate ? Hence such ques'ions may also be introduced by nonne, but without allusion to an opposite question which is implied in an. [t) 354.] There is, however, .ino great exception to the rule that an if used only to indicate a secona oi opposite question, for an is employee' after the expressions dvhito, duJtu.n est, incertum est, and several similar ones ; such as delibero, haesito, and n.oro especially after nescio or baud scio, all of which denote uncertainty, but wivh an inclination in favour of the affirmative. Examples are numerous. Nep., Thrasyb., \, Si per se virtua sine fortuna ponderanda sit, dvhito an hw^c ^rimum omnium ponam, if virtue is 10 be estimated without any regard as tc its success, I am not certain whether I should not prefer this man to all vth^rs. Compare Heusinger's note on that passage. Curt., iv., 59, Dicitur a.-inace stricto Dareus dubitasse, an fugae dedecus honesta morte vitaret, that is, be was considering as to whether he should not make away with hin.st\f. It is not Latin to say Dubito annon for dutito an, for the passage of Cict 0, de Off., iii., 12, dubitat an turpe non sit, signifies, he is inclined to believe (htt it is not bad, putat non turpe esse, sed honestum. Respecting incertum es;, see Cic, Cat. Maj., 20, Moriendum enim certe est, et id incertum, an eo ipso dis, h.ud this is uncer- tain, as to whether we are not to die on this ver)- day. iVirscio an, or haud scio an, are therefore used quite in the sense of " peiiairs," so that they are followed by the negatives nullus, nemo, nunquam, insteiectamus, ex qwdam ruTKore, an ex litteris tuU ad alios missis. There can be no dOLOt that the expression incertum est is understood in such cases ; in Tacitus it is often added. Compare Cic, ad /am., vii., 9 ; ad Atl., ii. 7, 3 ; Brtil., 23, 89. Cicero, however, could not go as far as Tacitus, who connects an with a verb in the indicative ; Ann., xiv., 7, Igitur Ipngum utriusjue si- lentium, ne irriti dissuaderent. an eo descensum credebant, instead of incertum est factumne sit earn ob causam, ne imli aissuatlerent, an quia credebant. The conjunction si is sometimes used in indirect interrogations instead of man, like the Greek el; e. g., Liv., xxxix., 50, nihil aliud (Philopoemenem) hcutumferunt, quam quaesisse, si incolumis Jjycortas evasisset. After the verb experior, I try, it is used also by Cicero, Philip., ix., 1, non recusavit, qim- minus vel extrenw .spiritu, si quam opem reip. ferre posset, experiretur. Respect- ing expectare si, see Schneider on Caes., Bell. Gall,, ii., 9. [§ 355.] 11. Most conjunctions are placed at the begin- ning of the proposition which they introduce ; only these few, enim, autem, vera, are placed after the first word of a proposition, or after the second, when the first two be- long together, or when one of them is the auxiliary verb esse, as in Cicero fde Orat., i., 44), incredibile est enim, quam sit omne jus civile, praeter hoc nostrum,, inconditum ac paene ridiculum ; but rarely after several words, as in Cic, p. Cluent., 60, Per quern porro datum venerium ? unde sumptum ? quae deinde interceptio poculi ? cur non de integro autem datum 1 Compare Ellendt on Cic, Brut., 49. Quidem and quoque, when belonging to single words, may take any place in a proposition, but they are always placed after the word which has the emphasis. Itaque and igitur are used by Cicero with this distinction, that itaque, according to its composition, stands first, while igitur is placed after the first, and sometimes even after several words of a proposition ; e. g., in Verr., i., 32, Huic Jiomini parcetis igitur, judices 1 de Nat. Deor., iii., 17, Ne Orcus quidem deics igitur? But other authors, especially later ones, place both indiscriminately either at the beginning of a proposition, or after it. In like manner, tamen is put either at the beginning of a propo- sition, or after the first word. [^ 356.] 2V"o«e.— All the other conjunctions stand at the beginning ; with Bome this is the case exclusively ; viz., with et, etenim, ac, at, atque, atqui, neque, nee, aut, vel, sive, sin, sed, nam, verum, and the relatives quare, quo tirca, quamobrem ; others are generally placed at the beginning, but when a particular word is to be pronounced with peculiar emphasis, this word (and all that belongs to it) stands first, and the conjunction follows it, as in Cicero, Tantum moneo, hoc tempus si amiseris, te esse nullum unquam magis idoneum reperturum ; vaUre ut mails, quam dives esse ; nullum injustitia partum praemium tantum est, semper ut timeas, semper ut adesse, semper ut im pendere aliquampoenam putes. The same is not unfrequcntly the case in combinations ofconjunctions with pronouns, especially with the relatw* pronoun ; e. g.. Hoc quum dicit, illud vull intelligi ; qui quoniam quid l'"'"^ CONJUNCTIONS. 265 vitelligi noluit, omittamus, Cic. It must be observed, as a peculiarity, iliat ut, even without there being any particular emphasis, is commonly placed after the words vix, paene, and prope, and also after the negatives mdlTu nemo, nihit^ and the word tantum ; e. g., vix ut arma retinere posset ; nihil ui de commodis suis cogitarent. The conjunctions que, we, and ne are appended to other words, and stand with them at the beginning of a proposition j but when a monosyllabic preposition stands at the beginning they often attach themselves to the case governed by those prepositions ; e. g., ^o- mam Cato (Tusculo) demigravit, inforoque esse coepit ; legatum miseruntj ut is apud eum causam aratonaii ageret, ab eoque peteret ; and so, also, ad populum ad plebemve'ferre ; in nostrane potestate est quid Tjieminerimus ? We never tind adque obqtte, ague ; whereas proque summa benevoletitia, and the like, are used exclusively; and in other combinations either method may be adopted : citmque his copiis and cum Jirmisque praesidiis ; exque his and ex Usque ; eque repubtica, deque universa rep. and de provinciaque decessit. Apud quosque, m Cic, de Off., i., 35, is an excusable peculiarity, because apudque juos would be against all euphony. [^ 357.] What was said above concerning the different positions of itaque and igilur in Cicero is well known, and generally correct ; but it is not so well known that igitur is, nevertheless, placed by that author now and then at the beginning of a proposition, and that not only in philosophic reasonings, as Bremi states on Cic, de Pin., i., 18, and as we find it in dc Fin., iv., 19, si illud, hoc : non autem hoc, igitur ne illud quidem ; but in the ordinary connexion of sentences ; in RulL, ii., 27, igitur pecuniam omnem Decemviri tenebunt; de Prov. Cons., 4, igitur in Syria nihil aliud actum est; Ijael.j \\, igitur ne suspicari quidem possumus ; Philip,,ii., 16, in fin., igitur fratrem exheredaiis te faciebat heredem; Philip., X., 8, igitur illi certissimi Caesaris actorum patroni pro I). Bruti saXute bellum gerunt ; de JjCg., i., C, Igitur doctissimis viris projicisci placuit a lege ; ad Att., vi., i,, 22, Igitur tu quoqu£ salutem utique adscribito. Sallust too frequently places igitur at th6 beginning. But itaque in the second place does not occur in Cicero, for in Philip., vii., 3, we must read, according to the best MS., igitur, instead of itaque, in the sentence, ego itaque pacis, ut ita dicam, alumnus, and in Partit. Oral., 7, quidem is more correct. In Curtius, ita^iue appears in the second place only once (vii., 30). In like manner, the rule cannot be upset by the few passages in which Cicero places vero, in answers, at the beginning {just as enim is used by the comic writers). See de Republ,, i., 37, ^ 43 ; de Leg., i., 24 ; in RulL, ii., 25 ; p. Mm., 31, ^ 65. [^ 358.] All this applies only to the practice of prose writers. Poets, according to the necessity of the verse, place even the prepositive con- junctions after one or more words of a proposition; e. g., Horat., Epod., 17, 45, et tu, potes nam, solve me dementiae; Serm., i., 5, 86, quattuor hiru rapimur viginti et milia rhedis ; ibid., i., 10, 71, vivos et roderet ungues. They separate etfrom the word belonging to it ; as, Horat., Carm., ili., 4, 6, mdin et videor pios errareper lucos ; Serm., ii., 6, 3, Auctius atque dii melius fectre ; and they append qiie and ve neither to the first word of a proposition, nor to their proper words in other connexions ; e. g., Tibull., i., 3, 55, Hie jacet immiti consumptus morte Tibullus, Messallam terra dum sequiturque mari, instead of the prose form terra marique ; and in Horat., Serm., ii., 3, 139, ]Von Pyladenferro violare aususve sororem. But it is to be observed that those conjunctions in such arbitrary positions are joined only to verbs. Isolated exceptions, such as in Horat., C<«rm., ii, 19, 28, pacis eras mediusque belli; and .iii, 1, 12, Moribus hie melio^yut fama contendat ; Ovid., Met.', ii., 89, dum resque sinit ; and Pedo Albui., M Morte Drusi, 20, cannot be taken into account. z 266 ultih grammar CIIAPTEB. LXVIII. ^ INTERJECTIONS. [§ 369.] 1. Interjections are sounds uttered undei the influence of strong emotions. They are indeclinable, and stand in no close connexion with the rest of the sen- tence ; for the dative and accusative, which are joined with some of them, are easily explained by an ellipsis. See § 402 and 403. 2. The number of interjections in any language cannot be fixed. Those which occur most frequently in Latir authors are the following : ("aj Of joy : io, iu, ha, he, hahahe, euoe, euax. (h) Of gripf : vae, heu, eheu, oJie, au, hei, pro. (e) Of astonishment : o, era or ecce, hui, hem, ehem, aha, aiat, papae, vah ; and of disgust : phui, apage. (See § 222.) (dj Of calling : Jieus, o, eho, ehodum ; of attestation ; pro, also written ^roA. (e) Of praise or flattery : eia, euge. [§ 360.] 3. Other parts of speech, especially nouns, substantive and adjective, adverbs and verbs, and even complex expressions, such as oaths and invocations, must in particular connexions be regarded as interjections. Such nouns are : pax (be still !), malum, indignum, ne- fandum, miserum, miserdbile — to express astonishment and indignation ; macte,, and with a plural macti, is ex- pressive of approbation. (See § 103.) Adverbs : nae, prqfecto, cito, bene, hdle ! Verbs used as interjections are : quaeso, precor, oro, ohsecro, amaho (to all of which te or vos, may be added), used in imploring and request- ing. S9, also, age, agite, cedo, sodes {ioi si audes), ns, sultis (for si vis, si vultisj, and agesis, agedum, agitedum. Note. — Nae in the best writers is joined only with pronouns : nae ego, nae illi vehementer errant, nae ista gloriosa sapientia non magni aestimanda est, Pyrrhus, after the battle of Heraclea, said, Nae ego, si iterum eodem modo vicero, sine utlo miUte in Epirum revertar, Oros., iv., 1. [§ 3C1.] 4. Among the invocations of the gods, the fol- lowing are particularly frequent : mehercule, mehercle, licrcule, hercle, or mehercules, hercules, medius fidiua, me- castor, ecastor,pol, edepol,per'deiim,per deum immortalem, per deos, per Jovem, pro (or prok J Juppiter, pro sannte (su- SYNTAX. 267 premej Juppiter, pro dii immortales, pro deumjidem, pro deum atque hmrdwim jidem,pro deum or pro deum immor- taliura (^cA,fidem), and several others of this kind. Note. — Me before the names of gods must be explained by an ellipsis : the 9'omplete expression was, ita me (e. g., Hercules) juvet; or with the vocative, ita me JSerciUe juves. The interjection mediusfidius arose, in all probability, from me dius (Aioc) fidius, which is archaic foiJUius, and ia thus equivalent to meheraUa, for Hercules is the son of that god. Meher cule is the form which Cicero [Orat.^ 47) approves, and which, along with hercule, occurs most frequently in his writmgs. See my note on in Verr., Ui., 62. The oath by Pollux {pol) is a very light one, and hence it is given especially to women in the comic writers. In edepol and edeccwtor the e is either the same as me, or it is a mere sound of interjection ; de is dens.* SYNTAX. I. CONNEXION OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.t CHAPTER LXIX. [§ 362.] 1. The subject of a proposition is that concern- ing which anything is declared, and the predicate that which is declared concerning the subject. The subject appears either in the form of a substantive, or in that ol an adjective or pronoun, supplying the place of a substan- tive. Whenever there is no such grammatical subject, the indeclinable part of speech or proposition which takes its place is treated as a substantive of the neuter gender. (Compare § 43.) [^ 363.] Note 1. — The manner in which a pronoun supplies the place of a substantive requires no explanation. An adjective can be used as a substantive only when a real substantive is understood.! The substan- tive most frequently and easily understood is homo, and many Latin words which are properly adjectives have thus acquired the meaning of substan lives ; e. g., amicus, familiaris, aeqvalis, vicinus, &c. (see 4 410, foil.), and others, such as socius, senms, libertinus, reus, candidatus, although most fre- quently used as substantives, nevertheless occur also as adjectives. Bii* •jpon this point the Dictionary must be consulted, and we only remark thaS 'I — — * [The more common, and very probably the more correct opinion makes edepol and edecastor to be for per osdem Poilucis, and per tedem Cos toris, i. e., " by the temple of Pollux," &c. These forms are still farther shortened into Epol, Ecastor. The dental D appears to have been dropped in the forms of the old Latin language when preceded and followed by a vowel, just as we find it to be frequently the case in the French forms of l^atin words. {Donaldson^s Varronianus, p. 272, note.y] — Am. Ed, + [For a more extended view of this subject, consult Weissenbom (Lat. Schulgramm.. p. 184, seqq.).'\—Am. Ed. % [Writers or. general grammar make the adjective as truly a noun, oi (he name of a thmg, as a substantive. (Consult Donaldson's New Cralyhu p. 375, segq.)] — Am. ILd. 868 LATIN GRAMMAR. ordinary objectives are used as substantives with the ellipsis of homo, aa bonus^ nocens, innocent. But an adjective in the singular is not commonly used in this way, and we scarcely ever find such a phrase ssprobus netm nem laedit, instead of homo probus neminem laedit. Sapiens, a sage, or a phi losopher, and liber, a free man, alone are used as substantives in the sin eular. In the plural, however, the omission of the substantive homines, denoting general classes of men, is much more frequent, and we find, e. g., pauperes, divites, boni, improbi, docti, and indocti, just as we say the rich, tne poor, &c. It must, however, be observed that very few adjec- tives, when used as substantives, can be accompanied by other adjectives, and we cannot say, e. g., multi docti for muUi homines (toW) docti* The neuters of adjectives of the second declension, however, are used very frequently as substantives, both in the singular and plural. Thus we read bonum, a good thing ; contranum, the contrary ; verum, that which is true ; malum, evil ; honestum in the sense of virtus; and bona, mala, contraria, &.c In the plural neuter adjectives of the third declension are used in the same way ; as, (urpi'a, levia, coetestia. But the Latins, in general, preferred adding the substantive res to an adjective, to using the neuter of it as a substantive ; as, res contrariae, res multae, res leviores, just as we do in English. [? 364.] Note 2.— It is worth noticing that the word miles is frequently used in Latin in the singular where we should have expected the plural; e. g., in Curtius, iii,, init., Alexander ad conducendum ex Peloponneso militem Cleandrum cum pecunia mittit ; Tac, .^nn., ii., 31, cingebatur interim milite domus, strepebant etiam in vestibuto. Similar words, such as egues, pedes, are used in the same way, and the instances are very numerous.t Itomanus, Pomus, and others are likewise used for Romani and Poeniva the sense of Roman, Punian soldiers. [§ 365.] 2. The predicate appears either in the form of » verb, or of the auxiliary combined with a noun. The predicate accommodates itself as much as possible to its subject. When the predicate is a verb, it must be in the same number as the subject ; e. g., arbor viret, the tree is green; arhores virent, the trees are green; deus est, God is ; dii sunt, the gods are or exist. When the pred- icate is an adjective, participle, or adjective pronoun, combined with the auxiliary esse, it takes the number and gender of the subject; e. g., puer est modestus, libri sunt mei, vrata sunt secta. When the predicate is a substan- tive with the' auxiliary esse, it is independent of the sub- ject both in regard to number and gender ; e. g., captivi militum praeda fuerant ; amicitia vinculum quoddam est hominurti inter se. But when a substantive has two forms, one masculine and the other feminine; as, rex, regina; magister, magistra ; inventor, inventrix ; indagator, in- dagatrix ; corruptor, corruptrix ; praeceptor, praeceptrix, * [But we can «ay mvlta bona, plurimi improbi, &c. Consult Billroth, Lai. Gr., p. 204, ed. Ellendt.]—Am. Ed. t [In all these cases we are to regard miles, eques, &c., as collective nouns. A much rarer usage is the following, rex for reges {Cic, Deiot., 9 20) i amicus for a-micorum genus, (do , Lael., 16, 65.)] — Am, Ed. SYNTAX. 269 the predicate must appear in the same gender as the sub- ject ; e. g., li;entia corruptrix est morum ; stilus optimus est dicendi effector et magister. When the subject is a neuter the predicate takes the masculine form, the latter being more nearly allied to the neuter than the feminine.; e. g., tempus vitae magister est. When the subject is a noun epicene (see § 42), the predicate follows its gram- matical gender ; as, aquila volucrum regina,Jida ministra Jovis, though it would not be wrong to say aquila rex vo- lucrum. It is only by way of exception that esse is sometimes connected with adverbs of place ; such as aliquis or ali quid prope, propter, longe, procul est, or when esse signi- fies " to be in a condition ;" e. g., Cic, ad Fam, ix., 9, praeterea rectissime sunt apud te omnia, everything with you is in a very good state or condition; de Leg., i., 17, quod est longe aliter ; Liv., viii., 19 (dicebant), se sub im- perio populi Romani Jideliter atque ohedienter futuros. Sallust and Tacitus connect esse, also, with the adverbs abunde, impune, and-Jrustra, and use them as indeclinable adjectives ; e. g., omnia mala abunde erant ; ea resjrustra fuit ; dicta impune erant* [4 366.] Note 1. — Collective nouns, that is, such as denote a multitude of individtial persons or things ; e. g., rmdtituio, turba, vis, exercitus, juven- tus, Tiobititas. gens, plebs, vulgus, frequently occur in poetry with a plural verb for their predicate ; e. g., Ovid., Metam., xii., 53, Atria turha tenent, veniunt lege vulgus euntque ; Fast,, ii., 507, Tura f erant placentque novum pia ttirha Quirinum. As for the practice of prose writers, there is no passage in Cicero to prove that he used this construction (see my note on Cic, m Yerr., i., 31, 80), and in Caesar and Sallust it occurs either in some soli tary instance, as Caes., Bell, Gall., ii., 6, ^uum tanta muUituda lapides ac tela conjicerent, or the passages are not critically certain. (See Oudendorp on Caes., Bell. Gall., iii., 17, and Corte on Sallust, Jugurth., 28.) But Livy takes greater liberty, and connects collective substantives with the plural, as ii., 5, Desectam. segetem magna vis hominum immissa corbilyua fvdere in Tiberim; xxiv., 3,-IjOcros omnis multitudo abewit; xxzii., 12, Cetera omnis multitudo, velut signum aliquod secuta, in unum quum convenissei, fre' quenti agmine petunt Thessaliam. (Compare Drakenborch on zzxv., 26.) He even expresses the plurality of a collective noun by using the noun standing by its side in the plural ; as in zxvi., 35, Haec non in occulta, sed propalam in faro atque oculis ipsorum Consulum ingens turba circumfusifreme- oant ; XXV., 34, Cuneus is kostium, qui in confertos circa ducem impetum fecerat, ut exanimem labentem ex equo Scipionem vidit, alacres gaudio cum clamoreper totam aciem nuntiantes discurrunt ; xxvii., 51, turn envmvero omnis aetas currere obffii ; so, also, in i., 41, clamor inde concursusque populi, mirantium quid rei esset. But such instances are, after all, rare and surprising. The case is different when the notion of a plurality is derived froni a collective noun of a preceding proposition, and made the subject of a proposition which follows. Instances of this kind occur now and then in Cicero ; de Xfat • ''Consult Weisseniom, Lat. Schulgr., p. 180, ^ 165, Anm. 3.] — Am. Ed Z2 270 LATIN GRAMMAR. Deor.y ii., 6, «e hoc idem generihumano evenerit^ quod in terra coUocati sin/, be cause they (viz., homines) live on earth ; p. Arch., 12, qui est ex eo numero, qui semper apud omnessanpti sunt habiti ; ana with the same collective noun, p. Marc, i. ; p. Quint., 23. They are still more frequent in Livy ; iv,, 56 Ita omnium pojmlorum juventus Antium contracta : ibi castris positis kostem opperiebantur ; vi,, 17, Jam ne node quidem turba ex eo toco dilabebatur, refrac- turosque carcerem minabantur. See the passages in Drakenborch on xxi., 7, 7. [^ 367.] A plural verb is sometimes used by classical prose writers (though not by Cicero) after uterqu£, miisque (especially pro se quisque), pars —pats (for alii— alii), alius— Galium, and alter — alterum (one another or each other), for these partitive expressions contain the idea of plurality ; e. g., Caes., Bell., Civ., in., ^, Eodem die uterque eorum ex castris stativis exerci- tum tducunt ; Liv., ii., 15, missi honvratissimus quisque ex patribus ; ii., 59, cetera multitudo deeimus quisque ad supplicium lecti. Sometimes the plural of a participle is added ; as Curt., iii., 6, pro se quisque dextram ejus amplexi grates habebant velut praesenti deo ; Liv., ix., 14, Pro se quisque non haec Fur- culas, nee Caudium, nee saltus invios esse memorantes, caedunt pariter resisten- tes fusosque ; Tacit., Ann., ii., 24, pars navium hausfae sunt, plures ejectae (instead of pars— pars, the place of one of them being frequently supplied by pauci, nonnulli, plerique or plures, as in our case) ; Liv., ii, 10, dum alius alium ut proelium incipiant, circwnspeclant. Expressions like these may derive their explanation from propositions, in which the comprehensive plural is used in the first part, and afterward the partitive singular ; e. g., Sallust, Jug., 58, At nostri repentino metu perculsi, sibi quisque pro moribus consulunt : alii fugere, alii arma capere, magna pars vulnerati aut occisi ; and in Livy, Ceteri suo quisque tempore aderunt, or Decemviri perturbati alius in aliam partem cas trorum discurrunt. [^ 368.] Note 2. — The natural rule, according to which the adjective parts of speech take the gender of the substantives to which they belong, seems to be sometimes neglected, inasmuch as we find neuter adjectives joined with substantives of other genders : Triste lupus stabulis ; varium et mutabile semper femina in Virgil, and Omnium rerum mors est extremum, even in Cicero. But in these cases the adjective is used as a substantive, and triste, for example, is the same as "something sad," or "a sad thing," and we might use res tristis instead ; as, Livy, ii., 3, says, leges rem surdam, inexorabilem esse. A real exception occurs in what is called construclio ad synesim, that is, when substantives, which only in their figurative sense denote human beings, have a predicate in the true gender of the person spoken of, without regard to the grammatical gender ; e. g., Liv., x., 1, cap- ita conjurationis ejus, quaestione ab Consulibus ex seytatusconsulto habita, virgis caesi ac securi percussi sunt. So, also, auxilia (auxiliary troops) irati, Liv., xxix., 12, where Gronovius's note must be consulted. The relative pro- noun (see 6 371), when referring to such substantives, frequently takes the gender of the persons understood by them. Thus, mancipium, animal, furia, scelus, monstrum, prodigium, may be followed by the relative qui or quae, ac- cording as either a man or a woman is meant ; e. g., Cic, in Verr., ii., 32, Quod unquam hujusmodi monstrum aut prodigium audivimus aut vidimus, qui cumreo transigat, post cum accusatore decidat? ad Fam.,i.,^, Primum ilia furia muliebrium rdigionum (Clodius), qui nonplurisfecerat Bonam Deam quam tres sorores, impunitatem est assecutus. See Drakenborch on Liv., xxix., 12. Af- ter mt'iia the predicate sometimes takes the gender of the persons, whose number is denoted by milia; e. g., Curt.,iv., 19, duomilia Tyriorum, erucibus affixi, per ingens litoris spatium pependerunt ; Liv., xl., 41, ad septem miiia hominum in Tiaves impositos praeter oram Etrusci maris Neapolim transmisit. Usually, however, the neuter is used. See the collection of examples in Drakenborch on Liv,, xxxvii., 39, in fin. As to other cases of constructio ad synesim, which do not belong to grammar, but are irregularities of ex pression, sec Corte ou Sallust, Cat., IB. r^ 369.'] Note 3. — When the substantive forming the subject has a dif SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 27] ferent number from that which is its predicate, the verb ««« (and all other verbs of existence) follows the subject, as in the above quoted passage of Livy, Ili., 15, QuaTnjuam captivi mililitm praeda fuerant. So, also, Cic, de Fin.f v., 10, ^uae (omnia) sine dubio vitae sunt eversio ; Ovid, Met., viii., 636, tola domvsduo sunt; T&c. Ann.jiv.y5f praedpuumrotnar Rhenumjuxta octo le- giones erant, for tegitmes is the subject ; Pfin., Hist. Nat., iv., 5, angustiae, wide procedit Peloponnesus, Isthmos appeUantur. But we also tind, and per- haps even more frequently, that the verb takes the number of the sub- stantive which is properly the predicate ; e. g., Cic, in Pis., 4, tmde nunc, furia, de tuo consulatu dicere, cujus fuit initium Ittdi Compitalicii; Sallust, Jug., 21, possedere ea loca, quae proxuma Carthaginem Numidia appellatur ; Terent., Andr., iii., 2, 23, amantium irae amoris iTitegratio est ; Liv,, i., 34, cui Tarqtdnii matema tantum patria esset; ii., 54, ManJio Yeientes provincia evenit ; xiv., 39, pars non minima^ triumphi est victtmae praecedentes. In propositions like that of Seneca, Epist., 4, JiTagnae divitiae sunt lege naturae composita paupertas; and Cicero, Parad., in fin., Contentum vera svis rebus esse maximae sunt certissimaeque divitiae, the plural is less surprising. But it is clear that, where the subject and predicate may be ezcnanged or transposed, the verb takes the number of the substantive nearest to it. When the predi cate is a participle combined with esse or videri, the participle takes the gender of the substantive which is nearest to it, according to the rule ex- plained in ^ 376. Thus we find in Cicero, de Divin., ii., 43, mm omnis error stiiltitia est dicenda ; de lag. , 1., 7, unde etiam universus hie mundus una civitas tommunis deoru-n atque hojninum existimaTida (est) ; Terent., Pkorm., i., 2,44, paupertas mihi onus visum est miserum et grave. If we transpose non est om nis stultitia error dicendus, and visa mihi semper est paupertas grave onus et miserum, the propositions are just as correct. But in Justin, i., 2, Semira mis, sexum mentita, puer esse credita est, the feminine would be necessary for the sake of clearness, even if there were no verb esse. [§ 370.] 3. When nouns are combined with one anoth- er, without being connected by the verb esse, or by a rel- ative pronoun and esse, in such a manner as to form only one idea, as in " a good man," the adjective, participle, or pronoun follows the substantive in gender, number, and case ; e. g., huic modesto puero credo, hanc modestam vir- ginem diligo. When two substantives are united with each other in this way, they are said, in grammatical language, to stand in apposition to each other, and the one substantive explains and defines the other ; e. g., oppidum Paestum, arbor law- rus, Taurus mens, Itepzts piscis, Socrates vir sapientissimus. The explanatory substantive (suistantivum appositum) takes the same case as the one which is explained ; e. g., Socratem, sapientissimum virum, Athenienses interfecerunt (an exception occurs in names of towns, see § 399). They may differ in number and gender; as, v,rhs Athenae, pisces signum; Virg., Eclog., ii., 1, Formosum pastw Cory don ardehat Alexin, delidas domtni; but when the substan- tive in apposition has two genders, it takes the one which answers to that of the other substantive. (Comp. above, § 365.) The predicate likewise follows the substantive 272 LATIN GRAMMAK. which is to be explained, as in Cicero, Tulliola, deltciolae nostrae, tuvm munusculum jlagUat ; Quum duo fulmina Tiostri imperii subito in Hispania, On. et P. Scipiones, ex- tincti occidissmt, for the words dim fulmina, though placed first, are only in apposition. When plural names of pla- ces are explained by the apposition urbs,<)ppidum,civitas the predicate generEtlly agrees with the apposition ; e. g., Pliny, Volsinii, oppidum Tuscorum opulentissimum, con- crematum estfulmine. O vitae pTiUosopJiia dux (magistra), virtutis indagatrix ex- pultrixque vitiorum ! Cic, Tusc, v., 2 : Pythagoras ve- hit genitricem virtutum frugalitatem omnibus ingerebat (commendabat), Justin., xx., 4. JVo(c.— Occasionally, however, the predicate follows the substantive in apposition t e. g., Sallust, Hist,, i., Qrat. Phil,, Qui videmini intenta mala, quasi fulmen, optare' se quisque ne aitingat, although the construction is, optare ne mala se attingant. It arises from the position of the words, the verb accommodating itself to the subject which is nearest. Hence it not unfrequently happens, 1, that the verb, contrary to the grammatical rule, agrees with the nearest noun of a subordinate sentence ; as in Sallust, Cat,, 25, Sed ei cariora semper omnia, quam decus atque pudicitia fuit ; Cic, Phil., iv., 4, Quis igitur ilium conaulem, nisi latrones, putant ? and, 2, that the adjective parts of speech take the gender and number of the nmrn in ap- pQsition or of the subordinate sentence; e. $,, Cic.,p, Leg, Mtin., 5, Co- rinthum patres vestTi, totius Graeciae lumen, extinctum esse voiuerunt ; Nep., Them,, 7, illorum urbem ut propugnaculum oppositum esse barbaris, [§ 371.] 4. When a relative or demonstrative pronoun refers to a noun in another sentence, the pronoun agrees with it in gender and number; e. g., tarn modestus ille puer est, quern vidisti, de quo audivisti, cujus tutor es, ut omnes eum diligent. When the verb itself or a whole prop osition is referred to, it is treated as a neuter substantive, and in this case id quod is generally used instead of quod; e. g., Nep., jPiTJiol., 1, Timoleon,id quod difficilius putatur, multo sapientius tulit secundum, quam adversamjbrtunam. [() 372.] Note. — Exception to this rule : when a word of a preceding prop, osition, or this proposition itself, is explained by a substantive with the verbs esse, dicere, vocare, appellare, nominare, habere, putare, &c., or their passives, the relative pronoun Tisually takes the gender and number of the explanatory substantive which follows ; e. g., Liv., xlii., 44, Thebae ipsae, quod Boeotiae caput est, in magno tumultu erant, (A great many in' slan£.es of the same kmd^are collected by Drakenborch on Liv., xxxii., 30. ' Caes., Bell, Civ., iii., 80, Caesar Gomphos pervenit, quod est oppidum Thes. saliae ; Cic, Brut., 33, extat ejus peroratio, qui epilogus dicitur ; de Leg., i,, 7, animal plenum rationis, quern vocamus hominem ; p. Hext.y 40, domicitia con- juncta, otiw wrbes dicimus, moenibus saepsernnt ; Phil., v., 14, Pompeio, quod imperii Jtomani lumen fuit, extincto; in Pis,, 39, P, RutiliOy quod specimen ita. Imithaec civitas innocentiae ; lA\.,\., i5, Romaefanum Dianae populi Lalini ctcm populo Romano fecerUTit : ea eratconfessio, caput rerumRomam ease; Cic, de Off., iii., 10, Si omnia facienda sunt, quae amiei velintinon amicltiae taiet SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 273 udam/iirtttiorusputandae sunt; i.e., such things or connexions cannot be looked upon as friendships, but are conspiracies. So, also, ista mtidem vis surely this is force; haecfuga est, nonprofectio; ea ipsa causa belli fuit, for id ipsum, &c. This explains the frequent forms of such explanatory sen- tences as qui tims est amor erga me; quae tua est humanitas, for with th« demonstrative pronoun it would likewise be ea tua humanitas est, this oi such is thy kindness. Levis est animi Irtcem splendoreTnque fugientis, justam gloriam, qui estfrvctut verae virtutis honestissimus, repudiare, Gic, in Pis,, 24. Omniumr artium, quae ad rectam vivendi viam pertinent, ratio et discipUna studio sapientiae, quae philosophia dicitur, continetur, CiC, Tusc., i., 1. Idem velle et idem nolle, ea demumjirma amicitia est, Sallusf, Cat., 20. It must, however, be observed that when a noun is to be explained and to be distinguished from another of the same kind, the relative pronoun follows the general rule, agreeing in gender and number with the substan- tive to be explained ; e. g., Caes., Bell. Gall., v., \l,flumen, quod appellatur Tamesis, i. e., that particular river; Nep., Paus., 3, genus est quoddam knminum, quod Ilotae vacatur ; especially when a demonstrative pronoun is added, as in Curt., iii., 20, Vareus ad eum locum,quem Amanicas pytas vacant, perverat. But when the noun (oUowing is a foreign word, the pronoun agrees with the preceding one; as in Cic, de Off., ii., 5, cohibere malus animi turbatos, quos Graeci ndBp jMminant ; Quintil., viii., 3, 16, quum idem frequentissime plura verba significant, quod ffvvuwjiia vacatur. Compare Gronov. on Senec, Consol. ad Marc, 19, and Drakenborch on Livy, ii., 38, with the commentators there mentioned. [§ 373.] 5. When the subject consists of several nouna in the singular, the predicate is generally in the plural, if either all or some of those nouns denote persons ; but if they denote things, either the singular or plural may be used. If, however, one of the nouns is in the plural, the predicate must likewise be in the plural, unless it attach itself more especially to the nearest substantive in the singular. Aptid Regillum hello Latinorum, in nostra acie Castor ct Pollux ex eqwis pugnare vid sunt, Cic; De Nat. Dear., ii., 2. Cum tempus necessitasque postulat, decertandum manu est, et mors servituti turpitudiniqite anteponenda, Cic, 2?e Of.,!., 23. Beneficium et gratia homines inter se conjungunt. Vita, mors, divitiae, paupertas omnes homines vehemen- tissime permovent, Cic, De Off"., ii., 10. Note 1 . — ^When the subject consists of two nouns denoting things in the singular, the predicate varies between the singular and plural, according as the two nouns constitute, as it were, only one idea, or two different oi opposite ones. It may be remarked here that the suJDJect SeruUus paptt- lusque Romanus (but also Syracusanus, Cic, tn Verr., ii., 21; Centuripinus, ibid., iii., 45, Saguntinus, Liv., iiviii., 39) is always followed by the pred- icate in the singular. A relative pronoun, referring to two singular nouns, is always in the plural, unless it be intended to refer only to the last. Even when the subject consists of the names of two or more persons, the predicate is not uiifrequently fnur.d in tlic singular and thrt not onlii 274 LATIN GRAMMAR. in cases where it may seem that the writer at first thought only or ens person and afterward the oth jr, as in Cic, Orat.j 12, nam quum concisus ei Thrasymachtis minutis numeris videretur et Gorgias ; or Tusc,^ i., l^siquidem Homerus fait et Hesiodua ante Romam conditam ; comp. Brut.t 11, init. ; but also without this excuse,.as Cic., Brut.y 8, Sed ut intellectum est, quantam vim haberet accvrata et facta quodammodo oratio^ turn etiam tnagistri dicendi multi subito extiterunt^ Nam Laontinus Gorgias, Thrasymachus Chalcedonius, Protagoras Abderites, Prodicus Ceus, Hippias Eleus in honore magno fuit, aliique mtdti temporibus iisdem; de Orat., li,, 12, Quails apud Graecos Pher- ecydeSj HellanicuSj Acusilas fuit aliique permuUif talis noster Cato et Pictor et Piso ; ie Divin., i., 38, hac ratione et Chrysippus et Diogenes et Antipater uti- lur ; de Fat., 17, in^ qua sententia Democritus, Heraclitus, Empedocles, Aristote- lesfuit ; in Verr,, i., 30, condemnatur enim perpaucis sententiis Philodamus et ejusjilius ; ibid., iv., 42, dixit hoc apud vos Zosippus et Ismenias^ homines no- bitissimi ; de Orat., i, 62, haec quum Antonius dixisset, sane dubitare visus est Sulpicius et Cotta; .Gaes., Bell. Civ.^ i., 2, intercedit M. Antonius, Q. Cassius, tribuni plebis* It is unnecessary to add passages from the poets, who, es- pecially Horace, frequently use the predicate in the singular, when the sub- ject consists of several nouns denoting persons ; e. g., Horat., Carm., ii., 13, in fin., Quin et Prometheus et Pelopis parens dulci laborum decipitur sono, Comp. Bentley on Carm., i.,24, 8. The plural, however, must be consid- ered as the rule in prose. Only the words unus et alter have invariably the predicate in the singular. When the subject consists of nouns denoting persons and things, the plural of the predicate is preferable to the ,singu- lar; e. g., Cic, ad AttfVV., 15, coitio consulum et Pompeius obsunt ; Liv., xxviii., 18, nee dubitare quin Syphax regnumque ejv^ jam in Romanorum essent potestate, and so in XXXIX., 51, Prusiam suspectum Romanis et receptus Han- nibal et bellum adversus Sumenem motum faciebant, is more probable than fitciebat. [^ 374.] Note 2. — When the subject consists of nouns connected by the disjunctive conjunction out, the predicate is found in the plural as well as in the singular, though it would be more in accordance with our feeling to use the singular ;t e. g., Cic, Tusc, v., 9, Si Socrates aut Antisthenes dice- ret ; de Off., i., 28, si Aeacui aut Minos diceret ; but de Off., i., 41 , nee quan- quam hoc errore duci oportet, ut, si quid Socrates aut Aristivpus contra morem consuetvdinemque civilem fecerint locutive sint, idem sibi~arbitretur licere j Liv., v., 8, ut quosque studium privatim aut gratia occupaverunt. In Cicero, de Orat.^ iL, 4, the reading is uncertain : ne Sulpiciv^ aut Cotta plus quam ego apud te valere videantur. Emesti, who approves of videatw exclusively, was not struck by the same peculiarity in the preceding passage. With aut — aut the singular is unquestionably preferred, as in Cic, Philip., xi., II, nee enim nunc primum aut Brutus aut Cassius salutem libertatemque patriae legem sane tissimam et morem optimum judicavit ; with nee — nee we likewise prefer the singular, with Bentley on Horace, Carm., i., 13, 6, but the plural occurs in Pliny, Panegyr., 75, erant enim (acclamationes) quibus nee senatus glorian nee princeps possent, where possei would certainly be just as good. Comp. Liv., ixvL, 5, in fin. The plural seems to be necessary only when the subject does not consist of two nouns of the third person, but contains a first or second person, as in Terence, Adelph., i., 2, 23, haec si neque ego neque tu fedmus : D. Brutus in Cic, ad Fam., xi., 20, quod in Decemviris nct^tte ego neque Caesar hahiti essemus. With seu — seu and tam — quam the predicate is in the plural : Frontin., de Aquaed., Praef. and ^ 128 {ut pro- jjrium jus tam res pubUca quam privata haberent). * [In these and similar passages it will always, we think, appear, on close examination, that some greater degree of activity, or some particular im- portance, or superiority, is to be connected with the subject to which tht verb immediately refers in number.] — Am. Ed. t [In these constructions the predicate refers to all the subjects e(jually et the sv.v time, and in the same manner,and therefore the plural is em- ployed ' KJnicr, G X, vol. ii.. p. 47, G, M Jplf.)y-Am. Ed. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 275 [6 375.1 Note 3.— When the subject is a singular noun joined to anothei ■either plural or singular) by the preposition cum, the grammatical con struction demands that the predicate should be in the singular, as in Cic. ad Ait., vii., 14, tu ipse cum Sexto scire velim quid cosiies ; ad Quint. JTrat! iii., 2, Domitius cum Messala certus esse videbatur; Ovid, Fast., 1., 12, tu quoqu'i cum Druso praema fratre feres. But the plural is more frequent, the sub- ject being conceived to consist of more than one person ; Liv., xxi., 60, ipse dux cum aliquot principibus ci^iuntur ; Sallust, Cat., 43, Lentulus cum ceteris — cotistituerant ; Jug., 101, Bacchus cum peditibtis — ijivadunt ; Nep., Phoc, 2, ejus consilio Demosthenes cum ceteris, qui bene d6 rep. mereri existima- bantur, populiscito in exilium erant expulsi; and to judge from these and oth- er instances quoted by Corte on the passages of Sallust, it seems that the plural is preferred, when the main subject is separated from the predicate by intermediate sentences, so that the plurality spoken of is more strong- ly impressed on the writer's mind than the grammatical subject. Even in reference to gender (of which we shall speak hereafter), nouns connect- ed with each other by cum are treated as if they were connected by et. Ovid, Posf., iv., 55, Ilia cum Lauso de Numitore sati; Liv., xlv., 2S, JUiam cumjilio accitos ; Justin, xiv., \Q,jilium Alexandri cum malre in arcem Amphi- politanam custodiendos mittit. [§ 376.] 6. "With regard to the gender, wHch the pred- icate (an adjective, participle, or pronoun) takes when it belongs to several nouns, the follovring rules must be ob- served : CaJ "When the nouns are of one gender, the predicate (adjective, participle, or pronoun) takes the same. fbj When they are of different genders, the masculine (in case of their denoting living beings) is preferred to the feminine, and the predicate accordingly takes the mascu- line. When the nouns denote things, the predicate takes the neuter, and when they denote both living beings and things mixed together, it takes either the gender of the living beings or the neuter. Tam'pridem pater mihi et mater mortui sunt, Ter. Ziobor voluptasqiie, dissimilia natura, societate quadam in- ter se naturali juncta sunt, Liv., v., 4, Jane,fae aetemos pacem padsque ministros ! Ovid, Fast. Romani, si me scelus fratris, te senictus absumpserit, regem regnumque Macedoniae suafutwra sciunt, Liv., xl., 10. Or the predicate (adjective, participle, or pronoun) agrees only with one of the nouns, and is Supplied by thr mind for the others ; this is the case, especially, when tl :■ subject consists of nouns denoting living beings and thing ;, Thrasybulus contemptus est prima a tyrannls atque ejtis sol- itudo, Nep., Thras., 2. Tj. Brutus exulem et regem ipsum, et liberos ejus, et gentem Tarquiniorum essejussit, Cic, De Re Publ., ii. Hominis utilitati agri omnes et maria parent, Cic. 276 LATIN GKAMMAK. Nunc emergit amor, nunc desideriwm ferre non possum, nun miJii nihil libri, nihil litterae, nihil doctrina prodest : it- dies et noctes tamquam avis ilia, mari prospecto, evolar\ cupio, Cic, ad Att., ix., 10, 2, [^ 377.] Note. — We have not mentionec the case of a subject consisting «f living beings of the feminine and neuter genders ; e. g., sotot tua et ejua mancipium. No instance of such a combination occurs, but we .should be obliged to make the predicate ; e, g., inventae or inventi sunt, according aa mancipium may denote a male or female slave. The grammatical prefer- ence of the masculine gender to the feminine is clear, also, from the fact of the mascui. words filii, fratres, soceri, reges, comprising persons of both sexes ; as in Livy, legati missi su7lt ad Ptolemaeum Cleopatramque reges ; Tac, Ann., xii., 4,fratrum incostoditum amorem, in speaking of a brother and his sister.' The following examples of the predicate being in the neuter gender, when the subject consists of nouns denoting things, may be add- ed to those already quoted. Sallust, diviiiae, decus, gloria in oculis sita sunt; Livy, Formiis portam tnurumque de coelo tacla esse; Merico urbs et ager in Si- cilia jussa dari ; and so, also, with the relative pronoun ; Sallust, otium atque divitiae, quae prima mortales putant. The neuter is farther not unfrequently used when the two nouns of the subject (denoting things) are of the same gender; e. g., Liv., xxxvii., 32, postquam ira et avaritia imperio potentiora erant ; Cic, de Nat, Deor., ill., 2i,fortunam nemo ab inconstantia et temeritate sejunget, quae digna certe non aunt deo. Those passages, on the other hand, in which the subject consists of names of things of different gender, and the predicate agrees in gender with a more distant masc. or femin., must be considered as exceptions; but in such cases the noun with which the predicate agrees is usually the more prominent, the other or others being considered as dependant or subordinate ; e. g., Plancqs in Cic, ad Fam., X., 24, Amor tuus ac judicium de me utrum Tnihi plus dignitatis an voluptatis sit allaturus, non facile dixerim ; i. e., thy love, and thy favourable opinion of me, which is the result of it ; Cic, de Leg., i., 1, Liums ille et haec Arpina- tium quercus agnoscitur, saepe a me lectus in Mario, the oak being only a part of the grove. See the commentators (Wesenberg) on Cic, p. Sext., 53, and on Suet., Caes., 75. [§ 378.] 7. When the personal pronouns ego, tu, nos, vos, combined with one or more other nouns, form the sub- ject of a proposition, the predicate follows the first per- son in preference to the second and third, and the second in preference to the third. Si tu et Tullia, lux nostra, valetis, ego et suavissimus Cice- ro valdmus, Cic, ad Fam., xiv., 5. Quid est quod tu aut ilia cum Fortuna hoc nomine guert possitis, Sulpic. in Cic, ad Fam., iv., 5. Note. — So, also, Cic, in Yerr., i., 45, hoc jure et majores nostri et nos sem perusi sumus ; in Rull., i., 7, Errastis, Rulle, vehementer et tu et nonnulli col' legae tui. But in this case, also, the predicate frequently agrees with one of the subjects, and is supplied by the mind for the others ; e. g., Cicero, Vos ipsi et senatus frequens restitit ; et ego et Cicero meus flagitahit. With re- gard to the relative pronoun, the above rule remairs in force, and we must ftccordingly say, tu et pater, qui in convivio eratis ; ego et tu, ^i eramua. NOMINATIVE CASE. ,r#f II. ON THE USE OF QASES CHAPTER LXX. NOMINATIVE CASE. [§ 379.] 1. The subject of a proposition is in the nom- inative (see § 362), and the noun of the predicate only when it is connected with the subject by the verb esse and similar verbs : ajiparere, appear ; existere, fieri, evadere, come into existence, become; videri, seem, appear; tna- nere, remain ; or the passives of the actives mentioned in § 394, viz., dici, appellari, existimari, haberi, &c. ; e. g., Justus videbatur, he appeared just ; rex appellabatur, he was called king. The personal pronouns ego, tu, ille, nos, vos, and illi are implied in the terminations of the verb, and are expressed only when they denote emphasis or op- position. (In) rebus angustis animosus atque Jbrtis appare, Horat., Carm., ii., 10, 21. Appiiis adeo novum sibi ingenium induerat, ut plebicola re- pente omnisque aurae popularis captator evaderet, Liv., iii., 33. Ego reges ejeci, vos tyrannos introducitis ; ego libertatem, ^niae non erat, peperi, vos partam servare non vultis, says Li. Brutus in the Auct., ad Herenn., iv., 53. Note 1. — ^The constiuction of the accusative with the infinitive is the only case in which the subject is not in the nominative, but in the accu- sative. (See ^ 599.) In this case the predicate, with the above-mention- ed verbs, is Ukewise in the accusative. [^ 380.] Note 2. — I^ideri is used throughout as a personal verb, as (ego) videor, (tu) videris, &c., vir bonus esse ; videmur, videmini viri boni esse, or hocfecisse. The impersonal construction is sometimes found, as in Cic, Tusc, v., 5, Non mihividetur, ad beale vivendujn «a(w posse wWufCTn, (compare j>dTis's remark), but much more rarely than the personal one.* When con- nected « ith the dative of a person, it is equivalent to the English " to think or fancy ;" e. g.-, amens mihi fuisse videor ; fortunaius sibi Damocles videbatur (esse) ; si hoc tibi intellexisse videris, or even in connexion with videre ; e. g., videor mihi videre imminentes reipublicae tempestates, &.C. It should, however, be observed that the dative of the first person is some- times omitted ; e. g., Cic, de Nat. Deor., ii., 61, satis docuisse videor • ibid., i., 21 , saepe de L. Crasso videor audisse ; de Fin., ii., 5, cum Crratcey ut videor, lucidenter sciam, 1. e., as it seems to me, or as I think. [§ 381.] 2. The nominative is sometimes not expressed * [The so-called impersonal construction of videor will be found, on closer inspection, to be merely the verb joined to a subject-nominative at clause taken as a nominative.] — Am, Ed, 278 LATIN GRAMMAR. in Latin. Thus the Wbrd homines is understood with a verb in the third person plural active, in such phrases as laudant hunc regent, they, or people praise this king; dicunt,^ tradunt,ferunt hunc regem essejustum, people say that this king is just. CHAPTER LXXI. ACCUSATrVE CASE. [§ 382.] 1. The accusative denotes the object of an action, and is therefore joined to all transitive verbs, whether active or deponent, to express the person or thing affected by the action implied in such verbs ; e. g., pater amat (tmtur)filmm. When the verb is active, the same proposition may be expressed without change of meaning in the passive voice, the object or accusative be- coming the subject or nominative ; thus, instead oi pater amat filium, we may SB.yJilius amatur a patre. The transitive or intransitive nature of a verb depends entirely upon its meaning (see § 142), which must be learned from the Dictionary. It must, however, be ob- served that many Latin verbs may acquire a transitive meaning, besides the original intransitive one, and, ac- cordingly, govern the accusative. [() 383.] Note 1. — Some verbs are called transitive and others intraflii- tive, according as they occur more frequently in the one sense or the other. AH particulars must be learned from the Dictionary. Ludere, to play, for example, is naturally an intransitive, but has a transitive mean- ing in the sense of "play thepart of;" e. g., ludit bmum civem, he plays the good citizen, affects to be a good citizen.* Horrere properly signifies " to feel a shudder," and /osft'dire " to be disgusted vpith," but both are frequently used as transitives ; horrere dolorem, fastidire preces or mores ali* cujus, to dread pain, to reject a person's petition, to be disgusted with his manners. There are several other such verbs ; as, dolere, gemere, lamentari, lugere, maerere^ lacrimarejplorare ; e. g., casum hunc* Festinare and properare, moreover, signify not only " to hasten," but " to accelerate ;" e. g., mortem suam ; Tnanere, not only '* to wait,", but " to expect ;" e. g., hostium ad- ventum; ridere, to laugh and to ridicule (like irridere). Such examples be- ing sanctioned by usage, the Latin writers, in some cases, extended the principle still farther, and Cicero {de Fin., ii., 34) has the bold, but beau- tiful and expressive phrase, Quum Xerxes, Hetlesponto juncto, Athone per- fosso, mare ambulavisset, terram navigasset, instead of the ordinary expres- sion in mart ambulavisset, in terra navigasset. In such phrases as dormio totam hiemem, tertiam aetatem vivo, nactes vigilo, the accusative might seem to express only duration of time (^ 395) ; but as the passive forms also oc- * [That is, the state in which a person is represented by an intransitive «erb may be conceived of as directed towards an object, and thus have » ()artly transitive force.] — Am, Ed- ACCUSATIVE CASE. 279 mi, tola mihi dormitur hiems^ jam tertia vivitur aetas, nodes vigilantur amarae it will be more judicious to consider the verbs dormire, vivere, vigilare^ ir those cases as transitives, equivalent to ** spend in sleeping, living, waking." The words which denote " to smell " or " taste of anything," viz., oZerc, redolerej sapercj resipere, are in the same manner used as transitive verbs, and joined with, an accusative (instead of the ablative, which they would require as intransitive verbs). Their meaning in this case is " to give back the smell or taste of anything ;" e. g., olet unguenta ; piscts ipsu7n mare sapit ; unguenta gratiora sunty quae terram, quam quae crocum sapiant ; uva picem re- sipiens ; and in a figurative sense, olet peregrinum, redolet antiquitatem ; to- gether with such expressions as, anhelat crvdelitatem, pingue ^uiddam ct peregrinum sonatj sanguinem nostrum sitiebat. The poets go stiU farther, and use, e. g., pallere^ pavere, tremere, {repidare, aliquid, Instead of timere ; ardere, calere, tepere^ perlre, deperire nmlierem,y instead of amare muUerem. Such expressions should not oe imitated in prose, any more than the use of a neuter adjective instead of an adverb ; as in torvum' clamare, tremendum sonare^ lucidum fulgent oculi, concerning which, see ^ 266. Tacitus, how- ever, says, Ann., iv., 60, Tiberius faXsum renidens vulty. ; and, vL, 37, Euphra- ten nulla imbrium vi sponte et immensum attolli. [^384.] We must here mention a peculiar mode of Joining an accusa- tive with intransitive verbs, which is of frequent occurrence in Greek,* and also in English. It consists of a substantive of the same root as the verb, or, at least, one of the same meaning, being added in the accusative ; but this substantive is usually qualified by an adjective; e. g., vitam.ju~ cundam vivere ; Umgam viam ire, hoc bellum bellare, gravem pugnam {proelium) pugnare^ alterius gaudium gaudere, bonas preccs precari, risum Sardonium riderCy consimilem ludum ludere, servitutem servire durissimamf somnium som- niare. , (Odi) qui Curios simulant et Bacchanalia vivunt. — Juven., ii., 3. [§ 385.] But even without any change or modification of meaning, in- transitive verbs may have the accusative of pronouns and adjective pro- nouns in the'neuter gender, in order to express, in a general way, the di- rection in which a feeling or condition is manifested ; if this tendency were expressed more definitely by a substantive, the accusative could not be used. We thus frequently find such phrases as, hoc laetorj I rejoice at this ; hoc non dubito, I do not doubt this ; hoc laboro, illud tibi non assentior, aliquid tibi succen^eo, non possum idem, gloriari, unum omnes student, where the accusative of a definite substantive, such, as hanc unam, rem omnes stu- dent, could not have been used. So Terence says, id operam do, I strive after this ; Cicero, ad Fam., vi., 8, consilium petis, quid tibi sim auctor ; and Livy often uses the phrase quod quidam auctores sunt, which is attested h^ some authors. Dolores autem nunquam tantam vim habent, ut non plus habeat sapiens quod gaudeat quam quod angatur, Cic, de Fin., i., 14. Utrumque laetor, et sine dolore corporis te fuisse et animo valuisse, Cic. ad Fam., vii., 1. Note 2. — The rule that in the change of a proposition from the active into the passive form the accusative of the object becomes the nominative fif the subject, remains in force even when after the verbs denoting " to Bay" or "command" the accusative does liot depend upon these verbs, but belongs to the construction of the accusative with an infinitive ; e. g., dico regem esse justum, jubeo te redire (see ^ 607) ; in the passive, rer dicitur Justus esse, juberis redire, as though dico regem or jubeo te belonged to f )ach otner. * [In Greek, many verbs which are not, in good writers, followed by their cognate substantives, are in later writers found with them. {LohtcK Parol, mQ.yi—Am. Ed. • 280 LATIN GRAMMAR. [§ 386.] 2. Intransitive verbs which imply motion ; as, ire, vadere, volare, and some, also, w^hich imply " being in a place;" aa,jace^e, stare and sedere, acquire a transitive meaning by bemg compounded with a preposition, and ac- cordingly govern the accusative. This, however, is gen- erally the case only in verbs compounded with the prep- ositions circum, per, praeter, trans, and super, and in those compound verbs which have acquired a figurative mean- ing. Such verbs become perfect transitives, and the ac- cusative which they take in the active form "of a proposi- tion as their object, becomes the nominative of the sub- ject, when the proposition is changed into the passive form ; e. g., Jlumen transitur, societas initur, mors pro re- publica obitur. With other compounds the accusative is only tolerated, for generally the preposition is repeated, or the dative is used instead of the preposition with its case (§ 415). Amicitia nonnunquam, praecurrit judicium, Cic, Lael., 17. Nihil est turpius quam cognitioni et praeceptioni assension- em praecurrere, Cic, Acad., i., 12. Note. — The rule here given applies to a great number of verbs, for there are many which imply motioi^ as, ire, ambidare, cedere, currere, equitare, fiuere, gradi, labi, nare, and natare, repere, satire, scandere, vadere, vehi, volare, and perhaps, also, venire, and their compounds are very numerous. The following is a list of them ; adire, accedere, adequitarei admire, aggredi, allabi, ascendere, assilire and assultare, advenire and adventare, adveJti, advolare, ad- volvi, anteire, antecedere, antecurrere, antegredi,antevenire,circumfiuere„circum- ire, circumvenire, circumvotare, coire, convenire, egredi, etabi, erumpere, evadere, excedere, exire, inire, incedere, incurrere and incursare, ingredi, illaoi, innare and innatare, insilire, insidtare, invehi, interjluere, intervenire, invadere (irrumpere), irrepere, obambulare, ohequitare, obire, perambulare, percurrere, permeare, perva- dere,pervagari, pervolare, praece^ere, praecurrere, praejiuere, praegredi, praeve- nire, praeterire, praeterfluere, praetergredi, praetervehi, praetervolare, subire, sue- cedere, subrepere, supergredi, supervadere, supervenire, transire, trajisnare, Iran- Jflire, Iransvolare. To these we must add some compound verbs which do not imply motion, but in general ** being in a place ;" as, adjacere, assidere, accumbere and accviare, adstare, antestare, circumsidere, circumstare, and cir- cumsislere, incubare, insidere, tnstare, interjacere, obsidere, praesidere, praeja' cere, praestare, superslare. AH these verbs may be joined with an accusa- tive of the place to which the action implied in the verb refers ; in poeti cal language many more verbs are joined with an accusative, partly fron; B resemblance with those mentioned above, and partly because a transi- tive meaning and construction are, in general, well suited to a lively de- scription. Tacitus, Hist, iii., 29, for example, says, balista obruit quos in- dderat, where omos is not governed by the preposition in (for he uses the accus. also with prepositions which otherwise require the ablative : prae- sidebat eocerdtum, praejacet castra, elapsus est vinculo), but is the real accusat. of the object.* We must not, however, forget that, with the exception of verbs compounded with the prepositions circum, per, praeter, trans, and mper, we are speaking only of what may be, and what frequently occurs * [Coiftpare Botlicher, Lex, Tacit., p. 15 1 — Am, Ed. ACCUSATIVE CASE. 281 in modern Latin prose ; for ihe ancient Romans seldom iised the accusa live with such verbs ; they preferred them in their intransitive sense ei. ther with a preposition or the dative. The verbs compounded with ante alone are construed indifferently either with the accusative or the dative, and arUegredi occurs only with the accusative. Cicero, in the case of verbs compounded with ex, repeats the preposition ex or ab ; Sallust and Livy use the ablative alone, which is governed by the preposition under- stood. It is not till the time of Tacitus that we find these verbs cocstrued with the accusative ;* e. g., evado amnem, silvas., sententias judicum. [i 387.] We must especially notice those verbs which acquire a transi- tive meaning by a modification of their original signification, i. e., by be ing used in a figurative sense. $uch verbs either lose their intransitivo meaning altogether, or retain it along with the transitive one, and accord- ingly govern the accusative either exclusively, or only in their particular transitive meaning. Of this kind are adeo and converaa in the sense of *' I step up to a person for the purpose of speaking to him ;" aggredior (and adorior), invado and incedo, I attack, where especially the perfect incessit aliqueTtiy e. g., cupido, cura, metus, must be observed ; aibio, wash, in speak- ing of the sea or a river; anteeo, antecedo, atitevenio, pratcedOf praegredior^ praevenio, all in the sense of " I excel" (the principle of which is followed also by praemineo, praesto, antecello, excello, and praecelto) ; coeo, I conclude, e. g., an alliance ; excedo and egredior, I transgress, e. g., the bounds ; ineo and ingredior, I begin a thmg ; oheo, I Tusit, undertake ; occvmba {mortem, which is much more frequent than morti or morte'), I suffer death, or die j obsideo and circumsideo, I besiege ; subeo, I undertake. But even among these verbs there are some, such as incedere and invadere, which are prefer- red in the more ancient prose with a preposition or with the dative. Livy, for example, frequently says, jtatres inr.essit cura, and Sallust uses meius in- vasit popuiares ; but Cicero, Antonius invasit in Gatliam, or timor invasit im- probis ; Terence, quae n&va religio nunc in te incessit ; Caesar, doloT incessit impnbis,. Anteire is the only one among the verbs signifying '• to excel" that is used by Cicero with the accusative, though not exclusively, and antece- dere, praestare, antecellere, and excellere are used by him only with the dative ; the others do not occur in his works in this sense. There are, on the other hand, some verbs which, according to the above role, might be joined with the accusative, but never are so, and take either the dative or a preposition, viz. : arrepere, obrepere, incumbere (^ 416). Lastly, verbs compounded with the prepositions ab, de, and ex, which imply mo tion, are construed with the ablative, the idea of separation being pre dominant ; the few verbs mentioned above only form an exception to the rule. [§ 388.] 3. The verbs deficio, juvo, adjuvo, defugio, effugio, profugio, refugio, and suhterfugio, and the depo- nents imitor, sequor, and sector, govern the accusative. They are real transitives, and have a personal passive Fortes fortuna adjuvat, Ter., Phorm., i., 4, 26. Nemo mortem effugere potest, Gic, Pliilip., viii., 10. Gloria virtutem tanquam wnibra sequitur, Cic, Tusc. Note X. — ^The compounds of sequor and sector: assequor, assector, conse quor, consector, insequor, insector, peraequoT, prosequor, likewise govern the accusative ; obaequor, I comply with, alone governs the dative. Comitor, J accompany, may be classed with seqiutr, for it usually governs the accu- sative ; but Cicero in some passages (de Re Pubh, ii., 24, Tttsc, v., 24 and * [But evado is found thus construed more than once in Livy, namely, ii.,65; vii.,36; xxi.,32; xxviii, 2; xlv., 4L Consult Drnkenbnrch,ad Liv.. ii., C5, 3, and Bbtticher, Lex. Tacit., p. \6.\—Am. Ed. A A 2 282 LATIN GRAMMAR. 35), uses it with the dative, in accordance with its originil meaning " to bo a cami)anion to a person" (^ 235). The few passages in which defida occurs with the dative cannot affect the rule ; thus we read, uiVes, tela nostras defecenmt ; tempus me deiicit ; and in the passive, quum miles a viri- bus deficeretur; aqua ciboque de/ectus. The frequentative adjuto is used with the dative only by unclassical writers ; otherwise it has the accusa- tive like juvo. The passive forms of defugio, re/ugio, and effugio are rare, but always in accoraance with the rule ; e. g., Cic, Tusc, i., 36, haec in- commoda morte effugiuntur : p. Plane., 32y nullas sibi dirmcationes pro me de- fugiendas putavit; Quintil., iv., 5, Interim refugienda est distinctio quaestionum. Of the other compounds the passive cannot be proved to have been used, [J 389.] Note 2. — The verb aequare and its compounds have likewise their object in the accusative. Aequare properly signifies " to make equal," rem cum re or rem ret, oije thing to another ; e. g,, urbem solo aequare, tumm moenibus; and without a dative, "to attain;" e.g.,gloriamalicujus,superiores reges, cursum equorum. The accusative of the person may be joined, with- out any difference in meaning, by the ablative of the thing in which I equal any one ; e. g.. Curt., ii., 26, Nondum feminam aequavimus gloria, et jam nos laudis saetietas cepit ? The same is the case with the compound adaequare; and the dative with this verb, in the sense of "attain" or "equal," is doubtful or unclassical. (See Caes., Bell. Oall., viii., 41.) Exaequare commonly signifies " to make equal," or " equalize ;" and aequiparare " to attain ;" and botb govern the accusative. Note 3. — Aemulari, emulate, commonly takes the accusative of the thing in which, and the dative of the person whom we emulate ; aemulorpru- dentiam, virtutes majorum, and aemulor alicui homini, although some authors use it in both connexions with the accusative, like^ imitari. Adulari,* properly used of dogs, signifies " to creep " or " sneak up to a person," and figuratively, like the Greek irpocKvveiv, the servile veneration paid to Asiatic kings, and hence, in general, to " flatter." In its proper sense it occurs only with the accusative ; e. g., Colum., vii., 12, Canes mitissimi furem quoque adulantur ; in its figurative sense, also, it is found only with the accusative : Valer. Maxim., vi., 3., extr., Athenienses Timagoram inter oficium salutationis Darium regem more gentis illius adulatum capitali supplicio Mecerunt. In its most common sense of " servile flattery," it is used by Cicero, likewise, with the accusative, in Pis., 41, adulans omnes ; by Nepos with the dative ; Attic., 8, Tieque eo magis potenti adulatus est Antonio ; by Livy with both cases, see xxxvi., 7, and xlv., 31 (for in xxiii., 4, there is no reason for giving up the old reading plehem affari), and Quintihan (ix., 3) states that in his time the dative was commonly used. Tacitus and other late writers, however, returned to the ancient practice and used the accu- sative, it should be remarked that the active form adulo was not uncom mon ; as in Valer. Maxim., iv., 3, in fin.. Cum olera lavanti (Diogeni) Aris- tippus diaiisset, si Dionysium adulare velles, ita non esses ; Immo, inquit, si tu ita esse velles, non advlares Dionysium. Compare the commentators on Cic, Tusc, ii., 10, () 24. [§ 390.] 4. Five impersonal verbs (§ 225), virhicli ex- press certain feelings, viz. : piget, (I am) vexed ; pudet, (I am) ashamed ; poenitet, (I) repent ; taedet, (I am) dis- gusted, and miseret, (I) pity, take an accusative of the person affected. As to the case by which the thing ex- citing such a feeling is expressed, see § 441. * [Doderlein traces this verb to aulari, and connects it with the move- ments of the dog in the courtyard on the approach of his master. Com- pare Horace's "Janitor auUe," and Ovid, Met., liv., 45. {Doderlein, hat Syn., vol. ii., p. 175.)] — Am. Ed. ACCUSATIVE CASE. 28 Note.— Oa the principle ofpudiium est, Cicero (de Fin., ii., 13) uaes veti turn est as an impersonal verb with the accusative of the person, CyraiaicL quos non est veritum in voluptate summum bonum ponere. Decet, it is becoming, and its compounds condecet, de decet, and indecet, likewise govern the accusative of the person, but they differ from 'the above-mentionod imper- sonal verbs, inasmuch as they may have a nominative as their subject, though not a personal one. Candida pax homines, trux decet iraferas, Ovid, A. A. Note. — In the early language (especially in Plautus) decet is found, also, with the dative. We may here notice some other verbs which, when used as impersonals, govern the accusative, this case being suited to their original meaning ; juvat and delectat me, I am rejoiced ■,faUit,fugit,praeient me, it escapes me, that is, I have forgotten, or do not know. Latet me occurs more frequently than latet nahi, but the impersonal character of this verb is not founded on good authority, for the passage of Cicero, in Cat., i., 6, is corrupt. Cicero uses this verb without any case ; lateo, I am concealed or keep out of sight. [§ 391.] 5. The verbs (^ocere (teach), with its compounds edocere and dedocere, and celare (conceal), have two accu- satives of the object; one of the thing, and another of the person, as in Nepos, Mum., 8, Antigonus iter, quod Tiahe- hat adversus Eumenem, omnes celat. Fortuna belli artem victos quoque docet. Curt., vii., 30, (7), Catilina juventutem, quam illexerat,muUis modis mala fa- cinora edocehat, Sallust, Cat., 16. Note 1. — When such a proposition takes the passive form, the accusa- tive of the person becomes the nominative ; as, omnes celabanlur ab Antigo- no ; but thp thing may remain in the accusative, e. g., Liv., vi., 32, Latinae legiones longa societate militiam Romanam edociae, and omrus belli artes edoc- tus. But it rarely occurs with doctus and edocius, and with celari scarcely ever, except when the thing is expressed by the neuter of a pronoun, e. g., hoc or id celahar, I was kept in ignorance of it ; for eelare, ana especially its passive, generally has the preposition de, as in Cic, non est profecto de illo veneno celata mater ; debes existimare te maximis de rebus afratre esse celatum. The construction aliifua res mihi celatur in Nep., Alcib., 5, is very singular. Dacere and edocere, with their passive forms, are likewise used with de, but only in the sense of " to inform," as in Cicero, judices de injuriis alicujus docere; Sulla de his rebus docetur; Sallust, de itinere hostium senatum edocet. It must, however, be observed, that^lthough any word expressing an art may be joined to doceo and doceor {doceo te artem, doceor te Laiine loqui, doceor artem, doceor (commonly disco) JUatine loqm), the instrument on which ■ the art is practised is expressed by the ablative ; e. g., pic, ad Fam., ix., 22, Socratem fidibus docuit nobilissimus Jidicen ; Liv., xxix., 1, quern docendum aires equo armisque, and in a passive signification, Cic, Cat. Maj., 8, disce- bantfidibus antiqui. Litterae may be used either in the accus. or ablat., Cic, in Jris., 30, Quid nunc te, asine, litteras doceam ; Brut., 45, doctus Graecis lit- teris, doctus'et Graecis litteris et Latinis. [^ 392.] Note 2. — The verbs compounded with trans : transduce, trans- jicio, transporto, take a double accusative, on account of the omission of the preposition, which, however, is often added, e. g., Agesilaus Heltea pantum copias trajecit ; Hannibal nonaginta milia peditum, duodecim milia tquitum loerum iransduxit ; Caesar exercilum Rhenum transportavit, Ligerin 284 LATIN GRAMMAS. traruducitf but, also, muUitudinem hominum trans Rhenunx in Gal.iam tmu^ ducere. In the passive construction the accusative dependant upon tranM is retained ; as in Caesar, ne major muttitudo Gtrmanorum Bhenum trant- ducatur ; Belgas Rhenum aniiquitus trajisducti. Transjicere and transmiUere are also used intransitively, the pronouns me, te, se, &c., being under- stood. The participles transjectus and transmissus may be used both of that which crosses a river and of the river which is crossed, amnis tra- jectuSf transmissus, and classis transmissa, Marius in Africam trajectus, and the name of the water may be added in the ablative, mari,/reto. [§393.] 6. The verbs poscOtreposcoi^agitOilietnaxid; oro, rogo, I entreat ; interrogo and percontor, I ask or in- quire, also admit a double accusative, one of the person, and another of the thing, but the verbs which denote de- manding or entreaty also take the ablative of the person with the preposition al, and those denoting inquiring may take the ablative of the thing with de. Peto, postulo, and quaero are never used with a double accusative, but the first two have always the ablative of the person with ab, and quaero vidth ah, de and ex. Nulla sdl-as bello, pacem te poscimus omnes, Virg., Aen., xi., 362. Legati Hennenses ad Verrem adeunt eumque simulacrum, Cereris et Victoriae reposcunt, Cic., in Verr., iv., 51. Pusionem quendam Socrates apud Platonem interrogat quaedam Giometrica, Cic, Tusc, i., 24. Note 1. — A double accusative is used most commonly when the thing is expressed indefinitely by the neuter of a pronoun or an adjective ; e. g., hoc te vehementer rogo ; illud te et oro et hortor ; sine te hoc exorem, let me en- treat this of you ; nihil aliud vos orat atque ohsecrat ; hoc quod te interrogo responde. The accusat. with the passive is rare, but in accordance with the rule ; thus we say, rogatus senlentiam, asked for his opinion (for rogo may mean the same as interrogo), interrogatus testimonium. Note 2. — Respecting what is called the Cfreeh accusative, which only sup- plies the place of the Latin ablative, see ^ 458. [§ 394.] 7. The following verbs (which in the passive voice have two nominatives) have in the active two accu- satives, one of the object and the other of the predicate, dicere, vocare, appellare, nominare, nuncupare, also scribere and inscribere ; ducere, habere, judicare, existimare, nume- rare, putare farbitrari)i also intelligere, agnoscere, repe- rire, invenir6,facere (pass, fieri), reddere, instituere, consti- iuere, creare, deligere, designare, declarare, renuntiare, and others ; se praebere, se praestare. Thus we say in the ac- tive, Ciceronem universus populus adversus Catilinam con sulem declaravit (Cic, in Pis., 1), and in the passive, CHo ero ab universo papula consul declaratus est. Romulus urbem, quam condidit, Romam, vocavit. ACCUSATIVE CASE. 285 Socrates totiiis rmmdi se incolam et civem arhitrahatur, Cic, Tusc, v., 37. Bene de me meritis gratum me praebeo, Cic, p. Plane., 38. Scytharum gens antiquissima semper Jiahita est. Note 1. — Hence we say, faci» le certiorem, I inform thee, with the geni live ; e. g,, consilii Ttiei, or with the preposition de ; de consilio meo ; and in the passive voice, certior foetus sum. With other adjectives reddere is pref erable iofacere ; e. g., reddere aliquem placidum et motlerA, meliorem, iratum, &c. ; homines caecos reddit cupiditas ; loca tuta ab hostibus reddebat. In the passive we rarely find reddi for fieri. ITtor, in a similar sense, is used with a double ablative : utor aliquo ma gistro, I have a person for my teacher ; utor aliquo aequo, benigno, I find a person just, kind towards myself. Terent., Heaut., ii., 1, 5, Mihi si unquan filius erit, nae illefacili me utetur patre, he shall have in me an indulgent father. Note 2. — With regard to the participle passive, the rule respecting the agreement of the predicate with the cases of the subject rarely applies to any other cases than the nominative and accusative, at least in ordinary language. There are, however, a few instances of the ablative in the construction of the ablative absolute ; Nep., Harm., 3, Hasdrubale impera tore suffecto ; Liv., iv., 46, magistro equitum creato filio suo jrrofeotus est ad bellum; ibid., xlv., 21, Consulibus certioribus factis ; Flor., iii., 21, ex senn- tusconsulto adversariis kostibus judicatis. There are no instances of other oblique cases. It is not, however, improbable that a Roman might have said, Dareus Scytharum genti, quamquaTn justissimae habitae, bellum intulit. Note 3. — The verbs putare, ducere, and habere may have the preposition pro instead of the accusative of the predicate, but not quite in the same sense, pro expressing rather an approximation ; e. g., habere pro hoste, to deem a person equal to an enemy ; aliquid pro nan dicto habere, to consider a thing as though it had not been said ; aliquid pro certo putare, to regard a thing as though it were certain ; pro nihilo, as though it were nothing. We may here notice, also, the phrases aliquem in numero ; e, g., impera- torum, sapientium, and aliquem in loco parentis ducere or habere. [§ 395.] 8. The accusative is used with verbs and ad- jectives to express the extent of time and space, in answer to the questions, how far % how long 1 how broad 1 how deep I how thick ? e. g., nunquam pedem a me discessit, he never moved one step from me ; a recta conscientia non transversum unguem (or digitumj oportet discedere, not one finger's breadth ; fossa duos pedes lata X longa ; cogitationem sohrii hominis punctum temporis mscipe, taJce, for one moment, the thought of a rational man ; so, also, Mithridates annum jam tertium et vicesi- mum regnat; ires annos ynecum hahitavit, or per tres annos, which, however, implies that the period was a long one. Campus M^arathon ah Athenis circiter milia passuum decern abest, Nep., Milt., 4. Quaedam, hestiolae unum tantum diem vivunt, Cic. decern quondam annos urhs oppugnata est ob unam mvHu erem ab universa Graecia, Liv., v., 4. 386 LATIN GRAMMAS. Lacrimans in, carcere mater nodes diesque assidebat, Cic, in Verr., v., 43. [^ 396.] Note 1. — The ablative is rarely used by Cicero to express ths duration of time;* e. g., de Off., in., 2, Scriptum est a Posidtmio triginta annia vixisse Panaetium, posteaquam libros de officiis edidisset ; but it is more frequent in the authors of the silver age ; Tac, Ann., i., 53, quattumdecim *nnis exilium toleravit ; Suet, Ctdig., 59, vixit annis widetriginta. The abla- tive of distance must, in general, be regarded as an exception, although it occurs not only in later writers, but in Caesar and Livy, ahest, dtstat quin- que milibue passuum'', or apatio aliquot milium ; Tac, Ann., xii,, 17, Exercitua Kmianus tridui itinere ahfuit ah amne Tanai; but Cicero and others, in ac- cordance with the rule, say iter quinque, decern dierum, or biduum, iriduum, or hidui, tridui (scil., spatiuni) attest ab aliquo loco. If, however, not the dis- tance is to be expressed, but only a place to be designated by the circum- stance of its distance from another, the ablative should be used, though the accusative sometimes occurs; e. g., Liv., xxvii., 41, millefere et quin- gentos passus castra ab hoste heat ; XXV., 13, tria passuum milia ab ipsa urbe loco edito castra posuit, and in other passages. Spatio and intervello are the only words in which the ablative is used exclusively ; e. g., Liv., xxv., 9, quindecimferme milium spatio castra ab Tarento posuit, but the ablative is found, also, in many other cases, agreeably to the rule ; e. g., Caes., Belt Gall., i., 48, Eodem die castra promovit et milibus passuum sex a Caesaris eas trie sub monte conaedit. When the place from which the distance is calcu- lated is not mentioned, but understood from what precedes, ab is placed at the beginning, as if the ablative of the distance depended on it ; e. g., Caes., Bell, Gall., ii., 7, a milibus passuum duobus castra posuerunt, i. e., at a distance of 2000 paces from the spot, or 2000 paces off, duo inde milia (for more instances from Caesar, see Schneider on Caes., I. c.) ; Liv., xxiv., 46, a quingentis fere passibus castra posuit ; Flor., ii,, 6, 56, non jam a tertio lapide (i. e., at a distance of three miles), sed ipsas Carthaginis portas obsidi- one quatiebat. (Compare Matthiae, Greek Grammar, J 573, p. 994, 5th ed.) [9 397.] Note 2. — Old, in reference to the years which a person has lived, is expressed in Latin by natus, with an accusative of the time; e. g., De- cessit Alexander mensem unum, annos tres et tnginta natus (Justin, xii., 16). Alexander, therefore, died quarto et trigesimo anna, or aetatis anno. A per- son's age, however, may be expressed without natus, by the genitive, if his name is closely joined to the words denoting the time (see % 426) ; e. g., Alexander annorum trium et triginta dkzessii, i. e., as a man of thirty- three years. The expressions "older" or "younger than thirty-three years," are accordingly rendered in Latin by plus or minus (see f) 485) tres et triginta annos natus ; but, als.o, by major or minor, either without quam, as, major (miTWr) annos tres et triginta natus, and major (minar) annorum trium et triginta ; or with quam : major {minor) quam annas tres et triginta natus, and major {minor) quam annorum trium et triginta. Natu may be joined to annorum, as anno is to aetatis in the case of ordinal numerals. Lastly, the ablative is made to depend upon the comparative ; major i7ninor) tribus et triginta annis ; and in the Roman laws we frequently find the expression minor viginti quinque annis. [§ 398.] 9. The names of towns, and not unfrequendy of small islands, are put in the accusative with verbs im- plying motion, without the preposition ire, or ad, which are required with the names of countries : e. g., Juvenes Romani Aihenas studiorum causa projicisci solebant. We * [The strict distinction appears to oe this : with the ablative we ask, in what time ; but with the accusative, throughout what time. Compar*' BiUrolk, L. O., i) 208.]— jlm. Ed. ACCUSATIVE CASE. 287 may here mention at once all the rules relating to the construction of the names of towns. If they denote the place whence, they are in the ablative; if the place where ? singular nouns of the first and second declensions are put in flie genitive, all plurals and nouns of the third declen- sion in the ablative.* When we have to express "through a town," the preposition jjer is required. Demaraius gteidam, Targuinii regis pater, tyrannum Gyp- selum quodferre non poterat, Targuinios Corintho fugit, et ihi suas fortimas constituit, Cic, Tusc, v., 37. Dionysius tyranrms Syractisis expuhus Corinthi pueros docehat, Cic, Tusc, iii., 12. Romae Consules, Athenis Archontes, Carthagine^ Suffetes sivejudices, quotannis creahantur, Nep., Harm, Note 1. — The use of names of countries without a preposition, like the names of towns, and of names of towns with the prepositions in, ok, ex, is an irregularity which should not be imitated. Of these prepositions ai is found most frequently, especially in Livy, though sometimes, also, in Cicero ; ah Epidauro Piraeeum advectus, ab JEpheso in Syriam profectus, a Brundisio nulla adhuc fama vensrat ; and cases may occur in which the preposition is absolutely necessary; as in Cic, m Verr., iv., 33, Segesta est oppidum in Sicjlia, quod ab Aenea,Jugiente a Troja, conditum esse denumstrant. Ad is joined with names of towns when only the direction towards a place is to be expressed, and not the place itself; e. g., in Cicero, itez dtrigere ai Mutinam ; tres viae sunt ad Mutinam, farther, when the vicinity of a place is to be denoted (§ 296); in this sense, the elder Cato says, in Cic, Cat. — 07., 5, adolescentulus miles profectus sum ad Capuam, quintoque anni * This rule, varying as it does with the number and -declension of a name of a town, is obviously quite arbitrary, and not traceable to any principle. The first (at least in England) proper explanation of this apparent peculiarity of the Latin language is given by a writer in the Journal of Educatimi (vol. i., p. 107), from which we extract the following passage ; " We are usually directed to translate at Rome by the genitive, at Athens by the ablative, &c., giving diflFerent rules according as the number or the gender differs, while, in fact, they are all datives. With Romae, Athenis, there is no difficulty. As to Beneventi, domi, &c., an ear- lier form of the dative of the second declension was o> (filxot), whence arose the double form nulla and nulB. In the plural the two languages exhibit the same analogy; Sovkoi, SoiTiotc, in Greek, and in Latin pum, pueiis. In the third declension a common occurrence has taken place." This explanation is confimied by the fact that in most cases we find Car- thagini, ATixuri, Tiburi, and also Lacedtemoni, when the place where i' is to be expressed. See above, ^ 63, in fin. — Tkansl. t The writer above quoted justly remarks: "Our editions often present Carthagine, LacedamoTie, where the MSS. have the correct dative. It is true' that authority exists for the other form ; but the change of Carthagint into Carthagine is precisely similar to the change of heri into here, pictai into pictae, and not unlike the absorption of the i in the datives of so many declensions, Greek and Latin: gradui gradu,fidei fide. In the third de. clension, the preceding consonant saved it from total extinction. The commonest effect of time upon language is to soften away the final letters, Hence miraris, mirare ; agier, agi ; ipsus, ipse ; quis, qui; fuenmt, fvtrr htmo, homX ; iyuv, iyu ; ego, ego," &c.— Teansl. 288 LATIN GRAMMAS post ad Tarentum Quaestor, that is, tn castra, ad Capuarft, ad Tarmlum. So ad is also used to denote the approach of a fleet to a maritime town; e. g., Caes., Bell. Civ., ili., 100, Laeli-us cum classe ad Brundisium venit. What has been said above in reference to islands applies not only to those which have towns of the same name, such as JOelos, Rhodus, Sa- moa, Cdrcyra, but to others, also, as in Cicero : Ithacae vwere otiose; in Nepos, GunOn plurimum Cypri vixii, Jphicrates in Thracia, Timotheus Lesbi; Pausaniam cum classe Cyprum atque JleUespontum miserunt ; so, also, Cher- sonesum colonos mittere, Chersonesi habitare ; but Cicero, de Divin., i., 25, says, in Cyprum redire. The larger islands ; as, Sardinia, Britannia, Creta, Euboea, Sicilia, are subject to the same rules as names of countries ; and the few exceptions which occur cannot be taken into account ; e. g., Cic, p. Leg. Man., 12, inde Sardiniam cum classe venit ; Liv,, xxxii., 16, Euboeam trajecerunt; Flor., iii., 10, Britanniam transit; and some others. Names of countries, also, are not unfrequently used in the accusative vrithout the preposition in when motion is expressed. This is most fre- quently the case with Aegyptus (once even in Cic, de Nat. Dear., iii., 22), and other Greek names of countries in us; as, Epirus, Peloponnesus, Cher- sonesus, Bosporus, perhaps owing to their resemblance to names of towns ; but also with others; e. g., Caes., Bell. Gall., iii., 7, JUyricum profectus ; Bell. Civ., iii., 41", Macedoniam pervenit ; Liv., x., 37, Etruriam itansducto exerciiu ; xxx., 24, Africam tran^iturus. All these expressions, however, are only exceptions, rarely used by the earlier writers, and somewhat more frequently by the later ones. Even names of nations, when used for those of countries, are construed in this way by Tacitus, Ann., xiL, 32, ductus inde Cangos exercitus ; xii., 15, Ipse praeceps Iberos ad patrium regnum pervadit. The genitive of names of countries in answer to the question where ? is much more rare, and is confined to Aegypti in Caesar, Bell. Civ., iii., 106 ; Chersonesi in Nep., Milt., 1 ; Florus, i., 18, 11, uses Im- caniae in the same way ; in Sallust the combination Romae Numidiaeque is easily accounted for.* The grammatical explanation of this genitive, however, is connected with difficulties. Formerly grammarians accounted for it by the ellipsis in loco ; modern comparative philology has called in the aid of the locative singular in I of the Sanscrit language, which is akin to the Latin. (See Bopp, Vergleich. Grammatik, p. 229.) This would account for the ae in the first declension, the ancient form being ai (see ^ 45), and for the t in some nouns of the third declension ; e. g., Tiburi, Carthagini, ruri. (See ^ 62, foil.) The use of the accusative to denote "motion to," and of the ab- lative to denote the place where or whence, is perfectly in accordance with the syntactical system of the Latin language ; and this accounts for the fact of later writers, especially Justin, frequently putting names of towns of the second declension in the ablative to denote the place where; e, g., Abydo, Corintho, Liv., v., 52, in monte Albano Jjavinioque, for et La- vinii.i [^ 399.J Note 2. — With regard to adjectives and nouns of apposition jomed with names of towns, the following rules must be observed. When a name of a town is qualified by an adjective, the answer to the question where ? is not expressed by the genitive, but by the preposition in with the ablative; e. g., Cic, ad Att., xi., 16, in ipsa Alexandria; Plin., HistiNat., xiv., 3, in Narbonensis provinciae Alba Helvia ; and, consequently, not Albae Longae, but rather the simple ablative Alba Longa ; as in Virgil, Aen., vi, 766. In Cicero, however, we find Teani Apuli (p. Cluent., 9), in the Apu lian Teanum. When a name of a town answers to the question where f * According to the remark made above, Aegypti, Chersonesi, Lucaniae, &c., are all datives, answering to the Sanscrit locative, and not genitives. -Transl. t According to what was said above, these are not exceptions ; Abfdt, Corintkt, being datives, and not ablatives. — Tkanrl. ACCUSATIVE CASE. 289 hi the ablative, the addition of an adjective produces no change ; c. g., Cic, ad Att.j xvi., 6, Malo vet cum timore domi esse, quam sine timore Athenis Utts ; Liv., i., 18, Numa Pompitius Curibus Sabinis habitahat ; ibid., xxviii., 17, Cca-thagine nova retiquit; and hence the reading in the epitome of the same book should be Carthagini nova, and not novae. In answer to the questions whither? and whence? the accus. and ablat. are used both with and without prepositions; e. g., Ovid, Heroid., ii., 83, Aliquis doctas jam nunc eat, inquit, Aihenas ; Cic, in Verr., i., 19, quae ipsa Samo sublata sunt; but Propert., iii., 20, ma^um iter ad doctas projicisa cogor Athenas ; and Martial, xiii., 107, devitifera venisse Vienna. When the words urbs, oppidum, locwi, &c., follow the names of towns as appositions, they generally take a preposition ; e. g., Demaratus Corin- thius se contuUt Tarquinios, in urbem Etruriae jlorentissiTnam ; Cic, in Yerr., v., 51, Cteomenes dictt, sese in terram esse egressum, ut Pachyno, e terrestri praeaidio, mitites coltigeret. In answer to the question where ? however, the pimple ablative may be used, but never the genitive ; e. g., Cic., p. Arch.j 3, Archias Antiochiae natus est, celebri quondam vrbe et copiosa ; p. Rab. Post. , iO,Deliciarum causa et voluptatis cives Romanos Neapoti, m celeberri-mo oppido, cum mitella saepe vidimus. When these words, with their prepositions, pre- cede the names of towns, the latter are invariably put in the same case j e. g., ad urbem Ancyram, ex urbe Roma, ex oppido Thermis, in oppido Athenis ; Nep., Cim., 3, in oppido Citio ; Tac, Ann., xi., 21 , in oppido Adrumeto. Ex- ceptions are rare ; Vitruv., Praef., lib. x., nobiti Graecorum et ampta civitate Ephesi; and in Cic, ad Att, v., 18, Cassius in oppido Antiochiae cum omni exercitu est, where Antiochiae depends upon oppido, just as we say " in the town of Antioch." [^ 400.] Note 3. — The words domus and res are treated like the names of towns, consequently domum (also domos in the plur.) and rus, home, into the country ; domo and rure, from home, from the country ; domi, run (more frequent than rure), at home, in the country. But although the rule requires, e. g., domo abesse, to be absent from home, Livy uses esse ab domo ; and besides domi se tenere, to keep at home, we also find domo se tenere.* (See the comment, on Nep., £pam., 10.) Domi also takes the genitives meae, tuae, nostrae, vestrae, and alienae ; but if any other adjective is joined with it, a preposition must be used; e. g., in Ala domo, in domo puSUca, in privata dorm). When the name of tile possessor is added in the genitive, both forms, domi and in domo, are used ; e. g., domi or in domo Caesaris or ipsius. In the case of domum and domo, the rule is, on the whole, the same ; we say, e. g., domum meam verut, nihil domum suam intu- lit, domos suas invitant, domo sua egredi ; but in domum meretriciam induci ; in domum veterem remigrare e nova ; Livy, in domum Maelii tela inferuntur ; Cicero, e domo Caesaris multa ad te delata su7U ; Cicero, however, very commonly says, domum alicujus venire, convenire, domos omnium concuraare. Humus, bellum, and militia are, to some extent, construed in a similar way, their genitives! being used to denote the place where? hurra, on the ground (but not humum, (I throw) upon the ground, and rarely humo, from the ground, prepositions being required to express these relations ; hence humo is often used as an ablative of place ior humi) ; belli and militiae, always in combination with, or in opposition to, domi: belli domique, or domi betlique, domi mililiaeque, at home and in the camp ; nee ducem belli, nee principem domi desideramus ; nihil domi, nihil militiae gestum. But we also iind in bello, in war. Viciniae for in vicinia, occurs in Terence in such con- nexions, as, Aic, hue, viciniae, where, however, the genitive might be re- garded as dependant upon the adverb (see ^ 434), but Plautus (BoccA., ii. 2, 27) uses it without the adverb ; proximae viciniae habitat. Foras (out through the door) and foris (out at the door) have become adverbs, but the one is properly an accusat., and the other an ablat. * [These are all locative cases. Consult note on page 287.] — Am. Ed. t fOr, more correctly, locatives.]— Am. Ed. M B 290 LATIN GRAMMAR. [§ 401.] The poets may express by the accusative any locality answering to the question whither ? as in Virgil, Italiamjato prqfiigus Lavinaque venit litora ; Speluncam Dido dux et Try anus eandem deveniunt ; Ovid, Verba refers aures non pervenientia nostras. " [§ 402.] 10. In exclamations the accusative of the per- son or thing wondered at is used, either with the inter- jections o, heu, eheu, or without them. The accusative may be explained by supplying some verb of emotion or declaration.; e. g., Heu me miserum ! O wretched man that I am ! heu dementiam existimantium ! O the folly of those who believe, &c. ! or without heu : me miserum ! Beatos quondam, duces Romanes ! exclaims Corbulo in Tacit., Ann., xi., 20 ; Cic, in Verr., v. 25, Huncine homi- nem .' hancine impudentiam,judices ! hanc audaciam I and in an ironical sense, ^. Coel., 26, In balneis delituerunt : testes egregios ! de Orat., iii., 2, Ofallacem hominum spem fragilemque fortvjnam et inanes nostras contentiones t \i) 403.] Note 1. — With these as with all other interjections the vocative also is used, when the person or thing itself is invoked ; e. g., Cic, Philip., xiii., 17, o miser, mmm re, turn hoc ipso quod non sends, quam miser sis ! Vae and hei are usually joined with the dative ; as, vae misero mihi J vae victis t hei mihi, qualis erat ! Note 2. — Ecce and en (Greek jfi', ijvC) are preferred with the nominative ; as, Eece tuae litterae ! Ecce nova turba atque rixa ! En ego ! En memoria mortui sodatis f en metus vivorum existimationis ! Ecce with the accusative occurs only in comedy, in the expression ecce me ! and in the contracted forms cecum, eccos, eccillum, eccillam, eccistam. [§ 404.] 11. The following prepositions govern the ac- cusative : ad, apud, ante, adversus and adversum, cis and dtra, circa and circum, circiter, contra, erga, extra, infra, inter, intra, juxta, oi, penes, per, pone, post, praeter, prope, propter, secundum, supra, trans, versus, ultra, and in and sub when joined vyith verbs of motion. Respecting super and subter, see § .^20. CHAPTER LXXII. DATIVE CASE. [§ 405.] 1. The dative is the case oi reference, or, if we compare it with the accusative, the case denoting the re- moter object; for as the accusative serves to denote the effect or that which is acted upon, in contrast to the agent or active subject, so the dative denotes that with refer- ence to which the subject acts, or in reference to which DATIVE CASE. 291 It possesses this or that quality; e. g., scriho vohts hunt lihrum, I write this book (the agent and effect, or cause and effect), for you (with reference to you, for your ad- vantage) ; prosum tibi, I am useful to you (in reference to you).* Hence the dative is used. (a) With all transitive verbs, besides the accusative, either expressed or understood, to denote the person in reference to whom or for whom a thing is done ; e. g., date panem pauperihus, commendo tibi liberos meos, mitto tibi librum, rex mihi domum aedificavit; in the following sentences the accusative is understood, or its place is sup- plied by the sentences which follow : suadeo tibi, persua- deo tibi, nuntiavit imperatori, promisii militibus. This rule implies that the person for whose benefit or loss anything is done is expressed by the dative (dativus corn- modi et incommodi) ; e. g., Pisistratus sibi, non patriae, Megarenses vicit, Justin ; Non scholae, sed vitae discinvus, Senec, Epist., 106. [§ 406.] (bj With intransitive verbs, which, though they usually do not govern any case, may yet express that the action is done with reference to something or somebody. We mention here, especially, vacare, nubere, and supplicare. Vaco signifies " I am free," hence, vaco alicui rei, I have leisure for a thing, or occupy myself with it; as, vaco philosophiae. Nubo originally signifies " I cover ;" and as, according to an ancient custom, the bride on her wedding-day covered her face, she was said rmbere alicui viro, " to cover herself for a man," that is, " to marry." (In the passive, however, we find nupta cum viro.) Supplico signifies "I am a suppliant" (sup- plexj ; hence, supplico alicui, I implore a person. Homo non sibi se soli natum meminerit, sed patriae, sed suis, Cic, De Fin., ii., 14. Givitas Romana inter bellorum strepitum parum olim va- cabat liberalibm disciplinis. Sueton., De Crrammat. Plures in Asia mulieres singulis viris solent nubere, Cic. Neque Caesari solum,, sed etiam amicis ejus omnibus pro te, sicut adhucfeci, libentissime supplicabo. Cic, Ad Fam., vi., 14. [^ 407.] Note 1. — Suadeo tibi harus rem, has nothing that is strange to us as we use the same construction in English. Persuadeo denotes the com- * [Some grammarians have called the dative the acquisitive case, aa being used after any verb, denoting that anything is done to, or for maj person. {Crombie's Gymnasium, vol. i., p. O.y]— Am. Ed. 29Z LATIN GRAMMAR. pletioi. ofruadeo, and must be noticed here because its construction diffen from that of our verb " to persuade." We use the passive form " I am per- suaded," but in Latin we must say hoc (or any other neuter pronoun) jnihi persuadetur, as the construction is managed in such a way as to make the clause which follows the subject ; persuadetur miki, persuasum mihi est, mihi perstMsum habeo (this occurs only in Caes., Bell. Gall., iii., 2) esse aliquid, but also de aliqua re. Persuadeo te has been found in a fragment of Cicero, p. TuU., ^ 39, ed. Peyron, but is otherwise altogether unclassical ; it ex- plains, however, the personal participle persuasus which occurs now and then.* Mihi quidem nunquam persuaderi potuit, animos, dum in corporibus essent mor- talibusj vivere, quum exissent ex his, emori, Cic, Cat. Maj., 22. [(j 408.] Note 2.