=ff= CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND GIVEN IN 1 89 1 BY HENRY WILLIAMS SAGE Comall University Library UE460 .B71 The cavalry horse and his (>JS,|S>, *I??,|*rfgf" olin 3 1924 030 758 688 B Cornell University M Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924030758688 U. S. CAVALRY OFFICER ON CAMPAIGN. THE CAVALRY HORSE AND HIS PACK Embracing the Practical Details of Cavalry Service. For the Use of Officers and Non- Commissioned Officers of Cavalry. 1st Lieut. Jno. J. Boniface, 4th Cavalry. ILLUSTRATED. HUDSON-KIMBERl,Y PUBI,ISHING COMPANY, KANSAS CITY, MISSOURI. 190S. Copyright, 1903, by 1st IvIbut. JOHN J. BONIFACE, iTH Cavalry, Fort Riley, Kansas. "Formerly the unit was the regiment; it is now not the regiment, not even the troop or company ; it is the individual soldier. In the circumstances of modem war- fare the man must act far more on his own individual responsibility than ever before, and the high individual efficiency of the unit is of the utmost importance." — Theodore Roosevelt. CONTENTS. Preface xvif Books CoNsm,TED xxi Chapter I. Brief History of the Horse and Pack . Earliest Historical Mention — Original Home — African Horse Fore- father of the Arab — Historical Proof — History of Original Ara- bian. Blood — The South African Horse — All Thoroughbred Lin- eage Traceable to Original African Horse — Necessity of Pack Appreciated from Earliest Times— Constant Effort Necessary to Reduce Pack to Lowest Efficient Limit i Chapter II. Classes of Cavalry. Heavy Cavalry — Medium — Light — Different Classes of Each — In- terchangeability of Designations — Arms — Equipment — ^Weight of Men and Horses in Each Class — Height of Horses in Differ- ent Classes — Austrian Cavalry — English — Russian — Belgian — German — French — American 24 Chapter III. The Horse Supply. Definition of Term — Remounts — Horse Supply of England — Its Remounts- — Average Cost-^-Training — Horse Supply of Ger- many — Its Remounts — Average Cost — Training — Of Russia — Of France — Of Austria — Of America 39 Chapter IV American Horse Supply and Remount. Horse Population — ^Area — Variation in Size, Quality, and Price — Remounts— Experiments — Average Cost — Length of Service — System of Purchase — The Regulation Cavalry Horse .... 50 vi The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. Chapter V. Classes of Horses. Percheron— Clydesdale — English Shire— Cleveland Bay — Hackney — French Coach — German Coach — Thoroughbred — Saddler — Trotter — Pacer — Kind Required for Cavalry 58 Chapter VI. The Cavalry Horse. The American Cavalry Horse Compared to Others — General Char- acteristics — Stallions — Geldings — Mares — Age— Bones — Teeth — Neck — Knees — Hocks — Back — Tail — Croup — Proportions 93 Chapter VII. Shoeing. mportance — Horse's Foot the First Consideration — Necessity for Shoeing — Experiments with Unshod Horses — Horses in Egypt and Arabia — Stone Picket-Lines — Stone Corrals — Effects of Service on Unshod Horses — The "Horseshoe Board" — Its Work — American Cavalry Officers' Opinions — Foreign Shoe- ing — Aluminum Shoes — Regulation American Shoes — Paper Shoes — German Experiments — Paste in Lieu of Shoes — Raw- hide Shoes — Makeshifts for Shoes — Hot .Shoeing — Cold Shoeing — Shoeing as Prescribed in the American Cavaky — In England — In Austria — In France — In Germany — Shoeing for Gait — For Founder — For Spavin — For Stiff Knees, etc 131 Chapter VIII. Bitting. Bits — Early Use of — General Classification — Principles of Each Class— -Necessity for Good Bitting — Use of the Snaffle — The Bar-Bit — The Curb-Bit — Mechanical Principles — Leverage — Mouth-piece — Port — Upper Branches — Lower Branches — Rings — American Curb-Bit — Weight — The Horse's Mouth — Measurements Necessary in Fitting the Curb-Bit — How to Take Them — Adjustable Bits — Curb-Straps wrj^Mj^ Curb-Chains — Double-rtined Bridles — Single-reined Bridles — The Bit and Bridoon — Foreign Practice and Bits 152 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. vii Chapter IX. Saddling the Cavalry Horse. A Kine Art — Horse's Back and Legs — Place for Saddle — Effects of Carelessness — Tendency to Saddle too Far Forward — Saddling in Field Service — Adjustable Saddles — English "Wilkinson" — American "Wint" — Austrian Adjustable Saddles —Center of Motion — Equilibrium — Stirrups — Odd Forms of Horses — Spreading of the Saddle — The American "McClellan" — The American "Whitman" — The English Cavalry Saddle— The Russian — The German — The French — The Belgian — The Aus- trian — Use of Breast-Straps — Use of Cruppers^Single Cinches — Double Cinches i -g Chapter X. The Pack. ■ The Cavalry Horse a Weight-Carrier — Variation of Pack — Old Packs — Early American Packs — Actual Weight Carried — American Pack — British — German — Russian — Austrian — Bel- gian — Evenly Distributed — Hung Low — Securely Fastened — Importance of Constant Care and Supervision 202 Chapter XI. Marches. How Generally Made — Gait — Average Daily March — Halts — Neces- sity of Care in Adjustment of Pack— The Horses' F'eet — Water- ing-^General Merritt'sExperience — Ordinary Marches — Forced Marches — Instances 220 Chapter XII. Passage oj Rivers. Necessity for Training — Methods in General — Bridges — F'ords — Swimming in Herd — Towing — Riding —Column Swimming — Boats and Rafts — Logs — Austrian Experiments — Precaution- ary Measures — Guiding the Horse 233 Chapter XIII. Transporting Cavalry Horses. Two General Ways, by Rail and by Sea — Importance of Care and Experience — By Rail — Methods Usually Employed — Capac- ity of Stock Cars — Ramps — Danger of Hasty or Careless Load- ing — Watering — Feeding — Unloading — Guards — By Sea — Horse Transports — Methods in General — Portable Loading- Boxes — Watering — Feeding — Stalls — Ventilation — Guards — Unloading — Importance of Policing — Methods on Board. . 268 viii The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. Chapter XIV. Riding and Training. Purpose of Riding Influences the Seat Used -Seats in General Use —The Military Seat — Place of Rider — Use of Reins — Import- ance of Steady Seat — Balance, Friction, and Stirrups — Lean- ing Back — Leaning Forward — The Spurs — Bridle-wise — Leg- wise — The Long Stirrup — The Short Stirrup — Posting — Ac- customing the Horse to Sights and Sounds^To the Bridle, and Saddle, and Pack — To Firearms — To Jumping — The Rid- ing-Hall—The Single Rein— The Double Rein— The Bit and Bridoon — The Artificial Gaits a Disadvantage — Necessity for Patience — Aids in Training — The Cavesson — The Running Rein — Martingales — The Dumb Jockey 299 Chapter XV. The Cavalry Horse in Stable and Camp. Necessity of Stables — ^American Cavalry Stables — Corrals — Sick- Stalls — Watering-Troughs — Single Stalls — Double Stalls — Swinging Separators — Feed-Boxes — Mangers — Drainage — Po- lice of Stables — Lights — Saddle-Rooms — Picket- Lines — Groom- ing — Precautions Against Fire — Method of Tying in Stalls — Ventilation— The Stable Men — The Stable Sergeant— The Stable Orderly— The Farrier— The Saddler— The Blacksmith — The Wagoner — The Stable Police — Drafts — Windows — Grazing — Guards — In Camp — Methods of Tying Horses — Watering — -Grazing and HerdingT— Policing — Method of Feed- ing — Use of