— The free application of the dative, or what is termed the dativus armmodi et incommodi, enabled the Romans to speak with great nicety and conciseness. Compare, for examplei the following passages, whose number might be greatly increased : Cic, in Verr., ii., 8 (Verres) hunc hominem Veneri absolvit, sibi condemnat, to the loss of Venus (whose temple was to have received a bequest) he acquits him, but for his own benefit he condemns him ; Terent., Adelph., i., 2, 35, quod peccat, Demea, mihipeccat. In Plautns {Capt., iv., 2, 86), a person answers to the imper tinent remark esurire mihi videris: mihi quidem esurio, non tibi ; i. e., it does not concern you. The dative of personal pronouns is very often used where it is superfluous as far as the meaning is concerned, but it always conveys the expression of a lively feeling, and is therefore termed dativus ethicus ; e. g., Liv,, Praef., Ad ilia mihi pro se quisque acriter intendat ani- mum ; Herat., Epist., i., 3, 15, Quid mihi Celsus agit ? What is my old friend Celsus doing 1 In some cases the pronoun gives to the expression an almost personal shade of meaning; Sallust, Cat., 52, hie mihi quisquam misericordiam nominat ! Let no one talk to me of mercy ! Cic, Philip., 'iii., 4, hie mihi etiam Q. Fujius pads commoda commemorat ! The following phrases, also, should be observed : quid tibi vis ? what do you want ? quid sibi iste vult ? what does he want ? quid vult sibi haec oratio ? what does this speech mean ? mad haec sibi dona voluru ? what is the meaning of these presents ? or what is their object ? [§ 409.] 2. The dative is joined with all adjectives (and adverbs) whose meaning is incomplete, unless a person or an object is mentioned for or against whom, for whose benefit or loss the quality exists. Of this kind are those which express utility or injury , pleasantness or un- pleasantness, inclination or disinclination, ease or difficulty, suitableness or unsuitableness, similarity or dissimilarity, equality or inequality. Adjectives expressing a friendly or hostile disposition towards a person, may take the prepositions in, erga, ad- versus, instead of the dative ; and utilis, inutilis, aptus, ineptus generally take the preposition ad to express the thing for which anything is useful or fit ; e. g., homo ad nullam rem utilis ; locus aptus ad insidias ; but the per- son to or for whom a thing is useful or fit, is always ex- pressed by the dative. * [ Opinio malt, quo viso, et persuaso, aegritudo insequitur necessario. (Cic, Tusc, 3, 29.) — Cum animus auditoris persuasus videtur esse ab its, qui antt wtOra dixermit. (Auct- ad Hetm., 1, 6.)]— Am. Ed. DATIVE CASE. 293 Canis nonne similis lupo ? atque, ut Entiius, " simia qtiam similis, turpissima bestia, nobis J" Cic, De Nat. Dear., i., 35. Fidelissimi ante omnia homini canis et equus, Plin. hmia virtuti nulla est via, Ovid, Met., xiv., 113. Cunctis esto benignus, niilli blandus, paucis familiaris, omnibus aequus, Seneca. [i 410.] Note l.^Amicus, inimicm, familiaris, are properly adjectives, and as such have their degrees of comparison, and are joined with the da- tive ; as in Nepos, Miltiades amicior omnium libertati, quam suaefvit domi- nationi ; and homo mihi a-micissimus, mihi familiarissimus, are very common expressions. When used as substantives, they are joined with a genitive or an adjective ; as, amicus patris mei, amicus meus ; and it is owing to their character of substantives that even in the superlative we find amicissimus, familiarissimus, inimicissimus (and on the same principle iniquissimus) Tneus Cicero, in Verr., 1., 26, uses the genitive, amicissimus nostrorum hominum Jnvidus, envious, and iniimus, intimate, when used as adjectives, take the dative ; as in Cicero, intimus erat Clodio ; but as substantives they take the genitive or a possessive pronoun ; e. g., ab invidis tuis, ex intimis meis, in- vidus laudis. Hostis, on the other hand, though a real substantive, some times takes a dative according to the analogy of inimicus; e. g., dis homini- busque hostis. [^ 411.] Note2. — The dative is also joined with adjectives and adverbs denoting affinity and propinquity ; as, conterminus, propinquus, vicinus, Jiniti- mus, affinis. As prope, the preposition, governs the accusative, its degrees of comparison ($ 266) piropior andpropius, proximus and proxime, take both the dative and accusative ; e. g.. Curt., ix., 12, propius tribunal accedere, and in Saltust, Lihyes propius mare Africwm agitabant, proxime Hispaniam Mauri sunt. (Compare Gronovius on Livy, xxii., 40.) Affinis, in the sense of " partaking," sometimes takes the genitive ; as in Cicero, affinis hujus suspicionis ; affinis ret capitalis, together with affinis huic sceleri, ei turpitudini. Vicinus and vicina are both adjectives and substantives, and in the latter sense they take the genitive. The following adjectives govern both the dative and the genitive: ae(iualis, cognominis, contrarius, communis, peculiaris, proprius, superstes. The genitive is very frequent with proprius ; e. g., Cic, Imprimis hominis est propria veri investigatio ; Aliae nationes servitutem pali possunt, populi Romani est propria libertas, especially when the neuter proprium is used as a sub* stantive in the sense of "property," or "peculiarity;" e. g., Proprium est oratoris ornate dicere. The same is the case with communis ; as in Cic, de Fin., v., 23, Haec justitiae ita propria sunt, ut sint reliquarum virtutum com- munia. Hence a possessive pronoun is frequeiltly joined to proprius ; as, adeinit nobis omnia, quae nostra erant propria ; both constructions are com bined in Cic, n. Sulla, 3, Nulla est enim in re publica causa mea propria tempos agendifuit magis mihi proprium, quam ceteris. Aequalis governs the genitive only in the sense of " contemporary," in which it occurs also as a substantive, whence meus aequalis ; but the dative is not unusual in this sense. Superstes occurs in Plautus and Terence with the dative, but in later writers the genitive is more prevalent. Even Cicero (ad Quint. Frat., i., 3) says, Utinam te non solum vitae, sed etiam dignitatis superstitem reliquis- s«ii, and Tacitus often uses the genitive; e,g.,Agr,,3,pauci, utita dixerim, non modo aliorum sed etiam nostri superstites sumus. The adjectives similis, assimilis, consimilis, dissimilis, par and dispar, take the genitive, when an internal resemblance, or a resemblance in character and disposition, is to be expressed. Thus we always find mei, tm, sui, nostri, vestri similis; Liv., i., 20, quia in cilaitate bellicosa pbtres Romvli, quam Numae similes reges putabat fore ; iii., 64, ci'jMudatis crnsulilnis, quod perse* Bb 2 294 LATIN GKAMMAE. verarmt ad tdtimum dissimiles decemvirorum esse ; Cis., Cat. Maj,, 10, Dua ille Orraeciae nusquam optatf ut Ajacis similes habeat decern^ at u£ Nestoris, And Cicero may therefore say both mors somni and somno similis. Par and diipar are joined with the genitives of pronouns, like similis ; e. g., Cic, m Ph., 4, Q. Metellum^ cujus paucos pares haec civitas iulit ; Cat. Maj., 21, Simplex artimi natura est, neque habet in se quicquam admixtum dispar sui atque dissimile. [§ 412.] 3. Hence the dative is joined with those in- transitive verbs which express the same ideas as the ad- jectives mentioned in § 409, and also with those denoting to command, serve, tmst, Tnistrust, approach, threaten, and to be angry. They are comprised in the following list : prosum, auxilior, adminiculor, opitulor, patrocinor, suh- venio, succurro, medeor ; noceo, obsum, desum, officio, in- commode, insulto, irtsidior ; faveo, placeo, gratificor, indul- geo, ignosco, studeo, pareo, adulor, blandior, lenocinor, pal- por, assentior, assentor, respondeo ; adversor, refragor, obsto, renitor, repugno, resisto, invideo, aemulor, obtrecto, convicior, maledico ; placeo, arrideo — displiceo ; impero (may be used, also, as a transitive), pareo, cedo, ausculto, obedio, obsequor, obtempero, morigeror (morem gero), alicui dicto audiens sum, servio, inservio, ministro,famulor, ancil- lor, praestolor ; credo (is used, also, in a transitive sense), fido,confido, diffido; immineo,propinqw),appropinquo, im- pendeo, occurro; minor, comrrAnor (both are used, also, in a transitive sense), irascor, stomachor, succenseo. To these must be added the impersonals convenit, it suits ; conducit and expedit, it is conducive, expedient; dolet, it grieves. The beginner must take especial care not to use the passive of these verbs personally, to which he might easily be tempted by the English equivalents ; e. g., I am envied, I am molested, I am scolded, I am spared, and the like. In Latin the passive is impersonal: mihi invidetur, obtrec- tatur, incommodatur, mihi maledicitur, parcitur. Jubeo, I command, forms an exception, requiring the accusative with the infinitive.* Probus imvldet nemini, Cic, Timaeus, 3. Efficit hoc philosophia : medetur animis, inanes sollici- tudines detrahit, cupiditatibus liberat, pellit timores, Cic, Tusc, ii., 4. Antiochus se nee impensae, nee labori, nee periculo parsu- rum poUieebatur, donee liberam vere Graeciam atque in ea principes Aetolos fecisset, Liv., xxxv., 44. ♦ [Consult, on the construction ofjvbeo, the remarks of Crombis {Oymnas., vol, i., p. 123, seqq.).] — Am. Ed. DATIVE CASE. 295 Oemostkenes ejiis ipsius artis, cui studebat, primam litteram rum poterat dhere, Cic, De Oral., i., 61. (j 413.] iVote 1. — Medicor, like medeor, takes the dative, but also the accusative. Medico, in the sense of "to mix substances in an artificial manner," governs the accusative. Benedico, like Ttialedico (I speak well or ill of a person, and hence, I praise or blame), governs the dative; but benedico, in this sense, is very rare : in the sense of " blessing," with the accusative, it occurs only in the ecclesiastical writers. Obtrectare alicui, and alicui rei, to detract, is sometimes joined with the accusative ; but not in Cicero ; as, obtrectare numen deorum, tibetlum, Invideo is commonly used intransitively with one dative, either of the person or the thing; but some- times the accusative of the thing is added to the dative of the person ; e. g., Cic, Tuec, lii., 2, inviderU nobis optimammagislram (naturam); Horat., Serm., i., 6, 50, honorem mihi invidet. Quintilian (ix., 3), however, observes that his contemporaries used the ablative instead of the accusative of the earlier writers, but only when invidere is equivalent to privare ; this con- struction first occurs in Livy, ii., 40, non inviderunt laude sua rnulieribus Romani (according to the best MSS.) ; very frequently in the younger Pliny, and sometimes in Tacitus; e. g., Plin, Epist., ii., 10, Quousque et tibi et nobis invidebis, tibi maxima laude, nobis voluptate ? (See Corte on Epist., i., 10.) Tac, Ann., i., 22, ne hastes quidem sepulturd invident, scil. Decisis ; German., 33, Tie spectaculo quidem proelii invidere, scil. nobis. The genitive instead of this ablative or ancient accusative, in Horace, Serm,, ii., 6, 84, neque iUe sepositi ciceris nee longae invidit avenae, is a mere Grecism ;* and the personal passive in the same poet (Ars Poet., 56), cur ego invideor, is a grammatical innovation, which the poet tried intentionally, and as an example. Respecting adulor and aemulor with the dative and accusative, see () 389. Praestolor, I wait upon a person, and ausculto, I listen or obey, are used by equally good authorities both with a dative and accusative, though Cicero prefers the dative. Dominor, I rule, is joined with a dative or genitive only in the latest Latin writers ; in the classical lan- guage it does not govern any case, but according to its proper meaning, *' I am master," is joined with in aliquem, or in aliqua re; e. g., dominatur in cetera animalia, or in civitate. Fido and conjido take the dative ; e. g., con- Jido mihi, causae meae, virtuli constantiaeque militum ; the thing which pro- duces the confidence is put in the ablative {ablativus causae, see ^ 452) ; e. g., canfido arte, natura loci, celeritate navium, propinquitate castrorum, and this ablative occurs, on the whole, more frequently than the dative. The adjective /reJMs, which has the same meaning, occurs with the dative only in Livy, iv., 37,fortunae fretus ; vi., 13, mdli rei ; vi., 31, discordiae hostium, and usually has the ablative. Cedo, I yield, give up, when used transi- tively, takes a dative of the person and an accusative of the thing ; cedo tibi locum, regnum, mulierem ; sometimes, however, the thing is expressed by the ablative ; as, cedo tibi hortorum possessione. So, also, concedo : con- cedo tibi locum., praemia, libertatem, or concedo tibi loco, de victoria. Convenit aliquid mihi, something suits me ; convenit mihi tecum, is used impersonally in the sense of "we agree," and equivalent to convenimus de aliqua ret The verbs denoting similarity or dissimilarity should be construed with ^he dative, like the adjectives similis and dissimilis, but in prose they are commonly joined with the prepositions cum and ab; e. g., congruo, con- nentio, abhorreo, dissideo, Comp. ^ 468, foil. [^ 414.] NoU 2. — Several verbs have a different meaning according as they take the accus. or dat. Met-uo and limeo te, I fear thee ; tibi, T am alarmed on thy account, which is also expressed by tud causa. * [The regular construction occurs, in the same poet, at Serm., i.. 6, 50, >nd Epist., i., 14, il.]—Am. Ed. f fConiparc Crombie, Gymnas. vol. i., p. 110.] — Am. Ed. 296 LATIN GEAMMAR. Conmlo te, I consult thee ; tibi, I prbvide for thy interests. Prospicio and provideo te, 1 see thee at a distance ; tibi, I provide for tnj interests. Caveo, without any case, " I am on my guard ;" a te, against thee, and in a legal sense, " I make thee give security to me for something," de aliqua re, Caveo te, I avoid thee ; caveo tibi, I provide or am concerned for thy safety, and hence in a legal sense " I give thee security." Tempera and moderor aliquid, I regulate or arrange a thing ; tnihi, ammo, irae, lacrimis (scil. meis), I set bounds to, or check. Tempero mihi ab aliqua re, I abstain from a thing, and tempero (scil. mihi) tibi, I am sparing in regard to thee, or I spare thee, equivalent to parco tibi. [§ 415.] 4. Verbs compounded with the prepositions ad, ante, con, in, inter, oh, post, prae, sub, and super, re- taining, as compounds, the meaning of the prepositions, may be joined with a dative instead of repeating the preposition or an equivalent one with the case it requires. They are either transitives, and as such have an accusa- tive besides, or intransitives without an accusative of the object. The following are the most important transitive verbs of this kind : addo, affero, cuffigo, adhibeo, adjicio, adjungo, admoveo, alUgo, applico ; circumjicio ; comparo, compono, confero, conjungo ; immisceo, impono, imprimo, incldo, in- clado, infero, ingero, injicio, insero, inuro ; interjicio, inter- pono ; objido, tyffundo, oppono ; posthabeo, postpono ; prae- fero, praeficio, praepono ; subjicio, suppono, substerno. The following are intransitive : accedo, acquiesce, ad- Tiaereo, allude, annuo, arrepo, assideo, aspiro ; antecello ; cohaereo, colludo, congruo, consentio, consono ; excello ; in- dido, incubo and incumbo, indormio, inhaereo, inhio, immo- rior, immoror, mnascor, insisto ; interjaceo, intervenio ; obrepo, obstrepo, obversor ; praemineo, praesideo, praeva- leo ; succumbo, supersto, supervivo, and the compounds of esse : adsum, insum, intersum, praesum, subsum, supersum. Note. — We must pay particular attention to the difference between the dative joined with these verbs, and the dative governed by those mentioned in () 412. With the latter it is necessary, and dependant upon the sigiiiii- cation of the verbs; but with those just enumerated it is to be regarded as a short mode of speaking, in which the dative supplies the place of a preposition with its case ; e. g., leges axilms ligneis incisae, and leges in aes incisae, or SenatusconsuUum in aere incisum. The beginner must farther observe that we are speaking of those compounded verbs only in which the prepositions retain their meaning of place, for in some compounded with ad and cum this is not the case ; e. g., confugere, to take refuge, can- not take either the preposition cam or a dative, the meaning of the prepo- .sition con being lost in this compound. This is still more apparent m con- fringere, corrumpere, where con {cum) only strengthens the sense of the simple verb. Affirmare and apprubare may indeed be joined with a dative, but only because they are transitive verbs, and not on account of the preposition they contain. We have not been able above to mention DATIVE CASE. 297 all those compound verbs in which the prepositiai retains its mean- ing, and which, instead of repeating the preposition, take the dative, for their number, especially that of transitives, is unlimited ; we have given those only with which, comparatively speaking, the dative occurs most frequently. There are some with which the dative is used exclusively, and the repetition of the preposition would be offensive, the reason being the signification of the verbs themselves : ^raeficio and praepono, e. g., might have been mentioned among the verbs in ^ 412, being joined exclu- sively with the dative. But there can be no fear of mistakes in these words. [§ 416.] It must be remarked, in general, that in the early and unpolished prose, the preposition, or one equiva- lent to it, is usually repeated, more especially in verbs compounded with ad, con. ana in ; e. g., adhibeo, ctmfero, conjungo, communico, comvdro, imprimo, inscribo, tnsum, and also interest, in the sense of " there is a difference ;" e. g., Cicero, studium adhihere ad disciplinas ; confert'. (comjparate, contenditej hanc pacem cum illo hello ; has- pitio et amicitia mecum conjunxi, or, cum, aliquo conjunctus sum ; consilia sua mecum communicavtt ; in omnium, ani- mis del notionem impressit ipsa natura ; in hac vita nihil inest nisi miseria. The dative, however, is not to be re- jected, being used sometimes by Cicero and more fre- quently by later writers, lllacrimare, to weep over ; e. g., morti Socratis, is generally used with the dative only; the preposition, at least, is never repeated. The following verbs require some farther explanation. Jncumbo, I lean or press upon, and figuratively, " I apply to or study a thing ;" in the former sense alone it is joined with the dative, though sometimes, also, with the preposition super ; in its figurative sense it is consumed in prose with ad, and still more frequently with in witt the accusative. The verbs assuescere, consuescere, and in- suescere, to accustom a person or one's self {se, however is omitted) to a thing, are sometimes construed with the dative and sometimes with the ablative ; acquiescere, to acquiesce, likewise takes either the dative or ablative ; e. g., Cic, pro Mil., 37, Qui maxiTiie P. Clodii morte ac- quierunt, but more frequently in with the ablative, in the sense of " to find peace or satisfaction ;" e. g., in tuis lit- teris, in juvenum, caritate. Supersedere likewise takes the ablative, and, indeed, more frequently than the dative, probably because its sense is equivalent to ahstinere ; e. g., supersedere lahore itineris. It is not difficult to determine which prepositions may be used for others, in caae of repetition being necessary, 298 LATIN GBAMMAE. for it always depends upon the sense : in is used for ad ; e. g., accedere in oppidum, aspirare in curiam; ah for ex; e. g., eripere ex miseriis, and a miseria ; ad for in ; e. g., incumber e adstudia; in, ad, ante, and contra for ob; e. g., aliquid obrepit in animum, obrepere ad honorea, ohversan ante octdos, vallum ohjicere contra impetum hostium ; ad and ante for pro ; e. g., procumbere ante pedes, ad genua. [§ 417.] The compounds of verbs of motion are con- strued with both cases, either the dative or the accusative, and some compounds of jacere, stare and sedere, follow their analogy. (See § 386.) Hence the verbs of excelling, if their simple verbs denote motion, are construed chiefly with the accusative, and arefeceWoj^raeceZZo and praemineo, which at least admit the accusative, follow their example. (See § 386.) The following must be noticed separately on accoimt of their twofold construction : allatro, I bark at, address in a coarse manner ; attendo, I attend to (the same as animum attendo ad aliquid or ad aliquem) ; ohumhro, I overshadow — all these occur most frequently with the accusative, whence they have a personal passive; but illudo, I ridicule, is found with the dative as often as with the accusative ; e. g., illudo memoriae, existimationi alicujus,signis et aquilis Romania, and praecepta rhetorum, corpus Vari. Despero, I despair of a thing, is used as an intransitive verb with de or with the dative ; e. g., desperat de re publica, sibi, fortunis suis ; as a transitive verb (I give up) it takes the accusative ; e. g., despero rem publicam, pacem. Praeverto, in the transitive sense of " I prefer," takes an accusative of the object and a dative, instead of which, however, the preposition prae may be repeated ; e. g., uxorem praeverto prae republica or reipublicae ; in the in- transitive sense of " I go before," " precede," or " antici- pate," it may take either the accusative or dative, prae- verto te, fata, pietas praevertit amori ; in a reflective sense, praeverto, soil, me, or praevertor, it takes either the preposition ad or the dative, praeverto ad interna, praeverto rei mandatae. The deponent again takes the meaning of " I prefer," aliquam rem alicui rei, Liv., viiL, 13, consules coacti omnibus earn rem praeverti. Si 418.] 5. The verbs aspergo and inspergo, circumdo circumfvndo, dono and impertio, exuo and induo are used, like the above-mentioned transitives, with an accua. DATIVE CASE. 299 of the thing and a dative of the person, or with an accus. of the person and an ablat. of the thing ; e. g., circwmdo alicui citstodias, or circwmdo aliquem custodiis, and, conse- quently, in the passive voice custodiae tibi circumdantur or (tu) drcumdaris citstodiis* So, also, maculas aspergo vitae tuae, or maculis vitam tuam aspergo ; dona tibi pecuniam, oi pecunid te.dono ; impertio tibi laudes, or laudibus te impertio, &c. We find exuo tibi clipeum, induit sibi tor- quem, or still more frequently exvo and induo vestem, the dative expressing my own person being omitted. Extu> te aliqua re occurs only in the figurative sense of " I rob thee of a thing." Induo, I betake myself into some place, is commonly joined with the preposition in or with a da- tive. Intercludo, I cut off, alicui aliquid ; e. g., hostibus fugatn, or as a verb implying distance, aliquem aliqua rt and ab aliqua re; e. g., milites itinera, or ab exercitu. Jnterdico tibi aliquid, I forbid thee something; the con struction interdicojte qligiw, re does not occur, but a mix- ture of both interdico tibi aliqua re (e. g., in the Roman form of outlavny aqua et ignij, I forbid thee the use of a thing. The double construction of mactare does nqt be- long to this place, as it arises from two different mean- ings of the word, the original one "to honour," requires the accusative and ablative ; e. g., Cic, in Vatin., &,puerorum extis deos manes mactare soles; the derivative meaning " to slaughter" is the ordinary one, victimas diis mactare. , [§ 419.] 6. With passive verbs the dative is sometimes used alone, instead of ab with the ablative. Quidquid in hac causa mihi susceptum est, Quirites, id omne me rei publicae causa suscepisse confirmo, Cic, p. Leg. Man., 24. Barbarus hie ego sum, quia non intelligor ulli, Ovid, Trist, Note.— It is a rule of the Latin language to join the dative instead of ab with the ablative to the participle future passive ; e. g., moriendum mihi est See () 649. If this were not the case, we should consider the dative with passive verbs as a Grecism, for it rarely occurs in the earlier Latin prose (especially in Cicero and Caesar), and with the exception of a few in- stances, is confined to the participle perfect passive and the tenses formed from it. In poetry and the later prose writers instances like the above quotation from Ovid are extremely numerous, as poets in general were fond of introducing Greek constructions. The following passages are the only oneb in which Cicero adopted the-practice, de Imimt. , i., 46, ilia nobis alio tempore expUcabuntur ; in Verr.^ iii., 16, tibi consulatus quaerebatur ; de Nat. Dear., h., 48, sic dissimillimis bestiolis communiter cibus quaeritur ; de Off., iii,, 9, hmesta bonis viris, non occulta quaeruntur;^ Cat. Maj., II, semper in hit • [Compare Crombie, Gymnas., vol. ii., p. 2X1.')— Am. Ed. t Corajiare Heusinger, ad loci — .4m. Ed. 300 LATIN GKAMMAE. studiis laborilmsque vivenii non mtelUgitur, quando obrepat senectus ; ad Att., U 16, in. ea praesertim epistola, quam nolo aliis le^i, probably for ab aliis. I doubt whether there are any other passages in Cicero, for the phrase mihi prcbatuT is of a different kind, since probo tibi is of quite common occur r«* iCe in the sense of " I make a thing plausible to thee," [§ 420.] 7. Esse with the dative of a person expresses Jie English " to have ;" e. g., sunt mihi multi libri, I have many books, the same as Jiabeo multos libros. Homini cum deo similitudo est, Cic, de Leg., i., 8. A'n ne.scis, longas regibus esse manus ? Ovid, Heroid., 17. Aote. — We must here notice a Grecism which occurs in Sallust and Tacitus : aliquid mihi volenti est, I like a thing. Sallust, Jug., 84, quia neque plebi militia volenti (esse) putahatur ; Tacit., Agr,, 18, quibus bellum t)o- tevtibus erat ; Ann., 1, 59, w/ quibusque bellum invitis out cupientibus erat, as in Greek tovto fiot Bov^ofihtr^) koTiv. Comp. Tac, Hist., iii., 43 ; Ann., XV., 36. Abest and deest mihi, as opposed to est mihi, therefore mean ** I have not ;" as in Cic, Brut., 80, Hoc unum illi, si nihil utilitatis habebat, abfuit, si opus erat, defuit ; de Leg., i., 2, abest enim historia litteris nostris. [§ 421.] Hence mihi est nom,en or cognomen (also cogno~ mentum, and in Tacitus vocahulum) signifies " I have a name," that is, "my name is," or "I am called." The name itself is put either in the nominative or the dative, being attracted by the dative of the person. Syrdkusis est Jims aquae dulcis, cui nomen Arethusa est, Cic, in Verr., iv., 53. Consules leges decemvirales, quibus tabulis duodedm est no- men, in aes incisas, in publico proposuerunt, Liv., iii., 57. Note. — The same is the case with the (passive) expressions datum, in- ditum, factum est nomen ; e. g., Tarquinius, cui cognomen Superbo ex Tnoribua datum. The name itself is commonly put in the dative, also, with the active verbs dare, addere, indere, dicere, ponere, imponere, tribuere dlicui n.omen ; e. g., dare alicui cognomen tarda ac pingui ; desipiunt omnes aeque ac tu, qui tibi nomen in.sano posuere, Horat. ; but it may also be put in the same case as nomen, that is, an the accusative ; as in Livy, siirps virilis, cui As- canium parentes dixere nomen, and in the edict of the censors in Suetonius, de Clar. Rhet. 1 , cos sibi nomen imposuisse Latinos rhetores. The nominative in Ovid, Met, i., 169, (via) lactea nomen habet, and xv., 96, (aetas) cui feci mus aurea nomen, is a purely poetical license, where the names are taken, ungrammatically, as mere sounds. , The name may be expressed, also, by the genitive, according to the gen eral rule, that of two substantives joined to each other, one is put in the genitive; e. g., Plaut., Amphitr. Prol., 19, nomen Mercurii est mihi; in prose Veil. Fat., i., 11, Q Metellus praetor, cui ex virtute Macedonici nomen inditwrt erat; and ii., 11, Q. Metello meritum virtute cognomen Numidici inditum est Bui this is not the ordinary practice in the case of real proper nanies, an'' the dative must be regarded as the proper Latin case. See Rubnken oi. \ ell. Pat., ii., 11. [§ 422.] 8. With the verbs esse, dare, mittere and tet.trc and others of the same meaningj besides the dativ« jf thr person, another is used to express the purpose, iin' o'.iOii, and destination. GENITIVE CASE. 301 Dare belongs to this class both in its sense of " to give" and ill that of " to put to one's account." The follow^ing verbs have a similar meaning : apponere, ducere, habere, tribuere, and vertere. Esse, in this respect, is equivalent to the English "to do," in "it does him honour," and the passives _^er«, dari, dztci, haberi, tribui, verii, have a simi- lar meaning. Prqficisci is sometimes construed like ve- nire. Virtutes Jwminibus decori gloriaeque sunt, Seneca. Attalus, Asiae rex, regnum suum Romanis dono dedit. Mille Plataeenses Atheniensibus adversus Fersas auxilio venerunt. Quid in Graeco sermone tarn tritum atque celebratum est, quam si quis despicatui ducitur, ut Mysorum ultimus esse dicatur ? Cic, p. Flacc, 27. 'Note. — There is a great variety of datives of this kind ; e. g., dono aliquid muneri, praemia ; relinquo milites auxilio, subsidio, praesidio, custodiae ; tribuitur or datur mihi vitio, crimini, odio, probro, opprobrio, laudi, aaluti, utilitati, emolu' mmto, &c. The phrase cui bcmofuit ? signifies " to whom was it an ad- vantage ?" We must especially notice such datives as esui, usui, quaestui, derisui, cordi, curae aliquid est, and also canere receptui, to sound 4 retreat ; doti dico, I set aside as a dowry ; appono pignori, 1 pawn. Instead of hoc argumento est, we may also say lioc argumentum, documentum, indicium est', and with dare and similar verbs we may also use the accusative in appo tition ; e. g., Liv., ii., 22. Latini coronam auream Jovi donujn in Capitoliun mittunt. Sometimes, also, the prepositions in or ad may be used ; e. g. reliquit ibi exercitum ad praesidium, gloriam mihi in crimen vertis. CHAPTER LXXIII. GENITIVE CASE. [§ 423.] 1. When two substantives are united wit! each other so as to form the expression of one idea, one of them is in the genitive; but if one of the substantives serves to explain or define the other, they are said to be in apposition to each other, and both are in the same case. This genitive, dependant upon a substantive, is in Latin of a double kind, according as it expresses either the subject or the object. The genitive is subjective vsrhen it denotes that vi'hich does something or to which a thing belongs; e. g., hominum facU^, liber pueri: it is objective when it denotes that which is affected by the action or feeling spoken of. This objective genitive is used very extensively in Latin, for it is not only joined with those substantives Cc 302 LATIN GRAMMAK. which are derived from verbs governing the accusative — • e. g., expugnaiio urbis, the taking of the town ; indagatio veri, the investigation of truth ; scientia linguae, the know^Iedge of a language ; amor patriae, the love of one's country; cupiditas pecuniae, desire for money; cura rerum alienarum, care of other men's affairs ; odium hominum, hatred against men — but vyith thosie, also, the corresponding verb of w^hich requires either a different case, or a preposition ; e. g., taedium laboris, disgust foi work ; Jiducia virium suarum, confidence in his own strength ; contentio lionorum, a contest for honours ; in- citamentum periculorum, cognitio orhis terrarum omnium- gV£ gentium, &c. Nwper Gn. Domitium, scimus M. Silano, consulari homtni, diem dixisse propter unius hominis, Aegritomari, paterm amid atque hospitis, injurias, Cic, Divin., 20. Est autem amicitia nihil aliud, nisi omnium divinarum hu- manarumque rerum cum henivolentia et caritate summa consensio, Cic, Lael., 6. Initium et causa belli (civilis) inexplebilis Jionorum Marii fames, Flor., iii., 21. Note 1. — Something analogous to the Latin subjective and objective genitive occurs in English in such expressions as " God's love," that is the love which God shows to men ; and the " love of God," that is, the love which men bear to God. The Latin language having no such means of distinguishing, is frequently ambiguous ; e. g., fuga hominum may be either " the escape from men," or, " the flight" or " escape of men," and in all such combinations as meius hostium, injuria muiierum, judicium Verris, triumphus Boiorum, opinio deorum, the genitive may be either subjective (ac- tive) or objective (passive), but the context generally shows what is meant, as in sine metu hostium esse, magnus incesserat timer sagittarum, ex injuria mu' lierum Sabinarum belhrni orlum est ; Empedocles in deorum opinione turpissime labitur, Cic, de Nat' Deor., i., 12. But in case of any real ambiguity, a preposition may be used in Latin instead of the genitive ; e. g., ex injuria in or adversus mulieres, in opinione de diis. This is the case especially with substantives denoting a disposition, either friendly or hostile towards any- thing ; e. g., amor (animus) mens erga te, odium {ira) adversus Carthaginien-see, bellum in Romanos, conspiraiio contra dignitatem tuam ; triumphits de Gallis, judicium de te meum, liher de pkiUtsophia, in libra quinto de natura deorum. In general, however, a preposition is much more rarely used in joining two substantives, and it is a part of the conciseness of the Latin language to express the relation of the genitive, if possible, by the genitive itself. This, however, is impossible, for instance, when a place whence? or whither? is mentioned; e. g., iransmissus (the passage) ex Gallia in Bri- tanniam, reditua in caelum, iter ex Italia in Macedoniam, Sometimes the two kinds of construction are combined^ Cic, de Off., i., 28, Adhibenda estigi lurquaedamreiierentia adversus homines et aptimi cujusque et reliqvmum. (See our note on this passage.) .Sometimes even a subjective and an objec- tive genitive are found by the side of each other,* as in Cic, de Off., i. * [Compaie Weissenbom, Lat. Schulgr., ^ 216, Anm. 3, where other ox ■mples aie al»o given.] — Ant. Ed GENITIVE CASE. 303 *4, h. Sullae et C, Caesaris peeuttiarum translatio a jusiis dominis ad alietuu non debet liberalis videri ; ad Fam,, X., 3, orbitas reipubticae talium virorum ; in Verr.f v., 50, nihil est quod muUorum naujragia fortunae colligas ; Caes., Bell. iSall., i., 30, pro veteribus Helvetiorum injuriis poputi RoTnani ; i. e., which the Helvetians had done to the Roman people. Comp. Synt. omat., ^ 791. [$ 424] Note 2. — ^As a personal pronoun supplies the place of a substan- tive, its genitive generally with an objective meaning may be joined with a substantive ; e. g., vestri causam gero, 1 take care of you ; misericordiam noslri habe, have pity upon us, especially with verbal substantives ending in or, ix, and io ; e. g., Cicero, misit filium non solum sui deprecatorem, sed eti- am accusatorem mei ; nimia aestimatio sui ; valet ad commendationem tui ; mili- tes ad deditionem sui incitare ; rationem et sui et aliorum habere. The place oi the subjective genitive of personal pronouns is supplied by the possessive Eronouns, whence we do not say liber mei, but liber mem. Sometimes, owever, the genitive of personal pronouns has a subjective meaning, as in Curtius, iv., 45, ad Cyrum Twbilissimum regem originem sui referens, and vL, 33, conspectus vestri venerabilis (see the comment, on Caes., Bell. Gall., i., 4) ; and sometimes, on the other hand, a possessive pronoun notunfre- quently takes the place of an objective genitive, and that not only when joined with verbal substantives in or and ix, e. g., ipse suus fuit accusator, terra altrix nostra, but in other cases, also ; as, invidia tua, envy of thee ; fidit' da tua, confidence in thee ; familiaritas tua, friendship for thee ; spes mea, the hope placed in me (Tac, Ann., ii., 71) ; amort nostro plusculum largiare, from love towards us ; Tioluit rationem hcdtere suam, that notice was taken of him ; non sua solum ratio habenda est, sed etiam aliorum, Cic, de Off., i., 39. This is especially frequent in connexion with the substantive injuriae, e. g., injvrias meas, tuas, persequor, ulciscor, that is, the wrong done to me, thee. The peculiar expressions med, tua, sua, nostra, vestrd, caitsd, for my, thy, his, &c., sake, must be especially noticed, for the genitives mei, tui, tui, nostri, vestri, are never used in this connexion with causa. Sometimes the genitive of the person implied in such an adjective pronoun is added, as in tuum hominis simplicis pectus vidimus ; juravi rempublicam mea untus opera esse salvam ; tot homines med solius solliciti sunt causa ; ad tuam ipsius amicitiam aditum habuit ; vestra ipsorum causa hoc feci. The genitive of a participle in this connexion occurs only in poetry,* as in Herat., Serm., i., 4, 23, quum mea neino scripta legat, vulgo recitare timentis. See Heindorf 's note on this passage. [J 425.] Note 3. — The immediate connexion between two substantives, which is expressed by the genitive of the substantive dependant upon the other, is entirely difierent from the juxtaposition of two substantives ip apposition to each other. But there are cases where the construction of the genitive is preferred, although the substantives are, in reality, in ap- position. This is the case especially with vox, nomen, vertmm, and similar words, to which the name itself is joined in the genitive ; e. g., Cic, de Fin., ii., 2, Epicurus non intelligit, quid sonet haec vox voluptatis, that is, this word pleasure ; ii., 24, ex amore nomen amicitiae ductum est, i. e., the word amicitia ; Sueton., Aug., 53, domini appellalionem semper exhorruit. This is regularly done when the genus is defined by the species, as in arbor fid, a fig-tree ; fios violae, a violet ; virtus continentiae, the virtue of abstinence ; vitium ignaraniiae, the defect called ignorance ; familia Sdpienum, the fam- ily of the Scipios ; and also in geographical names ; as, oppidum Amiochiae, promorUorium Miseni, in which case, however, it is more usual to put the name in apposition in the same case as the generic term. There are Bome other cases in which one substantive intended as an explanation of another is put in the genitive, instead of the case of the word to be ex- plained {genitivus epexegeticus) ; e. g.. Curt., viii., 35, Noctumum frigus we- hementius quam alias horrore corpora affecit, opportunumque remedium ignis * [It occurs thus only before the time of the elder Pliny ; after that po. nod It appears also in prose, (Orelli, ad Horat., I. c.)}—Am. Ed. 304 LATIN GRAMMAB. oblatum estf i e., a convenient remedy, viz., fire. Cicero frequently nset genus &nd causa in the same way ; e. g., in Cat., ii., 8, unum genus est qui — ; de Jje^. Agr,, ii., 14, Duae sunt hujus obscuritatis causae, una pudoris, altera sceleris, the one is shame and the other malice ; Philip., i., Jl, nee eritjus- tior in senatum non veniendi causamorbi, quam mortis ; in Verr., iv., 51, omnia propter earn causam sceleris istius evenire videntur, for this "'^ason, viz., his crime. Comp. de Off., ii., 5, collectis caiisis eluvionis, pestii-tntiae, &c., the other causes, inundation, plague, &c. The genitive of gerunds is used in the same way as that of substantives ; e. g., Cic, Tusc, i., 36, Triste est nomen ipsum carendi, the very word to want is sad ; Senec, ad Polyb., 29, Est magna felicitas in ipsa felicitate moriendi. In such cases the construc- tion of apposition is very unusual in Latin ; see, however, ^ 598. Q. Metellus Macedonicus, quum sex liberos relinqueret, undecim nepotes reliquii, nurus vero generosque et omnes, qui se patris appellatione, salutarent, vigintt aeptem, Plin., Hist. Nat., vii., 11. [§ 426.] 2. The genitive in the immediate connexion of two substantives also expresses the external condition or the internal nature of a thing ; and if any of the tenses of esse, fieri, haheri, appears in such a combination, the genitive is not dependant upon these verbs, but must rath- er be explained by the omission of a substantive ; as, homo and res. This, at the same time, constitutes the differ- ence between the genitive of quality (genitivus gualitatisj and the ablative of quality vsdth the verb esse. But as there is a special part of speech to express qualities, viz., the adjective, the quality can be expressed by a substan- tive only when this substantive itself is qualified by an ad- jective. We cannot say, for example, homo ingenii, a man of talent (which is expressed by homo ingeniosus), but we may say hom^ magni, sum,mi, excdlentis ingenii. Again, we cannot say homo annorum, but we may say homo vi- ginti or quadraginta annorum* We must notice, also, the genitive modi, which, joined with a pronoun, supplies the place of a pronoun of quality ; e. g., cujusmodi libri, the same as quales libri, what kind of books ; hujusmodi libri, that is, tales libri, such books. The genitive generis, which is used in the same sense, is less fi-equent. Athenienses belli duos duces deligunt, Periclem, spectatae virtutis virum, et Sophodem, scriptorem tragoediarum, Justin, iii., 6. Titus Jacilitatis tantaefuit et liber alitatis, ui nemini quii- quam negaret, Eutrop., vii., 21. Hamilcar sectem in Hispaniam duxit filium Hannibalem annorum novem. Nap., Ham., 3. Spes unica populi Romani, L. Quinctius, trans Tiherim quattuor jugerum colebat agrum, Liv., iii., 26. * rConsult Criimhie, Gymnas., v^!. i., p 13 J, 162.] — Am, Ed GENITIVE CASE. 305 [^ 427.] Note. — The genitive thus serves to express all the attributes of a person or thing, relating to its extent, number, weight, duration, age, and the like, provided such attributes are expressed by the immediate connexion of substantives. Thus we say, colossus centum viginti pedum, a colossus of 120 feet in height ; fossa quindecim pedum, a ditch of 15 fee^ (ill length or breadth); corona parvi ponderis, a c;own of little weight Aristides exilio decern annorum multatus est ; frumentum dierum trigmta in urbt erat; chassis cerium navium ; or with esse, which, however, has no influ ence upon the construction, although we sometimes translate it b] *' consist of;" e. g., classis Persarum mille et ducentarum navium longarun fvit, consisted of 1200 ships of war. With the genitive of extent or meas ure we may connect the ablatives, which we express in English bj " with regard to ;" as, longitudine, latitudine, crassitudine, altitudine, or in longitudineTn, &c. ; e. g., duo actus jugerum efficiunt lon^tudine pedum CCXL, latitudine pedum CXX; Inter Mosam Khenumque trium ac vigint* milium spatio fossam perduxit, Tac, Ann., xi., 20 ; but the genitive does not depend upon these words. The fact of this genitive of condition or quality being limited to the im- mediate connexion of two substantives, must be strongly impressed upon the mind of the beginner, in order that he may distinguish from it the ac- cusative denoting extent of space and time, which is joined to verbs mi adjectives, and the ablative of quality, which is governed by esse, or prae- ditus, instructus, ornaius. For, without the influence of any other part of speech, we say, fossa quindecim pedum- but when the adjective longus or latus is added, we must say, fossa quindecim pedes lata ; in like manner, puer decern annorum, but puer decem annos natus (^ 395, foil.). When the ablative of quality is closely joined with another substantive, praeditus or the participle of esse being understood, as in eximia forma pueri, this ex- pression is quite the same as pueri eximiae formae in meanmg, but by no means in reference to the grammatical construction of the words. [^ 428.] Lastly, we must notice some peculiar expressions, in whick the accusative is used adverbially instead of the genitive of quality; Secus (see above, (] 84 and 89), joined to virile or muUebre, signifies " of the male or "female sex," and is equivalent to sexus ivilis; e. g., Liv., xxvi., 47 liberorum capitum virile secus ad X milia capta. Genus, joined with a pro noun, as hoc, id, illud, quod, or with omne, is used for hujus, ejus, omn^ generis ; e. g., Cic, ad Att., xiii., 12, orationes aut aliquid id genus scribere Horat., Serm., ii., 6, 44, concredere nugas hoc genus ; it is more curious in connexion with other cases ; as, Varro, de L. L., x., in iin., in verbit id genus, quae non declinantur ; de R. R., iii., 5,porticus avibus omne genus ap' pletae ; Sueton., Tit., 7, una die quinque milia omne genus ferarum dedit, for ferarum omnis generis. Pondo (see ^ 87), joined quite as an indeclinable word to the accusatives libram and libras, instead of the genitive, occurs frequently in Livy ; e. g., iv., 20, Dictator coronam auream libram pondo in Capitolio Jovi donum posuit ; and in the plural, xxvi., 47, Paterae aureae fuerunt CCLXXVI., libras ferme omnes pondo. [§ 429.] 3. The genitive is used to express the vyhole of which anything is a part, or to which it belongs as a part. This is the case, (a) with substantives denoting a certain measure of things of the same l^ind ; e. g., modiiis, medimnum tritici, libra f arris, magna vis auri, jugerum figri, ala equitum. This genitive may be termed geniti- vus generis, (b) With all words which denote a part of a whole fgenitivus partitivus), where we often use the preposition " of" or " among." All comparatives and superlatives belong to this class ; e. g., docCior liivwtw C c 2 *06 LATIN GRAMMAR. (ditorum) juvmum ; doctissimus omnium ; eloquentisstmus Romanorum, ferocissimi extdum, and also all words im- plying a number, whether they are real numerals or pro- nouns and adjectives ; as, quis, aliquis, guidam, uter, alter, neuter, alteruter, uterque, utervis, aliquot, solus, nullus, nonnulli, multi, pauci ; or substantives ; as, nemo, pars. Humerus. The genitive belonging to the superlative of adjectives is retained, also, with superlatives as adverbs. Thus we say optimus omnium est, and also optime omnium vixit. Graecorum oratorum praestantissimi sunt ii, qui fuerunt Athenis, eorum autem princeps facile Demosthenes, Cic, de Opt. Gen. Orat., 4. Populus Romanus legem dedit, ut consulum utique alter ex plebe crearetur, Liv., vi., 35. Duo sunt aditus in Ciliciam ex Syria, quorum uter que parvis praesidiis propter angustias intercludi potest, Cic, ad Fam., xv., 4. [4 430.] Note 1. — The poets use the genitive, also, with other adjectives in the positive), but this seldom occurs in prose. Livy frequently has .he expressions delecU equitum, expediti militum; in Sallust {Cat., 53) we lind effoeta parentwn, and in Veil. Pat., ii., 8, veteres Romanorum ducum. {See the remarks of Corte and Ruhnken on these passages.) The geni- tive, however, always denotes the whole, from which a part is taken. When, therefore, the above-mentioned adjectives are used in the same number and case as the substantive denotmg the whole, the case is differ- ent, although the difference in meaning is sometimes very slight ; e. g., multi, aliquot, pauci militum and milites ; Varro doctissimus fuit Romanorum and doctissimus Romanus ; alter consulum and alter consul. Uterque, how- ever, cannot, like the English " both," be joined to a pronoun in the same case, except when a substantive is added; thus, "both these" or "these two" cannot be translated into Latin by hie (or ille, qui) uterque, but we must say horum, illorum, quorum uterque, whereas uterque frater and quod utrumque exemplum are quite common expressions.* The genitive, however, cannot be used when the numeral contains the same number of things as that of which the whole consists, that is, when there is no relation of a part to a whole. We make this remark only be- cause we use the preposition " of" (the equivalent to the genitive), when we are not speaking of a greater whole, but of an equal one. We say, for example, " the people who served under Frederic the Great, and of whom few are surviving," but in Latin we cannot say quorum admodum pauci supersunt, but qui pauci supersunt, for these few are all. Cic. , Philip., li., 6, Veniamus ad vivos, qui duo de conaularium numero supersunt ; Liv., i., 55, l^arquinius sacella exaugurare statuit, quae aliquot ibi a latio rege consecrata fuerant ; Quintil., v., 10, 63, (Quaeritur), quot sint species rerum publicarum : quas tres accepimus, quae populi, quae paucorum, quae unius potestate regereniur. Instead of the genitive we may also use the prepositions ex and irUer, and sometimes de, but never ab. (Compare the passages quoted in Chap. LX V.) * [The reason of all this simply is, that uterque never has the force of our English " both," but always denotes each ot^two taken individually.]— Am. Ed. GENITIVE CASE. 307 [^ 4'Jl.] JVbte 2. — ^Tho words uter, alter, neuter, differ from juU a]ha, nu' lut, by their referring to a whole consisting of only two. (See ^ X41.) The difference between nostri, vestri, and nostmm, vestmm, is this : the forms ending in tim are used as partitive genitives ; e. g., uterque nostrum, nostmm cujusque vita; nemo vestrum ignorat ; imperium summum Romae ha- bebit ; quivestrum primus osculum matri tulerit ; but nostri meliorpars ammUM est, miserere nostri, immemoT nostri, amor nostri, odium vestri, vestri similes. Vestrum, however, occu:«, also, without any partitive meaning ; e. g., frequentia ves trum incredibilis, Cic, in Rvll., ii., 21, and PhUip.,W., 1 ; compare p. Plane., 6 ', quis erit tarn cupidus vestrum, Cic, in Yerr., iii,, 96 ; vestrum quoque non sum securus, Liv., xxxix., 16. The forms nostrum, vestrum, moreover, are always used when joined with omnium, even when the genitive is a sub- jective one; e. g., Cic, de Orat., iii., 55, Voluntati vestrum omnium parui; in Cat, i., 7, patria quae communis est omnium nostrum parens. [§ 432.] 4. The neuters of pronouns and of some ad- iectives used as pronouns, are joined with a genitive for two reasons : first, because in meaning they have become substantives ; and, secondly, because they express a part of a whole. Such neuters are : hoc, id, illud, istud, idem, quid and quod with their compovmds (aliquid, quidquid, quippiam, quidquam, quodcunquej, aliud ; tantum, quan- tum, aliquantum, multum, plus, plurimum, minus, mini- mum, paulum and nimium, with their diminutives and compounds ; tantulum, tantundem, quantulum,, quantu- lumctmque, &c. To these we must add nihil, nothing, which is always used as a substantive ; and the adverbs satis, enough ; parum, too little ; dbunde, affatim, and sometimes largiter, abundantly — when they are used as substantives. It is, however, to be observed that these neuters are used as substantives only in the nominative and accusa- tive, and that they must not be dependant upon prepo- sitions. Quantum incrementi Nilus capit, tantum spei in annum est, Senec, Nat. Quaest., iv., 6. Potest quidquam esse absurdius, quam, qua minus viae res- tat, tanto plus viatici quaerere, Cic, Cat. Maj., 18. Procellae quanta plus habent virium, tanto minus temporis, Senec, Nat. Quaest., vii., 9. Pythagoras, quum in geometria quiddam novi invenisset, Musis bovem immolasse didtur, C'c, de Nat. Dear., iii., 36. Jtistitia nihil expetit praemii, nihil pretii, Cic, de Leg., i., 18. Satis eloquentiae, sapientiae parum (in Catilina fuit), Sal- lust. \(j 433.] Note 1. — The genitive joined with these neuters is often not a 308 LATIN GRAMMAS. real substantive, but the neuter of an adjective, which is used as a sob- stantive, as above, qtiiddam iiovi. It must be observed here that only adjectives of the second declension (in um) can bo treated as substantives, and not those of the third in e, nor the comparative in us. We may theie fore say aliquid novum and aliquid novi, but only aliquid mcmorabile, and gra- ves aliquid. Aliquid memorabilis cannot be used, except, perhaps, in con* nexion with neuters of the second declension; e. g., aliquid novi ac me- morabilis tibi narrabo (as in Livjr, v., 3, si quidquam in vobis non dice civilis Med humani esset) ; but even in this case it is preferable to say aliquid novum ac memorabile'f as in Seneca, vide ne ista lectio multorum auctorum kabeat ali- quid vagum et instabile. It must farther be remarked that, when there is any case dependant upon the neuter adjective, the latter can scarcely be put in the genitive, and we must say nihil expectatione vestra dig^num dico, as Cicero (de Orat, i., 31) does. [^ 434.] Note 2. — The adverbs of place, itfti, ubique, ubicunque^ usquam, nusqv^m (Jonge), unde^ hie, hue, eb, eodem, quo, quocunque, quoquo, aliquo are joined with the genitives gentium, terrarum, loci, locorum, and by the addi- tion of su^'h a genitive their meaning is strengthened ; e. g., ubinam gentium sumus ? ates longe gentium ; aliquo terrarum migrandum est ; ubi terrarum es ? The expressions hoc loci, quo loci sum, res eodem est loci, quo tu reliquisti, in Cicero and other writers are equivalent to quo, eodem loco, and the ablatives quo, eodem, are used as if loco were to follow. The adverbs hue, eo, quo, when used figuratively to express a degree, are joined also with otner genitives ; e. g., hue arrogantiae venerat, to this degree or pitch of arrogance ; eo insolentiae furorisque processit ; scire videmini quo amentiae progressi sitis. In the phrase minims gentium, by no means, the genitive merely strength- ens the meaning of minima. In the following expressions denoting time the genitive appears to be quite superfluous : postea loci, afterward ; ad id locorum, up to this point ; in Sallust and Livy, interea loci, in the mean time ; and adhuc locorum, until now, in the comic writers ; tum temporis, at that time, occurs in late wri- ters, and should not be imitated. In the phrase quantum or quoad ejus fa- cere possum, or in the passive form, fieri potest, the ejus refers to the prece- ding sentence, '* as much of it," or " as far as this is possible." [§ 435.] 5. Poets and prose writers later than Cicero use the neuters of adjectives in general, both in the sin- gular and plural, as substantives, and join them with a genitive ; e. g., Curtius, reliquum noctis acquievitj he slept the remainder of the night ; liivy, exiguum cam-pi ante castra erat^ for which Cicero would have said exiguus cam- pus ; in ultima Celtiberiae penetrare ; summa tectorum oh^ tinere, instead of in, ultimam CeltiheriaTn penetrare, and summa tecta ohtiiiere. Note. — So, also, «/(jmw7n inopiae is equivalent to ultima inopia ; medium or extremum anni, aetatis, for which media aetas is the ordinary expression ; exlrema agminis, infima clivi ; saeva ventorum, ^portuna locorum, avia itinerum, tacita sjispicionum ; and with a preposition, tn immensum altitudinis dejecit, for in immensam altitudinem ; ad ultimum vitae perseverare, in ultima OriejUis relegare, cum pretiosissimis rerumfugere, where the ablat. must not be taken for a feminine, although the expression is used for cum pretiosissimis rebus. Ad multum diei or noctis is a peculiar phrase of the same kind, for a neuter like multum may, indeed, be joined with a genitive, but not with a prepo- sition ; hence the ordinary construction is in mvltam noctem scribere. Very frequently there is a peculiar meaning in such a neuter plural : incerta, mihita belli; i. e., the uncertain, sudden occurrences in war, or subitae occa. tiones belli ; quassata muri, the shak&a parts of the wall ; infnqueTitissima GENITIVE CASE. 309 urbii, the most uninhabited part of the town ; pkna urbis Tiberis ttagnave rai. Livy has many expressions of this kind (Drakenborch on Liv., rxxvii., 58), and in Tacitus they are innumerable. Respecting the analogy with the Greek language, see Vechner, Hellenolex, i., 2, 9, p. 202, foil., and Hein dorf on Horat., iSa(., ii., 2, 25. [§ 436.] 6. Many adjectives denoting a relation to a thing (adjectiva relativa), especially those which express partaking, desiring, fulness, experience, capacity, or re- membering, and their contraries, are joined with the geni- tive of a substantive or pronoun. Thus we say memor promissi, remembering a promise ; compos mentis, in pos- session of his mind ; ignarus sermonis Latini, ignorant of the Latin language. Such relations are expressed in Eng- lish by prepositions. The following, in particular, are construed in this way . particeps, affinis (e. g., alicujus culpae, suspicionis : see, how- ever, § 411), expers, inops, consors, exsors ; cwpidus, studi- osus, avidus, avarus ; plenus, inanis, capax, insatiabilis,fe- cundtLs,fertilis,ferax, sterilis ; perzttis, imperitus, conscius, inscius, nescius, praescius, gnarus, ignarus, rudis, insolens and insolitus, or insugtus,prudens, providus, compos, impos, potens and impotens ; memor, immemor, tenax, curiosus, in- curiosus. Pythagoras sapientiae studiosos appellavit philosophos, Ci- cero, Tusc, v., 3. Themistocles peritissimos belli navalis fecit Athenienses Nep., Them., 2. Yenturae memores jam nunc estote senectae, Ovid. Conscia mens recti famae mendacia ridet, Ovid, Fast. Nescia mens hominumfati sortisque futurae, Virgil. [^ 437.] Note 1. — The poets and those prose writers who, deviating from the ordinary mode of speaking, use poetical constructions, to give anima- tion to their style (especially Tacitus), extend the rule of joining a geni- tive with adjectives very far. They construe, in particular, all adjectives expressing mental emotion with the genitive of the thing to which it is di- rected ; e. g., ambiguus ctmsilii; anxiusfutim, securitatis ; benignus vini; cer^ tus sceleris ; dvbius viae ; impiger militiae ; interritus leti ; incautus futuri ; iU' certus sententiae ; laetus laboris; modicus voluptatum ; pervicax irae, recti ; piger pericuii ; segnis occasionum ; socors futuri ; securus futuri ; timidus lucis ; for* midolosus hoatium ; oblatae occasionis propera ; ferox scelerum Sejanus ; atrox odii Agrijtpina, — where in ordinary prose the prepositions de, in or arf, would be required, and where we use " in respect of" or " in regard to." In some cases the genitive is used, in imitation of the Greek, Instead of the Latin ablative ; e. g., integer vitae, for integer vita ; diversus morum ; lassus marit, viarum, militiae ; vetus operis ac laboris ; sacerdos scientiae cerimoniarujn^nie vetm. In some cases, however, the adjective is only a bold expression, and used in the same sense as one of these mentioned above ; e. g., vetus operis, equivalent to peritus operis. In the case of superlatives the genitive is to be explained in a different way ; as, Tacit. Ann ,-n.,6, praestantiinmus ta- 310 LATIN GRAMMAR. pimtiae^ for aapientum ; i., 46, princeps severitatis et munijicentiae iummus, foi omnium qui et seosri et munijici sint. Comp. ^ 470. We must notice espe- cially the nse of the genitive animi (instead of the ablative), which occun BO frequently in late prose writers, and is joined with all adjectives. (Sea Ruhnken on Veil. Pat., ii., 93.) We thus find aeger, anxius, atrox, aversus caeimSj capluSy conjtdens, confusuSf incertus, territuSf validuSj exiguus, ingens^ modicus, immodicuSy and nimius animi ; and, owing to this frequent use of the genitive with adjectives, it is found also with verbs denoting anxie- ty ; e. g., absurde fads, qui te angas animi ; discrucior animi, and even in Cic- ero we find more than once ego quidem vehementer animi pendeo ; it occurs more rarely with verbs denoting joy ; as, recreabar animi. Note 2. — The adjectives yZenus and inanis (full, empty), as well asfertiUs and dives, may be construed also with the ablative (^ 457, foil.), and with refertus (the participle of a verb denoting " to fill") the ablative is com- monly used ; plenus in the early prose is rarely joined with the ablative, but in later times frequently : Cicero, e. g., Philip,, ii., 27, says, domus (Antonii) erat aleatoribus referta, plena ebriorum. We may use either case in jurisperitus a^Tid jureperitus, juriscoTisultus and jurecoTisuUus (abridged ICtus). Compos and expers are but rarely found with the ablative instead of the genit. ; as, Liv., iii., 71 , praeda iTigenti compotem exercitum reducunt ; Sallust, Cat., 33, omnesfama atquefortunis expertes sumus. Immunis (not partaking) is commonly joined with the genitive, but when used in the sense of " free from," it takes either ab or the simple ablat. (See 4 468.) Conscius is construed with a genitive and a dative of the thing; e. g., Sallust, Cat., 25, caedis conscid fuerat ; Cic, p. CoeL, 21, huic facinori tanto meTts tua conscia esse non debuit. The person who is conscious of a thing is always expressed by the dative ; as, sibi conscium esse alicujus rei. [§ 438.] 7. The participles preseiht active are joined with a genitive when they do not express a simple act or a momentary condition, but, like adjectives, a permanent quality or condition ; hence most of them have degrees of comparison like real adjectives. The foUowdng list contains those most in use : amans, appetens, colens, fu- giens, intelligens, -metuens, negligens, observans, retinens tolerans, patiens, impatiens, temperans, intemperans ; e. g. amans patriae, Chracchi amantissimi plehis Romanae, ap- vetens laudis, sancti et religionum colentes,fugiens lahoris, imminentium (futuri) intelligens, officii negligens, miles pa- tiens or impatiens solis, pulveris, tempestatum. Epaminondas adeofuit veritatis diligens, ut nejoco quidem mentiretur, Nep., Epam., 3. Romani semper appetentes gloriae praeter ceteras gentes at- que avidi laudis fuerunt, Cic, p. Leg. Man., 3. Note. — The passage from Nepos shows that the participles admitting this construction are not limited to such as have the meaning of the ad- jectives mentioned above (§ 436), but they are used in this way through- out, provided they express a permanent quality ; miles patiens frigus, for ex- ample, is a soldier who at a particular time bears the cold, but miles patient frigoris is one who bears cold well at all times. Hence cupiens, efficiens, ex- jmrims, sciens, sitiens, timens, and a considerable number of others, are joined with a genitive. Some participles perfect passive have been mentioned in ^ 436, as their numbei* is very limited ; and comptetus, expertus, inexper- tui, invictus, and consultus may be classed with the above-mentioned ad GENITIVE CASE. 311 jective*. If, in poetical language, we find any other perfect pstticiplea joined with a genitive, we must regard them as adjectives. [§ 439.] 8. "With verbs oi reminding, remembering, ana forgetting (admoneo, commoneo, commonefacio aliquem ; memini, reminiscor, recordor, also in mentem mihi venit ; obliviscor,) the person or the thing of which any one re- minds another or himself, or which he forgets, is express- ed by the genitive ; but there are many instances, also, in which the thing is expressed by the accusative. Medicus, ut ■primum mentis compotem esse regem sensit, mo- do matris sororumque, mode tantae victoriae appropin- quantis adm,onere non destitit. Curt., iii., 16. Hannibal milites adhortatus est, ut reminiscerentv/r pristi- nae virtutis suae, neve mulierum liberumque (for et libe- rorumj oblivucerentur. Tu, C. Caesar, oblivisci nihil soles, nisi injuries, Cic, p Leg., 12. Non omnes (senes) possunt esse Scipiones aut Maximi, ut urbium exp^ignationes, ut pedestres navalesque pugnas, ut bella a se gesta triumphosque recordentur, Cic, Cat. Maj., 5. [^ 440.] Note. — With regard to the accusative of the thing, it must be observed that the neuters of pronouns, and the neuter adjectives used as substantives, are joined to the above-mentioned verbs only in the accusa- tive ; for their genitive would present no difference from the masc. gender. Hence Cicero (de Off., ii., 8) is obliged to say. Externa libentius in tali re quam domestica recordor; and the verbs of reminding are thus joined with two accusatives, one of the person and the other of the thing ; e. g., illud me praectare admmies, unum te admoneo. (Comp. ^ 393.) An accusative of the thing, expressed by a real substantive, occurs only with verbs of re membering and forgetting ; e. g., inemini or oblitus sum mandata, beneficia, dicta factaque tua ; pueritiae memoriaTn recordari ultimam. An accusative of the person is very rarely used with these verbs ; but memini, in the sense of " I remember a person who lived in my time," is invariably joined with an accusative of the person ; e. g., Cic, Philip., v., 6, quod neque reges fecerunt, neque ii, qui regibus exactis regnum occupare voluerunt : Cinnam memini, vidi Sullam, modo Caesarem, &c. ; de Orat., iii., 50, Antipater iUe Sidonius, quern tu probe meministi. Sometimes verbs of reminding and remembering take the preposition de ; memini takes de more especially when it signifies mentionem facere, but the genitive also may be used. With venit mihi in mentem, the person or thing may be put in the nominat., so as to become the subject ; e. g., aUquid, haec, omnia mihi in mentem venerunt. [§ 441.] 9. The irapersanalYerbs pudet,piget,poenitet, taedet, and miseret require the person in whom the feel- ing exists to be in the accusative, and the thing which produces the feeling in the genitive. The thing produ- cing the feeling may also be expressed by the infinitive, or by a sentence with quod or with an interrogative par- ticle, e, g., pudet me hocfecisse, poenitet me quod te offendi. .118 LATIN GEAMMAK. Konpoenitet me (I am not dissatisfied) quantum prqfecenm. As to the forms of these verbs, see § 225. Malo, mefortunaepoeniteat, quam victoriae pudeat, Curt., iv., 47. Eorum nos magis miseret, qui nostram misericordiam non requirunt, quam qui illam efflagitant, Cic, p. Mil., 34. Non poenitet me vixisse, quoniam, ita vixi, ut non Jrustra m,e natiim, existimem., Cic, Cat. Maj., in fin. Quern poenitet peccasse, paene est innocens, Senec, Agam , 243. \ij 442.] Note 1. — The personal verbs misereor and miseresco, " I pity," aro foined with a genitive, like -the impersonal verbs miseret (and miseretur) : misETrmini sociorum, misertus tanti viri, generis miseresce tut; but we also find miseresdt me tui, impersonally, in Terence {Heaut.. v., 4, 3), inopis te nunt miserescat mei. Miserari and commiserari (to pity), on the other hand, re quire the accusative. The above-mentioned impersonal verbs are verj rarely used personally ; as in Terence, Adelpk., iv., 5, 36, non te haec jmdent. In the passage of Cicero ( Tusc, v., 18), sequitar ut nihil (sapientem) poeni teat, the word nihil must not be taken for a nominative : it is the accusa- tive, for both this particular word and the neuters of pronouns are thus used in the accusative (see ^ 385) ; whereas real substantives would ne cessarily be in a different case. So, also, in Cic, de Invent., ii., 13, quaeri vportet, utrum id facinus sit, quod poenitere fuerit necesse, for cujus rei. The participle pertaesus (belonging to taedet) governs the accusative, contrary to the rule by which participles are joined with the same case as the verbs from which they are formed ; e. g., Sueton., Jut., 7, quasi pertaesus ignaviam suam ; but it is also used with a genitive, as in Tacitus, Ann., xv., 51, pos- tremo lentitudinis eorum pertaesa. [^ 443.] Note 2. — Pudet requires a genit., also, in the sense of " being restrained by shame or respect for a person ;" e. g., Terent., Adelph., iv., 5, 49, et me tui pudet ; Cic, in Clod., Nonne te hujus templi, non urbis, non vitae, non lucis pudet ? It is found more frequently without an accusat., as in Livy, iii., 19, pudet deorum hominumque ; Cic, Philip., xii., 3, pudet hujus le- gionis, pudet quartae, pudet optimi exercitus. [§ 444.] 10. The verbs of estimating or valuing and their passives (aestimare, ducere,facere, fieri, Tiahere, pen- dere, putare, taxare, and esse J are joined with the genitive wrhen the value is expressed generally by an adjective, out with the ablative when it is expressed by a substan- tive. (Comp. § 456.) Genitives of this kind are : mag- ni, perm.agni,pluris, plurimi, m,aximi,parvi, minoris, min- im,i, tanti, quanti, and the compounds tantidem, quantivis, quanticunque ; but never (or very rarely) multi and ma- ■•oris. The substantive to be understood with these gen- itives is pretii, which is sometimes expressed (vnth esse). Si prata et Jiortulos tanti aestimamus, quanti est aestiman- da virtus ? Cic, Parad., 6. Unum Hephaestionem Alexander plurimi fecerat, Nep., Eum., 9 GENITIVE CASE. S13 Elgo a meii me amari et magni pendi postulo, Terent.. AdelpTi., v., 4, 25. Mea mihi consdentia pluris est, quam omnium sermo, Cic, ad Att., xii., 28. Note. — Tanti est, " it is worth so much," signifies, also, absolutely, " it is worth while ;" e. g., Cic, in Cat., i, 9, Video quanta tempestas invidiae nobis impendeat, Sed est mihi tanti : dummodo ista privata sit calamitas. In addi- tion to the above genitives we must mention assis, flocci, nauci, pensi, pili habere, or commonly non habere, ducere, aestimare ; farther, the comic phrase hujus non facio, " I do not care that for it," and nihili. But we find, also, pro nihilo habere, putare, and ducere ; e. g., omnia, quae cadere in kominem pos- sint, despicere et pro nihilo putare. The phrase aequi boni, or aequi bonique facio, consulo, and boni coyisulo, I consider a thing to be right, am satisfied with it, must likewise be classed with these genitives. A genitive ex pressing jirtce is joined, also, to such words as coeno, habito, doceo ; e. g., quanti habitas 1 what price do you pay for your house or lodging ? quanti docet ? what are his terms in teaching ? [§ 445.] The same rule applies to general statements of price with the verbs of buying, sdlingi lending, and hiring femere, vendere, the passive veniri, conducere, lo- care, and as passives in sense, stare and constare, prostare and licere, to be exposed for sale). But the ablatives magna, permagno, plwrimo, parvo, minimo, nihilo, are used very frequently instead df the genitive. Mercatores non tantidem vendunt, quanti cmerunt, Cic. Nulla pestis humano generi pluris stetit, quam ira, Senec. Non potest parvo res magna constare, Senec, Epist., 19. Note. — With verbs of buying, therefore, the genitive and ablative alter- nate according to the particular words that are used. Cic, adFam.,\\i., 2, writes, Parum acute ei mandasti potissimum, cut expediret illud venire quam plurimo : sed eo vidisti multum, quod praefinisti, quo ne pluris emerem — nunc, quoniam tuum pretium novi, itUcitatorem, potias ponam, quam illud minaris ve- neat ; Plaut., Epid., ii., 2, 112, Quanti emere possum minimo ? What is the lowest price I can buy at ? Aestimare is sometimes joined with the abla- tives magna, permagno, nonnihilo, instead of the regular genitives. The ad- verbs care, bene, male, sometimes take the place of the ablative with the verbs of buying, though not very frequently. Instead of nihilo constat, it costs me nothing, we find in Cicero gratis constat. [§ 446.] 11. The genitive is used to denote the crime or oifence, with the verbs accuse, incuso, arguo, i^terrogo, insimulo, increpo, infamo ; convince, coarguo ; judico, dam- ne, cendemne ; absolve, libere, purge ; arcesso, cito, defero, postulo, reum facio, alicui diem, dico, cum alique ago. The genitive joined to these verbs depends upon the substan- tive crimine or nomine, which is understood, but some- times also expressed. Genitives of this kind are, peccati, malejicii, sceleris, caedis, venejicii, par ricidii, furti, repetundarui7l,peculatits, falsi, injuriarum, ret capitalis,proditioms, majestatis ; probri, stultitiae, avaritiae, audatda', vanitatis, Initatis, (enMntalw tgnaviae , tinoris, impietatis, and others. Dd 314 LATIN GRAMMAK. Miltiades proditionis est accusatus, quod, quum Farum t» fugnare posset, epugna discessisset, Nep., Milt. Thrasybulus legem tidit, nc quis ante actarum rerum ao cusaretur neve multaretur, Nep., Thras., 3. Note ] . — To these verbs we must add a few adjectives, which are used Instead of their participles : reus^ compertus, noxhis, innoxius, insons, mani- fetius. Sometimes the preposition de is used, with the verbs of accusing and condemning, instead of the genitive ; e. g., de vi condemnatus est, no- men aUcujus deparricidio deferre. [^ 447.] Note 2. — The punishment, with the verbs of condemning, ig commonly expressed by the genitive ; e. g., capitis, mortis, mvltae, pecuniae quadmpli, octupU, and less frequently by the ablative, capite, morte, multa, pecunia. The ablative, however, is used invariably when a definite sum is mentioned ; e. g., decern, quindecim milibus aeris. Sometimes we find the preposition ad or in ; ad poenam, ad bestias, ad metalla, in metallum, in ex- pensas, and Tacitus uses, also, ad mortem. The meaning of capitis accu- sare, arcessere, absolvere, and of capitis or capite damnare, condemnare, must be explained by the signification of what the Somans called a causa capitis.* Voti or votorum damnari, to be condemned to fulfil one's vow, is thus equivalent to " to obtain what one wishes." [§ 448.] 12. The genitive is used with the verbs esse and^m, in the sense of " it is a person's business, office, lot, or property," the substantives res or negotium being understood; e. g., hoc est praeceptoris, this is the business of the teacher; nan est mearum virium, it is beyond my strength; Asia Brnnanorum, facta est, Asia became the property of the Romans. The same genitive is found, also, with some of the verbs mentioned in § 394, esse be ing understood. But instead of the genitive of the personal pronouns Tnei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, the neuters of the possessives, meum, tuum, suum, nostrum, vestrum est, erat, &c., are used. Ciyusvis hominis est errare, nulliiis nisi insipientis in errore perseverare, Cic, Phil., xii., 2. Sapientis judicis est, semper nan quid ipse velit, sed quid lex et religio cogat, cogitare, Cic, p. Cluent., 58. Bella Gallico praeter Capitolium omnia hostium, erant, Liv.,*i., 40. Tuum, est, M. Cato, qui non mihi, non tihi, sed patriae natus es, videre quid agatur, Cic, p. Muren., 38. Note 1. — We have here followed Perizonius (on Sanctius, Minerva, in many passages) in explaining the genitive by the ellipsis of negotiwn.\ This opinion is confirmed by a passage in Cicero, ad Fam., iii., 12, non ho rum temporum, non horum homirvum et morum negotium est ; but we ought not to have recourse to such an ellipsis, except for the purpose of illuB trating the idiom of a language, and we should not apply it to every par ticular case ; for, in most instances, it would be better and more consist * [Consult Diet. Antiq., p. 212, Harpers' ed.}—Am. Ed. t [Conapare Palairil, Eaips. Lai., s. v. Nego'.ium.]— Am. Ed. GENITIVS CASE. ijlj eat witli the Latin idiom, to supply proprius, as an adjective and prmmim as a substantive. (Comp. ^411.) In the following sentences from Cicero. vroprium est animi bene constituti laetari bonis rebus, and sapientis est jsro* prirnn, nihil quod poenitere possit facerej we might omilproprium and use the genitive alone. In the following sentences/ the words munus and offiawn might be omitted : Cic, p. MU., 8, princ^m munus est resistere levitati rmdtitudinis, and Terent., Andr., ii., 1, 30, neiUiquam officium liberi esse ko- minis puto, quum is nil mereat, postulare id gratiae apponi sibi ; and hence We may also assume the ellipsis of rnmms and offiman, for tlie purpose of il- lustrating the Latin idiom. Esse is joined with a genitive expressing quality, est stultitiae, est levita- tis, est hoc GaUicae consuetudinis, especially maris est, for which, without .difference in meaning, we ma^ say stuUitia est, levitas est, haec consuetudo \est Galtorvm, mos est ; e. g., Clc, in Yerr., i., 2G, negavit fnoris esse Grae- icorum, vt in convivio virorum accwnberent •mulieres, the same as morem esse GraecoTum. Note 2. — As it is the rule to use the neuter of the possessive pronouns instead of the genitive of the personal pronouns, so in other cases, instead of a genitive of a substantive, an adjective derived from the substantive may be used ; e. g., humanum est, imperatorium est, regium est ; etfacere et patifortia Romanuin est, Liv., ii., 12. [§ 449.] 13. A similar ellipsis takes place with the im- personal verbs interest and refert, it is of interest or impor- tance (to me), the person to whom anything is of im- portance being expressed by the genitive ; but instead of the genitive of the personal pronouns, the possessives mea, tua, sua, nostra, vestra, are used. These possessives are commonly considered to be accusatives neuter plu- ral, co%,moda being understood ; but from some verses in Terence, especially Phorm., iv., 5, 11, and v., 8, 47, we are obliged to consider them with Priscian (p. 1077) as ablatives feminine singular, and it is not impossible that catisa may be understood.* The thing which is of inter- est or importance is not expressed by a substantive, but sometimes by the neuter of a pronoun ; e. g., hoc mea in- terest, and usually by an accusative with the infinitive, or by ut and the interrogative particles vnth the subjunctive ; e. g., mvltum, mea interest, te esse diligentem, or ut dili- gens sis, (utrum) diligens sis nee ne. Semper Milo, quantum inter esset P. Clodii, se pe^re, eogi- tabat, Cic, p. MU., 21. Caesar dicere solebat, nan tarn sua, quam reipuhlicae inter- esse, uti salvus esset. Suet., Caes., 86. Jnvemtae sunt epistolae, ut certiores faceremus dbsentes, si * This explanation solves only half the difEcjlty, but both the use of the genitive and the length of re in refert are sufficiently accounted for by what has been said in a note at the foot of p. 19. We should add here that med, tud, sua, &C-, are accusatives for meam, tuam, suam, & c. Comp Key , The Alphabet, j 7?.— Tbansl 316 LATIN GRAMMAR. quid esset, quos eos scire aut nostra aut ipsorum interestet, Gic, ad Fam., ii., 4. Quid refert, utrum voluerimjieri, an factum gaudeam 1 Cic, PAilip., ii., 12. Note I. — ^When an infinitive alone is joined to interssse, the preceding subject is understood, e. g., omnium interest rectefacere, sciX.se. The nom- inative of the subject in Cicero, ad Att., iii., 19, mm qmmea bueressel loci natura, is very singular. It has been asserted that refert is not joined with the genitive of the person ; in Cicero, it is true, it does not occur, for he generally uses it with the pronouns mea, tua, sua, &c. ; but other authors use the genitive; e. g., Sallust, Jug., 119, faciendum aliquid, quod illorum magia, quam sua rettalisse videretur, and Liv., xxxiv., 27, ipsorum referre, &c. Most frequently, however, refert is used without either a genitive or any of the pronouns mea, tua, &c. : refert, quid refert ? rnagni, parvi, Tnagnopere efert. The dative of the person in Horace, Serm., i., 1, 50, vel die quid re ferat intra naturae fines viventi, jugera centum an mille aret, is a singular pe- culiarity. [^ 450.1 Note 2. — The degree of importance is expressed by adverbs or neuter adjectives, or by their genitives, magis, Tnagnopere, vehementer, parum, minime, tarn, tantopere ; mullum, plus, plurimum, permultum, infinitum, mirum quantum, minus, nihil, aliquid, qmddam, tantum, quantum ; tanti, quanti, magni, permagni,panii. The object for which a thing is of importance is express- ed by the preposition ad, as in Cicero, magni interest ad honorem nostrum ; a dative used in the same sense occurs in Tacitus, Ann., xv., 65, non re- f'trre dedecori. CHAPTER LXXIV. ABLATIVE CASE. [§ 451.] 1. The Ablative serves to denote certain re- lations of substantives, which are expressed in most other 'anguages by prepositions. Note.— This is an important difference between the ablative and the ither oblique cases ; for the latter, expressing necessary relations between louns, lecur in all languages which possess cases of inflection, and do lot, like the French or English, express those relations by prepositions. But the ablative is a peculiarity of the Latin language, which might in- deed be dispensed with, but which contributes greatly to its expressive conciseness. The ablative is used, first with passive verbs to denote the thing^y which anything is effected (ablativus effidenr tisj, and which in the active construction is expressed by the nominative ; e. g., sol mundurn, illustrat, and sole mun- dus illustratur ; Jectmditas arborum me delectat, znAJecun- ditate arborum detector. If that by which anything is ef- fected is a person, the preposition ab is required with the ablative (see § 382) ivith the sole exception of the par- ticiples of the verbs denoting " to beTaom" (natus, genitits, ortus, and in poetry, also, cretus, editus, satusj, to which the name of the father or family is generally joined in the ab- ABLATIVE CASE. 317 lathe without a preposition. Ab cannot be used with the ablative of a thing by which anything is effected, unless the thing be personified. Dei providentia mundus administratur, Cic. Non est consentaneum, qui metu nonjrangatur, eumfrangt cupiditate ; nee qui invictum se a lahore praestiterit, vin- ci a voluptate, Cic, De Off., i., 20. Note. — ^The worda-denoting " bom" usaally have the preposition ex or di joined to the name of the mother, but the ablative alone is also found, and there are a few passages in which cz or oi is joined to the name of the father ; e. g., Terent., Adelph.t i., 1, 15, Atque ex me hie natus non est. sed ear fratre ; Caes., Bell. Gall., vi., 18, prognati ab Dite patre. Ortua ab aliauo is frequently used in speaking of a person's ancestors ; e. g., Cic, p. Muren., 21, qui ab illo ortus el ; Caes., Bell. GaU., iL, 4, pJeroejue Belgas esse ortos a Germanis (the same as oriwidos). [§ 452.] 2. An ablative expressing the cause (ahlativus causae) is joined with adjectives, which, if changed into a verb, would require a passive construction ; e. ^.,fesms, aeger, saucius (equivalent to quifatigatus, morbo (pectus, vulneratus est); and with intransitive verbs, for which we may generally substitute some passive verb of at least a similar meaning; as, interiit fame, consumptus est fame ; expectatio rum,ore crevit, expectatio aucta est rumore; gau- deo honore tuo, delector honore tuo. Thus, verbs express- ing feeling or emotion are construed vnth the ablative of the thing which is the cause of the feeling or emotion; as, doleo, gaudeo, laetor ; exUio, exulto, triv/mpJut, lacrimo, paene desipio gdttdio, ardeo cupiditate, desiderio. Some- times the prepositions propter and per are used instead of such an ablative ; and when a person is described as the cause of an emotion, they are just as necessary as ab is with passive verbs. We must notice in particular the construction of the fol- lowing verbs : Glorior, I boast, is joined with an ablative denoting the cause ; e. g., victoria mea, but is also con- strued with de, and in the sense of " glory in a thing," with in ; e. g., Cic, de Nat. Dear., iii., 36, propter virtu- tem recte laudamur, et in virtute recte gloriamur. Lahoro, I suffer from ; e. g., morbo, inopia, odio, is frequently join ed, also, with ex, especially when the part of the body which is the seat of the pain is mentioned ; e. g., ex pedi- hus, ex intestinis. Nitor and inmtor aliqua re, I lean upon, is used, in a figurative sense, also, with in ; e. g., Cicero, in vita Pompeii nitebatur salus civitatis (in the sense of " strive after," with ad or in with the accus. ; as, nitimwr Dd2 318 LAtlX GRAMMAR. in vetitumj. Sto aliqua re, I depend upon a thing; as, judicio meo, auctore aliquo ; also in the sense of " I per- severe in or adhere to a thing ;" sa, Jbedere, juryurando, amdicionibus, protnisais ; it rarely takes in, as in Cicero, stare oportet in eo, quod, sit judicatum. (Respecting acqui esco with the ablat., see § 416^) Fido and eonfido, " 1 trust in a thing," and the adjective _^e*JM are joined with the ablat. of the thing tnisted in, but may also be used with the dative of the person or thing trusted in. (See § 413.) The verbs constare, contineri, to consist of, are con- strued with the ablat. to denote that of which a thing con- sists ; e. g., domus amoenitas non aedifido, sed silva con- stahat; tota honestas gyuittuor virtutibus continetur ; but constare is joined more frequently with ex or in, and con- tineri, in the sense of "to be contained in a thing," is gen- erally used vnth in, but even then not unfreqtiently with the ablative alone. fGonsistere, in the sense of " exist," is construed, like positum esse, only vrith in.) Concordia res parvae crescunt, discordia maximae dilabun- tur, Sallust, Jug., 10. ^st adoliscentis majores natu vereri exque Ms deligere op- timos et probatissimos, quorum consilio atque auctoritate nitatur, Cic, de Off; i., 34. Virtute decet, non sanguine niti, Claud., Cons. Hon., iv., 219. Diversis dwobus vitiis, avaritia et luxuria, civitas Romana laborahat, Liv., xxxiv., 4. Delicto dolere, correctione gaudere nos oportet, Cic. [6 453.] Note 1. — We must here mention, also, the ablat. virttUe, joined with the defective adjective macte and macti, which, either with the im- perative of esse {estOf este, estate}, or without it, is used as an exclamation of encouragement or approbation. The use of the accusative vicem (with a genitive or possessive pronoun), instead of the ablative vice (in accordance with the above rule) in con- nexion with intransitive verbs and adjectives denoting feelings, especially those of care, grief, and sorrow, is a peculiarity which does not. occur when vicem is used in its ordinary sense of " change" or " turn" (as in Phaedr., v., 1, 6, tadte eementes tristem fortanat vicem), but only when it is equivalent to the English " for ;" e. g., Liv., ii., 31 , appamit causa pkh, suam vicem indipumtem ma^tratii abisse ; i. e., that for their sake be had indignantly resigned his omce ; xxxiv., 32, Remittimus hoc tibi, tie nostram vicem irascaris, that you may not be angry on our account ; xl., 23, Simpli- citatem juuenis incautiassentando indignandomie et ipse vioem ejus captahat,hy showing indignation on his account. In like manner, we must explain Cic, ad Pam.y xii., 23, Tuam vicem saepe doleo, quod nvllam partem per aeta- tem sanae et salvae rei publicae gustare pottdsti, and in Verr., 1., 44, si alienam vicem pro nostra injuria doleremus, if we grieved for other people, as though a wrong had been done to ourselves. Hence we should read, with Bent ley, in, Ro^BiCe, Epod., xvii., 42, injajnis Helenae Castor offensus vicem, Cas- ABLATIVE CASE. 319 tor offended on account of his ill-famed sister,* where Bentlejr quotes the following instances of this use of vicem with adjectives, Liv. : viii., 35, mom vkem tnagis anxtoa, quam ejus^ cui ttuxilium ab se petebatur ; xzviii,, 43, ut mean quoqtu, non sobon rei pubUcae et exercitus vicem videretur solUcitus ; Curt., "vii, 6, maestus non suam vtcon, sed propter ij»suni periclitantium fra- trum, not sad on his own account, but on account of his brothers who ran into danger fcr his sake. The ablative in this sense occurs only in lat» writers ; e. %., Quintil., vi., 2, 35, and xi., 1, 42. But it is difficult to de cide whether the accusative mcem. may be used also in the sense of " like," more modottue, instead of vice, as is commonly read in Cic, ad Att., z., 8, SardanapM vieem in nio Uctulo mori, or whether we should correct vicem into vice, as in Tacitus, .Ann., vi., 21, {uoe dixerat oracuU vice accipiem. The difficult passage in Horace, Epod., v., 87, Fewna magnum fa» ne- fasque non vdUrU amvertere hvmanam vicem, must undoubtedly be explained m the same manner, whether we retain the accusative or read kumana Dice ; the meaning is, " Poison cannot upset the eternal laws like things human." [^ 454.] Note 2. — ^With transitive verbs, also, the cause or the thing in consequence of which anything is done is expressed by the ablative, but this is the regular practice only with substantives ending in the ablat. inu (() 90), which have no other cases ; e. g., jussu, rogatu, admonitu tuo veni, feci, miei or miims mm. With other substantives it is more rare ; e. g., Cic, p. Hose. Am., 32, ut omnes inteUigant me non studio accuaare, sed o^cio defendere ; de Fin., ii., 26, si fructibus et emahtanetitis et utilitatibus amidtias colemus ; de Off., i., 9, jSunf etiam, qui aut studio rei/amUiaris tuendae aut odio quodam hominum suum se negotium agere diccmt ; Sallust, Cat., 23, inopia mi- nus largiri poterat ; Cic, Divin. in Caec., 3,judicioTwn desiderio tribuntciapo- lestas eMagitata est, judtdorum levitate ordp alius postulatur, &c ; de Leg., i'.i., 7, Regale civitaiis genus non tarn regni, quam regis vitiis repiuUatum est. The preposition prdpter, or a circumlocution with causa, however, is gener- ally used instead of the ablative ; e. g., instead of joco dicere, joco mentiri, we find joci causa ; hoc onus suscepi tud causa ; hmwris tui causa, propter am- icitiam nostram. When tl^ cause is a state of feeling, the best Latin wri- ters prefer a circumlocution with the perfect participle of some verb de- noting " to induce ;" e. g., to do a thing from some desire, cupiditate duc- tus, inductus, indtatus, incensus, infiammaius, impuLsus, motus, captus, &c. Livy is fond of using the preposition ab in this sense ; as, ab ira, a spe, ab odio, from anger, hope, hatred. See § 305, and Hand, Twsellin., i., p. 33. [§ 455.] 3. An ablative is joined with verbs of every kind to express the means or instrument by which a thing is done {ahlativus instrumenti). Thus we say manu ducere aliquem, to lead a person by the hand ; equo, cumi, nave veki, the horse, carriage, and ships being the means of moving. Benivolentiam civium hlanditiit colUgere tv/rpe est, Cic. Comibus tauri, apri dentibus, morsu leones, aliaefuga se, aliae occultatione tutantur, Cic, De Nat. Dear., ii., 50. Naturam expellas furca, tamen usgue recurret, Herat., Epist., i,, 10, 24. Male quaeritur herhis; moribus et forma condUamdus amor^ Ovid, Heroid.,\i., 93. * [Compare the remarks of Orelli, ad loc. So in Greek, 'A.vijp S Irav ud}./ tra' m/nidelv 6oKy Kaf oIkov i) 0eov fioipav^ uvdpdmov x^'^v «r/L fS ' onid., Amorg, 7 103, ed. Schneidew.)]— 'Am. Ed. 320 LATIN GRAMMAR. Note. — When a man is the instrument by which anything is eil'ectetV the ablative is rarely used, but generally the preposition per,* or the cir- cumlocution with opera alicujus, which is so frequent, especially with poB. lessive pronouns, that mea, tud, sua, &c., opera are exactly the same as per me, per te, per se, &c., and are used to denote both good and bad services ; e. g., Cic, Cat. Maj., 4, mea opera Tarentum recepisti ; Nep., iys., J, Xy- zartder sic sibi indulsit, ut ejus opera in maximum odium Graeciae Lacedae' monii pervenerint ; that is, ejus culpa, through his fault. Seneficio is used in the more limited sense of good results ; as, beTiefiiio tuo salvus, incolwnis sum, where it is the same as per te. Per is sometimes used to express a means, but only when we are speaking of external concurring circum stances, rather than of that which is really done to attain a certain object. We always say, e. g., vi oppidum cepit, but per vim ei bona eripuit. See ^ 301. The material instrument is always expressed by the ablative alone, and never with a preposition, such as cum ; hence conjicere cervum sagittis, gladio aliquem vulnerare ; compare ^ 473. [§ 456.] 4. Hence with verbs of buying and selling, of estimation, value, and the like (§ ^44), the price or value of a thing is expressed by the ablative, provided it is in- dicated by a definite sum or a substantive. (Respecting the genitive in general expressions, see § 444, where it is observed that, contrary to the general rule, the ablatives magna, permagno, plurimo, parvo, minimo, are commonly joined to verbs denoting " to buy" and " sell.") Ego spem pretio non emo, Terent., Adelph., ii., 2, 11. Si quis aurum vendens putet se orichalcum vend,ere, indi- cabitne ei vir bonus aurum illud esse, an emet denaria, quod sit mille denarium ? Cic, De Off., iii., 23. Viginti talentis unam orationem Isocrates vendidit, Plin.. Hist. Nat., vii., 31. Denis in diem assibus anima et corpus (militum) aestiman- tur. Tacit., Ann., i., 17. Quod non opus est, asse carum est, Senec, Epist., 94. Note. — To the verbs of buying and selling we must add many others which express an act or an enjoyment, for which a certain price is paid ; e. g., lavor quadrante, habito triginta milibus US, doceo talento, parvo acre mereo. Esse in the sense of " to be worth" is therefore joined with the ablative of the definite price ; e. g., Modiiis frumenti in SiciUa binia tester- tiis, ad summ.um temis erat ; sextante sal in Italia erat. We make this ob- servation chiefly to direct attention to the difference between this ablative and the genitive of quality which occurs in the passage of Cicero quoted above. Est mille denarium there means, it is a thing of one thousand de narii (in Value), and may be bought for that sum. Mutare and its compounds, 'commuZare and permutare, are commonly con- strued in the same way as the verbs of selhng ; e. g.,Jidem suam et religi. onempecmua, studium belli eerendi agriculturd,pellium tegmina vestibus, monies ac silvas urbibus, and in Virg., Georg., i., 8, Ckaonidm glandem pingui vatta- vit arista, alluding to the first husbandman, who exchanged com for acorns. But prose writers as well as poets reverse the expression, by putting that which we receive in the accusal., and that which we give foi ♦ [Compare Hand, TurseU., i., p. 31 ; Reisig, Varies., p. 704.]— ilm, Ed ABLATIVE CASE. 321 it in the ablat., either alone or with the preposition mm ; e. g., Horat, Cam., iii., 1, 47, cur voile permutem Satina divitias operosioTer, why should I exchange my Sabine valley for more wearisome nches ? Epod., ix., 27, Terra marique victus kostis Punico lueubre mtUavit sagum ; Curt., iii., 18, exilium patria sede mutaverat ; Ovid, met., vii., 60, Qiumqj^ ego cujn rebus, quae totus possidet orbis, Aesonidem mutasse velim ; Curt., iv., 4, Habitus kic cum isto sqwdore permutandus tibi est ; Sulpicius in Clc, ad Fam., iv., 5, hisce iemporibus non pessime cum iis esse actum, quibus sine dolore licitum est mortem cum vita commutare. Livy, too, uses both constructions, but the ablative alone is better attested. See Drakenborch on v., 20. [§ 457.] 5. The ablative is joined with nouns {both substantive and adjective) and verbs to express a partic- ular circumstance or limitation, where in English the ex- pressions " with regard to," " as to," or " in" are used ; e. g., Nemo Romanorum Ciceroni par ykit, or Cicermtem aeguavit eloquentia, in eloquence, or with regard to elo- ■ quence. Hence a great number of expressions by which a statement is modified or limited ; as, mea sententia, mea opinione, meo judicio, frequently with the addition of qui dem ; natione Syrus, a Syrian by birth ; genere facile pri mus ; Hamilcar cognomine Barcas, &c. Agesilaus claudusfuit (claudicabat) altera pede, Nepos. Sunt quidam homines, non re, sed nomine, Cicero. [^ 458.] Note 1.— The Latin poets, and those prose writers who are fond of poetical expressions, sometimes use the accusative instead of this ab- lative, in imitation of the Greeks ; hence the accusative is termed accusa- tivus Graecus. It occurs most frequently with passive verbs, especially with perfect participles, to detsrmme the part of the body to which a statement applies or is limited ; e. g., vite caput tegitur, he is covered (or covers himself) with a vine branch, but the covering is limited to the head : " his head is covered with," &c. ; membra svh arbuto stratus, lying with his limbs stretched out ; redimitus tempera lauro, his temples sur- rounded with a laurel wreath ; nvbe candentes hwiurM amictus ; humeroa oleo ptrfusus ; miles fractus membra labore. Such expressions are pleasing, especially when an ablative is joined to the participle ; as in Livy, xxi., 7, adversum femur tragula graviter ictus ; Sueton., Octav., 20, dexterum genu lapide ictus ; Ovid, Met., xii., 269, Gryneus eruitur oculos, appears rather harsh for Gryneo eruuntur oculi. This use of the accusative may be com- pared with that explained in ^ 393, edoctus artes and interragatus sententiam ; for an active verb may be joined vfith a twofold accusative, either of the person or of a part of the person ; as, redimio te victorem, or redimio tempora, crimes ; and when such a sentence takes the passive form, the accusative of the person becomes the nominative, but that of the part remains. (Comp. Buttmann's Greek Grammar, i 13L) But the poets go still farther, and use this accusative of the part also with neuter verbs and adjectives ; e. g., Virg., Georg., iii., 84, tremit artus ; Aen., i., 589, os humerosque deo similia ; Tacit., Germ., 17, feminae Germa. norum nudae brackia et lacertos, and in the same writer we find clari genus, for the usual clari genere, where genus is not an accusative of the part, but is completely a Greek construction. The accusative expressing the articles of dress, used in poetical language with the passive verbs induor, amicior, cingor, accingar, exuor, discingor, IS of a different kind ; but it may be compared to the accusative of the part. The active admits two constructions : induo me vests and induo mihi 322 LATIN GBAMMAS. oatem (gee aba re, () 418), and in the passive the two construct ione are coia bined into one ; and inttead of saying induor veste, the poets and tl ose who imitate them say induor vestem. Instances of this occur in atl the poets, but they are extremely frequent in Ovid ; e. g., protinta induitur faaem cidtumqv^ Dianae ;^ induiturque cures leTite gradientis aselli ; Virg., Xcn., ii., 510, inutile ferrum cingitur. To this accusative the Latin ablative is some- times added, to denote the part of the body which is dressed or adorned , e. g., Ovid, Met., viL, 161, inductaque comibas aurum Victima vota cadit^ and X., 271, pandis iiidvctae cormtms aurum juvencae. The accusative in Horace, Serm,, i., 6, 74, pueri laevo suspensi loculos tabutamque lacerto, is curious, but ruspcTtii is here used accordmg to the analogy of accincti, like the Greek i^ijprjjfiivoi T71V Tzivaiia, [^ 459] Note 2.— Something of this Greek construction was adopted by the Romans even in their ordinary language, and there are some cases where the accusative is used in prose instead of the ablative. Magnam and maximam partem are thus used adverbially for fere or magna {vuxxima) ex parte ; e. g., Cic, Orat.^ 56, TnagTiaTn partem ex iambis nostra constat oratio^ consists to a great extent of iambics ; de Off., i., 7, maximam partem ad in' juriamfaciendam aggredittntur, ut adipiscantur ea, quae concupiverunt. (Comp. partim, ^ 271 .) In the same manner, cetera and retiqua are joined to adjec- tives in the sense of ceteris; i. e., "for the rest," or "in other respects;" e. g., Liv., i,, 32, Proximum regnum, cetera egregium, ab una parte haud sa^ prosperum Juit, and in many other passages, cetera similis, cetera laetus, cetera bonus. Farther, id temporis or id {hoc, idem) aetatis, for eo tempore, ea aetate; e. g., Liv., i., 50, purgavit se, quod id temporis venisset; xl., 9, Quid hoc nactis venis ? Cic, p. Cluent., 51 , non potidt honeste scribere in balneis se cum id aetatis JUio/uisse ; Tacit., Ann., xiii., 16, cum ceteris idem aetatis no- bilibus ; i. e., cum ceteris ejusdem aetatis nobilihus. On the same principle, Tacitus, Ann., xii., 18, says, Romanorum -nemo id auctoritatis aderat, for ea uuctoritate. * [§ 460.] 6. The ablative is used with verbs denoting plenty or want, and with the corresponding transitives of filling, endowing, depriving. (Ahlativus copiae aut ino- piae.) Verbs of this kind are : 1. abundare, redundare, affluere, circumjluere, scatere, florere, pollere, valere, vigere (in the figurative sense of " being rich or strong in any- thing") ; carere, egere, indigere, vacate ; 2. complere, ex- plere, implere, opplere, curaulare, refercire, obruere, im- buere, satiare, exatiare, saturare, stipare, constipare ; af- Jicere, donare, remunerari, locupletare, ornare, augere; ■privare, spoliare, orbare, Jraudare, defraudare, nudare, exuere, and many others of a similar meaning. The ad- jective praeditus takes the place of a perfect participle (in the sense of " endowed"), and is likewise joined with an ablative. Germania rivis jluminibusque dbundat, Seneca. Quant Dionysio erat miserum, carere consuetudine amico- rum, societate victus, sermone omnino familiari ! Cic, Tusc, v., 22. Arcesilas philosophus quum acumine ingenii floruit, turn admirabili qtiodam lepore dicendi Cic, Acad., iv., 6. ABLATIVE CASE. ^21 et auctoritate non modo non orbari, sed edam a»^ geri senecttis solet, Cic, Cat. Maj., 6. Mens est praedita motu sempitemo, Cic, Tusc, i., 27. [(j 461.] Note 1. — Afficere properly signifies to " endow with," but it is used in a great many expressions, and may sometimes be translated by " to do something to a person ;" afficere aliquem honorCf bcTieJiciOf laetitia^ praemiOf ignominiaj injuriay poena, mortem sepultura. Remunerari (the simple namerare or munerari is not often used), properly " to make a present in return," hence " to remunerate." Respecting the different construction of the verbs donare, exuere, and others with the accusative of the thing and the dative of the person, see ^ 418. [^ 462.] Note 2. — Tlfe adjectives denoting/uH and empty are sometimes jomed with the ablative, although as adjectiva retativa they take a genitive (see ^ 436). Refertus, filled, as a participle of the verb refercio, has regu- larly the ablative, and it is only by way of exception that, according to the analogy oiplenus, it takes the genitive; e. g., Cic, p. Font, 1, referta Gallia negotiatorum est, plena civium Romanorum. Orbus. destitute ; creber and den- sus in the sense of " thickly covered with," are found only with the ablat. Vacuus, liber, immunis, and purus are joined with the ablative or the prep- osition ab. See $ 468. [^ 463.] Note 3. — A genitive is sometimes joined with egeo, and frequent- ly with indigeo ; e. g., Cic, hoc bellum tndiget celeritatis ; and following the analogy of plains, the verbs complere and implere are joined with a genitive not only by the poets, but by good prose writers ; e. g., Cic, in Verr., v., 57, quum eompletus jam mercatontm career esset ; Cat. Maj., 14, convivium vicino^ rum quotidie compleo ; ad Fam., ix., 18, olUan denariorum implere, and in Livy, spei animoruTnque implere, temeritaiis implere. It is obvious that with many of these verbs the ablative may justly be regarded as an ablativus instrvmenti. The verbs valere, in the sense of "be- ing healthy or well," takes the ablative of the part ; as, corpore, pedibus, stomacho ; in the sense of " being strong," the ablat. joined to it is gener ally an tUilat. instrumenti ; e. g., valeo auctoritate, gratia, pecunia, armis ; but in many cases it may be regarded also as an ablative of plenty, as in va- lere eloquentia, equitatu valere, [§ 464.] 7. Opus est, there is need, is used either as an impersonal verb, in which case it takes, like the verbs de- noting want, an ablative ; e. g., dtice (exemplisj nobis opus fst, or personally, in which case the thing needed is ex- pressed by the nominative (just as aliguid mihi necessari- um est) ; e. g., dux nobis opus est, exempla nobis opus sunt. The latter construction is most frequent with the neuters of pronouns and adjectives. Athenienses Philippidem cursorem Lacedaemonem miserunt, ut nuntiaret, quam celeri opus esset auxilio, Nep., Milt., 4. Themistocles celeriter quae opus erant reperiebat, Nep., 2%eOT., 1. Note I. — ^The genitive of the thing needed in Livy, xxii., 51, temporit opus esse, and xxiii., 21 , quanti argenti opusjuit, is doubtful. But when the thing cannot be expressed by a substantive, we find either the accusative vrith the infinitive, or the infinitive alone, the preceding subject being un. derstood ; e. g., si quid erit, quod te scire opus sit, scribam, or quid opus est tam valde affi'mare, soil, u : or the ablat. of the perfect participle is us"d 324 LATIN GRAMMAR. with or without a substantive ;* e. g., Tacito quum opia ett, clanua ; Urf, matwoLo opus eat, quidquid statuere placet ; Cic, ad Att., X., 4, sed opus flat Hirtio convento ; Liv., vii., 5, onus swi esse domino ejus convento. The aSlat. of the supine (in u) is less frequent. Priusquam incipias, constdto, et, vbi consvhteris, mature facto opus est, Salhist, Cat,, I. Note 2. — Usus est, in the sense of opus est, is liliewise used impersonal- ly, as in Livy, ut reduceret naves, quibus consult usus non esset, of which the consul was not in want. [§ 465.] 8. The ablative is joined with the deponent verbs v,tor,fruor,fungor, potior, and vescor, and their com- pounds ahutor, perfruor, defungor, and perfungor. Hannibal quum victoria posset uii,frui rflaluit. Floras. Qui adipisci veram gloriam, volet, justitiae fungatur qffictis, Cic, de Off., ii., 13. Numidae plemmque laete etferina came vescehantur, Sal- lust, Jug., 89. [^ 466.] Note. — In early Latin these verbs were frequently joined with the accusative, but in the best period of the language it seldom occurs, and only in less correct writers.! (In Nepos, Datam., 1, militare munus fungens is well established, but Eumen., 3, summam imperii potiri is doubt- ful, and so are the passages quoted from Cicero with the accusat. See my note on de Off., ii., 23.) This, however, is the reason why even class- ical writers use the construction with the participle future passive, where otherwise the gerund only could have been used. (See ^ 657.) Potior occurs (in classical writers) also with the genitive; e. g., regni, imperii, but more especially in the phrase rerum potiri, to assume the supremacy. Apiscor and adipiscor are used by Tacitus in the same sense with a geni- tive (rerum, dominationis), and Horace goes so far as to join regnare (which is otherwise an intransitive verb) with a genitive, Carm., iii., 30, 12, agres- thim populoTum. Utor often signifies " I have," especially when the object (the ablat.) is accompanied by another noun (substant. or adject.) in appo sition ; e. g., utor te amico, I have you as a friend ; Nep., Hannibal SosiU IdOcedaemonio litterarum Graecarum usus est doctore ; Cic, vide quam me sik usurus aequo, how fair I shall be towards thee. [§ 467.] 9. The adjectives dignus, indigmts, and conten- tus are joined with the ablative of the thing of which we are worthy, unworthy, and with which we are satisfied. Dignari, to be deemed worthy, or, as a deponent, to deem worthy, is construed like dignus. Si vere aestimare Macedonas, qui tunc fuerunt, volumus, fatehimur, et regem talihus ministris, et illos'tanto rege fuisse dignissimos. Curt., iv., in fin. Quum muUi luce indigni sunt, et tam,en dies oritur ! Senec. Nott. — Digruiri is Used by Cicero only as the passive of the obsolete ac tive dignare, ahd that not only in the participle, but in the various tenses. The writers of the silver age use it as a deponent ; e. g., Sueton.,Vespiu.', 2, gratias egit ei, quod se honors coenae dignatus esset, that h() had thought bim worthy. When joined with an infinitive, dignor with those writers signi- • [Consult Reisig, Vorles., p. 704.] — Am. Ed. t [Consult Sanct. Minerv., lii., 3. — Ruddiman, ii., p. 196. — HtAse ai Rut.. Varies., p. 691.}— Am. Ed. ABLATIVE CASE. 325 beg " I think proper to do a thing." Dignws, m poetry and unclassica. prose writers, is sometimes joined witlLa genitive, lilie the Greek afiof. When it is followed by a verb, the Lann language generally requires a distinct sentence beginning with a relative pronoun, the verb being put in the subjunctive ; sometimes, however, the infinitive is nsed, as in English. (See % 568.) Contetvtua is likewise joined with the infinitive of a verb (See 9 590.) The ablat. with this adjective arises from the meaning of the verb tontineri, of which it is, properly speaking, the participle passive ; hence in a reflective sense it signifies " confining one's self to," or " satisfying one's self with a thing." [§ 468.] 10. The verbs of removing, preventing, deliv- ering, and others which denote separation, are construed with the ablative of the thing, without any of the prepo- sitions ah, de, or ex ; but when separation from a person is expressed the preposition ab is always used. The prin- cipal verbs of this class, are : arcere, pellere, depellere, ex- pellere, deturbare, dejicere, ejicere, absterrere, deterrere, mo- vere, amovere, demovere, removere, prohibere, excluderc / abire, exire, cedere, decedere, discedere, denstere, evadere, ah stinere; liberare, expedire, laxare, solvere, together with the adjectives liber, immunis, purus, vacuus, and alien/us, vfYiicAi may be used either with the preposition ab or the ablative alone ; e. g., liber a delictis and liber otnni metu, but the verbs exolvere, exonerare, and levare, although implying lib- eration, are always construed with the ablative alone. , The verbs which denote " to distinguish" and " to differ," viz., dislin- guere, discemere, sectmeret differre, discrepare, dissidere, distare, abhorrere, together with alimare and abalienare, are generally joined only with the preposition ab, and the ablative alone is rare and poetical ; e. g.. Tacit., Ann., i., 55, neque ipse abhorrebat talibus studiis ; Ovid, itfef., iii., 145, sol ex aequo meta distabat utrdque. The verbs denoting *' to differ" are construed also with the dative, and not only in poetry, but sometimes even in prose ; e. g., Horat., JEpijtr., i., 18, 4, distat infido scurrae amicus ; ibid., ii., 2, 193, simplex hitarisque nepoli discrepat ; Quintil., xii., 10, Graecis Tuscanicat ttatuae diffenmt. The same principle is followed by the adjective diverms ; as in Quintil., /. c, Nihil tarn est Jjysiae diversum quam Isocrates; Horat., Serm., i., 4, 48, (Comoedia) nisi quod pede certo Divert sermoni, sermo merus Id. Britttts civitatem. doitiinatu regio liberavit, Cic, p. Plane., 25. Te a quartana liberatum gaudeo, Cic, ad Att., x., 15. Esse pro cive, qui civis non sit, rectum est non licere, usu vero urbis prohibere peregrinos sane inhumanum est, Cic, de Off., iii., 11. Apud veteres Germanos quemcunque mortalium arcere tecto nefas habebatur. Tacit., Germ., 21. Tu, Juppiter, Jiunc a tuis aris, a tectis urbis, a moenibus, a vitajbrtunisque civium arcebis, Cic, in Cat., i., in fin. £6 469.] Note 1. — The verb separate itself is commonly construed with •i,''uut the ablative alone is also admissible \ e. g., Oid, Trist., i., 10, 28, E E 326 I.ATIN GKAMMAR. Salon Ahydma separat urbef return. Evaden is joined by Cicero with em and ah, but Livy and Sallust usa it with the ablative alone ; it may take the accusative^ according to if 386 ; e. g., evadere omnem,Jlammam, itisidias, silvas, but thi^ occurs only in the silver age. Prohibere, to keep at a dis- tance, prevent, admits of a double construction ; the most common is to J)Ut the hostile thing or person in the accusative ; as, hostes prohibere popu- ationibus or ah oppidis ; Cic, p. Leg. Man., 7, a quo periculo prohibete rem- publicam, and in the same chapter, erit humanitatis veslrae, magnum horum civtum numerum calamitate prokibere. In like manner, defendere is joined witJ the accusative of the thing to be warded off, or of the thing or person to be defended. In the former sense defenders is commonly used with the accusative alone ; as, defendere jiimios ardores aolia, but ab aliquo may also be added : in the latter sense ab is very frequently joined to it ; as, a peri- culo, a vi, ah injuria. After the analogy of prohibere, the verb interdicero alicui is used almost more frequently with the ablative, aliqua re, than with the accusative aXiquid; e. g.,Caes., 5am., 5. Senatus decrevit, ut legati Jugurthae, nisi regnum ipsum- que deditum venissemt, in diebus proximis decern Italia decederent, Sallust., Jug., 28. \lj 480.] Note. — The ablative expressing " within a time" often acquiies the signification of " after" a time, inasmuch as the period within which a thing is to happen is passed away. Thus, Tarraconem paucis diebus per- venit, in Caesar (Bell. Civ., ii., 21), signifies " after a few days," and Sal- lust (Jug., 39, 4) follows the same principle in saying, pavcis diebus in Af- ricam projiciscitur, and (ibid., 13) paucis diebus Romam legatos mittit^ for paucis diebus post. (See Kritz on Sallust, Jug., 11.) Suetonius (Net., 3; Tib., 69) in the same sense says, in paucis diebus. This use of the ablat. occurs in Cicero (and other good authors), inasmuch as the ablative of time, when followed by a preposition with a relative pronoun, signifies " later than ;" e. g., Plancius in Cic, ad Fam., x., 18, ipsr octo diebus, giii- bus has litteras dabam, cum Lepidi copiis me conjungam, ^hat is, eight days after the date of this letter ; p. Rose. Am., 36, Mors Sex, Roscii quatriduo, quo is occisus est, Chrysogono nuntiatur, four days after he had been killed; Caes., Bell. Gall., i., 48, accidit repentinum incommodum biduo, quo haec gesta sunt, two days after this had happened ; v., 26, diebus circiter xv., quibus in hibema ventum est, defectio orta est; also with quum instead of a relative pronoun, Plancius in Cicero, ad Fam., x., 23, quern triduo, quum has dabam litteras, expectabam, three days later than the date of this letter. Some- times in IS joined with the ablative; Terent,, Andr., i., 1,77, in diebut pavcis, quibus haec acta sunt, moritur. [§ 481.] 14. The ablative without a preposition is used to denote the place where ] in some particular combina- tions ; as, terra marigue, by land and by sea. The names of towns follow their ovra rules (§ 398). The preposition is omitted with the word loco (and locisj, when it is join< ed with an adjective, and has the derivati'S'e mef iiihg of ABLATIVE CASE., 333 " oc-asion ;" e. g., Tioc loco, multis lods, aliquot locis, certo loco, secundo loco, meliore loco res nostrae sunt ; but tliis is done more rarely when locus has its proper meaning of " spot" or "place." In loco, or simply loco, is equal to suo loco, in its right place ; when joined with a genitive, loco signifies " instead," and in this sense in loco is used as well as loco (also numero) alicujus esse, ducere, habere. Libra, j oined with an adjective or pronoun ; as, hoc, prima, tertio, is used without in, when the whole book is meant, and with in when merely a portion or passage is meant. The poets know of no limits in the use of the ablative without m to denote a place where 1 e. g., Ovid, Met., vii., 547, silvisque agrisque viisque corpora foeda jacent, any more than in the use of the accusative to denote the place whither? (See § 401.) They farther use the ablative vidthout ex or ab, to indicate the place whence 1 without limiting themselves to the verbs of separation (§ 468); e. g., cadere nubibus, descendere coelo, labi equo, currus career ilms missi. [^ 482.] iVo(e.-^The writers of the silver age imitated the poets, and be- gan more and more to use the ablative without a preposition to designate the place where ? Livy, for example, says, aeqw) dimicatur campo, media a/veo eoncursum est, medio Etruriae agro praedatum profectus, ad secundum lapidem Gabina via considere jubet (ii,, 11), admoenia ipsa Romae regianepoT' tae Esqmlinae accessere ; in the special signilication of regio, a division of the city, Suetonius always uses it without in ; e. g., regione campi Martii, and others go still farther. The ablative denoting the place whence ? like- wise appears in the prose of that time ; e. g.. Tacit., Ann., xii., 38, m cita vicis et castelUs proximis svinjentum foret, for c vicis. With regard to ordi- nary prose, it only remains to observe that the ablative, joined with the adjective toJo or (ote, is generally used without in; e. g., Cic, p. iJosc. Am., 9, urbe tola gemitusjit ; in Verr., v., 35, concursabat tola urbe maxima multitw do; p. Leg. Man., 11, and very often toto mart, Philip., xi., 2, tola Asia vagatur ; p. Leg. Man., 3, tola Asia, tot in civitatibua ; in Verr., ii., 49, tota -i Sicilia per triennium nemo ulla in civitate senator /actus est gratis ; in Verr., iv., 19, conxjuiri hominem totaprovincia jubet ; sometimes, however, we find in tota provincia, and in toto orbe terrarum ; Caes., Bell. Civ., i., 6, tota Italia delectus kabentur ; Livy frequently uses toto campo dispersi, and Curtius, ig nes qui totis campis coUucere coeperunt, cadavera totis campis jacentia. [§ 483.] 15. The ablative is used with adjectives in the comparative degree, instead of quam with the nominative, or in the construction of the accusative with the infinitive, instead of quam with the accusative of the subject; e. g., Nemo Romanorujn fuit eloquentior Cicerone ; neminem Ro- manorum eloquentiorem Juisse oeteres juaicarunt Cicerone. The ablative instead of quam, with the accusative of the object, occurs more rarely, but when the object is a rela tif^ pronoun the ablative is generally used. 334 LATIN GRAMMAR. Vilius argentum est auro^ virtutih-us aurum, Horat., JEpist, Sapiens humana omnia mferiora virtute duett, Cic, Tusc^ Pkidiae simtdacrisj quihtes nihil in illo genere perfeciius vi- demuSf cogitare tamen possumus pulchriora^ Cic, OraU, 2. [fj 484.] Note \. — ^The ablative, instead of ^iwm, with the accusative of the object, is found very frequently in poetry ; e. g., Horat., Carni.^ i., 8, 9, Cur olivum sanguine viperino cautius vital ? i., 12, 13, Quidprius dicam solitu parentis laudihus ? i., 18, 1, ^ullam, Vare, sacra vite prius severis arborem, &c. In prose it is much more uncommon, though well established ; e. g., Cic, di Re Publ.f i., 10, Quem auctorem de Socrate locupletiorem Platone laudare possianus ? p. Rab.y 1, Est boni consulis suam salutem posteriorem sabui com- muni ducere ; Caes., Bell. Gall.f viL, 19, nisi eorum vitam sua salute habeat cariorem; Val. Maxim,, v., 3, est. 2, Neminem I^cur^o aut ma^orem aututU iorem virum liocedaemon genuit. This construction is more Irequent with pronouns ; and Cicero often uses such phrases as hoc mihi gratius nihil far cere poles i but it is necessary in the connexion of a comparative with a relative pronoun; e. g., Liv,, xxxviii., 53, Scipio Africanus Punici belli per^ petrali, quo nullum neque majus neque periculosius Romani gessere, unus prae cipuam gloriam tulit ; Curt., vi., 34, Hie Aitalo^ quo graviorem intmicum non habui, soTorem suam in matrimonium dedil. But' the ablat. instead of quam with any other case was never used by a Roman. Quam, with the nomin. or accusat., on the other hand, frequently occurs where the ablative might have been employed; e. g., Livy, melior tuliorque est certa pax, quarn sperata victoria, which in the infinitive would be Tneliorem esse certam pacern putabat quam speratam victoriam. If the verb cannot be supplied from the prece- ding sentence, as in the passages just quoted (where est and esse are thus supplied), quam — est oiquam—fuit must be expressly added; e. g., Gellius, Z., 1, Haec verba sunt M. Varronis, quam fuiCClaudius, doctioris ; Cic, m Verr., iv., 20, Argentum reddidisti L. Curidio, homim non graliosiori, quam Cn. Calidius est ; Senec, Consol. ad Polyb., 34, Drusum Germanicum mino- rem natu, quam ipse erat,Jratrem amisit. But when an accusative precedes, qwim may follow with the same case, just as if esse preceded ; Terent., Phorm., iv., 2, 1, Ego hominem calUdiorem vidi neminem quam Phormi cargum or quam Jjycurgus fuit, the latter of which constructions is more frequent. The ablatives opinione, spe, aequo, juste, solito, dido, are of a ]}eculiar kind, and must be explained by quam est or erat ; e. g., Cic, Brut., init., opinione omnium majorem anima cepi dolorem, greater than the opinion of all men was that it would be ; Virgil, dicto citius tumida aequora placat, quicker than the word was spoken. Quam pro, joined to a comparative, signifies *'than in proportion to ;" e. g., Liv., xxi., 29, proelium atrocius quam pro numero pug- nanlium editur. In poetry, alius, another, is sometimes treated like a comparativcj and construed with the ablative, instead of atque with the nominative or ac cusative. See ^ 470. The poets, farther, sometimes use atque instead of quam. See 6 340, • [§ 485.] Note 2.-^Minns, plus, and amplios (or non minus, kaud minus, &e.), when joined! to numerals and some other words denoting a certain meas- ure or portion of a thing, are used with and without quam, generally aa Indeclinable words, and without influence upon the construction, tut mere- ly to modify the number ; e. g^ Liv., xxxix., 31, nonplus quam quattuormUia •jfugerunt, not effugit ; Nep., Thrax., 2, non phis habuit secum quam trighita ABLATIVE CASE. 335 ife m» {pbtns would rarely be used in such a case) ; Cic, Brut., S, pie. tores antiqid non simt vsi plus quam quattuor coloribuSj not plvribus ; Liv., zxvii., 25, negabant unam cellam avtptius quam uni deo iif.e aedicart. Quam is omitted very frequently, and witn all cases ; e. g., Liv., xiiv., 16, miuiu duo Tttilia hommwn ex tanto exerdtu effugenmt ; xzzvi., 40, pbu pars dimidia ex quinquaginta milibus hominum caesa sunt ; Cic, ad Att.^ v., 1, quo magia erit tibivi^ndumfUthoc nostrum desiderium ne plus sitannuum; Tusc^ ii., 16, milites Romani saepe plus dimidiati mensis dbaria ferebant j Te'Eent.fAdelph.^ ii., 1, 45, plus quingentos colaphos infregit mihi ; Liv., iii., 64, si vos minus hodie decern trimmos plebis feceritis ; xl., 2, quum plus annum aeger fuisset ; zxx., 27, sedeevm non amplius eo anno legionums defeneum imperium est; Cic, m Ven'.f ii., 57, minus triginta diebus Metellus totam triennii praeturam tuam rescidit. These examples prove the omission of quam in connexion with the other cases. Its omission with the dative is attested by Fropertins, ii., 19, 18, (iii., 19, 32), et se plus uni si qua parare potest ; i. e., for more than for one ; and why should we not say mille amplius hominibus quotHie panem dedit ? It must be observed that th Ae comparatives are sometimes insert- ed between the words which they modify ; e. g.. Tacit. Hist., iv., 52, decern haud amplius dierum frumentum in horreis fuit ; Liv., i,, 18, centum amplius post annas ; and sometimes, when joined with a negative, they follow the words they modify as a sort of apposition ; Liv., xl., 31, qtawfue miliwn ar- matoTum, non amplius, relictum erat praesidium, a garrison of 5000 soldiers, not more. Sometimes, however, the ablative is used with these compar- atives as with others, instead of quam with the nomin. or accus. ; e. g., Liv., xxiv., 17, eo die caesi sunt Romanis minus quadringentis ; Gic, m Verr,, iii., 48, nemo minus tribus medimnis in jugerum dedit; p. Rose. Com., 3, mtamobrem hoc nomen triennio amplius in_ adversariis relinqvsbas, instead of the more common amplius triennium, as above. Comp., also, in Verr., iv., 43, hora amplius moliebantur. Jjongius is used in the same way ; see Gaes., Bell. Gall., v., 53, Gallorum copias non longius milia passman octo ab hibemis svis afuisse ; but, vii., 9, ne longius triduo ab castris absit ; iv., 1, apud Suevoa non longius anno remanere uno in loco incolendi causa licet. [^ 486.] Note 3.— The English word " still," joined with comparatives, is expressed by adhuc only in the later prose writers ; as, Senec, Epist., 49, Punctum est quod vivimus et adhuc puncto minus. In the classical language etiam, and sometimes vel, are equivalent to the English " still." [§ 487.] 16. The ablative is used to express the meas- ure or amount by which one thing surpasses another, or is surpassed by it. Paulo, Tumlto, quo, eo, gnanto, tanto, tan- tulo, aliquanto, hoc, are to be considered as ablatives of this kind. Altero tanto signifies " twice as much ;" multu partibws is the same as multo. Hibernia dimidio minor est qitam Britannia, Caes. Homines quo plura hahent, eo cupiunt aWtpliora, Just. Diogenes disputare solebat, quanta regem P.ersarum vita foriunaque superaret, Cic, Thisc, v., 32. [4 488.] J!Vo(e 1. — We thus perceive that these ablatives are joined not jnly with comparatives, but with verbs which contain the idea of a com parison with other things ; as, maUe, praestare, superare, excellere, antecel- lere antecedere, and others compounded with ante. Also, with ante and post, their meaning being "earlier" and "later." Hence multo ante, much ear- lier ; nmi multo post, not much later, or not long after. As to multo with a superlative, see i 108. In the case of plus there may be some ambiguity. The words in Cicero {de Nat. Dear., 1., 35), uno Sigito plus habere, might mean " to have more than one finger." and, Liv., ii., 7, uno p/ w Etruscoiuir 83ft t.ATIN GRAMMA* cecidit, more than one man fell on the part of the Etruscahs. But thla tl the reason why, in this sense (according to I) 485), we usually say pUit unum digitum habere^ plus unus Etruscorum ; and with the ablat. the mean- ing is, " to have one linger more," viz., than we have, that is, six ; and, " on the part of the Etruscans one man more," viz., than on the part ol their enemies. But still it would be clearer to say uno plures digitos habere, una plures Etrusc. ceciderunt, as in Liv., v., 30, una plures tribus antiquarunt. Respecting the difference between aliguanto and paulo, see ^ 108 ; aliquaiito has an affirmative power, " considerably more," nearly the same as " much more ;" paulo, like paiui, is of a negative nature, "a httle more," where the " little" may imply a great deal, and the word paulo may have been chosen with a view to represent it as little. An excellent passage to prove this is Cic, p. Quint.f 12, Si debuisset^ Sexte, petisses statim ; si non statim, pavio quidem post ; si non paulo, at aliquanto ; sex quidem illis mensibits profecto ; anno vera vfrtente sine controversia. Note 2. — Multum, tantum, quantum, and alimMntam are sometimes used adverbially with a comparative, instead of the ablat. multo, tanto, quanta, and aUqwmto ; e. g., Terent., EunucK, i.,2, 51, ejusfrater aliquantum adrem est avidior ; Val. Maxim., iv., 1, 1, quantum domo inferior, tantum gloria su- perior evasit. Sometimes they are used only to avoid ambiguity ; Liv., iii., 15, quantum Juniores patrum plebi se magis insinuabant, eo acrius contra tribuni tendebant ; Juven., x., 197, multum hie robustior illo. Cicero uses tantum and quantum in this way only in connexion with antecedere, excellere, and praestare ; e. g., de Off., i., 30 ; Orat., 2,^6; p. Leg. Man., l3;deRe Publ, li., 2, but both multum and multo praestare. The adverb tarn — quam with a comparative, instead of tanto— quanto, is rare and poetical. Longe (far) alone is frequently used for multo, in prose as well as in poetry. [§ 489.] 17. The ablative is governed by the preposi- tions ab (a, dbs), absque, clam, coram, cum, de, ex (e), prae, pro, sine, tenus (is placed after its case) ; by in and sub when they answer to the question where ? and by su- per in the sense of de, '* concerning," or " with regard to." Subter is joined indifferently either with the ablative or the accusative, though more frequently with the latter. The preposition in is generally joined with the ablative, even after the verbs of placing (pono, loco, colloco, statuo, constituo, wiAconsido), although, strictly speaking, they ex- press motion; on the other hand, in is commonly used with the accusative after the verbs advenire, adventare, :onvenire, commeare, although we say, " to arrive at," or ' in a place," and not " into." When the place at which 1 person arrives is expressed by the name of a town, the accusative alone is used, and when by an adverb, we must use hue, quo, and not hie, ubi, &c. y e. g., advenit in Ital- iam,, in provinciam, advenit Romam, Delphos, adventua httc tuns. In is used with either case after the verbs of assembliKg (congregare, cogere, constiparc, and others^, concealing (ab- dere, condere, abscondere, abstruderej, and including (in- cludere, concluderej. It must, however, be observed, that VOCATIVE CASsK. 337 tae accusative is preferred when an action is indicated, and the ablative when a state or condition (in the parti- ciple perfect passive). Sometimes these verbs take an ab- lativus instrumenti, e. g., abdere se litteris, includire car- !fre, verba concludere versu, which is the case most fre- quently with implicare. Aegyptii ac Babylonii omnem curam in siderum cognitions posuerunt, Cic, de Divin., i., 42. Hercidem hominum fama, beneficiorum memor, in concilia coelestium collocavit, Cic, de Off., iii., 5. [§-490.] iVbfe. -7-The compounds of porta sometimes have in with the ablative and sometimes with the accusative, but more frequently the for- mer ; e. g., aliquem in numero deorum, spent in felicitate reponere. Imponcre takes in with the accusative (unless it is joined with the dative, according to § 415) ; e. g., milites in naves, corpus in plaustrwn ; sometimes, however, it has, likepono, in with the ablative; e. g., Cic, de Nat. Deor., i., 20, im- posw'stis in cervicibtts nostris sempiternum domirmtn. In like manner, deji- gere, insculpere, inscribere, and inscrere (unless they are joined with the dative) are usually construed with in with the ablative ; e. g., natura in- sculpsit in mentibus nostris ; nomen suum i-nscrihunt in basi ; legati in vidtu regis dejixerunt oculos. This and similar things arise from a mixture of two ideas, that of the action implied in the verb, and that of the result and hence in with the ablative is preferable after the preterites of doubt- ful verbs. In with the accusative, after esse, and habere, occurs only in ob- solete formulae; as, esse {habere) in potestatem, and others. See ^ 316. In custodiam haheri and in carcercm asservari in Livy, viii., 20, and xxii., 25, are irregularities. [§491.] "To do anything with a person," is expressed in Latin by facers with de, and more frequently with the simple ablative or dative ; quid facias hoc homine, or huic homini? and in the passive voice quid de me fief? what will become of me? quid pecuniae fiet ? what will become of the money? Cicero, quid illo myoparone factum sit. It is never expressed by cum. Sorfacere cum aliquo signifies " to be of a person's party." CHAPTER LXXV. VOCATIVE CA.SB. [§ 492.] The vocative is not in immediate connexion with either nouns or verbs, but is inserted to express the object to which our words are addressed. Note. — It only remains to observe that the vocative is usuaHy placed after one or two words of a sentence ; at least, it is not placed at the be- ginning without some special reason, and the interjection O is used only when we are speaking with great animation or emotion. The poets not uncommonly adopt the Attic practice of using the nominative instead of the vocative; e. g., Terence, o vir fortis atque amicus! Horat., der Art. Poet., 292, Vos o Pompilius sanguis ! In some instances the same practice occurs in prose ; as, Liv., i., 24, audi tu, popuXus Romanus ! viii., 9, agedum pontifex publicus populi Romani, praei verba, quibus me pro legionibus diivoveam. The nominative, in apposition to the vocative, occurs in Juvenal, iv., 24, tit. succinctus patria Quondam, Crispme, papyro ; other poets, on the con F p 33S LATIN UBAMMAB. Irsry.byamiiture of two constructions, use the vocative of words which, belonging to the verb, ought to be in the nominative ; e. g., Tirg., Am., ii, 283, qidhts, Hector, ab oris expectate vmis? ix., 485, heu! canibua date^ jaces ; Pers., i., 123, Quicutique afflate Cratino — aspice. Compare iii., 28. The passage of Pliny {Hist. Nat., vii., 31), in which Cicero is addressed, salve primus omnium parens patriae appellate, primus in toga triumphUm lin- guaeque lauream merite ! is of a different kind, primus signifying " being the first.'" III. USE OF THE TENSES. CHAPTER LXXVI. [§ 493.J 1. The tenses of the Latin verb are used-, on the whole, in the same way as those of the English verb, vnth the exception of one great peculiarity, which is ex- plained in § 498. (Compare § 150.) The only general rule that can be laid dovm is this : we must first deter- mine whether the action or condition to be expressed falls in the present, the past, or xhe future, and in what relation it stands to other actions or conditions vnxh which it is connected. For example, I was writing, and I had written, are both actions belonging to the past ; but in regard to their relation they differ, for in the sentence, " I was writing when the shot was heard,'" the act of writing was not completed when the shot was heard ; whereas, in the sentence, " I had written, when my friend arrived," the act of writing was completed when tho other (the arrival of my friend) occurred. The same difference exists between I shall tvrite to-morrow and I shall have written to-morrow ; between I am, writing to- day, i. e., I am engaged in an act not yet terminated, and J have written to-day, which expresses an act already terminated. This last is the proper signification of the Latin perfect ; as, adyenit pater, the father has arrived, that is, he is here now. Horace, at the close of a work, says, exegi monumentum acre perennius ; and Ov\d.,.jamque opv^s exegi. An orator, at the conclusion of his speech, says, dixi, that is, " I have done," and Virgil ( Aen., ii., 325), with great emphasis, _/Mim?«« Troes,fuit Ilium, i. e., we are no longer Trojans, Ilium is no more. Note. — Other grammarians distinguish three relations of an action : 1. an action is lasting, that is, incomplete ; 2; it is completed ; and, 3, not yet commenced. But the distinction between a completed and a not completed \ction excludes everything else, for an action either is taking place or has taken place ; a third is impossible, and an action not yet commenced does not exist as an action, except in the imagination. The tenses, for the USE OF THIS TENSES. 339 t4ke of which other grammarians have recourse to a third rualion («cnp- turus sum, eram, ero,fui,Jiieram,Jvero), form, in our opinion, a distinct con jngation, in which the action is described as intmdtd (I am, was, have been, &c., intending to write). Compare ^ 169. [§ 494.] 2. The Latin language, therefore, has two tenses for each of the three great divisions of time — ^past, present, and future ; one expressing a complete and the other an incomplete action. And the six tenses of the Latin verb are thus the result of a combination of time ' and relation. 5 scriho, I write, or am writing— present time, and action going on. ( saripsi, 1 have written — present time, and action terminated. 5 tcrujebam, I wrote, or was writing — past time; and action going on. ( scripseram, I had written — ^past time, and action terminated. i scr&ajn, 1 shall write, or be writing — future time, and action not com- < pleted. ( scripsero, I shall have written— future time, and action completed. Note. — It is not difficult to see why, in the conjugation of verbs, we pre- ferred that order of the tenses which is based upon the relation which tnej bear to one another. (Compare $ 150.) But in syntax, the above ar rangement and division is necessary for the purpose of presenting a clear view of the kindred nature of the present and perfect (for both are presents, as far as time is concerned), and of the use of the two futures. 3. The passive has the same tenses with the same meaning; but with this difference, that they do not ex- press an action, but a condition or suffering, as we may call it. ilaudor, I am praised — present time^ and condition still going on. laudatm sum, I have been praised— present time, and condition terml nated. } lavdabar, I was praised — past time — and condition going on. { landatus eram, I had been praised — past time,, and condition terminated. ( lavdabar, I shall be praised — future time, and condition not completed. < laudatus ero, I shall have been praised — future time, and condition com- ( pleted. [§ 495.] Note. — The participle perfect passive, however, is also used in the sense of an adjective to express a lasting condition ; e. g., scripts epia- tola, a written letter, and in this sense the participle may be joined with all the six tenses of^sse ; as, epistola scripta est, erat, erit,Jiiit, fuerat, /uerit. All this may be said in I<2 ubi Verres audivit, sic cu- piditate injlammatus est non solum inspicicTldi, verum etiam auferendi, ut Dio- dorum ad se vocaret ac posceret (pocula). Ille, qui ilia non invitus haberet, respondet se Lilybaei non habere : Melitae apud quondam propinquum suum reliquisse. Turn iste (Verres) continua mittit homines certos Melitam ; scribit ad 'quosdam Melitenses, ut ea vasa perquirant : rogat Diodorum, ut ad ilium suum propinquum det litteras : nihil ei longius videbatur, quam dum illud vide- ret argentum. Diodorus, homojrugi ac diligens, qui sua servare vellet, ad pro- pinquum suum scribit, ut iis, qui a Verre venissent, responderet, illud argentum se paucis Ulis diebus misisse JAlybaeum. We here see how the historical present is followed both by the present and the imperfect subjunctive, and, on the whole, the imperfect is perhaps the more frequent of the two. Cic, in Cat., iii., 6, Deinde Ij. Flaceus et C. Pomptinus, praetores, quod eorum opera forti usus essem, laudantur. [§ 502.] 9. The peculiar character of the Latin imper- fect, therefore, is to express a repeated action, manners customs, and institutions, which are described as continu- ing at some given period of the past time, and is invari- ably used w^here in English the compound tense, " I was writing," " he was waiting," is employed. Socrates dicere solebat (or dicebatj, omnes in eo, quod sci rent, satis esse eloquentes, Cic, J)e Orat., i., 14. Anseres Romae puhlice alebantur iii Capitolio. Note 1 . — An action often repeated, however, may also be conceived as a Smple historical fact, and accordingly be expressed by the perfect. Hence we may say, Socrates solitus est dicere, just as well as solebat ; but the idea is different. Solebat reminds us of the whole period of his life ; whereas solitus est describes the habit of Socrates simply as an historical fact. [9 503.] Note 2.— It is a peculiarity of the epistolary style in Latin tha; the writer transfers himself to the time at which the letter is read by the 346 LATIN GRAMMAR. person £0 whom it is addressed ; and hence the writer speaks of atticns and conditions in the same terms as he would use if he were present at the moment the letter is received. In consequence of this he frequently uses the imperfect and perfect, where m English we should use the pres- ent ; e. g., Haec scribebam media nocte^ I write this at midnight (or tcripsi haec meSa nocte, when the action is to be described as a completed one, and not as going on at the time) ; Novi vihil nunc erat apud nos, siqiddcm carta tibi afferri vis, there are no^news here ; Quae ad earn diem, quum haec scribe- bam, audiveramus, inanis rumor videbatur, Dicebant tamen, &c., what we have heard till the moment I write this, &c. ; but people say, &c. As these preterites are only formal, they may be joined with the adverbs nunc, etiamnunc ; instead of which real preterites would require tunc and etiam- turn. Comp. Cic, ad Att., v., 16, 4 ; xvi., Z,%; ad ^lint. Frat., iii., 1, 2 But this peculiarity is very frequently not observed. [§ 504.] 10. The perfect subjunctive has not this mean- ing of an aorist, but is always used to express a termina- ted action with reference to the present time, and thus completely answers to the perfect in English. The im- ferfect subjunctive, on the other hand, in historical narra- tives, has the aorist sense of the perfect indicative, when past events are mentioned (with the conjunction ut), with- out reference to the action or condition being completed or not This difference is easily jjerceived; e. g.", puer de tecto decidit, ut crusjregerit, "the boy has fallen from the roof, so that he has broken his leg," is not a narrative, but the statement of an event completed at the present time ; but puer de tecto decidit, ut or tisjr anger et, " the boy fell from the roof, so that he broke his leg," is a real historical nar rative, for the perfect decidit is here used in its aorist sense, and the impei-fect subjunctive supplies its place in the dependent sentence. A comparison with the English language thus leads to this conclusion, that the perfect and imperfect subjunctive are used in Latin in the same sense as in English ; but the perfect indicative in Latin, as an historical tense, an- swers to the English imperfect, and the Latin imperfect indicative to the English paraphrased tense vrith " I was" and a participle. Note. — The principle of the Latin language relative to the use of the perfect indicative and the imperfect subjunctive in historical narratives is attested by so many passages that it is unnecessary here to mention any m confirmation of it. But we must observe that Latin writers, neverthe- less, sometimes use the perfect subjunctive in the historical sense, which properly belongs only to the indicative of this tense. This may have arisen from a feeUng that there ought to be a tense to express actions in theii progress in a dependent sentence (in the subjunctive), since the imperfect originally and properly expressed a continued and incomplete action ; and in this manner we account for the perfect subjunctive which now and then USE OF THE TENSES. 347 nccurs I'l Cicero after the historical forms inventus es' or fuit ; e. g., p Muren,j 11, inventus est scriba quidami Gn, Flavins^ qui comicum oeuloa con- iixerit et singulis diebus ediscevdos fa?tos poptdo proposuerit, &c. ; in "Ferr., IV., 26, Nulla damus in Sicilia locuples fvity vhi ilte non textrinum instituerit ; for, after all, if the construction is altered so as to make the dependent sentence independent, we are obliged to use the historical tease ; i. e., the perfect indicative. But the prevailing custom w»s to assign to the imper- fect subjunctive the sense of an aorist ; and the perfect subjunctive in an historical narrative can only be regarded as an exception from the rule, however frequently it may occur. Nepos uses the perfect subjunctive in this sense more frequently than other writers ; and he thereby shows his desire, in his short n.,.torical sketches, to put the facts one by the side of the other, rather than to give a progressive historical narrative. For ex- ample, in his life of Hannibal, where he says, Hie avian velut hereditate re- lictum odium patemum erga RomaTios sic con^ervavit, ut prius anvnuiTn, quam. idf deposuerit — Anliochum tanta cupiditate incendit bellaridi^ ut usque a rubra mari arma conatus sit inferre Italiae, we at once perc,eive this character of his style ; though in other passages he uses the imperfect subjunctive, and gives to his narrative a real historical character. In Livy, too, the per feet subjunctive is found in this sense, but only now and- then, and more for the sake of variety than on any definite principle ; hence, when in i., 3, he says, Tantum tamen opes creverant, ut movere arma nee Mezentius nee ullt alii accolae ausi sint, instead of the more usual audercTit, it cannot afiect the general rule concerning the consecutio temporum, [§ 505.] 11. The duration and completion of an action in reference to another are expressed in Latin more accu- rately than in English, by the imperfect and pluperfect. When one action must be completed before another can begin, the fonner is invariably expressed by the pluperf. ; e. g., qunm domum intr asset, quum in forum, venisset, ani- madvertit ; quum amicum conspexisset, dixit, &c., "when he had entered the house, he perceived." We are less accurate in saying " when I entered the house, I per- ceived," or " I entered the house, and perceived." But this .cannot be done in Latin, and the pluperfect is used wherever the relation of the actions permits it. Exam- ples are extremely numerous. Lysander quum per speculatores comperisset, vulgum Athe niensium in terram exisse navesque paene inanes relictas. tempus rei gerendae non dimisit, Nep., Alcib., 8. JVoie.— Considering this general accuracy of the Latin language in ex- pressing the natural succession of actions, vifhich is evident, also, in the application of the participle perfect (see ^ 635), it is the more surprising that, in interrogative expressions, the imperfect subjunctive is used so fre- quently where we should have expected the pluperfect ; e. g., Cic, Tuse., v., 37, Socrates quam rogaretur (for rogatus esset) cujatem se esse dieer'^^ Mundanum, inquit. [§ 506.] It must be observed here (1) that the conjunc- tion dum (while, as) is generally joined with the present indicative, even when events of the past time are spoken of, and when we should consequently expect either the 348 LATIN GRAMMAR. imperfect or perfect; e. g., dum paucas res retmere nolo omnes fortunas perdidi, Cicero, Divin,, 17 ; dum expectai quidnam sihi certi afferatur, ante noctem non discessit ; dum ego in Sicilia sum, nulla statua dejecta est, in Verr., ii., 66. (2) That in historical narratives the conyincUons postquam (or posteaquam), u8i, ubi primum, ut, ut primum, quuTti primum, sim,ul ut, simul ac, simul atque (or simul alone), all of which are equivalent to the English " as soon as," are generally joined with the historical perfect, and not with the pluperfect, as might be expected from the suc- cession of the actions indicated by these conjunctions. Hence we say, ubi illud audivit, nuntium ad regem misit; ut Lacedaemonem venit, adire ad magistraius noluit; iimul- atque provincia ei obvenit, staiim quaerere coepit, &c. Dum ea Roinani parant consultantque, jam, Sagunlum summa vi oppugnabatur, Liv., xxi., 7. Unus ex captivis domum ahiit, quod Jallaci reditu in castra jurejurando se exsolvisset. Quod ubi innotuit relatumque ad senatum est, omnes censuerunt comprehendendum cl custodibits publice datis deduoendum ad Hannibalem esse, Liv., xxii., 61. \i) 507. a.] Kotc 1. — Dum (while), with the present, oceurs very Ire quently ; but it is very surprising to find it sometimes used by Livy in transitions from one event to another; for example, at the beginning of the 3Sth book, Thim in Asia bellum geritur, ne in Aetolis qvidem quietae res fmrant. Compare Drakenborch on Livy, i., 40 ; Heinrich on Cic, Part, ined., p. 75 ; Heindorf on Horace, Sat., i., 5, 72. However, that the pres- ent is not absolutely necessary, is proved by such passages as Cic, p. Rose. Am., 32, Dum Sulla in aliis rebus erat occupatUs, erant interea, qui svis vulnerihus mederentur ; Liv., x., 36, dum haec in Apulia gerebantur, Samnites — 71071 tenuerunt ; Nep., Hann., 2, Quae divina res dum conjiciebatur, quaesivit a me. The perfect, also, is sometimes joined with dum ; as, de Fin., ii., 13, dum voluerunt — sustulerunt. Dum in the sense of guamdiu (as long as), however, when referring to the past time, is regularly joined with the im- perfect. [^ 507. 6J With regard to our rule respecting the conjunctions which signify " as soon as," it is a remarkable point that the Latins, contrary to their usual practice, here neglect to express that one action was com- pleted before the second began. The perfect is less necessary, for its place is supplied not only by the historical present (which is easily ex- plained from ^ 501), but frequently by the imperfect, at least in connexion with the principal conjunction, po5f<;ua77i; e. g., Liv.,i., 5i,ltaque,po8tquam satis virium coUectum videbat, e suis unum Romam ad patrem mittit ; iii., 4G, postquam — nemo adibat, domum 'Se recepit ; and so in many ether passages of Livy. But the surprising point is, that the pluperfect is ?iot used, even where the completion of the action introduced by those conjunctions is manifest; e. g., Cic, p. Rose. Am., 6, posteaquam victoria (nobilitatis) con- stituta est ab armisque reeessimus — erat ille RomaefjequeTis, There are only few exceptions in which the pluperfect is used ; as Cic, in Verr., iv., 24, posteaquam tantam multitudinem eoUegerat emhlematum — instituit o^Uinam Syracusit f and hence the ordinary mode of explaining an ablative abso. USE OF TUB TENSES. 349 tate bypoj/juam with the pluperfect cannot be approved of. It is only in descriptions of repeated conditions in the past time that the pluperfect is indispensable; as, Nep,, Alcib.f 1, Idem simulac se T&maeraX neque causa siiberat, quare animi Idborem perferret, hucuriosus reperiebaiur. Postquam is farther joined with the pluperfect when a long or a definite space of time intervenes between a preceding and a subsequent event, so that there is no connexion between them; e. g., Nep., Hann., 8, Hannibal anno tertio postquam doTno profugei-at, cum qidnque navibus Africam accessit. It is re- markable to tind, also, the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive joined with po8t(piam ; as in Cic, p. Leg. Man., 4, qui posteaquam maximas aedi- Jicasset omassetque classes — legatos ac litteras misit ; ana p. ClueTit., 64, 181 , ad Fam., ii., 19. They may, however, be explained from ij 570. The pas- sage p. Reg. Deiot., 13, 36, is doubtful. [4 508.] Note 2. — ^The pluperfect is sometimes used by historians instead of the historical tense merely to express the rapidity with which actions succeed one another, one being described as already completed before any thing else could begin ; e. g., Curt., x., 17, Nee muris urbis luctus contine- batur, sed proximam regimum. ab ca, deinde magnam partem Asiae cis ilv^ phraten tanti Ttiali fama pervaserat. Here the pluperfect is used withovt reference to a subsequent action, and is equivalent to the English, " th ' report immediately spread," iScc. [§ 509.] 12. In the use of the two futures the Latin Ian guage is likewise more accurate than the English. Foi when a fiiture action is spoken of, either in the future oi in the imperative (or in the subjunctive used impera- tively), and another is joined with it, which has not yet come to pass, the latter, also, is put in the future, if the actions are conceived as continuing together, and in the future perfect, if the one must be completed before the other can begin. This is perfectly in accordance with the ideas expressed by these tenses ; but it must be specially mentioned, because in English we often use the present instead of the future, especially in the case of the verbs "I can" and "I will;" e. g.,faciam si potero, I shall do it, if I can ; facito Iwc, uhi voles, do it when you will ; because, owing to the awkwardness of the future perfect, we frequently supply its place either by the sim- ple future or by the present; e. g., Cic.,De Orat.,i\., 65, ut sementemficeris, ita metes, as you sow, so will you reap. We must here draw particular attention to the application of the future perfect in hypothetical sentences, -where the conclusion depends upon the fulfilment of the preceding condition ; e. g,, si invenero, tecum communicaho, for which we very inaccvurately say, " when 1 find it," or " when I have found it." Naturam si sequemur ducem, numquam, aberrahimus, Cic, De Off., i., 28. Adolescentcs quum relaxare anitnos et dare sc jucunditalt G c 850 LATIN GEAMMAE. voileni, caveani intemperantiam, meminerint verecmidiaey Cic, De Off., i., 34. De Carthagine veren non ante desinam, quam illam cxn- sam esse cognovero, Cic, Cat. Maj., 6. Malevolentiae hominum in me, si poteris, occurres, si non potueris, hoc consolabere, quod me de statu meo nullis con- tumdiis deierrere possunt, Cic, ad Fam., xi., 11. [4 510.] Note. — When the leading sentence contains the present impera • live, si is often joined with the present ; as, defende si potes (Cic, Philip., ii.| 44) ; pejjice si potes (Cic, Tusc, i., 8) ; expone nisi molestum est (ibid., i., 12) and hardly ever with the future. (See Chap. LXXIX.) The present with si, instead of the future, is sometimes found also in other connexions ; e. g., Cic, in Verr., i., 2, Si reus condemTiatur, desinent homines dicere, his judiciis pecuniam plurimum posse, sin abiolvitur, desinemus nos de judiciis transferendis recusare ; and very frequently in the comic poets. The rule, however, is that the future should be used. Attention was above directed to the practice of using the future of the verbs posse and velle with the con junction si, and with the same accuracy these verbs are used in the future perfect, when the possibility or the intention of doing a thing must be proved before the action relating to it can take place. Hence we say, si voluero, si potuero, si licuent, si plactierit, si otium habuero, instead of which we should use either the present or future ; e. g., Cic, Tmsc, i., 43, Ve- runtamen, Crito, si me assequi potueris, sepelito ; de Re JPubl., i., 43, Xum jit illud, quod apud Platonem est luculente dictum, si modo id exprimere JLatine votuero ; de Leg., ii., 18, Plato, si modo interpretari potuero, his fere verbis vtituT, for he must have made the attempt to translate Plato before he can make him speak. See Heinrich on Cic, de Re Pvbl., p. 48, foil. [^511.] We add the following remarks on the farther use of the future perfect. As this tense expesses a future action as completed, it acquires the meaning of the simple future, implying, however, the rapidity with which the action will be completed. This occurs, in the first place, when another future perfect, or any other tense supplying its place, is contained in the leading sentence, so that the two actions are contemporaneous ; e. g., Cic, ad Fam., x., 13, Qui M. Antonium oppresserit, is bellum confecerit ; in Verr., il., 62, Da mihi hoc (i. e,, si hoc mihi dederis), jam tibi maximam par- tem defetisionis praecideris ; Liv., xxii., 54, non aggrediar narrare, quae edis- sertando (i. e., si edissertavero) minora vero fecero ; Cic, ad Att., v., 1, Tu inviia mvlieres, ego dccivero pueros. But the future perfect has the meaning of a quickly completed future action, also, without any such express rela- tion to another action; e. g., Cic, p. Plane, 33, sed medius fdius, multo citius meam salutem pro te abjecero, quam Cn. Plancii salittem tradidero ; ad Att., iii., 19, Nusquamfacilhis hanc miserrimam vitam vel sustentabo, vel, quad est melius, abjecero ; ix., 7, De triumpho tibi assentior : quern quidem totum facile et libenier abjecero ; de Re Pvbl., i., 13, Nihil est adhuc disputatum, et qwmiam est integrum, libenter tibi, Laeli, ut de eo disseras, equidem coTwessero. This is particularly frequent with the future perfect Didero, because the act of see ing is most easUy accomplished ; e. g., Liv,, viii., 33, Videro cessumsne pro- vocationi sis, cui rex Romanus Tullus Hostilius cessit, which is not irrecon- cilable with the expressions mox, post, aUas, alio loco videro, for a rapid completion can only be spoken of at the moment when the action is be- ginning ; c. g., Cic, de Fin., i., 10, 35, quaefuerit causa, mox videro ; de Rt Pvbl., ii., 9, habuit plebem in clientelas principum descriptam, quod quantat fuerit utilitati, post videro ; Acad., ii., 44, recte secusne, alias viderimus. Hence this mode of speaking generally imphes, that for the moment a thing is to be dismissed from our thoughts, and can scarcely be taken into ferious consideration. In the comic writers the future perfect is still more frequently used instead of the simple future. USB OF THE TENSSS. 351 [§ 512.] 13. The tenses of the indicative maybe con- nected in any way which the intention of the speaker may require ; e. g., I am writing now, but this time yes- terday I took a walk ; 1 know the person whom you will see to-morrow. But in dependent sentences, that is, in the subjunctive, similar tenses alone can be connected with one another, that is, the tenses of the present (pres- ent and perfect) and the tenses of the past (imperfect and pluperfect). In the rules respecting what is usually called the sticcession of tenses, hut, more correctly, the dependence of sentences upon' one another, everything depends upor the time, for the present time is suited only to the present, and the past to the past; the relation of an action depend ing only upon itself is never doubtful. Hence we have only to remember that the perfect naturally, and in the subjunctive always, expresses the present time, and that, consequently, The Present and Perfect are followed by a Present and Perfect, and The Imperfect and Pluperfect by an Imperfect and Pluperfect ; E. g., scio quid agas and scio quid cgeris ; audivi quid ■ agas and audivi quid egeris ; but scieham quid ageres and scieham, quid egisses ; audiveram quid ageres and andiveram quid egisses. Note. — The Latin language, however, is not so constrained as not to be able, in cases where the sense requires it, to make presents dependent upon preterites, I and preterites upon presents. It is sometimes necessary that a preterite should be followed by a present, viz., when the result of a past action extends to the present time ; e. g., Cic, BnU., 88, Ardebat autem Hortensius cupiditate dicendi sic, ut in mdlo unquam Jlagrantius stadium vide- rim, that is, that up to this time I have never seen ; Nep., Aristid., 1, QuamqTiam adeo excellebat Aristides abstinentia, ut unus post hmninum memo- riam cognomine Justus sit appellatus : iamen a Thendstocle collabefactus testida ilia exUio decem annorum multaius est. Here, too, the perfect subjunctive makes the dependent sentence proceed from the past, or the time to which the action of the leading verb belongs ; and the result, combined with the author's opinion, is extended to the present time : " he was the only one in the whole range of history, down to the present time, that was sumamed the Just." Such variations must be admissible, although no special rule is given on their account, for they do not often occur. (Comp. my note on Cic, in Verr., v., 10, in fin., and Cic, de Fin., ii., 20, init.) A preterite, on the other hand, might follow a present, when the dependent sentence is to express a continuing action in the past, as in Cic, in Verr., v., 11, Scitott oppidum esse in Sicilia nullum ex its oppidis, in qu^ms consistere prtKtores et oonventum agere soleant, quo in oppido non isti delecta mulier ad libidiTiem esset [esset here alludes to the whole period of the praetorship), but such sen- tences can only be considered as exceptions, and /t(eri( would be more reg- ular. There are also passages in ancient writers which cannot be ex- plained, and must be considered as irregularities : sen my note on Cir ,iii 352 LATIN GRAMMAR. Vnr., i.j 30, 75 j and thus we sometimes find, especially in Caesar, an » regular transition from the preterite of the leading verb to the present of the dependent one. We cannot here enter upon the detail of such ma^ ters, and we shall only add the remark that, when the hypothetical imper- fect subjunctive is followed by a present or perfect subjunctive, the above rule is not violated, because the imperfect of the subjunctive refers to the present time ; e. g., SaUqst, Cat., 7, Memararc possem (differs from menu)- rare possum only by the hypothetical form of the expression), quibus in locis maximas hostium copias populus Romanus parva manu fuderit, quas urbes, na- tura munitas, pugnando ceperit, ni ea res longius nos oh incepto traheret. {Fti- disset would have continued the hypothetical expression, but actual facts are here meant.) But even in cases like this the imperfect is generally used in the dependent sentence for the sake of the succession of tenses j as, Cic, de Fin., i., 8, Quid enim me prohiberet Epwureum esse, si proharem quae ille diceret, quum praesertim ilia perdiscere ludus esset, where we should have expected dicit and sit ; ad Fam., xiii., 66, A. Caecinam non commenda- rem tibi, quum scirem, qua fide in twos soleres esse, nisi me patris ejus memoria maveret, where we might say sciam and soleas. Similar expressions occur frequently ; comp. Cic, Philip., v., 18, in fin. ; de Off., ii., 14, in fin. ; Tusc, i., 21, init. % [§ 513.] The simple rule respecting the succession of tenses becomes somewhat difficult through the double sig- nification of the perfect indicative. In the above rule it was treated only as the present of a completed action (in which sense it is equivalent to the English perfect) ; but as it is at the same time an aorist of the past (see § 500), it is also connected with the tenses of the past time, viz., with the imperfect and pluperfect. In this sense the Lat- in perfect is translaited by the English imperfect. The above rule, therefore, will be completed by the following addition : The historical perfect is followed by the imperfect and pluperfect. E. g., Audivi quid ageres and audivi quid egisses. The two meanings of the perfect and their influence upon the tense of the dependent verb may be seen in the following sentences : Verres Siciliam per triennium ita vexavii ac perdidit, vt ea restitui in antiquum statum nulla modo possit, says Cic- ero (in Verr., iv., init.) with reference to the actual state of Sicily. Conon quum patriam ohsideri audisset, non quaesivit, uhi ipse tuto viveret, sed unde praesidio posset esse civibua suis, says Nepos (Con., 2), in speaking of past events. [Ij 514.] Nite 1. — We may in general be guided by the English language, as we translate the Latin historical perfect by our imperfect. It must, however, be observed that the Latins, owing to the very frequent use of the perfect as an aorist of the past or an historical tense, became so ac- customed to its connexion with the imperfect, that in many cases they dsed this tense even where the Latin perfect is equivalent to the Engliii^' DSE OP THE TENSES. 353 perfect ; but this occurs only when there is a possibility of conceiving the action in its progress, and not merely its conclusion or result. Thus Cic- ero (in Verr.fi.t 1) says, adduxi enim hominem, in quo satisfacere exteris no- tionibus possetis, in whom you Tnay satisfy, &c. In the same manner, Q. Cicero says at the close of an explanation (de Petit. Cons., 4), qtioniam quae rubsidia novitatis haheres, et habere posses, exposui, nunc de magnitudine peti- tionis dicam. In these sentences we should require adduxi hominem, in qua satisfacere possitis, and quoniam exposui, quae subsidia habeas et habere possis, which would not be wrong by any means, but it would be against the usage of the Latin language ; for the Latins conceived the action in its duration, while we describe it, together with its result, by the perfect, and this is the case ihore especially when the acting person had an intention accompany- ing him from the beginning to the end of the action. We say, for exam- ple, " 1 have done this that you may see," and the Latin feci hoc, irf intelli- gas, would not be wrong ; but as it was my intention from the beginning, it is preferable to say fed hoc, ut intelligeres, although I am not relating events, but speaking with reference to the present time. (Comp. Cic, Philip:, ix., 2, ^ 5, where restaret is quite correct.) Hence such sentences as, diu du- bitavi num 7n£lius sit, saepe mecum cogitavi quidnam causae sit, would sound strange to a Latin ear ; and the more correct mode of speaking is, diu dw bitavi num Tnelius esset and sa^pe cogitavi quidnam causae esset, and the words diu and saepe indicate that the perfects dubitavi and cogitavi are conceived, as it were, as an aggregate of single doubts and thoughts, which them- selves belong to the past time, while the conclusion extends to the present. But the rule is not upset by this remark, for when the sentence following does not reler to the separate parts of the action, but exclusively to the re suit, the perfect is followed by the present ; e. g., Cic, ad Fam., v., 6, Ego meis rebus gestis hoc sum assecutus, ut bonum nonten existimer ; Kutrop., viil,, 2, Trajanus Ttmpublicum. ita administravit, ut omnibus principibus meritoprae- feratuT. These are the results of completed actions, and not intentions continuing along with the actions. The present may be used in subordi- nate and dependent sentences, even after an historical perfect, if that which is to be expressed is universal, and not valid for that time only which is indicated by the leading verb ; e. g., Justin, xxxi., 8, Antiocho pa- cem petenti ad priores condiciones nihil additum, Africano praedicante, Tieque Homanis, si vincantur, animos minui, neque, si vincant, secUTidis rebus insoles- cere. Here the presents express the fact of the Romans not losing their courage in misfortune, and of their not being insolent in prosperity, as pe- culiar characteristics of the Romans, and as true at all times ; if the mi- perfect had been used, it would not, indeed, have been implied that at any other time the statement was not true, but the universality would not have been so clearly expressed. [^ 515.] Note2. — The remaining question now is this: when the lead- ing verb is n present, or (according-to ^ 516) a future, and the infinitive of a completed action is dependent on it, is it necessary to put the verbs de- "pendent upon this infinitive in the present or the preterite, that is, the imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive ? The answer to this question depends upon another, viz., as to whether, on changing the infinitive into the per- fect indicative, this tense is the real perfect or the aorist ? When thisis ascertained, the decision is easy, according to the two preceding para- graphs, and we may say, e. g , satis mihi multas causas attulisse videor, quamobrem tibi in Italiamprojiciscendum sit, I think I have mentioned to you sufficient reasons why you should go to Italy ; and in this manner Cicero (p. Cluent., 24) says, nisi docet, ita se possedisse (that he has taken posses- sion), vt nee vi nee eUrm nee precario possederit. But the usage of the Latin language is nevertheless dinerent, the perfect infinitive being like the per- fect indicative (% 514), usually followed either by the imperf. or pluperf. aubjunctive. Hence the above sentence should be quamobrem in Italiam tibi proficiscendum esset ; compare Cic.,;;. Leg. Man., 10,_satis mihi multa verba fscisse videor, quare esset hoc helium genere ipso necessarium, magnitudiiu G G 2 354 LATIN GEAMMAE. periculosum, although reference is here made to the present time, ana although we should say, " why this war is necessary ;" m Var., i., 12, hoe me profiteer suscepisse magnum fortasse onus et mihi periculosum, verumtamen dignum, in quo omnes nervos aetatis industriaeque meae contenderem. Both tenses are found combined in Cic, p. Caec, 13, Quid proficies, quum illi ho, respondebunt tibi^ quod tu nunc mihi : armatos tibi obstitisse. Tie in aedes acce^ dereSj dejici porrj nvllo modo poiuisse, qui non accesserit. [§ 516.] The futures are similar to the tenses of the present, for only that which is past stands apart and by itself. Hence, a future is followed by a present or a per- fect ; e. g., mox intelligam, quantum me ames or amaveris, but not qiiantum me amares or amasses. The same is the case with the fixture perfect : si cognovero, quemadm,odum te geras or te gesseris. But as the four subjunctives of thp conjugatio periphrastica (formed by the future participle and esse) are regarded as subjunctives of the fiitures, we must add that these paraphrased tenses may be depend- ent upon preterites (see the examples in § 497), and that a mutual dependence exists between the presents and futures, but only a partial one between the preterites and futures, since the futures only may depend upon preter- ites, but not vice versa ; e. g., ignorabam quid dicturus asset, but not discam quid herifaceres, for discam quid heri feceris. The complete rule respecting the succession of tenses, therefore, is this : the tenses of the present and future, i. e., the present, perfect (in its proper sense), and the two futures are followed by the tenses of the present, i. e., by the present and the perfect subjunctive ; and the tenses of the past, i. e., the imperfect, pluperfect, and the historical perfect, are followed by the tenses of the past, '. e., by the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive. IV. OF THE MOODS. CHAPTER LXXVI. INDICATIVE MOOD. [§ 517.] 1. The indicative is used in every proposition the substance of which is expressed absolutely and as a fact ; e. g., I go, thou wTotest, he believed. Hence the indicative is used even in the expression of conditions and suppositions with the particles si, nisi, etsi, and etiamsi, if without that expression an event is sup- posed actually to take olace or (with nisij not to take place. INDICATIVE MOOD. 355 Mors aitt plane negligenda est, si omnino extinguit animum, aut etiam optanda, si aliquo eum deducit, ubi sitfutiirus aetemiis, Cic, Cat. Maj., 19. Si feceris id, quod ostendis, magnam hahebo gratiam, si nonfeceris, ignoscam, Cic, ad Fam., v., 19. Adhzic certe, nisi ego insanio, stulte omnia et incaute Jiunt, Cic, ad Att., viii, 10. Ista Veritas, etiamsi jucunda nan est, mihi tamen grata est, Cic, ad Att., iii., 24, in fin. Note. — The conjunctions si and nisi express nothing else but a relation of one sentence to another ; that is, the relation of condition or exception: one thing is on condition that another is , and one thing is, except in the case of another being, &c. Sentences which stand in this relation to each other are expressed by the indicati've ; i. e., objectively or in the form of reality. All expression of our own opinion is avoided, for this would be expressed by the subjunctive. In using the indicative, I do not express any opinion as to the possibility or impossibility of a thing ; but, without any comment, I suppose a thing as actual, or (with nisi) I make an excep- tion, which may be or may not be, but which I take as actual for the sake of the inference. [§ 518.] 2. The following peculiarities deserve to be noticed as differing from the [English : The verbs oportet, necesse est, deheo, convenit, possum, licet ^tA. par, fas, aequum, justum, consentaneum, est, or ae- guius, melius, utilius, optabilizis est, are put in the indica- tive of a preterite (imperf., pluperf., and the historical per- fect), where we should have expected the imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive. The imperfect indicative in this case expresses things which are not, but the time for which is not yet passed ; and the perfect and pluperfect indica- tive things which have not been, but the time for which is passed •,e.g.,Cic.,in Cat., i., 1 , Ad mortem ie ducijampridem oportebat, i.e., thy execution was necessary and is still so; hence it ought to take place. In going back to the begin- ning, however, the speaker might have used the pluper- fect with this meaning : " thy execution ought to ha;ve ta- ken place long ago." Cic, de Fin., iii., 10, perturbationes animorum poteram ego morbos appellare, sed nan conveniret ad omnia, 1 might have called them, and might do so still ; Cic, ad Att., ii., 1, si mihi omnes, ut erat aequum, faverent, it was fair, and is still fair, but it does not happen to be the case. The perfect and pluperfect, on the other hand, clearly express that all is over; e. g., Cic, ad Fam., iv., 16, Volumnia debuit in te ojfficiosior esse, et id ipsum, quod fe- cit, potuit/acere diligentius ; p. Muren., 25, Catilina erupit § senatu triumphans gaudio, quern omnino vivum illinc exire 356 LATIN GRAMMAB. non oportuerat ; Curt., iii., 9, Imige utilius fuit angustmi adittts occupare, it would have been much better to occupy the pass. In the paraphrased conjugation with the parti- ciple future active and passive, too, the preterites of the indicative veiy frequently have the meaning of a subjunct- ive ; e. g., Ovid, Her., xvi., 152, tarn bona constanter praeda tenenda fuit, ought to have been kept. This is the case more especially in hypothetical sentences. (§ 519.) The subjunctive in independent sentences is much less frequent than the indicative; e. g., Nep., Epam., 4, Plurima qmdem proferre possemus, sed modus adhibendus est. Chaldaei oculorumfallacissimo sensv judicant ea, quae ra- tione atque animo videre dehcbant, Cic, deDivin., ii., 43. Aut non suscipi bellum oportuit, aut geri pro dignitate pop- uli Romani, Liv., v., 4. Is (Tib. QrT&cfAms) Jugiens deciirrensque clivo Capitnlino, fragmine suhsellii ictus, vitam, quam gloriosissime degere potuerat, immatura morte finivit. Veil. Pat., ii., 3. [^ 519. o.] Nott 1. — This indicative supplying the place of the snbjunct ive is frequently retained even when an hypothetical sentence with the imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive is added ; and it is here in parti'"jlar . that the indicative of the preterites of the paraphrased conjugation is em- ployed ; e. g., Cic, Philip., ii,, 38, Omnibus eum contumeliis onerasti, quern patris toco, si vUa in te pittas esset, colere debehas ; Sallust, Jug., 85, quae si dubia autprocul essent, tamen omnes bonos rei pvblicae consulere decebat ; Liv., xlii., 34, Qiujdsi mihi nee omnia stipendia emerita essent, necdum aetas vacatio. nem daret, tamen aequum erat me dimiiti ; Cic, p. Leg. Man., 17, Quodsi Cn. Pompeius privatus esset hoc tempore, tamen erat mittendus. With the perfect, Liv., xxxil., 12, deleri totus exercitus potuit, si fugientes persecuti victores es- sent ; Cic, de lie Publ., i., 6, CoTisid esse qui potui, nisi eum vitae cursum ten uissem; in Vatiri., 1, Etenim debuisti, Vatini; etiamsi fatso venisses in suspi cioTiem P. Sea^tio, tamen mihi ignoscere ; in Verr., iii., 61, Quem Jiominem, si qui pudor in te, atque adeo si qui metus fuisset, sine supplicio dimittere non de buistij hunc dbs te sine praemio discedere notuisti ; p. Miton., 11, quodsi ita pU' tasset, certe t^tabitius mitoni fuit dare jugulum ; ibid., 22, quos nisi manumi- sisset, tormentis etiam dedendifuerunt ; Petron. , 94, Si te. rum. invenissem, peri- turus per praecipitia fui. See, also, ^ 498 and 499. But the subjunctive is also admissible, as in Cic, in Cat., iii., 7, in fin., dedendi fuissent ; and V, Lig., 7, in fin., periturus fuissem (according to the common reading) ; de Vivin., ii., 8, 4 21. Res pubtica poterat esse perpetua, sipatriis viveretur institutis et morihus, Cic de Re PtAl., iii., 29. Nisifelicitas in socordiam vertisset, exuere jugum potuerunt. Tacit., Agr., 31. [^ 519. i.] Independent of this use of the indicative, instead of the sub. junctive, to express that which might or should have taken place, the his tonans use the indicative of a preterite instead of the pluperfect subjunct- ive to express that which would actually have taken place, in sentences containing the inference from an hypothetical sentence, although tho premises are not true. This figure (i. e., a mode of expression differing from the ordinary one), which is only intended to render a description more snimatcd, is used in the first place when a part of the infe -ence has al INDICATIVE MOOD. 357 ready come to pass, and would have been completely realized if some thing else had occurred, or, more frequently, if some obstacle had not been thrown in the way, whence the adverb ^am is frequently added j e. g., Liv., IV., 52, jam fames quam pestUentia Uistior erat^ ni annonae Joret autnientum Tacit., Hist, iii., 46, jamque castra legionum excindere parabant^ ni Macianus sextam tegionem opposuisset ; the same is also expressed by coepisse, in such passages as Tacit., Agr., 37, Britanni degredi paulathn et circumire tergi vincentium coeperant : ni id ipsum veritus Agricola quattuor equituui alas veiii- entilms opposuisset. Without the adverb jam; e. g.. Tacit., Ann., i., 35, Qermanicus ferrvm a latere deripuit, datumque deferebat in pectus (tht^s much he actually did do, and he would have accomplished his design), ni prox- imi prensam dextram vi attinuissent ; Tacit., Ann., iii., 14, effigies Pisanis trax- erant in Gemonias ac divellebant (and would have entirely destroyed them), ni jussu prmcipis protectae forent. The perfect and pluperfect are likewise used in this sense, and a thing which was never accomplished is thus, in a lively manner, described as completed : Sueton., Cats., 52, et eadem nave paene Aethiopia tenus- Aegyptum penetravit, nisi exercitus sequi recusasset ; paeru or props is frequently added in such cases (even without an hypo- thetical sentence ; as, prope oblitus sum, I had nearly forgotten) j Flor., iv. 1, et peractum erat bellum sine sanguijie, si Pompeium opprimere Brundisji (Caesar) potuisset ; Plin., Paneg., 8, temere fecerat Nerva, si adoptasset aliwn ;non Trajanum). In Cicero, however, this use of the indicative occurs jnly in a few passages ; as in Verr., v., 49, si per Metellum licitum esset, matres illorum miserarum sororesque veniebant ; de Leg., i., 19, lahebar longius, nisi me retinuissem. ; ad Fam., xii., 10, Praeclare viceramus, nisi spoliatum, iner- mem, fugientem Lepidus recepisset Antonium, The imperfect indicative is sometimes, though rarely, used also for the imperfect subjunctive when vh'e hypothetical part of the sentence does not contain a pluperfect, but an Imperfect subjunctive ; e. g., Cic, de Off., ii., 19, Admonebat me res, ut hoi fuoque loco intermissionem eloquentiae, ne dicam interitum, deplorarem, ni vererer, ne de me ipso aliquid viderer queri ; Quintil., ii.,'8, 8, Tiam et omninc supervacua erat doctrina, si natura sufficeret ; iv,, 1, 11, stultum erat monere nisijieret. Pons svblicius iter paene hostibus dedit, ni unus vir fiUsset, Horaiius Codes qui, &c., Liv., ii., 10. Actum erat de pulcherrimo imperio, nisi ilia conjuratio (Catilinae) in Ciceron^m consvlem ittcidisset, Flor., iv., 1. [^ 520.] Note 2. — When we in English use the expressions " I ought'' or " I should," without implying impossibility,, the Latins express tne same meaning by the present indicative ; e. g., debes esse diligentior or dili gentiorem te esse oportet, you ought to be more diligent. The subjunctive in this case would be quite foreigri to the Latin idiom. In the same man ner, the present indicative possum is frequently used for possem; e. g., Cic. in Verr.fi., 47, Possum sexcenta decreta prqferre ; and it is the common cus torn to saj difficile est, longum est, infinitum est ; e. g., narrare, for which we should say " it would be difficult," " it would lead too far," " there would be.no end," &c. See Ruhnfcen oji Veil. Pat., ii., 42. [621.] 3. The Latins commonly use the indicative after many general and relative expressions, some fact being • implied. This is the case after the pronouns and relative adverbs, which are either doubled or have the suffix cunque: quisquis, qiiotquot, quicunque, quantuscunque, quantuhis- cunqwe, viut, utcunque, and the others mentioned in § 130 and 288; e. g., Utcunque sese res habet, tua est culpa, Isw- cver this may be, the fault is thine ; quicunque is est, •who- ever he may be. 356 LATIN GRAMMAR. Quidqidd zd est, timeo Danaos et donaferentes, Virg., Aen.^ ii., 49, Quem sors dierum cunque dahit, hicro appone, Horat., Carm., i., 9, 14. Note. — Other examples are, Cic.,p. lAg., 7, sed quoquo modo sese illud habet; haec querela vestra, Tvbero^ qvid valet? Parad., 2, quocimque adspexistif utfuriaey sic tuae tibi occurrunt injuriae, and in the same manner we must read in p. Milon.y init., tamen haec nmii judicii nova forTna tenet oculos, qui^ quocunque tnciderunt, veterem ccmsuetudinem fori requirunt, where Emesti, mistakmg the usage of the Latin language, edited inciderint. See Heusin- ger, Prarf. ad Cic., de Off., p. Iv. (xl.). In de Oral., iii., 50, also, we now read versus debilitatur, in quocunque est parte titubat-um, where formerly sit was read. Later writers, however, join these general relatives, and sive — sive (of which we shall speak presently) with the subjunctive [§ 522.] 4. In the same way, sentences connected by sive — sive commonly have the verb in the indicative (unless there is a special reason for using the subjunct- ive) ; e. g., sive tacebis, sive loquere, mihi perinde est ; sive verum est, sivejulsum, mihi quidem ita renuntiatum est. Nam illo loco libentissime uti soleo, sive quid mecum ipse eogito, sive quid aut scriho, aut lego, Cic, De Leg., ii., 1. CHAPTER LXXVIII. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. [§ 523.] 1. The subjunctive is used in general, when a proposition is stated, not as a fact, but as a conception of the mind. Note. — The subjunctive is only a form which is given to a proposition Its substance does not come into consideration. Hence " I believe," " I suspect," are expressed by the indicative, although these words indicate only certain conceptions, but my belief and suspicion are stated as real facts. When, on the other hand, 1 say " I should believe," " I should think," the acts of believing and thinking are represented as mere con ceptions, which, perhaps, do not exist at all, or even cannot exist. Hence the Latins always use the subjunctive when a sentence is to express an intention either that something is to be effected or prevented, for the actions here exist only as conceptions ; e. g., pecmdam homini do, ut me de- fendat, ne me accuset. The English langilage, which has no subjunctive, avails itself of a variety of other verbs to express the nature of the sub junctive ; as, may, might, could, should, would. [§ 524.] 2. We must here first notice the difference between the four tenses of the subjunctive in hypothetical or conditional sentences, both in that paM; of the sentenca containing the condition (beginning with the conjunctions * [For some excellent remarks explanatory of the subjunctive mood, •■onsult Crojnbie'e Gynmasium, vol. i., p. 27 j vol. ii., p. 307, seqq.'] — Am. Ed SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 359 «, niti, etsi, etiamn, tdmetsij, and in the one containing the inference or conclusion. The present and perfect suhjunctive are used when a conception is to be ex- pressed together with the suggestion that it does exist or may exist ; but the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive are used when a conception is expressed together with the suggestion that it did not or could not exist ; and the imperfect in this case implies present time, as in English; e. g., si velit, " if he wishes," or " should wish," implying that he either actually vnshes, or, at least, may wish : in the consequent member of the proposition (the apodosis), the present or perfect subjunctive or indicative may stand ; but si vellet, " if he wished," implies that he does not or cannot wish, and here the consequent member of the proposition requires the imperfect or pluperfect subjunct- ive. The subjunctive without si has the same meaning as facerem, " I should do," implying that I do not or cannot do; vellem, " I should wish," implying that I might havei a wish, but that in fact I do not wish, seeing that it would be of no avail. Velim and cupiam thus do not much dif- fer from volo and cupio. The imperfect and pluperfect subjimctive, therefore, are necessary in hypothetical sentences ; but the present and perfect subjvmctive differ only slightly from the indic- ative, and their use cannot be fixed by grammatical rules. The indicative gives to 'a sentence the form of reality, whereas the subjunctive represents it as an arbitrary con- ception, which, however, may at the same time be a real- ity; e. g., etiamsi tenon laudo or lavddbo, tamen, &c., even if I do not or shall not praise thee — the reality is admit- ted ; etiamsi te non laudem or laudaverim, if (perhaps) 1 should not praise thee, or should not have praised thee — the possibility is conceived. The use of the present and perfect subjunctive in these cases arises, in some measure, from the circumstance that an indefinite person is address- ed in Latin by the second person singular, but only in the subjunctive ; hence the subjunctive is used in such cases even where the indicative would be used if a definite per son were addressed. It must farther be observed that these two subjunctives supply the place of the subjunctive of the two futures, Comp. § 496. The difference between the tenses of the subjunctive in hypothe^iral sentences is observed, also, in indirect speecb 360 LATIN GRAMMAR. (oratin ohliquaj, when the leading verb is a present or a future; but when it is a preterite or the historical perfect, the rule respecting the succession of tenses mast be ob- served (§ 512), and the difference between possibility and impossibility is not expressed ; e. g., we may say Gaius dicit se Latine loqui posse, si pater jubcat (or jusserit), which may possibly happen ; and si pater juheret (or jus- sisset), which, however, is not the case. But we can say only Gaius dicehat se Latine loqui posse, si pater juberet or Si Neptunus, quod Theseo promiserat, non fecisset, Theseus filio Hippolyto non esset orbatus, Cic, De Off., i., 10. Dies deficiat, si velim numerare, quibus bonis male evenerit, nee minus si commemorem, quibus improbis optime, Cic, Be Nat. De.or., iii., 32. Si gladium quis apud te sana mente deposuerit, repetat in- saniens : reddere peccatum sit, qfficium non reddere, Cic, X>e Off, iii., 25. Aequabilitatem vitae servare non possis, si aliorum virtutem imitans omittas tuam, Cic, De Off., i., 31. Memoria minuitur, nisi earn excreeas, autsi sis natura tar- dior, Cic, Cat. Blaj., 7. Note 1. — It cannot be sufficiently impressed upon the mind of the begin ner, that in hypothetical sentences, and when used alone, the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive are of a totally different nature from the pres- ent and perfect, and that the two latter, which express a conceived reality, approach very near the actual reality expressed by the indicative. (See 4 523, note.) Hence the future indicative is often used in the apodosis, when in the conditional member or the protasis of a sentence si is joined with the present subjunctive ; e. g., Cic, Tusc.,v., 35, Dies deficiet, si ve Urn paupertatis causam defendere ; coixip. Cic^ de Nat. Dear., iii., 32, quoted above. Possible cases which are devised to serve as examples, either for the purpose of judging of other analogous cases or of drawing conclusions from them, are expressed by « with the subjunctive, as in the passage of Cic, de Off., Iii., 25, which was quoted above. Compare de Off., i., 10, Ut si con^titueris (supposing you had agreed) te cuipiam advocatum in rem prae- sentem. esse venturum, atque interim graviter aegrotare Jilius coeperit : non sit contra officium, non facere quod dixeris. The perfect subjunctive is at the same time the subjunctive of the future perfect, for in speaking of an ac- tual case we may use the perfect indicative as well as the future perfect ; e. g., si tibi promisi me affuturum nee veni, contra officium me fecisse fateor, and si tibi promisero nee venero, contra offxium m£ fecisse fatebor. In the subjunct- ive both tenses are alike, and as, in the passage just quoted, we recognise the perfect subjunctive, so we look upon rogamrit, scripserit, and dixerit, in the following passage, as future perfects: Cic, de Fin., ii., 18, si te amicus tuus morions rogaverit, ut hereditatem reddas suaefiUae, nee usquam id scripse. rit, nee cuiquam dixerit : quid fades? For practical purposes, the distinction 18 not necessary ; but the subjunctive is essential, since the case was to be expressed merely as a conception. This signification of the Latin aub- pinctive is clear, especially in its frequent occurrence when the subject is SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 361 til indefinite pt son (si guis), and in the seconc" person singular, which im- plies an indefinite person (equivalent to the /reach on and the German man). With regard to the expression of possibility (by the present subjunct- ive) or impossibility (by the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive), it must not be overlooked that it depends upon the speaker as to how he intends to represent a thing. For we are not speaking here of objective truth, but of subjective conceptions. Cicero {Divin. in Caec, 5) says. Si universa prmjiTicia loqvi posset, hoc voce uteretur, implying that it cannot speak. Bui m another passage ({n C(rf.,i., 8) he says, H(uc si tecumpatria loquatur, nonne impetrare debeat 7 personifying his country, and endowing it with speech. This may serve to explain several other passages of the same kind. Comp. Cic, p. Milan., 29, Ejus igitur mortis sedetis vltores, cujus vitam siputetis per vos restitm posse, nolitis, where, without his rhetorical object, he would have said, si putaretis — nolletis. [() 525.J Note 2. — We must notice a peculiarity of the Latin language in hypothetical sentences, which appears strange to us (though not to the Greeks), for completed actions of the past time are often transferred, at least partly, to the present, by using the imperfect instead of the plijper- fect, either in the protasis or in the apodosis ; e. g., Cic, Brut., 67, Hujus si vita, si mares, si vultus denique non omnem commendationem ingenii everteret, majus nomen in patronis fuisset ; in Verr., v., 51, quod certe non fecisset, si suum numerum (nautarum) Tiaves haberent ; Lael., 4, Mortvis tarn religiosa jura (majores nostri) tribuerunt, quod non/ecissent profecto, si nihil ad eos per- tinere arbitrarentur ; Liv., xxxil., 42, Longe gravissima (M. Catonis) in L. Quinctium oratio est, qua si accusator ante notnm usus esset, retinere Quinctium in senatu ne fraterquidem T. Qv,inctius, si iwm censor esset, potuisset. Nu- merous other examples from Cicero, Sallust, and Livy are quoted by Gar atoni on Cic, in Verr., ii., 1, in fin. ; p. Milan., 17, init. ; p. Sext., 67, in fin. In the following passages, on the other hand, the imperfect is used for the pluperfect in the apudosis. Cic, m Verr., i., 31, Nam si quam Rubrius in- jttriam sua nomine ac non impulsu tuo et tua cupiditate fecisset : de tui comitis injuria questum ad te potius, quam te oppugnatum venirent, instead of venissent ; Philip., iii., 5, esset enim ipsi (Antonio) certe statim servienduin, si Caesar ab eo regni insigne accipere voluisset, where Ernesti remarks that the ordinary usage of the Latin language requires'/Bisset for esset; Flor., iii., 3, 13, CinUtri si statim infesto agmine urbem petissent, grande discrimsn esset ; sed in Venetia, quo fere tractu Italia moUissima est, ipsa solis coelique dementia robur elanguit. For other passages, see Bentley on Horace, Serm., ii., 3, 94. Sometimes the imperfect subjunctive, instead of the pluperfect, appears both in the protasis and apodosis, although the actions spoken of are com- pleted and do not belong to the present time ; e. g., Cic, Philip., viii., 4, NuTn tu igitur eum, si turn esses, temerarium civem aut crudelem putares ? in- stead of fuisses and putasses. See Goerenz. on Cic, de Leg., iii., ]3, 30, and de Fin., v., 3, 8. It is true that all this arises from a lively and rhetor- ical mode of speaking, the past time being represented as present ; but it roust be observed that it is more frequent in Latin, and especially in Greek, than in modern languages. Those hypothetical sentences, in which either K case or a conclusion from it is represertfe^ as continuing to the present time, afford no matter for special remark,- for there the imperfect is in its proper place. Compare the learned and profound dissertation of Fred. GUendt, De formis enunciatorum coTiditionalium linguae Latinae, Regim Pruss., 1827. ^^ 526.] Note 3. — JViii, nisi vera, and nisi forte are joined with the indie ative when they introduce a correction of the sentence preceding. Nin, in this case, signifies "except;" e. g., Cic, p. Rose. Am., 35, nescio: nisi hoc video. Nisi vera, nisi forte (unlciis perhaps), introduce a case as an ex- eeption, and describe it at the same time as improbable ; e. g., Cic, p. SuU., 9, Plenum forum est eorum hominum—nisi vera paucos jfuisse arbitrami- ni : p. Muren., 6. Neimy fere saltai sobrius, nimforU insanit ; ad Att., ii., U. Hn 362 LATIN GRAMMAR. erat auteai nihil mm, quod out scriberem, aut ex te quaererem, nisi forte hoc ad te putas pertinere, &c. Nisi forte is thus chiefly used in an ironical sense, " unless you suppose," introducing a case which is in fact inadmissible, bul is intended to suggest to another person that he cannot differ from oui opinion without admitting as true a thing which is improbable and ab- surd. [§ 527.] 3. Hence the present subjunctive is used, also, in independent propositions to soften an assertion or state ment, and without any essential difference from the pres- ent indicative or the future. We generally express the same by "I may" or "I might" (the subjunctive as a po- tential mood) ; e. g., Forsitan quaeratis ; nemo istud tihi concedat; quisdubitet? velim, (nolim,malim) sic exiatitnes. The perfect subjunctive may likewise be used in the sense of a softened perfect indicative; e. g., Jbrsitan tetnerefe- cerim, I may perhaps have acted inconsiderately ; fortasst errore effectum sit, it may perhaps have been done by mis- take ; but this occurs very rarely, and the perfect sub- junctive, when used independently, usually has the mean- ing of a softened future, and in so far is equivalent to the present, without regard to the completion of the action. Hence Quintilian (x., 1, 101) combines the two tenses: At -non historia cesserim Graecis, nee opponere Thucydidi Salliistium verear. Quid videatur ei magnum in rebus humanis, cut aeternitas omnis totiusque mundi nota sit magnitudo 1 Cic, Tusc, iv., 17. Hoc sine ulla dubitatione confirmaverim, eloquentiam rem esse om,nium, difficillimam,, Cic, Brut., 6. TV vero Platonem nee nimis valde unquam, nee nimis saept laudaveris, Cic, De Leg., iii., 1. Nil ego contulerim jticundo sanus amico, Herat., Serm. [^ 528.] Note 1. — If the form which we usually call the perfect sub junctive is only the perfect subjunctive, it is difficult to derive this potentia. signification, which belongs to the future, from the idea of an action com- pleted at the present time. And it can only be done in the manner de- scribed above, 4 51\ , where we have seen that the future perfect acquires the meaning of a simple future, and by a certain liveliness of expression represents an incomplete action as completed. But it is p, eferable to sup pose (see 1/ 496 and 524, note) that the form which, from its most usual meaning in dependant sentences, is called the perfect subjunctive active, is, at the same time, the subjunctive of the future perfect (.scripserim, the subjunct. of scripsi and scripsero), which future perfect frequently acquirea the meaning of a simple future. Hence the perfect subjunctive, in a po- tential sense, is generally used only in the active voice, and very rarely in the passive ; as in Veil. Pat., 1., 18, non ego hoc magis miratus sim; and Livy, xxii,, 59, ne ilti quidem se nobis merito praetulerint gloriatique sint ; XXX., 14, nuUa virtus est, qua ego aeque atque temperantia gloriatus fuerim. After it had encs become custonary to use the psrfect subjunctive in the protential SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 363 •ense of the present subjunctive, the former was sometimes tlso employ ed in dependent sentences (after ut and ne) instead of the present. Ut sic dixerim occurs in Quintilian, Tacitus (de Orat., 34, 40), and the classical jurists; ne longius abierim {for abeam) is used by Tacitus (Ann,,\i., 22), and ne quia sit admiratuSt for nequis admiretur^ by Cicero {de Off., ii., 10). It must, however, be observed that, on the whole, the subjunctive ia sparingly used by the earlier writers in the sense of a potential mood ; but later writers, such as Quintilian, do not keep within the same limits. Note 2. — The first person of the imperfect subjunctive is used more rarely without implying the falsity or impossibility of a condition ; but vellem, nollem, and mallem. are used to express a wish, the non-reality and impossibility of which we know, whence mllem becomes equivalent to " I should have wished." But in the second person, when it implies an in- definite person, and in the third, when the subject is an indefinite person, the imperfect subjunctive is used in independent propositions to express things which might have happened, that is, in the sense of the pluperfect, and we can easily supply the supposed condition, " if you had been pres- ent." This is the case especially with the verbs dkere, putare, credere ; e, g., Liv., ii,, 43, maestique {crederes victos) Tedeunt in contra, one might have believed that they were defeated ; ii., 35, tjvidqidd erat Patrum, reoa diceres ; Cic, in Verr.j iv., 13, qiw postquam veneruntj mirandum in modum {canes ventUicos diceres) ita odort^antur omnia et pervestigabant, ut, uhi quidqui essetjaliqua ratione invenirent ; Curt., vi., 6, discurrunt milites et itineri aar- cinas aptant : aignum datum crederea, ut vasa colligerent. Videre, cemere, and discemere are used in the same way ; e. g., Cic, in Verr., iv., 40, Via: hoc erat plane imperatum, quum ilium spoUatum stipatumque lictoribua cemeres, one might have seen him, scil. if one had been present; Sallust, Cat, 25, pe- cuniae anfamae minus parcerflt, kaud facile discerneres. The third person is more rarely used in this way, although it occurs in Cic, in Verr., iv., 23, quivideret equum Trojanuminiroduetum,urbemcaptamdiceret ; but frequently with the interrogative quia ; as, Cic, in Verr , l., 41, quis unquam crederet ? ?. Jjeg. Man., 11, quis unquam arbitrareiur ? p. Flacc, 40, quis putaret ^ uven., vii., 212, Cui non tunc eliceret risum citharoedi cauda magistri ? [§ 529.] 