Horse-Blankets — Guards — Methods of Grooming — Sick Horses — The Care of Saddle and Pack 341 Chapter XVI. Grooming, Watering, and Feeding. Necessity for Grooming — Method — Time — In Winter — In Summer — Utensils — Cloths — Nostrils — Dock — Sheath — Grooming aft- er Drill — Hand Rubbing — Wisping with Hay— Washing — RolUng— The Mane— The Tail— Cooling Off— The Eyes— Watering— When to Water — Theory— Amount^-When Heat- ed — Cleanliness of Water — Stagnant Pools — Marshes — Ac- cessibility of Water— Vinegar— Salt— Feeding— Oats — Corn- Barley — Bran — Weight of Daily Forage Ration — How Fed Hot Feeds— Wet Feeds— Mixtures— Hay— Upland — Lowland — Wet Meadow — Herding — Reduction of Grain Allowance When Herding— Good Hay— Mow-burnt— Dust — Haystacks— Palay — Sacati — Methods and Comparisons — The Horse's Stom- ach—Experiments—Feeding in the Field— Green Grasses — The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. ix Exercise Necessary — Variety Necessary — Systematic Feeding Essential to Good Health — Grinding the Feed — Whole Feed 381 Chapter XVII. The Pack-Train. History, Necessity, and Use — The Pack-Mule — Age — Size — Sex — Training the Pack-Mule — ^The American Pack-Train — Outfit of the Train — Feeding — Watering — Grooming — Shoeing — Grazing — Crossing Rivers — Marches — Camping — The Picket- Line — The "Bell-Mare" — The "Rigging" — The Canvas — The Corona — The Saddle-Blanket — The A^arejo— The Blind — The Halter and Strap— The Lair-Ropes — The SUng-Rope — The Lash-Rope — The Cincha — The Mania — Requirements for Packer — Preparation of "Rigging" for Use — Putting on the "Rigging" — Putting on the Load — The "Diamond Hitch" — Side-Packs — Preparation of Same — Weight of Side- Pack — Weight of Load — Middle-Packs — Packing Large Boxes — Use of Canvas Pads — Packing Odds and Ends — Unloading the Mule — Taking Off the "Rigging" — Care of the Aparejo^- Care of the Ropes — Practical Methods of Packing the Cavalry Saddle — The Travois — Remarks 428 Chapter XVIII. Diseases and Medicines. Necessity for Study and Observation — What to Do with the Sick Horse — Methods of Administering Medicines — The Healthy Horse — Pulse — Temperature — Cold Applications — Hot Appli- cations — Sponging — Supply of Veterinary Medicines for Cav- alry Troop — Instruments-^ Various Diseases — Treatment. .480 Appendix I. U S. Cavalry Veterinary Supply Table 525 Appendix II. Horse Population of the United States, by States 533 Appendix III. The Standard Bred Horse .' 535 ILLUSTRATIONS. U. S Ca\-alry Officer on Campaign Frontispiece Knight in Armor lo Points of the Horse 1 6 Skeleton of Modern Horse r S Fossil Skeleton of Horse — Five Toes 19 Fossil Skeleton of Horse — Four Toes 20 Evolution as Shown by the Foot 21 British Cavalryman 26 British Indian Lancer 27 German Uhlan 2S Russian Cavalry Trooper 29 Cossack Officer , 30 Russian Hussar Officer 31 Austrian Hussars 32 Austrian Dragoons 33 I-'rench Hussar ,,..'. 34 French Cuirassier. ., , ,1;: 35 Percheron Horse ,..,,. v Oo Clydesdale Horse : 63 English Shire Horse ' 66 Cleveland Bay Horse - : 69 Hackney Horse 71 French Coach Horse 73 German Coach Horses 76 Thoroughbred Horse 78 "Cresceus" (Trotter) , s i "Smuggler" (Trotter) ■ 83 "Joe Patchen" (Pacer) 8 =; Gaited Saddler "Rex McDonald" .- 87 ■Gaited Saddler "Lady Glenn" 89 Proportional Horse 1 00 Ideal Head. 102 Ewe-necked Horse 103 High- withered Horse _. . . ' 105 Chunky Horse and Short Back to6 Types of Fore and Hind Legs 108 Types of Pasterns 109 Greyhound Barrel no A Good All-round Weight-Carrier . . . 