4. The subjunctive is farther used in inde- pendent sentences to express a wish or desire (optative). In the second and third persons of the present (to some extent, also, of the perfect) it supplies the place of the im- perative ; e. g., dicas equivalent to die, loguare to loquere, especially when the person is indefinite; farther, dicat, faciat, loquatw. The present subjunctive is used in the first person to express an assurance ; e. g., moriar, intere' am, peream ; and in the plural a request, which may be addressed to ourselves as well as others ; e. g., eamns, moriamur, nunc revertamur ad propositum ! let us go ! let us die ! let us return ! The imperfect and pluperfect are used to express wishes belonging to the past time, when a thing ought to have been, or to have been done ; e. g., diceret, dixisset, he should have said. Connected with this is the use of the subjunctive (called in this case concessivtisj, to express a concession or admis- sion, both wdth and without the conjunctions tit and licet, • e. g., dicat, he may say j diceret, he might say ; dixerit, hn 364 LATIN GRAMMAR. may have said, and so on through all the tenses. The negative with these subjunctives (optative and concessive) is usually not non, but ne ; e. g., ne dicas, ne dicat, ne dix- eris (this negative way is the most common case of the perfect subjunctive, being used in the sense of the pres- ent) ; farther, ne vivam, ne desperemus, ne fuerit, equiva- lent to licet non fuerit. M.eminerimus, etiam adversus infimos justitiam esse servan dam, Cic, De Of:, i., 13. Nihil incommodo valetudinis tuae feceris, Cic, ad Att., vii., 8. Emas, non quod opus est, sed quod necesse est, Seneca. Donis impii ne placare audeant decs ; Platonem audiant, qui vetat dubitare, qua sit mente Juturus deus, cum vir nemo bonus ab improbo se donari velit, Cic, de Leg. Naturam expellas furca, iamen usque rccurret, Herat.. Epist., i., 10, 24. . Ne sit summum malum dolor, malum certe est, Cicero. Note. — We are of opinion that the subjunctive which expresses a wish, and is apparently not aependent upon any other sentence, may be gram- maticaity explained by supplying the verb volo, according to § 624. With regard to the use of the subjunctive instead of the imperative, we may observe, that it occurs principally in the third person (this person of the imperative being usually avoided in ordinary language) and in the second with a negation, and in the latter case the perfect regularly takes the place of the present (in deponent as well as active verbs ; e. g., ne sis as- pematus, Cicero, ad Qtunt. Frat., ii., 12) ; hence we usually say, ne dixeris and dicat or ne dicat, but rarely ne dixerit ; e. g., Tacit., Ann., iv., 32, nemo contendfrit. Beginners must be especially cautioned not to prefer the present subjunctive (dicas) to the imperative (die) on the ground of its being more polite. The imperative die expresses a wish as well as a command, and it may be still more softened by adding such a word as pro, quaeso, dum, sis. Dicas, for die, occurs in Cicero, when it is addressed -to an indefinite person ; e. g,, Tusc, v., 41, sic injurias fortunae, quasferre nequeas, defugiendo relinquas ; Cat. Maj., 10, Deniqile isto boTW (corporis rooore) utare dum adsit, quum absit ne requiras. But when addressing a definite person he very rarely uses dicas and ne dicas for die and noli dicers (ad Att., X., 15, in' fin. ; xiv., 1, 2), But the poets and later prose writers (even Livy) frequently employ the second person of the present subjunct- ive in addressing definite persons ; e. g., Liv., vi., 12, Tu, Quinti, equitem intentus — teneas, &c. ; xxii., 53, Si sciens fallo, turn me Juppiter Opt. Max. pessim/> leto afficias ; xxvi., 50, amicus populo Romano sis, et si me virum bonum credis esse, scias mvltos nostri similes in civitate Romana esse, are word? addressed by Scipio to Masinissa. The third person of the presen subjunctive, however, is used quite commonly to express a precept; as in Cicero (de Off., i., 37), where the following precepts are given respecting conversational style : Sit igitur sermxt lenis minimeque pertinax ; insit in eo 'epos ; nee vero, tamquam in possessionem venerit, excludat alios, sed quum in reliquis rebus, turn, in sermone communi, vicissitudinem non iniquam putet, ac videattimprinds, quibus de rebus loquatwr, si seriis, severitatem adhibeat, si jo- eosis, leporem ; imprimirque provideat, &c. In this manner the present and Jierfect subjunctive arij rse ' for th" imperative ; but the imperfect anif SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 36? pluperfect, also, are employed to express a precept, referring to the pasi time, when a thing should have been done ; e. g., Terent., Heaut., 1., 2,28 pater ejusfartasse aliquanto iniquior erat : pateretur, he should have borne it Cic., p. Sext., 20, forsitan non nemo vir fortis direrit, restitisses, mortem pug nans oppetisses, you should have resisted ; ad Att., ii., 1, 3, Mittam tibi ora tvmes meaSj ex qvilnis perspicies et quae gesserim et quae dixerim : avX ne po poscissesj ego enim me tihi non afferebam, or you should not have asked foi them. , The concessive inood must be supposed to exist wherever we may para phrase the subjunctive by licet. In English, its place is usually supplied by the expressions " suppose," or " supposing," and the like, which are equivalent to the Latin esto vt. Comp. Cic, de Leg. Agr., ii., 23, 62, parte sit pecunia, &c. The perfect retains the signification which it has in the indicative; e. g., Cic, in Verr., i., 41, Malus civis Cn. Carbo fuit. Fuerii tliis : tibi quando esse coepit ? he may have been so to others. The imper- fect in this sense is based only on the authority of the MS. reading in Tacit., Ann., iii., 11, ac premeret is, where Walther's note should be con- sulted. There is another independent subjunctive which expresses sup- positions as merely conceived, and which may be called the hypothetical subjunctive ; e. g., roges me, if you ask me, or supposing you ask me , dares illi aliquid, if you gave, or supposing you gave him anything ; but we pre- fer classing this subjunctive with that of hypothetical sentences, and ex- plain it by supplying the conjunction si, for the indicative, too, is thus used. See « 780. Non is sometimes joined with the subjunctive expressing a prohibition or request ; as, Herat., Serm., ii., 5,01; Epist.,i.,\3,72; Quintil., vii., 1,56, non desperemus ; i., 1, 15, non assuescat vitiose loqui ; ii., 16, 6, non fabricetur militi gladius. In the same manner, neque is used for neve in connexion with such subjunctives, and that not only by the poets and Quintilian (ii., 1, 5, rhetorice qfficia sua turn detractet nee occupari gaudeat), but even by Cic ero (de Re Publ., i., 2 ; p. Plane., 6, ^ 15). [§ 530.] 5. Lastly, the subjunctive is used, in all its tenses, in independent sentences to express a doubtful question containing a negative sense fconjunctivits dubi- tativus) ; e. g., quo earn, 1 whither shall I go ■? quo irem ? whither should I go ] quo eas ? whither wilt thou go 1 quo ires ? whither wouldst thou go 1 quo iverim 1 whither was I to have gone % qiu) ivissem ? whither should I have gone ] The answer implied in all these cases is "nowhere," and this is the negative sense of such questions ; for in ques- tions to which we expect an affirmative answer the indic- ative is used. Cum tem-pestate pugnem periculose potius, quam illi ohtem- perem etpaream 1 Cic, F^ro Plane, 39. Valerius quotidie cantahat : erat enim scenicus : quid fa ceret aliud ? Cic, De Orat., iii., 23. Apud exercitum mihi fueris, inquit, tot annos ? forum rum attigeris ? abfueris tamdiu ? ut, quum longo intervallc veneris, cum iis, qui in faro hahitarint, de dignitate con- t£ndas ? Cic, Pro Muren., 9. Note. — For the purpose of a grammatical explanation of this »ubjv«ic5 H h2 366 LATIN GEAMMAE. ive, \ve suppjy the question " should you, perhaps, like that," &c., which implies the contrary of what the question asks, and is equivalent to " surely you will not," or " would not that," &c. Hence when I ask quid docfam? the negative answer " nothing" is presupposed ; and when I put the negative question quid rum doceam ? I suggest the affirmative answer "anything;" hoc non naceat? do you mean to say that this does not injure? (i. e., it certainly does injure). There is nothing to be said against this ellipsis in the first and third persons ; with regard to the second, we can only-say that it is an imitation of the fvo others. But that there actually is aii ellipsis, is clear from the indignant interrogation with ut (^ 609). As to thfe use of the imperfect, compare, also, Caes., Bell. Civ., i., 72, Caesar in earn spem venerat, se sine pugna et sine vutnere suorum. rem conficere posse, quod re Jrumentaria adversarios interclusisset : cur etiam secundo proelio aliquos ex suis atnitteret ? cur vulnerari pateretur optime de se meritos milites ? cur de- nique fortiinam periclitaretur / i. e.. Why should he lose any raore? Why should he allow them to be wounded ? Why should he tempt fortune ? The imperfect, therefore, can occur only in narratives. [§ 531.] 6. Dependent sentences in which an intention or purpose, or a direction towards the future is expressed, take the subjunctive. The conjunctions ut, ne, quo, quin, quominus serve to connect such sentences with others, and consequently govern the subjunctive, the tenses of which must be chosen as required by that of the leading verb of the sentence. (See above, § 612, foil.) CaJ Ut or uti (that, or in order that) refers either to something future which is the intention, object, result, or effect of another action (which is often expressed in Eng lish by "in order to," or simply "to" with the infinitive), or, when used after the words sic, ita, tarn, talis, tantus, ejusmodi, &c., it expresses a quality or the nature of a thing in the form of a result. The English conjunction " that," which introduces sentences supplying the place either of a nominative or accusative, cannot be rendered by ut, as "it is a consolation for the subjects that the king is a just man," equivalent to "the king's justice is a con- solation," &c. ; or " I know that the king is just," equiv alent to " I know the king's justice." Esse oportet ut vivas, non vivere ut edas, Auct. ad Heren., iv., 28. Pylades Orestem se esse dixit, ut pro ilia necaretur, Cic, Lad., 7. Nemo tarn rnalus est, ut videri velit, Q,uintil., iii., 8, 44. Sol ejidt ut omnia floreant, Cic., De Nat. Deor., ii., 15. Note. — Ut is originally an adverb denoting manner, and as a relative ad- verb it corresponds with the demonstrative ita. As an adverb it properly governs nothing, and is joined, according to the nature of the sentence, either with the indicative or the subjunctive. As a particle of time in the sense of " as" or |' as soon as" it is likewise joined with the indicative (if therp are no additional reasons requiri^^ the subjunctive), and usually BUBJ0NCTIVE MOOD. 367 with the perfect indicative. See above, § 500. It requires the subjunct* Iveonly when it expresses a relation to a future time conceived by the mind, and a purpose or a result which is yet to come. It has already been observed (^ 286), that ita ut, tantus ut, &c., only indicate more definitely a future result, and may have both an increasing and a limiting power. The adverbs ita, tic, tam, however, are often omitted with verbs and adjectives, and ut alone is equivalent to ita {sic, tarn) — ut, e. g., Nepos, Epamirumdai, fvit etiam, diaertvs, ut nemo Thebanus ei par esset eloquential instead of tam disertus. Respecting ut, in the sense of "would that" and "supposii.g that," with the subjunctive, see below, ^^ 571 and 573. [§ 532.] fbj Ne (in order that not, or, lest) is used only to express a negative intention or intended effect ; e. g., cura ne denuo in morbum incidas, or haec vitae ratio eff'ecit, ne denwo in morbum i-nciderem. Ut nan is used, on the oth- er hand, when an effect is to be expressed without an in- tention, that is, a simple result or consequence, and when a quality is to be determined, in which case the adverbs ita, sic, tam are either expressed or understood; e. g., turn forte aegrotabam, ut ad nuptias tuas venire non possem ; 1. e., in consequence of my illness, but no intention is ex- pressed. Compare, however, § 347. Tit non is farther used when the negation does not refer to the whole sen- tence, but only to a part of it or to a particular word, just as in a similar case si non must be used, and not nisi. Cowfer te ad Manlium, ut a me non ejeetua ad alienos, sed invitatus ad tuos isse videaris, Cic. in Cat., i., 9. Nemo prudens ptmit, ut ait Plato, quia peccatum est, sed ne peccetur, Seneca, De Ira, i., 16, 21. Nihil agitis, inquit Arria, potestis enim efficere, ut male mo riar ; ne moriar, non potestis, Plin., Epist,, iii., 16. [§ 533.] We have here to notice a peculiarity of the Latin language, according to which the verbs metuo, timeo, vereor are treated as implying an intention. They are, therefore, followed by ne when anything is to be prevent- ed, or when it is wished that something should not hap- pen ; e. g., metuo, nefrustra laborem susceperis; and by ut when it is wished that something should take place; e. g., vereor, ut mature venias. These same verbs are followed by the infinitive when they express only a state of mind, without implying any wish either the one way or the oth- er ; e. g., metuo manus admovere, vereor dicere; but vereor 4t afte dicam. Vereor, ne, dum minuere velim laborem, augeam, Cicero. Adulatores, si quern laudant, vereri se dieunt, ut illius facta verbis consequi possint, Auct. ad Heren., iii., 6. 368 LATIN GRAMMAR. [^ 534.] Note 1.— To the verbs denoting fear we must add the substan- tives expressing fear, apprehension, or danger, as well as the verbs terrerey conterrerej deterrere, and also cavere^ which in its usual sense of "to be on one's guard," is rarely joined with the infinitive, but is usually followed by ne ; e. g., Cic, de. Off., i., 26, cavendum est^ ne assentatoribus patefacianats avrei 7ieu adulari nos sinamus. (Cavpre, however, sometimes also signifies "to takp care of a thing," in which case it is followed, by ut ; e. g», Cic, de Fin. ii., 31, E(picurus testamento cavity ut dies natalls suits ageretur,) Farther, videre and observare in requests {vide, videte^ videndum est), in the sense of " to consider," are followed either by ut or ne, just as the verbs denoting fear ; e. g,, vide ne hoc tihi obsit, consider whether this is not injurious to you, that is, 1 am afraid it will injure you. See Heusinger on Cicero, de O^., i.,. 9. For videre, in the sense of curare, see ^ 614. It rarely happens that timere is followed by the accusative with the in- finitive, instead of ne with the subjunctive, as in Cic, de 'Leg.,ii.,22,Quod Sulla) tiTnens suo corpori posse accidere, igni voluit cremari ; de Orat., ii., 72, guum svbest ille tijnor, ne dignitatem quidem posse retineri, instead of ne ipsa dignitas retineri nonpossit. Comp. Liv., ii., 7, 5 ; iii., 22, 2. [^ 535.] Note 2.— Neve is used in negative sentences to continue that which is introduced by ut and ne (see ^ 347). It is properly equivalent to aut ne, and therefore only intended to continue a preceding ne, but it is also used for et ne after'a preceding ut, as, on the other hand, et ne is used after a negation instead of aut ne. Hence we find, e. g., Liv., xxiii., 34, mandatum ut in omnes naves legatos separatim. custodiendos divideret, daretque oper'am, ne quod iis colloquium inter se, neve quae communicatio consilii esset ; Nep., Thras., 3, legem tvlit, ne quis ante actarum reram accusaretur, neve mul taretur ; Caes., Bell. Gall., ii., 21 , Caesar milites non longiore oratiove cohorta- tus, quam uti suae pristinae virtutis memoriam retinereni, neu perturbntentur an- imo — proelii committendi signum dedit. Neque should properly not come into consideration here, as it is equivalent to et non, but it cannot be denied that even Cicero sometimes uses it for et neiifter ut ; e. g., in Verr.^ iii., 48, ut ea praetermittam, neque cos appellem ; de Orat., i., 5, kortemurque potiua libe- ros nostras, ut animo rei magnitudinem complectantur, neque — confidant. It occurs very rarely, and is not quite certain after ne, as would be the case in Nepos, Paus., 4, orare co&pit, ne enunciaret nee se meritum de illo optime vroderet, if we ought not to correct nee into neu. See my note on Cic, in Verr., iii., 6, 14. In Livy, however, there are many passages in which neque {nee) occurs after ne, as well as after ut ; e. g., ii., 32, conspirasse (membra) ne manus ad os cibum ferrent, nee os acciperet datum nee denies, quae conficerent; iv., 4, cur non sancitis ne vicirttts patricio sit plebeiu^s nee eodem itinere eat ; v., 3, interdicitis patribus commercio plebis, ne nos comitate provoce- mus plebem, nee plehs nobis dicto audiens sit. Respecting ut ne, for ne, see above, ^ 347; but it does not occur with ihs verbs denoting fear. They are, however, sometimes followed by ne non, which is equivalent to u£,the two negations neutralizing each other; e. g., timeo ne non impetrem, I fear I shall not obtain it (i. e., though I wish it) ; Cic, ad Fam., il., 5, non quo verear, ne tua virtus opiniom hominum non re sporideat ; or non belongs to the verb alone ; as, Cic, ad Att., v., 18, Unum vereor, ne senatus Pompeium, nolit dimiitere, I fear the senate will not let Pompey go (viz., though I wish it may do so). [§ 536.] fcj Quo is properly the ablative of the rela- tive pronoun, and stands for ut eo (§ 567), "in order that," or " that by this means." But it is commoialy joined only with comparatives. Non quo answers to the English, "not as if" (instead of which, however, we may also say non quod J, and non quin, "not as if not." The apodosis fol- lowing after such a sentence begins with sed quod or sed aUBJUNCTIVK MOOB. 36& jKj'dP with the indicative (sometimes, also, \vith sed &Ione), or with ut. Ager non semel aratur, sed novatur et iteratur, quo meltorea fetus possii et grandiores edere, Cic, de Orat., ii., 30. Legem brevem esse oportet, quofacilius ah imperitis tenea- tur, Senec-, Epist., 94. . Ad te litteras dedi, non quo haberem magnopere, quod scri herem, sed ut loquerer tecum ahsens, Cic, ad Att., vii., 15 Note 1. — Quo is also used for et eo, and when joined with comparatives it corresponds with a subsequent eo or hoc, in the sense of the mare — the mare. In both cases it is no more than an ordinary relative, and is joined with the indicative, for the subjunctive after ijm is used only, as m the above examples, when it expresses an mtention or purpose. [4537.] iVD(e2. — The above-mentioned use of non ^uo was formerly very much disputed, and critics wanted everywhere to substitute for it non ouoi and to confine non quo to those passages in which a presumed intention is denied. But this would require an alteration in too many passages. See my note on Cic, in Verr., li., 35, in fin. It cannot, however, be deniei' that, on the whole, it is more safe to say non quod, also non eo quod or n idea {ua<2 (and in later prose writers mm quia), all of which are joined w rth the subjunctive. Examples are numerous : non quin ; e. g., Cic, ad Att., vii., 26, JEgo me ducem in civili bello negavi esse, non quin rectum esset, sed quia, quod multo rectius fait, id mihifraudem tulit ; in like manner, non quin confiderem diligentiae tuae, not as if I had not confidence in your diligence ; non quin breviter responsum reddi potuerit, not as if a short answer could not have been given. But in the same sense we may also separate the nega- tion, and say non quo non, non quod non or non quia nonj as, Cic, Tusc, i., 1, non qma philosophia Graecis et litteris et doctoribus percipi non posset, and p. Milan.., 22, Majores nostri in dominum de servo quaeri noluerunt, rum quia non posset verum inveniri, sed quia videbatur indignum esse. Hence £rnesti should not have been surprised at finding this expression in Tacitus, Hist.f i,, 15. ButTMwi qvia in the protasis, with the indicative (in Liv., xxxiii., 27, non quia satis dignos eos credebat, and Tacit., Hist., iil., 4, Tton quia industria Flaviani egebant, sed ut, &c) — and sed quod in the apodosis with the sub junctive — (in Cic, ad Fam., iv., 7, consiliuTn tuum reprehendere non audeo, ruin quin ab eo ipse dissentiam, sed quod ea te sapientia esse judicem, ut meum consilium non antepormm tuo) — seem both to be contrary to usage. [§ 538.] fdj Quin is used after negative sentences and doubtful questions with quis and quid, which differ only in the form of expression from aflBimative propositions with nemo and nihil, drst, for qui non, quae non, quod non, and, secondly, for ut non (" that not" or " without" when fol- lowed by a participle). Quin, equivalent to a relative pronoun with non, is used especially after the expressions nemo, nullus, nihil, vix, aegre — est, reperitur, invenitur ; e. g., Cic, in Verr., ii., 36, repertus est nemo quin mori di- ceret satius esse ; the use of quin for ut non cannot be lim- ited to particular expressions, but we must especially ob- serve the phrase_/acere non possum, quin, and in the passive voice, j^m non potest quin, where the double negation ren 37P LATIN GEAMMAR. ders the affirmative meaning more emphatic. So,%l80 nulla causa est, quid causae est ? nihil causae est—gmn hot faciam. Quis est quin cernat, quanta vis sit in sensibus ? Cicero. Nihil tarn difficile est, quin quaerendo investigari possit, Terent., Heaut., iv., 2, 8. Nunquam tarn male est Siculis, quin aliquid facete et com- mode dicant, Cic., in Verr., iv., 43. Facere nan potui, quin tihi et sententiam, et voluntatem de- clararem m,eam, Cic, ad Fam,.^ vi., 13. [^ 539.] Note 1. — We said above that quin was used only for the nomina live ipd, quae, quod with non, and this must, indeed, be considered as th general rule, although quin is sometimes found in prose instead of the ac cusative quad mm, whicn may be partly owing to the identity of the nom and ace. in the neuter gender, and instead of the ablat. quo non (after dies) e. g., Cic, in Verr., iv., 1, nego in Sicilia quidquam fuisse, quin conquisicrit , Sueton., Nero, 45, nihil contumeliarum defuit quin svbiret ; Cic, atf Att., i., 1 dies fere nullus est quin hie Satrius domum meam ventitet ; Brut., 88, nullum patiebaiur esse diem (Hortensius) quin aut inforo diceret aut meditaretur extra forum. Here, too, the fact of qui being equivalent to quo may have had some influence. Other passages may be explained by ut non. It has al- ready been remarked that qui non, &c., may be used for quin, and this oc- curs very frequently ; e, g., Cir , p. Flacc, 25, quis enim erat qui non sciret. &c It must be observed that vvhen quin stands for qui non or quod non. the pronoun is, id, although superfluous, is sometimes added for the sake of greater emphasis ; as, Cic, in Verr., i., 59, Quis in circum Tnaximumvenit, ?uin is vnoquoque gradu de avaritia tua comnumeretur 1 de Nat, Deor., ii., 9, Tleanthes negat vllum cibum esse tarn gravem, quin is die et nocte concoqutOur , ibid, iii., 13, nihil est quod sensum habeat, quin id intereat ; Sallust, Ji^., 63, novas nemo tarn clarus erat quin is indignus eo honore haberetur. The place of quin is, farther, not unfrequently supplied by ut non. Thus we read, on the one hand, quin in Terence, &n., iv., 7, 21, Nunquam ac- cedo, quin ahs te abeam doctior, I never visit you without leaving wiser (than when I came) ; and in Nepos, Timol., 1 , Mater vero post id factum (necem fratris) neque domum Jilium ad se admisit neque 'adspexit, quin sum fratricidam impiumque detestans compellaret, without calling nim a fratricide ; and, on the other hand, ut Turn in precisely the same sense, as in Cicero, p. Leg. Man., 7, mere ilia non possunt,fUt haec non eodem labefacta motu concidant ; Sueton., Octav., 56, Augustus nunquam JUios suos populo commendavit, utnon adjiceret (without adding) si merebuniur. It also occurs after facere nrni pos- sum, 9.ni fieri non potest ; e. g., Cic, ad Att., xi., 21 , Tu etsi non potuisti uilo modo facere, ut mihi illam epistolamnon mitteres : tamen mallem non esse mis- sam ; in Verr,, ii. , 77, fieri non potest, ut sum tu in tua provincia non cognoris. It is obvious that DOth qui non and ut non must be used, and not quin, when no negation precedes, or when non belongs to a particular word of a sentence, and not to the leading verb. Accordingly, we cannot say non %deo imperitus sum quin sciam, but ut Tiesciam, since non negatives only the word adeo. [§ 540.] From this we must distinguish the use of quin efter non dubito, non est dubium, non ambigo (I doubt not), and many other expressions containing a negation ; as, non abest ; nihil, paulum, non procul, haud m,ultum abest ; non, vix, aegre abstineo ; tenere me, or temperari mihi non SUBJU\CTIVE MOOD. 371 possum ; non impedio, non recuso, nihil praetermitto, and the like. For in these cases the negation contained in quin is superfluous, and is only a sort of continuation of the preceding non (as the Greek fifi ov before an infini- tive) ; hence it is generally not expressed in English, quin being rendered by " that," or by " to " with an infinitive. E. g., non dubito quin domi sit, I have no doubt (that) he is at home ; Tum multum dbest quin miserrimus sitn, not much is wanting to make me the most virretched of men ; nulla mora fviit, quin decernerent helium, they did not hes- itate to decree war. Hence, as quin in this case is only a form, of expression, non is superadded, if the dependent sentence is to have a really negative meaning. Thus we find not unfrequently, at least, non dubito quin non, which is easily explained by translating non dubito quin by " I believe," e. g., Cic, in Verr., i., 40, in quibus non dubito quin offensionem negligentiae vitare atque effugere non pas- sim, I believe that I cannot escape the charge of negli- gence; comp. ad Att., v., 11, in fin. ; de Off"., iii., 3, Z>u- bitandum non est, quin nunquam possit utilitas cum hones- tate contendere, we must believe, or be convinced that util- ity can never be opposed to virtue. It should, however, be observed that expressions implying an obstacle are properly followed, according to § 543, by quo minus in- stead of quin. Dux ille Graeciae nusquam optat, ut Ajacis sim,iles habeat decern,, sed ut Nestoris; quod si acciderit, non dubitat quin hrevi Traja sit peritura, Cic, Cat. Maj., 10. Num dubitas quin specimen naturae capi deceat ex optima quaque natura ? Cic, Tusc, i., 14. Quis igitur dubitef, quin in virtute divitiae sint ? Cicero. Ego nihil praetermisi, quantum facere potui, quin Pompe- ium a Caesaris conjimctione avocarem, Cic, Philip. Tnfesta contio vix inhiheri potuit, quin protinus svo more saxa in Polemonem jaceret, Curt., vii., 6 (2). Tiberium non fortuna, npn solitudines protegebant, quin tormenta pectoris suasque ipse poenas fateretur. Tacit., Asm-, vi., 6. [^ 541.] Note 2. — If we are to take the language of Cicero as our guide, it IS less correct to use the accusative with the infinitive after non dubito, in the sense of " I do not doubt," instead of quin ; but it often occurs in Curtius and Livy (see Drakenborch on Liv., xxii., 55, and xxxvi. 41), aiid in Nepos exclusively, which may be considered as a peculiarity cif this au thor ; in later writers it is found frequently. But theonlv passage in Uic 372 LATIN GRAMMAF STO wnich ia alleged as an example of mm dvbito, fallowed by the acuusa live with the infinitive, viz., ad Au., vii., 1, has hitherto had a wrong Himctuation, and, according to Breini (on Nep., Praefat.), we must read, Mt autem uterque numeral swum, nisi forte simvlat alter : nam Pompeius non dvhir tat. Yere enim judical, ea, quae de republica nunc sentiat, mihi valde probari. The partiality for the construction with quin is attested by some passages, m which this conjunction is used instead of the accusat. wiln the infini tive, because the leading sentence may be conceived to contain the same idea as non dvJbito ; as, Cic, p, Flacc.^t, Quis ignorat quin tria Graecorum genera sini ; comp. QuintiL, xil., 7, 8, quia igrwrat quin id longe sit konestis- imum ; Cic, Tusc, v., 7, atqui alterum did (i. e., in duhium vocari) nt>n pa- est quin ii, qui nihil metuant, beati sint. But when dubito and non dubito signify "I scruple" or "hesitate," and the sentence following contains the same subject, they are generally fol lowed by the infinitive ; e. g,, non dubito respondere ; Cicero non dvbitabat conjuratos supplicio aj^ere ; though Cicero often uses qmn even in these cases, as in Verr., ii., 13, nemo dubitavit, quin voluntatem spectaret ejus, quern statim de capite suojputaret judicaiurum ; p. Flacc, 17, dvbitatiSy judices, quin ah hoc ignotissimo Phryge Tiobilissimum civem vi-ndicetis 1 (a negative ques- tion, the meaning of which is, " you must not hesitate.") Comp. p. Leg, Man., 16, in fin., and 23 ; p. Milan., 23, 4 63 ; de Leg. Agr., ii., 26, 4 69. Schneider on Caesar, Bell. Gall., ii., 2. We here add the remark that " 1 doubt whether" is expressed in Latin by dubito sitne^ dubito utrum — an, dubito sitne — an, or dubito num, numquid ; for dubito an and dubium est an are used, like nescio an, by the best writers. with an affirmative meaning. See ^ 3S4. [J 542.] Note 3. — Quin is used in another sense with the indicative, im- plying a question or an exhortation ; this is in accordance with its origi- nal elements, being compounded of ne (i. 6., non) and the ancient ablative qui of the interrogative pronoun quid; e. g., Liv., quin conscendi-mus equos? Why do we not mount our horses ? Cic, p. Rabir., 6, Quin continetis vocem indicem stuUitiae vestrae ? Curt,, v., 22, Qiiin igitvr ulciscimur Graeciam, et urbi faces subdimus ? and so in many other passages. As such questions are equivalent to exhortations (and different from questions with cur non, which always require an answer), quin in this sense is also joined with the imperative ; e. g,, quin die statim, well, tell me ! quin sic attendite judices, pray, pay attention ! or with the first person plurEil of the subjunctive ; as, quin experiamw, why do we not try, or let us try ! Hence quin, without being connected with any verb, signifies " even" or " rather," just as quin etiam, quin potius, quin immo ; as in Cicero, credibile non est, quantum scri- bam die, quin etiam noctibus. [§ 543.] fej Quoniinus (for ut eo minus, in order that not) is mostly used after verbs expressing a hinderance, where also ne, and if a negative precedes, quin may be used. The principal verbs of this kind are : deterrere, impedire, intercedere, obsistere, obstare, ojjicere, prohibere, reousare, repugnare ; but there are several other expressions vv^hich '..onvey the same meaning ; e. g.v stat or fit per me, I am the cause ; non pugno, nihil moror, non contineo me, &c. Cimon nunquam in hortis custodem, imposuit, ne quis impe- diretur, quominus ejus rebus, quibus quisque vellet,fruere- tur, Nep., Cim., 4. 'Parmenio, quum audisset, vencnum, a Philippo medico regi parari, deterrere eum vaiuit fpistola scripta, quominiu SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 373 medicantentum hiberet, qtiod medictes dare constitueret. Curt., vi., 40 (10.) \% 544.] Note. — Impedire,deterrere, and remsare, however, are sometimes and vrohibere frequently (l) 607) followed by the infinitive; e. g., Caes. Bell. Gall., iii., 22, neW» redimcremur, visi simia ; in xxiii., 42, both constructions are combinedj si modo, quos ut socios haberes dignos duxisti, haud indignos ^tdicas, quos in fidem receptos tuearis, because it was necessary to avoid the repetition of thi lame pronoun. 3e4 LATIN GRAMMAR. [§ 569.] (f) Lastly, we must here notice the circum- stance that in a narrative the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive are sometimes used after relative pronouns and adverbs when actions of repeated occurrence are spoken of (in which case the Greek language requires the relative with the optative mood: see Buttmann's Cheek Cfram., § 139, note 6) ; e. g., Liv., iii., 11, qtiemcunque lie- tor jussu consulis prehendisset, tribumis mitti jubehat ; iii., 19, consilium et modum adhibendo, ubi res posceret, priores erant ; xxxiv., 38, ut quisque inaxime laboraret locus, aut ipse occurrebat, aut aliquos mittebat ; Tacit., Ann., vi., 21, quotiens super tali negotio consultaret, edita domus parte ac liberti unius consdentia utebatur ; N.ep., Eum., 3, Mace- dones vera milites ea tunc erant Jama, qua nunc Romani feruntur : etenim semper Tiabiti sunt fortissiini, qui sum- mam imperii potirentur ; Justin, xxv., 4, nee quisquam Pyrrhum, qua tulisset impetum, sustinere valuit. In the same manner, Cicero [de Orat., iii., 16), Socrates, quam se cunque in partem dedisset, omnium facile fuit princeps, is to be explained.. As in this way the action is not referred to a distinct individual case, the subjunctive is generally callpd the indefinite, but it should more properly be called the subjunctive of generality. The indicative, however, is likewise used in these cases, and even more frequently than the subjunctive. \lj 570.] Note. — As in the above quoted passages the subjunctive is used after relatives, so it is sometimes, also, found after those conjunctions which are originally relative adverbs (see ^ 331 , note 2) ; e. g., after qmon ; as, Liv,, ii., 27, desperato enim consulum senatusque auxilio, quum in jus duct delniorem vidissent, undique convolabarit (comp., also, Cic, in Verr., iv., 20, 14) ; after vbi and ut ; as, Liv., 1., 32, id vbi dixisset, hastam in jines eorum smittebat; even after si (but only when used in the sense oi quum), in Sal- lust, Jug., 58, Sin Numidae propius accessissent, ibi vera virtutem osteiidere et eos maxima vi caedere. To the same practice we refer the circumstance that such relatives are also followed by the present subjunctive, when used in an aorist sense, to express things which have happened repeatedly, and still happen ; as in Sallust, Cat., 3, ubi de magna virtute et gloria bonorum memores, quae sibi quisque facilia factu putat, aequo animo accipit, supra ea. veluti jicta pro faltis ducit. [§ 571.] 10. It has already been remarked that all con junctions, and more especially the causal conjunctions, require the subjunctive when they introduce sentences containing the thoughts or words of another person. Re ispecting the subjunctive with si and its compounds, see § 524. It now remains to speak of those conjunctions which require the subjunctive on account of their peculiar rature and signification. SUBJUNCIIVE MOOD. 385 The particles expressing a wish, utinam, or, mot 3 rare- ly, ut, and the poetical o si, govern the subjunctive, be- cause the wish exists only as a conception of the mind ; but theie is this difference in regard to the tenses, that the present and perfect are used of wishes which are con- ceived as possible, and the imperfect and pluperfect of those which are to be described as not in accordance with reality. (See above, § 524.) The English, " Oh, would that not," should properly be expressed in Latin only by utinam ne, but utinam non is frequently used instead of it ; see Gic, ad Fam., v., 17, iUud utinam ne vere scriberem ! ad Ait,, xi., 9, in fin., Haec ad te die natali meo scripsi, quo utinam susceptus non essem, aut ne quid ex eadem matre postea natum esset ! plura scrihere fletu prohibeor. Some- times the particle utinam is omitted ; e. g., Catull., ii., 9, tecum ludere sicut ipsa possem. [§ 572.] Quasi (aeque, perinde, non secus), ac si, tam- quam si, velut si, or tamquam and velut alone (sometimes also sicut and the poetical ceuj, all of which signify " as if," " as though," always introduce a sentence which con- tains only a conception of the mind, and are, consequent- ly, used with the subjunctive. (Compare § 282.) The tense of the subjunctive with these conjunctions depends upon that of the leading verb ; e. g., Senec, Epist., 83 : Sic cogitandum est, tamquam aliquis in pectus intimum in- spicere possit ; Cic, Divin., 4, Bed quid ego his testibus utor, quasi res dubia aut ohscura sit ? Brut., 1, angimfr, tamquam, illi ipsi acerbitatis aliquid acciderit. We must notice, especially, the ironical quasi and quasi vera, which are joined with the present subjunctive to denote a continu- ing action, and with the perfect subjunctive to express a completed one, when the speaker himself belongs to the time present ; e. g., quasi me pudeat, as if I were ashamed ! quasi paulum differat ! quasi vero ego ad ilium venire de- buerim ! as if I had been obliged to go to him ! Cic, p. Muren., 17, populus nonnunquam aliquid factum, esse (in comitiis) admiratur, quasi vero non ipse Jecerit. The im- perfect subjunctive, however, is also used after a pres- ent when we mean to express that in reality the thing is not so, in which case we must always supply a hypotheti- cal imperfect ; e. g., Cic, ad Fam., xiii., 42, Egnatii rem ut tueare aeque a te peto, ac si mea negotia essent, i. e., ac peterem, si mea negotia essent, as I would pray, if, &c.; ad Kk 386 LATIN GRAMMAR. Att., iii., 13, QtM de re quoniam, nihil ad me scribis, proindt habebo ac si scripsisses nihil esse, i. e., atque Jiaberem, si The subjunctive, with non quo, non quod, nan eo quod, rum idea quod, non quia, arises from the same cause, and is of the same kind. These expressions, which have al- ready been discussed in § 537, are usually followed by sed quod or sed quia with the indicative, because the sen- tence introduced by them states the real reason. Cic, TWc, ii., 23, Fugiles vero, etiam quumferiunt adoersari- um, in jactandis caestibus ingemiscunt, non quod doleant animove succumhant, sed quia prqfundenda voce omne cor- pus intenditur, venitque plaga vehementior. Dummodo (if only, if but), for which dum and modo are also used alone, governs the subjunctive because it ex- presses an intention or a purpose conceived by the mind. Therefore, when joined with a negation, it becomes dum- modo ne, dum ne, m,odo ne; e. g., Cic, de Off., iii., 21, (multi) ormnia recta et honesta negligunt, dummodo poten- tiam consequantur ; ad Quint. Fratr., i., 1, Quare sit summa in jure dicundo severitas, dummodo ea ne varietur gratia, sed conservetur aequabilis. [§ 573.] TJt, in the sense of " even if," or " although" (see § 341), expresses a supposition merely as a concep- tion, and accordingly governs the subjunctive. It takes the negative non ; e. g., Cic, Philip., xii., 3, Ex^rcitus si pacis, id est, timoris nostri, nomen audierit, ut non referat pedem (even if it does not withdraw), insistet certe. The same, however, may be expressed by ne with the conces sive subjunctive. (See § 529.) TJt desint vires, tamen est laudan la voluntas, Ovid. Ut rationem Plato nullam afferret, vide quid homini tribu- am, ipsa auctoritate mefrangeret, Cic, Tusc, i., 21. The conjunction nedum, i. e., "not to mention that," re-, ceives its meaning from the negative ne, and accordingly governs the subjunctive. JVe is sometimes used in the sense oi nedum ; e. g., Sallust., Cat., 11, Igitur hi milites, postquarn victoriam adepti sunt, nihil reliqui victis Jecere. Quippe secundae res sapientium animosfatigant; ne illi cor- ruptis moribus victoriae temperarent, i. e., not to mention that they were moderate, &c. ; Liv., iii., 62, Novam earn potestatem (tribunorum plebis) eripuere patribus nostris, nl nunc dulcedine serrfl capti ferant desi^rium, wheie Gro- SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 387 iidvius gives a full explanation of this use of ne ; Cic, p CluenL, 35, Optimis temporihus clarissimi atque amplissi- mi viri vim tribunidam sustinere non potuerunt: nedum hig temporihus sine judiciwum remediis salvi esse possimus. If nedum has no verb, it acquires, like ne dicam, the mean- ing of an adverb, and is commonly preceded by a nega- tive ; e. g., Liv., vi., 7, Aegre inermis tanta multitudo, ne- dum armata, sustineri, potest. (Even ne is thus used once in Cicero, ad Fam., ix., 26, Me vera nihil istorum,, ne ju- venem, quidem movit unguam, ne nunc senem.) Hence we find nedum ut in Livy (iii., 14) and later virriters in the sense of a conjunction " not to mention that." [§ 574.]. Quam/vis, as distinct from quamquam, is often used in the sense.«f quantum,ois and quamlibet, i. e., "how- ever much," with the subjunctive ; for this is its real meaning, and hence the subjunctive is also used when its parts are separated; as, quam volent in conviviis Jaceti tint; quam volent impttdenter mentiantur. Licet (although), properly a verb which has become a conjunction, has the same meaning and construction as quamvis. Licet strenuum metum putes esse, velocior tamen spes est. Curt., vii., 16 (4). Note. — In later prose writers ipmmvis and quamquam have changed their signification, quamquam being joined with the subjunctive, and quamiAi with the indicative. Tacitus uses both conjunctions mostly with the sub- junctive. Quamxpmm with the subjunctive occurs even in some passages of Cicero, though they are comparatively very few : ad Fam., iv., 4, qTiam- quam videam ; p. MuTen., 9, ^amqvam praesente Lucullo loqaar ; de Fin., iii., 21, quamquaTn in amicitia alii dicant, aeque caram esse sapienti rationem amid ac suam, tamen, &c. ; Tusc, v., 30, qwimquam enim sint in quibusdarn malis, tamen hoc nomen beati longe et late patet ; de Off., i., 2, quae quamquam ita sini inpromptu; and with the subjunctive videatur in Oral., 55, 183; Top., 8,34. Quamvis with the indicative occurs, p. Rab. Post., 2, quamvis patrem suum nunquam viderat. But it must be observed that quamvis is used also as an adverb in the sense of " however much," and as such governs no particu lar mood ; as in Cicero, quamvis multos proferre possum ; quamvis parvis late- bris contentus essem, I should be satisfied with ever so small a comer. In this sense it is joined with licet to enhance the meaning of this conjunc- tion ; e. g., Cic, de Leg., iii., 10, quamvis enumeres multos licet, you may enumerate as many as ever you can ; de Nat. Dear., iii., 36, quamvis licet Menti delubra consecremus ; Tusc, iv., 24, quamvis licet insectemur istos. [§ 575.] The particles of time, dum, donee, and quoad, have the indicative when they are used in the sense of quamdiu, or " as long as;" in the sense of," until," they may have either mood ; the indicative, if a thing is ex- pressed as a fact, and the subjunctive, if it is merely con- ceived as a thing which may possibly be realized, or if, at the same time, a purpose is expressed in the sentenca. 388 LATIN GRAMMAR. Respecting the present indicative with dum, see § 506, foil. ; and it must be observed that the indicative with this conjunction is often retained even in the oratio obliqua, which otherwise requires the subjunctive, as in Tacit., Ann., ii., 81. But such cases are only exceptions. Lacedaemoniorum gensfortisfuit, dum Lycurgi leges vige- bant, Cic, Tusc, i., 42. Epaminondas quum animadverteret, mortiferum se vulnus accepisse, simulqiie, sijerrum, quod ex hastili in corpore remanserat, extraxisset, animam statim emissurum : usque eo retinuit, quoad renuntiatum est, vicisse Boeo- tios, Nep., Epam., 9. Quoad perventum sit eo, quo sumpta navis est, nan domini est navis, sed navigantium, Cic, de Off., iii., 28. Tratis aut suhtrahendi sunt ii, in quos impetum conantur facere, dum se ipsi colligant, aut rogandi orandique sunt, ut, si quam'hahent ulciscendi vim, differantin tempus ali- ud, dum defervescat ira, Cic, Tusc, iv., 35. Note. — Tacitus neglects this distinction, and uses the subjunctive with donee, though a simple fact is expressed ; e. g., Hist., iv., 35, Pu^natum longo agmine et incerto Marte, donee proetium nox dirimeret ; and he is so par- tial to this construction, that the perfect indicative must be noticed as of rare occurrence with him. Respecting the few passages in which donee i» used by Cicero and Caesar, see i 350. [§ 576.] Antequam zxiA. priusquam are commonly used in a narrative with the imperfect and pluperfect subjunct- ive, if there is some connexion Ijptween the preceding and the subsequent action ; but if the simple priority of one action to another is expressed, the indicative is used; e. g., Cic, in Verr., ii., 66, haec omnia ante facta sunt, quam Verves Italiam attigit. The present indicative is used when the action is described as certain and near at hand, or as being already begun ; e. g., Cic, ad Fam., vii., 14, dabo operant, ut istuc veniam, antequam plane ex animo tuo effluo ; ad Att., x., 15, si quemquam nactus eris qui perferai litteras, des antequam discedimus ; p.Muren., 1, Antequam pro L. Murena dicere instituo, pauca pro me ipso dicam; Philip., ii., 2, Cui priusquam de ceteris rebus respondeo, de amicitia, quam a me violatam esse criminatus est, pauca dicam. The subjunctive must be used when the thing is still doubtful ; e. g., Cic, de Leg, Agr., ii., 27, Hac lege ante omnia veneunt, quam gleba una ematur; Parad., 6, 1, nunquam eris dives antequam tibi ex tuis possessionibus tan- turn reficiatur, ut eo tueri legionem possis ; and in general aUBJUNCTIVB MOOD. 38(1 propositions ; as, Seaec, Epist., 103, tempestas minatur an tequani surgat ; Quae^t. Nat., ii., 12, Ante videmus Jidgu- rationem, quam sonum audiamus. But the subjunctive ia used also in other cases to denote actions about to take place, and without any difference in meaning from the in- dicative ; as, Cic, Philip., i., 1, Antequam de republica di- cam ea, quae dicenda hoc tempore arbitror, exponam brevi- ter consilium profectionis m,eae. [§ 577.] 11. With regard to quum, there is this differ- ence, that quum causale governs the subjunctive, and quum temporale by itself requires the indicative, and in narra- tives only it is joined with the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive. The following remarks, however, may serve to explain and modify this general rule. Quum is properly a rela- tive adverb of time, corresponding to the demonstrative adverb turn, as in turn — quum, then: — when. If, therefore, nothing farther is to be expressed, it is joined with the in- dicative. But quum, is also employed to express the re- lation of cause and effect, and in this sense it governs the subjunctive ; e. g., quum sciam, quum scirem, quum intel- lexerim, quum intellexissem ; i. e., as I know, as I knew, as I have learned, as I had learned — I will do this or that. When it has the meaning of " though" or " although," the sentence introduced by it does not, indeed, express the cause of what is contained in the preceding sentence, but still indicates some internal or logical connexion between the two sentences, and it is, therefore, joined only with the subjunctive ; e. g., Cic, de Invent., i., 4, homines, quum m/ultis rebus injirmiores sint, hac re maxime bestiis prae- stant, quod loqui possunt ; Nep., Phoc, 1, Phocionfuit per- fetuo pauper, quum ditissimus esse posset. [§ 578.] "In a narrative, however, quum temporale is joined with the imperfect and plupei-fect subjunctive, be- cause, in a continuous narrative, a preceding event is al- ways conceived and represented as the cause of a subse- quent one ; e. g., Caesar, quum Pompeium apud Pharsa- \um vicisset, in Asiam trajecit : here we perceive a com- bination of time and cause, which is expressed by the sub- junctive. It only remains to be observed that this is al- ways the case in an historical narrative, although, if we consider only the relation of time or priority, we might Kk2 390 LATIN GRAMMAR. believe the indicative also to be correct. Examples are extremely numerous. See § 505. [§ 579.] But when quum is a pure particle of time, that is. when it does not occur in a narrative, and when no re- lation of cause and effect is to be expressed, it rnay be joined with all the tenses of the indicative, even with the imperfect and pluperfect, in the sense of eo tempore quum, ■)r turn quum, which expressions, in fact, often occur. Qui no7t defendif injur iam, neque propulsat a suis, quum potest, injustefacit, Cic, de Off., iii., 18. Sed da operam, ut valeas, et, si valebis, quum recte navi- gari poterit, turn naviges, Cic, ad Tir. Ep., 12. Credo turn, quum Sicilia florebat opibus et copiis, magna artificia (studios of artists) Juissc in, ea insula, Cic, in Verr., iv., 21. O accrham mihi memoriam temporis illius et loci, quum, hie in me incidit, quum complexus est, conspcrsitque lacrimis, nee loqui prae maerore potuit ! Cic, p. Plane., 41. In like manner, quum is joined with the pluperfect in- dicative, when it expresses an action frequently repeated; in this case the apodosis contains the imperfect. (See § 569, foil.) Quum autem ver esse coeperat, cteyus initium iste non a Fa- vonio, neque aS aliquo astro notabat, sed quum rosam viderat, turn, incipere ver arbitrabatur : dabat se labon atque itineribus, Cic, in Verr., v., 10. Bic (Verres) confecto itinere, quum ad aliquod oppidum venerat, eadem lectica usque in cubiculum deferebatur, Cic, in Verr., v., 11. Note. — The following passage of Cicero (p. Plane., 26) is particularly instructive : At ego, quum casu diebus iis, itineris faciendi causa, decedens e provincia Puteolos forte venisseTti, quum plurimi et lautissvmi solent esse in iis loeis, cOTicidi paene,'quum ex me quidam quaesisset, &c. In this passage quum — venissem is the historical protasis to concidi ; but quum — solent merely explains the time implied in iis diebus ; the former quum may be translated by " as," but the latter is " when." Among the numerous passages in which quum is used, there are, it is true, some which seem to contradict, or actually do contradict the rule given above, for the Latin language has a sort of partiality for quum with the subjunctive, especially with the im perfect subjunctive. Thus we find in Cicero, Philip., iii., 2, C. Caesar adolescens turn, quum maxime furor arderet Antonii, juumque ejus a Brundisio reditus timeretur, jimassimum exercitumex invicto gen^re veteranorwn militwn comparavit: here the idea of time is combined with that implied in "al though ;" Cic, in Pis., 13, An turn eratis cansules, quum cunctus ordo reclama. bat, quum — cupere vos diceretis : here quum at first simply indicates time, but then the passage assumes the character of an historical narrative The prese it subjunctive is used more rarely in cases wHch properly ra SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 391 quife the indicative ; as, Cic, p. Muren.., 3, nwnc quum omnes me causae tui misericordiam vocent, where nunc quum is equivalent to " now as ;" in the same chapter we find, Neque enim si tibi turn quum consulatum peteres, favi, idcirco nunc quum Murejiam ipsum petasy adjutor eodem pacta esse debeo — wriere petexes is excusable, b\Apetas must be corrected from MSS. in\.o petis. In other passages there are other reasons for using the subjunctive ; e. g., p. yiuren.y 38, qui locus est, quod tempus, qui dies, ^uae nox, quum ego nan ex is- torum insidiis divino auxilio eripiar — here the subjunctive arises from the in- definite or general question ; Cic, in Verr., i., 10, -Haec Tieque ^um ego dice- rem, neque quum tu negares, magni momenii nostra esset oratio. Quo tempore igitur aures judex erigeret animumque attenderet ? Quum Dio ipse prodiret, quum ceteri, qui turn in Sicilia negotiis Dionis interfuissent : quum tabulae viro- rum bonorum pro/errentvr, &c., ixc. Opinor, quum kaecjierent, turn vos audi- retis, turn causa vere agi videretur: here the subjunctLve with quum arises from the hypothetical construction of the whole sentence. In the peculiar passage, de Leg. Agr., ii., 24, 64, unum hoc certe videor niihi verissime posse dicere, turn quum haberet respublica Ijuscinos — et tuTn quum erant CfUoncs — ta- men hujuscemodi res commissa nemini est — commentators justly explain as an anacoluthon, for the sentence begins in a direct way, and afterward becomes an indirect speech. Whatever, therefore, may be the explanation in each particular passage, the sfatement of some critics that quum tern- porale is used indiscriminately with the indicative or subjunctive, must be rejected from grammar. If we take into consideration the deviations from the rule mentioned in this note and what was said in ^ 570, the beginner may, perhaps, take the following as his general guide : quum may always be joined with the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive; the other tenses are m the indicative with quum temporale, and in the subjunctive with qmim causale, [§ 580.] 12. The following must be observed as pecu- liarities in the use of quum temporale: 1. Quum is joined with the perfect or imperfect indicative to express simul- taneous occurrences which are indicated in English by " while." This simultaneousness is marked more em- phatically by adding interea or interim. The perfect, in this case, is used in historical narratives, and the imper- fect in descriptions. 2. Quum is joined with all tenses of the indicative, and more especially with the present to ex press the decided beginning of an action, in which case it does not introduce a protasis, but rather an apodosis. It is commonly preceded by adverbs ; as, jam, nmidum, vix,aegre, or quum itself is joined with repents diXiA subito. Catulus, quum ex vohis quaereret, si in uno On. Pompeio omnia poneretis, si quid eo factum esset, in quo spem cs- setis habituri : cepit magnum suae virtutis fructum ac dignitatis., quum omnes prope una voce, in eo ipso vos spem habituros esse, dixistis, Cic, p. Leg. Man., 20. Caedebatur virgis in medio foro Messanae civis Romanua, judices, quum interea nullus gemitus, nulla vox alia istius miseri inter dolorem crepitumque plagarum audiebatur, nisi haec • civis Romanus sum, Cic, in Verr., v., 62 392 LATIN GEAMMAB. Rvolarat jam e conspectu fore Jiigiens quadriremia, quum etiamtum ccterae naves uno in loco moliebantur, Cic, in Verr., v., 34. Jam in conspectu, sed extra teli jactum utraque acies erat, quum prior es Per sae inconditum et trucem sustulete clu' morem. Curt., iii., 25 (10). Jamque, qui Dareum vehehant equi, confossi hastis et dolore efferati, jugum qttatere et regem curru excutere coeperant, quum, ille, veritus ne vivus veniret in hostium potestatem, desilit et in equum, qui ad hoc sequehatur, imponitur. Curt., iii., 27 (11), and in innumerable other passages ■ of this writer. Nan duhitahat Minucius, qui Sopatrum defendeiat, quin iste (Verres), quoniam consilium dimisisset, illo die rem illam quaesitums non essct, quum, repente juhetur dicere, Cic, in Verr., ii., 29. [5 581 .] Note 1. — In farther confirmation of our first remark, that qvum, in the sense of " while," is construed with the perfect indicative, we add, Cic, p. lagar., 1, helXum (inter Caes. et Pomp.) subitb ewarsit, quod, qui erant in Africa, ante audieruni geri, quam parari. Quo audita, partim cupiditate in considerata, partim caeco (pwdam timore, primo salutis, post etiam xtudii sul quaerebant aliquem dvcem : quum Ligarius domum spectans et ad suos redire cupiens nidlo se impticari negotio passus est : quum here properly introduces the principal action, " while Ligarfus would not allow himsell to be impli- cated," although, at the same time, it expresses simultaneousness. Comp., also, Cic, in Pis., 34, quum quidem tibi etiam accessio fuit ; Philip., ix., 4, 9, quum quidem ille pollicitus est ; for these passages must be read in their con- nexion, in order to see the difference between the indicative which ex presses the actual beginning of the actions, and the imperfect subjunctive. The addition of quidem, too, must be observed, as well as interim in Floras, iii., 17, in fin., Sed pretium rogationis statim socii fiagitare (Perfect) : quum interim imparem Drusum aegrumque rerum temere mbtarum matura {ut in tali discriTnine) mors abstulit. [^ 582.] Note2. — Quum, in both cases, is used by historians (Livy, Taci- tus) also with what is called the historical infinitive {infinitimis historicus). Instances of quum, in the sense of " while," are Tacit., Ann., ii., 31 , Cingeba- tur interim milite domus, strepebant etiam in vestihulo, ut audiri, at aspici pos- sent : quum Libo, ipsis, quas in novissimam voluptatem adhibuerat, epulis ex- crumattts, vocare percussorem, prendere seruorum dextras, inserere gladium ; Liv., ii., 27, victor tot intra paucos dies bellis Romanus promissa consulis Jidem- que senatus expectabat : quum Appius quam asperrime poterat jus de creditia pecuniis dicere. The following is an instance of quum expressing the actu- al beginning of an action : Tacit., Ann., xiv., 5, -nee multwm erat progressa navis, quum data signo ruere tectum loci. Cicero does not use such expres- sions, but as the infinitive is a real substitute for the present Ut lively de- ■criptions, there is nothin; to he said against it. iMf^RATIVJE! MOOD. 393 CHAPTER LXXIX. IMPERATIVE MOOD. [§ 583.] 1. The imperative, both in the active and pass- ive, has two forms : the imperative present and the im- perative future. (See § 151.) Both express a command, but also a wish, an advice or exhortation. The difference in the meaning of the two imperatives is this : the imper- ative present expresses that something is to be done di- rectly or at once ; as, lege, read ! morere, die ! or that a thing which exists at present is to continue to exist ; as, vive felix. The imperative future puts the command in connexion with some other action, and expresses that something is to be done in future, when, or as soon as, something else has taken place. It is, however, not ne- cessary that the other action should be expressed in words, but in many cases it is supplied by the mind ; e. g., Cic, in Verr., iv., 1, Rem vobis proponam ; vos earn suo, rum nomiiiis pondere penditote, i. e., weigh it, viz., quum proposuero. Qunm valetudini tuae consulueris, turn consulito naviga- tioni, Cic, ad Fam., xvi., 4. Quodquum hujus vobis adolescentiam jyroposueritis, consti- tuitote vobis ante oculos etiam \vqus miseri senectutem, Cic, p. Coel., in fin. Prius audits paucis ; quod cum dixero, si placuerit, Jdci- tote, Terent., Eun., v., 11, 19. , Note. — This is the view of the ancient grammarians respecting the dif ference between the two tenses of the imperative. Vossius and Perizoni- us (on Sanct., Minerv., i., 13, no. 8), and after them the modern gramma- rians, have, without cause, abandoned that view, and substituted a ground- less theory about a milder and a stronger expression of a command. Comp. Nic. Bygom Krarup's dissertation dc natura et vsu imperativi, Hav- niae, 1825 (reprinted in Friedemann and Seebode's Miscellanea Critica, vol. ii., p. 728, foil.). There are some exceptions in which the imperative pros, ent is used for the imperative future ; but a poet has a right to represent things as taking place at once, which in reality can occur only at a subsequent time. (So, also, in Livy, vi., 12, Tu, T. Quinti, equitem inten- tus ad primum initium moti certaminis teneas : libi Jiaerere jam aciem collt^o pede viderUf turn terrorem eqitestrem occupatis alio pavore infer, invectusque or- dines pugTumtium dissipa.) Respecting scito ana scitote, mstead of the im- perative present, which is wanting, see ^ 164, Otherwise our rule is only confirmed by passages in which the two imperatives occur, as that of Terence quoted above, or Cic, Philip., vi., 6, 17 ; ad Fam., xvi., 6 ; and also by those in which the preceding action is not expressed, but may be Dnderstood ; e. g., in the Rhet., ad Herenn., iv., 51, where the conduct of 1 k*oaster is described, //ane / inquit : eam.ua hospites, frater venit ex Paler 394 LATIN GEAMlrfAU. no ; ego idi obviam pergam ; vos hue decuma venitote ; i. e., return towarc*i the evening, after you have gone away, and atteii'ied to your other busi ness. It should also be observed that the imperative present has no third person, because a person not present cannot obey at the moment. [§ 584.] 2. Hence the imperative future is properly used in contracts (comp. Liv., xxxviii., 38), laws, and wills, inasmuch as it is stipulated in them that things are to be ione after a certain time ; farther, in precepts and rules of conduct, that is, to express actions which are to be re peated as often as the occasion occurs. Elegio imperio duo sunto, iique consules appellantor, mili- tiae summumjus hahento, nemini parento, illis salus pop- uli suprema lex esto, Cic, de Leg., iii., 3. Causam igitur investigato in re Viova atque admirabili, si poteris. Si nullam reperies, illud tamen exploratum ha- beta, nihil fieri potuisse sine causa, eumque terrorem, quern tibi rei novitas attulerit, naturae ratione depellito, Cic, de Divin., ii., 28. Non satis estpulchra esse poemata, dulcia sunto, Et quocunque volent, animum auditoris agunto. Horat., de Art. Poet., 99. Ignoscito saepe alteri, nunquam tibi, Syrus, Sent., 143. [§ 585.] 3. With the imperative the English "not'" must be rendered by ne, and " nor" by neve, but not by non or neque. The imperative with ne, however, is pecu- liar only to the early language, and at all times in legal phraseology. Hominem mortuum (inquit lex in duodedm tabulis) in urbe ne sepelito neve urito, Cic, de Leg., ii., 23. Note. — Ntm and neque with the imperative are rare. Ovid, Met.^ iii., 117, ne cape — nee te civilibus insere bellis ; viii., 433, Pone, age. nee titulos intercipi femirUL nostras ; de Art. Am.^ iii,, 129, Vos qvoque non caris aiires onerate la. pilUs, nee prodite graves insuto vestUms auro. But when the subjunctive ia used for the imperative, non, and especially neque, are found more fre- quently. See ^ 529. The imperative with ne is of quite common occurrence in conversation- al language in Plautus and Terence, and along with it we find ree with the present subjunctive without any difference, ne clama, ne cru£ia te, ne obse- era ; ne credos, ne erres, ne metuas. Later poets chiefly use ne with the present subjunct., and ne with the imperative only when they speak em- phatically. Servius, on Virg., Am., vi., 544, expressly remarks, ne sam antique datum est. If am nunc ne saevias dicimus, nee imperativum jungimut adverbio imperantis. In saying that ne saevias was used m his time, he waa probably thinking more especially of poets. It is not used in the classi cal prose writers, who always prefer the paraphrased imperative nali sae vire (4 586). [§ 586.] 4. The following forms are used ihstead of both tenses of the imperative : IMPEKATIVE MOOD. 396 a.) The future, which, however, takes the negath e turn ii anything is forbidden ; e. g., fades, or, non fades Iwc ; Cic, ai Fam., vii., 20, Sed valebis, meague negotia vide- bis, meque diis juvantibus ante brumam expectabis, instead of vale, vide, expecta ; Liv., vii., 35, TJbi sententiam meant vobis peregero, turn quibus eadem placebunt, in dextram partem tadti transibitis, instead of transitote. (b) The third person of the present subjunctive, both in an affirmative and negative command, is even more fre- quently used than the imperative, unless a vvriter inten- tionally uses the legal phraseology. (c) The second person of the perfect subjunctive, with the negative ne ; as, Cic, Acad., ii., 40, Tu vero ista ne asciveris nevefueris commentidis rebus assensus ; ad Fam., vii., 25, Secreto hoc audi, tecum habeto, ne Apellae quidem, liberto tuo, dixeris. Respecting the subjunctive used for the imperative, see § 529. The affirmative imperative is paraphrased by cura (or curatoj nt,fac iit, or fac alone with the subjunctive; e. g., cura ut qvam primum venias, fadte ut recordemini, fac animo forti magnoque sis. The negative imperative is paraphrased by fac ne, cave ne, or commonly by cave alone (without nej, with the present or perfect subjunct- ive, cave putes, cave dixeris ; but especially by noli with the infinitive, noli putare, nolite (nolitote) existimare. Tu nihU invita dices fadesve Minerva, Herat., Ars Poet., 385. Qui adipisd veram gloriam volet, justitiae fungatur qffidis, Cic, de Off., ii., 13. Quod dvibitas nefeceris, Plin., Epist., i., 18. Nihil ignoveris, nihil omnino gratiae concesseris; misericor- dia commotus ne sis ! Cic, p. Muren., 31. Magnum fac animum habeas et spem bonam, Cic, ad Quint, Frat,, 2, in fin. Nolite' id velle quod fieri non potest, et cavete ne spe prae- sentis pads perpetuam pacem omittatis, Cic, Philip., vii., 8. Ii 587.] JVo(«.— We also find an imperative of the perfect passive, but rery rarely ; Ovid, Trist., iv., 8, 51, At vos admomti nostHs quoijue easibiu tate ; and the famous exclamation of Caesar before passing the Rubicon, in Sueton., Cats., 32, Jacta alea esto J i,vc/)(iiip0u Kvfiog. The subjunctive is more commonly used instead of it ; as, jaeta tit alea I H96 LATIN GBAMMAR^ CHAPTER LXXX. INFINITIVE MOOD. [§ 5S8.] 1. The infinitive expresses the action or con- dition implied in the verb in the form of an abstract gen- erality, without specifying either person, number, or time; it merely indicates the relations of an action, that is, wheth- er it is in progress or completed. Scribere^ to write, ex- presses the action as in progress ; scripsissCj to have writ ten, as completed. To what time the action thus descri- bed belongs is determined by the verb on which the in- finitive depends. Note 1. — The one of these infinitives is called the present and the other the perfect infinitive. The i'ormer name is incorrect, for it is not the pres- ent time that is expressed by scribere, since, besides volo scribere, we may say {heri) volebam scribere, vohieram scribere, and (eras) volam scribere ; but the action is described only as in progress.. The infinitives should, there- fore, rather be called infinitivus rei infectae and injinitivus rci perfectae. If, however, we compare the two infinitives with the tenses of the verb, we are naturally struck by the resemblance between scribere and scribo, and between scripsisse and scripsi ; although, with regard to the relation of the action, the imperfect scribebam and the pluperfect scripseram have the same claim as scribo and scrmsi. Hence the first infinitive is also called injini- tivus praesentis et imperfocti, and the other injinitivus perfecH et plusquamper' fecti; but neither of these designations comprises the whole of their sig- nification. [ij 589.] Note 2. — Memini^ in a narrative of events at which the speaker himself has been present, is joined with the present infinitive, although the action may be completed ; and the speaker thus transfers himself to the past, and describes the action as if it was in progress before his eyes ; e. g., Cin,, in Yerr., ii., 4, •memini Pampkyhtm miki narrare; Jjoel.y 3, memini Catonem mecum et cum Scipione disserere ; p. Sext.^ 35, Tneministis turn, judi' ces, corpoTibus civium Tiberim compleri, cloacas referciri^ e foro spongiis effingi sanguinem. So, also, memoria teneo, Q. Scacvolam bello Marsico, quum esset summa senecttUe, quotidie facere omnibus convemendi sui potestatem^ in Cicero, .Philip., vi'ii., 10; and even scribit is construed like meminit; as, Cic, rfe Off; iii-, 2, in fin. And after the analogy of memini^ Cicero {de Off., i., 30), vPithout speaking of things he has witnessed himself, and merely for the sake of vivid expression, says, M. Maximum accemmus facile celare, tacerc, dissimulare, insidiari, praecipere hostium consilia. But when the sentence is not a narrative, but only a statement of a result, memini is also joined with the infinitive of the completed action ; e. g., Cic, p. Rose. Am., 42, me- ministis me ita distribuisse initio caiisam, where the judges are request^ to remember the division he had made ; Cic, p. Mihn., 35, meminit etiam, sihi vocem praeconis modo defuisse, quum minime desiderarit, populi vero cunctis suffragiis, quod unum cupierit, se consulem declaratum ; Liv., xxxvi., 34, qimmr quam merito iratus erat Aetolis, quod solos obtrectasse gloriae suae meminerat. [^i) 590.] Note 3. — The infinitive perfect is sometimes used in Latin in- stead of the infinitive, present, to express the result of ati action rather than its progress ; e. g., juvat me, pudet me hoc fecisse. This is the case chiefly after the expressions satis mihi est, satis habeo, contentus sum, which •re usually joined with the infinitive perfect in the prose of the silver ago INFINITIVE MOOD. 397 0. g., Quintil., ii., 1, 2, Grammatici non satis credunt cxcepisse, quae a rhetori bus reUcta erarU; Veil. Pat., ii., 103, contenti simus id unum dixisse ; ana many other instances. In lilie manner, the infinitive perfect is joined with melius erit; as, Terent., Adelph., ii., 1, 26, ante aedes non fecisse convicium ; Liv., iii., 48, quiesseerit melius; iii., 41, mcem non misisse. In ancient laws forbidding anything, velle is joined, in like manner, with the infinitive per- fect ; e. g., in the senatusconsultum de Bacchanalibus, Ne Bacchanal ha- buisse velit, Bacchas ne quis adisse velit ; and this mode of speaking is olteii imitated by later writers ; as, Horat., Serm., ii., 3, 187, ne quis humasse velit Ajacem, Atrida, vetas cur? Ovid, Am., i., 4, 38, Oscula praecipue nulla de- disse velis; and is farther extended to mere negative sentences; e. g., Herat., Serm., i., 2, 28, sunt qui nolint tetigisse; Liv., xxii., 59, hand equidem premendo alium me extulisse lielim, Plin., Hist. Nat, X., 30, quum iUam (ci- coniam) nemo velit attigisse. Also, vvith a verb equivalent in meaning to m velit; as, Horat., de Art. Poet., 168, commisisse catet, quod mux mutarelabo- ret ; or with the positive velim and similar verbs; as, Liv., xxx., 14, Hanc te qwtque ad ceteras tuas eximias virtutes, Masinissa, adjecisse velim ; Horat., Carm., iii., 4, 52, tendentes Pelion imposuisse Olympo. , The poets go still farther, and use the infinitive perfect, without any reference to a comple- ted action, in the sense of the Greek aorist infinitive, where in ordinary language we should expect the infinitive present ;-e. g., Virg., Xen., vi., 78, Bacchatur vates, magnwn si pectore possit excussisse deum ; Ovid, Ars Am., ii., 583, non vultus texisse suos possunt. ^ [§ 591.] 2. In the passive voice there are, also, two in- finitives, the one to express the progress of a state of suf- fering, and the other the completed state of suffering. The one is called the infinitive present, and the other the infinitive perfect; the former is simple, laudari, to be praised; the second is formed by a combination of the participle perfect with the verb esse ; as, laudatus esse, or, in the accusative, laudatum esse, to have been praised; the participle, of course, takes the number and gender of the object to which it refers. [§ 592.] Note. — In the absence of a special infinitive to express the com pleted state of suffering, custom has assigned to the combination of the participle perfect with esse t^e signification of such an infinitive ; and esse thus loses its own signification of a continued slate ; if, however, the latter must be expressed, another infinitive must be chosen ; e. g., scio urbem ob- sessam teneri, I know that the town is besieged, for scio urbem obsessam esse would not express the continuance of the state, but its completion. Thus we read in Cicero, in Cat., I.,l, constrictam jam horum conscientia teneri con- jurationem tuam non vides ? Where, however, the context is so clear that no ambiguity can arise, the participle with esse (e. g., obsessam esse) may be used, and esse retain its original meaning. Thus, Cic. (ife Off.,i., 19) says, Apud Platonem est, omnern morem Lacedaemoniorum infiamwxtvm esse cupiditate vinceTidi. Batfuisse is used with the participle perfect in its pe- culiar sense of a doubly completed state ; i.e., a state completed previous to a certain past time, and there can be no ambiguity ; e. g., Cic, in Verr., iv., 36, certiorem te faciunt, simulacrum, Dianae aptid Segestanos P. Africam nomine positum ac dedicatum fuisse ; Liv., i., W, pihet bomt animo esse ; sopi- twnfuisse regem subito ictu ; Tacit., Ann., iv., 23, tradidere quidam, Macrom praescriptum fuisw, si arma ab Sejano moverentur, juvenem ducem populo im' fonerz, \S 593.] 3. Besides these infinitives expressing an ac- 398 LATIN GRAMMAR. tion or a state in progress and completed, theie is, both in the active and passive, an infinitive of future time (infin itivusfutwri), vvhich denotes an action or condition as con- tmued. It is formed in the active by a combination of the participle future active veith esse ; as, laudaturum esse; and in the passive by a combination of the supine with iri • as, laudatum iri. The former, owing to its participle, may take different genders and numbers ; the latter admits of no such change ; e. g., Quintil., ix., 2, 88, Reus videbatur damnatum iri; Cic, in Verr., v., 29, Sciebat sibi crimini datum iri pecuniaM accepisse ; de Off., i., 14, arhitrantur se beneficos visum iri. Note. — The future participle in una properly expresses an intention or desire ; and in this sense it takes the infinitives esse and fuisse ; as, lauda- turum esse, to intend praising; laudaturum fuisse, to have intended praising ; scio te scripturum fuisse, I knovr that you have had the intention to write. Nay, even fore is found with the part. fut. in two passages pointed out by Vossius (de Analog., iii., 16),wiz., Cic, ad Att., v., 21, deinde addis, si quia secus, te ad me fore venturum, where Ernesti thinks /ore corrupt ; and Liv., vi., in fin., quum senatus censeret deorum immortalium causa Hbenter facturos fore. But this is a pleonasm j for, according to common usage, venturum esse and factwos esse would be sufScient. The infinitive of an action that had once been intended (scripturum fuisse) is farther used, especially in the apodosis of hypothetical sentences belonging to the past, where in direct speech the pluperfect subjunctive would be used; as, Cic, deDivin., ii., 8, etiamsi obtemperasset auspiciis, idem eventurum fuisse puto ; Tusc, i., 2, An censemus, si Poind laudi datum esset quod pingeret, non multos etiam apud noa futwos Polyclitos fuisse? and in like manner, the infinitive future with esse is used in the apodosis of hypothetical sentences, instead of the im- perfect subjunctive ; e. g., Cic, in Verr., i., 47, libertus, nisi jurasset, scelus se facturum (esse) arbitrabatur. The infinit. perfect poiuisse occurs in Cic, de Off., i., 1, Eqvidem Platonem existimo, si genus forense dicendi tractare vo tuisset, gravissiTne et copiosissime poiuisse dicere, in the sense of ** that he ivould have been able to sp&k," and is to be explained by what has been iaid in ^ 518. [§ 594.] 4. Besides this, a circumlocution may be em- ployed for the infinitive of future time, by means oi futu- rum esse or fore, followed by ut and the subjunctive. Here, too, the difference between an action continued and an action completed in future time may be express- ed, the former by the present and imperfect, and the lat- ter by the perfect and pluperfect of the subjunctive. The choice of one of these four subjunctive tenses depends upon that of the leading verb; e. g., credo fore ut episto- lam scribas, and credeham, fore ut epistolam scriberes, both expressing a continued action in future time ; but credo fore ut epistolam scripseris, and credebamfore ut epistolam icripsisses, expressing a completed action in future time. And so, also, in the passive, credo fore ut epistola scriba- INFINITIVE MOOD. 399 tur, and credehamjbre ul epistola scriberetur, both express- ing a continued state of future suffering ; but in order to express a conq)leted state in future time, we avail our- selves in the passive of the participle perfect scriptus, which was wanting in the active ; hence credo and crede- lam epistolam scriptam fore, for thus we read ; e. g., in Cic, ad Fam., xi., 7, a te jam expectare litteras debemus, quid ipse agas, quid noster Hirtius, quid Caesar meus, quos spero brevi tempore societate victoriae tecum- cojmlatosjbre ; and in Liv., xxiii., 13, rebantur debellatum moxfore,si an- niti pauhclum voluissent. T^he circumlocution, by means otfuturum esse or Jhre wt, is necessary when the verb has no supine or participle future active, which is the case with many intransitives. Hence we cannot say otherwise, for example, than spero futurum esse (fore) ut sapias, ut te hujus rei poeniteat, ut'brevi omnibus his incommodis me- deare. But it is also used in many other cases, and in the passive this form occurs almost more frequently than the infinitive, formed by the supine with iri. Video te velle in coelum migrare, et spero fore ut contingat id nobis, Cic, -Tasc, i., 34. iVb» eram nescius,fore ut hie noster labor in varias repre- hensiones incurreret, Cic, de Fin., init. Ptolemaeus mathematicus Oihoni persuaserat,fore ut in im- perium, asdsceretur. Tacit., Hist., i., 22. [§ 595.] Note 1. — The passive form corresponding to the active infinitive fmsK, with the participle future act., in a hypothetical sense, is the cir- cumlocution by means o( futurum fuisse ut with the imperfect subjunctive ; e. g., rex ignorabat, futurum fuisse ut oppidum ipsi dederetur, si unum diem ex- pectassety the king did not know that the town would have been surrender- ed to him, if he had waited one day longer. Comp. Caes., Bell. Civ., iii., 101, nisi eo ipso tempore nuntii de Caesaris victoria essent allati, existimabant plerique futurum fuisse ut oppidum amitteretur; and Cic, Tusc, iii., 28, Theo. phrastus autem moriens accusasse naturam dicitur, quod cervis et cornicibua vitam diutumam, quorum, id nihil interesset ; homimbus, quorum maxime inter- fuisset, tam exiguam vitam dedisset : quorum si aetas potmsset esse longinqui&r, futurum fuisse ut, ojnnibus perfectis artibus, omni doctrina hominum vita eru- diretur. [^ 596.] Note 2. — What is called the participle future passive can never be used to form a paraphrased infinitive future passive, for this participle has the exclusive meaning of necessity, and as such it has its three regu- larinfinitives : laudandum esse,laudandumfuisse{fi<^vts\eiVXionecesse fuisse ut taudaretur), and laudajidwn fore ; e. g., Liv., xxxvii., 39, Instare hiemem, out sub pellibus habendos milites fore, aut differendum esse in aestatem bellum ; and the correct reading in Curtius, iii., 21, probably is, laetus, quod omniex- petiirat voto, in illis potissimum angustiis decemendum fore. £597.] 5. The infinitive may be regarded as a verbal tantive of the neuter gender, with two cases^ the nom- 400 LATIN GRAMMAR. inative and accusative ; differing from other substantives of the same kind in this respect, that it governs the case which it requires as a real verb, and, at the same time, expresses the complete or incomplete state of an action. The infinitive must be considered as the nominative when it is the subject of a sentence, that is, when anything is declared of it ; e. g., invidere non cadit in sapientem, where invidere is equivalent to invidia ; virtus est vitium fugere, i. e.yfuga vitii; est ars difflcilis recte renf,publicam, legere, i. e., recta guhernatio reipublicae; ignoscere amico human- um est ; laudari jucundum est,juvat, delectat; peccare ne- mini licet. The infinitive must be considered as the ac- cusative when it is the object of a transitive verb ; e. g., volo, cupio, audeo, conorfficere, or dicere aliquid, just as we say cujno aliquam rem, nescio mentiri, didici vera di- cere. The infinitive is very rarely dependent upon prepo- sitions which govern the accusative ; as in Cic, de Fin., ii., 13, Aristo et Pyrrho inter optime valere et gravissime aegrotare nihil prorsus dicehant interesse ; Ovid, Heroid., vii., 164, Quod crimen dicis praeter amasse m,eum 1 Majus dedicus est parta amittere quam omnino non para- visse, Sallust, Jug., 31. Didicisse Jideliter artes emollit m,ores nee sinit esse feros, Ovid, ex Pont., ii., 9, 48. Vincere scis, Hannibal, victoria uti nescis, Liv., xxii., 51. [^ 598.] Note. — As the infinitive expresses the action, state, or suffering implied in the verb, in the form of abstract generality, it approaches to the nature of a substantive (comp. ^ 237 and 681), which is indicated most clearly in Greek, where the infinitive may be preceded by the article. But it retains its character of a verb by its objective case, and still more by the expressed or understood accusative of the subject. The substantive na ture of the infinitive is also visibly indicated by its being joined with the adjective pronoun ipsum ; e, g., Cic, ad Att., xiii., 29, cum vivere ipsum turps sit nobis ; Parad., 3, init., ipsum quidem peccare, quoquo te verteris, unum est ; de Orat.. ii., 6, me hoc ipsum. nihil agere delectat. Other adjective pronouns are rarely joined with it ; as, Petron., 52, meum intelligere nulla pecunia vendo. But we cannot assign to the infinitive more than two cases, although there are some passages in which the infinitive appears in such connex- ions that, if a substantive were substituted for it, we should be obliged to use the genitive, dative, or ablative. But some of these passages admit of ample explanation, for a certain phrase may have the meaning and con- struction of a simple verb ; e. g., when Cicero says, paratus sumfrumentum dare, in the sense of volo dare ; and when consilium mihi est, consilium capio are usoii in the sense of constituo with the infinitive ; e. g., praeterire, in Sallust, Cat., 53, and hominis propinqui fortun^is evertere, in Cic, ^. Quint. 16. On the same principle we may explain Nepos, Lys., 3, iniit consUia rcges Lacedaemoniorum tollere ; Sallust, Cat., 17, quihus in otio vivere copia erat ; i. t.,quUtus licebat vivere • ^at., 30. quibus omnia vendsre m03 erat: i. e., INFINITIVE MOOD. 40* qui solebant vendere ; Curt.j iv,, 33, cupido incesserat non interiora modo Ae* gypti sed etiam Aethiopiam invisere ; i. e., cupiverat. See Draketiborch on Liv., iii., 4, 9. Some, however, are real exceptions from the ordinary prac- tice ; e. g., the relative adjectives which are joined by the poets with the infinitive, instead of the genitive of the gerund ; as, cedere nescius, avidus committere pugnam, cupidus attingere^ cantare peritus. The infinitive, instead of the dative, is sometimes joined with the adjectives utilis^ aptusj idoTieus, natus ; e. g , Horat., Epist^ i., 2, 27, Nos numerics sumus et fruges consumere ■nati ; Ovid, Heroidi., i., 109, nee mihi sunt vires inimicos pellere tectis^ instead of pellen lis inimicis or ad pellendos inimicos. But this, too, is of rare occur- rence, and an imitation of the Greek. The place of the ablative is sup- plied by the infinitive, if we may say so, with the adjectives digrms and contentnsy which we have already explained in § 568 and 590. In classical prose, therefore, we cannot consider the infinitive in any other light than as a verbal substantive with two equal cases. [§ 599.] 6. When the infinitive has its own subject joined to it, it is put in the accusative. Note. — An exception here presents itself at once in the historical infin- itive {injlnitiims historicus)^ to which the subject is joined in the nominative. The historical infinitive is a peculiar mode of using the present infinitive (or the infinit. rei infectaej according to i} 588) in a narrative, instead of the imperfect indicative, when actions or conditions are to be described in a lively and animated manner as continuing : in this case the infinitive rep- resents the idea implied in the verb as a noun, and independent of all the additional meanings conveyed by the tenses. The imperfect, therefore, maintains its place along with the historical infinitive, and re-enters when an explanatory clause is inserted in the description ; e. g., Cic, in Verr., iv., 18, Quod ubi iste audivit, usque eo est commotus, vi sine ulla dubitatione in- sanire omnibus acfurere videretur. Quia non potuerat argentum eripere, ipse a DiodoTO erepta sibi vasa optime facta dicebat : minitari absenti DiodoTO, vocife- rari palam, lacrimas inUrdum vix tenere ; Liv., xxxi., 41, Philippus inopinanti bus adveyiit. Quern quum adesse refugientes ex agris quidam pavidi nuntiassent, trepidare Damocritus ceterique duces : et erat forte meridianum tempus, quo ple- rique graves cibo sopiti jacebant ; excitare igitur alii alios^ jubere arma caperCj alios dimittere ad revocandos, qui palati per agros praedabantur. Such histori- cal infinitives thus have their subject joined to them in the nominative, whetherit be a substantiveora pronoun; as,Terent.,^7)£Zr.,i., 1,120, JS^oiWuii sedulo negare factum : ille instat factum (esse). We shall add only one more instance from the writer, who is particularly fond of describing things by the historical infinitive, Sallust, Cat., 6, Igitur reges populique finitimi bello temptare, pauci ex amicis auxilio esse: nam ceteri metu percutsi a periculis abe~ rant : at Romani, domi militiaeque intenti, festinare, parare, alius alium hortari, hostibus obviam ire, libertatem, patriam parentesque armis tegere. Post, ub? peri- cula virtute propuleraJit, sociis atque amicis auxilia portabant. Respecting the mode of introducing such infinitives by means of quum, see ^ 582. Their introduction by ut, vbi, postquam, in the protasis occurs only in Tacitus ; e, g., Ann., xii., 51, uhi qjtati uterus, et viscera vibrantur ■ ii., 6, postquam eariji aeqvalitas, et ambitio incedehat ; comp. i., 20. [§ 600.] This is the construction of the accusative with the infinitive, which, like the infinitive alone, is used in two ways, either as the subject or as the object of a prop- osition. The accusative with the infinitive is the subject, wherever, if we would or could use a substantive in its place, it would be in the nominative. So it is especially when a substantive or adjective is added as predicate by L L ? 402 LATIN GRAMMAR. means of est, erat,fuit, &c. ; as, justum, aequum, verisim He, consentaneum, apertum est, necesse est and opus est, oi an impersonal verb; as, apparet, constat, conventt, decet, licet, oportet, or the third person singular of the passive ; as, intelligitur, perspicitur, and the like ; e. g., Victorem parcere victis aequum est, it is fair that the conqueror should spare the conquered, i. e., the clemency of the conqueror towards the conquered is fair. Accusatores multos esse in civitate utile est, ut metu contine- atur, audacia, Cic, p. Rosa. Am., 20. Hoc quidem apparet, nos ad agendum esse natos, Cic, de Fin., v., 21. Constat pr fecto ad salutem civium inventus esse leges, Cic, de Leg., ii., 5. Legem brevem esse oportet, quo facilius ah imperitis tenea- tur, Senec, Epist., 94. Non sine causa dictum est, nihil Jucilius quam lac^imas in- arescere, Quintil., vi., 1, 27. Hate 1. — Sometimes a circumlocution, by means of quod, properly id quod (the fact that), is used for the accusative with the infinitive ; farther, after several adjective expressions, even after some of those mentioned above, ut with the subjunctive is used for the infinitive ; in which case, however, the meaning is somewhat altered. We shall return to these noints here- after, 5 626 and 623, in order not to interrupt our present discussion by exceptions. We shall add only the remark, which is of importance to the beginner, that it is, properly speaking, inaccurate to say that the accusat. with the infinit. is governed by utile est, constat, or oportet, for the infinitive is here the nominative ; and we might say, e. g., accusatorum multitudo utilis tst, or legttm brevitas necessaria est. We have not noticed above the- fact that the infinit. and the accus., with the infinit., may also be the nominative of the predicate ; for as two substantives may be placed in such a relation to each other that the one is the subject and the other the predicate, so, also, may two infinitive sentences stand to each other in the relation of subject and predicate ; e. g., Sallust., Jug., Impune quaelibetfacere id est regem esse. Id might here be omitted, and only represents the infinitive expression as a substantive : facere (see ^ 608) is the subject, and regem esse the predi cate. [4 601.] Note 2.— Licet may be joined with the accus. with the infinit., or we may say licet mihi with the infinit alone ; e. g., scribere. The latter is more frequent ; and when the infinitive esse (or others of a similar mean- ing ; as, fieri, vivere, vitam degere, abire) is accompanied by a noun as a pred- icate, the latter, too, is pat in the dative; e. g., Cic, Tusc, i., I5,licui. enim esse otioso Themistocli ; ad An., i., 17, quo in genere mihi nesligentt esse non licet ;, p. Flacc., 29, cur his esse liberis non licet ? Liv., iii., 50, sibi vitam filiae sua carioremfuisse, si liberae ac pudicae vivere licitum fuisset (ei) ; xxvi., 41, Hannibal precatur deos, ut in£olumi cedere atque abire ex hostium terra liceat. But the accusal., too, is frequent enough ; e. g., Cic, m Verr., v., 32, 6> Tocusanum in insula habitare non licet ; ibid., 59, non licet me isto tanto bom uti. See my note on Cic, in Verr., v., 18, 45. The same is the case with the infinitive of the passive ; as, Cic, ad Fam., iii., 10, ne caoplari quidem sacer- dotem Ucebat. See Heusinger on Cic, de Off., i., 7. It is surprising to find botl' fii^i^s in the samp sentence, as in Cic, p. Balb., '\2,sicivi Romano Itc^ INFINITIVE MOOD. 403 esse Gaditanumt sive ej;iUoj sive postlinnmo^ sive rejectione hujus civitaiis ; and in Caes., Bell. Civ., Hi.', I, is eiiim erat annus, quo per leges ei consulem fien liceret. We also find mihi necesse est dieere ; and, in connexion with licet, we find mihi necesse est esse with the predicate in the dative, Liv., zxi., 44, Illi. timidis et igrtavis licet esse, vobis necesse estfortibus viris esse. It must, how- ever, be observed that licet, oportel, and necesse est are also joined with the "iibjunctive ; e. g., fremant omnes licet, sequantur Hermagoram licebit, which accounts for the construction of licet, when it is used as a conjunction in the sense of {uomuis. See above, () 574 and I) 625. [§ 602.] 7. The accusative with the infinitive is the ob- ject after verbs which have a sentence for their direct ob- ject, i. e., after those which denote an action of our ex- ternal or internal faculties, or a declaration (verba sentien- di et declarandi). The principal verbs of this kind are, audio, video, sentio, animadverto, cognosce, intelligo, pcr- cipio, disco, scio, credo, arbitror, puto, opinor, duco, statuo, memini, rccordor, obliviscor ; dico, trade, prodo, scribo, re- fero, nuntio, amjirmo, nego, ostendo, demonstro, perliibeo, promitto, polliceor, spondeo, and several others, denoting feeling, knowing, thinking, or saying. These and other verbs of the same kind, instead of being followed by a dependent sentence with a conjunction (that, quod), re- quire the infinitive, and the subject of the dependent sen- tence is put in the accusative. (In English, the two sen- tences are sometimes put in juxtaposition vnthout any sign of dependence or connexion ; e. g., he feels that he is unhappy, or, he feels he is unhappy.) Sentit animus, se sua vi, non aliena, moveri, Cicero. Ego ne utilem quidem arbitror esse nobis futurarum rerum scientiam, Cic, de Divin., ii., 9. Pompeios, celebrem Campaniae urbem, desedisse terrae rnotu audivimus, Senec, Nat. Quaest., vi., init. Clodius adkuc mihi denuntiat periculum : Pompeius affir- mat non esse periculum, adjurat, addit etiam se prius oc- dsum iri ab eo, quarn me violatum iri, Cic, ad Att,, ii., 20. (He might have said prius futurum esse, ox fare, ut ab eo occidatur, quam ego violer.J [tf 603.] Note 1. — ^The propositions which are in direct dependence upon the above-mentioned verbs are put in the accusative with the infinitive • the clauses inserted in such a proposition are, accprding to circumstances, either in the indicative or the subjunctive, and in the latter more especial- ly when they are inseparably connected with the proposition expressed by the accus. with the infinitive, containing either the words or sentiments of the person spoken of. (See ^ 545.) Respecting such inserted clauses we must add the following remarks: (a) When a relative clause has the same verb as the proposition wito the infinitive, b' t without its being repeated, the noun which is the sub- 404 LATIN GRAMMAR ]ect of the relative clause is put in the accusative ; e. g , Cic, Ttuc, l 17, Platonem ferunt jtrimum de animorum. aetemitate sensisse idem, yhod Pytk agoram ; Cat, Maj.j i., Te suspicor eisdem rebus, quibiis me ipsum, coinmoveri if, however, the verb of the relative clause is expressed, we must say idert quod Pythagoras sensit, and iisdem quibus {ego) ipse commoveor. " For mori examples, see ^ 774. {b) The same is the case with the particle quam after a comparative We say, e. g., Terentium censeo elegantiorem fuisse poetam^ quam Plautum instead of quam Plautus fmt ; as in Cicero, de Fin., iii., 19, decet carioren esse patriam nobis, quam nosmet ipsos ; i. e., quam nosmet ipsi nobis sumus Sometimes, however, it happens that the clause with quam, even when ii has a verb of its own, attaches itself so closely to the preceding construc- tion, as to accompany it in the accusat. with tlie infinit. ; as, Cic, ad Fam.^ ii., 16, Nonne tibi offirmavi, quidvis me potius perpessurum, quam ex Italia ad bellum civile me exiturum, instead of the more regular quam exirem, or quam ut exirem ; as in Livy, xl., 4, Mulier aicsa est dicere, se sua manu potius omnes (liberos suos) interfecturam, quam in potestatem Philippi venirent ; and xxxv,, 31, (testatus est) Magnetos in corpora sua citiu^ saevituros, quam ut Romanam amidtiam violarent. (c) When long speeches of other persons are given in the historical form (which is called oratio obliqua in a narrower sense), even complete relative clauses (i. e., such as have a verb of their own), which properly should be in the subjunctive, are put in the accusative with the infinitive, if the rel- ative clause is not subordinate to or dependent upon the one with the in finitive, governed by a verbum sentiendi et declarandi, but rather co-ordinat( or running parallel with it, in which case the relative pronoun is equiva lent to the demonstrativt- with et, and only a grammatical form to conned two sentences. Thus, for example, Cic, in Verr., v., 62, Res ad eum de fertur : esse civem Romanum, qui se Syracusis in lautumiis fuisse quereretur ; quem jam ingredientem navem et Verri nimis atrociter minitantem, a se retrac- tum esse et asservatum, ut ipse in eum statueret, quod viderefur, for eumque a se retractum esse ; Nep., 7Aem.,7, nam illorum urbem (Athenas) utpropugna calum oj^ypositum esse barbaris, apud quam jam bis classes regias fecisse navfra- gium, for et apud earn jam bis classes regias fecisse naufragium. (See the note ii J. M. Heusinger on this passage.) In Livy and Tacitus there are some passages in which the accUs. with the inlin. is used in the oratio obliqua instead of the subjunctive, even after conjunctions, as after quum in Liv., iv.,51, (plebs aegre ferebnt) jacere tam diu irritas actiones, quae de suis com- modis ferrentuf^ quum interim de sangubie ac supplicio suo latam legem confes- tim exerceri, where et would have been sufficient, and quum is used to ex- press simultaneity (^ 580) ; but the infinitive is rather an anomaly ; after qu^mquam, in Tacit,, Ann., xii., 65, quamquam ne impudicitiam quidem nunc abesse, is justified by the absolute signification of quamquam (^ 341); after quia, in Liv., xxvi., 27, Flaccus ideo se moenibus inclusos tehere eos (dicebat): quia, si qui evasissent aliquo, velut feras bestias vagari, is much more surpri sing, and too great a license. The leading propositions in the oratio obliqua (which in the oratio recta would be in the indicative) are thus put in the accus. with the infinitive ; and all other clauses, the tenses of which depend upon that of the leading verbum sentiendi et declarandi, are put in the subjunctive. We add the remark, that the imperatives of the direct speech become subjunctives in the oratio obliqua ; e. g., hoc miki dicite, but in the oratio obliqua, hoc sibi dicant, or hoc sibi dicerent, according as the leading verb expresses either present or past time. Direct questions, which in direct speech are in Ibe mdicative, are expressed in the oratio obliqua by the accusative with the infinitive, except questions addressed to the second person, which, like the imperatives, become subjunctives ; e. g., when in direct speech we say etiamsi veteris contumeliae oblivisci velim, num possum etiam recentium injuria- mm memoriam deponere? the oratio obl>qua will be (Caes., Bell. Gall., i., 14), Caesar respondit (histor. perf,)— si veteris co7itumeliae oblivitci vellet, nitw qu C, INFINITIVE MOOD. 405 tt t rfcentium injwriarutn, quod eo invito (should be se iji^ito, but sen *J 550) itt «r provinciam per^im temptassent, memoriam deponere pos/te ? Again, ill dii 't speech, we say, Hocine patiendum fuit, si ad nutum dictatoris non re- tpOhfiCit ? Finite mentitum. esse : cm servo imqtiam mendacii poena vinculafue- runt • but in the oratio obliqua (Liv., vi., 17), (Indignabantur) Hocine patien- dum fdisse, si ad nutum dictatoris non respmderit vir consuldris ? Fingerent mentitum ante, atque iden non habuisse quod turn responderet : cui servo unquam mendacii poenam vincula fuisse? But questions addressed to the second person are expressed in the oratio obliqua by the subjunctive ; e. g., Liy., vi., 37, (affirinabant) An jam memoria exisse (direct an exiit3^ XLIV annis neminem ex plehe tribunum militum creatum esse ? Qvi crederent (direct Qui creditis ? how do you think ?) duolms nunc in locis impartituros plebi honorem, qui octona locairihmis militum creandis occupare soliti sint. For otherexam- ples of questions which are expressed in the oratio obliqua, either by the accus. with the infinitive, or by the subjunctive, see Liv., iii., 72 ; vii., 4 ; viii., 33. The accusative with the infinitive is rarely found in a question' of the second person ; as in Liv., vi., 17, where, however, it is combined with one- of the third person, selibrisne f arris gratiam servatori patriae rela- tam ? ety quern cognomine Ca^itolino prope Jovi parem fecerintf pati (for pater- entur) vinclum in carcere ? The subjunctive in questions of the third person is less uncommon in Caesar; e. g., Bell. Gall., i., 43, Quis pati posset ? for . Rose. Am.y 22, conjitere hue ea spe venisse ; p. Sidl., 23, agrariae legi inlerces- gorem fore prof essus est ; p. Muren., 3, qui gravissime et acerbissime ferre dixit. But such passages, as was said above, are comparatively rare ; and the 406 LATIN GRAMMAR. amission of se as the accusal, of the subject (which would be e^o iiidirec' speech) is frequent only in a long oiatio obliqua in historians. [^ 606.] Note 3. — When the use of an infinitive aStive would bring two accusatives together, one of the subject and the other of the object, and an ambiguity would be likely to arise, it is thp rule to prefer the passive construction, by which the accusative of the object becomes the subject, and the other is avoided or explained by the preposition ab or per. A t vero ne fando quidem avditum est, crocodilwn aut ibim aut felem violaium (esse) ab Aegyptio, Cic, de Nat. Dear., i., 29. If we were to say crocodilum violasse Aegyptium, there would certainly be a great ambiguity ; but where no such ambiguity is to be apprehended, even the best authors use two accusatives by the side of each other. [§ 607.] 