1 1 1 Skeleton of Head ■ 120 xii The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. Page Six-year-old Mouth 121 Twelve-year-old Mouth 1 2 1 Twenty-year-old Mouth " 121 Upper Surface of Incisor Tooth 122 Successive Forms of Incisor Tooth 122 A "Bishoped" Mouth 123 A One-month-old Mouth 1 24 The Mouth at about Two Months 1 24 The Mouth at about Eight to Ten Months 125 The Mouth at between Two and One-half and Three and One- half Years 125 The Mouth between Three and One-half and Four Years 125 The Mouth at Five Years 125 The Mouth at Six Years 126 The Mouth at about Seven Years 127 The Mouth at about Eight Years '. 127 The Mouth at about Nine Years 1 28 The Mouth at about Twelve Years 128 The Mouth at about Fourteen Years 1 28 The Mouth at about Seventeen Years 128 The Mouth at about Eighteen Years 1 29 The Mouth at about Twenty-two Years 129 Defective J aw of an Old Horse 129 The "Parrot" Mouth 129 Section of Foot 132 Ancient Types of Shoes 1 33 Natural Healthy Sole ; . . . 134 Ground Surface of Foot, Properly Prepared for Shoe 135 Regulation American Calvalry Shoe Properly on F^oot 1 38 Side View of Same 1 38 Rolling-Motion Shoe '. 142 Hind Shoe to Balance Action 142 Types of Modern Shoes 1 44 Types of Bits 1 54 Snaffle-Bit in Mouth 155 Regulation American Curb-Bit 156 Side View of Same 157 F'irst Class of Lever ■ 165 Second Class of Lever 166 Power Applied to Reins 167 "Falling Thro„ugh" 168 "Standing Stiff" 1 69 Mechanical Principles of Curb-Bit 1 70 Angle Formed by Rein with Bit 171 Bit arid Bridoon 174. Prussian Army Bit 176 The "Whitman" Bit— Two Views 177 r;»e "Whitman" Combination Halter-Bridle 179 2'he Cavalry Horse and His Fade. xiii Page The "McClellan" Saddle i8o English Cavalry Saddle for Officers i8i German Cavalry Officer's Saddle i8i Saddling too Far Forward 182 The "Muley" Saddle-Tree 184 The "McClellan" Tree 184 The "Whttman-Dwyer" Saddle 185 The "Whitman" Tree 186 The "Texas" Tree 187 Methods of Shortening the Cincha i8q Correct Cinching 193 Incorrect Cinching 194 The Framework of the Horse 196 Regulation "McClellan" Saddle and Full Pack 205 N^ar Side of American Cavalry Packed Saddle 208 Off Side of American Cavalry Packed Saddle 209 The "Whitman" Packed Saddle for Officers 214 American Cavalryman on Horse, Near Side 216 American Pontoon Bridge 238 Swimming in Herd 242 French Raft of Sacks or Bags 246 Soldiers Crossing on the "Sac-Cachou" 247 Crossing a Cart on the Bag-Raft 248 Building the Foot-Bridge of Successive Rafts 250 The German Lance-Boat — First Step 254 The German Lance-Boat — Second Step 256 The German Lance-Boat — Finished 257 Embarking on the Lance-Boat 258 Towing Horses from the Lance-Boat 259 Horses in Railroad Car 270 The Fechet Portable Ramp 273 Common Ramp 274 Floor View of Same 274 Loading on Transport by Ramp 278 Loading on Transport by Chute 279 Putting the Horse in Portable Box 281 Lifting the Horse in the Portable Loading-Box 282 The Horse in Stall with Sling 285 Horses in Stalls on Transport, Showing Feed-Boxes and Methods of Tying 288 The "Pork" Seat 302 The "Tongs Across the Wall" Seat 303 Front View of "Tongs Across the Wall" Seat 304 The "Hunting" Seat 305 Regulation Seat, with Imperfections 307 The "Barber-Chair" Seat 310 Interior of American Riding-Hall 313 The Cavesson and Longe 319 xi\- T'he Cavalry Horse and His Pack. Page First Form of War Bridle 322 Second Form of War Bridle— First Position 3'3 Second Form of War Bridle— Second I osition 324 Second Form ot War Bridle — Complete 325 Bending Head to the Right 326 Bending Head to the Left 3=7 Raising the Head 32S Lowering the Head 329 The Horse Ready to be Thrown 331 The Horse on His Knees, 332 Thrown 333 Method of Holding Horse Down by the Reins 334 The "Dumb Jockey" . . . ., - 336 The 'Dumb Jockey" on 337 American Stables and Picket-Lines in Cuba 3*1-3 American Stables in the PhiUppine Islands 344 Correct and Incorrect Windows 345 Horizontal Section of Double Stall 349 Interior Arrangement, Showing Drainage 353 Preferable Interior Arrangement 364 Typical American Cavalry Camp 372 American Cavalry Troop at Stables 384 Indian Grass 40S Orchard Grass 409 Timothy Grass 410 The Little Blue-stem of the West 411 Red-top Grass 412 Kentucky Blue-grass 413 Big Blue-stem 414 Short Gramma Grass 41 5 Red Clover 416 Alfalfa Grass 417 Bunch Buffalo Grass _|.iS Wheeled Transportation, IT. S. Army ^29 The "Rigging" ' . . 430 Ready to Put on the "Rigging" _)._|._). Cinching the "Rigging" _^_l^;^ "Mantaing up" the Side-Packs . . . . 44(5 The "Rigging" Correctly on and Cinched 447 First Position of the ''Diamond Hitch" — Near Side .... . . 4=10 Second Position — Xear Side. ... ,^i Third Position— Off Side !.!'.'.'.'.'.'.'.!'.'.'.,,'..'" 4S2 Third Position — Near Side 4^; 1 Cinching Pack ci Traveling the Rope ^ !.'!!!''.''!!!.'"' 456 The Completed "Diamond" — Near Side . ac.% The Completed "Diamond"— Ofl' Side. .'. Ao Position of Sling-Rope for a Top-Pack 460 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. xv Page Rear View of Pack with Top-Pack on 461 Side-Pads for Loading Bale of Hay 462 Side-Blocks for Loading Large Boxes 463 One Method of Packing the Cavalry Saddle 472 Packing Two Side-Packs on the Cavalry Saddle 473 The "Saw-buck" on the Cavalry Saddle 474 The "Saw-buck" Packed with Three Packs 475 British Indian Pack-Mules 477 British Pack-Mule Carrying Two 8o-lb. Boxes 478 The Diseased Horse 49' PREFACE. To a large extent, any book on Cavalry is a compila- tion; it is very difficult, if not impossible, to write any- thing absolutely Original on the subject, and, consequently, originality is not claimed for this work. Its object is to place in the hands of the young cavalry officer one volume embracing the duties and responsibilities which confront him from the moment he joins his tropp, and to make clear to him how things are done in the cavalry service. The author has consulted all the professional works per- taining to the cavalry horse and his pack that were within reach, and to this has added the results of his own obser- vations during ten years of cavalry service. To this he has added a vast amount of information obtained from those older cavalry officers who have made our cavalry service all that it is. The desire has been to place in the hands of the new cavalryman a book in which he can find what recognized authorities have to say on the cavalry subjects treated of, as well as what our senior cavalry officers have found to be best tmder the vgLrying conditions of garrison, march, and camp. No attempt has been made to touch upon tactical matters, it being intended to treat only of those practical daily duties which constantly confront us in field and post. The clearest and most valuable information obtained has been that derived from personal experience and that given by our own senior officers of Cavalry. There were many other interesting and valuable facts which came to hand in writing this book that it was desired to include in this volume, but to use them would have made the book unwieldy, and so they have been left out. However, as these omitted subjects are inseparably con- xviii The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. nected5with those herein treated of, they will of neces- sity occur to the young oflBcer as he studies the various chapters. In placing this book before the service, the