8. The accusative of the subject in the con- .struction *f the accusative with the infinitive after the verbs denoting saying, showing, and believing (dicere, ne- gare, tradere,ferre, memorare, narrate, nuntiare, perhibere, prodere,' scribere ; demonstrare, ostendere, arguere, credere, putare, existimare, and some others of the same meaning), is regarded, also, as an accusative of the object, governed by those verbs, and hence the passive construction, also, is admissible (according to § 382), by vyhich the accusative becomes the nominative. This is the case, especially, when the subject of those verbs is indefinite ; as, dicunt (they, or people say) me virum probiim esse, or dicor vir probus esse, and so through all persons and tenses, diceris, dicitur vir probus esse; dicimur, dicimini, dicuntur viri pro- hi esse or fecisse. The same is firequently the case with the verbs jubere, vetare, and prohibere (comp. § 617), so that the. passives of these verbs are used personally; as, vetamur, prohibemur hoc facere, abire jussus sum, consules juhentur exercitum scribere, and sometimes even an infinit. passive is added; e. g., Cic, Philip., ii., 32, jussus es re- nuntiari consul. - Farther, instead of the impersonal vide- tUT (it appears) with the accusal, with the infinit., it is quite common to say personally, videor, videris, videtur videmur, videmini, videntur vrith the infinitive ; as, videoi errasse, it appears that I have erred ; videor deceptus esse, it appears that I have been deceived. See above, § 380. Xanthippe, Socratis philosophi uxor, morosa admodumfu- issefertur et jurgiosa, Gellius, i., 17. Regnante Tarquinio Superbo Sybarim et Crotonem Py- thagoras venisse reperitur, Cic, de Re Publ., ii., 15. Athenis actor movere affectus vetabalur, C^uintil., ii., 16. Note. — The accus. with the infinit. after the passives dicitur, traiitur,ftr tur, narratur, existimatur, &c., that is, the impersonal use of these passiTes, is, indeed, admissible, but occurs more rarely than the personal construe. Uon. (See Duker on Floras, ii., 6, ^ 45 ; Drakenborch on Livy, i., 31.' INFINITIVE MDOD. 407 Hence we must regard it as an exception when we read in Nepos, Pous, 5, dicitur eo tempore matrem Pausaniae vixisse ; Liv., v., 33, eatn gentem tradi turjama, dutcedine frugum maximeque vini coptam Alpes transisse ; xl., 29, ere- ditur Pi/thagorae auditorem fuisse Numam. It is more frequently the case with nuntiatur, nuntiabatur ; as in Caes., Bell. Civ., i., 51 ; Cic, p. Milon.j 18 ; but it is very common with the compound tenses (^Iraditum est, proditum est, creditum est) and with the participle future passive [credendum est, intelli- sendum est, existimandum est) ; e. g., Cic, de Nat, De'or., ii,, 63, Fides et tibi- as eoruTn. causa factas dicendwn est, qui illis uti possunt ; and ibid., 66, quorum ntminem nisi juvante deo talem {taTnjfortem ac reip. utilem) fuisse credendum est^ [§ 608.] 9. The subject cannot be expressed with the iti'finitive when it is an indefinite person, for the Romans had no word to express the English " one" (French onj, and hence we say ignoscere amico humanum est, to forgive a friend is humane, or, it is humane that one (or we) should forgive a friend ; facinus est vincire civem Romanum. But even in thfs case the verb esse, and those denoting " to appeal-," " to be considered," or " called" (§ 394), re- quire the predicate, if it be declinable, to agree with th«3 non-expressed subject in the accusative ; e. g., ignoscere amico humanum est, recordanfem beneficiorum, ah eo accep- torum, it is humane that one should forgive a friend, re- membering the benefit received of him. Cmitentum suis rebus esse maximae sunt certissimaeque di- viiiae, Cic, Parad., 6. Idcet opera prodesse multis, henefida petentem, commendan- tern magistratibws, vigilantem pro re alterius, Cic, dt Off., u., 19. Atticus maximum existimavit quaestum, memorem gra- tumque cognosci, Nep., Att., 9. Magnis in laudibus tota fore fuit Graecia victorem Olym- viae citari, Nep., Praef. Note. — The indefinite pronoun, which may be supplied in these cases, is oliquem, and when the accus. plur. is used, aliquos. The same indefinite- ness, however, may be expressed by te or nos, or what is to be especially observed, by the infinitive passive. . Hence the sentences ignoscere amico humanum est and facinus est vincire caiem Romanum, may also be expressed by ignosd amico humanum est, facinus est vim:iri civemRomanum ; e. g., Nep. milt., 4, quum viderent de eorum virtute non desperari, et hastes eadem re fore tardiores, si animadverterent auderi adversus se tarn cxiguis copiis dimicare. This is to be observed especially on account of the impersonal verbs licet, decet, oportet, opus est, necesse est, which, if there is iy> definite subject, are joined with the infinitive active alone ; e. g., licet hocfacere, decet specimen capers ex hoc re, ex malis eUgere mininui oportet^ or with a complete accusal, with the inlinit. in the passive construction ; as, licet hoc Jieri, decet speci- men capi, ex malis eligi minima oportet, [§ 609.] 10. The accusative with the infinitive some- times stands apparently quite independent, but is to be explained by an ellipsis of credibile est ? verumne est 1 408 LATIN GRAMMAR. This is the case in exclamations, and, -when the interroga- tive particle is annexed, in interrogations expressive of indignation ; e. g., Cic, in Verr., v , 44, lllam clementiam mansuetudinemque nostri imperii in tantam crudelitatem in- humanitatemque esse conversa-m ! ad Fam., xiv., 2, Hem, mea lux, te nunc, mea Terentia, sic vexari, sic jacere in la- crimis et'sordibus! idque fieri mea culpa. Sec; Virg., Aen., i., 37, Mene incepto desistere uictam, Nee posse Italia Teu- crorum avertere regem ! Terent., Andr., i., 5, 10, Adeone esse hmnincm infclicein quemquam, ut ego sum ! Cic, p. Rose. Am., 34, Tene, quum ceteri socii tui Jugerent ac se occultarent, tibi potissimum istas partes depoposcisse, ut in judicio versarere et sederes cum accusatore ! in Verr., v., 6, O praeclarum imperatorem ! tantumne^ vidisse (eum) in metu periculoque provinciae ! " But it must be observed that a sentence with ut may also be used, both w^ith and writhout an interrogative particle, to express a question with indignation ; e. g., Terent., Andr., i., 5, 28, Eine (pa- tri) ego ut adverser f Liv., iv., 2, lllinc ut impune bella concitent ? v., 24, victamne ut quisquam victrici patriae praeferret ? Cic, in Cat., i., 9, Tu ut unquam te corrigas 1 in Verr., iii., IQ, judicio ut aratordecumanum persequatur? where we may supply.^eri potest ? [§ 610.] 11. The verbs, I can, shall, hasten, venture,am accustomed, and others of the same kind, are .followed in Latin, as in English, by the mere infinitive, and not by a proposition. When they are joined with esse, haberi,ju- dicari, videri, &c., the predicate is put in the nominative; e. g., solet tristis videri, aude sapiens esse, proper at abire, coepit mihi molestus esse, debes esse diligens, potest liber esse, and'so, also, mcretur, scit, didicit liber esse. But the verbs volo, nolo, malo ; cupio, opto, studeo, admit of a twofold construction : the mere infinitive is used after them when the subject remains the same, and when they are followed by esse, or any of the above-mentioned verbs, the predi- cate is in the nominative ; but the accus. with the infinit. is used when the subject is changed, or when the pro- noun of the same person is repeated. On the one hand, therefore, we say volo erwditus fieri, and on the other volo te eruditum fieri, and volo me eruditum fieri. Hence it is indifferent whether I say discipulum me haheri volo, nan doctor em, or discipulus haberi volo, non doctor ; principem se esse maluit quam videri, or princeps esse maluit quam videri. INFINITIVE MOOD. 409 Volo is esse, quern tii me esse voluisti, Cic, ad Fam., i., 7. Cupio me esse clememtem, cupio in tantis rei puhlicae peri- cuKs me non dissolutum videri (or cupio esse clemens nee dissolutus videri), Cic, in Cat., i., 2. Omnis homines, qui sese student praestare ceteris animali- bus, summa ope niti decct, ne vitam silentio transcant, Sallust, Cat., init. [% 611.] Note 1. — Particular attention is to be paid to the infinitive pass- ive with veils ; e. g., me amari volo, I wish to be beloved ; hoc velim intelligi, I wish this to be understood. The infinitive perfect passive is joined with it, originally to express the zeal and rapidity with which a thing was done ; e. g., Cic, p. Leg, Man., 5, Legaii quod erant appeliAiti superbius, Corinthum patres vestri, totixts Graeciae lumen, extinctum. esse voluerunt ; in Q. Coec, 6, quihus maxime lex consultum esse vult ; p. Jiig., 5, saluti civis calamitosi con- svltum esse volumus ; but it occurs still more frequently with the omission of esse (or, as it may be expressed, with the participle perf. pass.) ; e. g., Cicero, hoc natura praescribit, ut homo homini consultum veUt ; his omnibus me vehementer excusatum volo ; hoc factum, volo ; nunc illos commonitos velim ; pa- tres ordinem publicanorum offensum nolebant; aliis hanc laudem praereptam nolo ; patriam. extinctam. cupit, &c. [(j 612.] Note 2. — But the nominative with the infinitive after the other above-mentioned verba seyUiendi et declarandi occurs very rarely even in poa try, and is to be explained only as an imitation of the Greek, in which lan- guage it is the rule to use the nominat. with the infinitive, when the same subject remains. Thus we find in Catullus, iv., Phaselus Hie, quern videtis hospites, ait fuisse navium celerrimus ; in Horace, Epist., i., 7, 22, vir bonus et sapiens dignis ait esse paratus ;-Ovid, Met., xiii., 141, quia rettulit Ajax esse Jovis pronepos, instead of se esse Jovis pronepotem ; Trist., ii., 10, acceptum refero versitms esse nocens, and Propert., iii., 6 (4), 40, combines both con- structions : me quoque consimili impositum torquerier igni jurabo, et bis sex in- teger esse dies. But there are no other instances of this kind in these classi £al poets ; for in Horace, Carm., ill., 27, 73, uxor invicti Jovis esse nescis is flsed for non vales, or non audes esse uxor, rather than for te esse uxorem. dnd in hke manner, we may, in other passages, explain the nominat. with ihe infinit. as a mere poetical license in the choice of the expression ; as in Ovid, Ars Am., i., 345, gaudent tamen esse rogatae, where gaudent is equiv- alent to volunt. There is only one more passage (Virg., Aen., ii., 377) in which the poet uses the participle in this way, aensit medioa delapsus in hostes, in imitation of the Greek yadero iinzeauv, instead of the Latiii se delapsum esse. ^ [§ 613.] 12. There are many Latin verbs which, accord- ing to our notions, seem to require a proposition for their direct object, that is, the accusative vyith the infinitive, but which, nevertheless, are followed in Latiri by ut with the subjunctive, either exclusively, or admit the construction of the accusal, with the infinit. besides. This arises from the circumstance that such propositions may be, or, more properly, must be conceived as expressing a design, pur- pose, effect, or result of the leading proposition, which is indicated by ut {or nej. ^) The verbs potior and sino are generally followed by the infinitive, and more rarely by vt ; the verbs opto. Mm 410 LATIN GRAMMAR. concedo, permitto, which have a more foicible meaning, may have either the infinitive or ut; posco, postulo,jlagi- to, and cogo have more frequently ut than the infinitive. Consuetudo lahorum ferpessionem dolorum efficitfaciliorem Itaque illi, qui Graeciae formam rerum puhlicarum de- derunt, corpora juvenum Jirmari labore voluerunt, Cic, T^i;sc., ii., 15. Pha'dtkon optavit ut in currum patris iolleretur (instead of tolli or se tolli), Cic, de Off., iii., 25. Ulud natura nan patitur, ut aliorum spoliis nostras Jacul- tates, copias, opes augeamus, Gic, de Off"., iii., 5. Augustus dominum se appellari ne a liheris quidem aut ne- potibus suis passus est, Sueton., Aug., 53. Note. — Volo ut is more rare, but is used to express a strong emphasis , e. g., Cic, in Vatin., 7, has several times volo vti mihi respondeas. Nolo vt does not occur. Malle is used by Cicero, ad Att., -viii., 9, in both construc- tions : BaUms minor aiebat^ nihil malle Caesarem, quam ut Pompeium asseque- retur. Balbus quidem major ad me scribit, nihil malle Caesarem quamprincipe Pompeio sine metu vivere. Postulare, too, is found with different construc- tions ; Curt., vi., 43, Non homines sohim, sed etiam deos despicit qui postulat deus credi ; Cic, in Yerr.^ iii., 60, Hie postulat se Romae ahsolvi, qui in sua proviiuna judicarit se absolv£^ullo modo posse. Ut is of quite common occur ■ rence with postulo ; e. g., liv., iii., 19, Tritmni plebis postulant, ut sacrosancti habeantar. Cicero uses optare ut exclusively ; but in other good authors the infinitive is found frequently. Recusare is used indiscriminately ei ther with the infinitive or with ne. [§ 614.J fbj Tllte verbs of resolving and endeavouring to do or prevent a thing are followed by ut and ne, when the dependent clause has a subject of its own ; but when the same subject remains they are generally followed by the infinitive (i. f., the nominat. with the infinit.), though ut is found in this case also. Verbs of this kind are, sta- tuo, constituo, decemo, tempto (also spelled tentoj, paro, meditw-, euro, nitor, contendo, and the phrases consilium capio, in animum induce, or animum induco. Hence we may say constitui domi manere, as well as constituo ut dom* manerem; but we can say only constitui ut filius mens te- cum habitaret. Ut is used almost exclusively after the ex- ?ressions operam do, I exert myself; id (hoc, illudj ago, endeavour or exert myself (see § 748) ; niJiil antiquitu Tiabeo, or duco, quam, nothing is of more importance to me ; and videre in the sense of curare. Qui sapientes appellari volunt, inducant animum divitias, honores, opes contemnere, eaque, quae his contraria^sunt, pro nihilo ducere, Cic, Tusc, v., 10. « Erat certi accusatoris offidum, qui tanti sceleru argueret. INFINITIVE MOOD. 41 j explicare omnia vitiajilii, quibits incensus parens jpotue rii animum inducere, ut naturam ipsam vinceret, ut amo- rem ilium penitus insitum ^iceret ex animo, ut denique patrem esse sese ohlivisceretur, Gic, p. Rose. Am., 19. Omne animal se ipsum diligit, ac simul ut ortum est id agit, ut se conservet, Gic, de Fin., v., 9. Videndum est igitur, ut ea liberalitate utamur, quae prosit amicis, noceat nemini, Gic, de Off., i., 14. [§ 615.] (c) The verbs rogo, oro, precor, peto, moneo, admoneo, commoneo, hortor, adhortor, cohortor, exhortor, suadeo, persuadeo, instituo (I instruct), impello, perpello, exciio, incito, impero, and some others, are followed by ut and ne in both cases, when the subject remains the same, and when it is changed, and by the infinitive only by way of exception, and by a license in speaking. The com- plete accusat. with the infinit. occurs with some of them only when their meaning is different, as with maneo and admoneo in the sense of " I remind" a person that a thing is, not is to he; with persuadeo in the sense of "I con- vince." But, on the other hand, even such v«jrbs as nun- tio, dico, scribo, are followed by ut, when the meaning is " I announce, say, or write, with the intention that," &c. llliid te oro et hortor, ut in extrema parte muneris tui dili- gentissimus sis, Gic, ad Quint. Frat., i., 1. Moneo ohtestorque, ut hos, qui tibi genere propinqui sunt, caros habeas, neu malis alienos adjungere, quam sanguine conjunctos retinere, Sallust, Jug., 10. Themistocles persuasit populo, ut pecunia publico., quae ex metallis rediret, classis centum navium aedificaretur, Nep., Them., 2. Tibi persuade, praeter culpam et peccatum homini accidere nihil posse, quod sit horribile aut pertimescendum, Gic, ad Fam., v., 21. Parmenio litteras aperit, in quis erat scriptum, ut mature Alexander aliquem ex ducibus suis mitteret Gurt., iii., 33 (13). l§ 616.] Note 1. — We have above described the infinitivo ns of rare oc currence, that is, in comparison with the much more frequent use of ut ii the prose of the best period of Roman literature. It must, however, be observed that the poets and later prose writers, in imitation of the Greeks, are partial to the infinitive with these verbs, and use it, in.stead of uj with the subjunctive, without any difference ; Tacitus,, in particular, almost in- variably prefers the infinitive, being more concise than the construction »i!h ut. Some few instances of the same kind occur even in Cicero j e. g. 412 LATIN GRAMMAR. p. Sext., 3, Mihiante oculos obversatur reipublicae dignitas, qiiae me ad lese ta fit, haec minora relinquere hortatur ; de Fin., i., 20, Cum vita sine amicis in- sidiarum et metus plena sit, ratio ipsa monet amicitias contparare ; and m _Ne- pos, Dion, 3, Plato autem tantum apud Dionysium anctoritate potuit valuitque cloquentia, ut ei persuaserit tyrannidis facerefinem libertaternque reddere Syra- cusanis ; comp. Nep., Phoc., 1. But this should not be imitated, and must be remembered only because it often occurs in the poets and later prose writers. The poets go even farther, and use the infinitive to express a de- sign or purpose, for which ul ought to be employed ; e. g., Herat., Carm., i., 2, 7, Proteus pecus figit altos visere montes. [^ 617.] Note 2. — The verbs of commanding ; as, imperare, mandare, pae- scribere, edicere (to issue a command), legem dare, decernere, are followed by ut, according to the above rule." Jubere and vetare alone form an excep- tion, being construed with the accusative with the infinitive, but attention must be paid as to whether the infinitive active or passive is to be used ; e. g., militem occidi jussit, he ordered the soldier to be put to death ; eum abire jussit, he ordered him to depart ; vetuit contra vallo muniri, and vetuit legatos ab opere discedere. Exceptions from this regular construction are rare, but sometimes the subject is omitted, when it is indefinite or one which is always understood vvith certain actions.; as in Cicero, lex recte facere j-ubet, vetat delinquere, viz., komznes ; Caes., Bell. Gall., v., 34, duces eorum tola acie pronuntiare jusserunt,viz., praecones ; ii., 5, castra munire ju- bet, viz., milites ; Liv., iii., 22, signum observare jussit ; xliii., 3, tribuni mili- tum pabulum lignaque projicere juberit ; xxix., 7, receptui canere cum jussisset, viz., tubicines ; xxv., 10, Hannibal Tarentinos sine armis convocare jubec,y\z., eum, qui convocandi potestatem habebat. Nor is there any objection to the subject being omitted, if it is mentioned shortly before. The poets, how- ever, sometimes go too far, and the infinitive active then seems to be ased for the passive ; their example is followed by some prose writers. See Horat., Carm., ii., 3, 14 ; ii., 15, m fin. ; iii., 21,7; and Emesti on Tacit., Hist., i., 38, Jvheo tiln ut hoc facias, or with the omission of ut : jubeo tibt hoc facias is likewise rare, but is found in Tacit., Ann., xiii., 15 and 40. But the expres.sion jubeo tibi facere must be rejected, for it is only based ipon two doubtful passages in Cicero, ad Att., ix., 13, 2, and Curt., v., 20 6, 8). Compare the commentators on Liv., xxvii., 24. But jubeo ut hoc facias, without a dative of the' person, may be used, just as veto ne hoc fa lias, and is in accordance with the general rule ; e. g., Cic, in Verr., iv., 12, hie tibi in mentem non venit jubere, ut haec quoque referret? Jussi venires, for ut venires, occurs in Ovid, Met., iv.. 111. Imperare, on the other hand, is sometimes used, like jubere, with the accusat. with the infinit. (pass.) • e. g., Cic, in Verr., v., 27, eodem ceteros piratas condi imperarat ; ibid., ,56, ipsos in lautumias abduci imperabat ; but it is more frequently construed with u£. Censeo,, too, in the sense of " I give my opinion to the elfect Jhat," is construed like jubeo, and takes the accusat. with the infinit. pass, instead oi ut ; as, Liv., ii., 5,de bonis regis, quae reddi ante censuerant, res integra re fertur ad patres, where Drakenborch adduces several other passages. It is construed very frequently with esse and the participle of necessity, or with this participle alone, esse being understood ; e. g:., Carthaginem delendam censeo. Cejiseo does not occur in prose with the infinitive active, instead of which ut or the subjunctive witnout ut is used, according to ^ 624. [§ 618.] (d) The verbs of effecting, viz., facio, efficio, perficio, evinco, peroinco, invpetro, assequor, and consequor, are never construed vrith the infinitive, or the accusativ* with the infinitive, but with ut and ne, since the relation of dependence upon these verbs is regarded in Latin aa that of an intended result. Hence arises a frequent cir- cumlocution by means o^ facere ut to express a real fact ; INFINITIVE MOOD. 413 and instead of dimisit militeSj we accoidingly ^nd Ject^t ut dimitteret milites. Epaminondas perfecit^ ut aitxilio sociotuTn Z/acedae?nomi privarentur, Nep., Epam., 6. Tu quidquid indagaris dere pnhlica^facito ut sciam, Cic, ad Att,^ ii., 4. Note 1. — Fac frequently has the sense of " suppose" or " granting," and is then construed as a verbum sentiendi with the accus. with the infinitive ; as in Cicero, fac ammos interire ut corpus f fac animos non remanere post mor- tem, fac qui ego sum esse te. In Uke manner, efficere in the sense of '* to in- fer by logical reasoning," is treated as a verbum declataiidi, and takes the accus. with the inlinit. ; as, Cic, Tusc.f i., 31, Dicaearchus ires libros scrip- sit, in quibus vtdt efficere animos esse mortales. But effi^itu , in the sense of "it is inferred," or *'it follows," is also followed by ut, as, Cic, de Of, ii., 3, ex quo eficitur^ ut, quidquid hnnestum sit^ idem sit utilef whereas in ill. 5, we read, ex quo efficitur hominem naturae obedientem homtm nocere non posse. ConfcituT in this sense is found only with ut, but occurs, on the whole, rare- ly; Cic, de Invent, ii., 49 and 56 Facere, used of writers in the sense of " to introduce," or " represent" (\ikejingere, inducere)^ is joined with the present or perfect participle ; as in Cicero, de Nat. Dear., l., 12, JCenophon facit in its, quae a Socrate dicta rettulit (i.e.,in Memorabilibus), Socratem disputantem, formam dei quaerirum oportere; J\«c,, i., 40, oratio, qua Plato Socratem usum facit ; in the passive, However, we also find the accus. wiln the infinitive, there being no parti- ciple present ; e. g., Cic, de Opt. Gen., 6, Isocratem Plato admirabiliter lau dari facit a Socrate ; de Nat. JJeor., i., 8, quibus enim oculis animi intueri po- tuit vester Plato fahricam illam tanti operis, qua constnd a deo atque aedijicart mundum facit. [^ 619.] Note 2. — The fact of ^acere, in the sense of ** to effect," being joined with ut cannot be surprising (it is much more surprising to find in Cicero, Brut., 38, (actio) tales oratores videri facit, quales ipsi se videri volunt) ; but especial attention must be paid to the periphrasis ^cio ut to express a thing which really takes place, as some other peculiarities of the Latin syntax are connected with it, of which we shall speak in 6 623. Thus we read in Cicero, Cat. Maj., 12, invitus quidem feci, ut i. Flamininum e senatu ejicerem, instead of invitus ejrci; in Vatin., 9, invitus facio, ut recorder ruinas rei publicae ; p. Plane., 30, At etiam gregarii milites faciunt inviti, ut coronam dent civicam, et se ab aliquo servatos esse fateantur ; ad Fam., i., 7, Facio libenter ut per litteras tecum colloquar ; in Verr., v., 63, et Glabrionem, td quod sapientissime fecit, facere laetatus sum, ut repente testem dimitteret, in- stead of laetatus sum, quod-^ dimisit ; in Verr., ii., A, fecerunt etiam, ut me prope de vitae meae statu dolore ac lacrimis suis deducerent, instead of deduxe- runt ; p. Cluent., 40, facile enim, ut non solum mores ejus et arrogantiam, sed etiam vultum atc/ue amictum, atque illam usque ad talos demissam purpuram re- cordemini, inst-wad of recordamini ; ad Fam., iii., B, faciendum mihi putavi, ut tuis litteris bremter responderem, instead of respondendum mihi esse putavi ; in Cat, iii., 3, ntgavi me esse facturum, ut de pericula publico non ad consilium publicum rem integram deferrem ; i. e., negavi me rem non integram delaturmn, or dixi me rem integram^ delaturum.. [§ 620.] 13. Hence it not unfrequently happens in nai ratives lliat the verbs of begging, commanding, admoiish ing, &c , are first followed by ut or ne and the subjunct ive, and afterward by the accusative with the infinitive only the words or sentiments of the subject of the narra live l)eiiig recorded. For the purj>ose of explanation, w« M M 2 414 LATIN GRAMMAE. supply from the preceding verb the general idea o{ think ing or saying, which is always implied in the leading verb ; e. g., Caes., Bell. Civ., iii., 89, Simul tertiae aciei totique exercitui imperavit, ne injussu suo concurreret: se, quum id fieri vellet, vexUlo signum daturum. His (colonis Athen.) consulentibus nominatim Pythia prae- cepit, ut MUtiadem sibi imperatorem sumerent : id sife- cissent, incepta prospera futwra, Nep., Milt., 1. [§ 621.1 14. Lastly, ut is used, and not the accusative with the mfinitive (which would herebe the accusative of the subject) : fa) After the expressions denoting " it happens," fit (fieri non potest), acddit, incidit, contingit (chiefly of desi- rable things), even/it, usu venit, occurrit, and est (it is the case, or happens, and hence, also, after esto, be it that). (bj After the words denoting " it remains," or " it fol- \ows, " futurum, extremum, prope, proxivmm, and reliquiim est, relinquitur, sequitur, restat, and snperest; sometimes, also, accedit ut (" to this must be added that," where, how- ever, quod is more common). Fieri autem potest, ut recte quis sentiat, et id, quod sentit, polite eloqui non, possit, Cic, Tusc, i., 3. Persaepe evenit, ut utilitas cum Jionestate certet, Cicero. Amicis quoniam satisfied, reliquum est, ut egomet mihi con- sulam, Nep., Att., 21. P 622.] Nolt 1. — Contingit mihi is not unfrequently joined with the in finitive ; e, g., anteceUere omnibus, in Cic, p. Arck., 3, and «on cuivis hamini contingit adire Corinthwn, in Herat., Epist.. i., 17, 36. The predicate is also found in the dative (as in the case of licet), with esse and other verbs Of similar meaning; e. g., Veil. Pat., ii., 124, mihi fratrique meo destinari praeioribus contigit. Sequitur, which, in the sense of "it follows," should take the accnsat. with the infinit., is frequently followed by ut ; e. g. Cic, SI hoc verum non est, sequitur utfalsum sit. The same is the case with nas- citur, " the result is," and sometimes with efficitur (which has the same meaning), though it appears more frequently to take the accusal, with the intinit. Respecting accedit ut, see the passages of Cicero, p. Rose. Am, 31, ^ 66; in Verr., ii., 12, ^ 31 ; Cat. Maj., 6 ; ad Ap, Claudii senectutem ac- cedebat etiam, ut caecus esset ; p. Reg. Deiot., 1, accedit ut accusatOTUm alterius crudelitate, alterius indignitate conturber ; Tusc, i,, 19, accedit, ut eo facilius animus evadat ex hoc acre, quod (because) nihil est animo velocius. The same principle appears to be followed in Cic, p. Leg. Man., 17, nunc quum haec quoque opportunitas adjungatur, ut in his ipsis locis adsit, ut habeat exercitum, occ, quid expectamusf and Liv., ii., 27, qui ad id, quod de credita pecunia jus non dixisset, adjiceret, ut ne delectum quidem ex SCto haberet. After consuetude and mos or maris est, ut is frequently used instead of the infinitive, the fundamental idea being "it usually happens that;" e. g., Cic, Brut.,21, sed est mos hominum, ut nolint eundem pluribus rebus excellere; in Verr., i., 26, negavit Tnoris esse Graecorum, ut in convivio virorum accumbe. rent mulieres. For the same reason the expressions naiura or consuetudt INFINITIVE MOOD. 415 fert are followed by vt ; e. g., Cic, p. Muren., 2, naturafert, ut iisfavcamus, avi eadem pencu/a, quibus nos perfuncti swnus, in^ediantur. [4 623.] Note 2. — Whiit has become the ordinary practice with the ex ■ pressions " it happens" and " it remains," may at least serve to explair why tU is used,.by way of exception, after several other expressions with an adjective conveying the idea of happenings instead of the accusut. (rf the subject) with the infinitive ; for the Latin language expresses hap- peniTig, as a result or efiect, by ut, and is fond of paraphrasing even the expression of a simple act by means offacio ut : see ^ 619, Hen e many such phrases as novum est, rarum, naturale, necesse, usiiatwn, inirum, singu tare est, &c., are construed with ut, because all of them imply the idea of happening, and, accordingly, Tunmm est id, in Cic, in Verr., v., 6, is equiva- lent to nova ratione Jit; and rarum est in Quintil., vL, 3, 38, and x., 7, 24, equivalent to rarofit, &c. Ernesti, therefore, ought not to have doubted the correctness of the expression in Cic, Tusc, v., 21, Atque ei (Dionysio) ne integrum quidcTn erat, ut ad justitiam. rendgraret, civibus libertatem et jura red- deret ; and the same expression occurs, p. Muren:, 4, neque est integrum, ut meum laborem hominum periculis suhlevandis non impertiam, for we may easily complete the expression integrum ei erat ut by that common periphrasis in- tegrum ei eratfactu ut, Non verisimile est ut occurs in Cicero four times, p. Rose. Am., 41, ^ 121 ; in Verr., iv., 6, § 11 ; p. Sull, 20, 4 57 ; p. Sext., 30 ^ 78, and in all of them it has the meaning of the periphrasis non videtur re vera factum esse ut. In the same manner, we must explain verum est ut, in Nepos (Hann., i.), which is otherwise very singular : si verum est, quod nemo dubitat, ut populus Romanus omnes gentes virtute superarit. Comp. Cic, Lael., 4, 5 14, and in the same manner,/, by qui alone, or by si quia, since a participle cannot ap- pear in the independent character of a substantive any more than an ad- jective. (See (/ 363.) It is only in later Latin that participles are u.sed more frequently in this sense ; e. g., adstantes, audientes, instead of ii qui odstabaTit, audiebant. (Comp. ^ 714.) [I) 636.1 Note2.—A participle is used with the verbs denoting "to repre- sent" and " perceive," especially with those denoting " to see" or " hear," when a thing is described or perceived in a particular state ; as in Pliny, Apelles pirucit Alexandrum Magnum fvXmen ten£ntem. In English we fre- quently join the infinitive with such verbs ; e. g., audivi te canentem, I heard you sing : vidi te ambulantem, I saw you take a walk ; but audivi te cajierct m Latin, either means, " 1 heard (from somebody) that you sang," or, I heard that you sang a song (e. g., carmen CatuUi, Trojae exddiitm), so that the object of my perception was not the person in the act of singing, bu the action of the person. Audivi te quum caneres (see ^ 749) would refei to a portion of his song. Timoleon, quum aetate jam provectus esset, lumina oculu- rum amisit, quam calamitatem ita, moderate tulit, ul neque eum, querentem quisquam audierit, neque eo minus privatis publicisque rebus interfuerit, Nep., Timol., 4. [§ 637.] 3. Substantives expressing the action of the verb ; e. g., the building, instituting, writing, hearing, are expressed by the participles perfect and future passive, the Latin language not alvifays having substantives of this kind (at least they are not in common use). There is, of course, this diiference, that the perfect participle is em- ployed when the action is to be represented as comple- ted, and the future participle when it is conceived as still incomplete. (The participle future passive, however, only in its oblique cases, as the nominative has the signification of necessity, see § 649.) This is done in all the cases of such participles, and even when they are governed by the prepositions ad, ante, oh, post, propter, ah, and ex ; e. g., Liv., xxvii., 29, hae litterae recitatae magnum luctumfoce- runt, the reading of this letter ; Tacit., Ann., i., 8, Occisus Caesar aliis pessimum, aliis pulcherrimum facinus videba- tur, the murder of Caesar, &c. ; Tarentum captum, the taking of Tarentum ; receptus Hannibal, the reception of Hannibal ; ob receptum Hannibalem, on account of the re- ception of Hannibal; Curt., iv., 58, sibi quisque caesi regis expetebat decus, the glory of having killed, or of killing the king (for both expressions are here equivalent). It must, However, be observed that the nominative is not thus used by Cicero, but is peculiar to the silver age of the Ian guage. 424 LATIN GRAMMAR. Pi Scipio propter Africam doviitam Africa *itts appellatUA est, Eutrop., iv., 4. Thehae et ante Epaminondam natum et post ejus interitum perpetuo alieno paruerunt imperio, Nep., Epam., 10. (So, also, post Christum natum, ah urbc condita, &c.) Note 1.— It deserves to be especially noticed, that Livy uses the neutei of the participle perfect passive, without a noun, as a verbal subject of a proposition ; e. g., vii., 22, Tentatum domi per dictatorem, ut ambo patricii consules crearentur, rem ad inierregnwn perduxit ; i. e., the attempt, or, prop- erly, the fact of the attempt being made by the dictator ; xxviii., 26, Haud procul ab urbe aberant^ quum ex obviis auditum, postero die omnem exercitum projicisci, omni metu eos liberavit, the news freed them from all fear. Comp. I., 53, init, ; iv., 16 ; iv., 59 ; and in many other passages. With this we - must compare the use of the neuter of the same participle in the ablative. See § 647. [^ 638.] Note 2.— The English "without" with a verbal substantive is not expressed in Latin by siney but a negative particle is used instead ; e. g., Caesar exercitum nunquam per insidiosa itin-p-ra duxit, nisi perspeculatus locorum situs^ without having examined the localities : especially with the ablative absolute ; as, Athenienses non expectato auxiho adversua ingentem Persarum exercitum in proelium egrediuntur, without expecting assistance; natura dedit usuram vitae^ tamquam pecuniae, nulla praestititta die^ without fixing any time ; nulla valetudinis kabita ratione celeriter profectus sum, with- out paying any regard to my health ; Virgilii Aeneidem noli legere, nisi lectis Homcri carminibas, without having read the Homeric poems. [§ 639.] 4. The participle future active is used, espe- cially with Verbs of motion (such as go^ send^ &c.), to ex- press a purpose, which we indicate in English by the par- ticle "to;" the conjunction w^, or a relative pronoun with the subjunctive, however, is very commonly used in Latin instead of the participle. Hannibal in Etruriam ducit, earn quoque gentem aut vi aut voluntate adjuncturus, Liv., xxi., 58. Note. — This participle is also used to supply the place of the conjunc- tions *' since," " when," " although" {% 635) ; e. g., plura locuturos abirs non jussit; i. 6., when or although we intended to say more; Sueton., Tit>.y 1 8, Tiberius trajecturus Rkenum commeatum. omnem non ante transmisit, quam, &c., when he wanted to cross j Tacit., Germ., 3, Herculem Gennani, ituri in proelium canunt, when they intend to go to battle ; Phaedr., iii., 2, Alii onerant saxis, quida-^i contra miseriti picturae quippe^ q-uamvis nemo laederet, misere panem, since the animal was to die after all, (Notice here the ad- dition, of quippe and utpote in this sense.) Hence this participle is also used as apodosis to express the inference from an hypothetical proposition ; Liv., iii., 30, egreditur castns Romanusy vallum invasuruf ui copia pugruu fieret ; Tacit, Ann., i., 36, augebat metum gnana Kznta'mk^ seditionis et,st ondtteretur ripa, invasurus hostis ; and with the rtiptotition of the preceding verb, Plin., Epist., iii., 13, librvm rnisi exigenti tibi ; missurus, etsi non exegis aea ; iii., 21, dedit mihi quantum maxime potuit., daturas ampliuSy sipotuisset; ■ i. e., ac dedisset amplius. Comp. Nep., Them., 2, aliter illos nunquam in pa- triam recepturi, for aliter here is equivalent to nisi idfccissent. But it must De observed that this concise mode of using the participle future active, ia \)reign to the language of Cicero : it belongs to the silver age, in which jowever, the lanijuage was still in its progress of r'pvHoprnent. USE OF THE PAETICIPIiES. 425 It must farthei be remarked, that the genitive plural of this participle, with the exception of futurorum aadfiiturarum, is of extremely lare occur rence, probably on account of its unpleasant sound. The only instances that are known are vmturorum, Ovid, Met., xv., 835 ; cxiturmrum and transi- twanan, Senec, Epist., 98 and 95 ; peritmorum, Senec, de Transit., xiv., 4, and Petron., 123 ; moriturorum in St. Augustin. [§ 640.] 6. In the cases hitherto considered, the parti- ciple supplies the place of an .inserted clause, the subject of which is a noun contained in the leading proposition. If, however, a new subject is introduced, it is put with the participle in the ablative, independent of the leading prop osition. (Ablativus absolutus or consequentiae.) A sim- ilar construction is sometimes used in English ; as, " ho could not live in his own country any longer, his influence being too great for the republic ;" but it is more common to express such sentences by the conjunctions "as," "when," or by a verbal substantive with a preposition; e. g., Gyro regnante, in the reign of Cyrus ; Cyro mortuo or occiso, after the death or fall of Cyrus, or after Cyrus had been killed. In the passive construction, a special refer ence to the subject of the leading sentence is generally not needed, but is understood ; e. g., Jds dictis ahiit, or his ille dictis abiit, and not /lis ah eo dictis abiit. See § 766. Pythagoras quum Tarquinio Superbo regnante in Italiam venisset, magrtain illam Graeciam quum honore disdpli nae, turn etiam auctoritate tenuit, Cic, Tusc, i., 16. L. Yalerii virtute, regibus exterminatis, libertas in re pub lica constituta est, Cic, p. L. Flacc, 11. [5 641 .] Note. — Beginners must be particularly attentive to the various modes in which we render the Latin ablative absolute ; e. g., te adjuvarUe, with thy assistance ; non — nisi te adjuvante, only with thy assistance ; te non adjuvante, without thy assistance. (See I) 638.) They must also be cautioned not to put together two participles in the ablative, one of which stands in apposition to the other ; e. g., it is correct to say, quum Cn. Pom peius Strabo, de coelo tactus, mortuus esset ; but if jnortuus esset is changed mto a participle, we cannot say, Pompeio de voelo tacto mortuo. Again, we may say, Porcia saepe mantum cogitantem invenerat, but not marito cogitante invento. (Comp. (j 394, note 2.) The ablative absolute is rarely used, when its subject is contained in the leading proposition, still instances sometimes do occur; as, Cic, Philip., xi., 10, nema erit qui credat, te invito,- provinciam tibi esse decretam, instead of tibi invito; ad Att., x., 4, ine libente, eripies mihi hunc errorem , Liv., xxxviii., 54, M. Porcius Cato, vivo quoque Scipione, allatraie ejus mag- nitudinem solitus erat. [§ 642.]. 6. An ablative absolute may also be used in- stead of the other particles "when," "since," "while," ''although," which wsre mentioned in 5 635. And the Nn 2 426 LATIN GRAMMAR. writera al'tei Cicero even retain the conjunctions quatrir quam and quamvis with the ablative absolute. Reluctante natura, irritus labor est, Senec, de Tranquil., 6. Eclipses non ubique cernuntur, aliqtiando propter nubila, saepius gldbo terrae obstante, Plin., Hist. Nat., ii., 13. Hand scio an, pietate adversus deos sublata, fides etiam et societas generis humani et una excellentissima virtus jus- titia tollatur, Cic, de Nat. Dear., i., 2. Mucius solus in castra Porsenae venit, eumque interficere, proposita sibi morte, conatus est, Cic, p. Sext., 21. PJ 643.] Note. — The ablative absolute with the participles future active and passive occurs less irequently, especially with the latter, though it is attested by sufficient authority ; Plin., Hist. Nat., xi., 16, rex apum nisi mi- graturo agniineforas Tion pjocedit ; Tacit., Hist., ii., 32, qiwniam (Vitelliani) deaerere Rfuni ripam, irrupturis tarn infestis Tiationibus, non audeant ; Liv,, xxxvi., 41, Antiochus securus admodum de bello Romano erat, tamqttam non transituris in Asiam Romanis ; Curt,, iv., 15, Tyrii aurea catena devijixere simulacrum (Apollinis), araeque Hercviis, cujus numini wbem dicaverant, in- eeruere vinculum, quasi illo deo A.pollinem retenturo ; v., 28, ceterum propalam eomprehendi Dareus non poterat, tot Persarum Tnilibus laturis opem ; Cic, ad Att., iv., 1, quum contio plausum, meo nornine recitando, dedisset. when my name was pronounced (respecting this meaning of the part. fut. pass, in its oblique cases, we shall speaK hereafter) ; Orat., 22, quum immolanda Iphigenia tristis Calchas esset, matstior UUxes, maereret menelaus, &c. ; in Cat., in.. 6, tardiasime autem jLentulus venit, credo quod Utteria dandia praeter consuetudinem proxima nocte vigilarat ; de Off., i., 5, quis eat enim, qm,,nidlia officii praeceptis tradendis, philosophum se audeat dicere ? Comp. Cic, p. Muren., 8, init., which is correctly explained by Ernesti, and Wunder on Cic, p. Plane., 6, ^ 15. It occurs, also, in Livy, v., 43, quum diis homini btisque accxtsandia senesceret ; xxi., 2, ita se Africa bello, ita in Hiapania, an gendo Puntco imperio, geaait ; xxxiii., 3, exercendo coiidie milite hostem oppe riebatur. [§644.] 7. Instead of a participle, certain substantives, also, may be used, which express the action of a verb; as, dux, comes, adjutor and adjutrix, auctor, testis, judex, in- terpres, magister, praeceptm', and magistra, praeceptrix ; e. g., duce natura in the sense o'i ducente natura, under the guidance of nature; comite for tuna, i. e., comitante fortu- na; judice Polybio, according to the judgment of Polyb- ius. So, also, official titles ; as, consul, praetor, impera- tor, rex, generally only to denote time ; as. Cicerone con- sule, in the consulship of Cicero. Maeis auctoribus (on the advice of the Magi) Xerxes in- flammasse templa Graeciae dicitur, Cic, de Leg., ii., 10. fiapientia enim est una, quae tnaestitiam pellat ex animis, quae nos exhorrescere metu non sinat: qua praeceptrice in tranguiUitate vivi potest, omni cupiditatum ardore res- tincto, Ci<;., de Fin., i., 1.3. USE OP THE PARTICIPLES. 427 O mam facile erat orhis imperium occupare, aut tnihi, Ro» manis militibus, aut, me rege, Romanis! Flor,, i., 18. [§ 645.] As the Latins have no participle of esse in cur- rent use, an adjective alone must sometimes supply the place of a participle; e. g.,deo propitio,vfhen God is gra- cious ; invita Minerva, sereno coelo, aspera hieme, me igna- ro, illis consciis. Romani, Hannibale vivo, nunguam se sine insidiis futures arbitrabantur, Nep., Hann., 12. Obviusfit Miloni Clodius expeditus, nulla rheda, nullis im- pedimentis, nullis Graecis comitibus, Cic, p. Milan., 10. [^ 646.] Note. — Owing to the want of a participle of esse, an adjective is used alone in descriptions of the weather, the substantive being under- stood ; thus we frequently find sereno, soil, coelo, the heaven being bright ; tranquillo, scil. mdri, the sea being tranquil ; Flin., Hist. Nat., xi., 28, iidem sereno texunt, mtbilo temnt. Substantives when used thus absolutely must be considered as ablatives of time ; as, comitiis, ludis, circmsibus ; but it is surprising to find, e. g., Sueton., Caes., 1 1. qui proscriptiane pecunias ex aera- rio acceperanf, where we have to supply durante, during the proscription ; Tacit., Ann., iii., 28, deda jura, quis pace et Principe vteremur ; i. e., under a Princeps, or there being a Frinceps^ xvi., 1, multia palam et pluribus oc adtis, many being present, openly and still more secretly. Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish such an ablative absolute from an ablativusmodi; as in Liv., xxziv., 47, aeqvis viribus, pari spe pugiiatmn est, where we prefer regarding the ablat. as ablativi modi; but in Cic, Acad., ii., 21, Siquis ex hoc loco projiciscatur Puteolos. stadia triginta, probo Tiavigio, bono gubematore, hoc tratujuillitate, probabile videatur se ttlvc venturum esse salvum, we regard them as real ablatives absolute. Comp. i 472. [§ 647.] 8. The simple ablative of the participle perfect passive sometimes supplies the place of the whole construc- tion of the ablative absolute, the proposition foUowring be- ing considered as a noun of the neuter gender, and as the subject of the participle ; e. g., Hannibal, cognito insidias sibi parari, fuga salutem quaesivit, equivalent to cognitis insidiis sibi paratis. This use, however, is confined to a few participles ; as, audita, cognito, comperto (in a passive sense), explorato, desperato, nuntiato, edicto. Alexander, audita Dareum apprapinquare cum exerdtu, oh-. viam ire constituit. Curt., v., 35, (13). Excepta quod nan simul esses, cetera laetus, Herat., Ep. [^ 648.] Note. — ^The place of such an ablative is sometimes supplied by ti adjective ; as, Liv., xxviii, 35, vmlti adnantes navibus, incerto prae tern, brit qvid peterent aut vitarent, foede interierwnt ; i. e., quum incertum esset, which would be much more in accordance with the ordinary practice , Tacit., Ann., i., 6, juxta pericuUso, ficta seu vera promeret ; iii., 60, ipsorumque nuTninum religiones introspexit, Itbero, ut quondam, quid jirmaret mutarttve. Sometimes, though very rarely, a participle is found in the ablative abso- lute so independently, that the proposition foUowiag cannot even be con- ceived as its subject ; as in Liv., xxii., 55, quum, nondum palam facto, vim 428 LATIN GEAMMAE. /uerif. In a similar passage in Cicero, de Leg. igr., u-, 2, in fin., we must read, according to the majority of MSS., cujiui .rrato, instead of cm, erralo. Some of these ablatives absolute, as auspicai>, have by long usage be- come adverbs : see ^ 266. [§649.] 9. The participle future passive has in the nominative (and in the construction of the accusative with the infinitive, fn the accusative also) the signification of necessity, and less frequently that of possibility : laudan- dus, one who must be praised, or ought to be praised. The person by whom a thing must be done is expressed with this participle by the dative, and not by the preposi- tion ab. The neuter of this participle, joined with a tense of esse, retains the signification of necessity ; as, audendum est, moriendum est, omnibus hominibus moriendum est, we must venture, we must die, &c. An accusative of the ob- ject, if the verb is transitive, is joined with this neuter only in the early and unclassical writers, as Plautus, Lucretius, and Varro, and sometimes also by the poets who are fond of ancient expressions (as Siliusltal., viii., 36; xi., 562; and XV., 105, on which passages see the notes of Draken- borch). Such an accusative is generally changed into the nominative, and the participle is made to agree with it in gender and number; e.g., virtus laudanda erf, virtue must be praised, or, we must praise virtue ; omnes captivi Deci- dendi sunt, all the prisoners must be put to death, or, we must put to death, &c. ; haec via tibi inewnda (ingredien- da) est, you must take this road, or, this road must he ta- ken by you. Hence it is better to say, qumiiam aeternae poenae in morte timendae sunt, than aetemas quoniam poenas in morte timendum est, as we read in Lucretius, i., 112. The only passages in which Cicero joins an accusative of the object with such a participle, are the following : Gat. Maj., 2, Volumus sane, nisi molestum est. Gate, tamquam longam aliquam viam confeceris^ quam nobis quoque ingrediendum sit, istuc, quo pervenisf.i, videre quale sit; and Fragm., p. Scaur., 13, Obliviscendum nobis putatis matrum in liberos, virorum in uxores scelera ? Comp. Quintil., iv., 5, 17, Quod tatnen nemo sic accipiet, i,t omnia credat audendum. Quum sua cutque judicir. sit utendum, difficile factu est, M USE OP THE PARTICIPLES. 429 id sentire semper, quod tu veils, Cic, de Nat. Dear., iii., 1. Diligentia in omnibus rebus plurimum valet : Jiaec praeci ■ pue colenda est nobis, haec semper adhibenda, Cic, dt Orat., ii., 35. [^ 650.] Note 1. — The participle in dus never has the signification of ;»*- sibilityin classical prose, for although we 'requently read in Cicero's work de Officiis, iTttelligendtm est, in the sense of intelligitur or facile potest mtel- ligi, still it implies, at the same time, that it >s proper or becoming to see or understand. In like manner, a kind of moral obligation is expressed ; in Verr.t iv., 59, hi qui hospites ad ea quae visenda sunt ducere solent, the things to be seen, the curiosities of towns ; and iv., 60, longum est commemomre, quae apud quosque visenda sunt tola Asia et Cfraecia. A similar obligation is expressed in the following passages ; Cic., ie Off., i., 31, si Circe et Calyp so mulieres appeUandae sunt ; de Fin., iii., 2, quasi heluari libris, si hoc verba in lam praeclara re ulendum est ; Tusc, i., 1 , jam ilia, quae natura, rum litleris assecuti sunt (Romani), neque cum Graecia, neque vUa cum gente sunt confe- rmda ; i. e., amferri debent. In classical prose it signifies possibility only when joined with the particle vixi (compare Bremi on Nep., Att., 18) ; e. g., Cic,, de Orat., i., 21, vix optandum nobis videbatur ; Caes., Bell. Gall., v., 28, vix erat credendum, equivalent to vix credi poterat. Writers of the sub- sequent period use it in this sense vrith negative particles, and this use was extended by still later writers, who employ the participle fut. pass, in the sense of possibility as well as in that of necessity. [iJ651.] Note2. — Aiwith the ablative is sometimes found in Cicero with the participle future pass, instead of the dative. In s'bme cases he adopts this construction for particular reasons ; as, p. Leg. Man., 2, agunlur bona muUorum civium, quibus est a vobis et ipsorum et rei pubticae causa consulen- ium, for the two datives quibus vobis might, for a moment, prevent our un- derstanding the passage, n. Mwen., 26, ^ 54; and p. Plaru:., 3, ^ 8, ou ac- count of the parallel ab wliich precedes ; and p. Milon., in 6n.,fortem et a vobis ctmservandvm virum, since the dative vobis might be taken as a dati vus commodi (comp., also, p. Sext., 18, ^ 41). Sometimes, however; o6 is used without any special reason ; as, ad Fam., xiii., 16^ eos a se observandos et colendos putabat ; ad Att., X., 4, pctris lenitas arnanda potius ab illo quam tarn crudeliter negligenda ; p. Rab., 2, sic enim existimare debetis, rem nullum majorem, magis periculosam, magis ab omnibus vobis providendam, ad populum Romanum esse delatam ; in RuU., ii., 35, non eos in deorum immortalium nu- mero venerandos a vobis et colendos putatis 1 p. Leg. Man., 12, atque-haec a me in dicendo praetereunda non sunt. Hence we are inclined to think that no alteration is needed in the passage of the same oration : ne forte a vobis, quae diligentissime providenda sunt, contemnenda esse videantur. But these are all the passages of Cicero, and their number is very small in compar- ison with the very numerous instances in which the rnle is observed. We mention this to prevent beginners from believing that these exceptions are frequent, because three happen \.o occur in one oration. [§ 652.] 10. In the remaining cases this participle has, likewise, occasionally the signification of necessity (e. g., Cic.,PMlip., iii., 4, a L.Bruto,principe hujus maxime con- s^vandi generis et nominis); hut it much more frequently 8uj)plies the place of the participle present passive, that j&, it had the meaning of a continuecT passive state ; e. g., occupatus sum in litteris scribendis, in letters vSrhich are be- ing ■mitten ; peritus rei publicae regendde. A reference 430 LATIN GRAMMAK. to foture time, also, may be implied, but this arises from the connexion, and not from the participle itself; e. g., consilium libertatis recuperandae ; missus erat ad naves comparandas. For the rest, see the chapter on the ge- rund. [^ 653.] Note. — With the verbs eUtre and tradere, mitterej coTicedere, and ffermittere, accipere, and suscipere^ locare and conducerey and others of a simi- ar mei^ning, the purpose for which anything is given, sent, &c., is express- ed passively by the future participle ; e. g., rex Harpago Cynim infantejn occidendmn trtididit, to be killed ; ^Cicero, Clodius vberrimas provincias vex* andas diripiendasque consvlibus permisit ; demus nos philosophiae excolendos ; Lentulus attribuit nos trucidandos Cethego, ceteroe cives interficiendos Gabinio^ wrbem infiammandam Cassio, totam Italiam vastandam diripiendamque Catih- nae ; quattuor columnas locavit dealbandaSj ceteras aedijicandas ; conduxerat columnaa faciendas ; Horace, haec porcis coniedenda relinques. But the same may be expressed actively by means of ad with the gerund ; e. g., Scaevola nemini se ad docendujn dahat ; Caesar oppidum ad diripiendum militibus con- cessit ; arictores nobis propositi sunt ad imitandum. (The poets use the infin- itive active ; as, Herat., Carm., i., 26, Tristitiam et metus tradam protervis in mare Caspium portare ventis ; in prose it is a rare exception, and occurs only in the jihrase bibere dare, in Cic, Tusc., i., 26 ; or, ministrare, in Terent., Andr,, ui., 2, i.) The construction of cwrare with the same participle also deserves to be noticed ; e. g., CoTion muros dirutos a Lysandro r^iciendos cu- ravit, he ordered them to be restored, or had them restored ; Fabricius per- fugam reducendum curavit ad Pyrrhum, he ordered him to be taken back ; fanus ei satis amplunufaciendum curavi, I had him honourably buried. In the silver age we also find the expression habeo faciendum, I have to do, or must do ; e. g., Plin., Hist. Nat., Fraef , hvic epistolae subjunjii, quid singulis contineatur libris, ne perlegendos eos haberes; Tacit., Ann., xiv., 44, si nunc primum statuendum haberemus. Habeo facere, I can do, occurs in Cicero. See ^ 562. [§ 654.] 11. This participle should properly be formed only from active transitive verbs, but it is formed also from deponents which have a transitive meaning ; e. g., in imi- tando hoc scriptore, i. e., if this writer is imitated. Of in- transitive verbs, however, only the neuter of this participle is used with est, erat, &c. ; e. g., qtiiescendum est, dormi- endum, eundum est. CHAPTER LXXXII. USE OF THE GERUND. '% 655.] 1. The gerund is in form nothing else than the four oblique cases of the neuter of the participle future passive. It governs the case of its verb, and with regard to its signification it supplies the place of a declinable in- finitive present active, and is a verbal substantive, just as in English the present participle is used as a verbal sub- stantive. Thus we find the dative in Quintilian, xi., 2, 35 USE OF THE GERU\U. 43i illud ediscendo scribendogue commune est, this is common to learning by heart and writing; the ablative in Cicero, Tusc, iii., 7, discrepat a timendo confidere; Lael., 27, am- icitia dicta est ah amando. Examples of the genitive are l^ven above, § 425. The accusative presents a diilerence from the infinitive, for the latter, wrhich is also used hs an accusative (§ 697). has the power of an abstract noun, whereas the gerund expresses a real action ; e. g., Senec, de Benef., v., 1 0, multum interest inter dare et accipere ; but, on the other hand, Cic, de Fin., iii., 20, Non solum ad dis- cendum vTopensi sumiis, sed etiam ad docendum. [§ 656.] 2. The relation of the gerund to the real par- ticiple future passive is this : as the gerund has an active meaning, e. g., consilium scribendi, the design of writing or to write, it may have an accusative as its object ; as, consilium scribendi epistolam, and this construction may, without any change of meaning, be changed into the pass- ive : consilium scribendae epistolae, the design of a letter to be written, or, that a letter should be viritten. The ac- cusative is thus always changed into the case in which the gerund stood. This change into the passive may take place wherever no ambiguity is likely to arise ; i. e., wher- ever the gender is distinguishable whence it generally does not take place when the accusati^, dependent upon the gerund, is the neuter of a pronoun or adjective ; e. g., studium iUud effidendi, cupido plwa cognoscendi, not illitu efficiendi, or plurium cognoscendonim,heca,\iae it would be impossible to see whether the genitives illi'us and plurium are masculine or neuter. Hence it is better to say lex op- pellata est a suum cuique tribuendo, than a suo cuique tri- huendo. But, independently of this reason, the change of the active construction into the passive, with the participle future (which modem grammarians call gerundiimmj to distinguish it fi-om the gerund), is less frequent in some writers, Livy and Ciutius for example, than in others. [^ 657.] Note 1. — The passive construction is also found with utm-jfrwyr, fungar, and potior, because these -veibs were originally joined with an ac- cusative, and sometimes are slill so used in our writers. (See (j 465.) Hence we read in Cicero, de Fin., i., 3, tapientia rum paranda nobis solum, sed etiam ^ruenda est ; de Of., i\., 12, yustitiae fruendae causa videntur oUm bene morati reges constituti ; de Off., i., 8, expetuntur autem divitiae quum ad usus vitae necessarios, turn ad perfruendas voluptates ; Tusc, iii., 7, ocuita probe affectus ad suum munus fungendum ; in Verr., ii., 18, omnia bona eiuten- da ac possidenda tradiderat ; Caes., Bell. Gall., iii., 6, bastes in span potmn- doTum castrorum venerant ; and thus we very frequently find in Livy 30*^ Curliu3,spes petiundat wrbis, petrae. As an ej ceptiOD. the same ru-cura 432 LATIN GRAMMAR. with the verb nuderi, which, in the early language, was likeirise some- limes joined with the accusative, whence we find in Livy, viii., 36, and Veil. Pat., ii,, 25, medendis corporibus, Invidendus, poenitenduSf tjid puden duf have become adjectives. [^ 658.] JVote 2. — There, are a few passages in good authors, in which the gerund is used in a passive sense ; Cic, in Verr., i., 18, censendi causa haec frequejitia convenit, for the purpose of undergoing the census ; p. Flacc^ 32, si aliena censendo Dedanus sua facers posset ; Veil. Pat., ii., 15, ad cen- sendum ex provinciis in ItaUam revocare ; t3ic., ad Fam., vii., 3, odes ad im- perandum ; i. e., w( imperetur tibi ; Tusc, i., 23, ceteris, quae vioventur, hie fons, hoc principium est movendi ; Nep., Att.j 9, spes restituendi, the hope of being restored. See Bremi's note on this passage. [§ 659.] 3. The particular cases in which the gerund, and, under the limitations above mentioned, the participle future passive are used, are the following : faj The genitive of the gerund is used after substan- tives and after relative adjectives. (See § 436.) In Eng- lish, substantives and relative adjectives are followed ei- ther by " of," with the participle present, or by " to," with the infinitive ; e. g., ars dicendi, the art of speaking; discendi cujndus, desirous to learn. Such substantives, among many others, are, ars, causa, consilium, consuetudo, cupiditas, facultas, occasio, potestas, spes, studium, volunt- as. The ablatives causa and gratia are also joined with the genitive of the gerund ; e. g., discendi causa, for the sake or purpose of leaeming ; quidam canes venandi gra- tia comparantur. Note. — It must, however, be observed that with these and other sub- stantives the infinitive may also be used (see J 598), when with a tense of esse they form a periphrasis for a verb which is joined with the infinitive, or when they supply the place of an adjective expression, of which the in- finitive is the subject ; e. g., Sallust, Cat., 30, qmbus omnia honesta atque inhonesta venders moB erat, with whom it was a custom, or who were ac- customed; Cic, 7'usc., i.,41, tempus est abire, it is time, that is, tempestivum est, it is proper to go ; but we may also say est (i. e., adest) tempus abeundi'; as in Qliintil,, xi., 3, 61, jam tempus est dicendi, quae sit ' apta pronuntiatio ; Liv., ii., 53, Mos, credo, non placebat, sine Romano duce exercituque socios pro- priis viribus consiliisque bella gerere : here the accusative with the infinitive depends upon the whole construction, and more especially upon placebat, for else it would have been necessary to say sociorum mos bella ^erendi. All other constructions, especially the infinitive after relative adjectives, are poetical. Beate vivendi cupiditate incensi omnes sumus, Cicero. Parsimonia est scientia vitandi sumptus supervacuos, aut ars re familiari moderate tttendi, Senec, de Benef., ii., 34. Posiremo Catilina dissimulandi causa g,ut sui expurgandi, sicuti jurgio lacessitus Jbret, in senatum venit, Sallust, Cat., 31. Epaminondas studiosus erat audiendi, Nep., Epavi., 3 USE OF THE GERUND. 43<^ (hj If the verb governs the accusative, the passive construction vyrith the participle future is commonly pre- ferred. Quis ignorat Gallos usque ad hanc diem retinere illam im- manem ac harbaram consuetudinem hominum imm^lan- dorum? Cic, p. Font., 10. Inita runt (a Catilina ejusque sociis) consilia urbis delen- dae, civium truddandorum, nominis Romani extinguen- di, Cic, p. Muren., 37. Timothem rei militaris (belli gerendi) fuit peritus, nequt minus civitatis regendae, Nep., Timxith., 1. [6 660.] Notel. — The rule respecting the agreement of the participle ■f ith the noun in gender and number is apparently violated in the genitive of the personal pronouns, since tui, even when feminine, is joined with the masculine or neuter form of the participle ; Plant., Truad., ii., 4, 19, qm- niam tui videndi est copia ; Ovid, Heroid.^ XX,, 74, copia jalexandi^ sit modo parvx tui, and vestri and sui, even when they are pluraf, are joined with the singular of the participle. Thus we read, in Liv., xxi., 41, iwn yereor ne quis hoc me vestri adhortandi causa magnifice loqui existimet ; Cic.',,rfe Divin.j ii., 17, doleo tantum Stoicos vestros £picureis inidendi sui faaiUatem dedisse ; in Cat., i., 3, quum multi principes civitatis Roma non tarn sui conser- vandi, quam tuorum consiliorum reprimendonim causa profugerunt ; and fre- quently in Caesar ; e. g., Beii. Gall., iii., 6, nequ£ sui colligmdi hostibus jfit' cultatem relinquu-nt ; iv., 13. in castra verurunt, sui purgandi causa. No in- stance has yet been found of a feminine mei or nostri being joined with the mascul. (or neuter) of the participle, but there is no reason for doubting it. ft must be supposed that tids peculiarity arises from the singular form of these genitives, which are properly derived from the neuters meum, tuum, mum, nostrum, vestrum (analogous to the Greek to i/iov, to TiiUTepov). But with the demonstrative pronouns, ems, hujus, iUtus, the rule respecting Ihe agreement between the noun and participle is observed, although tjus, referring to a woman, is found with the genit. masc. of the participle, in Terent., Phorm., i., 3, 24, and Hec, iii., 3, 12 (for in Phorm., v., 6, 40 ihis is only a correction of Bentley). [4 661.] A similar irregularity, but more difficult to explain, occurs in Ihe combination of the genitive of the gerund with the genitive plural of substantives, instead of the accusative. It is found not only in some pas- sages of Plautus and Terence, and frequently in Gellius, who was fond of reviving obsolete forms, but also in the following passages of Cicero, de Invent,, ii., 2, ex majors enim copia nobis, quam illi, fuit exemplorum eligendi potestas; de Univ., $ 9, reliquorum siderum quae causa coUocandi fuerit, quae' que eorum sit colhcatio, in alium sermonem differendum est ; in Verr., ii., 31, homines quibus ne rejiciundi quidem amplius quam trium judicum praeclarae leges Conuliae faciunt potestatem ; in Verr., iv., 47, earum. autem rerum nullam sibi iste neque injitiandi rationem, neque defendendi facultatem reliquit; PhiUp., v., 3, Agitur, utrum M. Antonio facultas detur opprimendae rei publicae, caedis faciendae bomtrum, diripiendae urbis, agrorum suis latronibus condonaridi, pop- ulum Romanum servitute opprimendi : an horum nihil facere ei liceat. It once occurs in Cicero with the genit. plur. of a pronoun ; de Fin., v., 7, eorum (for ea) adipiscendi causa. Comp. Sueton., Aug., 98, permissa Ucentia diripi- endi pomorum, with the remarks of the commentators. We are of opinion that the noun, which properly depends upon the gerund, is by some con- fusion, of which instances occur in every language, connected and made to depend upon the substantive. Suetonius, e, g,, might have said Ucentia diripiendi poma, or liceTitia pomorum diripicndorum; but what he does say la Oo 434 LATIN 6BAMMAR. a combination of wth. Another method of explaining this pe( uliarity it adopted by Kritz (o" Sallust, Cat., 31), who thinks that the gerund aud the leading substantive are so closely united as to constitute only one idea, and form, as it were, only one compound word ; as, eligendi potestas (elec- tive power), exemplorum (of examples). But see Madvig on Cic, de Fin,, l, 18, ^ 60. [5 662.] Note 2. — The genitive in general serves to express quality in the case of a substantive joined to an adjective ; and hence the genitive, not only of a gerund, but of a substantive joined with the participle future passive and esse, is used in the sense of " having a tendency to a thing," or, " serving a certain purpose ;" e. g., Sallust, Cat., 6, Megium imperium initio conservandae libertatis atqtte augendae rei publicae fuerat ; Caes., Bell. Alex., 65, qVMm multa contra morem con^uetudinemque militarem jierent, quae dissolvendae disciplinae severitatisque essent ; Liv., xxvii., 9, haec prodendi im- perii Romani, tradendae Hannibali victoriae sunt ; xl., 29, lectis rerum sumtnis quum animadvertisset pleraque dissolvendarum religionum esse, L. Petillio dixit, sese eos libros inignem conjecturum esse. The same construction occurs fre- quently in this author; camp, iii., 39, and xxxviii., 50, nihil tarn aequandar libertatis esse, and v., 3, with the notes of Gronovius and Drakenborch Esse must be understood in Sallust, Jug., 88, qua£ postquam gloriosa modo neque belli patrandi cognovit ; and in direct connexion with a substantive in Sallust's speech of Lepidus, in the Fragm, Hist., lib. i., Sulla eo processit, ut nihil gloriosum nisi tutum et omnia retinendae dominationis honesta aestu- met ; i. e., omnia quae sunt dominationis retinendae. In Cicero this use of the genitive with esse occurs only de Leg., ii., 23, Cetera in duodecim (tabulis) minuendi sunt sumptus lamentationisque funeris ; and in Verr., ii., 53, ut studia cupiditatesque honorum atque ambitiones ex omrUbus civitatibus tol leret, quae res evertendae rei publican solent esse, which, according to the above examples, it is better to consider as a genitive than as a dative, for which Garatoni takes it. (Carthagine) pro se quisque quae diutinae obsidionis tolerandae sunt, ex agris convehit, Liv., xxx., 9. [^ 663.] Note 3. — It is a deviation from the ordinary principles of the Latin Syntax, and a decided imitation of the Greek idiom, to use the gen- itive of the gerund to express a purpose or intention (it does not occur in Cicero), for this is generally expressed by the addition of causa, or by the dative of the gerund. (See ^ 764.) Another irregular use of the genitive of the gerund, instead of the infinitive, occurs in Tacit., Ann., ii., 43, Plan- cinam haud dubie Augusta monuit muiiebri aemulatione Agrippinam insectandi, though the genitive may, perhaps, be explained as dependent upon monere ; but in Ann,, xiii., 26, nee grave manumissis, per idem obsequium retinendi lib- ertatem, per quod assecuti sunt ; xv., 21, maneat provincialibus poteniiam suam tali modo ostentandi ; and xv., 5, Vologesi vetus et penitus injixum erat arma Romana vitandi — the genitive of the gerund is used quite m the sense of the Infinitive, and can scarcely be explained otherwise than by the ellipsis of negotium, to tov (jitiyeiv. Compare the observations of Gronovius on Livy, XXXV., 49. [§ 664.] 4. The dative of the gerund is used after ad- jectives v\rhich govern this case (§ 409), especially after utilis, inutilis, noxius, par, wptus, idoneus, and after verbs and other expressions de:oting a purpose or design. In this sense, however, it is much more common, at least in Cicero, to use ad with the accusative of the gerund, or a clause -with ut. (The expressions which, from their mean- ing, are most frequently joined vdth the dative of the ge- rund, are, stu&ere, intentum esse, tewpus impendere, tempi'* USE OF THE GEKUND 435 consumere or insumere, operam dare, mfficere, satis esse, deessc and esse, in the sense " serving for," " being ade- quate to." In the language of the silver age, however, the dative is not limited to particular expressions, but is used very extensively, chiefly after verbs of motion, to express the purpose.) The participle future passive, as was remarked above, is used much more frequently than the dative of the gerund with ad and the accusative. Aqua nitrosa utilis est bibendo, PHn., Hist. Nat., xxxvi., 6. Nonjfuit cimsilium socordia atque desidia bonum otium con- terere, neque vero agrum, colendo aut venando intentum aetatem agere, Sallust, Cat., 4. Brutus guum studere revocandis in urbem regibrts liberos suos comperisset, securi eos percussit, Flor., i., 9. Tiherius quasi firmandae valetudini in Campaniam conces- sit. Tacit., Ann., iii., 31. Note ]. — Esse with the dative of the gerund is usually explained by the «llip3is of idoneus, but it is better not to have recourse to an ellipsis, and to consider it analogous to the expression awcilio alicui esse. Thus we read In Cicero, rum solvendo esse, to be insolvent; in Livy, ii., 8, divites, qvioneri ferendo <$sent, able to bear the burden; xxvii., 25, rempublicam esse gratiae rtferendae, able to showr its gratitude ; and in Celsus, viii., 10, 7, medico- menta, tjuae puri movendo sunt. We must add the political expression scri- iendo affuenmt ; i. e., at the drawing up of a senatus consultum, there were present. [^ 665.] Nate 2. — ^The dative of the gerund is generally, also, used with the names of diputies and o^Ues ; e. g., decemviri legibiis scrihendis, the ten commissioners kir drawing up a code of laws ; duumvir, or, qmndecirmmt tacris faciundis ; triumvir agro dando ; triummr coloniis deducendis. juventtUi conqiarendae, senatui legendo ; tresviri rei publicae constituendae, and also with the word ctrmitia; as in Livy, cvmitia regi creando, creandis decemviris, though here the genitive may also be used. [§ 666.] 5. The accusative of the gemnd is always de- pendent upon prepositions, most frequently upon ad (to), or inter (during or amid), but sometimes, also, upon ante, rirca, and ob. The change into the passive construction, with the participle future, takes place almost invariably when the gerund governs an accusative. Mores puerorum se inter ludendum, simplicius detegunt Q,uintil., i., 3. Musicen natura ipsa nobis videtur ad tolerandos facilius la- bores velut muneri dedisse, Quintil., i., 10, 16. Note. — The beginner must particularly attend to the use of the gerund (without a noun) with inter, which is equivalent to our "during," or ** amid ;" e. g., inter eundum, inter bibendwn, inter ambulandum, inter vajm landum. [§ 667.J 6. The ablative of the gerund is used : faj 36 LATIN GEAMMAR. (Vithout a preposition, as an ahlativus instrumenti. (h) (Vith the prepositions ah, de, ex, and in. In the first case the construction is commonly, and in the latter always, changed into the passive when the gerund governs an ac- cusative. The accusative of a neuter pronoun or adject- ive alone is generally retained. (See § 656, and the last of the following passages.) Hominis mens discendo alitur et cogitando, Cic, de Off. Caesar dando, suhlevando, ignoscendo, Cato nihil largiun- do gloriam adeptus est, Sallust, Cht., 54. Superstiiione tollenda non tollitur religio, Cic, de Divin., ii., in fin. Fortitudo in Idboribus periculisque svbeundia cernitur, tern- perantia in praetermittendis voluptatibus, prudentia in ddectu honorum et malorum,.justitia in suo cuique tribu- endo, Cic, de Fin., v., 23. Note. — The ablative of the gerund is very rarely employed in any other way; Cic, de Off,, i., 15, nvllrnn ofUium referendti gratia magis necessarium est, instead of relatione gratiae ; Liv,, vi., 14, nee jam possidendia publicis agris contentos esse, instead of possessione agrorum. To the prepositions found with the ablative of the gerund we must add pro, which occurs in a passage of Livy, xxiii., 28, pro opeferetida sociia pergit ire ipse ad urbem dedi tarn nuper injidem JRomanorum oppugnandam, instead of giving assistance to his allies. An irregular use of the ablat. of the gerund occurs in Tacit., Ann., xiv., 4, Nero matrem prosequitur abeuntem, artius oculis et pectori hae- rens, sive explehda simulatione seu periturae matris iupremus aspectus quamvis fervm animum retinebat, where the ablat. is employed for the dative ; Ann., lii,, 19, 15 finis fuit ulciscenda Germanici morte ; here the ablative implies time : " in avenging the death of Germanicus." CHAPTER LXXXIII. USB OF THE SUPINE.* [§ 668.] 1. The two supines are, in form, cases of a vei- bal substantive of the fourth declension. The first supine, or that in um, is the accusative, and the second, or that in u, may be either the dative or the ablative, according to § 81. But with regard to construction, the supine in um re- mains a true part of a verb, for it does not govern the gen- itive, but the case of the verb. The supine in u does not jovem any case, and for this reason we assign to it a pass- ive meaning. 2. The supine in um is used with verbs which express notion to a place ; e. g., ire, prqficisci, contendere, pergere, * [Consult note on page 120 "[—Am. Ed. USE OP THE SUPlfJE. 437 festinare, venire, mittere, trdjicere ; Und it iniiicatea the object; e. g., cuhiium ire, to go to ^eep;' exploratum speoulatum, , aquatum, Jriimentdtum, paiulatum mittere^ eratum ohseoratumque venire; or, with a case depending on the supine, Cicero, mittii rogatum ea vasa ; Livy, le- gativenerunt questum injurias etres repetitum ; Virgil, wow ego Gratis servitum matrihus ibo. The same meaning is implied in the expression, alicui nuptwm dare (or tradere, collocare), to give a woman in marriage. But the Latin writers in general prefer using the gerund in the accusa- tive with ad, or in the genitive with causa, or the partici- ple future active instead of the supine. PMlippiLs Argis a Pausania, quum spectatutn ludos iret, juxta iheatrum occisus est, Nep., de Reg., 2. [^ 669.] Note. — Ho, is, it, with the supine, literally signifies " I go to do a thing," and hence " I intend," or " am going to." Instances of this meaning occur in Plautus and Terence, and in the prose of the period ter the time of CicerOj who himself does not make use of it (cbmp. Cic 1x2 Font., xiv., i., 5), for the periphrastic conjugation by means of esse and the participle future active expresses the same meaning ; e. g., Terent., .Andr., i., 1, 107, Mea Glycmwn, qvidagis? cut te is perditum ? JHeaut., ii., 3, 74, in mea vita tu tibi umdem is quaesitum, scelus ? villain, do you intend to acquire fame at the cost of my life ? In like manner, Sallust, Jug., 85, vbisejiagitiis dedecoravere turpissimi viri, bonorum praemia ereptum eunt; and in the infinitive, Liv., xxviii., 41, qui te in Italia retineret, materiam gloriae tuae isse ereptum yideri posset ; in the same chapter, Hoc natura prixis est quum tua defenderis, aliena ire oppugnatum. In dependent clauses, however this mode of speaking is used, as a mere circumlocution for a simple verb, the relation to the future being implied in the conjunction or (with the in- finitive) in the leading verb ; Sallust, Cat., 52, Sint sane misericordes in fun- bus aerarii, ne illi sanguinem nostrum largiantur, et, dum paucis sceleratis par- cunt, bonos omrus perditum eant, equivalent to perdant ; Liv., xxxii., 22, of testatus jUvum, ut consulere Achaeos communi saluti pateretur, neu pertinacia mia gmtem universam perditum iret ; i. e., perderet ; Sallust, Jug., 68, ultum ire injurias festinat ; 1. e., ulcisci ; Liv., xxxix., 10, vitricus ergo tuus pudici- tiam, famam, spem vitamque tuam perditum ire hoc facto properat ; Curt.,1., 25 (comp. Tacit., Ann., xvi., 1), Meleagri temeritatem armis ultum ire decrcve- rant; Tacit., Ann., xiii, 17, illusum esse, instead of illusiase; xii., 45 (belli causas confingit, se) earn injuriam excidio ipsius ultum itunan, for ulturum esse. But it must be observed that the form of the infinitive future passive, perditum iri, is derived from the proper signiiication of perditum ire, to go to destroy, the notion of going or mtcnding easily passing over into that of futunty. [§ 670.] 3. The supine in ■& has a passive sense, and is used after the substantives _/««, nefas, and opus, and after the adjectives gootZ or had, agreeable or disagreeable, wor- thy or unworthy, easy or difficult, and some others of sim- ilar meaning. Of tiie adjectives which are ioined with this supine, the following occur most frequently : Jumest- us, turpis,jucundus,facilis, incredihilis, memorabilvi utiiig Oo2 438 LATIN GEAMMAR. dignus and indignus. But the number of these supines actually in use in good prose is very small, and almost limited to the following : dictu, auditu, cognitu,factu, in- ventu, memoratu, to which we may add natu (by birth, ac- cording to age), which occurs in the expressions grandis, major, minor, maximus, and minimus natu. But we also find magno natu, of an advanced age, and maxima natu Jilius, the eldest son, where natu is the ablative of a ver- bal substantive. Later prose writers, however, use a great many other supines in u, and it cannot be denied that this form adds considerably to the conciseness of the Latin language. Pleraque dictu quam re sunt faciliora, Liv., xxxi., 38. Quid est tamjucundum cognitu atque auditu, quam sapien tibus sententiis gravibusque verbis ornata oratio ? Cic, de OraU, i., 8. \S 671.] Note. — The best writers, however, prefer using /aci7is, dtffidlis, ana jumndus with ad and the gerund, res facilis ad judicandum, ad intelli- gendum; or the neuter (it is easy, &c.) with the infinitive active, /orifc est invenire, existimare, cogTioscere. In some cases there exist verbal nouns ; as, lectio, cognitio, potus, which are used in the dative or ablative in the same sense as the supines lectu, cognitu, potu; e. g., Plin., Hist. Nat., xxiii., 8, arbutus Jructumfert difficilemconcoctioni; Yi., B, aqua potui jucuTida ; and Cicero frequently says res cognitione dignae. Dignus is most commonly followed by the relative pronoun with the subjunctive (see ^ 568), and it is only the poets and later prose writers that join it with the infinitive passives SYNTAXIS ORNATA. The preceding portion of this Grammar contains the rules according to which the forms of the declinable parts of speech (cases, tenses, and moods) are employed in the Latin language for the purpose of forming sentences. Hence that section is called syntaxis regularis. If we observe those rules, the language (whether spoken oi written) is grammatically correct (emendata, grammati ca). It now remains to treat of certain peculiarities of the Latin idiom which we meet with in the works of the best authors, and the use of which gives to the language its peculiar Latin colouring (color Latinus, Latine scribere) A systematic collection of remarks of this kind is common ly termed syntaxis ornata. PECULIARITIES IN THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 439 These remarks, however, cannot be reduced to fixed r tea, and their application must be left entirely to the discretion of the individual writer ; for when used too fi'equently or improperly, they render the Latin style af- fected and unpleasant, instead of embellishing it. The be- ginner must also beware of supposing that the following remarks contain the whole secret of a good Latin style. A good style depends for the most part upon the applica- tion of jgeneral principles in expressing con-ect thoughts in an appropriate manner. These principles are the same for all languages, and are explained in Rhetoric, a distinct and highly important branch of mental cultivation. But we are here offering a supplement to the Latin syntax, and can accordingly discuss only those points which are either peculiar to the Latin language as a language, or, at least, belong to it more peculiarly than to the English, with which alone we have here to compare it. Many peculiar- ities have already been discussed in the syntax, especially in the notes, and it will not be difficult to find them by means of the index. We shall comprise all we have to say under four heads: 1. Peculiarities in the Use of the Parts of Speech; 2. Ple- nnasm; 3. Ellipsis; 4. Arrangement of Words and Struc- ture of Periods. CHAPTER LXXXIV. PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OP THE PARTS OP SPEECH. A. Substantives. [§ 672.] 1. The place of an adjective, in case of a par ticular stress being laid upon it, is often supplied by a sub- stantive expressing the quality in the abstract, and the other substantive is accordingly joined to it in the genitive ; e. g., in ,hac (tanta) varietate sfudiorum consensus esse non potest, i. e., in his tarn variis studiis ; Cic, de Orat., iii., 35, quum Aristoteles jlorere Isocratem nohilitate discipulo- rum videret, i. e., nohilibus or claris discipulis ; p. Rose. Am., 17, in hanc calamitatem venit propter praediorum ho- nitatem et multitudinem. [§ 673.] 2. In stating the age at which a person per- formed any action, it is not customary in Latin to use the abstract nouns pueritia, adolescentia, juventus, senectus 440 LATIN GRAMMAR &c., with the preposition in, but the concrete nouns puer adolescensjuvenis, senex, &c., are joined to the verb (§304), The same frequently takes place in stating the number ot years that a person has lived, provided there are adject- ives ending in enarius with this meaning ; as, tricenarius, sexagenarius, octogenarius, perhaps also vicenarius, septua- genarius, ncmagenarius (see § 119). Those in e»»is, from annus, are less frequently used in the sense of substant- ives. [§ 674.] 3. When official titles are used to indicate time, the concrete nouns usually take their place ; e. g., instead of ante or post consulatum Ciceronis, it is prefera- ble to say ante or post Ciceronem consulem ; and instead of in consulatu Ciceronis, it is better to use the ablat. ab- solute, Gicerone consule ; and, in like manner, with the sub- stantive pronouns, ante or post te praetorem is more com- mon than ante or post praeturam tuam, and te praetore is better than in praetura tua, [§ 675.] 4. Sometimes abstract nouns are used instead of concrete ones ; thus we frequently find nohilitas for no- biles, juventus for juvenes, vicinia for vicini, servitium for servi, levis armatura for leviter armati. Other words of this kind ; as, rcmigium for remiges, matrimonium for uxo res, ministerium for ministri, and advocatio for advocati, are less common, and occur only here and there. See Drakenborch on Livy, iii., 15, and on Silius Ital., xv., 748. Adolescentia is not used in this way ; it only signi- fies the age of an adolescens, but is never equivalent to adolescentes, juvenes. We must add that the neuters nihil and quidquam are sometimes used instead of the masculines nemo and quis- quam, as in the expressions hoc victore nihil moderatius est ; non potest insipiente fortunato quidquam fieri intoler- ahilius, Cic, Lael., 15. [§ 676.] 5. Names of nations are used as adjectives, and joined to other substantives which denote persons ; as, miles Gallus, Syrus philosophus. Comp. § 257. The use of substantives in torsxiitrix as adjectives has been sufficiently explained above (§ 102). They are most frequently joined as predicates to the substantive animus, as in Sallust, animus Catilinae cujuslibet rei simulator ac disslTnulator ; anim,us rector humani generis, &c. The substantive nemo (nobody) is frequently joined to PECULIAEITIES IN THE PARTS OP SPEECH. 44J Other substantive denoting male persons, in such a way that it becomes equivalent to the adjective nullus ; Cic, de Orat., i., 28, saepe enim soleo audire Rosdum, quum ita dicat, se adhac reperire discipulum, quern quidem probaret, potuisse neminem ; Thisc, v., 22, adhuc neminem cognovi poetam, qui sibi non optimus videretur ; de Off., iii., 2, ut nemo pictor esset inventus, qui Goae Veneris earn partem, quam Apelles inchoatam reliquisset, absolveret; de Orat., i., 4, nema fore adolescens non sibi ad dicendum studio om- ni enitendum putavit. Sometimes we even find homo nemo ; as, Cic, ad Fam., xiii., 55, turn vero, posteaquam mecum'in bello atque in re militari Juit, tantam in eo virtutem, pru- dentiam,fidem cognovi, ut hominem neminem pluris foiciam ; de Leg., ii., 16, quum, nemo vir bonus ab improbo se donari velit. Quisquam, which has likewise the value of a sub- stantive, sometimes follows the same principle ; hence we find quisquam homo, quisquam (Avis; and homo itself is joined pleonastically to nouns expressing age ; as, homo adolescens, homojuvenis; this, however, may be explain- ed by the fact of adolescens and juvenis being properly ad- jectives. Nullus and ullus, on the other hand, are used as substantives, instead of nem^o and quisquam, especially the genitive nullius and the ablative nullo, neminis not be- ing used at all, and nemine very rarely. See the manner in which Cicero varies his expression in p. Muren., 40, « injtiste neminem laesit, si nulliris aures voluntatemve viola- vit, si nemini, ut levissime dicam, odio nee domi, nee mili- tiae fuit ; de Off., i., 4, honestum vere dicimus, etiamsi « nullo laudetur, natura esse laudabile^ Lael., 9, ut quisque sic munitus est, ut nullo egeat. [§ 677.] 6. Nihil, properly a substantive, is used adverb- ially as an emphatic non (like thg Greek oiid^v for ov), in 6 the sense of "in no way," "in no respect;" e. g., nihil mefoillis, nihil te impedio, nihil te moror, Graedae nihil cedimus ; Terent., Andr., init., nihil istac opus est arte ; Cic, in Rull., ii., 23, Fompeius beneficio isto legis nihil utitur ; Liv., iv., 33, ea species nihil terruit equos ; xxii., 45, nihil consulto collega; xxxviii., 40, Thraces nihil se moverunt. Also with adjectives, Liv., iv., 9, nihil Ro- manae plebis similis ; Sallust., Cat., 17, Senatus nihil sane intentus. Nonnihil is likewise used adverbially in the sense of " to some extent," " in some measure ;" e. g., Cic, ad Fam., iv., 14, nonnihil me consolatur quum recor 442 LATIN GRAMMAR. dor, Quidquam, like nihil, is also used as an adverb . as, Cic, de Invent., ii., 27, ne hoc quidem ipso quidquam opus fuit. Respecting aliquid, e. g., res aliquid differt, «ee § 385, and compare what is said of quid in § 711. [§ 678.] 7. Some substantives are used frequently foi the purpose of forming circumlocutions, especially res, ge- nus, modus, ratio, animus, and corpus. Res is often used for the neuter of pronouns and adjectives (see above, & 363), in such a manner that sometimes even references to the preceding res are expressed by a neuter ; as, Cic, de Divin., i., 52, earum rerum utnim- que; Sallust, /«^,, 102, humanarum rerum pleraque fortuna regit ; Liv,, xliii., V^neqvAS vUam rem magistratibus Romanis conjerret^ praeterquam quod sena tus censuisset ; Cic, de Divin., ii., 57, Tnens prwida rerum futurarum, ut ea ■nor modo cernat, &c Genus is used in circumlocutions like the English kind, regard, respect , m hoc genere, in this respect ; qua in genere. in which respect ; in omni ge nere te quotidie desidero, in every respect ; in like manner, omni genere virtU' tisflorere, " to be possessed of evfery virtue," instead of vfhich we at least should be inclined to say virtute omnis generis. Modus very frequently serves as a circumlocution for adverbs (like the English way or manner) j in this manner, hoc or tali modo, or with the prep- osition in : in hunc modum locutus est. majorem in modum peto (I beg more urgently), mirum (miratilem, incredibilem) in modum gaudeo, miserandum in modum necatus est, servilem in modum cruciari. Ad is found less frequently ; e. g., Cicerp, Est igitur ad hunc modum semw nobis institutus ; Caesar, Ipso- rum naves ad hunc modum factae arTnataeque erant. The genitive modi with a pronoun supplies the place of the proTiomina qiuditatis (^ 130), which are either wanting, or not much used. Thus, cujusmodi is used for qualis ; hur jusmodi, istiusmodi, ejusmodi, ejusdenwwdi, for ttdis, and cujusdammodi for the indefinite prqnomen qualitatis, which does not ex^st. iJadoproperly signifies " an account," and is also used in the same sense as the English " on account of;" e. g., Cicero, propter rationem belli Gallici, equivalent to propter bellum Gallicum ; in Verr., i., 40, multa propter rationsm bremtatis ac temporis praetermittenda existimo. for the sake of brevity, hreoi- tatis causa. Sometimes, however, this explanation is inapplicable, and we ifiust have recourse to the supposition of a mere circumlocution ; e. g., in Verr., iv., 49, oratio mea, aligia ab judiciorum ratione, instead of a judiciis ; 0. Muren., 17, quod enim fretum, quern Euripum tot matus, tangos, tarn varias habere putatis agitationes jluctuum, quantas perturbationes et quantos aestus ha- bet ratio comitiorum ? instead of comitia ; and in the same chapter, Nihil est incertius vulgo, nihil obscurius voluntate hominum, nihil fallacius ratioru tota comitiorum, than the vvhole chamcter of the comitia, to tUv apxatpetrtuv , comp. the same speech, chap. 2, praecipere tempestatum rationem et praedo- num ; de Off., ii., 17, tota igitur ratio talium largitionum vitiosa est, sed inter- dum necessaria, instead of tales largitiones omnes, which, however, would be less idiomatic. , ^ ■ Animus (and the plural ammi, when several persons are spoken of) i» often used as a periphrasis for the person himself, but only when the feel ings of a person are spoken of. Tnus we say, e. g., animus (mens) ahhor- ret ab aliqua re, instead of ego ; and in like manner, animum contineo or sub- mitto, instead of me ; cogitare dlimiid cum animo sua, statuere apud animum suum, pro animi mei voluntate, and very frequently animum alicujus mmxre, commovere, turbare, off^ndere, &c. Corpus is used in some expressions instead of the personal pronoun ; e. g., imponere corpus lecto, to go to bed ; levare corpus .n cubitum, to lean upon the ePbow ; corpus applicare stipiti, to lean against a tree • libraxe corpus, U ewjng one's self. PECULIARITIES IN THE PARTS OP SPEECH. 443 [§679.] 8. The periphrasis, by means of ccMsa and ope- ra, is common in ordinary language ; hence it has been noticed above, § 454 and 455. Gratia is used in the same sense as cattsa, but less fi-equently }- e. g., Cic, de Nat. Dear., ii., 63, tantumque abest ui haed bestiarum causa pa- rata sint, ut ipsas bestias Tiominum gratia generatas esse vi- ti!eajre!t4/'fer^o(originally£p'y- luiiti. So, also, unum illud cogitent, unum lioc dice. PECULIARITIES IN THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 447 [§ 688.] 7. Nullus is used for the adverb non, not only mth esse and verbs of similar meaning, which is easily ex- plained ; as in Cicero, nolite existimare, me, quum a vohis discessero, nusquam aut nullum fore; i. e., no longer exist: but sometimes, also, with verbs expressing a distinct ac- tion ; e. g., Cic, f. Rose. Am., 44, haec bona in tabulas •puhlicas nulla redierunt ; ad Att., xv., 22, Sextus ah armis nullus discedit; xi., 24, Philotimus non modo nullum venit, sed ne per litteras quidem — certiorem fecit me, quid egerit. But it occurs rarely in prose, frequently in Terence ; as, memini, tam,etsi nullus moneas, and the phrase nullum du- bito, which is so frequently, though improperly, used by moderns, should be employed only in conversation, and never without a comical or humorous shade of meaning. [§ 689.] 8. The place of the adverb quam, joined to a tense oi posse to strengthen the superlative of adjectives, is often supplied by the adjective quantus, in the same case as the superlative ; hence, instead of quam m,aximis potuit itineribus ad hostem contendit, we may say quantis maximis potuit itineribus. Examples are numerous ; those which occur in Livy are collected by Drakenborch on xlii., 15. Cicero uses this mode of speaking only when tanius precedes ; e. g., de Fin., i., 12, statue aliquem con- fectum tantis animi corporisque doloribus, quanti in homi- nem Tnaximi cadere possunt ; Lael., 20, tanta est inter eos, quanta maxima esse potest, morum studiorumque distantia. [§ 690.] 9. When two adjectives or adverbs are com- pared with each other, both are put in the comparative ; e. g., longior quam latior, calidior quam cautior pericula adiit, fortius quam fdidus bellum gesserunt, acrius quam constantius proelium inierunt ; Cic, ^. Milon., 29, non ti- meo ne libentius haec in ilium evomere videar quam verius ; Liv., xxii., 38, Pauli Aemilii contio fuit verior quam gra- tior populo. The same is the case when the comparative is formed by means oimagis; e. g., Cic, in Verr., ii., 72, neque enim vereor, ne quis hoc me magis accusatorie quam libere dixisse arbitretur ; Brut., 68, magis audacter quam parate ad dicendum veniebat. iVote — Tacitus has his peculiarities in this respect also : he uses the posi- tive in one part of the proposition ; e. g,, Agr., 4, speciem exceUae gloriae tekemeTitius quam caute appetebat ; or the positive in both, Ann.,xv., 61, elaria majorUnis quam vetustis. In a similar manner, he and othe: s modify the construction quo magis — eo magis ; Liv., i,, 25, Romam Horatium eo majore cum gaudio acci]>iimt, quo prope metum res fuerat ; comp. Tacit., Ann., i, 57 and 63 Hist,, ii., 99 ; Ann., i., 74 ; quantoque incautius effervejat, poenilentia 448 LATIN GRAMMAR. patient tidit, instead of tanto patientior; but in Ann., iv., 67, we find, Ti- oerius quanta intentus olim publicas ad euros, tanto occultos in Itixus et malum otium resolutus, if the common reading be correct. [§ 691.] 10. The numeral unus is added to superlatives for the purpose of strengthening their meaning; as, Cic, Lael., 1, qtio mortuo me ad pontijicem Scaevolam contuli, guem unum nostrae civitatis et ingenio et justitia praestan- tissimum audeo dicere ; p. Plane, 41, uriem unam mihi amicissimam decUnavi; in Verr., i., init., quod unum ad invidiam vestri ordinis sedandam maxime pertinebat ; ad Fam., xiii., 43, quo ego una equite Romano familiarissim.e utor. The genitive omnium may be added to unus ; as, Cic, Brut., 6, eloquentiam rem unam esse omnium difficilli- mam; ad Fam., xi., 16, hoc ego una omnium plurimum utor. The same is the case with the verb excellere; e. g., Cic, Tusc, ii., 18, Virtutes appdlatae sunt ah ea, qune una ceteris excellebat. [§ 692.] 11. The numeral sexcenti is used in conver- sational language to express any large number, as we say a thousand ; e. g., Cic, ad Att., vi., 4, in quo multa molesta, discessus noster, belli periculum, militum improbi- tas, sexcentd praeterea; Terent., Phorm., iv., 3, G3, sex- centas proinde scribito mihi dicas, nihil'do, bring a thou- sand actions against me, I will not pay. Mille, and espe- cially; millies, however, are used in the same way ; as, Cic, ^. Milon., 20, villam, ut perspiceret? m,illies in eaju- erat ; de Off., i., 31, Ajax millies oppetere mortem, quam ilia perpeti maluisset. C. Pronouns. [§ 693.] 1. The personal pronouns are expressed in the nominative when particular stress is laid on the subject of a proposition ; in other cases the person is sufficiently indicated by the termination of the verb. See above, § 379. It must be especially observed that tu is used in questions and addresses expressive of indignation ; as, Auct., ad Herenn., iv., 13, Tu in forum prodire, tu lucem conspicere, tu in horum conspectum venire conaris ? Cic, in Verr., v., 52, tu a civitatihus pecunias classis nomine coe- gisti I tu pretio remiges dimisisti ! tu, navis quum esset ah legato et quaestore capta praedonum, archipiratam ah om- nium oculis removisti ! See Heindorf on Herat., Sat., ii., 2, 20. It occurs also with the subjunctive, according to § 529 ; e. g., Cic, Philip., vii., 2. Faveas tu Iwsti ? litteraa PECULIARITIES IN THE PARTS OP SPEECH, 449 tibt ille mittat de sua spe rerum secumdarupi ? eas tu laetus proferas ? recites ? detcribendas etiam des itnproiis civibus 1 &c., et te consularem, aut senatorem, aut denique civem putcs ? [§ 694.J 2. The plural of the first peison is often used instead of the singular, nos for ego, and noster tor metcs„ and the verb, even without the pronoun being expressed, is put in the first person plural instead of the first person singular; e. g., Cic, de IHvin., ii., 1, sex libros de re pub- lice, tunc scripsimus, quum guhernacula rei publicae teneba- mus. This use of the plural, which occurs also in mod- em languages, must not be considered as an affectation, for nos gives the idea of communicating something, and makes the reader go along with the writar, whereas ego expresses a distinct individual, and therefore produces the impression of assumption much more frequently than the plural. It must be observed that the genitive nostri is used for mei, but not nostrum, this genitive always ex- pressing a plurality. [§ 695.] 3. Ipse (self) is very frequently equivalent to the English "just" or " very," when it denotes the agree ment or coincidence of two things ; when joined to nu- merals, it signifies " neither more nor less," and when to other nouns, " only;" e. g., Cic, ad Att., iv., 1, pridie Non. Sext. DyrrhacMo sum prqfectus, ipso illo die, quo lex est lata de nobis : Brundisium veni Non. Sext., ibi mihi Tid- liola mea fait praesto, natali suo ipso die; iii., 21, trigin- ta dies erant ipsi, quum has dabam litteras, per quos nul- las a vobis acceperam ; p. Leg. Man., 15, et quisquam du- hitabit — quamjacileimperio atque exerdtu socios et vectiga- lia conservaturus sit, qui ipso nomine ac rumorc defcnderit. [§ 696.] 4. Ipse, when joined to personal pronouns, is put in the case of the subject, i. e., in the nominative, or, in the construction of the accusative with the infinitive, in the accusative, when stress is to be laid on the idea im- plied in the subject ; but it is put in the same case as the pronoun when the object is to be distinguished from other objects, as is the case, e. g., in Cic, p. Leg. Man., 13, Non potest exercitum is continere ■im.perator, qui se ipsum non continet; ad Fam., ix., 14, 2V quoniam rem publicam nos- que conservas,fae ut diligentissime te ipsum custodias ; iii., 7, Ck. Pompeium omnibus, Lentalum mihi ipsi anteporio. In the follovnng passages stress is laid on the subject, P p 2 450 LATIN 6EAMMAK. Oic, Lael., 3, Non egeo medicina (i. e., ut alii me coiiso- lentur); me ipse consolor; ad Fam., xii., 13, Maxiimis con^ sularis maximum consulem, te ipse vicisti ; in Verr., iii., 1, Nos, nisi facile cupiditates nostras teneremus, nunquam, ip- simet nobis praccideremus istam licentiam lihertatemque Vi- vendi; Liv., iii., 56, accttsando eum, a cujus crudelitate vosmet ipsi armis vindicastis. Hence we say, me ipsum diligo, but sibi ipse mortem conscivit, pro se ipse dixit, de se ipse praedicat, and in the accusative with the infinitive, deforme est de se ipsum praedicare (Cic, de Off., i., 38). It must be remarked in general, that Cicero is partial to con- struing ipse as the subject, even where the emphasis be- longs to the object ; e. g., in Verr., i., 6, ut non modo pop- ulo Romano, sed etiam sibi ipse condemnatus videretur ; ad Fam., iv., 8, non ita abundo ingenio, ut te consoler, quum ipse me non possim ; ad Quint. Frat., i., 1, 2, Quid est ne- gotii continere eos, quibus praesis, si te ipse contineas? Note. — Ipse, when joined to a possessive pronoun in a reflective clause, usually taKes the case of the subject ; e. g., meam ipse legem negligo, tuam ipse legem negligis, not meam ipsius, tuam ipsivs, &c., as we may say, ac- cording to % 424, Cic, de Orat., ii., 2, si ex scriptis cognosci ipsi suis pottos- sent ; p. Rose. Am., 29, Conveniat mihi tecum necesse est, Roscium aut ipsum tua manu fecisse, aut per alios ; Liv., xxiv., 38, earn fraudem vestra ipsi vir- tute vitastis ; ii., 9, nee hostes modo timebant, sed suosmet ipsi cives ; viii., 25, velut capti a suisTnet ipsi praesidiis ; i., 54, alios sua ipsos invidid opportunoa intereviit ; i. e., qui sua ipsi invidia opportuni erant. The genitive is neces- sary only in those cases where there is no reference to the subject ; as in tua ipsius causa, vestra ipsorum causa hoc feci; Quintil., ii., 6, Aves foetus suoslibero coelo suaeque ipsorum Jiduaae permittunt ; but sometimes we find the genitive where the case of the subject should be used ; as, Cic, p. Jdureru, 4, conjecturam de tuo ipsius studio ceperis, instead of ipse ; Liv,, x., 16, omnia expertos esse, si suismet ipsorum viribus tolerare tantam molem belli possent, instead of ipsi ; xxx., 20, suum ipsius caput execratvm, for ipsum. But it does not occur so often as Drakenborch on Liv., viL, 40, 9, thinks, for he does not accurately distinguish the cases. [§ 697.] 5. Idem is used (see § 127) when two predi- cates are given to one subject; hence it supplies the place of etiam when the predicates are of a similar kind, and of tamen when they are of a different kind ; e. g., Cic, de Off., ii., 3, ex quo efficitur, ut, quidquid honestum sit, idem sit utile ; i. e., " also," or, " at the same time," for which we might also use id etiam utile..sit ; beneficentiam, quam eandem benignitatem appellari licet; Libera, quam ean- dem Proserpinam vocant ; viros fortes eosdem bonos esse volumus ; Cic, p. Muren., 9, Asiam istam refertam et ean- dem delicatam sic obiit, ut in ea neque avaritiae neque lux- uriae vestigium, reliquerit; de Off"., i., 6, alteram est vitium, quod quidam nimis magnum studium midtamque operam PECUIilAEITIES IN THE PARTS OP SPEECH. 451 M res ohscuras aique diddles comferunt, easdemque non ne- cessarias. Especial attention must be paid to idem, con- necting two opposite predicates, where tamen might be used in its stead, Cic, de Nat. Dear., i., 43, quum (al- though) enim optimam et praestantissimam naturam dei dicat esse, negat idem in deo esse gratiam ; Curt., v., 2, Euphrates et Tigris ex Armsndae montibus profluwnt, ac magna deinde aquarum divortio iter, quod cepere, percur- runt; iidem, quum Mediae et Gordiaeorum terras secure coeperunt, paulatim in artius coeunt, et, quo longitis ma- nant, hoc angustius inter se spatium terrae relinquunt. [§ 698.] 6. Et ipse, on the other hand, is used (like the Greek nal avroq) when the same predicate is given to a second subject. It is rendered in English by " also" or "too ;" e. g., Butrop., viii., 7 (15), Antoninus Commodus nihil paternum habuit, nisi quod contra Germanos Jelidter et ipse pugnavit, for item or ipse quoque. In Cicero, how- ever, this use of et ipse occurs, as far as wo know, only in one passage, p. Caec., 20, Etiamsi tuus servus nullus fuerit, sed omnes alieni ac mercenarii, tamen et ipsi tuae Jamiliae et genere et nomine continebuntur, for Cicero, in general, very rarely uses et for etiam ; in the passage p. Cluent., 51, § 141, we must read ipse, and not et ipse. But et ipse frequently occurs in Livy, Curtius, and the later writers ; e. g., Liv., xxi.. 17, quia L. Manlius et ipse cum haud invalido praesidio in Galliam mittebatur ; ibid., c. 21, credo ego vos, socii, et ipsos cemere ; Q,uintil., ix., 4, 43, Virtutes et ipsae taedium paritmt, nisi gratia varietatis adjutae. ' In like manner, nee ipse is used in the sense of "neither;" e. g., Liv., xxiiL, 18, Primis repulsis Mahar^ bal cum majore robore virorum missus nee ipse eruptionem cohortium sustinuit. [§ 699.] 7. Is, as was remarked in § 127, refers to something preceding, a person or thing spoken of before ; e. g., Cic, in Verr., iii., 23, Polemarchus est Murgentinus, vir bonus atque honestus. Is quum medimna DCG decu- mae imperarentur, quod recusabat, ad istum in jus eductus est; i., 41, G. Annius Aselhis mortuus est G. Sacerdote prae- tore. Is quum haberet unicam Jlliam — earn bonis suis he- redem instituit. If the noun thus referred to is to receive some additional predicate, we must use et is, atque is, is- que, et is quidem, and vdith a negative nee is ; e. g., Cic, in Cat., iv., 4, Vincula vero, et ea sempiterna, certe ad sin- 452 LATIN GEAMMAK. gularem poenam n^arii sceleris inventa sunt ; de Fin,, i,, 20y At vera E/picwrus una in domo, et ea quidem angusta, qitam magnos quantaque amoris conspiratione consentienfes tenuit amicorwm greges! Liv., ii., 3, Erant in Romanaju- ventwte adolescentes dliqilot, nee ii tenui loco orti, quorum in regno libido solutiorjiierat; Cic, Tusc, i., 3, at contra ora- torem celeriter complexi sumus, nee eum primo erriditum, aptum tamen ad dicendum, post autem eruditum. Sed idem is used when the additional predicate is opposed to the one preceding; as, Cic, Cat. Maj., 18, Severiiatem in se- nectute proho, sed earn, sicut alia, modicam : acerhitatem mdlo moda. The neuter (et id, idquej is used when the proposition itself receives an addition, Cic, ad Fam., xiii., 16, doctum igitur hominem cognovi et studiis optimis dedi- tum, idque a puero ; de Off., i., 1, Quamquam te, Marce Jili, annum jam audientem Oratippum, idque Athenis, abundare oportet, .&c. [§700.] 8. Hie — ille, when referring to persons or things mentioned before, generally follow the previous order, hie (the former) referring to the person mentioned first, and ille (the latter) to the one mentioned last; e. g., Quintil., vi., 1, 21, Meritis majorum Cicero atque Asinius eertatim sunt usi, pro Scauro patre hie (Cicero), ille pro filio ; vi., 1> 9,Haec pars perorationis accusatori patron- isque ex aequo communis est. Affectihus quoque iisdemfere utuntur, sed rarius hie (accusator), ille saepius ac magis. Namhuicconcitarejudices,illiflectereconvenit; Cic, Lad^, 2, Cave Catoni anteponas ne istum quidem ipaum, quern Apollo sapientissimum judicavit (Socratem) : hujus enim Jacta, illius dicta laudantur ; Liv., xxx., 30, melior tuti- orque est certa pax, quam sperata victoria ; haec (pa;x) in tua, ilia in deorum potestate est. But the case is often re- versed, hie referring to the object mentioned last, as the nearer one, and Ule to that mentioned first, as the remo- ter one ; in this case, however, ille-~-hic is used, and the order in which the objects were mentioned before is thus restored ; e. g., Cic, Lael., 24, Scitum est illud Catonis, ut multa : melius de quibusdam acerbos inimicos mereri, quam eos amicos, qui dulces videantur ; illos (inimicos) saepe verum dicere, hos nwnquam ; Sallust, Cat., 54, Cae- sar beneficiis atque munificentia magnus habebatur, integ- ritate vitae Cato. Hie (Caesar) mansuetudine et misericor- diaclar Us foetus, huie severitas dignitatem, addiderat. The PECULIARITIES IN THE PARTS OF gPEECtl. 453 same is sometimes found in Quintilian. Both pronouns, but more frequently hie, are used in the sense of the Eng- lish "the following," which is never expressed hj sequens. [t should, however, be observed that hoc dico is common- ly equivalent to hoc tantwm,dico,\yn&.BBy only thus much, Nate, — When alter — alter (the one-^find the other) refer to things men- '.ioned before, the reference may likewise be made in two ways : either the previous order is observed, or it is reversed, reference being first made to the thing mentioned last. The former occurs ; e. g., in Cic, de Off., i., 26, Phitippum Macedonum regem, rebus gestis et gloria superatum a jilio, fm- •ilitate et humanitate video superiorem fuisse. Jtaqtte alter (Philippus) semper magnus, alter (filius) saepe turpissimus ; the latter in Cic, p. Quint., 1 , ^ia« 'es in. civitate auae plurimum possunt, eae contra nos arribae faciunt, summa gra tia et elotpientia, quorum alteram (eloquentiam) vereor, alteram (gratiam) me- tuo. See de Off., iii., 18, init. ; i., 12. Wherever there is ambiguity, the latter order must be observed. Plin., Spist., ix., 13, Fucrat cum Arria et Fannia, quorum altera (Fannia) Helvidio noverca, altera mater Tiovercae. [§ 701.] 9. JJle, when not in opposition to hie, is often used to refer to things which are well known or celebra- ted, and although distant in time or place, are yet present to the minds of all ; as, Cic, p. Leg. Man., 9, Primum ex suo regno sic Mithridates profugit, ut ex eodem Ponto Me- dea ilia quondam prqfttgisse dicitur ; p. Arch., 10, Quam multos scriptores rerum suarum, magnus ille Alexander se- cum habuisse dicitur 1 Nep., Thrasyh., 4, Bene ergo Pit- tacus tile, qui septem sapientum numero est habitus, quum ei Mitylenaei m-ulta miliajugerum agri muneri darent. No- lite, oro vos,inquit, id mihi dare, quod multi invideant, plu- res etiam concupiscant ; Cic, Brut., 4, lllud Hesiodium laudatur a doctis, quod eadem mensura reddere jubet, qua acceperis, aut etiam cwmulatiore, si possis. Hence ille is sometimes added to other pronouns, to refer to something discussed before; as, Ta.cit., Ann., xi., 7, quern ilium tanta superbia esse, ut aeternitatem famae spe praesumat 1 xii,, 36, avebant visere, quis ille tot per annos opes nostras spre- visset; xiv., 22, hunc ilium numine deum destinari crede- bant. Iste, on the other hand, which is properly a pro- noun of the second person (see § 127), sometimes implies disapproval or contempt. This arises from its frequent use in speeches in the courts of justice and its application to the opponent. Note. — The pronouns Ific, ille, iste are joined with talis and tantus, which we cannot well render in English, except by making two sentences ; e. g., Cic, ad Fam., xvi., 21, Da operam ut hunc talem — virum videos quam pluri' mum, this man, who is of such a character ; de Orat., ii., 20, Ista tanta tarn que multa projitenda non censeo, this, which is so great and manifold. Hie et hie, hie et ule, ille et ille are used to refer to several indeiinite objects; as in English, " this one and that one ;" " any one," of indefinite persons oi things, is expressed by hie aut ille. 454 LATIN GRAMMAR. [§ 702.] 10. The oblique cases of the personal pronoun of the third person (English him) are commonly express- ed in prose by the cases of is, ea, id, as was remarked in f 125. The pronouns Mc and ille are more emphatic ; hence, as Bentley (on Horat., Carm., iii., 11, 18) has acutely observed, they supply in lyric poetry throughout the place of the plain ^us, ei, eum; in prose, too, they are frequently so used, i7Zein this case answering to the emphatic "he." The cases of ipse, ipsa, ipsum are employed when the in- dividuality of the person is to be expressed; e. g., Caesar respondit, sicut ipsius dignitas postidabat, as his own dig- nity demanded; sicut ipsi placuit, sicut ipsum, decebat; Cic, de Fin., ii., 26, Hoc etsi reprehendi potest, tam,en ac- cipio quod dant : mihi enim satis est, ipsis nan satis. Hence ipse is joined to ego, tu, se, hie, ille, iste, and idem. In re- flective sentences this pronoun is used for sui, sihi, se, only when the person of the leading subject is to be referred to vsdth particular emphasis ; as, Cic, de Fin., iii., 19, In- humana vox ducitur eorum qui negant se recusare, quo m/i- nus, ipsis mortuis, terrarum, omnium dejlagratio consequa- tur ; Sallust, Jug., 46, Igitur (Jugurtha) legatos ad con- sulem mittit, qui tantummodo ipsi liberisque vitam peterent Sihi, however, might also be used. Comp. § 550. [§703.] 11. iS'c and «7fc bear the same relation to time present and past as nunc and tunc (see § 285 and 291), that is, every thing which a person, when speaking of time really present, expresses by hie and its derivative adverbs hie, hinc, hue and adhv^c, is expressed by ille and its de- rivatives, when it is spoken of as belonging to time past. The Syracusans, as Cicero (in Verr., iv., 62) relates, com- plained senatum, populumque Syracusanum moleste ferre, quod ego, quum in ceteris Siciliae civitatibus senatum pop- ulumque docuissem, quid eis utilitatis qfferrem, et quum, ah omnibus mandata, legatos, litteras testim,oniaque sum,psis- sem, in ilia dvitate nihil ejusmodifacerem. In direct speech they themselves would say, querimur in hoc civitate te ni- hil ejusm,odi facere. In the same manner, c. 29, Rex da- mare coepit, candelabrum sihi G. Verr em ahstulisse: id etst antea jam mente et cogitatione sua fral^sque sui consecra- tum esset, tamen turn se in illo conventu civium Romanorum dare, donare, dieare, consecrare Jovi Opt. Max.; he liim- self would say, tamen nunc in hoc conventu do, &c. [§ 704 1 12 [n the connexion of sentences is, idem, to/- PEOULIARlTtES IN THE PARTS OP SPEECH. 453 lis, tanttis, tot or totidem, axe followed (sometimes the ar- rangement of words produces the reversed order) by the relative pronouns qui, qualis, quantus, quot. This must be particularly attended to by the beginner, as the English language usually employs "as" instead of the relative; e. g., qualem tejam anteapopido Romano praehvisti, tcttein te nobis hoc tempore imperti ; Cic, ad Att., vii., 1, videre mihi videor tantam dimicationem, quanta nunquamfuit, as there never was. Farther, eodem modo me decepit quo te; eadem facilitate Graecos scriptores intelligere, qtta Latinos; idem qttod tu passus sum ; iidem abeunt qui venerunt. In- stead of the relative after idem, talis, and totidem, howev- er, we may also use ac, atque, or ut. See § 340. Cic , in Vat., 4, honos talis paucis est delatus ac mihi ; Tusc, ii., 3, eisdemfere verbis exponimus, ut actum disputatumque est. Idem cum also occurs ; as, Tacit., Ann., xv., 2, eodem me cum patre genitus, instead of quo ego. The construction of idem with the dative is pure Greek, and occurs only in poetry, and even there very rarely ; e. g., Herat., Ars Poet, 467, Invitum qui servat idem facit occidenti ; i. e., quad occidens, or quasi occidat ; Ovid., Amor., i., 4, 1, Vir tuus est epulas nobis aditurus easdem. Similis is construed like idem, in Herat., Serm., i., 3, 122, quum magnis parva mineri^ falce recisurum simili te, to cut down with equal sickle small as well as great things. [§ 705.] 13. Qui joined to esse and a substantive, either in the nominative or ablative of quality, is used in explan- atory clauses instead o£pro, " in accordance with," or, " ac- cording to ;" e. g., instead of Tu, pro tua prudentia, quid optimum factu sit, videbis, in Cicero (ad Fam., x., 27), we may say. Facile, quae tua est prudentia, or qua prudentia es, quid optimum factu sit, videbis. Examples are nu- merous : D. Brut., in Cic, ad Fam., xi., 13, Attendere te volo, quae in manibus sunt. Qua enim prudentia es, nihil te fugiet, si meas litteras diligenter legeris ; Cic, ad Att,, vi., 9, Quare de hoc satis : spero enim, quae tua prudentia et temperantia est, te jam, ut volumus, valere; ad Fam., xii., 29, Nee dubito, quin sine mea commendatione, quod tuum est judicium de hominibus, ipsius Lamiae causa stu- diose omnia facturus sis. [§ 706.] 14. We observed above (§ 128) that the rela- tiva generalia, which are formed either by doubling the simple relative, or by the suffix cunque; 3s,quisquis and 456 LATIN GRAMMAR. quicwnque, are in classical prose always joined with a verb^ and form the protasis. When, notwithstanding this, we sometimes read in Cic, quacunque ratione and quoquo modo, in the sense of omni ratione, omni modo, we must explain such expressions hy means of an ellipsis ; e. g., quacunque ratione fieri potest. But in later writers we frequently find quicungue used in this absolute sense for quivis or quilibct ; e. g., Sueton., Claud., 34, quacunque gladiatorio munere prolapsos jugulari juhebat; Quintil., x., 1, 105,, Ciceronem cuicunque eorum fortiter opposuerim, and this author and Tacitus use it quite commonly in this sense ; but the fact of such peculiarities, which are founded on the whole structure of a language, being effaced, is a sign of the decay of the language. Qualiscunque and quan- tuscunque are likewise used in an absolute sense (by means of an ellipsis), which, however, cannot be censured, the force of the expression being thus enhanced; e. g., Senec, Epist., 80, Tu, non concupisces quanticunque ad libertatem pervenire, at any price, be it ever so high; Cic, adFam., iv., 8, Si libertatem sequimur : qui locus hoc dominatv, va- cat 1 sin qualemcunque locum : quae est domestica sede ju- cundior. [§ 707.J 15. Quidam, some, and substantively, " some one," expresses qualitative indefiniteness, and it is strange to find that certi homines is used in the same sense (e. g., Cicero, Tusc, iii., 34), just as we say "certain people." Quidam expressing quantitative indefiniteness, in the sense of nonnulli, aliquot, occurs more rarely. We must here observe ihs.t quidam, when joined to substantives and adjectives, is very often used merely to soften the expres- sion when the speaker feels that he has made use of too strong an expression, especially when he means to sug-' gest that the word he has used should not be taken in its literal, but in a figurative sense. The best Latin writers, and more particularly Cicero, are very scrupulous in their application of words, and add their quidam or quasi qui- dam, where later writers and modern languages do not feel any necessity for such a modifying or softening word. When in English anything of the kind is required, it is expressed in different ways, one of which is the expres- sion, "so to speak," which is also not unfrequently used in Latin, ut ita dicam. In the following passages quidam softens down adjectives ; Cic, ad Fam., viii., 8, ex tuis lit- PECULIARITIES IN THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 457 teris cognovi praeposteram quandam. fostinationcm tuam : xii., 26,f%it enivi illud quoddam caecum tempus servitutis/ de Oral., ii., 74, ut apud Graecos fertur incredibili quadam magnitudine consilii atque ingenii Atheniensis ille fuisse Themistocles ; Lad., 13, non sunt isii audiendi, qui virtu- tem duram et quasi fcrream quandam volunt ; and in the following it softens down substantives; Cic, de Orat., ii., ^Q,Saepe enim audivi, poetam bonum neminem sineinflam- matione animorum existere posse, et sine quodam afflatu qziasi Juroris ; i., 3, Neque enim te fugit, artium omnium laudatarum proereatricem quandam et quasi parentem phi- losophiatn ah hominibus doctissimis judicari; p. Arch., 1, Etenim omnes artes,quae ad Kumanitatem pertinent, habent quoddam commune vinculum et quasi cognatione quadam inter se continentur. Tamquam is used for the same pur- pose ; as, Cic, de Orat., iii., 43, Translatum verbum max- ime tamquam stellis quibusdam notat et illuminat ora- tionem. [§ 708.] 16. There is this difference between the sim- ple indefinite pronoun, quis, qui, and the compound ali- quis, that the latter is more emphatic than the former. Hence aliquis stands by itself as an independent word, while the unaccented quis is joined to other words, more especially to the conjunctions si, nisi, ne, num, and to rel- atives, and quum, which originally was a relative (§ 136); sometimes one or more words are inserted between quis and the words to which it belongs ; e. g., Cic, de Off., i., 10, lllis promissis standum non est, quae coactus quis metu promiterit; Tusc, iv., 19, TIbi enim quid esset, quod disci posset, eo veniendum judicaverunt ; v., 27, mulieres in In- dia, quum est cujus~earum vir mortuus ; de Fin., v., 10, quotiensctmque dicetur male de se quis mereri. In other connexions, however, quis is used with somewhat more independence; as, Cic, ad Att., vi., 1, credo Scaptiwm iniquius quid de rue scripsisse; de Off., iii., 6, morbus aut egestas aut quid ejtismodi; de Fin., iii., 21, alienum est a Jttstitia detrahere quid de aliqtio, and immediately after, injuriam cuifacere; de Nat. Deor., i., Zi, priusque te quis de omni vitae statu, quam. de ista auctoritate dejecerit, and we not unfrequently find dixerit quis, some one might say But such passages are, after all, of very rare occurrence hi tne language of Cicero, and it is advisable to follow hi* 458 LATIN GRAMMAR. example rather than that of later writers, Hrho used the indefinite quia more frequently in the place of aliquis. It must, however, be observed, on the other hand, that aliquis is used after those conjunctions which usually re- quire quis, when it stands in an antithetical relation to something else, and, accordingly, has a stronger emphasis ; e. g., Cic, p. Milon, 24, Timebat Pompeius omnia, ne ali- quid vos timeretis ; Philip., xiii., 1, Si aliquid de smnma gravitate Pompeius, multum de cupiditate Caesar remisis- set ; ad Fam., xiv., 1, cui si aliquid erit (if he has but something) ne egeat, mediocri virtute opus est, ut cetera con- sequatur; Liv., xxiv., 8, Create consulem T. Otacilium, non dico si omnia haec, sed si aliquid eorum praestitit. We are sometimes obliged, in English, to express the empha- sis of aliquis by the word "really;" e. g., Cic, Cat. Maj., 20, Sensus moriendi, si aliquis esse potest, is ad exiguum tempus durat ; ibid., 13, si aliquid dandum est voluptati^ senectus modicis conviviis potest delectari. Comp. ad Fam., xi., 18, 3; in Fm-., ii., 31, 77. Quispiam, which is used more rarely, is sometimes em- ployed, like quis, after conjunctions ; as in Cicero, pecu niam si cuipiam fortuna ademit ; si grando quippiam no- cuit; and sometimes it stands alone; e. g., quaeret fortasse quispiam, where quispiam is rather more indefinite than aliquis would be. [§ 709.] 17. The difference between quisquam and ul- lus is this, that quisquam is used substantively (we must, however, bear in mind what was said in § 676), while td- Itis is an adjective; both, however, have a negative sense, and are thus opposed to the affirmatives quis, quispiam, and aliquis. They are used, like the adverbs unquam and ztsquam (see § 284), only in such sentences as are neg- ative, either through the negative particles non, neque, nemo, nunquam, &c., or through a negative verb ; as, nego, nescio, veto, ignoro, or through their whole construction ; e. g., nego fore quemquam, or, nego fore ullum hominem, which are equivalent to neminem, or nullum hominem fore puto, so that quisquam corresponds to the substantive ne- mo, and wllus to the adjective nullus. Cic, PhUip., x., 7, Ab hoc igitur quisquam bellum timet? which, if we resolve the interrogative form, will be nemo ab hoc bellum timet. A sentence may acquire a negative character from a com- parative ; e. g , when I say, "he stayed in this place long- PECULIARITIES IN THE PAKTS OF SPEECH. 459 er than in any other," the meaning is, "he did not slay 80 long in any other place." Hence we say in Latin, diutius in hac urhe quam in alia ulla cmnmoratus est; Gic, in Verr., iv., 55, Tetrior hie tyr annus Syracusanus fuit quam qunquum superiorum. It seems surprising that quis, and not quisquam, is used after the dependent negative particles ne, neve, and after the negative interrogative par- ticle num ; and this is, indeed, an exception arising from the ord'inary use of quis after conjunctions. The preposi- tion sine has likewise a negative power ; hence we say, sine ulla spe ; and hence non sine is affirmative ; e. g., non sine aliqua spe hue venerunt, not without some hope ; i. e,, cum aliqua spe. See my note on Cic, Divin., 18. [§ 709. J.] Quisquam and ullus, however, are some- times used after si, instead of aliquis or quis, not in a neg- ative sense, but only to increase the indefiniteness which would be implied in aliquis or quis ; e. g., Cic, Lael., 2, Aut enim nemo, qtwd quidem magis credo, aut, si quisquam, ille sapiens Juit; de Off., i., 31, Omnino, si quidquarn est decorum, nihil est prqfecto magis, quam, aequabilitas uni- versae vitae ; ad Fam., ii., 16, Filio meo, si erit ulla res puhlica, satis amplum patrimonium in memoria nominis mei : sin autem nulla erit. Sec, here the former part with ulla is meant in the affirmative. In Liv., v., 33, Camillo manente, si quidquam humanorum certi est, capi Roma non potuerat, the negative sense is still perceptible, for, in fact, nothing human can be asserted with certainty ; and such passages may serve to explain many similar ones. In this manner it gradually came to pass that quisquam, ullus, unquam, usquam were also used without si, where the in- definiteness is to be made emphatic (answering to the em- phatic any); as, Cic, i» <7a?., i., 2, Quamdiu quisquam erit, qui te defendere audeat, vives ; p. Rose. Am., 43, Dum praesidia ulla Juerunt, Roscius in Sullae praesidiis Juit ; Nep., Att., 19, Tanta prosperitas Caesarem est consecuta, ut nihil ei non trihuerit fortuna, quod cviquam ante detu- lerit ; Liv., i., 18, Curihus Sabinis habitabat consultissimus vir, ut in ilia quisquam esse aetate poterat ; xxi., 1, bellum maxime omnium memorabile, quae unquam gesta sunt, gcripturus sum ; Tacit., Ann., xi., 24, majores mei hortan- tur, ut paribus consiliis rem publicam capessam transfa-en' do hue quod usquam egregium fuerit ; Quintil., x., 1, 60 Archilochus quod quoquam minor est, materiae vitimm ett 460 LATIN GRAMMAR. non ingenii; and Seneca (de Tranquil. 11) uses it, in a witty antithesis, in a decidedly affirmative sense, cuivis potest accidere, quod cuiquam potest. [§ 710.] 18. Quisque is every one distributively or rel atively, but unusquisque, quivis, quilibet, every one abso- lutely ; e. g., natura unumquemque trahit ad discendum ; but (Quintil., ii., 8, init.) virtus praeceptoris haheri solet, quo qnemque natura maxima ferat, scire, presupposes a di- vision or distribution, every one in his own particulai- way. Hence quisque has its peculiar place after relative and in- terrogative pronouns and adverbs; e. g., Cic, in Verr., iv., 33, Scipio polhcetur sibi magnae curae fore, ut omnia civ- itatibus, quae cujusque fuissent, restituerentur ; de Divin., i., 1, ut praedici posset, quid cuique eventurum et quo quis- que fato natus csset; i., 39, Curjiat quidque quaeris : rectc omnino ; p. Rose. Com., 11, Quo quisque est sollertior et ingeniosior, hoc docet iracundius et lahoriosius ; de Orat., i., 26, Ut quisque optime dicit, ita maxim.e dicendi difficul- tatem timet; Liv., iii., 27, vallum sumpsere, unde cuique ■proximumfuit, and in innumerable other passages. Hence the expression quotusquisque in the sense of "how few among aH'l" as, Pliny, Epistolac, iii., 20, Quotocuique eadem honestatis cura secreto, quae palam? Quisque is farther used distributively after numerals ; e. g., decimus quisque sorte lectus, every tenth man ; quinto quoque anno ludi celebrabantur, in every fifth year ; tertio quoque verbo peccat ; and after suus, a, um; as, sui cuique liberi caris- simi, suum cuique placet, suae quemque fortunae maxime poenitet, where attention must be paid to the arrangement of the words (see § 801), and also to the fact of quisque remaining in the nominat. in the construction of the ablat. absolute; e. g., Sallust, Jug., 18, multis sibi quisque im- perium petentibus ; Justin., xxix., 1, his regibus in svmrum quisque majorum vestigia nitentibus ; Liv., xxi., 45, omnes, velut diis auctoribus in spem snam quisque acceptis, proeli- um poscunt. (See Kritz on the passage of Sallust.) In the same manner, we find quisque in the accusal, with the infinitive in Liv., xxvi., 29, affirmantes, se non modo suam quisque patriam, sed totam Si'ciliam relicturos. [§ 710, 5.] Quisque with a superlative, both in the sin- gular and plural ; as, optimus quisque, or (adject.) optimi guique, is, in general, equivalent to o»i»e« with the positive, but in connexion with the verb following it conveys the PECULIARITIES IN THE PARTS OP SPEECH. 461 idea of a reciprocal comparison among the persons im plied in the statement ; as, Cic, .Tusc, iii., 28, Quid ? ex ceteris philosophis nonne optimus quisque et gravissimus confitetur, multa se ignorare ? Hence this superlative is frequently in relation to another, which is joined with the verb, whereby the reciprocal comparison is distinctly ex- pressed ; Cic, Gat. Maj., 23, Quod quidem ni ita se habe- ret, ut animi itnmortales essent, haud optimi cujusque ani- mus maxime ad immortalitatem gloriae niteretur. Quid qiwd sapientissimus quisque aequissimo animo moritur, stul- tissimus iniquissimo ? de Fin., ii., 25, in omni enim arte optimum quidque rarissimum; Curt., vii., 16, Altissima quaeque flumina m,inimo sono lahuntur ; Liv., xxx., 30, Maximae cuiquefortunae minime credendum est. [§ 711.] 19. The interrogative quid is often used in the sense of " why ]" or, " for what purpose %" (comp. nihil, § 677); e.g., quid me ostentemi why should I boast? quid opus est plura ? why should I say more 1 Also, in indi rect questions ; as, Cicero, p. Rose. Am., 12, A Fimbria quaerebatur, quid tandem accusaturus esset eum, quern pro dignitate ne laudare quidem quisquam satis commode pos- set ; p. Muren.., 37, Quaeris a me, quid ego Catilinam me- tuam. Nihil, et curavi ne quis metueret. [§ 712.] 20. Alius is joined in a peculiar way to other cases of its own, or to adverbs derived from alius, for which in English we use two sentences with the one, the other ; e. g., Cic, aliud aliis videtur optimum, one thinks this and another that the best ; alius alio modo interpreta- tur, the one interprets it in this, and the other in another way, or every one interprets it differently; alia alio in loco intuebantur ; aliter cum, aliis loquitur ; aliis aliunde peri- culum est; aliud alias mihi videtur. When only two per- sons or things are spoken of, alter is used in the same way, but there are no adverbs derived from alter ; e. g., alter in alterum causam conferunt, they accuse each other We may here add the remark that alius — alius and the other derivatives are employed in two sentences for alius, aliter, alias, &c., with ac or atque (than) ; e. g., aliud lo- quitur, aliud sentit, he speaks otherwise than he thinks ; aliter loquitur, aliter scribit, he speaks otherwise than he writes. 462 LATIN GRAMMAR J). Verbs. [§ 713.] 1. The English verb "to order" oi "have,"in the sense of " to order," is frequently not expressed in Latin, but is implied in the verb, which, in English, is de- pendent upon the verb "to order;" e.g., Cic, m Fern, iv., 25, Tiso annulum sibi fecit, Piso ordered a ring to be made for himself, or, had a ring made for himself; ibid., 29, Verres ad palum alligavit piratas, he had them tied to a post ; securi percussit archipiratam, he had the archpirate put to death ; multos innocentes virgis cecidit; Nep., dm,., 4, Cimon complures pauperes mortuos sua sumptu extulit, had them buried. In lilce manner, condemnare is used of an accuser who brings about a person's condemnation. [§ 714.] 2. It has already been observed (§ 637) that the Latins generally prefer using a verb in the form ei- ther of the participle perfect or future passive, instead of a substantive expressing the action of the verb. The present participle is likewise often used in Latin to ex- press a state or condition where we employ a substantive with a preposition ; e. g., ignorans, from ignorance ; me- tuenSfirora fear; consulatum pctens,\n. his suit for the con- sulship ; omne malum nascens facile opprimitw, in its ori- gin. The Latin language is not fond of abstract nouns, and prefers, if possible, to express them by vefbs. 3. In like manner, circumlocutions, by means of a verb and a relative pronoun, are preferred to those substan- tives which denote the person of the agent in a definite, but not permanent condition; e. g., ii qui audiunt, qui ad- sunt, qui cum aliquo sunt, qui tibi has litteras reddent; i. e., the audience, the persons present, companions, the bearer of the letter ; is qui potestatem habet, the commander or ruler ; ea quae visenda sunt, things to be seen, or curiosi- ties ; thus we often find ii qui consuluntur, iar juris consul- ti; qui res judicant, ioi judices, since in the Roman con- stitution they did not form a distinct class of citizens. The English expression " above mentioned" is likewise paraphrased by a verb ; e. g., ex libris, quos dixi, quos ante (supra) laudavi ; Cic, de Off., ii., 9, primum de illis tribus,quae ante dixi, videamus; the English "so-called," or, " what is called," is expressed by quern, quam, quod vacant, or by qui, quae, quod vacatur, dicitur, &c. ; e. g., Cic, de Leg., ii., 26, neque opcre tcctorio exornari sepul- PECULIAEITIES IN THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 463 chru, nee Hermas hos^quos vacant, irwponi (Athenis) licebat, Liv., xlv., 33, ad Spelaeum, qtiod vacant, bidua maratus ; Cic, de Re Publ,, vi., 14, vestra, quae dicitur, vita mars est; p. Quint., 6, Gum venissent ad Vada Valaterrana, quae nominantur, vident L. Publicium. [§ 715.] 4. The connexion of two substantives by means of a preposition is frequently paraphrased in Latin b/ a sentence ; e. g., your conduct towards this or that person, agendi ratio, qua uteris, or usus es adversus hunc vel ilium, Cicero's works on Duties may be expressed by Ciceranis libri de Officiis, but more generally Ciceranis libri quas scripsit de Officiis, or libri de Officiis scripti. Certain pro- nominal expressions are likewise rendered in Latin by special sentences ; e. g., I have no doubt of it, nan dubito q>u,in hac ita sit, quin hoc ita se habeat, quin hac verum sit; many things have prevented me from it, midta me impedi- verunt, qiiominus hoc facer em. The ablative absolute qvx) facta, whereupon, which is in common use, belongs to the same class of expressions. [§ 716.] -5. It is customary in an answer to repeat the verb used in the question ; e. g., Cic, Tusc, v., 4, nempe negas ad beate vivendum satis posse virtutem ? Prarsus nega ; Flor., i., 5, Tarquinius Navium rogavit, ferine pas- let, quod ipse mente conceperat ; ille posse respondit ; Cic, Tusc, iii., 4, haedne igitur cadere in sapientem putas f Prarsus existima, {or puta. Comp. the ancient formula of deditio, in Liv., i., 38. The same is the case when a neg- •itive is introduced, Estne f rater tuus intus ? Non est. (Nan alone is used more rarely.) The adverb vera, cer- tainly, is frequently added to the verb in an affirmative answer; as, Cic, Tusc, i., 11, dasne aut manere anim,os post moriem, aut morte ipsa interire ? Do vera. Hence, when the protasis supplies the place of a question, vera is introduced in the apodosis merely to show that it contain? the answer ; e. g., Cic, p. Flaec, 40, Quod si provincia- rum ratio vas magis movet quam vestra : ego vera non ma- da non recuso, sed etiam postula, ut provindarum auctori- tate moveamini ; p. Muren., 4, Quodsi licet desinere, si te aztctore possum-~^go vera libenter desino; ad Fam., xiv., 3, Quod scribis, te, si velim, ad me venturam : ego vero^ quum iciam magnam partem istius oneris abs te sustineri, te istic esse volo. Cicero begins his answer to the celebrated con- iolatory letter o{ S. Sulpicius in the following maimer ; 464 LATIN GRAMMAR. Ego veto, Servi, vellem, ut scrihts, in meo gravisdmo casu affuisses. For Sulpicius had mentioned in his letter what he would have done if he had been at Rome at the time. Hence we so frequently find quasi vero and immo vero in the same connexion, but the latter only when that which precedes is denied, and something still stronger is put in its place. The verb may also be omitted in the answer, and in case of its being aflBrmative, the pronoun of the Verb alone is sometimes repeated with vero; e. g., dicamne quod sentio ? Tu vero ; Cic, de Off., iii., 13, quaero, si hoc emptoribus venditor non dixerit — num id injteste aut tm- prdbefecerit. Illevero,inquit Antipater ; ad Att.,yi\.,1, Quod rogas, ut in honam partem accipiam, si qua sint in tuts litteris, quae me mordeant : ego vero in optimam. Hence, lastly, the use of vero alone in the sense of "yes," and equivalent to sane, ita, etiam ; e. g., Cic, de Divin., i., 46, illam autem dixisse : Vero, mea puella, tibi concedo meas sedes. (See § 357.) Vero occurs very rarely in negative answers, but is found in the expression minims vero. [§ 717.] 6. When a circumstance is added, supplement- ary, as it were, Jo a preceding verb, the verb is frequent- ly repeated ; e. g., Pompey obtained the highest dignities in the state, and that at an earlier age than any one before him, Pompeius summos in repuhlica honor es assecutus est, et assecutus est maturius quam quisquam ante eum ; Cic, de Off., iii., 14, Emit (hortos) tanti, quanti Pythius voluit, et emit instructos. [§718.] 7. A similar repetition of a preceding verb, but in the participle perfect passive, expresses the completion of an action, which in English is commonly indicated by "then" or "afterward;" e. g.,mandavit mihi ut epistolam scriberem, scriptam sibi darem ; Caes., ^ell. Civ., i., 76, edicunt ut producaniur : productos palam in praetorio in- terficiunt ; Liv., i., 10, exercitum fundit Jkgatque, fusum persequitwr ; comp. ii., 28; xxii., 20. [§ 719.] 8. Respecting the circumlocution of the abla tivus causalis, by means of the participles ductus, motus, r.ommotus, adductus, captus, incensus, impulsus, and others of similar meaning, see § 454 ; e. g., Nep., Alcib., 5, Lacedaemonii pertimuerunt, ne caritate patriae ductus (from love of his country) aliquando ab ipsis descitceret et eum tuis in gratiam rediret; Cic, de Off., i., 10, Jam illis vrt PECULIARITIES IN THE PARTS OP SPEECH. 465 missis standum non esse, quia non videt, quae coactus quis metu promiserit ? de Invent., ii., 8, dubia spe impulsus cer- tum in periculwm se commint ; ad Fam., iii., 8, quum hoc suscepissem non solum justitia, sed etiam misericordia ad- ductus. [§ 720.] 9. Solco aliquidfacere and solet aliquid fieri aie very frequently nothing but forms of expression for saepe hoc facio, saepe or plerumque fit ; and in this sense it must be understood, especially in the infinitive; e. g., narrahat patrem suum solitum esse dicere, he related that his father used to say, or often said. [§ 721.] 10. The expressions nescio an ^xiA-haud scioan (the latter is frequent in Cicero, but occurs only once in Livy, iii., 60, and in ix., 15, hand sciam an) have been discussed above, § 354, but only briefly. This expression, which properly signifies " I know not, vi^hether not," has acquired the meaning of the adverb _/arta*se, perhaps ; e. g., Cic, ad Quint. Frat., i., 1, Tanti tihi Tionores kabiti sunt, quanti haud scio an nemini ; Brut., 33, eloquentia quidem (C. Gracchus, si diutius vixisset) nescio an Tiabuis- set parem neminem, he w^ould, perhaps, not have had his equal ; p. lAg., 9, Quaefuit unquam in ullo homine tanta constantia ? constantiam dico ? nescio an melius patientiam 'passim dicere; de Fin., v., 3, Peripateticorumfiuit princeps Aristoteles, quern excepto Platonehaud scio an recte dixerim principem, philosophorum. This adverbial signification, perhaps, accounts for the indicative which occurs in Ter- ence, Adelph., iv., 5, 33, qui infelix haud scio an illam mi- sere nunc amat, but should not be imitated. Hence it ap- pears that we ought always to say nescio an nullus, nun- quam, as in the above passages, nescio an nemo, and also in Cic, de Off., iii., 2, ad Fam., ix., 14, 12, and Nepos, Timol., 1. And this, indeed, is the reading which learn- ed critics (Lambinus, Emesti, Goerenz) have introduced in Cicero; e. g.. Cat. Maj., 16, mea quidem sententia haud scio an nulla beatior esse possit ; de Leg., i., 21, hoc diju- dicari nescio an nunquam, sed hoc sermone certe non poterit. See, also, ad Fam., ix., 9,4; ad Att., iv., 3, init. ; de Orat., ii., 4, 18. The authority of MSS. has recently been ur- ged against this view, but we think with those editors, that the authority of MSS. is of no weight in so undisputed an analogy ; and the more so, as in all cases the MSS. con- tain evidence, also, in favour of the ne^aative, and the dif- 466 LATIN 6BAMMAK. ferences between the readings are insignificant. There is only one passage in which the difference is considera- ble, viz., Cic, Lael., 6, qua quidem haud scio an excepta sapientia quidquam (or nihil) melius homini sit datum ; but even here the reading nihil is sufficiently attested by MSS., to which we may add one of the three Berlin MSS., the two others having quicquam. But we must ob- serve, in conclusion, that the writers of the silver age (es- pecially Quintilian, see Buttmann on xii., 10, 2) do not, indeed, give up the use of nescio ati in the sense oi for- tasse, but along with it they employ the expression also in the negative sense of " I know not whether," and vidth ullus after it, the ancient and limited, use of an having, in the mean time, likewise become extended. E. Adverhs. [§ 722.] 1. The Latins frequently use an adverb where the English use a substantive with a preposition ; e. g., vere hoc dicere possum, I can say this, in truth, or truly. In Latin the preposition cum is sometimes thus employed with a substantive (§ 471), but the adverb occurs far more frequently, and it is easy to perceive that cum with a sub- stantive serves rather to denote some accessory circum- stance than anything inherent in the action. 2. As the adverb is joined to a verb in the same man- ner that an adjective is joined to a substantive, the begin- ner must be reminded that participles, being parts of a verb, are qualified by adverbs, and not by adjectives ; and this rule is observed even when a participle, as is some- times the case, has acquired the meaning of a substantive; e. g., inventum, invention ; factum, fact, which are fre- quently joined with adverbs. We find, indeed, illustria, fortia, gloriosa facta, but, at the same time, hene facta, recte facta, good deeds, and always res fortiter, praeclare, felidter a te gestae. [§ 723.] 3. Respecting the special use of every separ- ate adverb, see Chap. LXII. : it only remains here to add some remarks relative to the connexion of sentences by means of adverbs, and to the interchange of adverbs. Sentences are connected by the doubled adverbs made ~—modo, and nunc — nunc (sometimes — sometimes) ; aSj tnodo hoc, Tnodo illud dicit ; mado hue, modo iUuc (volat) , modo ait, modo negat. Nunc — nttnc does not occur in Cic- PEtJUIJAEITIES IN THE 1>AET8 OF SPEECH. 46'' ero, but is found frequently in Livy and others; as, nunc xingwlos -provocat, nunc omnes increpat; referre egregiafa- cinora nunc in ea^editionibus, nunc in acie. Instead of the second modo other particles of time are sometimes used, and Tacitus, in particular, is fond of varying his expres- sion, by substituting aliquando, rumnunquam, interdum, saepius, turn, or deinde, for the second modo. Partim — partim, partly — partly, is sometimes used in quite the same sense as alii — alii (or the other genders), that is, as the nominal, of a noun. See § 271. Simul — simul, as well — as, does not occur in Cicero, but is used by the historians, and once by Caesar, Bdl. Gall., iv., 13, simul sui purgandi causa, simul ut, si quid 'possent, de induciis impetrarent. Qua — qua does not occur very frequently, and is equiv- alent to et — et; as, Cic, ad Att., ii., 19, Gladiatoribus qua dominus, qua advocati sibilis conscissi. Turn — turn is used like modo — mado, as an adverb of time, or like partim — partim, denoting divisions of equal value ; e. g., Cic, Lad., 21, Erumpunt saepe vitia amico- rum turn in ipsos amicos, turn in alienos, quorum tamen ad amicos redundat infamia ; de Fin.,'\., 14, Plerique propter voluptatem tum in morbos graves, turn in damna, turn in dedecora incurrunt; de Off., ii., 19, Quae autem opera, non largitione, benejicia dantur, haec tum in universam rem publicam, tum in singulos cives conferuntur. Quum — tum is equivalent to et — et, except that it as- signs a greater importance to the second part ; it must, therefore, be translated by "both — and especially," "not only — but also," or, "but more particularly." This mean- ing is often expressed moi-e strongly by adding to turn the particles vero, certe, etiam (sometimes quoquej, praecipue, imprimis, maxime. The construction and signification of this expression must be traced to the use of quum with the subjunctive in a protasis which contains the introduc- tory premises, and is followed by an apodosis with turn, containing the application of the premises to the particu- lar case in question ; e. g., Cic, p. Sext., 1, in quo quum multa sint indigna, turn, nihil minus estferendum; inRull., iii., 3, Jam totam legem intelligitis, quum ad paucorum dominationem scripta sit, tum ad Stdlanae assignationis rationes esse accommodatam ; p. Arch., 4, idque, quum per «e dignus putaretur, tum auctoritate et gratia Luculli im- 468 LATIN GRAMMAK. petravit. This frequent mode of connecting sentencea led the Romans to regard quum as an adverbial con-ela- tive of turn, without any influence upon the construction ; and hence it is joined with the indicative ; e. g., Cic, ad Fain., iii., 9, Quum ipsam cognitionem j-uris augwrii conse- qui cupio, turn Tnehercule tuis incredibiliter studiis detector; vi., 14, nam quum te semper maxime dilexi, turn fratrum luorum singularis pietas nullum me patitur officii erga te munus praetertnittere. Quum. then becomes a complete adverb, when, being followed by turn, it serves to express the opposition between single words which have the same verb ; e. g., Animi magnitudo quum in, utilitatibus com- parandis, turn midto magis in his despiciendis elucet ; for- tuna quum in reliquis rebus, turn, praedpue in bello pluri- mum potest; Agesilaus quum a ceteris scriptoribus, turn, ex- imie a Xenophonte collaudatus est; luxuria quum omni ae- tate turpis, turn senectuti foedissima est; quum multa indig- na, turn, vel hoc indignissimum est. Sometimes the verb stands in the firet part of the sentence; Cic, Divin., 11, quum omnis arrogantia odiosa est, turn, ilia ingenii atque eloquentiae multo molestissima ; in Verr.,\.,2, 1, Nam quum, omnium sociorum provinciarumque rationem diligenter ha- bere debetis, turn praedpue Siciliae, judices, plurimis justis- simisque de causis. Such a sentence, however, might also be expressed in the manner which we mentioned first ; e. g., Fortuna quum in ceteris rehus multum, turn praedpue in bello dominatur. Turn is sometimes repeated in the second part of a sentence ; e. g., Cicero, in Verr., i., 58, quern pater moriens quum tutoribus et propinquis, turn leg- ibus, turn aequitati magistratuum, tu?njudidis vestris com- mendatum putavit ; and sometimes we find the gradation quum — turn — turn vero ; as, Cic, de Leg. Agr., i., 3, quo- rum, quum adventus graves, turn fasces formidolosi, tum vero judicium ac pttestas erit non ferenda ;-p. Rab. perd., 1, Nam me quum, amicitiae vetustas, tum dignitas hominis, tum ratio humanitatis, tum meae vitae perpetua consuetudo ad C. Rabirium defendendum, est adhortata, tum vero, &c. It is doubtful whether the same is allowable with quum. See Cic, p. Muren., 18, 38 ; Stiirenburg on Cic, p. Arch., 12, 31. Lat. edition. [§ 724.] 4. Non modo — sed etiam (or non solum, or non tantum — verum etiam) generally expresses the transition from less important to more important things, like the PECULIARITIES IN THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 469 English "not only — but (also);" e. g., Liv., i., 22, Tullus Hostilius non solum •proximo regi dissimilis, sed ferocior etiavi Romulo fuit. When a transition from greater t(j lesser things is to be expressed, we usually find non modo (but not non solum) — sed, without the etiam ; e. g., Cic, ■p. Leg. Man., 22, Quae civitas est in Asia, quae non modo imperatoris aut legati, sed unius tribuni militum animos ac gpiritus capere possit ? Divin^ 8, Qua in re non modo cet- eris specimen aliquod dedisti, sed tute tui periculumjecisti ? p. Sexi., 20, Jecissem m,e ipse potius in profundum, ut cet- tros conservarem, quam illos mei tarn cupidos non modo ad certam, mortem, sed in magnum vitae discrimen adducerem. We render ihis non modo — sed in English by " I will not say — but k>uly," and in Latin, too, we may say non dicam, or non dico — sed; as in Cic, p. Plane., 33, Nihil tarn in- humanum est, quam, committere ut beneficio non dicam, in- dignus, sed victus esse videare ; Philip., ii., 4, Quid est enim minus non dico oratoris, sed ho/ninis, &c. We may farther, without altering the meaning, invert such senten- ces by means of ne dicam, or nedwm ; thus, instead of the above-quoted passage (p. Leg. Man., 22), we may say, Quae civitas est in Asia, quae unius tribuni militum spiri- tus capere possit, ne dicam (nedum) imperatoris aut legati. See above, § 573. There are, indeed, some passages in Cicero, in which non modo (solum) — sed expresses an as- cending transition, and non modo — sed etiam a descending one, in which case etiam is added without any meaning ; but the majority of passages of this author justifies us in adhering to the distinction drawn above. [§ 724, J.] When the sentences are negative, i. e., when they are connected by means of " not only not — but not even," non modo (solum) non — sed ne quidem, the second nmi is omitted if both sentences have the same verb, and if the verb is contained in the second sentence, for the negative ne is then considered to belong conjointly to both sentences ; e. g., Cic, de Off., iii., 19, talis vir non modo facere, sed ne cogitare quidem quidquam, audebit, quod non honesium, sit, which is equivalent to talis vir non m,odo Ja- cere, sed etiam cogitare non audebit ; Lael., 24, Assentatio, vitiorum adjutrix, procul amoveatur ; quae non modo arni- ca, sed ne libero quidem digna est. This sentence may also be inverted, Assentatio ne libero quidem digna est, non modo (not to mention) amico ; as in Cic, Tusc, i., 38, nr Rr 470 LATIN GRAMMAR. sues quidem id velint, non modo ipse. The c ase remains the same when sed vix follows in the second part of the sentence; e. g., Cic.,^. Cod., 17, verum haec genera vir- tutum non .wlum in morihus nostris, sed vix jam in libris reperiuntur, these virtues are not only not foimd in life, but scarcely in books ; Liv., iii., 6, mm modo ad expedi- tiones, sed vix ad quieias stationes viribus sufficiebant. But if each part of the sentence has its own verb, or if the verb, although common to both, is expressed in the first part, non modo non is used complete ; e. g., Cic, p. Sull., 18, Ego non m.odo tibi non irascor, sed ne reprehendo quidem factum tuum ; ad Att., x., 4, horum ego imperatorum non modo res gestas non antepono meis, sed nefortunam quidem ipsam. The negative is not unfrequently retained in the first sentence, even when both negative sentences have the same predicate ; as, Cic, p. Muren., 3, Atque hoc non made non laudari, sed ne concedi quidem potest, ut, &c. So, also, Liv., iv., 3, Enunqtiam fando auditum esse, Numam PompUium, non mode non patricium, sed ne civem quidem Romanum, Romae rtgnasse? whereas the rule is observed in i., 40, Ancifilii semper pro indignissimo habuerant, reg- nare Romae advenam, non modo civicae, sed ne Italicae quidem stirpis, for the predicate of both sentences here is the participle of the verb e^e. Lastly, it must be observ- ed, that the second non, when its place is supplied by a negative word ; as, nemo, nullus, nihil, nunquam, is gen- erally not omitted; e. g., Cic, in Verr., ii., 46, quod non modo Siculus nemo, sed ne Sicilia quidem tota potuisset; iii., 48, quum multis non modo granum nullum, sed ne pa- leae quidem ex omni fructu relinquerentur ; although quis- quam or ullus would not be wrong, and are actually used, e. g., by Livy. [§ 725.] 5. Tarn — quam expresses a comparison ; as, Cic, ad Att., xiii., 20, Vellem tum domestica ferre possem, quam ista contemnere ; Orat., 30, Nemo orator tam multa, ne in Graeco quidem otio, scripsit, quam multa sunt nostra. Hence we say Cicero tam facile Graece, quam facile La- tine dicebat ; or, in the inverted order, Sallust, Jug., 34, Quam quisque pessime fecit, tam maxime tutus est. Tam — quam quod maxime signifies "as much as possible." See § 774, note. Non tam — quam, "not so much — as;" e.g., Cic, de Orat., ii., 30, De eo non tam quia longum est, quam quia PECULIARITIES IN THE PAETS OF SPEECH. 471 perspicuum, dici nihil est necesse ; in Verr., ii., 34, Quae ttudiose compararat non tarn suae delectationis causa, quam ad invitationes suorum amicorum atque hospitum ; p. Mu- ren., 8, provincia non tarn gratiosa et illustris, quam nego- tiosa ac molesta. The real meaning of " not so much — as" thus vanishes, the former part of the sentence being negatived altogether. Non minus — quam and non magis — quam are, on the whole, equivalent to aeque ac, as much as ; but it must be observed that in non magis — quam the greater weight is attached to the affirmative part of the sentence beginning with quam ; e. g., Alexander non dv/yis magis quam mili- tis munia exequebatur, Alex, performed just as much the service of a soldier as that of a commander; Cic, ad Fam., xiv., 3, conjicior enim maerore, mea Terentia, nee meae me miseriae magis excruciant, quam, tuae vestraeque; Curt., vii., 38, Moverat eos regis non virtus magis, quam dementia in devictos Scythas. The place of the adverb magis is frequently supplied hy plus; e. g., Cic, deProv. Cons., 10, rei publicae plus quam otio meo prospexi ; p. Flacc, 31, revera non plus aurum tibi quam monedulae committebant ; ad Att., ii., 1, Catonem non tu amas plus quam ego. See my note on Cic, in Verr., ii., 7, and Heu- singer on de Off., iii., 23. [Otherwise plus is rarely used for magis ; Cic, de Leg., ii., 1, inest nescio quid in anitno ac sensu meo, quo me plus hie locv^s fortasse delectet; Phil- ip., ii., 15, An ille quemquam plus dilexit ; for Philip., ii., 13, plus quam sicarii, plus quam, homicidae sunt, is per- fectly regular, "they are something more.") [§ 726.] 6. Sic and ita are demonstrative adverbs de- noting similarity, and corresponding to the relative ut (see § 281, foil.) ; but ita, which differs from sic, also serves to indicate a more special relation : hence it very often has a restrictive meaning, "only in so far;" e. g.,Cic, p. Leg. Man., 3, vestri imperatores ita triumpharunt, ut ille (Mith- ridates) pulsus superatusque regnaret ; i. e., your generals triumphed, indeed, but in such a manner that Mithridates, nevertheless, continued to rule; this is sometimes- express- ed more emphatically by the addition of tamen (e. g., p. Sext., 5, Verum haec ita praetereamus, ut tamen intuentes ac respectantes relinquamus ) ; p. Cluent., 32 ; ita multum agitata, ita diu jactata ista res est, ut hodierno die primum causa ilia defensa sit; in Verr., iii., 82, itaque hoc est, quod 472 LATIN GRAMMAR. multi fortiisse fecerunt, sed ita multi, ut ii quos innocentts- simos memimmus aut audivimus, non fecerint. Tantus (but not tarn) is used in the same sense; as, Caes., Bell. Gall., vi., 35, praesidii tantum est, ut ne murus quidem cingi pos- sit; i. e., only so much; Nep., de Reg., 1, tantum indul- sit dolori, ut eum pietas vinceret, and in like manner, we find in Cic, ad Fam., i., 7, tantam vim hahet, in the sense of "bo small a value." Ut — ita ^«cj places sentences on an equality; but this equality is sometimes limited to the result, to which both sentences lead, so that ut — ita is equivalent to "although — still," or, "indeed — ^but;" Cic, ad Fam., x., 20, Ut er- rare, mi Plance, potuisti, sic decipi te non potuisse quia non videt ? Liv., xxi., 35, Pleraque Alpium, ah Italia sicut bre- viora, ita arrectiora sunt, are indeed shorter, but steeper. The adverb ut, " as," sometimes takes the signification of the conjunction q^od, " because ;" e. g., homo, ut erat furiosus, respondit, the man, furious as he was ; i. e., be- cause he was furious ; Cic, p. Muren., 25, Atque ille, ut sem,perfu,it apertissimus, non se purgavit ; in Verr., i., 26, m,agnifice et ornate, ut erat in primis inter suos copiosus, convivium comparat, rich 5s be was, or because he was rich. [§ 727.] 7. Instead of the adverbial numerals primAim, secwndo (for secundum is not often used, see § 123), terti- um, quartum, unless the strict succession of the numbers is required, the ancients preferred using the ordinal ad- verbs primum, deinde, turn, denique, and generally in the order here adopted, but sometimes turn, is used once or twice instead of deinde, or the series is extended by such expressions as accedit, hue adde. Sometimes denique ia followed by postremo to form the conclusion of a series, which is otherwise so commonly the function of denique, that, even without the other adverbs preceding, it con- cludes a series by introducing the greatest or most im- portant, and is then equivalent to the English "in short," or "in fine;" e. g.,Cic., in Cat.,i., 5, templa deorumimmor- talium, tecta urbis, vitam omnium civium, Italiam denique totam ad exitium ac vastitatem vocas. [§ 788.] 8. The adverb forte diifers in meaning from fortasse wnAforsitan (comp. § 271), the former signifying " accidentally," and the two latter "perhaps." Forsitan, according to its derivation, is chiefly joined with the sub- lECULIARITIES IN THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 473 junctive; i. e., it is used in those constructions the nature of which admits of the subjunctive in other connexions also; e. g.,forsitan dliquis'dixerit ; quod debeam forsitan ohtinere. But forte acquires the signification of " per- haps" after some conjunctions, especially after si, nisi, ne, num ; e. g., siquis forte miratur, if, perhaps, any one should be surprised. Hence arises the frequent confusion of the two particles in modem Latin. [§ 729.] 9. Modo non and tantum nan acquire, like the Greek fwvov ohK, the meaning of the adverb "nearly" or " almost," for properly they signify " only not so much ;" e. g., Terent., Phorm., i., 2, 18, is senem per epistolas pel- lexit modo non monies auri pollicens ; i. e., paene or prope pollicens ; Liv., iv., 2, Tiostes tantum non arcessiverunt ; xxxiv., 40, nuntii afferebant, tantum non jam captam Lace- daemonem esse. The same meaning is also expressed by tantum quod non, which brings us still nearer to the origin of the expression ; e. g.j Cic, in Verr., i., 45, tantum quod hominem non nominat, only (except) that he does not mention him by name ; i. e., he almost mentions him by name. [§ 730.] 10. Non ita is used like theEnghsh "not so," which is to be explained by an ellipsis ; as, non ita longt aberat, he was not so far off, viz., as you might imagine but it also acquires the meaning of " not exactly," " not very;" i. e., it becomes equivalent to non sane, non admo- dum. Cicero uses it in this sense only before adjectives and adverbs, and before verbs non ita valde is employed ; e. g., Cic, in Verr., iv., 49, simulacra praeclara, sed non ita antiqua ; Brut., 66, Fimbria non ita diu jactare se po- tuii ; de Nat. Deor., i., 31, quibus homines non ita valde moventur, and in many other passages. • [730, 5.] 11. Non item is used to express a certain op- position or contrast, and properly signifies "not in the same manner or degree," but it is usually rendered by the simple "not" or "but — not;" Cic, de Off., i., 32, hoc Herculi potuit fortasse contingere, nobis non item ; ad Att,, u., 21, O spectaculum uni Grasso jucundum, ceteris non item ! Orat., 43, nam omnium m,agnarum, artium,, sicui arborum, altitudo nos delectat, radices stirpesque •non item. Comp. § 781. [§ 731.] 12. Minus is often used for non; e. g., Cic, de Divm., i., 1^, Nonnumquam ea, quae praedicta sunt,minu^ R b2 "t'''4 LATIN GRAMMAR. eveniunt. We must especially notice si minus — at, if not — yet; e. g., Cic, in Verr.,Y., 27, si minus supplicio afflci, at custqdiri oportebat—^and sin minus, " but if not," with- out a verb, after a preceding si; but with si non the verb is repeated ; Cic, ad, Fam., vii., 1, Quod si assecutus sum, gaudeo : sin. minus, hoc me iamen consolor, quod posthac nos vises ; ad Att., ix., 15, si mihi veniam dederit, utar il- lius condictone : sin minus, impetraio aliquid a me ipso. Comp. § 343. Parum, always retains its proper significa- tion of " not — enough," though it may sometimes seem to be used for non ; e. g., parum diu vixit, he did not live long enough ; parum multi sunt defensores nobilitatis, not numerous enough. The English "how little" is, in Lat- in, quam, non, and " so little" ita non, or adeo non ; e. g., adeo non curdbat, quid homines de se loquerentur. [§ 732.] 13. Nunc, as was remarked in § 285, always expresses the time actually present, and not merely rela- tively present, or the time to which a narrator transfers himself for the purpose of making his description livelier. In a narrative we may say in English, e. g., Caesar now thought that he ought not to hesitate any longer ; but the now in this sentence must be rendered in Latin by tunc, or turn, Caesar non diuiius sibi cunctandum censebat. (In the connexion of sentences, however, jam may be used instead; see § 286.) In speaking of the time actually present we say, e. g., nunc primum somnia me eludunt, or eluseruM, this is the first time that a dream deceives me, oi has deceived me. In a narrative, on the other hand, wo must say, somnia tunc primum se dicehat elusisse. See the passage in Tacit., Ann., xvi., 3. This rule is observ- ed throughout. Respecting the same use of ille in con- tradistinction to hie, see § 703. [§ 733.] 14. The conjunction dum (while) alters its meaning when added to negatives, and becomes an ad- verb signifying " yet;" as, nondum or hauddum, not yet; nequedum or necdum, and not yet; nullusdum, no one yet; nihildum, nothing yet; e. g., Cic, ad Att., xiv., 10, Quid agat frater m,eus si scis, nequedum Roma est profectus, scri- bas ad me velim ; Sueton., Caes., 7, Caesar quum Gades venisset, animadversa apud Herculis templum Magni Alex- andri imagine, ingemuit quasi pertaesus ignaviam, suam, quod nihildum a se memorabile actum esset in aetate, qua jam Alexander orbem terrae subegisset. Hence, when at- PECULIARITIES IN THE PARTS OP SPEECH. 475 DttGhed to the negative adverb vix — vixdum, it signifies " scai'cely yet ;" a. g., Cic, ad Att., ix., 2, Vixdum epis- tolam tuam legeram, quum ad me Curtius venit. [§ 734.] 15. The conjunction vel (or), which originally serves to correct an expression, acquired through an el- lipsis the meaning of the adverb " even," and enhances the sense of the word modified by it ; e. g., Cic, de Fin., i., 2, quum Sophocles vel optima scripserit Electram, tamen male conversam Attii mihi legendam puto: here the ex- pression is to be explained by supplying the word bene before vel. In this sense vel is used frequently ; as in Cicero, hac re vel maxime 2>raestat ; quam sint morosi qui amant, vel ex hoc intelligi potest ; isto modo vel consulatus vituperabilis est ; per me vel stertas licet. The derivation of this particle from velle (wilt thou ]) accounts for its sig- nifying " for example," or " to mention a case at once ;" e. g., Cic, ad Fam., ii., 13, Raras tuas qv,idem, sed suaves accipio litteras : vel quas proxime acceperam, quam pru- dentes ! p. Fliicc, 33, Ita scitote,judices, esse cetera. Vel qtiod ait L. Flaccum sibi dare cupisse, ut a fide se abduce- ret, HS. vicies. Velut is more frequently used in this sense ; e. g., Cic, de Fin., ii., 35, Non elogia monumento- rum hoc significant ? velut hoc ad portam ; de Nat. Dear., ii., 48, Veluti crocodili — simulac niti possunt, aquam per- sequuntur. [§ 735.] 16. The conjunction nisi, by omitting its verb or uniting it with the leading verb, acquires the sense of she adverb " except," which is generally expressed by praeterqvMm, or the preposition praeter. (See § 323.) This, however, -is the case only after negatives and Qegative questions ; e. g., Nepos, Miltiades, 4, Athenien- ses auxilium nusquam nisi a Lacedaemoniis petiverunt ; Cic, p. Plane., 33, Quid est pietas, nisi voluntas grata in parentes ? p. Sext., 60, Quern unquam senatus civem nisi me nationibtis exteris commendavit ? instead of which we might say in the first passage, praeterquam a Lacedaemo- niis, and in the second praeter me ; and we must say so when no negative precedes ;' e. g., Liv., xxiv., 16, praeda omnis praeterquam. hominum captorum (or praeter homines captos) militi concessa est. But the expression " except that," may be rendered in Latin either by nisi quod or praeterquam quod, so that here we may have nisi without a pre<;eding negative ; e. g., Qixc.'ad Att., ii., 1, Tuscula- 476 » LATIN GRAMMAR. num et Pompeianum me valde delectant, nisi qwod me aere alieno obrue^unt. (Nisi ut are likewise joined together, but in a different sense, ut retaining its proper significa- tion ; e. g., nihil aliud ex hoc re quaero, nisi ut homines in- telligant, except that people may see.) As the Latin nisi after negatives is rendered in English not only by " except," but by "than," the beginner must beware of translating this "than" by quam. It is only af- ter nihil aliud that we may use either nisi or quam, nisi referring to nihil, and quam to aliud. The difference is this, that nihil aliud nisi signifies " nothing farther," or " nothing more," and nihil aliud quam, " nothing else," or " no other thing but this particular one." Hence, Cic. (de Orat., ii., 12) says, Erat historia nihil aliud nisi anna- lium confectio (but it should be more) ; de Off., i., 23, JBeZ- Ivm, ita suscipiatur, ut nihil aliud nisi pax quaesita videa- tur (and not other advantages besides); Tusc, i., 34, Nihil aliud est discere, nisi recordari. Praeter is used in the same sense in Cic, de Off., ii., 2, nee quidquam aliud est philosophia praeter studium sapientiae (nothing more). But in de Leg., i., 8, we read, Virtus est nihil aliud quam in se perfecta et ad summum perducta natura (this defini- tion comprising everything); Nep., Lys., 1, Nihil aliud molitus est quam ut omnes civitates in sua teneret potestate. Quam, must, as a matter of course, be used, when it refers to a comparative ; as, nihil magis timeo quam ilium. F. Prepositions. [§ 736.] The use of every separate preposition has been fully explained in Chap. LXV., and there is no farther general remark to be made, except that the beginner must be cautioned not to join two prepositions, as we do in Eng- lish; e. g., "to speakybr and against a law," or, "I have learned this with, and, to some extent, _/9-ow, him." The only mode of rendering these sentences in Latin is, pro lege et contra legem dicer e ; haec cum, eo, partim etiam ah eo didici. Those dissyllabic prepositions only, which are also used without a noun and as adverbs, may follow an- other, without being joined with a case ; e. g., Cicero, quod aut secundum naturam esset, aut contra ; Livy, cm Padum ultraque. Caesar (Bell. Civ., iii., 72) reverses the order, intra extraque munitiones. Compare, also, § 794 PECUIilAKlTIES IN THE PARTS OF SPEECH, 477 G. Conjimctions. [§ 737.] 1. Respecting the signification of the several conjunctions, see Chap. LXVII. Those who wish to ac- quire a thorough knowledge of the Latin language can- not bestow too much attention on this part of speech. Prom a careful observation of their use in good authors, we learn that many combinations have, in fact, quite a different meaning from what lies on the surface. Atque adeo, properly " and even," acquires the power of cor- recting that which precedes, and also enhances the sense ; hence it becomes equivalent to vel potius, or rather. (See § 336. Compare what is said of immo in § 277.) E. g., Cic, in Verr., iii., 8, Tu homo minimi consilii, nullius auc- toritatis, injitssu populi ac senatus, tota Sicilia recusante, cum maximo detrimento atque adeo exitio vectigalium, to- tarn, Hieronicam legem, sustulisti. At quam, legem corrigit, judices, atque adeo totam tollit 1 and, Verres tot annis atque adeo saeculis inventus est. [§ 738.] 2. Attention must be paid to the following pe- culiarity of the Latin language : when the negative pow- er of a proposition is not expressed by non, but contained in some other word, the negative is usually combined with the copulative conjunction ; hence, instead of et and ut with the negatives nemo, nihil, nullus, nunq'uam,we&[id much more frequently neque fnecj and ne with the corre- sponding affirmative words quisquam, ullus, unquam, us- quam. It must, however,, be observed (see § 709), that " in order that no one" is rendered in Latin by ne quia, and never by ne quisquam. But it should not be forgot- ten that ne cannot be used everywhere, and that ut nemo, ut nullus, &c., are required in all cases in which ut non must be employed, and not ne. (See § 632.) E. g., Cic, Cat. Maj., 12, impedit enim, consilium voluptas ac mentis, ut ita dicam, praestringit oculos, nee hahet ullum cum vir~ tute commercium, ; ibid., 19, horae quidem cedunt, et dies et menses et anm : nee praeteritum tempus unquam, revertitur ; Sallust, Cat., 29, Senatus decrevit, darent operam consulea, ne quid respublica detrimenti caperet ; Caes., Bell. Gall,, i., 46, Caesar suis imperavit, ne quod omnino telum in has- tes rejicerent. [§ 739.] 3. When any clause inserted in another has im- peded or disturbed the construction, the return to the con- 478 LATIN GRAMMAR. struction of the leading sentence is indicated by one of the conjunctions igitur, verum, verumtamen, sed, sed tamen which we commonly render by " I say." In Latin, too, inquam is sometimes so used (as in Cic, in Verr., iv., 29, 67 ; p. Muren., 30, 63), but the conjunctions are much more common ; Cic, de Off., iii., 16, M. Cato sententiam dixit, liujus nostri Catonis pater (ut enim ceteri ex patribus, sic hie, qui illud lumen progenuit, exjilio est nominandtts) : is igitur judex ita pronuntiavit, emptori damnum praestari oportere ; Philip., ii., 32, Primum quum Caesar ostendis- set, se, priusquam prqficisceretur, Dolabellam consulem esse jussurum : quern negant regem, qui et faceret semper ejus- modi aliquid et diceret : sed quum Caesar ita dixisset, turn hie bonus augur eo se sacerdotio praeditum esse dixit, &c. See Heusinger on this passage, and compare in Cat., iii., 2, init. ; p. Plane., 4 ; de Leg., ii., 1, Quare ante mirahar —sed mirahar, ut dixi, &c. As for the other conjunctions used in this manner, see in Gat., iv., 11 ; Philip., ii., 37; de Fin., ii., 22 ; p. Rose. Am., 43, in Verr., iii., 2, init.; aa Att., i., 10, init. ; p. Sext., 10, init. Nam is also employ- ed in this way ; as, p. Plane., 41. Itaque is doubtful in Cic, de Fin., i., 6, 19, but occurs in Liv., ii., 12, init. [§ 740.] 4. Siquis often seems to stand for the relative pronoun, as in Greek etrtf for o^ti^ ; but it always con- tains the idea of "perhaps," which it naturally retains from its proper signification of a possible condition ; e. g., Liv., xxi., 37, Nuda fere Mpium cacumina sunt, et si quid est pahuli, ohruunt nives ; Cic, in Verr., v., 25, iste quasi praeda sibi advecta, non praedonibus captis, si qui senes^ aut deformes erant, eos in hostium numero ducit, qui aliquid formae, aetatis, artificiique habebant, abducit omnes ; Brut., 69, G. Gosconius nullo acumine, eam tamen verborum copi- am, si quam habebat, populo praebebat. Emesti proposed to strike out si, but it may be explained in the manner stated above, for Cicero does not even like to admit that Gosconius possessed copia verborum; and in a similai manner he speaks with some doubt of his o-wa eloquence, c. 87, etsi tu melius exi^timare videris de ea, si quam nunc TiabemuSjfacultate; and, also, Divin., 15, ipse Allienus ex eafacultate, si quam habet, aliquantum detracturus est. [§ 741.] 5. The conjunction et (que and atque) not un- frequently connects two substantives, and places them on an equality with each other although properly one bears to PLEONASM. 479 the other the relation of a genitive or an adjective. This kind of connexion is called iv did dvolv, that is, one idea is expressed by two words independent of each other, for a genitive and an adjective, when joined to a substantive, constitute only one idea. When, e. g., Virg., Georg., 1, 192, says, pateris libamiis et auro, it is equivalent to pa- teris aureis ; and, Aen., i'., 61, molem et monies insuper al- tos imposuit, equivalent to molem altorum montium. But similar expressions occur also in prose, and oratorical dic- .ion thereby gains in fulness and power; e. g., Cic, in Cat., i., 13, ut saepe homines aegri m,orho gram, quum aestufeh- rique jactantur, i. e., aestu febris ; p. Flacc, 2, quern plu- rimi cives devincti necessitudine ac vetustate, i. e., vetus- tate nccessitudinis ; p. Arch., 6, ex his studiis haec quoque crescit oratio et Jhcultas, i. e., facultas dicendi ; in Yerr., v., li,jus imaginis ad memoriam posteritatemque prodere, i. e., ad memoriam posteritatis ; ibid., iv., 35, complesse coronis etfiorihus; and, in Curt., iv., 17, navigia redimita paribus coronisque, with garlands of flowers. It is par- ticularly frequent in Tacitus ; as, Ann., ii., 69, carmina et devotiones reperiebantur, for carmina devotionum; ii., 83, tempore ac spatio, for temporis spatio ; xii., 27, veteranos coloniamque deducere, for coloniam veteranorum. Of a somewhat different, though similar kind, are those combi- nations of substantives, where the second contains a more accurate definition of the general meaning of the first. The substantive vyhich occurs most frequently in such combinations is vis ; as, vi et armis, vi etc minis, vi et con- tentione, vi ac necessitate. CHAPTER LXXXV. PLEONASM. [§ 742.] 1. Pleonasm is that mode of expression in which several words of the same or similar meaning are accumulated, or in vyhich a thought is conveyed in more words than are necessary to express the meaning. 2. The first kind of pleonasm does not, properly speak- ing, belong to Latin grammar. Good authors accumulate words of similar meaning only when they intend to set forth a particular thing forcibly and emphatically, and they take care that there is a certain gradation in the words 480 LATIN ORAIVIMAR. they put together ; as in relinqucre ac desei ere, desetere at derelinquere ; aversari et execrari ; rogo te oroque, oro tt atque ohsecro; gaudeo vehementerquelaetor, laetor et trium- pho; hoc cmimis eorum insitum atque innatum videturesse; agitatur et perterretur Furiarum taedis ardentibus ; hoc maxime vestros animos excitare atqvs inflammare debet. Innumerable instances of this kind are found in the ora- tors, and they constitute a gi'eat part of the copia verbo- rum which is required of orators. But they go even far- ther, and when their endeavour to accumulate words for the sake of emphasis becomes still more striking, it is call- ed a rhetorical figure ; e. g., when Cicero (in Cat., i., 5) calls on Catiline to quit Rome, Quae quum ita sint, Cati- lina, perge quo coepisti : egredere aHqtiando ex urbe : pat- ent portae: prqficiscere; and where he describes Catiline's flight (in Cat., ii., 1), Abiit, excessit, evasit, erupit. But in grammar we have to notice only certain combinations, which by usage have become so familiar, that they do not appear to contain any particular emphasis ; as, casu et fortuito, forte fortuna, forte temere, prudens sciens, vivus vidensque, volens propitius, fondere et fo,gare ; and some legal and political expressions, where it was originally in- tended, by an accurate phraseology, to prevent a wrong or ambiguous application. Expressions of this kind are, pecunia capta conciliata, Cic, in Verr.,ni., 94 : ager datus assignatus, Philip.,v., in fm.: nihil aequiboni impetravit, Philip., ii., 37 : quum Brutus exercitum conscripserit com- pararit, in a decree of the senate, Philip., v., 13, and others. [§ 743.] 3. The second kind of pleonasm belongs to grammar, inasmuch as certain redundant expressions are sanctioned by usage, and can no longer be considerea faulty. But we must not suppose that a thing expressed by a redundancy of words is quite equivalent to a shorter expression which we may meet with elsewhere. The lan- guage of good authors is not aibiti-ary in this respect, and two modes of expression never have quite the same mean- ing. It is not, however, our object here to trace such dif- ferences in their minutest details, but only in general to mention those cases in which the Latin usage employs more words than appear necessary to a person who judg- es of it by the standard of a modern language. 4. A preceding substantive is often repeated after thu PLEONASM. 481 relative pronoun ; e. g., Cic, p. Flacc, 33, habetis causam inimicitiarum, qua causa inflammatus Decianus ad Laeli- um detulerit hanc accusationem ; de Orat.,i., 38, quum ob- sign-es tabellas clieniis tui, guibus in tabellis id sit scriptum ; in Verr., iii., 79, quum in eo ordine videamus esse multos non idoneos, qui ordo industriae propositus est et dignitati; Divin., 1, si quod tempus accidisset, quo tempore aliquid a me requirerent. It is especially fi'equent in Caesar; as. Bell. Gall., i., 6, erant omnino itinera duo, quibus itincribus domo exire possent ; but it is most frequent, and appears, indeed, to have been customary, yvxih the word dies; e. g., Cic, ad Att., ii., 11, dies enim nullus erat, Antii quum, es- sem, quo die non melius scirem Romae quid ageretur, quam ii qui erant Romae ; Cic, in Gat., i., Z,fore in armis certo die, qui dies futurus erat a. d. VI. Gal. Novembres. A great many passages of this kind are found in Cicero and Caesar, and it vras the regular practice to say pridie anc postridie ejus diei. The repetition of the substantive is necessary when there are two preceding the relative, and when it becomes doubtful to which of them the relative refers ; e. g., Cic, p. Sext., 45, Duo genera semper in hac civitate Jkerunt eorum, qui versari in republica atque in ea se excellentius gercre studuerunt, quibzcs ex generibtes alteri se populares, alteri optimates et haberi et esse voluerunt; p. Flacc, 35, litteras misit de villico P. Septimii, Iiominis ornati, qui villicus caedemjecerat. [§ 744.] 5. The pronouns is and ille are superfluously added to quidem, and the personal pronouns ego, tu, nos, vos, though already implied in the verb, are sometimes ex- pressed separately, see §§ 278 and 801. Respecting is, see above, § 699, and Cic, Tks.;., iv., 3, Sapientiae studium vetus id quidem in nostris ; sed tamen ante Laetii aetatem et Scipionis non reperio quos appellare possim nom,inatim. Ille is thus found frequently ; as, Cic, de Off., i., 29, Ludo autem etjoco uti illo quidem licet, sed sicut somno et quieti- bus ceteris turn, quum gravtbus seriisque rebus satisfeceri- mus ; Tusc, i., 3, Multi jam esse Latini libri dicuntur scripti inconsiderate ab optimis illis quidem viris, sed non satis eruditis : ad Fam., xii., 30, O hominem semper ilium quidem mihi aptum, nunc vera etiam suavem ! Ille is far- ther superfluous afler at; e. g.. Curt., iii.,' 19, Hi magna- pere s'dadebant, ut retro abiret spatiososque Mesopotamiae ranb-pos repeteret ; si id consilium damnaret, at ille divide- 482 I,ATIN GKAMMAK. ret saltern copias mnumerabdes. Is (sometimes, also, hicj, when referring to something mentioned before, seems tr us to be superfluous, but is used for the sake of emphasis , e. g., Cic, de Off"., i., 38, Quae cum aligua perturbationt fiunt, ea non possunt its, qui adsunt, prohari ; i., 35, (Na- tura) formam nostram religuamque figuram, in qua esset species Jumesta, earn posuit in promptu : quae partes autem corporis ad naturae necessitatem datae aspectum essent de- formem hdbiturae, eas contexit atque ahdidit ; ii., 6, M.ale se res habet, quum, quod virtute effici debet, id temptatur pecunia. In Livy, xxii., 30, in fin., ut vix cum eadem gente bellum esse crederent, cujus terribilem earn, famam a patri- bus accepissent, the earn refers to something implied, which we may express by " so frightful." [§ 745.] 6. The monosyllabic prepositions ab, ad, de, ex, and in are often pleonastically repeated, but, according to the observation of some critics, only when two sub- stantives, although united by et, are yet to be considered as distinct. Hence we should not say ad ludum et adjo- cum facti, but we may say deinceps de beneficentia ac de liberalitate dicamus, if the two qualities are not to be mixed together, but considered separately. This theory seems plausible ; but the texts of the Latin authors, espe- cially of Cicero, such as they are at present, do not ena- ble us to come to any definite conclusion, since a preposi- tion is very often repeated when the substantives really belong together and are of a kindred nature, while it is omitted in cases of the opposite kind. Comp. Heusinger on Cic, de Off., i., 14, init. ; and my note on the Divinat. %n Caec, 13. But it may be considered as an invariable rule, that wherever the substantives are separated by et — et, the preposition must be repeated ; e. g., Cic, de Off., 1., 34, ut eoruvi et in bellicis et in civilibus officiis vigeat tndustria. The preposition inter is frequently repeated by Cicero after the verb interesse ; e. g., Lael., 25, quid intersit inter poptilarem, id est, assentatorem et levem civem, et inter con- atantem, scverum et gravem ; de Fin., i., 9, interesse enim inter argumentum et inter mediocrem animadversionem. Other writers repeat it after other verbs also; as, Liv., x., '' certatum inter Ap. Glaudium maxime ferunt et inter P. I 'ecium. f§ 746.] 7. The dative of the personal pronouns fi'e- PLEONASM. 483 quently seems to be used pleonastically, as it expi esses a relation of an action to a person which is often almost im- perceptible. See above, § 408, and Drakenborch on Sil. Ital., i., 46 ; Burmann on Phaedr., i., 22, 3. But the ad- dition of sibi to suits, or rather to s^lo, for so we find it in the few passages (especially of the comic writers) where this peculiarity occurs, is a real pleonasm. Something an- alogous to it in English is the addition of the word " own" to possessive pronouns. Plant., Capt., Prol. 50, ignorans suo sibi servit patri ; ibid., i., 1, 12, suo sibi suco vivunt; Terent., Adelph., v., 8, in fin., suo sibi hunc gladio jugulo. [§ 747.] 8. Potius and magis are sometimes used pleo- nastically with malle and praestare ; e. g., Cic, Divin., 6, ab omnibus so desertos potiiis quam abs te defenses esse ma- lunt ; Liv., xxii., 34, qui magis vere vincere quam din im- perare malit ; Cic, in Pis., 7, ut emori potius quam servirt praestaret. Comp. p. Balb., 8, in fin., with the notes of Emesti and Garatoni. Hence we sometimes find it also with comparatives; as, Cic, in Pis., 14, mihi in tanto om- nium mortalium odio, justo praesertim et debito, quaevis fuga potius quam idla provincia esset optatior. Comp. p. Lig., 2 ; de Orat., ii., 74; de Nat. Dear., ii., 13. The ple- onasm oiprius, ante, and rursus, with verbs compounded with prae, ante, and re, is of a similar kind. See Draken- borch on Liv., i., 3, § 4. " 9. Respecting the superfluous genitives loci, locorum,, terrarum, gentium, and ^us, in the phrase quoad yus fieri potest, see § 434 ; and for id quod, instead of quod alone, see § 371. [§ 748.] 10. Sic, ita, id, hoc, illud, are very often super fluously used, as a preliminary announcement of a propo sition, and added to the verb oa which this proposition depends; e. g., Cic, in Verr., ii., 3, Sic a majorihus suis acceperant, tantapopuli Romani esse heneficia, ut etiam in- jurias nostrorumhominum perferendas putarent; ad Fam., xiii., 10, quum, sibi ita persuasisset ipse, meas de se accurate scriptas litteras maximum apud te pondus habituras, &c. ; ad Att., i., 10, hoc te intelligere volo, pergraviter ilium esse offensum ; ad Quint. Frat., i., l,te illud admoneo,ut quoti- die meditere, resistendum esse iracundiae ; and afterward, illud te et oro et-hortor, ut in extrema parte muneris tui dil- igentissimus sis. These pleonastic additions, as we re- marked above, have no influence on the con'strnction of 454 LATIN GRAMMAR. propositions, and we find only in a few instances that a pronoun or sic is followed by ut, which would not other- wise be used ; as, Cic, de Oral., iii., 34, Ae cujus dicendi copia sic accepinius, ut, &c.; Tusc, iv., 21, ita enim definit, ut perturhatio sit ; ibid., 6, Est Zenonis haec definitio, ut perturbatio sit aversa a recta ratione animi commotio. This must be considered as a contraction of sentences, as ut should properly be followed by a verb denoting " to say" or " to think," with an accusal, with the infinitive ; e. g., in the last-mentioned passage, ut dicat (putet) perturba- tionem esse. In the phrase hoc, illud, id agere ut, howev- er, the pronoun is established by custom and necessary. See § 614. [§ 749.] 11. A kind of pleonastical expression is ob- served in quoting indirectly the words of another ; e. g., Cic, ad Fam., iii., 7, A Pausania, Lentuli liberto, accenso meo, audivi quum diceret, te secum esse questum, quod tibi obviam non prodissem; Brut., 56, Ipsius Sulpicii nulla ora- tio est ; saepe ex eo audiebam, quum se scribere neque con- suesse neque posse diceret, and in many other passages ; compare in Yerr., i., 61, init. ; de Fin., v., 19, in fin.; de Oral., i., 28 ; Philip., ix., 4, atque ita locutus est ut aucto- ritatem vestram. vitae suae se diceret anteferre; in Verr., v., 18, ejusmodi de te voluisti sermonem esse omnium, palam lit loquerentwr.; Liv., xxii., 32, atque ita verha facta, ut dicerent. [§ 750.] 12. A similar pleonasm is often found with the verbs of thinking, believing, &c., inasmuch as putare and existimare are expressly added in the dependent sentence, although a word of similar meaning has preceded ; e. g., Cic, in Verr., ii., 75, Cogitate nunc, quum illq, (Sicilla) sit insula, quae undique exitus maritimos habeat, quid ex cete- ris locis exportatum putetis, instead of cogitate quid expor- tatum sit; ibid., iv., 1, genus ipsum prius cognoscite, judi- ces ; deindefortasse non magnopere quaeretis, quo id nomi- ne appellandum putetis, V/here quo nomine appelletis wonM be quite sufficient ; p. Leg. Man., 13, tumfacilius statue- tis, quid apud exteras nationes fieri existimetis, and in sev- eral other passages of this oration, especially chap. 9, sed ea vos conjectura perspicite, quantum illud bellum factum putetis, where Emesti found difiiculties ; Quintil., i., 10, i» hacfuere scntentia ut existimarent. Such a redundancy occurs, also, with lict, when de- PLEONASM. 4S5 pending on permittipur and conceditur; e. g., Cic, inRulL, ii., 13, totam Italiam suis coloniis ut complere liceat per- mittitur, and afterward, quacunqiie velint summo cum mi- perio vagari ut liceat conceditur; in Veir., ii., 18, neque enim permissuin est, utimpune nobis liceat ; is Off., iii., 4, Tiohis autem nostra Academia magnam licentiam dat, ut quodcunque maxime probabile occurrat, id nostra jure liceat defendere. For other peculiarities of this kind, see Heu- singer on Nep., Milt., 1, Delphos deliberatum missi sunt, qui consulerent Apollinem. [§ 751.] 13. Videri in dependent sentences is often used in a singularly tautological manner ; as, Cic, p. Leg. Man., 10, Restat, ut de imperatore ad id bellum deUgendo ac tan- tis rebus praeficiendo dicendum esse videatur; ibid., 20, Re- liquum est, ut de Q. Catuli auctoritate et sententia dicendum esse videatur. In other cases, too, it is a favourite prac- tice of Cicero to make a circumlocution of a simple verb by means of videri, which, however, is not to be consid- ered as a pleonasm, but as a peculiarity of this writer, who likes to soften his expression by representing facts as matters of opinion, and, consequently, as subject to doubt ; e. g., p. Leg. Man., 14, Et quisquam dubitahit, quin hoc tantum bellum huic transmittendum sit, qui ad om- nia nostrae memoriae bella confidenda divino quodam con- silio natus esse videatur ? another writer wovdd, perhaps, have said simply qui divino consilio natus est. Cicero softens the strong and somewhat offensive expression by videri, and the " divine decree" by his peculiar quidam. We know from the author of the dialogue de Oratoribus (c. 1 and 23), that Cicero's own contemporaries remark- ed upon the frequent use of his favourite conclusion esse videatur; but it was certainly not the subjunctive at which they took offence, for it is the necessary result of the con- struction, but the use of videri in cases where there was no occasion for representing a fact as a mere matter of opinion. . But we prefer, without hesitation, Cicero's views as to the propriety of expression, to the judgment of later writers, who lived at a time when the language began to lose its natural elasticity of expression. [§752.] 14. Respecting the circumlocution of_/accre j<<, see § 619. A similar circumlocution by means of est ut is especially frequent in Terence ; e. g., Phorm., ii., 1, 40, Si est culpam ut Antiplio in se adtniserit, if it is the case S s 2 48C LATIN GRAMMAR. that Antipho is in fault, equivalent to si Antvpho culpam admisit; Horat., Epist., i., 12, 2, non est ut copia major a Jove donaripossit tibi. The same occurs in the follow- ing passages of Cicero : Orat., 59, est autem ut id max- ime deceat, non id solum ; p. Coel., 20, quando enim hoc factum non est? quando reprehensum? quando non permis- sum? quando denique fuit ut, quod licet, non liceretl i. e., quando non licuit, quod licet ? de Off; ii., 8, haec est una res prorsus ut non multum differat inter summos et medio- cres viros ; i. e., haec una res non multum differt. But est ut, instead of est cur, is of a different kind. See § 562. The same circumlocution is also made, though very sel- dom, by means of est with the infinitive ; e. g., Propert., i., 10, 13, Ne sit tibi, Galle, monies semper adire, equiva- lent to ne adeas; Tibull., i., 6, 24, At mihi si credos — non sit mihi oculis timuisse meis, that is, non timeam or non timebo. Also, in Sallust, Jug., 110, 3, Fuerit mihi eguisse aliquando amicitiae tuae ; i. e., eguerim, may I have been in want of your friendship. [§ 753.] 15. Coepi with the infinitive is very often no- thing else than a descriptive circumlocution of the verbum finitum, though always implying temporary duration ; e. g., Cic, in Verr., iv., 29, Rex maxima conventu Syracusis, in foro, flens atque deos Jiominesque ohtestans, clamare coe- pit, candelabrum Jactum e gemmis — id sibi C. Verrem ab- stulisse; in Verr., ii., 22, Primo negligere et contemnere coepit, quod causa prorsus, quod duhitari posset, nihil habe- bat, that is, negligdat et contemnebat aliquamdiu. Simi- lar passages are of frequent occurrence. Indpere is more rarely used in this way ; as in Verr., ii., 17, cogere incipit eos, ut absentem Heraclium condemnarent, it took place, but not till after some delay ; iv., 66, retinere incipit, he did his part in retaining. Compare § 500, note 1. [§ 754.] 16. Another kind of pleonasm in Latin is the use of two negatives instead of an affirmative ; in Eng- lish this does not occur, except where a negative adjec- tive ; as, unlearned, unskilful, unfrequent, acquires an af- firmative meaning by the addition of the negative "not;" as, not unlearned, Sec. In Latin this use extends much far- ther, for not only does non before a negative word ; as, nemo, nullus, nihil, nunquam, nusquam, nescio, ignoro, render this word aflSrmative, but also the negative conjunction neque obtains the affirmative sense of e<,by means of a negative PLEONASM. 487 word following in the same proposition ; e. g., mque haet non evenerunt, and this took place indeed ; neque tamen ea non pia et frohanda fuerunt, and yet this was right and laudable ; Cic, Ae Fin., iv., 22, Nee hoc ille non vidit, sed verborum magnificentia est et gloria delectatus ; de Nat. Dear., ii., 33, Nee vera non omni supplido digni P. Clau- dius, L. Junius conmles, qui contra auspicia navigarunt. The sentence preceding is, auspicia ad opinionem vulgi retinentur; Nep., Att., 13, Nemo Attico minus fuit aed^ cator : ?ieque tamen non imprimis bene habitavit. As to ret non, for ut, see § 535, in fin. Note. — Two negatives, however, do not mutually destroy each other in the case of non being followed by ne — quidem ; e. g., non fugio ne hos qui- dem mores ; rum praetermittendum videtur ne illvjd quidem genus pecuniae con- ciliatae, in Cicero, in Verr. ; farther, when the negative leading proposi- tion has subordinate subdivisions with neque—neque, neve-~neve, in which case these negative particles are equivalent to aut — aut. Thus we very frequently find, e. g., Cic, ad Att.j xiv., 20, nemo unquamt neque poeta, neque orator fuity qui quemqvam meliorem quam se arbitraretur ; ad Att., ix., 12, non medius jidxas prck lacrimis possum reliqua nee sogiiare, nee scribere ; de Leg., ii., 27, earn ne quis nobis minuat neve vivus neve mortuus. Respecting ne non, we may add that after vide (see ^ 534), it must be rendered in English by "whether;" e. g., Cic, de Divin., ii., 13, midta istiusmodi dicuntur in scholia, sed credere omnia vide ne non sit necesse, but consider whether it is neces- sary to believe it all ; ii., 4, vide igitur ne nulla sit divinatio, therefore con- sider whether divinatio exists at all. There are some few passages where two negatives in the same propo- sition do not destroy each other, but strengthen the negation. In Greek this is a common practice ; but in Latin it can be regarded only as a rare exception, apparently derived from the language of common life. See my remark on Cic, in Verr., ii., 24, in fin. It nrnst be observed, however, that the use of non be- fore a negative word does not merely restore the affirma- tive sense, but generally heightens it. The meaning de- pends upon the whole tenor of the speech, but usually it is merely a formal softening of the expression; e. g., homo non indoctus, instead of homo sane doctus; especially with superlatives, non imperitissimus, not the most inexperi- enced, that is, a very experienced man. In like manner, non semel is equivalent to saepius, non ignore, non nescio, non sum nescius, to "I know very well;" non possum non, to necesse est ; e. g., Cic, ad Att., viii., 2, non potui non dare litteras ad Caesarem, quum ille prior ad me scripsis- set; de Fin., iii., 8, Qui mortem in malis ponit, non potest earn non timere ; ad Fam., iv., 7, Nemo potest non eum maxime laudare, qui cum spevincendi simul abjicit certan- di etiam cupiditatem. [§ 755.] 17. The words nemo, nullus, nihil, nunquam. 488 LATIN GRAMMAR. have a different sense, according as the non is placed be- fore or after them. non nemo, some one ; nemo non, every one (subst). non nulli, some; nullus non, every (adject.). non nihil, something ; nihil non, everytliing. nonny,nquam,&oiastanes ; nunquam non, at all times. So, nusquam non, everywhere ; but nonnusquam is not in use, alicuhi being used instead of it. Non — wisi acquires the meaning of " only" (see the examples in § 801), and modo nMi and tantum non, that of " almost." See above, § 729. [§ 756.] 18. Et seems to be pleonastically used after multi when another adjective follows, for in English the adjective many is put, like numerals, before other adjec- tives without the copulative " and." In Latin, however, we frequently find, e. g., multae et magnae res, multa et varia negotia, multi being used like other adjectives, and et, also, supplying the place of et is, introducing a more accurate description (see § 699); e. g.,Cic.,in Rull.,ii., 2, versantur enim in animo meo multae et graves cogilationes, quae mihi nullam partem neque diurnae neque nocturnae The conjunction vera is used pleonastically in the apod- osis to indicate that it contains an answer ; see above, § 716. At is similarly used to express opposition, especial- ly after si and its compounds ; e. g., Terent., Eunuch., v., 2, 25, Si ego digna hac contumelia sum maxime, at tu in- dignus qui faceres tamen ; Liv., x., 19, Bellona, si hodie nobis victoriam duis, ast ego templum tibi voveo. Also, after quoniam; as, Liv., i., 28, Quoniam tuum insanahile ingenium est, at tuo swpflicio doce, humanum genus ea sanc- ta credere, quae a te violata sunt. [§ 767.] 19. A kind of pleonasm, which, however, par- takes of the nature of an anacoluthon, and is, therefore, beyond our limits, consists in the repetition of a conjunc- tion, when a sentence has grown too long, or has been interrupted by parenthetical clauses. This is the case most frequently with si and ut; e. g., Terent., Phorm.,i., 3, init., Adeon' rem redAsse, ut, qui mihi optime consultum velit, patrem ut extimescam, where Ruhnken's note is to be compared ; Cic, in Verr., v., 11, ut quivis, quum aspexis- set, non se praetoris convr turn, sed ut Cannensen pugnam ELLIPSIS. 489 nequiiiae videre arbitraretw ; Liv., iii., 19, si quia vohis ha- millimus homo de plebe — si quis ex his; Cic, de Divin., i., 57, Quid est igitur, cur quum dom/us sit omnium una, eaqut communis, quumque animi hominum semper fuerint futu rique sint, cur li, quid ex quoque eveniat, et quid quamqur rem signified, perspicere non possint? An interrupted construction here may be taken up again by the particle«> mentioned above, § 739. CHAPTER LXXXVI. ELLIPSIS. I§ 758.] 1. Ellipsis is the omission of one or mora words which are necessary for the completeness of a con- struction, or, at least, appear necessary to us who are not Romans, inasmuch as we are inclined to consider the com- plete expression of a thought, where no word is wanting, as the regular and original one. But it is manifest that grammar cannot notice all kinds of ellipsis, as a speaker or writer very often begins to express a thought, and after having used some words, drops it, being satisfied with having merely suggested it; as in Vir^l, Aen., i., 139, Quos ego / where we see from the connexion what is to be supplied, " I will teach you how to conduct yourselves," or something of a similar kind. To explain the reasons of such arbitrai-y omissions made by the speaker for the sake of emphasis, and to illustrate the practice by exam- ples, is the province of rhetoric, which considers it as a rhetorical figure, called aposiopesis. Grammar has to treat only of things which often recur, and are customary un- der particular circumstances, and grammatical omissions of this kind alone will be the subject of the following re- marks. [4 759.] Note. — The ellipsis occurring in proverbs cannot be taken into consideration here, for it is the custom of all languages to indicate well, known sentences only by a few words, and to leave it to the hearer to supply the rest ; e. g., fortes fortana. ; scU, adjuvat ; nee sibi, nee alteri, Bcil prodest, in Cic, de Off.f ii., 10. Of a similar kind is the expression in drinking the health of a person, bene te, soil, valere jubeo. TlbuU., ii., 1, 31 ; Ovid, Fast, ii., 637. [§ 760.] 