author bespeaks for it the generous consideration of his seniors, from whom we younger officers have learned whatever we may know of our own branch of the service, and who have given us such splendid past achievements that we must bestir ourselves mightily would we lead our own guidons as honorably. If the book has faults, the aim is lofty; and if it has not been reached, it is because the author's strength is not equal to his enthusiasm and love for our branch of the service. It is hoped that for many it will not be without charm, and for those new to the service, not without profit. In cavalry knowledge, practice is worth more than theory, and each one has need of his own experience ; that experience each one hastens to acquire for himself, and cares not to find it in books. Yet books are good, and this one is a record of facts ; its truthfulness the author certifies, and offers this to the reader in compensation for whatever else may be found lacking. The older officers caution us: "Avoid the rocks on which we were once wrecked"; younger officers ever answer: "The sea on which you have sailed we, too, would brave in our turn, and we demand our right to be shipwrecked." But it pays to prepare ourselves as well as possible before we approach the water; getting wet through ignorance is disagreeable and unprofitable. Thte writer desires especially to express his deepest appreciation to Colonel C. C. C. Carr, Fourth Cavalry, for his encouragement, advice,iand revision of the proofs, and for placing at his disposal his forty-two years of splendid active cavalry experience; also, to express sincere thanks to the War Department for the illustrations and profes- sional papers placed at his disposal; to the Hon. F. D. Coburn, Secretary of the Board of Agriculture of the State of Kansas, not only for the excellent illustrations loaned, The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. xix but for his generous help m every way; to Veterinarian Alexander Plummer, Fourth Cavalry, for his cordial ad- vice and sound suggestions regarding diseases of cav- alry horses and their treatment ; to Assistant Chief Packer Mooney, of the Army, for his kindly assistance in helping him procure the excellent illustrations on packing and for much good advice and information on the subject of pack- mules and pack-trains generally; and to the Mehlback Saddle Company for the many fine illustrations freely loaned. ' JNO. J. BONIIfACE, First Lieutenant, Fourth Cavalry. School of Application for Cavalrj' and Field Artillery, Fort Riley, Kansas, May 25, 1903. BOOKS CONSULTED. The authorr4?s!ires to make a general acknowledgment of the assistance he has found in the preparation of this book in the many standard Works in the Military Library of the Cavalry and Field Artillery School at Fort Riley, Kansas. Nearly all the works in that library and maky others bearing upon the subjects treated of in this book have been carefully consulted and often freely quoted. A partial list of the works consulted appears below : Facts for Horse-Owners, ... Magner Journals of the United Service Institution, . '-. . Maxims for Training Remounts, . . Blunt How to Tell the Age of Domestic Animals, . Liautard Horses' Teeth, . Clarke Horses and Stables, . Fitzwygram Journals of the Cavalry Association, Kansas State Agricultural Reports, . United States Agricultural Reports, Breeders' Gazette, New South Wales. Horses, Saddles, and Bridles, Carter Seats and Saddles, Dwyer U. S. Cavaky Drill Regulations, . Army Regulations, The Soldiers' Pocket-Book Wolseley Scientific Horse-Shoeing, Russell Cavalry Outpost Duties, De