2. Respecting the omission and addition of the personal pronouns when forming the subject of a sen- tence, see § 693. The indefinite homine.' (people) is also 490 LATIN GRAMMAR. omittedj whence the expressions dicunt, tradunt, ferunt, putant, vacant, &c. (see § 381), frequently with the addi- tion of vulgo (commonly). The expression " so-called" is, hy means of the same ellipsis, rendered by quern, quant, quod or quos, quas, quae vacant or vocahant. (See § 714.) [§ 761.] 3. Proper names of persons are sometimes joined with the genitive of the father's name, the words Jilius orjilia being omitted; e. g., Fatistus Sullae, in Cic, p. Gluent., 34, Gaedlia Metdli, Cic, de Divin., i., 46 ; but more especially in the case of foreign names, it being customary in Greek ; e. g., Hannibal Gisganis, Seleucus Antiachi, see Ruhnken on Veil. Pat., ii., 5. An omission more common in Latin than that oi Jilia is that of uxm with the name of the husband; hence we not unfrequent- ly find Terentia Ciceronis, Metella Crassi, Marcia Catanis, and Fabia Dalabellae, Domitia Passieni, in Quintil., vi., 3, 73 ; Apicata Sejani, Tacit., Ann., iv., 11; Hecioris An- dromache, Virg., Aen., iii., 319 ; Elissa SicAaei, Ovid, Heroid., vii., 193. [§ 762.] 4. Aedes or templum is frequently omitted, the name of the divinity alone being expressed in the geni tive, but a preposition is always added; e. g., Liv., i., 41, Jiabitabat rex ad Javis Statoris ; Cic, ad Fam., xiv., 2, Valerius miki scripsit quemadmodum a Vestae ad tabulant Valeriam ducta esses; Philip., i., 7, pecunia utinam ad Opis maneret ! [§ 763.] 5. Other particular ellipses are those of the words tempus, in the expressions ex quo, ex eo, and ex illo (since that time), and brevi (shortly) ; pars, with adjectives, as in English ; tertia (a third), decuma (a tenth), quinqua- gesima (the fiftieth part), and in the plural, partes (parts performed by an actor), with the adjectives ^riwjae and^e- rundae ; febrisjiivithi the adjectives tertiana and quartana ; aqua, -with Jrigida and calida ; caro, with the adjectives fcrina, agnina, bubula, canina, pordna, &c., is very com- mon ; mare, with altum ; castra, with hiberna, aestiva ; praedium (an estate), with adjectives derived from the names of neighbouring towns; as in Pompdanum proper- abam, in Tusculano eram, ex Formiano scripsit; ordo, in the expression in quattuordedm sedere; i. e., to sit on one of the fourteen rows of benches set apart for the equites; ■pecuniae, in the name of the action of repetundae ; i. e.. ELLIPSIS. 49 i )f sums of money reclaimed — and other expressions, which must be learned from the dictionary. [§ 764.] 6. The ellipsis of causa with the genitive of the gerund (or fut. part, pass.) is a decided imitation of a Greek idiom (viz., the use of the genitive of the declined infinitive, tov (pevyeiv, to express a purpose or object, the preposition eveKa or vnep being omitted), which, especial- ly in later times, was looked upon and sought for as an elegance, vide § 663. But it is wrong to apgly this ellipsis also to the immediate connexion of a noun with the genitive of the gerand ; for such expressions as, Cic. de Nat. Deor.^ i,, 22, deliberandi sibi unum diem postviavit^ " one day of (i. e... for) deliberation;" or, Quintil., iv., 1, in fin., patdo longius exordium rei de monstrandae repetam ; or, Livy, ix., 45, ut Marrucini, Peli^, &c., mittereiu RoTtmm oratores pacis petendae aviicitiaeque, do not require the ellipsis of causa for their explanation. Nor must the dative (as is often done) be con founded with the genitive ; for since the use of the dative, as expressive ol purpose, is as agreeable to Latin Syntax as Ihat of the genitive is foreign to it, it would be wrong to suppose the genitive where the text allows us to consider it as the dative. In conformity to this, there occurs no deci- sive passage of the ellipsis of causa (or that Greek use of the genitive of the gerund) in Cicero, Nepos, or Livy, and it is not certain in Caesar, since in the passage, Bell. Gall., iv., 17, si naves dejiciendi operis essent a barbaris missae, and still more in others, the reading varies, and even here the gen- itive may, perhaps, depend on naves. But the ellipsis in question certain- ly occurs in Terence in one passage, probably a close imitation of the Greek original, Ad., ii., 4, 6, vereor coram in os te laudare anipUus, ne id as sentandi magis quam quo habeam gratum facere existumes. Farther, in Sal- lust, designedly, and with some affectation, in the speech of L. Pbilippus (^Fragm. Hist., lib. i.), ij 2,, 4, and 7, arma ille adversum. divina et humana om nia cepit, non pro sua aut quorum simutat injuria, sed legum ac tibertatis sidrtjer tendae; but nowhere else in this author. In Velleius, in one passage, ii.. 20, opus erat partibiis auctoritate, grafia : cujus augendae C. Marium cum jUtQ ab exilio revocavit, unless we ought to read cui, which is more genuine Latin. But it occurs more frequently in Tacitus, Ann., iii., 9, ab Namia vitandae suspicionis, an quia pavidis consilia in incerfo sunt, Nare ac mox Tiberi delec- tus ; ibid., 27, Secutae leges dissensione ordinum, et apiscendi illicitos honores, aut pellendi claros viros, aliaque ob prava per vim latae sunt ; .^n?i.,vi., 30, quia pecuniam omitiendae delationis ceperant ; .^nn,, ziii., II, quas (orationes) Sen- eca testijicanda .quam honesta praeciperet, vel jactandi ingenii, voce principis vul- gabat ; Hist., iv., 25, turn e seditiosis unum vinciri jubet, magis usurpandi juris, quam quia unius culpa foret ; ibid., 42, accusationem svhisse juvenls admodum nee depellendi periculi, sed in spem potentiae videbatur. But even in Tacitus, the dative of the gerund occurs more frequently inthis sense, and in the passages, Ann., ii., 59, init., and iii., 41, in fin., this case might easily be restored. It is, at all events, clear that this use of the genitive, generalh speaking, remained foreign to the Latin language. i§ 765.] 7. The pronoun is, ea, id, is frequently omit- when it stands in the same case as the correspondin a; relative ; less frequently, though not very rarely, when the cases are different. It may also be observed that the relative part often precedes the leading part of the prop- osition, in which case is, in the same case, is put on]\ 492 LATIN GRAMMAR. when a certain emphasis is intended. Hence we often meet with such passages as, e. g., Cic, had., 22, maxi- mum ornamentum amicitiae tollit (is), qui ex ea tollit vere- cundiam ; i. e., "he bereaves fiiendship of its brightest or- nament, who takes away from it mutual respect;" and very frequently with such as terra quod accepit, (id) nun- quam sine usura wddit ; for the demonstrative pronoun is expressly added only when it is to be pronounced with emphasis : see above, § 744. Note. — Upon the whole, however, it is a favourite practice in Latin to omit the demonstratives, if they can be supplied from the relatives. We should, therefore, say discipuluTn maxime probo, qualem. te fore promisisti, for talem — qualem ; qtutnia potuit celeritaie cucurdt ; and so very frequently with the same case of tnaxiTmis ; as, e. g.. Consul quaniis maximis poterat itineri. Ims ad cotlegam ducebat ; dedit mihi quantum Tnaximum potuit ; i. e., " as much as he possioly could give." (See ^ 689.) Qualis is used by Livy with a still greater ellipsis, iii., 62, proeliuv} fuit, quale inter jidentes sibi ambo exer- citus ; i. e., tale quale, esse debuit ; xxli., 49, equitum pedestre proelium, quale jam haud dubia kostiumvictoriafuit. With relative adverbs the correspond- ing demonstrative adverb is omitted ; as, unde semel peeuniatii aumpsisti, ite- rum sume, for inde iterum sume. [§ 766.] 8. The pronoun is, ea, id, is likewise not ex- pressed, if it would be required to be put in the same ob- lique case as the preceding noun to which it refers. Thus, e. g.^ pater amat libcros et tamen castigat; i.e., "and nev- ertheless he chastises them." Sen., Epist., 79, multos il- lustrat fortuna, dum vexat. The student may also remem ber that, in the construction of the ablative absolute, those references to the subject of the proposition which we in English express by means of a preposition and an unem- phatical pronoun are not expressed in Latin ; e. g., Cae- sar, Pompeio victo, in Asiam, prqfectus est ; i. e., " after Pompey had been vanquished by him," where, in Latin, ah eo is never added. Hence we usually render such ab- latives absolute actively; thus, " after having vanquished Pompey." [§ 767.] 9. In those cases where we use "that," "those," instead of a repetition of the preceding substantive, the pronoun is is never used in Latin, and only later authors express this relation by ille. . It is the rule, that the pre- ceding substantive, if it can be conveniently omitted, is left to be supplied, and the pronoun, which would refer to it, is not expressed ; thus, e.- g., Nap., Ale.., 5, quum Atheniendum opes senescere, contra Lacedaemoniorum ores- cere videret, for illas Lacedaemoniorum, " those of the Lace- daeniojiiEms I " Curt., ix., 26 (6), Philippus in acie tutior. ELLIPSIS. 493 qtMin in iheatrojuit : hosiium manus saepe vitavtt, stiorwm effugere non valuit. And thus we should say, not only in the nominative, fratris filius mild placet, sororis displicet, but also in the dative, fratris filio magnam pecuniam, so- roris nihil prorsiis testamento legavit, and in the ablative, fratris filio multum, sororis longe minus utor. So, also, with prepositions ; as, e. g., Cic, in Verr., i., 30, Flebat uterque, non de sno supplicio, sed pater de filii morte, de patris filius ; iii., 38; v,t aratores in servorum numero es- sent, servi in publicanorum ; iv., 20, ut non conferam vitam neque existimationem tuam cum illius; i. e., "with those of that man." There are also instances where another sub- stantive ,of a similar meaning is used, or the same is re- peated, even with some harshness (e. g.. Veil. Pat., ii., 128, In hvjus virtutum aestimationejam pridem judicia .f'. ARKA1VGEME\T OF WORDS, ETC. 501 also in other authors, and especially in the didatic style o£ Cicero; as, de Of., i., 2, Sequemur igitur hoc quidem tem- pore et in hac quaestione potissimum Stoicos ; i., 8, Expe- tuntur autem divitiae quum ad usus vitae nccessarios, turn ad perfruendas voluptates ; de Leg., i., 32, quae virtus ex providendo est appellata prudentia. ^ote. — We have adopted the terms pathetic and sigmjicant from the work of Gehlius, Ratio ordmationis verborum, Hamburg, 1746, 4tp. Compare es- pecially the rules laid down bJJQuintilian, ix., 4, 26, foil., Verba smsum claudere multo, si compositio patiatur^ optimum est. In verbis enim sermonis vis. Saepe tamen est vehemens aliquis sctisus in verbo, quod^ si in -media parte sententiae latet, iransire intentionem et obscurari circumjacentibus solet, in clau- sula positum assignatur auditori et injigitur ; quale illud est Ciceronis {Philip., ii., 25), Ut tibi necesse esset in conspectu populi Romani vomere postridie. Transfer hoc ultimum, minus valebit. Nam totius ductus hie est quasi mucro, ut per se foeda vomendi necessitas, jam nihil ultra expectantibus, hanc quoque adjiceret defarmitatem, ut cibus teneri non posset postridie. But we should not deviate from the common form of a proposition without a special reason : he who aims at too much emphasis falls into affectation, the most unpleas ant fault in composition. [§ 790.] 4. What is common to several objects either precedes or follows them, but is not put with one exclu- sively ; hence we say, e. g., in scriptorihus legendis et im- itandis, or in legendis imitandisque scriptorihus, not in le- gendis scriptorihus et imitandis ; farther, hostes victorias rum omen modo, sed etiam gr^atulationem praeceperant ; quum respondere neque vellet neque posset ; Tiahentur et di- cuntur tyranni; amicitiam nee usu nee ratione hahent cog- nitam ; pMlosopMa Graecis et litteris et doctorihus percipi potest, and the like. Note. — In this point, too, the familiar style differs from the oratorical. In the former, words are very often subjoined, with a certain appearance of negligence, which, in a more strict arrangement, would have been in troduced earlier, and more closely united with the rest ; e. g., the last sen- tence might have stood thus, philosophia et litteris Grraecis percipi potest et doctoribus. [§ 791.] 5. It is commonly laid down as a general rule that the dependent cases, and therefore especially the gen- itive, precede the governing nouns. This rule, however, may easily lead to mistakes, for it is arhitrary, and all de- pends on the idea which is to be expressed. ^Fratris tui mors acerhissima mihi fait and mors fratvis tui are both equally correct, according as the idea of the person or his death is to be more strongly impressed on the mind: mora fratris tui contrasts the death with the preceding life, B,Tidi Jratris tui mors describes this case of death as dis- tinct from othei'S that may occur. Hmce we say, e. g., animi motus, animi morbus, corporis partes, terrae motui. 508 LATIN GRAMMAR. in this order, since the general term receives its specific meaning only from the genitive. A genitive, however, which exftresses an objective relation (see § 423), usually follows the noun on which it depends. Thus we read in Cicero, pro Leg. Man., 3, quod is, qui uno die, tota Asia, tot in civitatibus, uno nuntio atque una significatione Utter- drum cives Romanos necandos trucidandosqtie denotavit, a notice "by letters," not una litterarum significatione ; so, in Verr., i., 40, offensionem neg^geritiae vitare, an " offence by my negligence." When several genitives are depend- ent on one noun (compare § 423), the subjective genitive commonly precedes, and the objective genitive may either precede or follow the governing noun; e. g., Cic, in Caec, 6, cur eorum spent exiguam reliquarum Jbrtunarum vi ex- torquere conaris? in Verr., i., 13, cognoscite hominis prin- cipium magistratuum gerendorum ; p. Mur., 4, hominis am- plissimi causam tanti periculi repudiare ; de Re Puhl., i., 28, AtJieniensium populi potestatem omnium rerum, &c. ; Cic, Brut., 44, Scaevolae dicendi elegantiam satis cogni- tam hahemus; de Fin., i., 5, quod ista Platonis, Aristotelis, Theophrasti orationis ornamenta neglexit Epicurus; be cause dicendi elegantia, orationis ornamenta, in this order, express the idea which is to be set forth. \Jj 792.] Note. — The genitive dependent on causa, or gratia, " on account of," always precedes these ablatives ; gloriae causa mortem obire,emolumenti sui gratia aliquid hominibus detrahere. Exceptions are very rare in Cicero {Lael., 16, multa facimus causa amicorum) ; more common in Livy. [§ 793.] 6, The Adjective, likewise, may be placed be- fore or after its substantive ; it is before its substantive when it is declarative of an essential difference of that substantive from others ; it is placed after when it merely expresses an accessory or incidental quality. The natural accent will, in most cases, be a sufficient guide. Phny callshis work Libri Naturalis Historiae, the idea of na- ture appearing to him of greater importance in charac- terizing the work than that of history ; Theodosianus Co- dex is in the same way distinguished from other codices. It must be observed that a monosyllabic substantive al- most invariably .precedes a longer adjective; e. g., J)i im- mortales, rex potcntissimus et nobilissimus ; especially with res: res innumerabiles,res incertissimae, res dissimillimae ; if the position were inverted, the impression would be un- pleasant, and the shorter word would be lost. Other qual- ifying words (besides adjectives) which belong to the idea ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS, ETC. 509 of the noun, especially genitives and prepositions with their cases, are usually placed between the substantive and the adjective ; e. g., amicitia usque ad extremum, vitae diem permansit ; tuorum erga me meritorum memoria. Such words as respublica, juijurandum, which are combi- nations of a substantive and an adjective rather than com- pound words, are separated only by particles. Other words which do not belong to the substantive and adjec- tive may be placed between them only for the sake of a special emphasis, which lies either on the substantive or on the adjective ; e. g., magnum animo cepi dolorem ; ut cuperem quam celerrime res nostras monumentis com' mendari tuis. [^794.] Note 1. — other words may be introduced between a preposition and the case governed by it : this, however, is usually the case only with genitives-or adverbs which are closely connected with the following noun or participle ; e. g., Cicero, inter hostium tela ; propter Hispanorum, apitd i^uos consul fuerat, injurias ; ad bene beateque vivendum. Conjunctions, also, in the connexion of clauses, are so interposed ; e. g., post vera Sullae victo- riam ; praeter enim tres disciplinas. Other words very rarely and only in certain combinations ; e. g., Cic, Brut., 12, in bella gerentibus, which ex- pression has, in a certain measure, become one word ; ibid., 22, in suum cmque tribuendo. We mention this in order to caution the student against saying, e. g., ad praesidiis firmanda moenia ; in mihi invisum locum, or even ex a te laudato loco, the proper order being this, ad moenia praesidiis firman da, in locum mihi invisum, ex loco a te laudato ; or, ad firmanda praesidiis moe ma, in invisum mihi locum., ex laudato a te loco. It deserves to be noticed that the preposition per, " by," in adjurations, is usually separated from its case by the accusative of the person adjured ; e. g., Terent,, Andr., v., 1, 5, per ego te deos oro, and with the omission of oro, Cic, p. Plane., 42, Nolite, radices, per vos fortunas vestras, iniTnicis meia dare laetitiam ; Sail., Jug., 14, Patres conscripti, per vos liberos atque parentea, subvenite misero mihi. Comp. % 773, [^ 795.] Note 2. — The variation in the arrangement of words by the po- ets properly consists in too great and ungrammatical a separation of the adjective from the substantive ; and, generally speaking, in putting togeth er words from different parts of a proposition. We may illustrate this by an example ; Cicero (Philip., v., 10) says bella civilia opinione plerumque ei fama gubemantur. He intended to conclude thus, opinione plerumque gu bemantuT, but added (according to our remark in 4 790) et fama. This is very natural, andplerumque is an unemphailcal word, which must be some- where inserted. The arrangement still remains prosaic, if we say bella gubernantur civilia fama plerumque et opinione, for civilia follows soon enough after bella. But if we insert one word more, we have an entirely poetical diction, and by substituting another word for civilia, a complete verse, Bella gubemantur plerumque domestica fama. And it would likewise be po- etical to say, bella fama et opinione civilia gubemantur, still more so, civilia fama et opinione bella gubemantur, and entirely lyric, civilia fama et plerum- que bella opinione gubemantur, but all these and similar arrangements of words occur in the poets , and we might easily prove this by quotations, and analyze the different forms, were it not our object here only to show the point at which poetical license commences. r§ 796.] 7. Names of honours or dignities and every Un2 510 LATIN GRAMMAR. thing of the nature of a title, are commonly placed after the proper name, as meiely serving as explanatory addi- tions. Thus especially the names of changeable Roman dignities; e. g., Cicero Consul, Proconsul, hnperator, C. Curioni Tribuno plebis, and the like. But also peima- nent appellations ; e. g., Ennius poSta, Plato philosophus, Zeno Stoicus, Dionysiris tyrannus, and such epithets as vir honestissimus, vir fortissimus, vir clarissimus, homo doctis- simus. Cic, LaeL, 1, Q. Muciiis Augur, mulla narrare de C. Laelio, socero suo, memoriter etjucunde solebat; Tusc, i., 43, Cyrenaeum Theodorum, philosophum non ignobilem, nonne miramur? cui quum Lysimachus rex crucem minare- tur, Istis, quaeso, inquit, ista horribilia minitare, purpuratis tuis : Theodori quidem nihil interest, humine an sublime putrescat. But it must be observed that the hereditary title rex is frequently placed before the name ; e. g., rex Deiotarus ; and this also applies to the Roman title Im- perator, from the time that it became permanent, in con- tra-distinction to the ancient usage. [I) 797.] Note. — In the use of the Roman proper names, the name of the gens commonly precedes the name of the familia (i. e., the nomen precedes the cognomen), which may here be considered as an apposition ; e. g., Q. Fahius Maxi-mus Cunctator, P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus, M. TulUus Cice- ro. In the imperial times, however, when the ancient gentes had become extinct, and lost their importance, we usually find the name of the /omiiia, or even the agnomen of the individual, placed first, and the name of the gens, if mentioned at all, following as something subordiisate. [§ 798.] 8. Words expressing contrasted ideas are com- monly placed by the side of each other; e. g., alius alium vituperat, alius aliunde venit, manus manum lavat, cuneus cuneum trudit, vir virum legit; so, also, the possessive and personal pronouns ; e. g., mea mihi conscientia pluris est quam omnium sertno; sequere quo tua te natura dticit ; suum se negotium agere dicunt. [§ 799.] 9. Non, when it belongs to a single vyord of the proposition, always stands immediately before it; e.g., non te reprehendo, sed fortunam, ; i. e., "I blame not thee, but fortune." But if the negative belongs to the propo- sition generally, and not to any specific word, non stands before the verb, and more particularly before the verbum finitum, if an infinitive depends on it ; e. g., cur tantopert te angas, intelligere sane non possum. Instead of non dico, nego is generally used ; negavit eum adesse, " he said he was not there," not "he denied " fire. Respecting j^etere, Bee § 774. AERANGliMKNT OF WORDS, ETC. 511 iVirte. — "We may farther observe that the negatives mm, neque, nemo, rml- his, joined to general negative pronouns or adverbs ; such as quisquam, vllus, unquam, always precede them, though not always immediately; thus we must say, e. g., nemini quidquam negavit, not quidquam nemini neg- avit ; nan memini me unquam te vidisse, not unquam me vidisse te non Tnemini. See (, 709. [§ 800.] 10. In many phrases custom bas established a certain order, which must therefore be attended to in reading the authors. This is especially the case with many judicial' and political expressions; o. g,, civis Ro- manus, populus Romanus, jiis civile, aes alienum, terrac •marique, Pontifex maximus, magister equitum, tribunis mil- itum, tribuni viilitum consulari potestate, Juppiter optimus maximus, via Apfia, via Flamima, &c. It more properly belongs to grammar to observe that the ablatives opinione, spe, justo, solito (see § 484, extr.) generally precede the comparative; jMiijMe, if joined with «Ml, sibi, se or suus, always follows these pronouns ; e. g., sibi quisque maximefavet; pro se quisque laborabat; suum cuique pulchrum videtur ; sua cuique dextra ultionem tot malorum pariet ; vigiles relicta sua quisque statione Jugi- unl. But in relative clauses quisque joins itself closely to the relative (see § 710), in which case se or suus follows ; e. g., Cic, de Off., i., 31, maxime decet, quod est cujiisque maxime suum ; expendere debet quid quisque habeat sui. [§ 801.] Quidem is attracted by the pronoun (see § 278). and is therefore often separated from the word to which it properly belongs, in order to be joined to a neighbour- ing pronoun ; e. g., Cic, de Off., iii., in fin., tibique per- suade, esse te quidem mihi carissimum, sed multofore cari- ore?n, si, Sec, instead of te carissimum quidem mihi esse. And as the custom of joining quidem, to a pronoun had become established, the personal pronoun, althovigh con- tained in the verb, is expressly added (see § 801), Cic, ad Fam., ix., 13, Quod dicturus sum,, puto equidem non valde ad rem pertinere, sed tamen nihil obest dicere ; ad Quint. Frat., ii., 16, Timebam Oceanitm, timebam litus in- sulae (Britanniae). Reliqua non equidem contemno, sed plus tamen habent spei quam timoris; de Fat., 2, Oratorias exerdtationes non tu quidem, ut spero, reliquisti, sed certe philosophiam illis anteposuisti, instead of the simple reli- quisti quidem. Ne — quidem are always separated, the word on which the emphasis rests being placed between them ; e. g., ne yatrem quidem venerabatur, " he did not reverence even bl)i LATIN GRAMMAK his father." Prepositions and conjunctions which belong to the word on which the emphasis rests are placed with it between ne and quidem ; e. g., Cicero, ne in fanis qui- dem ; ne si dubitetwr quidem ; ne quum in Sidlia quidem fuit; ne si extra judicium, quidem esset ; even ne cujus ret argueretur quidem, in Cic, p. Caec, 25, ne quum esset fac- tum quidem, p. Mur., 17. Hence compound expressions which form one idea, such as res publica, go together; as, Cic, de Off., i., 24, ne re publica quidem postulante. In like maiiner, non nisi (only) are separated (not, indeed, in all authors, but in Cicero almost without exception) by some intervening word or words, in such a way, however, that either non or nisi may precede ; e. g., Cic, Lael., 5, sed hoc primum sentio, nisi in bonis amicitiam esse non posse; ibid., 8, quae (caritas inter natos et parentes) diri- mi nisi detestabili scelere non potest; 'the negative may also be contained in a verb; e. g., ibid., c, 5, negant enim quemquam virum honum esse nisi sapientem. Miki crede (mihi credite) and crede mihi, in the sense o{ prqfecto, are both used detached from the rest of the construction ; the former especially if the emphasis rests on the pronoun ; i. e., " believe me," implying "who know it better." [§ 802.] 11. Inquit (says he, or said he) is used only af- ter one or more of the words quoted, or, still better, after a short clause ; e. g., Liv., i., 58, Sex. Tarquinius — stricto gladio ad dormientem Lticretiam venit, sinistraque manu mulieris pectore oppresso, Tace, Lucretia, inquit. Sex. Tar- quinius sum; ii., 10, Turn Codes, Tiberine pater, inquit, te sancte precor, haec arma et Imnc militenn propitip Jlumine accipias. Ita sic armatus in Tiberim desiluit. When a nominative is added to inquit, it usually follows this verb; as, Cic, de Nat. Dear., i., 7, Mihi vero, inquit Cotta, vide- tur. (For exceptions, see Heindorf on this passage.) Ait is either placed before the words quoted, or, like inquit, between them (see §. 219) ; dicit and dixit are used in this way only by the poets. [§ 803.] 12. Thus much respecting the arrangement of words in single propositions. We now add some remarks on the connexion of sentences, it may be laid dovmn as a general rule for good Latin style, that no proposition should be unconnected with another, and that the propo- sitions and periods should, as it were, form links of a chain, ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS, ETC. 5l3 which breaks off only at last when the series of the thoughts themselves comes to its close. At least, no proposition should stand detached without a special reason. Relative pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs are particu- larly useful for effecting this connexion of propositions, and are therefore very frequently employed to avoid the monotonous connexion by means of et or autem, and sometimes, also, of certain other conjunctions, such as nam (for). Every relative may be used for the demon- strative with et ; qui for et is, qualis for et talis, quo for et 60, &c. They are, therefore, also found before those con- junctions which admit of a cr jxion by means of et or autem; e. g., quod, quum audivissem, quod sifecissem, quod quamvis non ignorasscm, for ct quum hoc, et si hoc, et quam- vis hoc, or quum autem hoc, &c. ; often, also, where in English no conjunction is used ; e. g., Cic, Cat. Maj., 6, Quam, palm,am, utinam, di im,mortales tibi reservent ! Far- ther, even before other relatives, quod qui facit, eum ego impium jtidico ; i. e., et qui hoc facit, or qui autem hocja- cit ; contra quern, qui exercitus duxerunt, iis senatus singu- lares honores decrevit ; p. Leg. Man., 15, a On. Pompeio omnium rerum egregiarum exempla sumuntur, qui qtw die a vobis maritimo hello praepositus est, tanta repente vilitas annonae consecuta est, for nam quo die is. The connexion by means of the relative pronoun in the ablative, with comparatives, deserves especial attention ; e. g., Cato quo nemo turn erat prudentior ; liberi quibus nihil mihi potest esse jucundius ; i. e., " Cato, who was more prudent than all others;" "my children, who delight me more than any- thing else." [§ 804.] In propositions consisting of two members, the relative pronoun is grammatically joined sometimes to the leading proposition or the apodosis, and sometimes to the secondary clause or the protasis ; the former is The case, e. g., in Cic, Cat. Maj., 5, qui (Gorgias) quum ex eo quae- reretur, cur tarn diu vellet esse in vita. Nihil habeo, inquit, quod accusem senectutem; Philip., ii., 7, Hoc ne P. quidem Clodius dixit unquam, quern, quia jure eifui inimicus, do- leo a te omnibus vitiis esse superatum ; but the latter ia much more frequent ; e. g., Cic, de Off., ii., 25, a quo quum quaereretur, quid maxime expediret, respondit. In 3iis case the nominative of the demonstrative is nupplied with tb'« apodosis fro a another case of the relative in th« 614 LATIN GEAMMAR. protEUiis, as in the passage just quoted, and in p. Plane., 7, In hortos me M. Flacci contuli, cui quum omnis mettes, publicatio honorum exilium, mors proponereiur, Jiaec per- peti maluit, quam custodiam m,ei capitis dimittere. But a demonstrative may also be used with emphasis ; as, Cic, ad Fam., v., 16, Saepissime legi, nihil mali esse in morte, in qua si resideat sensus, immortalitas ilia potius quam mors dicenda sit. In the other cases the demonstrative, for the sake of clearness, is not merely understood, but express ed; e. g., de Fin., ii., 1, qui mos quum a posterioribus non esset retentws, Arcesilas eum revocavit ; de Nat. Deor., i., 5, Multa sunt prolahilia, quae quamquam non percipian- tur, tamen — iis sapientis vita regitur. Without a demon- strative the sentence becomes harsh ; e. g., Cic, de Nat. Deor., iii., 14, Heraclitum non omnes interpretantur uno m,odo, qui quoniam, intelligi noluit, omittamus, instead of eum omittamus; Liv., xxx., 30, Agimus ii, qui quodcunque egerimus, ratum (id) civitates nostrae habiturae sint. These examples, however, show that the accusative is sometimes left to be supplied by the mind. When the demonstra- tive precedes, and is followed by a proposition consisting, of two members, the relative attaches itself to the second- ary clause, which is placed first, and not to the leading proposition or the apodosis; e. g., Cic, in Yerr., v., 38, Fone pirata penetravit, quo simulatque adisset, magnam partem urhis a tergo relinqueret i ad Fam., vi., 6, Fa suasi Pompeio, quibus ille si paruisset, Caesar tantas opes, quan- tas nunc habet, non haberet; in Verr., i., 14, Mihi venit in mentem, illud dicere, quod apud Glabrionem quum commem- orassem,, intellexi veJiementer populum Rom. commoveri; Nep., Att., 4, noli, oro te, inquit Pomponius, adversus eos me velle ducere, cum quibus ne contra te arma ferrem, Italiam reliqui. (See Breml's note on this passage.) [Ij 805.] Note 1. — The English practice of connecting a clause, which is introduced by a relative, to the preceding clause by the additional con- junction " however" (e. g., who, however), is not admissible in Latin. Thus, e. g., " he promised me many things, which, however, he did not perform" (the latter part being equivalent to " but he did not perform them") cannot be expressed in Latin by mvlta mihi promisit, gvOe autem {vero) non praestitit, but by sed {verum) ea 71071 praestitit, or the relative im- plying the adversative conjunction, quae non praestitit. Qui autem and qui vero, however, may be used in protases where the relative retains its rela- tive meaning, and a demonstrative in the apodosis corresponds to the rel- ativft preceding ; e. g., Talium juvenum consuetridine utere ; qui vero petulan- te» taTf, eos procul a te remove ; Cic, Cat. Maj., %, Qui autem omnia bona a tt ipst* petunt, iis nihil malum videri potest, quod naturae necessitas afferat. J9 ."Oe.] Note 2. — 111 double relative clauses, Cicero not unfrequently AKRANGEMENT OF WORDS, ETC. 515 BlMindons the relative construction in the second member, arjtl makes use of the demonstrative ; e. g., Orat., 2, Sei ipsius in mente iiisidebat species pulchritudinis eximia quaedam, quam intuens in eaque (for et m qua) defixiis ad ilUus similitudinem numus et artern dirigebat ; Brut.y 74, OTnnes tun, fere-, qui nee extra hone urbem vixerant nee eos (for nee quos) aliqua barbaries domestica infuscaverat, recte loquebantur. Comp. de Fin., ii., 2,Pinem definiebas idesse, quo omnia referrentury nenue id ipsum usquam referretur, for et quod ipsum nus- quam, &c. ; comp. de Off., ii., 5, in fin. ; de Orat., ii., 74, ^ 299. And some- times even where the cases are the same ; as, e. g., Cic, Tusc., v., 3, quern Phliuniem venisse feruni, eumque cum Leonte disseruisse quaedam, where et alone would have been suiEcient. [§ 807.] From this tendency to connect sentences by relatives arose the use of quod before certain conjunc- tions, merely as a copulative. We may express this quod by "nay," "now," or "and." It is most frequent before the conditional particle si, and its compounds nisi and etsi ; e. g., Cic, in Verr., i., 14, Quodsi illinc inanis pro- fwgisses, iamen ista tuafuga nefaria, proditio consulis tui conscelerata judicaretur ; i. e., " and even if you had fled without taking anything with you," &c. ; de Nat. Dear., i., 18^ Quodsi omniwm, animantium formam vincit hominis figura, eajigura profccto est, quae pulcherrima sit omnium, " If then," &c. ; and this use of quodsi is especially in- tended to introduce something assumed as true frorn which farther inferences may be drawn. It is, moreover, also equivalent to "although;" comp. Cic, ^. Mur., 2, which passage is too long to be inserted here. Qiwdnisi; e. g., in Cic, in Verr., ii., 66, Quodnisi Metellus lioc tarn, graviter egisset atque illam rem imperio edictoque prohihuisset, ves tigium statuarum istius in Sicilia non esset relictum ; i. e., "if then — not;" ib., ii., 26, Quodnisi ego meo adventu il- Uus conatus aliquantulum repressissem — tarn multos testes hue evocare non potuissem. Quodetsi; e. g., Cic, de Fin., iv., 4, Quodetsi ingeniis magnis praediti quidam dicendi copiam sine rations consequuntur, ars tamen est dux certior, nay, even if, &c. But quod is found also, though more rarely, before other conjunctions'; as, quodquum, quodubi, quodquia, quodquoniam, quodme, quodutinam, where the conjunction alone would have been sufiicient, though quod is intended to effect a closer connexion of the sentences; e. g., Cic, de Off'., iii., 31, Criminabatur etiam (L. Manli us), quod Titum filium, qui postea est Torquatus appel- latus, ah hominibus relegasset et ruri habitare jussisset. Quodquum audivisset adolescens filius, negotium exJiiberi patri, accurrisse Romam et cum prima luce Pcmponii do- mum venisse dicitvr So, also, de Off., ii., 8* quodquum LATIN GRAMMAR. 516 perspicuum sit, benivolentiae vim esse magnam, metus tm- becillam, sequitur ut disseramus, &c.; in Verr.,i., 26, Qz«>d- uhi ille intellexit, id agi atque id parari, ut filiae suae vis afferretur, servos suos ad se vocat. Comp. in Verr., iv., 66; de Orat., ii., 49 ; de Fin., i., 20, Quodquia nvllo modo sine amicitia Jirmam et perpetuamjucunditatemvitae tenerepos- sumus, neque vero ipsam ami-ritiam tueri, nisi aeque amicos et nosmet ipsos diligamus : idcirco et hoc ipsum efficitur in amicitia, et amidtia cum voluptate connectitur ; iii., 18, quodquoniam (sapiens) nunquam fallitur injudicando, erit in mediis rehus officium ; Acad., ii., 25, Quodne id facere posses, idcirco heri non nccessario loco contra sensus tarn multa dixeram. Comp. Hottinger on Cic, de Divin., ii., 62 ; Cic, ad Fam., xiv., 4, Quodutinam minus vitae cupi- difuissemus, certe nihil in vita mali vidissemus, where the note of Manutius may be compared. Even before the relative pronoun we find qziod thus used in Cic, Philip., X., 4, in fin., Quodqui ah illo abducit exercitum, et respec- tum pulcherrimum. et praesidium firmissimum adimit rei- puhlicae. [§ 808.] 13. Another peculiarity, which at the same time facilitates in Latin the connexion of^ropositions, is the use of the conjunctions neque and nee. They stand for et, and at the same time contain the negation, in what- ever form it occurs in the proposition (except when it be- longs to one particular word ; as, e. g., in an antithesis). For examples, see § 738. The Latin language is so par- tial to this kind of connexion, that, for the sake of it, neque or nee is added to enim, and vero where in English we could not use '■'■and" and we therefore explain it by say- ing that neque is used for non. In neque tamen, too, the copulative is to us superfluous, although the Latins ap- pear to have considered it as essential to the connexion of the propositions. Examples are very numerous. Non vero, non tamen, are very rarely used for this purpose, and are therefore not deserving of imitation; non enhn, how- ever, is common. To these negative expressions the Lat- ins often join (comp. § 754) a second negative, in which case neque enim non is equivalent to Mam ; nan vero non to atque^etiam, a stronger et ; ■nee tatnen non to attamen ; e. g., Cic, p. Mil., 32, Neque vero non eadem ira deorum hanc ejus satellitibus injedt amentiam, ut sine imaginibtis, sine cantu atque ludis,tine exequiis — rimbu7-eretur aijectut; ARRANGEMENT OP WOKDS, ETC. 617 i. e., " and, in truth, the same anger," &c. ; ad Fam., vi., 1, nee enim is, qui in te adhuc injtistior Juit, non magna signa dedit animi erga te mitigati; i. e., "for he ^ave signs ;" v., 12, neque tamen, quum haec scribebam, eram nescius ; i. e., " and yet I knew;" dc Oral., ii., 85, neque tamen ilia non omant, habiti honores, decreta virtutis prae- mia, &c. ; i. e., " and yet these things also," &c. Comp. § 334. Note. — The use of narnque for nam (see ^ 345) may likewise be consid- ered as an instance of this redundance of the copulative. r§ 809.] 14. Upon the signification, the use, and the po- sition of the several conjunctions, we have treated at large in Chap. LXVII. It may here be observed in addition, that it is a favourite practice in Latin to make antitheses, and to indicate them by placing conjunctions in opposition to each other; as, et — et, aut — aut, neque — neque, neque — et, et — neque, see § 338; farther, etsi — tamen, quum— turn, non magis — quam, non mado — sed etiam, and the like. But compare, also, § 781, foil., respecting the omission of copulative and adversative conjunctions. [§ 810.] 15. In a rhetorical point of view there are three kinds of propositions, viz., commata, cola, and periodi. Compare, on this point, Cic, Oral., 66, and Quintil., ix., 4, 122, foil. A comma [KOfifta, incisum) is an absolute or in- dependent simple proposition ; e. g., Bene res se habet. Aliud videamus. A colon (kuXov, membrumj is hkewise a simple proposition, but which by its form shows its re- lation to another proposition ; e. g., quum bene res se habe- at. A period is a proposition which is enlarged by a com- bination of commata and cola, and is, at the same time, absolute or complete in itself (i. e.^ it begins and ends in itself). It, therefore, requires at least two propositions, which are united into a whole, either as precedent and consequent clauses (protasis and apodosis), or by the in- sertion of the one into the other ; e. g., quum bene res se habeat, aliud videamus (but not in an inverted order), or Nunc igitur, quoniam res bene se habet, aliud videamus. But, according to the views of the ancients, it is not neces- sary that a complete proposition should be inserted. The enlargement of a proposition, which is req lired to form a period, may be effected by the insertion of parts of prop- ositions, which contain only the elements of entire prop- os'tidns, as in the passage of Cicero, Hominem foedum, X X 518 LATIN GRAMMAR. verditum, desperatum pluris quam te et quam frrrtunas tuas aestimasti. And such a period is called a simple one {fiovoKuXog). The following period, on the other hand, consists of two paits : Quern, quaeso, nostrum fefellit, ita vos essefacturos ? The period is the blossom of a finished style; it is generally employed in even and progressive descriptions, and the highest perfection of style is dis- played in its variety and easy development. But as not all thoughts are so complex as to admit of an enlarge- ment of the principal by subordinate propositions, or by a combination oi protasis and apodosis, periods should be intermixed with commata and cola. In Latin style, inter- rogative and exclamatory forms of expression are, among others, particularly calculated to produce the desirable variety. Note. — ^We have been obliged above to abandon the common definitions given by the ancients of commata and cola, for they do not explain the real nature of the propositions. The correct definition of a colon is given by the rhetorician Alexander in Ernesti's Technolog. Grace. Rhet., p. 258, KuXov tarl izepioSov /lepoc S TiijETai uiv naff airo, avnueiiievov Sk vXripoc TveploSov. The term period should not be confined exclusively to such propositions as are enlarged by the insertion of another proposition. Scheller, for instance, in his Praecepta stili, considers such a proposition as Qiiemadmodum Concordia res parvae crescunt, ita discordia etiam maximae dila' buntur not to be a period : we, however, do consider it a period, since, by the very beginning, quemadmodum, we are made to expect Ihe subsequent ita, and the course of the proposition is fixed ; not, however, in an inverted position of the two members. In like manner, the above-mentioned peri- od, QuuTK bene res se habeat, aliud videamus, would lose its periodic charac- ter, if the two members were inverted ; for it would merely represent two propositions in juxtaposition, not united either by their form or otherwise into a coherent whole. [§ 811.] 16. Where, however, we have subordinate propositions introduced by conjunctions (excepting the copulative conjunctions), it is certainly preferable to form a period by inserting them ; for, as has already been ob- served above, the placing of circumstances after the thought or idea, which they are intended to introduce, is contrary to the common practice of the Latin language . As in the construction of a simple proposition minor ad- ditions or circumstances are put between the subject and the verb, and especially as the verb closes the whole, so propositions which contain secondary circumstances are, in Latin, thrown into the middle of the period. A prop- osition, such as Scipio exercitum in Jfricam trajecit ui Hannibalem ex Italia deduceret, is not periodic in its struc- turo, but it becomes so when we say Scipio, ut Hannp- AKEANGEMENT OF WORDS, ETC. 519 halem ex Italia deduceret, exercitum in Africam, irajecit. Thus propositions like the following, where the subordi- nate member precedes with two conjunctions, Quum ig-i- tur BAxmam venisset, statim imperatorem adiit, are made still more strictly periodic by placing the conjunction which belongs to the whole first, and then inserting the subordinate proposition, Itaque, quum Romam venisset, statim imperatorem adiit. And this must especially be recommended in shorter propositions, though we do not mean to say that quum igitur, quum autem,, quum vera, quum enim are incorrect, or that nam quum, sed quum. Sec, are of themselves preferable. [§ 812.] It is, therefore, particularly necessary to see whether, in two propositions connected by a conjunction, the subject is the same ; for, in this case, it is the almost invariable practice in Latin to form them into one period ic proposition ; e. g., Nep., de Reg., 3, Antigonus, quum adversus Seleucum Lysimachumque dimicaret, in. proelio ocdsus est; Cic, in Verr.,i., 10, Verres, simulac tetigit pro- vinciam, statim Messana litteras dedit; Tusc, v., 18, Stul- titia, etsi adepta est, quod concupivit, nunquam se tamen satis consecutam putat. Hence the Latins are rather fond of expressing a complex thought in such a manner that the subject remains the same ; for a period with two sub jects, the one in the principal, the other in the subordi- nate proposition, is less easily to be surveyed or followed by the mind. Instead of Antimachus, quum eum omnes praeter Platonem deseruissent, Nihilominiis, inquit, legam, it would, accordingly, be better to say Antimachus, quum ah omnibus desertus esset, Nihilominus, inquit, legam. The same practice is observed when the object is the same in both propositions ; e. g., Nep., Alcib., 10, quem, ut harhari incendium effugisse eminus viderunt, telis missis interfece- runt. In such constructions, it cannot be said whether the nominative or the oblique case, which stands first, be longs to the leading or the dependent proposition. when the object of the leading proposition is the sub- ject of the dependent proposition, it is likewise placed first, and the nominative supplied in the dependent prop- osition from the oblique case which has preceded ; e. g., Cic, de Off., iii., 31, L. Manlio, quum dictator fidsset, M, Pomponius, tribunus plebis, diem dixit, quod is paucos sibi dies ad dictatvram gerendam addidisset ; and both united. 620 LATIN GRAMMAR. f. Leg. Man., 12, Idem Gretensibus, quum ad eum usqut in Pamphyliam legates deprecatoresque misissent, spent de- ditionis non ademit, [§ 813.] 17. Relative propositi jns of every kind are very frequently employed in constructing a period, being especially adapted to form inserted clauses. If emphasis is required, the relative proposition is generally placed be- fore the demonstrative pronoun or adverb ; e. g., Cic, de Nat. Dear., i., 42, Quid ? ii qui dixerunt, totam de diis itn- mortalibus opinionem fictam esse ah hominibus sapientibus reip. causa, ut, quos ratio non posset, eos ad qffidum religio duceret, nonne omnem religionem funditus sustulerunt ? de Off., ii., 12, Socrates hanc viam ad gloriam proximam dicebat esse, si quis id ageret, ut, qualis haberi vellet, talis esset ; in Verr., ii., 2, Itaque ad omnes res Sicilia semper usi sumus, ut, quidquid ex sese posset efferre, id apud eos non nasci, sed domi nostrae conditum putaremus ; in Verr., i., 2, Quodsi, quam audax est ad conandum, tarn esset ob- scums in agendo, fortasse aliqua in re nos aliquando Jiefel- lisset; p. Rose. Com., 11, Navi, quo quisque est sollertior et ingeniosior, hoc docet iracundius et laboriosius. It is, hovrever, equally common, even in the elaborate and ora- torical style, to place the demonstrative in its natural or- der before the relative ; e. g., Cic, p. Rose. Am., 24, No- lite enim putare, quemadmodum infabulis saepenumero vi- detis, eos, qui aliquid impie scelerateque commiserint, agi- tari et perterreri Furiarum taedis ardentibus. The inver- sion, therefore, should be adopted only occasionally for the sake of ornament, but should not be used immoder- ately. Respecting the omission of the demonstrative af- ter the relative, see § 765, note. [5 814.] Notts. — The poets not unfrequently take away the substantive from the leading proposition, and join it to the relative pronoun in the de- pendent clause, and in the same case as the pronoun, the substantive ei- ther preceding or following the pronoun ; e. g., Termt., Eun., iv., 3, 11, Eunuchum quern dedisti nobis, quas turbos dedit ! for Eunuchua ; Virg., A£n,, i., 573, urbem quam statuo, vestra est ; Terent., Andr., prol.. 3, poeta id sibi negotii credidii solum dari, populo ut placerent quas fecisset faJmlas ; Horat., Serm., i., 4, 2, atque alii, quorum comaedia prisca virorum est, for atqtw. alii viri, quorum est ; Serm., i., 10, 16, illi, Scripta quibus comoedia prisca viris est, for illi viri, quibus. Comp., also, Epod., 2, 37 ; 6, 7 ; Carm., iv., 13, 18- 22 ; Serm., ii., 2, 59. Ovid, Art. Am., ii., 342, sub qua nunc recubas arbore, virgafuit ; Seroid., iv., 173, Sic tibi dent NympJiae quae levet unda sitim, fol dent undam, quae levet. And also, in Cicero, p. Sulla, 33, Quae prima inno- centis mihi de/ensio est oblata, suscepi ; ad Att., vi., 1, quos pueros miseram, epistolam mihi attulerunt ; de Xteg., iil., 5, ha£c est, quam Scipio laudat et qvam maxime probat temperat'/^em reipubUcae, comp. p. Clu., 42, in fin. ; ana, Ob AREANGEMENT OP WOBDS, ETC. 521 the other hand, ie Leg., i., Yl,vel ah ea, miaepmitu* in emni sensu implicata msidet imitatrix bom voluptas. The regular iorm, however, always is this that the substantive has its place in the leading proposition, or, if it has preceded in the relative proposition, that the retrospective pronoun ia is put in the case which the leading proposition requires ; hence either pve- rij quos miseram, aitulerunt, or quos pueros miseramj it attulerunt. [§ 815.] 18. A period becomes more complex and ar- tificial if the dependent proposition has neither the same subject nor the same object as the leading proposition ; e. g,, Cic, p. Rose. Am., init., Credo ego vos, judices, mi' rari, quid sit quod, quum, tot summi oratores hom,inesque nohilissimi sedeant, ego potissimum surrexerim, qui, &c. Here care must be taken that, by the insertion and en- largement of a new proposition, the construction of the main proposition be not suspended or embarrassed, which would produce an Anacoluihon; as, e. g., if we were to enlarge the inserted proposition in the preceding period thus, quid sit quod, quum, tot summi oratores hominesque nohilissimi sedeant, neque in hac causa, quod in aliis facere consueverunt, vocem pro salute hominis innocentissimi mittere audeant — the beginning, quid sit quod, would have been forgotten in the length of the inserted propositions ; and an orator, following the train of his feelings, would scarce- ly have proceeded by ego potissimum surrexerim, but would probably have found it necessary to take up the suspend ed construction with cur igitur ego potissimum surrexerim See § 739 and § 756. [§ 816.J 19. In constructing a period, we must take care that the apodosis be not too short in proportion to the protasis, which would produce a disagreeable eifect upon the ear. If, for example, we had the protasis Qui putat magnam doctrinam sine ingenio praeclaro, sine in- dustria indefessa, sine lihris optimis posse comparari, and were to close with errat, the disproportionately short apodosis would seem ridiculous; we ought either to have written unperiodically (though sufficiently well) errat qui putat; or we ought to produce the necessary counter- poise by an enlargement of the idea errat; e. g., by say- ing magna vehementique error e ducitur. This requires a knowledge and command of words and phrases which is acquired from an accurate and attentive study of the au- thors. The Auct. ad Heremn., iv., 1, commences a peri- odic proposition thus : Quoniam in hoc libra de eloeutione tcripsirtiMs, et, quihus in rebus exeinplis ojmsfuit, usi sumus Xx 2 {)5i e. g., tectum for dorrms ; Metonymia, when a thing is expressed by means of cir- cumstances connected with it; e. g., segne otium; Vul canus for ignis, Ceres ior pants ; Ant-onomasia, substituting other nouns for a proper name; e. g., Romanae eloquentiae princeps, for Cicero; KaTdxpt]oig, the use of a word in an improper sense, when the language is in want of a proper or specific term ; e. g., aedificare naves ; and other tropes less applicable to the Latin language. The stole of words and expressions which have come down to us and are collected in dictionaries, must decide upon the degree of propriety and applicability of these tropes. [§ 821.] 23. 'Yhe figures admit a greater freedom in their use. They are divided YoXafigurae sententiarum ^uA.fig- urae verhorum ; the former are modes of conceiving and shaping an id«a or thought, which differ from the common or vulgar mode ; the lattei have reference merely to a different expression of the same idea, and are therefore, as it were, transformations of the same body. A knowl- edge and practice in the use of figures is interesting and important even for the beginner, since in them lies the secret of the most admired portion of the rhetoric art ; and, in fact, they are indispensable for the orator, although the essential part of his art consists in far different things. viz., tho invention and adequate arrangement and dispo ARRANGEMENT OF WOKDS, ETC. 525 itioK of his thoughts. The figurae »erJorM»i" arise from addition, from resemblance of sound and form, and sup- pression. The following arise from addition, : geminatio, a doub- ling of words ; e. g., Cic, in Verr., v., 62, crux, crux in- luam, misero et aerumnoso comparahatur ; inavcufiopd, repetitio, repetition; i. e., when the several members of a proposition begin with the same word; e. g., G\c.,in Cat., i., 1, Nihilne te nocturnum praesidium Palatii, nihil urbis vigiliae, nihil timor populi, nihil consensus bonorum omni- um, nihil hie munitissimus habendi senatus locus, nihil ho rum ora vultusque moverunt ? Comp. p. Arch., 9, 21 ; in RulL, ii., 6. The reverse (i. e., when the same word is used at the end of several members) is called ivriaTpo^ff, conversio. Complexio arises from a combination of rep- etitio and conversio ; e. g., Cic, in RulL, ii., 9, Quis legem tulit? Rullus. Quis majorem partem populi suffragiis prohibuit ? Rullus. Quis comitiis pra^uit ? Rulltu. Quis decemviros quos voluit renuntiavit ? Idem Rullus. Traductio, when a word from a preceding clause is re- peated in the following, as in the Auct. ad Her., iv., 14, Eum tu hominem appellas, qui si Jkisset homo, nunquam tarn crudditer vitam hominis petisset. 'HokvavvdeTov, i. e, the repetition of the same conjunction ; e. g., ad ffer., iv., 19, Et inimico proderas, et amicum laedebai, et tibi ipsi non consulebas. t^ [§ 822.] From resemblance of sound and form, or sym- metry, arise, napovofiaaia, anTiominatio, when words, with some resemblance of sound, are placed together, or, rath- er, in opposition ; e. g., Cic, in Verr., v., 10, ut eum non facile non modo extra tectum, sed ne extra lectum ^uidem quisquam videret; in Cat., i., 12, hanc reip pestem non paulisper reprimi, sed in perpetuum comprimi volo; de Off., i., 23, expetenda magis est decemendi ratio, quam de- certandi fortitudo. For more examples, see my note on Cic, in Verr., iv., 5, 10. 'OfioiOTTTUrov, when the same cases are in several members of the proposition ; and 6/koi- oreXevTov, when the members end similarly; e. g., both united occur in Gic, p. Cite., 6, Vicit pudoremflibido, timo- rem audacia, rationem amentia: To these may be added laoKuXov ; i. e., when the members are of (about) equal length ; e. g., Auct. ad Her., iv., 20, Alii fortuna felicita- tern dedit, huic industria virtutem comparavit. Compare 526 LATIN GEAMMAK. the quotation from Cic, p. Caecina, at the end of § 816 'AvTiderov, opposition, requires this symmetry; e. g., Cic. p. Mil., 4, Est igitur haec,judices, non scripta, sed nata lex, quam non didicimus, accepimus, legimus, verum ex natura ipsa arripuimus, Jiausimus, expressimus, ad quam non docti, sedfacti, non instituti, sed imbuti sumus, ut, &c. Of a similar nature is avriiieratoXfi, commutaiio, where the opposition is expressed by an inverted order of the proposition; e. g., ad Her., iv., 28, Quia stultus es, ea re taces, non tamen quia taces, ea re stultus es; si poema loquens pictura est, pictura taciturn poema debet esse. If not the whole clause is in- verted, this figure is called sTrdvodog, regressio; e. g., Cic, Brut., 39, ut eloquentium juris peritissimus Crassus, juris peritorum eloquentissimzis Scaevola haberetur. Lastly, KXlfia^, gradatio ; i. e., gradation, at the same time re- peating the preceding word ; e. g., ad Her., iv., 25, Impe- rium Graedae fuit penes Athienienses, Atheniensium potiti sunt Spartiatae, Spartiatas superavere Thebani, Thebanos Macedones vicerunt, qui ad imperium Graeciae brevi tem- pore adjunxerunt Asiam bello subactam. [§ 823.] The follovdng arise from suppression : anoauo- TTTjaig, an intentional breaking off in the middle of a speech ; e. g., Cic, p. Mil., 12, De nostra enim omnium — non audeo toium dicere. Videie quid ea vitii lex habitura fuerit, cujus periculosa etiam reprehensio est, and the well-known pas- sage of Virgil (Aen., i., 135), Q«o« ego — sed motos praes- tat componere jluctus. 'Aavv6erov, dissolutio, the omission of the copulative conjunctions ; e. g., Cic, in Quintilian, ix., 3, 50, Qui indicabantur, eos vocari, custodiri, ad sena- tum adduci jussi. Correctio, eTravopduaig, the correction of an expression just made use of; e. g., Cic, in Cat., i., 1, Aic tamen vivit. Vivit ? immo vero etiam in senatum venit, comp. atque adeo, § 734. Dubitatio, intentional doubt; to which the figure of an intentional forgetting and recalling to mind may' also be added ; e. g., ad Her., iv., 29, Tu is- tud ausus es dicere, homo omnium mdrtalium — nam quo te digno moribus tuis appellem nomine ? [§ 824.] We must leave it to rhetoric to explain the ^^- urae senteniiarum : some of them, however, are, at the same time, figurae verborum ;. as, e. g., the question and the exclamation, which are of very frequent occurrence in Latin. We may also mention the addressing ot absent t>ersons or things without life {aiToaTpo^rj) ; e. g., in (^ic, ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS, ETC. 527 p. Mil., 31, Vos enim jam ego, Albani tumuli atque. luei, &c. ; farther, personification ; as, e. g., Cicero in Gat., i., 7, introduces his native countiy as speaking ; hyperbole, irony, simile, sentence, &c., whose manifold use must be learned from the writings of the best authors, with which we strongly advise the student to combine the study of the eighth and ninth books of Quintilian's Institutio Ora toria, and the excellent fourth book of the Author ad He- rennium among Cicero's rhetorical writings. [§ 825.] We add, in conclusion, as an example for imi- tation, a very simple proposition, transformed according to the several figures mentioned above. The theme or sub- ject is this, litteris delector. / Geminatio. Litterae, litterae, inguam, solae me delectant. Repetitio. Litterae me puerum aluerunt, litterae me juve- new, ah infamia libidinum servarunt, litterae virum in rep. administranda adjuverunt, litterae senectutis imbe- cillitatem consolahuntur. Conversio. Litterae honestissima voluptate ohlectant, re- rum novarum inventione ohlectant., immortalitatis spe cer- tissima ohlectant. Complexio. Qui litteris delectatur, qui vero inveniendo de lectatur, qui doctrina propaganda delectatur, eum vos malum esse civem putatis 1 Traductio. Quid vis 1 Tune litteris delectaris, qui litter- aram fundamenta odisti ? Polysyndeton. Litterae et crudiunt et ornant et ohlectant et consolantur. Paronomasia, Qui possim ego litteris carere, sine quihus vitam ipsam agerem invitus 1 'OfioionTUTOv, ofioiOTeX-evTov. Num putas fieri posse, ut, qui litterarum studiis teneatur, libidinum vinculis ohstrin- gatur 1 ^AvrideTov. Qui litteris delectari te dicis, voluptatibus im- plicari te pateris ? 'AvTifieTaGoXrj. Non quia delector, studeo litteris: sed quia studeo, delector. Gradatio. Studia mihi litterarum doctrinam , doctrina glo' riam, gloria invidiam et vbtrectationem comparavit. Aposiopesis. Quid ? Tu audes hoc mihi ohjicere, qui ni- hfllunquam invita expetierim nisi virtutem et'doctrinam: tu quid expetieris — sed taceo, ne convicium tihi fecisae videar. 628 LATIN GRAMMAR. Aavvderov. Qidd dicam de utilitate litterarum ? Erudi unt, ortiant, oblectant, consolantur. Correctio. Litterae me delertant : quid dico delectant } Immo consolantur, ut wiicam miM perfugium praebent inter has vitae laboriosae molestias. Dubitatio. Litterae me sive erudiunt, sive oblectant, sive comolantur : nam quid potissimum dicam nescio. APPENDIX I. fJF METRE ; ESPECIALLY WITH REGARD TO THE LATIN POETS. [§826.] 1. The words of alanguage consist of long and short syllables. In measuring syllables, the time consu- med in pronouncing a short syllable is taken as a standard, and this portion of time is called mora. A long syllable takes two morae, and is therefore, in this respect, equal two short syllables. Which syllables, in the Latin language, are considered short, and which long, has been shown in Chap. III. From the combination of syllables of a certain quantity arise what are called Feet (pedes), of which there are four of two syllables, eight of three syllables, sixteen of four syllables, thirty-two of five syl- lables, &c., since the respective number of syllables ad- mits of so many variations. For the sake of brevity, specific names have been given to those feet which con- sist of two, three, and four syllables, as well as to Boii>e of five : (a) of two syllables : ^ ^ Pyrrhichius ; bone, pater, lege. ^ _ Spondeus ; audax, constans, virtus. J _ Iambus ; potens, patres, legunt. ^ Trochaeus, or Choreus ; laetus, fortis, gaicdet. (bj Of three syllables : ^ ^ ^ Tribrachys ; domine, dubius, legere. Molossus ; mirari, libertas, legerunt. . ^ v> Dactylus ; improbus, omnia, legerat. ^ _ ^ Amphibrachys ; amare, peritus, legebat. ^ ^ _ Anapaestus ; bonitas, meditans, legerent. ^ Bacchlus ; dolores, amavi, legebant. _ ^ _ Amphimacer, Creticus ; fecerant,legerant,cogitans. _ _ ^ PalimbacchTue, Antibacchlus ; praeclarus, peccata, legisse. (c) Of four syllables : » w w <.' Proceleusmaticus ; celeriter, memoria, relieve. „ _ _ _ Dispondeus ; praeceptores, interrumpunt, perl^ xunt Yy 530 I,ATiN 6KAMMAE. ^ v^ Ionic us a minori ; adolescens, generosi, adamari. ^ ^ lonicus amajori; sententta, mutabilis, perlegerat _ w — >- Ditrochaeua, Dichoreus ; educator, infidelis, eru- ditus. ^ _ w - Diiambus; amoenitas, renuntians, supervenis ^ ^ Antispastus; verecundus, abundabit, perillustns, - w v^ _ Choiiambus ; impatiens, credulitas, eximios, — v^ ^ w Paeon primus ; credibilis, historia, attonitus. ^ _ ^ ^ secundus ; modeslia, amabilis, idoneus. j^ ^ _ >^ tertius ; puerilis, opulentus, medicaTnen. ^ ^ sj — quartus ; celeritas, misqricors, refugiens ^ Epitritus primus ; Idborando, reformidant, salu- tantes. ^ yj secundus ; administrans, imperairiXy comprobavi. _ _ v> _ tertius ; auctoritas, intell'^ens, dissen- tiens. • ^ quartus ; assentator, infinitus, naturalis. [§ 827.] 2. These feet are, as it were, the material of which prose and verse are equally composed : but while in prose the sequence and alternation of long and short syllables is not particularly attended to, and only on cer- tain occasions, ancient poetry, so far as the outward form is concerned, consists entirely in the avlaptation of words, by the aiTangement of long and ehort syllables, to the reception of the Rhythm. Rhythm, in this respect, is the uniformity of the duration of time, in the raising and sinking of the voice, or ^rsis and Thesis. We raise and sink the voice also in common discourse, but not at defi- nite intervals, nor with a regular return. In these inter- vals, or in the proportion of the duration of the Arsis to the duration of the Thesis, consists the difference of the Rhythm. The Arsis is either equal to the Thesis, or twdce as long, as will be seen in the difference of the two feet, the Dactyl and the Trochee, ^yj^ and iH ^, the Arsis (marked thus •') being combined with the long syllable. The same proportion takes place when the Thesis pre- cedes the Arsis in the Anapaest and Iambus v^ ^ ^ and ^ ^. The first species, in which the Arsis forms the be- ginning, is called the descending Rhythm ; the other, in which the Thesis forms the beginning, the ascending. From these simple rhythms, the artificial are composed, by the combina,tion of two simple series and the suppres- OP METRE. 531 sion of a Thesis, viz., the Paeonic, Choriambic, and loaic rhythms. The three Paeonic feet are, the Creticus ^^C the Bacchius ^CC and the Antibacchius dlC ^'t the Cho- riambus ^ ^ ^C\ the two Ionics ^^ ^ i^ ^ and C^^^. In verses of simple rhythm Arsis and Thesis are joined in alternate succession ; while in verses of a complicate rhythm, partly from the nature of the foot itself, and partly from the combination of two feet, one Arsis may meet another Arsis, which imparts to the versa an animated and impetuous character. {() 828.] Note. — The metrical intonation, or Ictia, which falls on the syllable that, according to the rhythm, receives the Arsis, is, in Greek and Latin, entirely independent of the accent of words. The old Latin comic writers, indeed, have endeavoured to bring the accent of words into con- formity with the rhythmical intonation, and this is the reason why they allowed themselves many shortenings of syllables which are long by posi- tion ; but, far from making the accent guide the rhythm, they only endeav- oured to produce this coincidence in the middle dipodia, and even thjre by no means uniformly. In the other parts of Latm poetry, which more closely follow the regularity of the Greek, no regard at all is paid to the accent of words, any more than by the Greeks ; nay, it should seem that the ancients derived a pleasure from the discordance between the metrical intonation and the ordmary accent. In A'rma vir&mqxie cano Trojae qui primus ah oris I'taUdmfato prqfugHs Ijavinaque venity It is only in the end of the verses that the prose accent and the metrical intonation coincide. In the recitation of verse the latter should predomi- nate, but not so as entirely to suppress the ordinary accent of words. The metrical accent, or ictus, has the power of giving short syllables the value of long ones. This, however; is not frequent, except m the short final syllable of polysyllabic words ending in a consonant, and especially where the force of the arsis is aided by the principal caesura of the verse ; e. g., Virg., EcL, X., 69, Omnia vincit uTnor, | et nos cedamus amori; Horat., Serm., i., 5, 90, callidus ut soledt \ humeris portare viator ; Ovid, Art. Am., iii., 63, JVec guae praeteriit | iterum revocabitur unda ; but also without the aid of the principal caesura ; e. g., Hor., Serm., ii., 3, 260, exclusus qui distat 7 \ agit ubi secum ; eat, an jioru Ovid, Metam., ix., 610, non adnt apte ! nan legit idonea, credo. Final syllables ending in a vowel are much less frequently lengthened by the arsis. It has, however, been remarked (see Schneider's Elemmtarlekre, p. 752), that this occurs surprisingly often with the enclitic que in the second foot of the hexameter, commonly supported by the caesura, of which we shall speak under No. 8 ; e. g., Virg., Am., iii., 91, lAminaque laurusque dei ; Ovid, Met., v., 484, Sideraque ventique nocent. Short monosyllabic words are never lengthened by the arsis. [§ 829.] 3. Several feet, united in one simple rhythm, constitute a series (ordoj. The dissyllable feet, i. c., tro- chees and iambi (when they do not pass into another rhythm, in which case a simple foot may be reckoned as a series), axe united into such series, of two feet each, or dipodiae : a dipodia is also called a metre ; hence, e. g., an iambic verse of six feet is called an iambic trimeter (trimeter iumbicus). Of the feet of tbree syllables, the 533 LATIN GRAMMAR. dactyl, according « the metrical writers, makes a metre by itself, though not the anapaest; but two anapaests according to the analogy of two iambi, make an anapaestic metre (metrum anapaesticumj. In some cases, especially in the trochaic verse, the end of a series is marked by a syllaha anceps ; i. e., a syllable whose natural quantity is not attended to, but which reckons long or short, as the rhythm requires ; consequently, in the trochaic rhythm (^ J) short. A verse consists of one or more series of the same or different rhythms. It is, however, distinguished from the series itself by the circumstance, that the syllaba anceps, which is only allowed sometimes at the end of he series, always occurs at the end of the verse, that hiatus is allowed, and that a pause of the voice takes place. A verse is called by the Greek name acataleciicus when the feet, or metres, of which it is composed are complete ; catalecticus when they want one syllable or two, or even a foot. Of verses which consist of trisyllabic feet, some are catahctici in syllabam, in which one sylla- ble only remains of the defective foot ; others catalectici in bisyllabtsm, when two syllables remain ; as, e. g., in the hexameter. Trochaic and iambic feet can be catalectic only in syllabam. [§ 830.] Caesura is the interruption of the rhythm by the end of a word. In the dactylic hexameter of Ovid, Donee erisfelix, multos numerdbis amicos, or in the one of Virgil, rnfandum reg'ma jubes renovdre dolorem, the end of the foot is throughout at variance vnth the end of the word ; and while the rhythm requires the union of two words, the sense is opposed to it, inasmuch as it re- quires a pause at the end of each. On this circumstance, however, rests the connexion of the feet, and a long verse cannot exist vrithout some caesurae, especially one towards the middle of the line, generally called emphati- cally the caesura. We must carefully distinguish incision from caesura. Incision is the coincidence of the end of the foot with the end of the word ; and in some species of verse (in the trochaic tetrameter, in the dactylic pen- tameter, and in choriambic verses) it is essential, and is often used, also, in the hexameter under certain forma. [§ 831.] 4. In what follows, we shall give a brief ao OF METRE. 533 cornit of those species of verse which the Roman poets have used, and of the laws they observed in their struc- ture. We shall first speak of verses with simple rhythm, then of those with artificial rhythm, and shall, lastly, add some remarks on compound verses, and on the combina- tion of different kinds of verse to a lyric strophe. We fihaU thus be enabled, at the same time, to see the differ- ence of the forms of the several species of ancient poetry. The epic makes use only of one simple rhythm, the dactylic ; while the drama (with the exception of its lyric part), with greater variety, moves in the three other sim- ple rhythms, the iambic trimeter, however, being its principal verse. In both species of poetry, verses of the same measure and of the same length are repeated in uninterrupted succession (koto arixov). Lyric poetry, on the contrary, on account of its Uvely character, makes use of the artificial rhythms, as well as of verses of com- pound or mixed rhythm ; repeating, however, in succes- sion verses of artificial rhythm only in some of its species of verse ; while in the others compound verses are com- bined into a rhythmical whole, called strophe. [§ 832.] 5. Trochaic verses, as has been observed above, are generally measured by dipodiae. But the tribrachys may stand for the trochee without injury to the metre; and as the last syllable of the series is doubtful, a spondee or an anapaest may stand in the second foot; or, when the verse consists of several dipodiae, in the second, fourth, and sixth foot. Consequently, this is the measure of the trochaic dipodia, As the arsis, when it falls on two short syllables after the resolution of the long syllable, cannot be expressed equally on both, the ictu^ is laid on the first of the two shorts. Note. — The spondee or anapaest in the uneven places (i. e., 1, 3, 5, &c.) is found only in the Latin comic writers, and is at variance with pure rhythm. The dactyl can only be admitted in the even places as the reso- lution of the spondees, but is very seldom used, and is still more unsuita- ble to the uneven places, where even the spondee is only admitted by too great a license. [§ 833.] The most common species of trochaic verse is the tetrameter catalectic, called, in Latin, quadratm, or, from the number of the complete feet, septenarius : Yt2 034 LATIN GltAMMAE. It has its incision after the second dipodia, where a word ends. In Plautus and Terence, that is, in the drama, many scenes are found in this measure, which is well adapted to express excitement and emotion. The fol- lowing example, from Terentianus Maurus, de, Syllab., exhibits the pure measure : we have marked the first arsis of the dipodia with the accent : Jfulla vox humana constat | absque septem litteris. Rite vocales vocavit | quds magistra Graecia : Quidquid audis praeter istas, | pars soni, non v6x erit. Quinqtie contenta cstjiguris | Romuli Latinitas. This verse, however, is not found in such purity in the comic writers, but with all the changes mentioned above ; so that the last catalectic dipodia alone shows the true measure. In the following passage from Terence, ^ndr., ii., 1, 18, foil., every arsis is marked with the accent : A'd te advenio, spem, saliitem, \ consilium, auxilium ex- petens. J^eque pol consili locum habeo, | nSque ad auxilium cdpiam. Sed istuc quidnam est 1 Hodie uxorem | ducis ? A'iunt Pamphile, Si id facts, hodie postrimum | me vides. Quid ita 7 Ei mihi. Vereor dicere, huic die, quaeso, \ Byrria. E'go dicdm. Quid est 1 Spdnsam hie iuam amat. ^ae iste haud mecum | sentit. E'hodum die mihi. [() 834.] Note. — The name of versus ithyphallims is given to a trochaic verse of three feet. It is found in its pure measure in Horace, at the close of another verse, Carm., i., 4, appended to a dactylic tetrameter : iSolvitur acris hiems grata vice j veris it Favord, Ac nequejam atabulis gaitdet pecuSf | aut arator igni. [§ 835.] 6. The iambic rhythm is the reverse of the trochaic, as it begins virith the thesis, which may be re- garded as an anacrusis (prelude) to the trochee. As such it has no necessary measure, and may therefore be long, whence arises the following measure of the iambic dipodia : Consequentlyj we may say, that instead of the iambus in all places the tribrajhys may stand, except in the last OP METKE. 635 place, since the last syllable of the verse is anceps. and cannot, therefore, be resolved; and that in the uneven places 1, 3, 5, the spondee, and, as its resolutions, the anapaest and dactyl, may stand instead of the iambic (of course, so that the second half of the dactyl be in arsi, and the ictus rest on the first of the two short syllables). [% 836.] This is the general rule ; but poets either impose restrictions on themselTes, in order to produce greater harmony, or allow themselves- greater latitude, to facilitate the composition of their verses. The earliest Greek iambographi are most careful in this respect, and seldont use eyen the tribrachys. The tragedians much more frequently admit the tribrachys in all places but the last ; the ^ondee and dactyl, in accordance with the general rule, in the uneven places : they do not like the anapaest ; they use it almost exclusively in the first place and in a whole word, but in all places only in the case of proper names, in regard to which greater lati- tude must be allowed. The Greek comic writers introduced the anapaest in aU places, the last bemg always excepted, with certain limitations, as when a dactyl precedes. The Roman comic writers and Fhaedrus adopt- ed all these licenses, and, besides, admitted the spondee in the even places, so that in their verses the iambus maintains its righj only in the last foot. On the other hand, Horace, in his Epodes, and Seneca the tragedian, re- turned to the original strictness, and they only use the tribrachys instead of the iambus occasionally in the even places ; in the uneven, besides tho iambus, they use the spondee, and rarely the anapaest or dactyl ; e. g., Horat., Epod., 2 : Hos inter e'pUlaSf ut juvat pastas oves f Yidere pro'perantes damum, Positosque vemaSf ditis examen domus, Circum renidentes Lares. Haec u'bi locutus fenerator Aljius, &c. [§ 837.] The iambic verse, which is in most common use, is the trimeter acataleciicus, or, from the number of its feet, called, in Latin, senarius ; which is the usual measure of the dialogue of the drama. It has generally a caesura in the third or fourth foot ; the first is called venthemimeral {^nevdTiiJ,i.neprig) afier the fifth half foot, the second hephthemimeral {k^djjiufiepfig) after the seventh half foot; e. g., Hor., Epod., 17 ; Jam jam efficaci \ do numus scientiae Supplex, et oro | regna perProserpinae, Canidia, parce | vocibus tandem sacris, Citumque retro solve, \ sohe^ turbinem. It may be combined also with other caesurae, as is the «i,6se in the third and fourth verse of this passage. The • metrical writers have pointed out many niceties in the r structure of these verses ; as, e. g., that the third and rfourth foot ought not to consist of single words ; that, «^when the last word is a cfeticus, a preceding long syllable «au^t not to be the last syllable of a»polysyllabic word, - 536 LATIN GRAMMAR. As these rules and observations ha/e reference to the Greek tragedians only, farther particulars must be learned from the works on metre. ' As an example of this specie* of verse, we take a passage from Phaedrus, and mar* each arsis with the accent : ^d rivum eundem lupus et Sgnus venerant Sitt compulsi, superior siabat lupus, Longeque inferior agnus. Tuncfauce improha Latro incitdtus, jurgii causam intulit : Cur, tnquit, turbulentam fecisti mihi Istdm bibenti ? Ldniger contra timens : Qui possum, quaeso,facere, quod quereris, lupe? [§ 838.] Verses consisting of iambic dimeters are com monly found in Horace in the Epodes, subjoined to a longer iambic or dactylic verse ; e. g., Epod., 2 : Bedtus ille, qui procul negoiiis, Ut prtsca gens mortalium, Paterna rura bdbus exercet suis, Solutus omni fenore. Or, Epod., 14 : Mollis inertia cur tantdm diffMerit imia Oblivionem sensibus, Candida Maecenas, occidis saepe rogando : Deus, deus, nam mevetat. The metre in which a trimeter is followed by a dimeter was that in which Archilochus, the most ancient writer of iambic verse, composed his poems. Dimeter catalectic verses, of which the first foot may be a spondee, or instead of it an anapaest, but of which the other feet are pure, are found among the Roman poets who have come down to us, only in Seneca in choruses ; e. g., Med., 862, foil. : Ut tigris orla gndtis Cursu furente lustrat Gangeticum nemus, sic Prendre nescit iras Medea, non amdres. And Terentianus Maurus uses this verse in speaking of il : Et condere inde carmen Multi Solent po'etae Horatium videmus or M£TB£. 087 Versus tenoris hujus ^usquam locasse juges, At Arbiter disertus Libris suis frequentat. [§ 839.] Tetrameter iambics, complete and incomplete, are common in the Roman comic writers ; the first are called octonarii, the others septenarii, from the number of the complete feet. An example of octonarii is found, Terent., Andr , i., 3, init. : Enimvero, Dave, nil heist | segnitiae neque socordiae. Quantum intellexi mo'do senis | sententiam de niipiiis, Quae si non asiu providentur, me aut herum pessumdabvnt. J^ec quid agam certum est : Pdmphilum | ne adjutem an auscultem seni. Si ilium relinquo, ejus viiae timeo : sin opitHlor, hujus minas. The septenarii have avery lively and animated rhythm. There is an incision in the middle. An example is, Terent., Andr., iv., 2, 11 : Per 6mnes adjuro deos, | nunquam earn me deserturum, 'JiTon, si capiundos mihi sciam esse inimicos omnes ko'mines, Hanc mi expetivi : contigit, | conveniunt mores. Va leant, Qui int^ nos discidium volunt : | Aanc ni'si mors mi adimtt nemo. [§ 840.] 7. The halting iambus ('CAo/iaroiMs;^, or Scazon (oKd^av), called also Hipponactean verse, u s compound verse, and therefore properly belongs to another place, but may be conveniently treated of here, that it may not be separated from the other iambic verses. The choliambic is an iambic senarius, instead of the last foot of which, however, a trochee is introduced, the fifth foot being, for the sake of contrast, usually a pure iambus. This species of verse is adapted to satire ; the Roman poets, however, especially Catullus, have also employed it for the expression of the softer feelings ; e. gn in the 8th poem, where it is particularly suitable : Miser Catulle desinas inepttre, Et quod vides pertsse, perditum ducas. Fulsere quondam cdndidi tibi s6les, Quum venlitabas, qu6 puella dUcSbat Amdia nobis quantum amabitur nulla. 638 LATIN GEAMMAE. Ibi ilia multa tdm jocosa fiebant, Quae to, volebas, n^c puella ndlebat. Fid sere vere candidi tibi soles ! J^unc ilia non volt, tu quoque impotens noli, JVec qudefugtt sectdre, nee miser vive. [§ 841.] 8. Of all the dactylic metres, the- Hexameter is the most used. Being employed especially in epic poe- try, it has obtained the name of the heroic verse. It properly consists, according to its name, of six dactyls, for the last of which, however, a trochee (or, as the last syllable is doubtful, a spondee) is always substituted. The first four places admit dactyls or spondees without distinction, and the verse gains in strength and variety by their intennixture, all dactyls producing too tripping a movement ; all spondees too heavy a movement. These effects Virgil has designedly produced in the verses Quddrupeddnte puirem sonitu quatit ungula cdmpum. rili inter sese magnd vi brdckia tollunt. In the fifth place a spondee seldom occurs, but when it does occur, a dactyl generally precedes. Such a verse is called versus spondiacus. It has a hard and heavy sound, but the slowness of its movement is often suited to the thought, and therefore constructed on purpose. In such lines the Roman poets are fond of placing a word of four syllables at the end of the verse ; as, Virg., Eel., iv., 49, and Aen., ii., 68, Cara deum soboles, magnum Jovis incrementum. , Constitit, atque oculis Phrygia agmina circumspexit. Ovid, Met., vi,, 69, Et vetus in tela deducitw argumentum. Ibid., 128, J^exilibus jlores hederis habet intertextos. Note. — A word of three syllables at the end of a spondiacus would bring the ictus on the last syllable of the preceding word, and this is contrary to the Boman system of accentuation, which is not, indeed, generally at- tended to in the construction of the hexameter, but, at the end of the verse, is generally made, if possible, to harmonize with the ictus. For this reason, the best metricians avoid using a word of three syllables at the end of the spondiac verse, or, at least, they make a monosyllabic word pre- cede it (as, e. g., Juvenal, Sat,, iv., 87, turn quo de fiuviia out aestibus aiU nimioso Vere loauluri, and in many other passages). Proper names, how- ever, render exceptions necessary, [§ 842.] The poets bestowed especial care on the caesura of this verse, as it is too long to be read in one breath ; and by this means it obtains a fresh variety, the caesura producing an apparent change in the rhythm. OP METRE. 539 The caesura moEt natural and the most common is that in the third fo6t, either after the arsis, or in the thesis, i. e., after the first short syllable of the dactyl. The former is called the caesura {ronrj) ■aevOrjuiiiepf)^ (semiquinaria), or masculine ; the otier is called by the Greek writers on metre caesura Kara xplrov rpoxacov, and by the moderns the trochaic caesura,, because a trochee ^ ^ immediately precedes, or the^feminine, because the half of the verse ends in the thesis. In Esncient heroic poetry the mascu- line caesura is the prevalent one; the trochaic, which is really expressive of less force, is also often used, accord- ing to the character of the- thought or sense. If the cae sura is not in the third foot> it generally is in the fourth ; but here ouly one species of it is allowed, that after the arsis. This is called e^0?/jUitjU£p^f fsemiseptenariaj, and is considered a beauty when, at the same time, there is a lest considerable caesura in thesecond foot. Catull., Epithal., Pel., 139, Eumenides \ quibus anguineo || redimita capillo Tirg., Aen., i., 9, Quidve dolens \ regina deum || tot volvere casus. JSS43.] Note 1. — Every well-constructed hexameter has one of these ^ee «aesurae ; with them may be combined several others made of the single feet. And in this respect the caesura after the first arsis is particu- larlydaserving of notice, as giving great emph8(sis to a monosyllabic word, iln the principal caesura of the verse, poets frequently introduce a pause an the sense, which must be attended to in determining which caesura is ithe principal one ; for it oftens happens that at the common place for ithe caesura, in the third foot, there is a caesura in the word, and in the fourth foot, betides the caesura in the ward, also a pause in the sense. In 4his case the latter is to be- considered as the principal caesura, and to be distinguished .aecordingly in reciting; e. g., Hor., Sam., i., 4, 61, Postquam diacordia tetra Belli ferratoa pastes portasque rejregit, ihe caesura ■icetSr}pLi4uprjg would separate the adjective from the substan- Xivej it is better, therefore, e&ex pastes, where by means of-;ue, at least, a new BCHin is added. In like manner, it does not appear doubtful to us "that in Horat., EpisL, iL, 3, 137, the caesura should be made thus : Foriunava. Priami cantab^ | et ruibile betlwn, Fortunam Prumd \ cantaho et TwhUe bdhbm; iw the elision of the vowel does not prevent the caesura, the word being -egarded as closed before the elided vowel. {% 844.] A peculiar kind of indtUm is that which is called caesura bmolica, in which both the sense and the word close at the end of the fourth foot, tt may also be joined with one of the before-mentioned principal caesurae, but the pause in the sense coinciding with the end of the foot, of course' eompels the reciter to make a longer pause than usual before the fifth toot. This caesura bucolica sometimes beautifully expresses the rapiditf 540 LATIN GRAMMAR. if a lively movement till it comes to a sudden check : but in consequenc* of the disproportionate shortness of the last member of the verse, it gen- erally makes the impression of an uncultivated simplicity ; and this ap- pears to be the reason why it was so much used by the Greek bucolic poets, from whom it derives its name. [4 845.] Note 2. — A monosyllabic woid at the end of the verse, if another monosyllable does not precede, produces a singular eifect, by compelling the reader, in order that it may be understood, to lay an accent upon it, which is not suited to the thesis. This effect, however, is sometimes de- signedly produced by the poets, either to express something harsh and rough, or in a ludicrous way something which is unexpected ; e. g., Ddt latuSf insequitur [ cumulo praeruptua aquae mons. Virg., Aen., i., 106. 7/Zic, atperhibent ] aut intempesta silet nox. Virg., Georg., i., 247. Parturiunt monies^ | nascetnr ridiculus mus, florat.. Art. Poet., 139. [§ 846.] 9. Next to the hexameter, the most common dactylic verse is the pentameter. It has this name from its containing the number of five complete metres ; but it has properly six feet, of which the third and sixth are incomplete. The measure is the following : • — / — / \ / / / In the second half there must be pure dactyls ; and in the first, dactyls and spondees are commonly intermixed ; for two spondees give a hardness to the rhythm. After the third arsis, where the caesura is invariable, a pause equivalent to two morae must be made in order to com- plete the rhythm. Hence the lengthening of a short syl- lable by the force of the arsis is, according to the strict rule, in this place not admissible, though there are sev- eral exceptions to be found in the Roman poets. (Re- specting the Greek, see Friedemann, Dissert, de media Syllaba Pentametri, in Spitzner's work, Be Versu Graeco- rum Heroico, Lips., 1816.) There is the same pause at the end of the verse, where, according to the general rule, a short syllable may stand, but in fact is rarely found in a word ending in a short vowel. This verse commonly ends in words of two syllables, and words of three sylla- bles are not often used for the conclusion, as the accent in these falls unpleasantly. This verse is used only as an appendage to an hexameter, and both together constitute the elegiac verse. Although odginally employed on mournful or amatory subjects, it was soon turned to lighter topics ; but it is not adapted to a long poem, and is best suited to epigrammatic and sententious poetry e, g.. Martial, Epigr., y., 76, OF MKTRE. 54 Profecit poto Mithridates saepe veneno Toxica nepossent saeva nocere sibi : Tu quoque cavisti, coenando tarn male semper, J\re posses unqudm, Cinna, perirefame. [§ 847.] 10. Of the other dactylic Verses we shall men. tion the dimeter catalecticus, called, also, versus ^donius, — \^ \^ -^ ^ used as an appendage to other verses in lyric poetry. Farther, the tetrameter catalecticus, or versus Mctnanius, from the lyric poet Alcman, who frequently used it : the last foot of it is preserved pure. The trimeter catalecticus in syllabam, used by Horace, after the example of Archilochus, before or after a dimeter iambicus ; e. g., Epod., 11, I'nachia furere \ silvis honorem decutit Fervidi&re mero | arcana promordt loco ; and Epod., 13, Tu Vina Torquatd move | consule pressa meo Levdre duris pectora \ sdllicitudinibus. Horace uses the tetrameter catalecticus as an appendage to the heroic hexameter, Carm., i., 7, jllbus ut obscuro | deterget nubila coelo Saepe JVotus, neque parturit imbres Perpetuos, \ sic tu sapiens | finite memento Tristitiam vitaeque labores. [§ 848.] 11. The anapaestic rhythm {^yjC) is the re- verse of the dactylic. Instead of the pure anapaest, the spondee, dactyl, or proceleusmaticus may stand, but the ictus must be placed as in the pure anapaest, and, conse- quently, the dactyl must be read, not C^^ but _ ^ ,^. Anapaests are used by the Greek tragic and comic poets most frequently in systems, in which there is no doubtful syllable, except at the end ; but they are gen eraUy divided into dimeters. A system always ends in a dimeter catalecticus in syllabam, called versus paroemiacus. This is usually preceded by a monometer, hence called basis anapaestica ; and sometimes such a verse is intro- duced in the middle of the system. In the Roman poets, wbosc> works have come down to us, we find but Zz 542 LATIN GEAMMAP, anapaests of this kind ; Terence nowhere uses them ; Plautus not unfrequently, but with difficult measures and many hcenses ; Seneca the tragedian did not use the pai-oemiacus, whence his anapaests have no proper close. Besides these dimeters, the Greeks very frequently use the tetrameter catalecticus in syllabam, which has a caesura in the middle, after the second dipodia. Plautus hke- wise uses it ; but as he indulges in great licenses, and as his text is very corrupt, we must refer the reader to Hermann's Elementa Doctrin. Metr., p. 405, foil. We take a specimen of the dimeter anap. fiom Seneca, Hipp., 974 Res humanas orcH'ne nulla Fortuna regit spargitque manu Mune'rd caeca, pejdrS f ovens. Vincit sanctos dira' libido, Ftaus sUblimi regnat in aula ; Trade're turpi fascis populus Gaude't, eosdem colit dtque odit. Tristis virtus perversa iulit Praemi'a recti, castas sequitur MSla paupertas : vitidque patens Regnat adulter. vane pudor falsAmque decus ! [§ 849.] 12. The artificial rhythms arise from the sim- ple, by the suppression of a thesis ; hence, each foot of these rhythms, having a double arsis, is equivalent to a metre. By this collision of one arsis with another, the impression of vehemence and violence is produced ; and the Roman lyric and dramatic poets, with whom verses of this kind supply the place of the choral songs of the Greeks, have made good use of them. From the com- bination of the uneven rhythm (v., ^ or ^ J) arise the Pae- onic rhythms, ejchibited in their purity in the Creticus ^yj^, the Bacchius ^ ^ ^, and the Antibacchius ^^^. This rhythm is called Paeonic, because these feet were regarded as originating from contractions of the four Paeons ; for the Creticus ^^^is equivalent to the first Paeon ^ ^ £7^, and to the fourth C^^^; the Bacchius w ^ ^ to the second Paeon ^^C^; and the Antibacchius CC^io the third Paeon C^C^- From the even rhythm i.— -i^ or ,^ ^. C) ai'ose, by combination, the Choriambic and OP METRE. 543 Ionic rhythm ; the Choriambic C^^^, the Ionic in two forms, a majori ^^^^ a minori ^^Cil. [§ 850.] 13. The Creticus C^C allows the resolution of either arsis, but at the close of the verse only the reso- lution of the first into two shorts. In Plautus and Ter- ence it is commonly used in tetrameters, a dimeter being occasionally inserted. In the following example, from Terence, Andr., iv., 1, a dactylic verse begins : Hocine credibile out memordiile, Tanta vecdrdia innata cuiquam vt siet, U't malts gaiideant dtque ex incommodis A'lterms sua ut comparent cdmmoda ? ah I'dne est verum ? immo id est ge'nus hominum pessumum, in Denegando modo quis pudor paulum adest, Post, ubi tempu^ promissa jam perfici, Turn coacti necessdrio se aperiunt. An iambic verse forms the conclusion {clausula), nil opust I ibi verentur. [§851.] 14. The £accAtMS ^ r^ ^ is frequently used by the Roman comieJ poets in systems and in verses. It admits the resolution of either arsis ; the latter, however, not at the end of the verse, because the syllable is doubt- ful. The close of such verses is iambic or anapaestic; e. g., Terence, Andr., iii., 2, jldhuc, Archylis, quae adsolent quaeque op&rtet Signa esse ad salutem, omnia huic esse vi'deo. ^unc primumfac istaec lavet, post deXnde Quod jiissi ei dari bibere, et quantum imperdvi Date : mdx ego hue revertor. In the second verse, in the foot se video, the first arsis is resolved into two shorts, vide ; in the fourth verse, in the foot dari bibe, the second arsis is resolved. The ictus, as it cannot be laid upon both syllables, is placed upon the first of the two shorts. The Antibacchius does not form any verse. [§852.] 15. The most common kind of verse of the Ionic species a majori {^^ ^ J) is the tetrameter brachy- catalectus, also called Sotadeus, the poet Sotades having written his poems in this metre. Its original measure ii this: //' I //' \ y y \ / 544 LATIN GRAMMAS. But as the long syllables may be resolved, and a truchaio dipodia may be substituted for an lonicus, it admits a great variety of forms, and belongs altogether to the most difficult metres. Terentianus Maurus employs it in his poem on the letters, and generally uses the trochaic di- podia instead of the third lonicus a majori. We take the beginning of his poem as an example, and divide the metres : Elements, ru\des quae pue\r6s docent ma\gisiri Vocalia { quaedam memo\rani, consona | quaedam, Haec reddere \ vocem quoni\dm vdlent se\orsa, J^ullumque si\ne Mis potts \ est coire | verbum. [§ 853.] 16. The lonicus a minori was much used by the JEolic lyrists (Sappho, Alcaeus, Alcman). In Horace, Carm., iii., 12, we find, in imitation of Alcaeus, a system of ten feet, of pure measure throughout, and without hiatus. The division, according to which twice four feet are combined and closed by a shorter verse of two feet, is arbitrary. MisSrarum ist, | neque amdri | dSre ludiim | neque dulci Mala vmo | lavere, aut ex\animdn \ metuentes Patruae verbera linguae. [§ 854.] 17. The so-called .Anacreontic verse consists originally of two lonici a minori, /* /' y If, however, we consider the first two short syllables as an anacrusis, and combine with this the change of the lonicus a minori into a trochaic dipodia, we obtain the following measure : w^ mm ^ ^ \^ ^^ or x-* / _ • ^ ^o \./>^ y / — V — ^ C^^-^ And these are the different forms of the small Anac- reontic poems, most of which were composed at a very late period, afier the manner of the ancient lyi-ic poet. The Romans did not use this verse, unless we considei the dimeter iambicus catalecticus, mentioned in § 838, to be a specimen. It is, however, the foundation of the Galliambus. OP METRE. 545 [§ 855.] The Galliamlus adds to a complete Anacre- ontic verse another, but incomplete Anacreontic, whence, with the licenses above mentioned, may be pio- duced, ,^ w ^ w « *^^ — \./ -> \J -^ —m \ \J\^ . \./\y V./W and ihia is the form which Catullus has given to his Gal- *liambi, the only complete specimens which remain in his 63d poem. The example in which Terentianus Maurus has given instructions respecting this metre is as follows : Sonat hoc subinde metro | Cybtlemm nemus, Momenque Galliambis \ memoratur hinc datum, Tremulos quod esse Gallis | habiles putdnt modes, Adeo ut frequenter ilium | prope ab ultimo pedem, Mage quo sSnus vtbretur, | siudednt dare' tribrachyn. Catullus accordingly has generally resolved the last arsis before the catalexis into two short syllables. The beginning of his poem is this : Super dltd rectus Jltys I ccleri rate' mdria Phrygium nemus citato \ cupide pede' tetigit. [§ 856.] 18. The Choriambus C^^{. admits only the resolution of the first arsis into two shorts, very seldom the contraction of the middle short syllables into one long Only the dramatic poets have placed the iambic dipodia, which is of the same measure, in the place of the chori- ambus ; yet always after another choriambus, the second arsis of which, followed by an iambic thesis, preserves the unity of the rhythm. The lyric poets, when they made use of the choriambus in verse, always preserved it pure. [§ 857.] 19. As, however, the ancient poets did not compose verses entirely of the choriambic foot, in conse- quence of its impetuous movement, but prefixed or sub- joined to it feet of a different rhythm, we are naturally led to speak of compound verses. A compound verse is one in which series of difierent rhythms are combined. This combination may be so accomplished, that either the alternation of arsis and thesis is not interrupted, or two of each may come together. The first species, in which. the rhythmical connexion is preserved, and only a different proportion of the arsis and thesis takes place, is by faj- Zz2 5i6 LATiy GKAMMAE. the most common. The second, in which the transition from thesis to thesis, or from arsis to arsis, takes place, is in itself unrhythmical ; but a poet may sometimes, never- theless, desire to produce such an effect. [§ 858.] 20. The simplest species of composition is seen in the logaoedic verses, where, in order to produce a sim- ple prosaic close,, the- verse descends from the trisyllabic feet :^ yj ^ and ^ ^^tX) the dissyllabic ^ ^ and ^ ^. This name is generally givea only to dactylic verses ending in trochees ; but the same relation exists in anapaests. Such a logaoedic verse is- that which closes the Alcaic stanza, JVecte meo Lamiae coronam. Herat. Aa the trochee in this verse serves to moderate the lively rhjrthni, so a trochee is very often used before a dactylic series as a sort of introduction-. Hence it is now com- monly called a Base. As it supplies the place of a serieSp the final syllable is doubtful; i. e., a spondee may some- times stand as base instead of the trochee ; nay, occasion- ally this spondee is even resolved into a trisyllabic foot. [§ 859.] 21. Logaoedic dactylic verses with their base are called by the general name of Jleolic verses, from the lyric poets of that nation, who invented or used them Some kinds have, also, special names. The Pherecratean verse, — o I — ^ w — o in which the dactyl is very seldom contracted. The Glyconian verse is lengthened half a foot ; and has, in Horace, always a spondee as its base. Note. — The unconnected juxtaposition of the Glyconian and Pherecra- tean verses produces the Priapean verse (which is consequently a versus tuynartetw) ; e. g., Catull., svui., Hunc lucum tihi dedieo \ ctmsecroquCf PriapCf Qua domus tua Lampsaci est, | quaque silva, Priape, Nam te praecipue in suis \ urbimts colit ora Hellespontia, caeteris \ ostreosioT oris. [§ 860.] The Phalaecian verse consists of a dactyl and three trochees. This verse has eleven syllables, and is therefore called Hendecasyllabus,. and under this name it has often been OP METRR* 547 iwed by tho Latin poeta, especially Catullus and Martial, *n smaller poems ; e. g., Catull., iii. : Jjugetef 0' Veneres Cupidines^e IBit quantum est hominum venustiorum : Passer mortuus est mea^pMllaef PdsseTf deliciae meae puelloBf Quhnphts ilia oculis suis amahat. Nam mellitus erdt^ sudmque norat rpsa tarn bene qudm puella mdtremf TVec sese a gremio illius movebatf Sed circHmsilieTis modo hue mod^ illuc A'd soldm dominam Usque plpildbat^ Qui nunc it per iter tenebncosunit rilvCi ande negant redire quemqvam, A^t vobts male sit^ malae teTiibrae O'rci, quae omnia billa devoratts^ Tom helium mihi passerem dbstulistia I 0' factum male / 0' miskUe passer ! Cuja nunc opera meax puellae Flendo turgiduli rubent ocelli. The base, as we here see, is commonly a spondee, and Catullus is the only one among the Latin poets who has allowed himself greater license, and occasionally uses the original trochee, [§ 861.] 22, As the dactyls in the logaoedic verse finish with trochees, so choriambi must be resolved at the close into iambi, because in the choriambus the arsis closes, and, according to the most common mode of composition, a thesis should be subjoined to it. In this way we find in the Roman poets (especially in Horace) a choriambus with an incomplete iambic dipodia. —^ w w — w — G Sanguine viperino. Commonly, however, the choriambus has a base prefixed, and thus we find in Horace two or three choriambi closing with one iambus. This poet makes his metre still more difiicult by using only the spondee as a base, and' by making an incision after every choriambus except the last. Such verses are called Asclepiadei, and are either short ; as, Maecenas atavis | edite regihus et praesidium et | dUlce decus meum ! or longer, as J^ullam, Vdre, sacra | vlte prius \ sevens arborem Circa mite solum | Tiburis et | moenia Cadli. Siccis omnia nam | dUra deus \ prdposuit : neque McrdacM aliter | diffugiunt | sollicitudines. 548 LATIN GRAMMAR. [§ 862,J 23. In the species of compound verse hitheito mentioned the base may be regarded as the smallest trochaic seiies, from which a transition is made to another rhythm. In other verses, however, -we find a more com- plete trochaic series ; in Horace, Carm., i., 8, before a choriambic verse of two choriambi with an iambic close. The poet has imposed on himself the restraint of using the spondee throughout instead of the second trochee. The caesura after the arsis of the first choriambus is re- markable, and cannot be considered appropriate. In the poem referred to, this verse is combined with a shorter choriambic of 4he kind mentioned above. Lydia die, per 6mnes Te deos oro, | Sybarin cur properas amdndo. The same trochaic "dipodia before a logaoedic dactylic series produces the hendecasyllabic Sapphic verse, ^ w « O ^ \y^ -^ w — Q Persicos odi puer apparatus. The transition from iambi to dactyls may take place, if the rhythmical connexion is to be regarded, only by the iambic series being catalectic. And this is the case in the hendecasyllabic Alcaic verse, 0-- \^ — G 1 — \j \j -^ ^ X Frui paratis et valido mihi. [^ 863.] Note. — We may here mention the iSafurat'iin verse, an old Roman measure, which in later times was rarely used. It consists of a dimeter iambicua catalecticus, to the thesis of which three trochees are added. The early Roman poets, however, allowed themselves many licenses in the use of this measure, and it is difficult to reduce the fragments which are here and there quoted, to the proper measure. We shall therefore quote the regular Saturnian verses, which Terentianus Maurus composed upon it as a model : we, si vooet Campiiias | quls novem sorores Et Naeviopoetae \ sicjenmt MeteUos guum saepe laederentur | esse comminatos : dabunt malum Metelli \ Naevio poetae. Dabmit malum Metelli { clauda pars dimetri, post Naevio poetae : \ tres vides trochaeoSf nam ml obest trochaeoj \ longa quod supremo, ast. [§ 864.] 24. This may be sufficient for the compound verses which are used by the Latin lyric poets. A poem may consist of a succession of verses of the same kind, as is usually the case with simple verses, and the choriambic among compound ; or verses of difierenf- measure and OF METRE. 549 rhythm are combined into a rhythmical w.iole, called a strophe, the single verses remaining separate (which is chiefly indicated by the doubtful syllable). In the com- bination of different verses into a strophe, the poet is guided by his feeling, and it is impossible to enumerate all the varieties of the strophe that may be made. Horace (whom we have here chiefly to attend to), without having any Grecian model (as it appears), formed short strophes either of choriambic verses alone, or of choriambic and Aeolic verses, of which we spoke above. It will not be found difficult to resolve these strophes into their ele- ments. Of the more artificial Greek strophes we find in this poet the Sapphic and the Alcaic. In both he has introduced some changes, according to his own views. [§ 865.] The Sapphic strophe consists of a Sapphic hendecasyllabic verse thrice repeated, and closed with an Adonic (see § 847). Horace, instead of the syllaba anceps at the end of the trochaic dipodia, uses only a spondee, and introduces a caesura after the fifth syllable, but exchanged it sometimes for a trochaic caesura after the sixth syllable. In some of his poems (especially Carm., iv., 2) he allows himself the use of versus hyper- metri ; i. e., verses which with their final syllable extend by elision into the foUovdng verse ; rarely, however, and chiefly with enclitics. Sometimes he unites in a singular manner the Adonic verse with the preceding hendecasyl- labic ; e. g., Carm., i., 2, 19, labitur ripa Jove non probante u- xorius amnis, so that it might seem as if he regarded them both as one. The hiatus, however, is also found, and m is not ehded when the following verse begins with a vowel. The former practice, therefore, is to be considered only as a license which Horace assumed afler the example of Sap- pho. But in point of rhythm the verses are indeed so connected together that no chasm exists anywhere, but the thesis is always succeeded by the arsis.* '^ ''/'/'„ ^ ^ ^ ^„ » [Compare, however, the article Arsis in the Penny Cyclopsdia, bd ilso Key's Rejoinder to Donaldson, p. 12.] — Am. Ed. SdO LATIN GEAMMAR. — w w — O Integer vitae acelerisque purus ^on ^et Mauris jaculis neque arcu JVec venenatis gravida sagittis. Fusee, pharetra. [§ 866.] The Alcaic strophe consists of the Alcaic hende- casyllabic verse twice repeated, a dimeter iambic hyper- catalectic, and a logaoedic of two dactyls and two tro- chees. The Greek metre is the following : o-^~o . ^ \^ — ^ a Q»w— O— ^ — 9 '' ^ '' ''r, Horace strengthens the first three verses by spondees, making it his rule to use the long syllable in all the places in which, by the above scheme, it is allowed, with the ex- ception of the syllaba anceps at the end of the verse, which remains anceps. The metre, therefore, according to the usage of Horace, is commonly given thus : _/^^ ^ w< — V^ - _^^__ v^- «^ /' /' /■ y ^ It is, however, useful to keep the original Greek measure in view, because the Roman poet sometimes deviates from his ovPTi rule, just because it is arbitrary, using an iambus instead of the spondee at the beginning of the first three verses. (In the first verse of the strophe, i., 9, 1 ; 31, 9 ; 35, 37 ; ii., 9, 5 ; in the second, i., 37, 22 ; ii., 1, 6 ; 14, 6 ; 19, 22 ; iii., 1,2; 1, 26 ; 3, 34 ; 5, 22 ; in the third, i., 35, 15 ; 37, 15 ; ii., 3, 3 ; iii., 29, 11 ; but never in the fourth book.) But he never makes use of a short syllable before the caesura, according to Bentley's remark on Carm., iii., 2, 1 ; compare iii., 5, 17. The caesura of the Alcaic hendecasyllabus is alwuys observed by Horace, and is an excuse for the hiatus ; Carm., ii., 20, 13. The caesura, however, is sometimes made in a compound word ; it very rarely (iv., 14, 17, and i., 37, 14) falls on an uncomDOunded word of more than two syllables. THE ROMAN CALENDAR. 561 Horace is also careful in observing the caesurae, and ac- cordingly does not use two, or, in the third verse, three, dissyllabic words one after another at the beginning. The hiatus between several verses is not un&equent : the third and fourth verses are sometimes united by elision ; as, e. g., in the last strophe of Carm., ii., 3, Omnes eodem cogimur, omnium Versatur urna serins ocius Sors exitura et nos in aeternum Exilium impositura cymbae. APPENDIX II. THE ROMAN CALENDAR. [§ 867.] The Roman names of the days of the monm are entirely different from our own. Without entering here upon the manner in which, in the early times, tne year was divided and defined, we shall commence at once with the Julian year and its division into months. Ac- cording to this, the month of February in a common yeai had twenty-eight days ; April, June, September, and No- vember thirty, and the others thirty-one days. The days of these months are not reckoned in an uninterrupted series, from one to thirty or thirty-one, but are calculated backward from three days, which are fixed in every month. These three days are the first, fifth, and thirteenth, which are called by their Roman names, the Cahndae, JVonae, and Idus, of k month. (The names of the months, as was remarked in § 38, are used as adjectives, and as such they are joined to the three feminine names just men- tioned.) In the Roman system of counting from a certain point, this point itself is included in the calculation. Thus, e. g., the third day before the noTiae, i. e., before the fifth of the month, is not the second of the month, but the third. Hence we may give it as a practical rule, that in calculating the days of the month, we must add one to the number from which we deduct. When the point from which we have to count backward is the first of the month (CalendaeJ, it is not sufficient to add one to the number of days of the current month, but the Calendae itself must also be taken into the account, i. »., the num- 552 LATIN GEAMMAS. ber of days of the current month must be increased by two before we deduct from them. Hence, dies tertius ante Cal. Julias is the 29th of June, as June has thirty days. This is the cause of the whole apparent difficulty in calculating the Roman. dates. But, besides this, we have to consider another peculiarity, which is a remnant of the ancient arrangement of the Roman year, ascribed to King Numa, viz., in the months of March, May, July, and October, the JVb«ae fall on the 7th, and the Idus on the 15th, instead of the 5th and 13th. In leap years (i. e., according to the Roman expression, every fifth year) Feb- ruary haa one day more, but this intercalary day was not added at the end of the month, as is the custom in modern times, but was inserted in the place where formerly the intercalary month (mensis intercalarisj had been inserted to make the lunar year of King Numa harmonize with the solar year, that is, after the 23d of February, so that the 24th of February, i. e., the sixth day before the Calendae of March, was reckoned double, and was called bis sextus or bis sextum, whence the leap year itself was called annus bis sextus. On this subject, see the classical work of Ideler, Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie, Berlin, 1825, in the beginning of vol. ii. [§ 868.] Respecting the grammatical form of stating the day of a month the following points must be observed. The ablative indicates the time when a thing occurs ; hence we say, e. g., die tertlo ante Calendas Martias, but die and ante may be omitted, and we may say teriio Cal- endas, or in figures m. Cal. Cicero and Livy, however, use a different form, either exclusively, or, at least, much more commonly than others ; e. g., ante diem tertium Cal- endas, or J^onas, Idus (abridged a. d. Hi. Cal.). This peculiarity, instead of the correct die tertio ante Calendas, cannot be explained otherwise than by the supposition that ante changed its place, and that afterward the ablat. was changed into the accusat., as if it were dependent on ante, while the real accusat. Calendas remained unchan- ged. Pridie, the day before, and postridie, the day after, are either joined with the genitive ; as, pridie ejus diei, or, in the case of established calendar names and festivals with the accusative, to which people were more accus corned ; as, pridie Idus, pridie Compitalia, pridie natalem, postridie ludos jJpollin-ares, THE ROMAN CALENDAR. 553 (§ F.fiD.] This expression ante diem must be considered *ii an indeclinable substantive, since we often find it pre- ■jeded by prepositions which govern the accusat. or ablat. ; o. g., Cic, in Cat., i., 3, dixi ego idem in Senatu, caedem '.e optimatum contulisse in ante diem V. Cal. JVovembris (or ATovembres, is being probably only the ancient termina- tion of the accusat., instead of esj ; Liv., xliii., 16, in unte dies octavum et septimum Calendas Octobres comitiis dicta dies ; xlv., 2, supplicatio indicia est ex ante diem quin- tum Idus Octobres, cum eo die in quinque dies ; and in the same manner postridie, e. g., Cic, ad Att., ii., 11, nos in Formiano esse volumus usque ad pridie JVonas Maias. [§ 870.] In order to facilitate the calculation of a date in the ancient calendar (such as it was established by C. Julius Caesar, in B.C. 45), we have annexed Broder'a table, in which the beginner may easily find his way. Our Bays of the Month. March. May, July, - Jan., Aug., Decemb., April, June, Septemb. and Febr. has 28 Daya, and Octobar have 31 Days. have 3t Days. Novemb. have 30 Days. and in Leap Vearfl'39. 1. Calendis. Cdlmdis. Calendis. Calendis. 2. \l.\ IV. > ante III. f Nonas IV. ) ante ni. TNonas IV.) ante HI. f Nonas 3. V. ( ante 4. IV. fNonas Pridie Nonas Pridie Nonas Pridie Nonas 5. III.J iVoTiu. Nonit. Nonis. 6. Pridie Nonas VIII. ■> VIII. ^ V^I.^ 7. Nmis. vn. VII. VII. 8. VIII. \ VL I ante . VI. ante 'Idus VI. ante 9. VII. V. ridus V. V. 'Idus 10. VI. (ante IV. IV. IV. 11. V. fldus III. j UI. J ni. J 12. IV. III. J Pridie Idus Pridie Idus Pridie Idus 13. IcOna. Idibus. Idibus. 14. Pridie Idus XIX. 1 xvni.i XVI. 15. Idibus. XVIII. XVII. j3 XV. 16. XVII. -1 XVII. Ji XVI. 1 XIV. '3 17. XVI. :S XVI. g XV. a XIII. 18. XV. 1 XV. s XIV. o XII. & 19. XIV. a XIV. s xin. ■3^ XI. S 20. XIII. 2 xni. .g . xn. OS X. iS 21. XII. ja . XII. ■s? XI. IX. fs 22. XI. ■ss XI. '"1 X. 13 53 vin. 23. X. "•^i X. •§:§ IX. ll VII. o 24. IX. •3= IX. ga VIII. "w VI. © 25. VIII. |2 VIII. « VII. o V. s 26- vn. TS VII. 6 VI. s IV. CD 27. VI. o VI. u V. § III. , 88. V. s V. IV. Pridie Calendu 29. IV. § IV. III. , Martias. 30. III. ) in. Prid. Calend. 31. Prid. Calend. Prid. Calend. (of the month (of the month (of the month following). following^ following.) Aa A 654 LATIN GRAMMAT APPENDIX III. ROMAN WEIGHTS, COINS, AND MEASURES. [§ 871.] 1. The Roman pound (libra, pondoj is about I of the Paris pound, that is, 11 ounces and 1^ drachm, (According to Rome de I'Isle, it contained 6048 Paris grains; according to Cagnazzi, 6135; according to Le- tronne, 6154; according to Paucker andBockh, 6165, 9216 of which make a Paris pound.) It is divided into 12 parts (unciae), and these twelve parts together are called an as. The names of the fractions are : jL. is uncia (about an ounce in weight) ; /^ sextans, that is, i ; /^ quadrans, that is, i ; -^-^ iriens, that is, i- ; J-^ quincunx ; f-^ semis or semissis, i. e., half an as ; -jL septunx ; /^ bes or bessis, I. e., two parts out of three, or | ; -f-^ dodrans, compounded from dequadrans, i. e., ^ ; i| dextans or decunx ; j-i deunx, i. e., one ounce less, scil. than an as. These names are also applied to other relations ; thus we say, e. g., he was instituted heir ex dodrante ; i. e., he received Jl ; ex deunce, he received ii of the whole property. An uncia contains 2 semiunciae, 3 duellae, 4 sicilici, 6 sextulae, 24 scrupula or scripula. One ounce and a half is sescuncia (from sesquiunciaj. Compounds of as are tressis, 3 ases ; octussis, 8 ases ; decussis, 10 ases ; centussis, 100 ases. [§ 872.] 2. The most ancient Roman money was of copper, and the as, as a coin, was originally a pound of copper coined. At the time when the Romans com- menced to coin silver (some years before the first Punic war), the copper as was reduced, at first to |, afterward to -j-'^, and at last to •g'j of the original weight, so that the coin which had originally weighed a pound of copper, was afterward only half an ounce in weight. Silver coins were the denarius, originally equal to 10 ases, and subsequently, after the reduction of the as to Jj, equal to 16 ases. Half a denarius was called quinaritis ; ^ of a denarius sestertius, that is, originally 2 ases and a half (hence it is written HS ; i. e., 2^) ; but when the de- narius had become equal to 16 ases, it was worth 4 ases. Silver coins of still smaller value were the libella, = J^ ROMAN WEIGHTS, COINS, AND MEASURES. 555 of a denarius; the sembella, = Jj. of a denarius ; terUTi' cms, = Jjj- of a denarius, 3 unciae of the ancient, and 4 unciae of the reduced copper money. A denarius weighed a little more or less than 73 Paris grains, but was gradu- ally reduced, under the first emperors, to 63 grains ; hence the Roman pound in the times of the Republic con- tained about 84 denarii (which, according to Plin., Hist. J{(U., xxxiii., 46, was the legal amount), and in the reign of Domitian from 96 to 100. Gold was coined in various ways : an aureus in the times of the emperors was equal to 25 denarii or 100 sestertii ; consequently, 1000 HS are equal to 10 aurei, 100,000 HS to 1000 aurei, and decies HS to 10,000 aurei. The Emperor Honorius made 25 pounds of copper coin equal to one solidus (aureus), that is, a pound of copper equal to a silver denarius. [§ 873.] 3. The Romans generally calculated according to sestertii, and a numvius is simply a sestertius. Instead of mille sestertii, we may say, with equal con-ectness, mille sestertium (genit. plur.), just as we commonly say mille passuum. A million, as was remarked in § 115, is ex- pressed by the form of multiplication : decies centena milia sestertium, or more commonly by decies alone, centena milia being omitted ; centies, therefore, is 10 millions, and millies 100 millions. As people were thus accustomed to hear the word sestertium in connexion with mille, they came by a kind of grammatical blunder to consider ses- tertium as a substantive of the neuter gender, and hence they said unum sestertium, septem sestertia, bis dena sester- tia, sexcenta sestertia. Sec, instead of unum mille sestertium, septem milia sestertium, &c. In Cicero it does not often occur, but is yet found in some passages, as in Verr., iii., 50 ; Parad., 6, 3 ; but in the writers of the silver age it is quite common. Decies sestertium, a million of sestertii, centies sestertium, See, is used as a singulare tantum of the neuter gender ; e. g., Cic, in Verr., ii., 7, HS decies numeratum ess •■; Phil- ip,, ii., 16, amplius HS ducenties acceptum hereditm ihus ret- tuli. But the mistake was carried still farther by de- clining this expression ; e. g., Liv., xlv., 4, argenii ad sum- mam sestertii decies in aerarium rettulit, up to the sum of one million sestertn ; Cic, Philip., ii., 37, yyngrapha ses- tertii centies, a bill often millions of sestertii Tacit., ^nn., 556 LATIN GRAMMAR. xii., 58, Bononiensi coloniae, igni kaustae, subventum cen- ties sestertii largitione, by a present of ten millions of ses- tertii ; Sueton., Caes., 50, Serviliae sexagies sestertio mar- garitam mercatus est, he bought her a pearl for six mill- ions of sestertii; Sueton., Octav., 41, Senatorum censum duodecies sestertio taxavit, he fixed the senatorial census at 1,200,000 sestertii; Cic.,p. Font. (Niebuhr, Fragm.),^ 4, Testis non invenitur in ducentis et tricies sestertio ; ad Att., iv., 2, superficiem aedium aestimarunt HS (sestertio) decies. [§ 874.] 4. With regard to Greek weights and money, we can here add only a few remarks. An Attic talent ftalentumj is equal to 80 Roman pounds ; a mina (|Uvo) is the sixtieth part of it ; i. e., equal to 1^ Roman pound ; and 100 drachmae make one mina. Consequently, a talent has 60 minae or 6000 drachmae. The same names and proportions occur in the Greek coins. The most common silver coin, which forms the unit in calculations, is the drachma (which is worth 6 oboli). It varies very much in weight, according to the different places and times, but in general it is considered equal to the Roman denarius. The Attic drachma, however, is somewhat better than the Roman denarius. (See Bockh, The Public Econom. of Athens, chap, iy., 2d edit., Engl, transl.) When compared with Roman money, a mina is equal to 4 aurei, and a talent to 240 aurei, or to 24,000 sestertii. [§ 875.] 5. The basis of Roman measures is the foot, pes, which, according to the most accurate calculations of modem scholars, contained 131 Paris lines, 144 of which make a Paris foot. The Roman foot is divided either, according to the general fractional system, into 12 undue, or into 16 digiti {ddiCTvXoi). Smaller measures are : tem,ipes; i foot ; palmus, J- foot, or 4 digiti, i. e., the breadth af a hand (naXaiarri), but in later times, and even dovni to the present day in Italy, the name palmus is transferred .0 the length of a span, and is equal to | of a foot. Grreater measures are : palmipes, a foot and a palmus, i. e., IJ foot ; cubitus (7r^%vf ), li foot ; passus, a pace, or 5 feet ; actus, 120 feet, or 12 decempedae. The Greek stadium has 600 Greek and 625 Roman feet ; 40 stadia are some- what more than a geographical mile. On the Roman roads milestones were erected at intervals of 1000 pas- sus, and such a Roman mile of 5000 feet contains 8 stadia, amounting to very little more than J of a geo- ABBREVIATIONS OF WORDS. 557 graphical mile, whereas a modem Italian mile is i of a geographical one. A Gallic leuca is 1^ Roman mile- From leuca the French lieue is formed, but the Franks assigned to it the length of 3 Roman miles. [§ 876.] A jugerum is a square measure of 240 feet in length, and 120 in breadth, tiiat isi 28,800 Roman square feet. Roman cubic measures for fluids are : the amphora or quadroTital, i. e., a Roman cubic foot ; it contains 2 umae, 8 congii, 48 sextarii, 96 heminae, 192 quartarii, and 576 cyathi. There is only one larger measure, viz., the culeus, containing 20 amphorae. Greek cubic measures axe : the metretes or cadtts, equal to IJ amphora ; it is divided into 12 %o{)f, and 144 kotvXcu, so that one kotvXi] is half a sextarius. An amphora of water or wine is said to weigh 80 Roman pounds, and, consequently, a congius would weigh 10, and a sextarius If. As the sextarius, being the most common measure, contains 12 cyathi, these twelfths are denominated, like the 12 unciae of an as, ac- cording to the common fractional system ; e. g.^ sextans, quadrans, triens vini, for \, i, i of a sextarius. Dry substances were ' chiefly measured by the modius, wnich is the third of an amphora, and, accordingly, contains 16 sextarii : 6 modii make a Greek medimnus. Respect- ing this whole subject the reader is referred to the excel- . lent work of Joh. Fr. Wurm, De Ponderum, JVummorum, Mensurarum ac de Anni ordinandi Rationibus apud Ro- manos et Chaecos, Stuttgardiae, 1821, 8vo. APPENDIX IV. NOTAE SrVE COMPENDIA SCRIPTURAE ; OR ABBREVI- ATIONS OF WORDS. [§ 877.] Many words and terminations of frequent oc- currence are abridged in ancient MSS., as well as in books printed at an early time ; e. g., atque is written atqs, per p ; the termination us is indicated by 5, as in quib9, non by n, and m and n are frequently indicated by a hori- zontal line over the preceding vowel. Such abbrevia- tions are no longer used in books, and whoever finds them A A A 2 558 LATIN GEAMMAR. in MSS. or early prints, may easily discover their mean, ing with the assistance of a modem text. Praenomina, however, and certain political words, i. e., names of of- fices and dignities, are still abridged in modem editions. We shall subjoin a list of those which occur most fre- quently, for the assistance of beginners. 1. Praenomina. A. Aulus. Ap. Appius. C. or G. Gains. Cn. or Gn. Gnaeus. D. Decimus. K. Kaeso. L. Lucius. M. Marcus, M'. Manius. Mam. Mamercus. N. Numerius. P. PubUus. Q,. or Q,u. Quintus. S. or Sex. Sextus. Ser. Servius. Sp. Spurius. T. Titus. Ti. or Tib. Tiberius. 2. Constitutional Designations. Aed. Aedilis, Cal. or Kal. Calendae, or other cases of this word. Cos. Consul. Coss. Consules, or Consu- libus. D. Divus. Des. designatus. Eq. Rom. Eques Romanus. F. Filius. Imp. Imperator. Legatus, or Legio. Nonae or other cases. Optimus Maximus, Leg. Non. O. M. as a surname of Juppiter. P. C. Patres Conscript, PI. Plebis. Pop. Populus. P.R. Populus Romanus. Pont. Max. Pontifex Max imus. Pr. Praetor. Praef. Praefectus. Proc. Proconsul. S. Senatus. S.P.Q.R. Senatus populus- que Romanus. SC. Senatus consultum. Tr. Tribunus. [testas. Trb. Pot. Tribunitia Po- 3. Other Mhreviaiions which are still in use. A. Anno. A. c. Anno currente. A.D. Anno Domini. A. pr. Anno praeterito A.M. Anno mundi. A. u. c. Anno ufbis co» li- tae. A. Chr Anno Christi a. Chr. ante Christum. c. caput. of. confer or conferatur.- Cod. Codex. Codd. Codices. B. M. Bene merenti. Dn. Dominus. D. N. Dominus Noster. ANCIENT FOBMS OF DECLENSION. 559 D. D. Dono dedit. D.D.D. Dono dedit dica- vit. D. M. Diis Manibus. D. S. De suo. D. S. P. P. De sua pecunia posuit. F. C. Faciendum curavit. Ictus. lureconsultus. J. U. D. Juris Utriusque Doctor. i. e. id est. L loco or lege : h. 1. hoc loco or hac lege. L. B. Lectori benevolo. 1. c. or 1. 1. loco citato or lo- co laudato. L.M. Libens merito. L. S. Loco Sigilli. MS. Manuscriptus (liber). MSS. Manuscript! (libri). pag. m. pagina mea. P. P. O. Professor Publi- cns Ordinarius. Ps. Postscriptum. Q,.D.B.V. Quod deus bene vertat. S. V. B. E. E. V. Si vales bene est, ego valeo. scil. scilicet, seq. sequens ; and seqq. se- quentes or sequentia. S. Salutem. S. D. Salutem dicit. S. D. P. Salutem dicit plu- rimam. V. versus. vid. vide or videatur. V. CI. Vir clarus or claris- simus. VV. DD. Viri Docti or Doctissimi. APPENDIX V. ANCIENT FORMS OF DECLENSION.* [§ 878.] The element of a word, stripped of all pre- Ixes and suffixes, is called the Root. Generally, how- ever, there is a secondary form, which may be called the Crude form, containing something more than the mere element, but yet not enough to render it fit for universal use, the base, however, of all the forms which are ac- . tually employed. For example, in the word currum, the letter m is the accusative sign ; this being removed, we have the crude form of the noun, curru. It is clear that curru is the base on which are built curru-s, curru-s, curru-i, curru-m, and curri-bus, for in this last the u is only represented by a euphonic i. But curru is not the simplest element to which the word is reducible ; we have the verb curr in curro, curris, currit, currere, &c. ♦ Allen's Etymological Arialytis of Latin Verhv, &c., p. viii,, seqq. 560 LATIN GRAMMAR. The root is curr: the noun, however, is formed by the letter u, and hence the crude form curru, and the nomi native curr us, &c. [§ 879.J Now every crude foi-m must end in a conso- nant or in a vowel ; a, e, i, o, or u. Hence nouns have been divided into two great classes, consonant-nouns and vowel-nouns. The latter of these have been naturally subdivided according to the particular vowel found ; and hence the o-declension, the e-declension, the i-declen- sion, the o-declension, and the w-declension. The TMrd declension, as it is called, is on this plan split into two ; namely, the i-declension and the consonant declension. The consonant declension must be taken as the original declension, and then the i-declension stands on the same ground as the a-, «-, o-, and «- declensions. The conso- nant declension preserves the case-endings most fully. In the vowel declensions the last letter of the crude form and the vowel of the case-ending are sometimes incor- porated and disguised. [§ 880.] Now from these premises some idea may easily be formed of the ancient forms of declension, and in order to carry out this idea, it will be worth while to give a table of the declensions as they would stand if the case-endings were affixed at once to the crude form with- out any contraction or incorporation ; for in so doing we shall detect several ancient forms which actually occur. The case-endings are, Sing. Plhb. s, Nom. es. is, Gen. um. (b)i. Dat. bvs. m. Accus. es. e. Abl. bus. The vocative has not been inserted, becaiise this case is always either the crude form (modified frequently on . euphonic principles) or the same as the nominative. In the o-declension, in Latin, we find an e at the end of the vocative ; as, taure. This e is the representative of the o or u in the nominative, taurus=tauros.* * jBopp, VergUich. Gramm., p. 234. ANCIENT FORMS OF DECLENSION. 561 Vowel Declensions. Forma (A). J^avi (I- Forma-s, Forma-es. Navi-s, Navi-es. Forma-is* Forma-um. Navi-is, Navi-um. Forma-(b)i, Forma-bus. Navi-(b)i, Navi-bus, Forma-m, Forma-es. Navi-m, Navi-es. Fonna-e, Forma-bus. Navi-e, Navi-bus. Die (E). Avo ;o). Die-s, Die-es. Avo-s, Avo-es. Die-is, Die-um. Avo-is, ' Avo-um. Die-(b)i, Die-bus. Avo-(b)i, Avo-bus. Die-m, Die-es. Avo-m, Avo-es. Die-e, Die-bus. Avo-e, Avo-bus. Arcu (U). Arcu-s, Arcu-es. Arcu-is, Arcu-um. Arcu-(b)i, Arcu-bus Arcu-m Arcu-es. Arcu-e, Arcu-bus [§ 881.] It is probable that all these declensions once had a J in the dative, and that the remaining i is only the relic of the hi virhich we see in ti-bi, i-bi, si-bi, and u-bi, as in Greek the i is the relic of 0t, e.g.i/iop.0?jt=juop^7;-0t. It is also probable that in all these declensions the dative plural ended in bis. The plural bis=bus remained in regulai- use in three of the declensions, and examples of it are not wanting' in the other two ; as, deabtis, nymfabus, horabus, duobus, ambobus, dibus, diibus, amicibus, Sec,* [§ 882.] With respect to the genitive plural, it is dis- puted whether the original ending was um or rum, seeing that in the consonant declension, and the i- and u- de- clension there is no r, and in the a- and o- declensions there is. Struve contends that the r is euphonic, and that the original ending is um, answering to the Greek «v. Many things favour this view; e. g., o-um would naturally be contracted into um, which is constantly found in such instances as deiim, viritm, Graium, signiferkm, &c., whereas the transition from orum to um is not so easy. The same remark applies to the a-declension ; asi J)ar- danidtim, coelicollim. That this contracted form was a * Orelli, Imcript., Nos. 1628, 1629, 4601, 2118, 4608, 1676, 13(lf7, 3413 1681. — Struve, iiber die Lot. Dtcl., p. 15, $ 10. 5G2 LATIN GBAMMAR. rery old one appears clearly from the instances given by Cicero (Orat., § 155, 156). Still the forms hoveruvi and Joverum, in Varro (viii., 74), and lapiderum, regerum nancerum, in Charisius, seem to point to a fllll and origi- nal ending erum, the e being the connecting vowel. In a note on the above-cited peissage in Varro, Mviller ob- serves that those forms are the remains of the ending of wrhich the original type must have been in Greek and Latin SS2M. Perhaps it is an argument for considering the r euphonic, that in Sanscrit the letter n is inserted in some forms in a similar vi^ay. For example, vach is " a discourse ;" the plural genitive-ending is dm : the geni- tive, then, is vacmm. Now, when the crude form ends in a vowel, the ending dm is joined to it by a euphonic n ; thus, vana is " a wood ;" the genitive plural is not vana- am, but vana-n-am. Thus the gentive of musa would, in Sanscrit, be musanam C=:musarumJ, On the other hand, however, it should be stated that the pronouns (and they would naturally preserve the old formation longer than any other parts of speech) have the termination sam in Sanscrit, answering to the Latin rum. Compare Sans. td-sdm and the Lat. ista-rum, to which it is equivalent. [§ 883.] Most of the changes from the original type of the Latin declensions given under § 880 may be traced from existing instances. To give them all would lead too far : one example shall be mentioned. The full form of the genitive singular of the a-de,clension is a-\-is, e. g., formats. This is found with a euphonic change of the vowel i to e ; as, partis dimidiaes, Proculaes, Satur- niaes.* It was abbreviated in three ways : first, by drop- ping the i, whence formas ; secondly, by dropping the s ; as, format; and, thirdly, by contracting ai into oe; a.s,form(B. Examples of the first contraction are paterfamilias and materfamilias. Examples of the second contraction are common in Lucretius and other old writers. Some occur in Virgil ; as, aurdi (Am., vi., 747) ; pictai (Am., ix., 26). The third contraction became the common form. • OrtOi, Imcrift., Nob. 4376, 4537, 2869, 4897. KEMAINS OP EARLY LATIN. 563 APPENDIX VI. REMAINS OF EARLY LATIN. [§ 884.] We have very few specimens of the LatiD language previous to the time of Ennius and Plautus, when it had hecome nearly developed, and was substan- tially the same as in the later times of the Republic. The specimens of the ancient language which have come down tg us principally consist of fragments of ancient laws, presei-ved by Festus, Cicero, and others, and of a few in- scriptions. The former, as might have been expected, appear to have been considerably altered ; and the latter are, unfortunately, too few to give us much assistance in tracing the rise and progress of the language. Of these, however, one of the most important was the ancient song of the Fratres Arvales, discovered in the year 1777, and which appears to have been the same as was sung in the most early times, though the inscription was not cut till A.D. 218. It appears from the introductory remarks that this song was confined to the priests, the Publici being excluded. The song is as follows : 1. Etios Loses juvaie, 2. JVeve luerve, Marmar, sins incurrere in pleons : 3. Satur furere, Mars, limen salis sia berber : 4. Semunis alternei advocapit conctos. 5. Enos Marmor juvato : 6. Triumpe, triumpe, triumpe, triumpe, triumpe. 1. Enos is a form of the first person plural Ybo*^, anal- ogous to the German uns. Loses is instead of Lares. fQuinciil., Inst. Or., i., 4, § 13.) 2. Luerve for luerve-m, according to a custom of drop- ping the final m, which lasted till Cato's time. This form is equivalent to luem. Marmar is a name of Mars, who was called Mamers in the Oscan language. Sins is in- stead of sinas. Pleoris is the older form of plures. The root of this word is pie, as we see in^ple-nus and in m- ple-o, and the comparative is formed by adding ior or or. Pleores afterward became plures, in the same way as reversus or reorsus was shortened into rursus. 664 LATIN GKAMMAR. 3. Satur furere, Sec. The meaning appears to be, "O Mars, having raged to your satisfaction, put a stop to the scorching heat of the sun." Compare Horace f'Od,, i., 2, 37), " loTtgo satiate ludo." Limen for lumen may be com- pai-ed with plisima for plurima (Fest., p. 205). Salis is the original form of solis: compare aeXaq, ^AiOf, Mu-selius, &c. Whether we read sta or ta, the meaning seems to be " cause to cease," which may be derived from either Toot. Berber is another form oifervere. 4. Semuneis is semones, i. e., seviihemones. .^dvocapit is instead of advocabite, the e being omitted as in die, due, fac, fer. The future is here used in the sense of an im- perative.* [§ 885.] The other extant religious compositions, though few and scanty, contribute to the same conclusion witl the preceding, that the oldest Latin was not so unlike the language vnth which we are familiar as to defy interpre- tation. The fragments of the oldest Roman laws, though undoubtedly genuine in substance, must be considered as having undergone much alteration in the orthography at least. They are precious memorials of primeval Latinity, but, like the Homeric poems, they not unfrequently ex hibit the deformity of an ancient statue, which the falsti taste of a later age may have daubed over with a coat of coloured plaster!? We will now proceed to give speci- mens of the same, with the later Latin opposite.^ I. Leges Regiae. Lex Romuli. Sei parentem puer verberit, ast ole plorasit, puer Diveis parentom sacer esto : sei nu- rus, sacra Diveis parentom esto. Si parentem puer verbe- larit, at ille ploraverit, puer Divis parentum sacer esto : si nurus, sacra Divis paren- tum esto. Lex JfumcB. Sei quips hemonem loebe- 1 Si quis hominem liberum som dolod sciens mortei duit, dolo sciens morti det, pani- pariceida esto : seiim impru- \ ciAa esto: si eum impru- dens se dolod malod oceisit, \ dens sine dolo malo occi- * Dcmaldtm's Varrmianus, p. 139, se^. — Penny CyclopaBia, ■vol. xx , p. .12 t Donalason'a Vamaiamts, p, 14& GroUfend, Atuf. Gramm. dcr Lot. Spr,, vol. )., p. 167. REMAINS OP EARLY LATIN 565 pro kapited oceisei el nateis I derlt, pro capite occisi et ejus endo loncioned arictem natis ejus in concione arie- subicito. J tem subjicito. Alia Lex Mumce. PdbX asam Junonis ne tacito. Set facet, Junonei crinibous demiseis arnum feminam caidito. II. Leges Tkibunici^ et AediucijE. Lex Tribunicia, A.U.C. 261. Pellex aram Junonis no tangito. Si tanget, Junoiii crinibus demissis agnum feminam caedito. Sei quips aliuta faxsit, ipsos Jovei sacer esto : sei quips im, quei eo plebeiscito sacer sit, ocisit, pariceida nee esto. Edictum Aedilium Curulium Si quis aliter fecerit, ipse Jovi sacer esto : si quis eum, qui eo plebiscite sacer sit, Occident, parricida pe sit. Titulus scriptorum singu- lorum utei scriptus sit, co- trato ita, utei intellegi recte possit, quid morbi vitiive quoique sit, quis fugiiivus errove sit, noxave solutus nan sit. III. Leges XII., tabularum restitutjb. Tab. 1. Titulus scriptorum singu- lorum uti scriptus, curate ita, ut intelligi recte possit, quid morbi vitiive cuique sit, quis fugitivus errove sit, noxave solutus non sit. Rem ubei pacont, orantod: nei ita pacont, endo comitiod aut endoforod anted medidiem causam coniciuntod. Post medidiem praisented ambobus stlitem adeicitod. Sol ocasus suprema tempestas estod. Rem ubi pangunt, oranto ; ni ita pangunt, in comitio aut in foro ante meridiem causam conjiciunto. Post meridiem, prsesentibus am- bobus, litem addicito. ^ol occasus suprema tempestas esto. Tab. 2. Sei quips nox fourtom faxsit, seiim aliquips oceisit, joured caisos estod. Sei lu. cei fourtom faxsit, sei im aliquips endo ipsod capsit, yerberator. Bb B Si quis nocte furtum fece- rit, si eum aliquis occiderit, jure caesus esto. Si luce furtum fecerit, si eum aliquii in ipso ceperit, verberator. 566 LATIN GRAMMAR. Tab. 3. ^iris confesi, rebosgue joured joudikateis, XXX dies joustei suntod. Posti- dea manuis endojactio estod : endo jous ducitod. JVei jou- dikatomfaxsit, out quips endo eo im joured vindicit, secom ducitod, vmcitod aut nesvo aut compedebos ; XV pondo, nei majosed, at sei volet mino- sedvincitod. S ei volet, sovod vvoitod : nei souod vivit, quei im vinctom habebit, libras faris endo dies datod ; sei volet, pious datod. Aeris confoesi, rebusque jure judicatis, triginta dies justi sunto. Postea manus injectio esto : in jus ducito. Ni judicatum fecerit, aut quis interea eum jure vin- dicarit, secum ducito, vin- cito, aut nervo aut compedi- bus : quindecim pondo, ne majore, at, si volet, minore, vincito. Si volet, suo vivito : ni suo vivit, qui eum vinctuii> habebit, libras farris in die, dato ; si volet, plus dato. Tab. 4. Sei pater fidiom ter venom duit, fidios af patre leiber estod. Si pater filium ter venum- det, filius a patre liber esto. Tab. 5. S ei pater familias intestato moritor, quoi sovos heres nee escit, acnatos proxsumos fa- miliam hdbetod : sei acnatus nee escit, centileis familiam herciscuntod. Si pater familias intestatu moritur, cui suus haeres non erit, agnatus proximus fa- miliam habeto : si agnatus non erit, gentiles familiam herciscunto. Tab. 6. Quom nexsom faxsit man- cipiomque, utei lincua noncu- pasit, itajous estod. Tab. Sei quips ocentasit, cas- menve condisit, quod in/ami- am faxit flacitiomque alterei, fuste feritor. Quei malom casmen incantasit, malomque venenom faxsit duiive, kapi- tal estod. Cum quis nexum fecerit mancipiumve, uti lingua nuncupaverit ita jus esto. Si quis occentaverit, car- menve cbndiderit, quod in- famiam fecerit flagitiumque alteri, fuste feritor. Qui malum carmen incantaverit malumque venenum fecerit dederitve, capitale esto. REMAINS OP EARLY LATIN. 567 Tab J^mbitus parieiis estertios pes cstod Tab. Preivileciad nei endoro- cantod. Forctei sanateique siremps jous estod. 8. Inter vicinorum atidificia spatium duorum cum dimi- dio pedum relinquitor. 9. Privflegia ne irroganto. Bono sanatoque civi idem jus esto. Tab. 10. Sumtus luctumque af Be- orom Maniom joured remove- tod. Quel coronam parit ipsos pequniave ejus virtutis ercod arduitor, et ipsei mortuo parentalebos ejus, dum intus positos escitjforisve exfertur, endoposita se frauded estod. JVei»e ausom arduitod, ast quoi auso denteis vinctei es- cunt im com olo sepelire ure- reve se frauded estod. Jousus poplei sofraciaque suntod. Quodcuomque pos- tremom poplos jousit, id jous ratomque estod. Sumtus luctumque ab Deorum Manium jure re- moveto. Qui coronam pa- raverit ipse pecuniave, eju& virtutia ergo addatur, et ips! mortuo parentalibus ejus dum intus positus erit, fo rasve efFertur, imposita sine fraude esto. Neve aurum addat, et cui auro denies vincti erunt, eum cum illo sepelire urereve sine fraude esto. Tab. 11. Jussuspopuli sufiragiaque sunto. Quodcumque pos- tremum populus jusserit, id jus ratumque esto. Tab. 12. Sei servos scientoddominod fourtom faxsit, noxiamve noxsit, noxsai deditod. Si servus sciente domino furtum fecerit, noxamve no- cuerit, noxae dedito. IV. Senatus Consultum de Bacchanalibus.* (2.) Marcius L. F. S. (p.) Postumius, L. P. Cos., Sena- turn consuluerunt N. Octob. apud aedem Duelonai, Scri- bendo arfuerunt M. Claudius, M. F. L. Valerius, P. F. Q. Minucius, C. F. De Bacanalibus, quei foideratei esent, ita exdeicendum censuere. Nei quis eorum Bacanal habuise velet. Sei ques esent, quei sibei deicerent, necesus esse Bacanal habere, eeis utei ad Pr. urbanum Romam veni- * Merely a pait of this is given. 568 LATIN GEAMMAtt. rent, deque eeis rebus, ubei eorum utra* audita esent, utei senatus noster decemeret, dum ne minus Senatoribus C adesent, (quom e) a res consoleretur. Bacas vir nequis adiese velet ceivis Komanus, neve nominis Latini, neve Bocium quisquam, nisi Pr. urbanum adiesent, isque de Senatus sententiad dum ne minus Senatoribus C. adesent, quom ea res consoleretur, jousisent, censuere. Sacerdos ne quis vir eset, magister neque vir neque mulier quisquam eset, neve pecuniam quisquam eorum_ comoinem (h) abuisse velet, &c. * Wo rhould read probably rri'o. INDEX. The numbers indicate the paragraphs in brackets. i A (ab, abs, absque), its meaning, 304, 305, 306, 396. c pedibus, ab epistolis, a rationibus esse, and similar phrases, 305, in fin. principio, 304. a puero, a pueris, 304, a., ab ini- tio, 304. a Platone, and similar expres- sions, 304, b abalienare, construction of, 468. abest mihi, 420, note, 469. Non multum abest quin, 540. Tan- lum abest ut — ut, 779. abhinc, 478, and note. abhorrere, construction of, 468. abbreviation, in case of several persons having the same prae- nomen and cognomen, 785. ablative, with passive verbs, 451. Ablativus instrumenti, 455. Ab~ lativus causalis, 452. Paraphra- sed by the partic. perf. passive, 454, 719. Ablative denoting price or value, 456. Ablat. de- noting in regard to, 457. Ablat. with verbs denoting abundance or want, 460. Ablat. with the adject, full and empty, 462. .Ablat. of quality, 471. Ablati- vus modi, 473. Ablat. denoting the time wheni 475. Ablat. denoting how long before or after 1 476, foil. Ablat. in an- swer to the question, "how long before the present time V 478. To the question, " in what timeV 479. Ablat. de- noting duration of time, 396, Ablat. of place, 481. Ablat. in poetry and prose, instead of ex or a with the ablat., 48J, 482. Ablat. with comparatives, 483. ANat. of measure, 488. Ablat. absolute, 640, foil. ; formed with the partic. fut., 643. Ab- lat. absolute in passive con- structions has no reference to the subject, 640. Ablatives absolute, of which the subject occurs in the leading proposi- tion, are rare, 641. Ablat. of the partic. perf. pass, as ablat. absolute, 647. Ablat. absolute as an adverb, 648. Ablat. of the gerund denoting instru- mentality, 667. Ablat. of the gerund with ab, de, ex, in, pro, 667. ahseissum and abscisum, 189. absolvere, with the genit., 446. abstinere, 145 ; construction, 468. abstract nouns used for concrete ones, 675. abundare, construction of, 460. abunde, 267 ; with the genitive, 432. ac, use of, 332, foil. ; instead of quam, 340. Ac and atque after aeque, juxta, &c., 340. accedere, construction of, 415. accedit ut, 621, 622 ; accedit quod, 626. accent of final syllables, 34. Ac- cent in verse, 828. accidit ut, 621. accipere, with the participle fu- ture, 653. accusare, with the genit., 446. accusative, 382 ; with intransit. Terbs, 383-386; with imper- sonal verbs, 390. Accusaiivus Graecus, 458 ; the same in prose, 459. Accus. denoting space and time, 395. Accus. in answer to the question, " how long before the present time'" 478. Accus. without 570 INDEX. a preposition in poetry, 401. Accus. in exclamations, 403. Accus. with prepositions, 404 ; with the verbs of remembering and reminding, &c., 439, 440. Accus. of the subject in the construction of the accus. with the infinit., 605. Accus. with neuter verbs indicating a par- ticular part, 458. Accus. to denote dress, 458. Accus. in relative clauses with the accus. with the infinit., 774. Accus. of the gerund, 666. accusative with the infinit. as sub- ject or object, 600 ; as nomi- nat. of the predicate, 600, note ; with the verbs of saying, decla- ring, &c., 602 ; after relative pronouns and conjunctions, in- stead of the subjunctive, 603 ; used as an exclamation or a question expressed with indig- nation, 609 ; alternates with ut, 620. Difference between the accus. with the infinit. and the accus. of the gerund, 655. acquiescere, construction of, 415, 416. ac non, 334, 781. ac si, with the subjunctive, 572. active verbs used as deponents, 207, note. ad, meaning of, 296 ; with the gerund, 666. ad id locorum, 434. ad tempus, meaning of, 296. ad unum omnes, phrase, 296. adde quod, 628. adeo, meaning of, 281. adesse, construction of, 415. adhibere, construction of, 416. adhuc, meaning of, 292 ; adhuc locorum, 434. adjectives, used as adverbs, 266, 383, in fin., 682 ; used substan- tively, 363 ; their neuter gen- der with substantives of other genders, 368 ; used for adverbs of place, 685 ; used for ordinal adverbs, 686. Adject, deno- ting origin, 683. Adject, with- out a substantive in the con struction of the ablat. absolute, 645, 646, 648. Adjective, po- sition of, 683, 793, 796. Ad jectives derived from proper names, and used instead of the genitive ofthe latter, 684. The same is not frequent in the case of adjectives derived from appellative nouns, 684, note. Construction of two adjectives being compared with each oth- er, 690. Adjectives from which no adverbs are formed, 267. Adjectives in arius, 684, note. Adjectives formed from names of towns, 255, 256. Relative adjectives, their construction with the infinit. is poetical, 698, 659, in fin. adipisci, 466. adire, construction of, 387. adjutare, construction of, 388, note. adjuvare, with the accusat., 388. admonere, construction of, 439 , with ut or the accusat. with the infinit., 615. adolescentia, 675. adscribo, orthography of, 325. adspergere, construction of, 418. adulari, construction of, 389, 413. advenire and adventure, construc- tion of, 489. adverbs in e, 263 ; in o, 264 ; in ter, 265 ; in tm, 268 ; in itus, 269 ; with double terminations, 265, note. Adverbs in the form of neuters, 266. Adverbs in the form of a particular case, and in composition, 270. Ad- verbs of place with a genitive, 434. Adverbs joined to sub- stantives, 262, note ; used as prepositions, 276 ; with parti- ciples,' 722. Ordinal adverbs instead of numeral adverbs, 727. adversus, meaning of, 299. ae, diphthong, 2. aedes, ellipsis of, 762. aemulari, construction of, 389, note 3, 413. aequalis, construction of, 41 ] INDEX. 571 aeguare and aeqmparare, construc- tion of, 389, note 2, aegvi ac, 340. aequi bonifacio, &c., 444, note. aequius and aequum erat, the in- dicative instead of the sub- junctive, 518. aestimare, with tho genitive, 444. affatim, with the genitive, 432. c^cere, construction of, 461. affinis, construction of, 411, 436. affluere, construction of, 460. agere cum aliquo, with the geni- tive of the crime, 446 ; id agere ut, 614. aggredior, construction of, 387. airC for aisne, 218. ait, ellipsis of, 773; its position, 802. ^ Alcaic strophe, 866. all, dropped, 136, 708. ,- alias and alioqui, difference be- tween, 275. alienare, construction of, 468. alienus, construction of, 468, 470. aliquanto and paulo, difference be- tween, 108, in fin., 488. aliquantum, with tlie genitive, 432. •diquis and aliqui, meaning of, • 129 ; declension, 135. Aliquid joined with an adjective, 433 ; aliquid as an adverb, 385, 677. Aliquis and quis, difference in the use of, 708. aCiquispiam, 129. aliquo, adverb of place, 434. — alis, the termination, 251 aliter, adverb, 264, note 1. alius and alter, difference be- tween, 141. alius — alius, 712 ; alius — alium, with the plural, 367. alius, with the ablative in poetiy, 484. Aliud, with the genitive, 432. allatrare, construction of, 417. alter and alius, difference be- tween, 141. alter — aitei; 700, note.' Alter— alterurr, with the pluial, 3C7. altera <»««=», 487. aU'Tutey. '», 140. amh (Afttjit), inseparable preposi- tion, 330. ambire, conjugation of, 215, in fin. amicior, with the accusative, 458. amicus, construction of, 410. amplius, with the omission of quam, 485. an, use of, 353, 354 ; in indirect questions, 353, and note at the foot of tlie page. An — an, a poetical and unclassical form of a question, 554, in fin. anacoluthon, 757, 815. anacrusis, 835. anapaestic verse, 848. angor, construction of, 637. animans, gender of, 78, in fin. animi, in some expressions usel for animo, 437. animo, 472, note 1. animus, used as a circumlocution, 678. an minus, 554, in fin. anne, in double questions, 554. an non, use of, 454, in fin. annus, compounded with numei als, 124. answer, implied in the question, 716. ante, meaning of, 297 ; its posi- tion, 324; with the ablative, 476. antea and antehac, 323. antecedere, construction of, 488. antecellere, construction of, 417, 488. anlequam, construction of, 576. — anus, the termination, 354. aorist of past time, 500. apage, 222. aposiopesis, 758, 823. appellare, with two accusatives, 394. appetens, with the genitive, 438. apposition, 370 ; its place, 796. apprime, meaning of, 273. aptus, construction of, 409 ; aptui qui, with tlie subjunctive, 568 ; aptus, with the dative of the gerund, 664. apud, meaning of, 297 ; with the names of authors, 297. aqua, ellipsis of, 763. 572 areere, constTuction of, 468 ; with quominus, ne, or quin, 543. urcessere or aceersere, 203 ; con- struction, 446. ardeo, construction of, 452. Argos and Argi, 89. arguere, with the genitive, 446. — arium, the termination, 242. — arius, the termination, 252. arsis, 827 ; lengthened, 828. as, and its division, 871. — as, the ancient form of the gen- itive singular, 45. -as, the termination of the Greek accus. plural, 74. — as, the derivative termination, 255, c. Asclepiadean verse, 861. assenlio and assentior, 206. assequi ut, 618. assimilation in verbs compound- ed with prepositions, 325, foil. assis non habere, 444, note. —asso, the termination, instead oi avero, 161, e. assaescere, construction of, 416. assuetus, meaning of, 633. asynartetus versus, 859, note. at, use of, 349 ; is superfluous, 756 ; at vero, use of, 349. Athos,Mount, declension of, 52, 3. atque, use of, 332, note ; meaning, 333 ; used for quam, 340. Atque adeo, 737. aiqui, use of, 349. attendere, construction of, 417. — atus, the termination, 253. attraction, with the dative with licet esse, 601 ; with mihi nomen est, 421. Attraction to the case of the leading proposition with the particle quam, in the case of the accusative with the infinitive, 603 ; sometimes, also, in the case of a partici- ple, 774. audio te canentem and te canere, difference of, 636. auditur, construed like dicitur, with the nominative and infin- itive, 607, note. auscultate, construction of, 413. ausim, 161, 181. aut and vel, 336 ; aut In a negS' live sense, 337. Aut — aut, 338, 809 ; with the singular, 374. autem, its position, 355 ; ellipsis o{ autem, 781. avarus, with the genitive, 436 avidus, with the genitive, 436. — ax, the termination, 249, 4. Bacchic verse, 851,. base, of a verse, 858. belle, 294, note. bello, 475, note, in fin. helium, construed like the nampf of towns, 400. bene te ! 759. benedicere, construction of, 413. biduum, triduum, 124. — bilis, the termination, 249, 3 boni consulo, 444, note. bos, declension of, 69. brerii, seil. tempore, 763. — Ivlum, the termination, 239. — bundus, the adjective termina tion, 248. C. for Gains, 4 ; its pronuncia- tion, 6. caesura (to/z^), 830 ; in the sena- rius, 837 ; in the hexameter, 842, foil. ; caesura bucolica, 844 ; caesura in the Sapphic verse, 865 ; in AsclepiadeaB verse, 861 ; in Alcaic verse, 862 ; in the Saturnian verse, 863. calendar, calculation of, 867, foil canere receptui, to sound a retreat. 422, note. capax, with the genitive, 436. capitis and capite damnare, accu sure, 447. caro, ellipsis of, 763. causa s.iii gratia, joined with mea, tua, sua, &c., 424, 659, 679 ; its position, 792 ; is omitted, 663, 764. cave, used as a circumlocution for the imperative, 586 ; with the subjunctive, without «e, 624. cavere, construction of, 414, 034 cedere, construction of, 413. cedo, the imperative, 223. INDEX. 573 telau, with two accusatives, 391. tcnseo, followed by ut, instead of the accusative with the infini- tive, 617. Ceos, declension of, 52, 3. cemeres, 528. terte and certo, 266, note 1. cervices and cervicem, 94. cetera and reliqua, for ceteris, 459. ceterum, meaning of, 349 cetos and cetus, 89. ceu, poetical, 340 ; with the sub- junctive, 572. Chaos and Chaus, 89. choriambic verse, 856, 861. ci or ti, 6, note 1. cingor, construction of, 458. do and cieo, 180. circa and circum, meaning of, 262, 298. circumdare, construction of, 418. circumfundere, construction of, 418. cis, citra, meaning of, 298 citare, with the genitive, 446. clam, adverb and preposition, 321. clanculum, 321. Cn., that is, Gnaeus, 4. coarguere, construction of, 446, coenare and habitare, with the gen- itive, 444, note. coepi, used pleonastically, 753. eoeptiis sum, 221, in fin. cognomen, placed after the gen- tile name, 797. cogo, construction of, 613. collective nouns, with the plural of the verb, 366. coUoeare, construction of, 489. cmn for cum, in compound verbs, 329. comitari, construction of, 388, note 1. eomitiis, 475, note in fin. i.ommiserari, construction of, 442. cammonere, commonefacere, con- struction of, 439, 615. comm»nicar«, construction of, 416. communis, with the dative and genitive, 411. eommutare, construction of, 456. tomparare, construction of, 415, 416. comparative, with the ablative, 483 ; used pleonastically, 690. compedes, 76. compertus, with the genitive, 446, note. complere, construction of, 463. complures, meaning of, 65, in fin. componere, construction of, 415. compos, with the genitive, 436, 437, note 2. compound words, 260 ; verbs compounded with prepositions, 325, foil. ; compound numerals, 116, 118 ; compounds o{ sequor and sector, 388, note 1 . conari, construction, 610. coneedere, with ut and the accusa tive with the infinitive, 613, 624 ; with the participle future passive, 653. concessive mood, 529, and note- concrete nouns, used for abstract ones, 673 ; for names .of public offices, 674. condicione, 472, note 1. conducere, 4AA; with the particl pie future passive, 653. conducit, with the dative, 412. cmiferre, construction of, 415, 416 ccmficitur ut, 618. confidere, construction of, 413, 452. congruere, construction of, 415. conjugation, ancient forms ot, 161, foil. ; paraphrased conju- gation, 168, 498. conjungere, construction of, 415, 416. conjunctions, 331, foil., 356 ; con- junctions repeated, 756 ; omit- ted, 782. conjunctus, with the ablative alone, 474. conscius, construction of, 437, note 2. consecutio temporum, 512, foil. consentaneum erat, the indicat. used for the subjunctive, 518. consentire, 415. considere, construction of, 489. consors, with the genitive, 436. constare, construction of, 444, 452 constituere, construction of, 489 574 INDEX. with tlie infinitive and with ut, 614. constructio ad synesim, 368. consuescere, 143 ; construction of, 416. consuetudo est, with the infinitive and with ut, 623, in fin. consulere, construction of, 414. consumere, with the dative of the gerund, 664. contendere ut, 614. contcntus, construction of, 467. Contentus sum with the infinit. perfect, 590. conterminus, with the dative, 411. contineri, construction of, 452. contingit ut, 621. continuo, meaning of, 272. contra, meaning of, 299 ; contra ea, 349 ; contra aura, 323. contraction, 11. convenio, construction of, 387. convenit, construction of, 413 ; used in the indicative instead of the subjunct., 518. convertere, 145. conviciari, with the dative, 412. convincere, with the genitive, 446. corpus, used instead of the per- sonal pronoun, 678. correlative pronouns, 130 ; ad- verbs, 288.- Cos, declension of, 52, 3. :reare, with two accusatives, 394. credo, 777 ; crederes, 528. Creticus, verse, 850. cretus, with the ablat., 451. crimine, ellipsis of, 446. — crum, the terramation, 239. cui, a monosyllabic word, 11. ctii bono fuit, 422, note. cujus, a, um, 139, 2. — culvm, the termination, 239. — cuius, diminutive termination of comparatives, 104, note. cum, meaning of, 307 ; in answer to the question " in what man- ner?' 472; ellipsis of, 473; appended to the ablative of personal and relative pronouns, 324, in fin. cumprimis, meaning of, 373. —cunque, the suffix, 128. cupere, construction of, 414 ; with the nom. or the accus. with the infinit., 609. cupido, gender of, 75, in fin. cupidus, with the genitive, 436. cupiens, with the genit., 436. cupio tibi, tua causa, 414. cur, 276, 2 ; est cur, 562. curare, construction of, 614, 653, 713. curiosus, with the genitive, 436. Damnare, construction of, 446. damnas, indeclinable, 103. dare, quantity of, 153, note ; with the dative, 422 ; with the par- ticiple future passive, 653 ; with the infinit. it is poetical, except with bibere, 653 Darius and Darius, 3. dative with verbs compounded with prepositions, 415 ; with verbs of difference, 468 ; with verbs of separation, 469. Da- tive of attraction with licet esse, 601 ; with mihi nomen est, 421. Dative with passive verbs in- stead of ab, 419 ; with the par- ticiple perf. pass., 419, note. Dativns commodi and ineom- modi, 405. Dativus ethicus, 409. Dative of the gerund with esse, 664 ; with names of .^dignities and offices, 665. de, meaning of, 308 ; its position, 324 ; is used instead of the genitive, 430 ; de nocte, 308. debebat, the indicat. instead of the subjunct., 518. decedere, construction of, 468 decernere, construction of, 619. decet, dedecet, with the accus., 390 ; decet, with the infinit. ac- tive and passive, 608. declarare, with two accusatives, 394. dedocere, construction of, 391. deesse, with the dative of the ge- rund, 664. deest mihi, 420, note. defective nouns, in case, 88, foil. in number, 91, foil. defcndere. construction of 46'J IND£X. 575 ieferre, soil, natnen, with the gen- it., 446. dejicere, construction of, 388. iefungi, construction of, 465. dejicere, construction of, 468. dein, as a monosyllable, 11. delectari, construction of, 629. delcclat me, 390, note. deligere, with two accusatives, 394. demonstratives, omitted, 765, note ; used instead of rela- tives, 805 demmere, construction of, 468. denique, mearrtng of, 727. depellere, construction of, 468. dependence of tenses on one an- other, 512. deponents, derived from nouns, 147, note ; deponents with the ablat., 465. derivation of verbs from nouns, 235 ; from adjectives, 235. desiderative verbs, 232. designate, with two accusatives, 394. desitus sum, 200. desperare, construction of, 417. desuelus, 633. deterior and pejor, difference be- tween, 111, note. deterrere with quominus and ne, 543. deturbare, construction of, 468. dicere, with two accusatives, 394 ; ellipsis of, 620, 769. diceres, 528. dicie, ellipsis of, 772. dicitur, construction of, 607. dies, its gender, 86 ; compounded with numerals, 124 ; die, by day, 475 ; dies, repeated, 743. differre, construction of, 468. diffieUe, adverb, 267, and note 2. Difficile est, the indicat. being used for the subjunct., 520. dijicilis, with the infinit., the su- pine, or ad, 671. dignari, with the ablat., 467, note. dignus, with the ablat., 467 ; with qui and the subjunct., 568 ; with the supine, 670. diminutive verbs, 333 ; substan- tives, 240 adjectives, 250; comparatives, 104, note. dis or di, the inseparable prepo- sition, 330. discerneres, 528. discordari cum aliquo, 469. dissidere, construction of, 413, v fin. dissimilis, construction of, 411. distare, construction of, 468. distinguere, construction of, 46?, foil. distributive numerals and theii use, 119. diu, 294. diversus, with ah, dat. and gemt., 468, 470. divertor, as a deponent, 209, in fin. dives, its declension and compar- ison, 102, note ; its construe tion, 437, note 2. division of words into syllables 14, 2. docere, construction of, 391. dolere, construction of, 452, 629 dominari, construction of, 413. domus, its declension, 83 ; is con- strued like names of towns. 400. donate, construction of, 418 donee, 350, 575. donicum, 350, note. doti dico, 422, note. dubitative mood, 530. dubilo or non dubito, construction of, 540, 541 ; dubito an, mean- ing of, 354, 541. ducere, like habere, with two accu satives, 394 ; in numero, or in loco, 394, note 3 ; with the genit., 444 ; with the dative 422. dudum, 287. duim for dem, 162. dum, meaning and construction, 350, note, 506, 507, 575 ; com- pounded with a negative, 733. dwmmodo, dummodo ne, its mean iug, 342 ; construction, 572, ii fin. dumtaxat, meaning of, 274 duum, for duorum and duarum, II'. duumviri, is doubtful, 124. {>76 INDEX. E or ex, meaning of, 309 ; is used instead of the genitive, 430 ; oases in which it may be omit- ted, 468. re jmblica, for the good of the republic, 309, in fin. — e, the ancient termination of the dat. of the third declension, 63. — e, for ei, in the fiftn declension, 85, 3. e, elided in the imperfect of the fourth conjugation, 162. ea, quantity of, 16, note 1. ecce, compounded with pronouns, 132, in fin. ; with the nominat. and accus., 403. ecqua and ecquae, 136, note. ecquid, meaning of, 351, note. eeguis and ecquisnam, meaning of, 136. edepol, 361, note^ edicere ut, 617. edim for edam, 162. editus, with the ablat., 451. edocere, with two accusat., 391. ejkere ut, 618. eficicns, with the genit., 438, note. efficituT, with the accus. with the. infinit., or ut, 618, note. effugere, construction of, 388. egere, construction of, 463. ei was used anciently instead of i, 2. ejus used for suus, 550 ; (quoad) ejus fien potest, 434. — ela, the termination, 237, note. elision, 8. ellipsis, 758, foil. ; of a preposi- tion, 778. emere, construction of, 444. en, compounded with pronouns, 132, in fin. ; the interrogative particle, 351 ; the interjection with the nominat., 403. tv Sta Svolv, 741. — endus and undus, terminations of the part. fut. pass., 167. ixm and nam, 345, note sninwero, meaning of 348, note. ms, 156. —entissimMs, termination of cer- tain superlatives, 105, v. enunquam, 351. — er, in the lengthening ot the infinit. pass , 162. eo, 344, note ; with comparatives, 487 ; as a conjunction, 444, note ; as an adverb of place with the genitive, 434. eodem, with the genit., 434. epicene (nomina epicoena), 42. epistola, with a possessive pro noun, 6S4. epistolary style, requires the per- fect and imperfect instead of the present, 503. epodus, gender of, 54, in fin. Inoiu and iiroiriaev, 500. equidem, 378. — ere, instead of erunt, 163 erga, meaning of, 299. ergo, 679. — errimus, termination of certain superlatives, 105. . — erunt (3d pers. plur. perf. act.), shortened in poetry, 163. esse, joined with adverbs, 365 ; esse a pedibus, ah^epistolis, a ra- tionibus, &c., 305, in fin. Esse with the dative, 420, 422 ; with the genit. of quality, 427, 448, note 1 ; with the dative of the gerund, 664; with the genit. of the gerund, 662 ; with the ablat. of quality, 471. esse videtur, to be avoided at the end of a sentence, 819. esse, in the infin. perf. pass., 592. esse, est, ellipsis of, 776. est, equivalent to licet, 227. est, qui, with the subjunct., 561. est, quod, with the subjunct., 563. est ut, 621, 752 ; equivalent to es cut-, 562. et, whether used for ac, 340, note for etiam, 335 j rarely by Cicero, 698 ; is superfluous, 756 ; el- lipsis of, 783. Diflference be- tuveer et and que, 333. el—et (que), 337, 809. et ipse, for etiam, 698 ; for idem, 697. et is {quidem), 699. et — neque {nee), 337, 809. et non, 334, 781 577 tienim, 3l0, note. eliam, its difference from quoque, 335 ; with comparatives, 4S6. etiamnvnc and etiamtum, differ- ence between, 285. elsi, 341, 809. — etum, the termination, 243. etymology, 231. eu, the diphthong, 1. — eus, the termination, 250, evadere, construction of, 468. evenit ut, 621. exaequare, construction of, 339, note 2. excedere, with the accusal., 387. excellere, construction of, 488. excludere, construction of, 468. exire, construction of, 468. existimare, with two accusal., 394 ; is used pleonastically, 750. exislunt qui, with the subjunct., 561. expedite, construction of, 468. expedit, with the dative, 413. experiens, with the genii., 438, note. expers, with the genii., 436, 437, note 2 ; with the ablat., 437, note 2. ex quo (scil. tempore), 309, 478, 763. exscissum and excisum, 189. extemplo, meaning of, 272. extra, meaning of, 300. extretmim est ut, 621. exuere, construction of, 418. exulare, construction of, 468. eruor, construction of, 458. Fabula, ellipsis of, 39, in fin. ^ac {facio), quantity of, 24. Fac forming a circumlocution for the imperative, 586 ; with the subjunct., 618, 624. facere de aliquo, aliquo, alicui, and fttcere cum aliquo, iSl ; facere, with two accusatives, 394 ; with the genitive, 444 ; with a participle, 618. facere certiorem, construction of, 394, hole 1. facere rum possum quin, 538. facere t^uod, 628. facere ut, 618, 619, 816. facere, ellipsis of, 771. facile, adverb, 267. facilis and difficilis, with the su- pine or ad, 671. factum, egregie factum, 722. fallit me, 390, note. familiaris, with the dative and genii., 410. familias, the ancient genit., 45, note 1. fando audire, 220. fas, with the supine in u, 070. faxo,faxim, &c., 161, e. fearing, verbs of, with ut and ne, 533. febris, ellipsis of, 763. fecundus, with the genit., 436 fer, quantity of, 24. ferax, with the genit., 436. fere and ferme, their difference from paene and prope, 279. fertilis, with the genit., 436, 437 note 2. fertur, 607. fidere, construction of, 413, 452. fieri and esse, with the genit., 444, 448. fieri non potest ut, 621 ; quin, 538 figures, 821 , &c. filius AaifUia, ellipsis of, 761. finilimus, with the dative, 411. fit, construction of, 621. ftagitare, with two accusal., 393. flocci habere, 444, note. florere, with the ablat., 460. foras and f oris, 400, in fin. forem, 156, in fin., 224. fore ut, 594. forte, fortatse, forsitan, 271, 728. fortana fortes, 759. forluitus, as a word of three syl- lables, 11. fractions, how expressed, 120. freni, proved to occur, 99. frequentative verbs, 231, 1. fretus, construction of, 467. frui, construction of, 465, 466 frustra, meaning of, 275. /ug'ere, construction of, 388 ; fugit me, 390, note. fuisse, instead of esse, with ths part, perf pass , 592 c c 578 INDEX. ^ulgtirat and fulminat, difference of, 228. ■^ungi, construction of, 465, 466. future tense, its use, 509, 510, 516 ; in the sense of the im- perat.,586j future perfect, 511; future perfect with era and fite- ro, 168, note. fulurum esse ut, 594, 621. futurum fuisse ut, 595. G, the letter, 4. gaudeo, construction of, 629. gender, of the predicate, 376. genitive, of the subject and ob- ject, 423, and note 1. The genitive instead of a noun in apposition, 425. The genit. with adverbs of place, 434; with neuters of adjectives, 435 ; with relative adjectives, 436 ; with the participle present ac- tive, 438 ; with neuters of pro- nouns, and adjective pronouns, 432. Genitive of quality, 426, 427. Pleonastic genitive in ex- pressions denoting time, 434, in fin. Genitive paraphrased by prepositions, 430 ; of value and price, 444, 445 ; of guilt and crime, 446 ; of punishment, 447. genitive of the gerund, 425, 659, foil. ; joined with the genit. plural of substantives, 661. genitive, of the participle fut. passive with esse, 662. genitivus partitivus, 429, 431. genitive, its position, 791; in- stead of the ablat., 437, 470 ; instead of the accusat., 661 ; the genit. animi with adjec- tives, 437, 1. genitus, with the ablat. alone, 451 . gentium, used pleonastically, 434. genus, used in circumlocutions, 678 ; {hoc, id, illud omne) genus used adverbially, 428 ; genus clari, for genere, in Tacitus, 458. gerund, in a passive sense, 658. gerundivura, 656. gladiatoribus, in answer to the question, "when?" 475, note. glortan, constr action of, 458. gnarus, with the genit., 436. gradatio, a figure, 822. gratia and causa, 679 ; their p05V tion, 792. gratias agere, construction of, 628, gratias, 271. gratis constat, equivalent to nihile constat, 445. gratulari, construction of, 629. gratum mihi est, construction of, 626. Greek words in poc, Latinized, 52, 1. Habere, with two accusat., 394 , in numero, or in loco, 394, note 3 ; with the genit., 444 ; with the dative, 442 ; with the par- ticiple perf pass., 634. habeo {non kabeo) quod, with the Bubjunct., 562 ; habeo facere, 562, 653. hac, 291. hactenus, meaning of, 291, fin. haec, instead of hae, 132. hand and non, difference between, 277 ; hand scio an, 354, 721 hei, with the dative, 403. heu, with the accusat., 402. hexameter, 841. hiatus, 8, 10 ; within a word, 11. hie, meaning of, 127 ; in expres- sions of time, 479, note ; as an adverb of place with the genit., 434. hie — ille, 700, foil. ; hie joined with talis and tantus, 701, note ; hie et hie, hie et ille, 701. hie, hue, hine, adverbs of place, 291. hinc, 344, note 291. historical infinitive, 582 ; histor- ical period, 817. hoc, pleonastic, 748 ; with the genit., 432. hoc, with comparatives, 487. hoc dico, 700. homo, homines, ellipsis of, 363, 381, 760. honor and honos, 59. hortor, construed with ut, 616 hertus and horti {hortuli), 96. IKDEX. 579 hostis, with the genit. and dative, 410. - huic, as a monosyllable, 11. hue, with the genit., 434. liujus non facio, 444, note, hypothetical sentences, 619, 524; in the infinitive, 693, 695, 596. Hypothetical subjunctive, 529. r and u, middle sounds, 2 ; i and e for the Greelc et, 1. The let- ter i, 3 ; i in the genit. singul., instead of is, 61, 1 ; in the ablative of names of towns, 63, in fin., and the note at the foot of the page; i, for ii, in the g. participle perf pass., used in cir- cumlocution for the ablat. de- noting cause, 454, 719 ; deno- ting a permanent condition, 495. participle fut. pass., its significa< tion, 499, 631, 649 ; in the in- finit., 596. participle perfect of deponents, in a passive sense, 632. 686 INDEX. participle, used for the infinit., 636 ; for a substantive, 637. participle fut. acfi, its genit. not in use, its pluitl, 639 ; in tlie infinit., 593. participle perf pass., used alone as an ablat. absolute, 647. participle perfect, of both pass- ives aod deponents, denoting merely priority, 635. participle fut. pass., 631, 649, foil. ; with the indicat., 518 ; comp., 650. participle pres. act., with a genit., 438, 714. parlim, 271, 723. parum, with the genit., 432 ; in the sense of " not enough," 731. parumper, 276. parti, see magni. parvo, see magna. passive verbs, with a reflective meaning, 146 ; with the accu- sative, 391, note. passive coijstruction, in the ac- cusat. with the infinit., 606. pathetic word, 789. patiens, 438. patior, 613. patrocinari, with the dative, 412. patronymics, 245. paulisper, 276. paulo and aliquanto, difference be- tween, 488. peculiaris, 411. pecuniae, ellipsis of, 763. pejor and deterior, difference be- tween, 111, note. peltere, 468. pendere, with the genit., 444. penes, meaning of, 300. pensi and pili habere, 444, note. pentameter verse, 846. penus, penum, 84. —per, the suffix, 276. per, meaning of, 301 ; used to de- note the means, 455 ; in adju- rations, 794. per and prae, strengthen the meaning of adjectives, 107. perconlari, 393. verditum ire, for perdcre, 669. perduim, for perdam, 162. perfect, used as an aorist, 513, foil. ; perfect indicat., 500 ; per- fect subjunct., equivalent to the present, 527. perficere ut, 618. perinde and proinde, 282 ; perinde ac {atque), 340, note. period, 810; its structure, 810, foil. periodus /iov6Kolo[, 810. peritus, 436. permiitere, with the infinit. or ut, 613 ; with the subjunct. alone, 624 ; with the participle fut. pass., 653. Perseus, declension of, 52, 4. persuadere, 407; with ut, or the accusat. with the infinit., 615 ; persuasum mihi habeo, 634. pertaesus, construction of, 442, 633. perlinere, ellipsis of, 770. petere, construction of, 393 ; with ut, 615. phalaecian verse, 860. piget, construction of, 390, 441 plane, 263, in fin. plenus, with the genit., 437, 2. pleonasm, 742, foil. ; in quoting the words of another person, 749 ; In certain verbs, 750. plerique and plurimi, difference between, 109, note. plerumque, 266. pluperfect, in English and Latin, 505 ; how used by historians, 508. plural of verbs with collective nouns, 366 ; the plural of ab- stract nouns, 92 ; the plural of pronouns instead of the singu- lar, 694 ; in praenomens and cognomens common to several persons, 785. pluralia tantum, 93. plurimi and plerique, difference between, 109, note; plurimi, 444. plurimo, 445. ply,rimum, with the genit., 432. plus, with the genit., 433 ; rarely used for magis, 725 ; non plui INDEX 587 for non magis, 725 ; plus with- out guam, 485. pocnitendus, used as an adjective, 657. poenilet, construction of, 390, 441, 442. poetical arrangement of words, 795. polleo, 460. pondo libram, libras,i28. pondc, 87. pone, 302. ponere, 489. pbno, posui, positum, 18, 3. porro, meaning of, 289, 348, note. poscere, construction of, 393 ; witli ut or the acous. with the infin- it., 613 ; with the "subjunctive alone, 624. position, 30, 31. possessive pronouns, ellipsis of, 768. possum, for possem, 520. post, with the ablat., 476 ; with the accusat., 477, 478. postea, 276, in fin. ; postea loci, 434. posterior and postremus, for paste- rius and postremum, 686. postquam and posteaquam, with the perfect indicat., 506 ; with the imperfect or pluperfect, 507. postulare, construction of, 393, 613 ; with the genit., 446. patens, with the genit., 436. poterat, the indicat. for the sub- junct., 518. patiri, 465, 466. patius, used pleonastically, 747 ; ellipsis of, 779. si potuero, 510. potus, pransus, in an active sense, 633. prae, meaning of, 107, 310. praebere, with two accusat., 394. praecedere, 387. praecipue, 273. praeditus, 460 ; ellipsis of, 471, note. praeesse, 415. praefectus, with the genit. and dative, 681. praescribere, 617. praescnte and pracsenti, difference between, 64, note 1. praesertim, meaning of, 273. praestare, with the dative, 387; with two accusat., 394 ; with the ablat., 488. praestolari, 207, 413. praeter, meaning of, 302 ; used aa an adverb, 323 ; praeter madum, 302. praetcrea, 370. praeterquam quod, 627, 735 praeterii me, 390, note. praevertor, deponent, 209 ; con- struction of, 417. precari, 615. prece, defective in the singular, 89. predicate, 365 ; its number, 373 ; its gender, 376. prepositions, put after their case, 324 ; inseparable prepositions, 330 ; prepositions used as ad- verbs, 323 ; in composition with other words, 325; their posi- tion, 324, 794 ; expressed by participles, 454; repeated, 745 , ellipsis of prepositif ns, 778. present tense, used for the future, 510 ; as an historical tense, 501. pretii and prelio, ellipsis of, 445. prior and primus, for prius and primum, 686. prius, used pleonastically, 747, ir fin. priusquam,'576. pra, meaning of, 311 ; pro nihito habere, 444, note. pro eo, and proinde ac, 340, note. pro se quisque, 312 ; with the plu- ral of the verb, 367. prabare alicui, meaning of, 419, note. procul, 321. profecto, 266, note 2. prohibere, construction of, 468 ; with quominus and ne, 543 ; with the infinit., 544; espe- cially in the passive, 607. proin, makes one syllable, H. proinde, 282, 344, note. pronoun, relative, in the genuef 58S INDEX. tJf and number of the noun fol- lowing, 372 ; attracts the noun of the leading sentence, 814. Personal pronouns, how their genit. arose, 660 ; with the ac- cusal, with the infinit., 604; use, 693. Possessive pronouns, omitted, 768 ; used for the per- sonal ones with a preposition, 424, 684. p onominal relations, expressed by special sentences, 715. prope, 267, note 1, 323 ; its con- struction, 411; propc and prop- ter, 802. propemodum, 279. propinguus, with the dativC; 411. proprium, ellipsis of, 448. proprius, construction of, 411. propter, meaning of, 302 ; used as an adverb, 265, note 1, 323. prospicere, 414. prostare, 444. proverbs, elliptical expressions in, 759, 776. protinus, meaning of, 272. •premiere, construction of, 414. prmidus, with the genit., 436. prvdens, with the genit., 436. — pse, the suffix, 132, in fin. — pte, appended to suo, sua, 139, note. pudendus, used as an adjective, 657. pudet, construction of, 390, 441, 443. pugna, for in pugna, 175, note. pugnam pugnare, 384.' punior, a deponent, 206, in fin. purgare, with the genit., 446. purus, construction of, 468. piitare, with two accusatives, 394 ; with the genit., 444 ; used ple- onastioally, 750. putares, 528. Qu, 5, 31, 106, note. gua, as a correlative, 288. jua — qua, 723. quaero, construction of, 393. quae.10, 223 ; with the accusa'.., 393. tiialiM, 765, note, quoMsqiudis, 123. qualis — talis, 704. quam and ac, 340 ; qiutm, wilk comparatives, 483, 484 ; ellip- fiis, of, 485 ; with superlatives, 108, 689 ; quam or quum and ex quo after ante and post, 478 ; quam est {erat), ellipsis of, 484, in fin. ; quam, with the sub- junctive after comparatives, 560, note ; quam, pro, with comparatives, 484, in fin. ; quam qui, with comparatives, 560 ; with superlatives, 774, note. quamquam, peculiar use of, 341, note ; construction of, 574. quamvis, cotistruction of, 574. quando, quandoquidem, meaning of, 346. quantity, 15, foil. ; of derivative words, 17, 1 ; of Greek words, 16, note 1 ; of derivative syl lables, 20. quanto, with comparatives, 487 quantuluscunque, with the indic- at., 621. quantum, with the genit., 432. quantum possum, the indicat., 559. quarttus, for quam with posse with superlatives, 689 ; quantus — tantus, 704 ; quantuscunque, with the indicat., 521. quasi, adverb, 282 ; with the sub- junct., 572 ; quasi and quasi vero, used in an ironical sense, 572, 716. que, its generalizing character when appended to . pronouns and adverb^, 288 ; its position, 358 ; used pleonastically, 807 , is lengthened in verse by the arsis, 828, in fin. ; difference between que and et, 333 ; qut — ct, que — que, 338. queo and nequeo, 261. qui, the ablat., 133, note ; quicum for quocum and guacum, 133, note, comp. 561, in fin. qui, for quis, 134 ; difference be- tween qui and quis, 134, note. qui, with the subjunot., 556, folL, 559 : with esse and a substap INDEX. ssg tive instead of qtu>, 705 ; qui vera, qui autem, 805. quia, meaning of, 346. quicunque and quisquis, difference between, 128 ; quicunque, with the indicat.. 521 ; instead of omnis and quivis, 706. quid, with the genit., 432 ; in the sense of cur, 677, 711 ; quid and aliquid, 708 ; quid aliud quam, 771 ; quid est quod, with the subjunct., 562 ; quid mihi cum hac re ? 770 ; quid ? quid censes ? 769 ; quid ergo ? quid enim 7 quid iia 1 quid turn 1 quid quod ? quid multa 1 quid plura ? 769. quidam, meaning of, 129, 707. quidem, its meaning and position, 278, 355, 801. quidquam or quicquam, 137 ; used as an adverb, 677. quidquid, with the genit., 432. quilibet, quivis, 137 ; use of, 710. quin, 538, foil. ; with the indicat., 542 ; with the imperative, 542 ; non quin, 536 ; quin in the sense of even or rather, 543, in fin. ; instead of quod non (accus.), 539 ; instead of quo non, after dies, 539 ; after dubito, 540. quippe, 346 ; quippe qui, 565. quippiam and quidquam, with the genit., 432. quis{queis), for quibus, 133, note. quis and qui, difference between, 134, note ; between quisnam and quinam, 134; quis and uter, 431 ; quis and aliquis, 136, 708 ; quis est qui, with the subjunct., 561. quispiam, quisquam, and aliquis, 129, 708, in fin. quisquam, 129, 676, 709. quisque, as a relative, 710 ; joined with the superlative, 710, 4. ; position, 800 ; pro se quisque, 867. fuisquis, quicunque, difference be- tween, 128, 706 ; quisquis, with the indicat., 521. quo, the correlative, 288 ; with a comparative, 487 ; for ut eo. 536 ; with the genit., 434 ; quo magis — eo magis, 690, note ; quo mihi hanc rem ? 770 ; quo secius, 544. quoad, meaning and construction of, 575. quocum, quacum, quibuscum, in- stead of cum quo, qua, &c., 324, in fin. quod, a conjunction expressing cause, 346 ; with the subjunct. of dicere, pulare, 551 ; in a lim- iting sense, quod sciam, quod intelligam, 559 ; quod in the sense of " in regard to," 627 ; quod is unclassical in a purely objective proposition, 629. quod, with the genit., 432 ; pre- fixed to conjunctions, quodsi, quodnisi, &c., 342, note, 807 quominus, 543. quoniam, meaning o^ 346. quopiam, 288. quoquam, 288. quoque and etiam, difference be- tween, 335 ; its position, 355. quotquot, 128; construed with the indicat., 521. quot — tot, 130. quotusquisque, 710 ; quotusquisqut est qui, with the subjunct., 561. quum and cum, 5. quum, the chief rule concerning it, 579, in fin. ; construed with the indicat. and subjunct., 577, 578, foil. ; with the present indicat., 580 ; with the perfect, 581 ; with the historical infinit., 522 ; in lively descriptions, 580 ; difference between quum and si, 579, note ; quumprimum, with the perfect indicat., 606 , quum — tum, 723, 809. quummaxime and tummaxime, 285. R and s, kindred sounds, 7. r upturn ire, for rapere, 669. ratio, used in circumlocutions, 678 ; ratione 472, note 1. — re, the termination for ris, 166 re, the inseparable prepositioa 330. reapse, 132. 590 INDEX. recens, an adverb, 267. recordari, with the genit., 439. rectum est, ut, 623. recusare, with quominus and ne, 543. reddere, equivalent to facere, 394 ; reddi, equivalent to fieri, is rare, 394, note 1. redolere, with the accusat., 383. refert,,23, in fin, ; 449, note. refertus, construction of, 437, 2, 462. regnare, with the genit. (Horat.), 466. relative adjectives, with the gen- itive, 436 ; the same principle applied to other adjectives, 437. relative clauses, in the construc- tion of the accusat. with the infinit., 603 ; in relation to two different sentences, 804. relative construction, changed into the demonstrative one, 806. relative pronouns, used instead of demonstrative ones with et, 803 ; joined with conjunctions, 545, 547 ; in quoting the senti- ments of another person, 549 ; used for ut, 556, 560, 567 ; in general expressions, 561 ; used for quum, 564 ; after dignus, &c., 568 ; to express a repeat- ed action, 569. relinquitur ut, 621. reliqua, " for the rest," 459. reliqwum est ut, 621. reminisci, construction of, 439. remunerari, 461. repente, 272. reperire, with two accusat., 394. reperiuntur qui, with the subjunct., 561. repetundarum, 763. reponere, 490. reposcere, with two accusatives, 393. repugwire, with quominus and ne, 543. res, used in circumlocutions, 678. resipere, construction of, 383. restat ut, 621. revertor, as a deponent, 209, in fin. reum facere, witn the genit., 446 reus, with the genit., 446, note, rhythm, of speech, 818 ; of verse, 827. — rimus, — ritis, termination, 165 rite, 280. rivers, names of, in us, used as adjectives, 257. rogare, with two accusatives, 393 ; with ut, 615. rudis, with the genit., 436. ruTsus, used pleonastically, 747, ' in fin. rus, construed like the names of towns, 400. Saepe, 267, note 1 ; its degrees of comparison, 294. saltern, meaning of, 374. sapere, with the accusat., 383 Sapphic verse, 863, 865. sat, satis, with the genit., 432; satis esse, with the dative of the gerund, 664; satis haheo, and satis mihi est, with the in- finit. perfect, 590. satrapes, declension of, 46. satus, with the ablat. alone, 451. sciens, with the genit., 438, note. scilicet, 345, note. scito for sci, 164. se and suus, in explanatory sen- tences with the accusat. with the infinit., 604; se in the ac- cus. with the infinit., after the verbs of promising and hoping, 605. se, the inseparable preposition, 330. secundum, meaning of, 303. secus, adverb, 383 ; a substan- tive for sexus, 84, 89, 428. secutum and sequutum, 159, in fin. sed and autem, 348, note ; sed, sed tamen, in the sense of " I say," 739 ; ellipsis of sed, 781 ; seA e*. 335; sed is, 699. semideponents, 148. semis, 87, 103. seorsus and seorsum, 290. sequor and sector, with the accB sative, 388. sequitur ut, 631 , 622. INDEX. 591 tereno, 646. terere, in two significations, 200, in fin. seroitutem servire, 384. sestertius, sestertium, 873. seu, 336 ; seu — sen, with tlie plu- ral of the predicate, 374. sexcenti, sexcenties, in a general and indefinite sense, 692. short vowels, 16 ; in certain words, 17. si, for num, 354, in fin. ; differs from quum, 579, note ; ellipsis of, 780 ; si quid and aliquid, 708 ; si and nisi, with the im- perfect subjunct. instead of the pluperfect, 525 ; si minus, 343 ; si nihil aliud, 771 ; si quisquam, 710. siii, used pleonastically with suo, 740. sic, 281 ; used pleonastically, 748, has different accents, 33, note. sicut, meaning of, 282 ; with the subjunct., 573. siqua and siquae, 137, note. siqui, siquis, 136, 708, 740; siwilis, with the genit. and dative, 411, 704 ; similiter ae, 340, note. sitnul, with the ablat., 321 ; simul — simul, 723. simulac and simulatque, with the perfect indicat., 506 ; with the pluperfect, 507. sin, 343 ; sin minus, sin aliter, 343, 731. sine ullo, &c., 709. singular, the, has a collective meaning in the names of dif- ferent fruits, 92 ; is used for the plural, 364, 373, note 1. singuli, 119. siquidcm, 346. sis, for si vis, 360. sine, meaning of, 336 ; sive — sive, 339, 374, 522. todes, 360. tolere, for saepe, 720. lolum, 374. kIus, for solum, tantum, modo, 687 tpoliare, with the ablat., 460. iponte, 90. $lare, with the genit . 444 ; with the ablat., 452 ; slat per me. construction of, 543 ; stare ai aliquo, 304, b. stalim, 272. statuere, construction of, 489 ; with the infinit. and ut, 611. sterilis, with the genit., 436. strophe, 931. studere, with the dative, 412 ; with the infinit. or ut, 610, 614; with the dative of thp gerund, 664. studiosus, with the genit., 436. suadeo, 615. sub, meaning of, 319. subject and predicate, 362, foil. subjunctive, of the future, 496, 497 ; subjunctive in Latin and English, 513; in hypothetical sentences, 524 ; in interroga- tive sentences, 552, 553 ; after relative pronouns, 555, foil. ; in explanatory clauses, 545, foil. ; the subjunctive of the present and perfect, instead of the indicat. of the future, 527 ; subjunctivusconcessivus, 529 ; in doubtful questions, 530 ; the subjunctive without ut, 625 ; subjunct. of the present, used as an imperative, 386, 529 ; subjunct. perfect the same as the subjunct. of the future per- fect, 497, 524; the subjunct. perfect, a softened indicative, 527 ; subjunct. perfect, instead of the subjunct. present, 528 ; instead of the indicat., 551 ; subjunctive denoting repeated actions, 569. subito, meaning of, 272. sublime, an adverb, 267. substance and origin of things, expressed by a termination, 250, 252. substantives, verbal, used only in the ablat. sing., 90, in fin. ; substantiva mobilia, used as adjectives, 102 ; comp. 41, 365 ; verbal substantives, con- strued like their veibs, 681 ; substantives expressed by a participle, 637; used instead 692 ot participles, 644 ; used as ad- jectives, 257, foil. ; instead of adjectives, 102, 672; in cir- cumlocutions, 678 ; pleonas- tically, 773 ; substantives, par- aphrased by qui with a verb, 714; two substantives con- nected by a preposition and extended into a proposition, 715 ; two substantives joined together, the latter of which defines the former, 741. subter, 320, in fin., 489. luccensere, construction of, 412, 413. . aufficere, with the dative of the gerund, 660. iui, sihi, se, 125, note ; in paren- thetical clauses, 550 ; sui for se, with the genit. of the ge- rund, 660. summe and maxime, 106. summum, 271. aunt qui, with the subjunct., 563 ; sunt, ellipsis of, 776. super, meaning of, 320. superare, with the abia! , 488. supercsse, construction of, 415. tuperesl ut, 621. superlative, its formation, 104, 3, 105, lOO.J'oU. ; strengthened, 108 ; with the genit., 429. supersedere, construction of, 416. tuperstes, construction of, 411.- supine, 153, note j 668, foil. supplicare, with the dative, 406. tupra, meaning of, 303. $us, declension of, 69. suscipere, with the participle fut. pass., 653. sustuli, not derived from sufferre, 213. tuus, instead of ejus, 550 ; oppo- sed to alienus, 125, 550 ; suus siH, 746. syllables, division of words into, 14, 2 ; doubtful syllables, 829. synaeresis, 11. synesis, construotio ad synesim, 368. syncope, in verbs, 160. Taedet, construction of, 390, 441. talenlum, 874. talis, folio ived by qui, and ellipsil of, 556, 557 ; talis ac, 340, note , talis — qualis, 704. tarn, 281 ; tarn — quam, 374, 724. tamen, used pleonastically, 341 note. tarnquam, an adverb, 282 ; a con- junction, 572. tandem, meaning of, 287. tanti est, 444, note 1. tantisper, 276. tanto, with comparatives, 487. tantvm, "only," 274; with the genit., 432 ; tantum abest ut — ut, 779 ; tantum non, 739 ; tan- tum ut, 726. tant.us, followed by qui, and ellip- sis of, 556, 557 ; iantus — quav tus, 704. taxare, construction of, 444 —te, the suffix, 131. temere, 280. temperare, construction of, 414. templum, ellipsis of, 762. tempore and in tempore, 475. tempori, "in gOod time," 63, note. tempus est abire and abeundi, 659 ; ellipsis of tempus, 763. tempus impendere, with the dative of the gerund, 664. tenax, with the genit., 436. teneri, with the participle perf pass., 592. tenses, of the verb, 493, foil. , tenses of the subjunct., 524 ; tenses used in the epistolary style, 503. tentare, with the infin. and ut, 614. tenus, meaning of, 313. —ter, 264. Teos, declension of, 52, 3. terra mariquc, 481. Thales, declension of, 71, in fin. Thebaicus an^ Thebanus, differ- ence between, 256, in fin. thesiSj 827. — ti, pronunciation of, 6. ti or ci, orthography of, 6, note i time, particles expressing time, 270 ; expressions of time in the accusat., 395 ; in the ablat., 396. INDEX, 503 Itmens, with the genit., 438. timere, construction of, 414. titles, where they are placed with names, 796. —tor, trix, 102, 236. toto, tola, ahlat. without in, 482. towns, names of in e, in the ablat. e, 63, b. ; construction of names of towns, 398. tradere, with the participle fut. pass., 653. traditur, construction of, 507. tranquillo, 646. traiisjeclus and tranamissus, con- struction of, 392. tribuere, with the dative, 422. trochaic verse, 832. — tudo, the termination, 247. tut, feminine, with the particip. fut. pass, in the masc. gender, 660. turn and tunc, difference between, 285 ; turn maxime, 270 ; turn — turn, 723 ; turn temporis, 434. tu, in questions expressive of in- dignation, 693. U, instead of c, 2. r, softened down into u, 3, note. tt, hardened into v, 3, note, 11. vacare, 406. vacuus, with the ablat., 462, 468. vae, construction of, 403. valde, 107, 266. valeo, construction of, 460, 463. vapulo, 148. uM, with the genit., 434 ; with the perfect indicat., 506 ; ubi- ubi, 128. —He, 330, in fin., 336, 337. vJtemenler, 264, note 1. vehi, construction of, 455. rtl and aut, difference between, 336 ; vel — vel, 339 ; vel, strength- ening, 734 ; with superlatives, 108 ; in the sense of " for ex- ample," 734. velim, with the subjunct., 527, 624. telle, construction of, 424 ; with the infinit. pass., 611. vellem, meaning of, 528. mdut, " for example," 282 ; veiut. and vclut si, with the subjunct., 572. vendere, with the genit. or ablat., 444 ; its passive veneo, 187. venire, with the dative, 422 ; witi the gp^it. and ablat., 444. venit in mcntem, construction of, 439, foil. verbs, neuter passives, 148 ; neu- ter verbs joined with an accu- sal., 144, 385 ; used imperson- ally in the third person passive, 144 ; transitive verbs, used as neuters, 143, 145 ; verbs with a relative pronoun instead of a substantive, 714; verbs re- peated, 716, 717 ; their posi- tion, 787, foil. ; ellipsis of verbs, 774 ; verbs compounded with prepositions, 415 ; with trans, 392 ; passive verbs with th& dative, 419 ; with the accusat., according to the Greek fashion, 458. vere and vera, 266, note 1. verisimile est, followed by the ac- cusat. with the infinit., 600 ; by ut, 623. veritum est, used impersonally, 390. vera, meaning of, 266, 348 ; use of in answers, 716 ; in the ap- odosis, 716 ; ellipsis of, 781. verses, feet of, 826. versus, the preposition, 303. vertere, in a reflective sense, 145 ; with the dative, 422. vcrum, verumtamen, 348, note, 739 ; verum enimvero, 349. verum est, followed by the accu- sat. with the infinit., 600 ; by ut, 623. vesci, construction of, 465, 466. vestri and vestrum, difference be. tween, 431. vetare, construction of, 607, 617 ; with quominusiinA ne, 543, 544. D» and perjiim, difference between, 455, note. via, ablat. without in, 482. vicem, instead of vice, 453. vicinus, construction of, 411. videlicet, 345, note. 694 INDEX. mdere ut, 614 ; construed like the verbs of fearing, 534. tidcres, cerneres, meaning of, 528, in fin. mderi, construction of, 380 ; used pleonastically, 751. viri, compounded with numerals, 134. tilam vivere, and similar expres- sions, 383, in fin. mtio creati magistratus, 472, note. ullus, 129, 709. ultra, meaning of, 303 : adverb, 323. ultra, 289. ultum ire, for ulcisci, 669. — iilum, the termination, 239. — um, instead of arum, 45 ; in- stead of orum, 51 ; in distribu- tive numerals, 119, note 1. — urn, the genit. plur. for ium, 51. unde, 344 ; with the genit., 434. — unde, 344, note. undecunque, 288. — undus, instead o{ endus, 167. «m', unae, una, 115, note. unquam, 284, comp. 709, a. unus, for solum, tantum, modo, 687 ; unus, with a superlative and excellere. 691. unusquisque, declension of, 138 ; meaning of, 710. vocare, with two accusatives, 394. vocative, its position, 492 , with interjections, 403. volam, the future, use of, 509. mlo, with the nominat. or the ac- cusal, with the infinit., 610 ; with the infinit. or the partici- ple perfect pass., 611; with ut, 613 ; with the subjunctive alone, 624 ; si voluero, 510. voti and votorum damnari, 447. urbs, used in apposition to names of towns, 399. urinor, 207. — us, the termination, 237. uspiam, 284. usquam, 284 ; with the genit,, 434. usque, 286, 322. usquefuaque, 289, in fin. usu venutci, 621. usus est, used impersonally, 464. ut, an adverb of similitude, 282, 531, note ; a conjunction with the subjunctive, 531, 613, foil. ; inr questions expressive of in- dignation, 609 ; with the per- fect indicat., 506 ; its place 356 ; ellipsis of, 777 ; ut aftei adjective expressions, instead of the accusat. with the infinit., 623 ; ut in the sense of " even if," and in negative sentences, ut non, 573 ; ut, equivalent to " because," 726 ; m< — ita (sic), 726 ; ut ne, 347, note, 535 ; ut non, 347, note, 532, 573 ; ut non for quin, 539 ; ut primum, with the perfect indicat., 506 ; ut qui, 565. utcunque, with the indicat., 521. uter, its difference from quis, 431. uterque, 141, note 2 ; with the plural of the verb, 367 ; with a genit., 430. uti, construction of, 465, 466. utile, est ut, 623. utilis, construction of, 409 ; with the dative of the gerund, 664 ; utilis fuit, 518. utinam, utinam ne, utinam non, with the subjunct., 571. utique, 282. utpote qui, 565. utrique, use of, 141, note 2. ulrum, 352. utrumne, in double questions, 554. utut, 128 ; with the indicat., 521 — uus, the termination, 249 uxor, ellipsis of, 761. 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