Brack, trans, by Carr The Horse, . Youa,tt The Exterior Horse, Coubaux and Barrier Reports of the Smithsonian Institute, The Horse in Art and Nature, Brown The Horse, .... . Stonehenge History of Cavalry, Denison Modern Cavalry, . Denison Achievements of Cavalry, Wood Letters on Cavalry, Hohenlohe Organization and 'Tactics, Wagner Security and Information, . Wagner Manual of Military Field Engineering, Beach Remount Systems Abroad, War Department Hand-Books of Foreign Armies, . British War Office Lbs Passages de Rivierte par la Cavalerie, . G^raud xxii The Cavalry Horse and His Fade. Notice sur le Radeau-sac et Considerations g&i6rales sur le Passages deCours d'Eau, . . . Habert Der Russischen Kavallerie, VonTettau Riders of Many Lands, . . . • Dodge On the Border with Crooke, ... Bourke Pack Transportation, .... Daly Voyage of the Horse-Transport Tacoma, . Cameron Voyage of the Horse-Transport Conemaugh, . Winans Voyage of the Horse-Transport Port Stephens, . Holbrook Records of the RebelUon, ... History and Tactics Nolan The Illustrated Horse Doctor, . Mayhew Anatomy of the Horse, . . . Percivall Veterinary Medicines; ... ... Dun Regulations for Veterinary Surgeons, British War Office Emergency Report on Surra, War Department Veterinary Notes for Horse-Owners, . Hayes The Practical Horse-Shoer, . Richardson Horse-Shoeing, . . . . Rich Practical Horse-Shoeing, Fleming Hints on Horse-Shoeing, . Kiernan The Horse in Motion, . Stillman Horse-Breaking, . . Hayes Horses — Sound and Unsound, . Lyston The Mule, ... . . Riley Through Stable and Saddle-Room, . Fisher How to Judge a Horse, . Bach Modern Horsemanship, Anderson Points of the Horse, . Hayes Cavalry Studies . . Bonie,. Kaehler, Davis History of United States Cavalry, . . Brackett The British Cavalry, Baker Instructions for Cavalry British War Office The School and the Army in Germany and France, . . Hazen The Army Book of the British Empire, Goodenough Military Europe, . ... Miles The Armies of Europe Gleichen Outlines of Military History, ' . ... Middleton Armies of To-day, . Merritt, Wolseley, etc. Lessons of War, ... ... Soady Indian Frontier Warfare, Younghusband On the Frontier . . Campion The Indian Wars of the United States, . . Ellis Chief Joseph, His Pursuit and Capture, Howard Army Sacrifices, Fry Across the Continent with the Fifth Cavalry, . . Price From Everglade to Canon (History of ad Dragoons), Rodenbough ' And many others. The Cavalry Horse and His Pack CHAPTER I. Brief History of the Horse and Pack. Earliest Historical Mention — Original Home — African Horse Fore- father of the Arab — ^Historical Proof — History of Original Ara- bian Blood — The South African Horse — All Thoroughbred Lin- eage Traceable to Original African Horse-^Necessity of Pack Appreciated from Earliest Times — -Constant Effort Necessary to Reduce Pack to Lowest Efficient Limit. In all the ages for which we have authentic history, the horse has been the sturdy and esteemed servant of man; equally in the vocations of peace and productive industry, subduing the wilderness and its savages, whether human or brute, the march of armies or the shock of bat- tle, he has borne a part conspicuous and potent, adapted and adaptable to innumerable forms of men's service this long, as no other animal, the time for his displacement is not yet, although evil prophets may proclaim the horse- less age as already ushered in. No machine of steam and steel, of cog or cam, no vapor-fed motor, no craft propelled by batteries or boilers can successfully succeed the Percheron at the plough, the Hackney at the carriage, the Patchen in light harness, or the Denmarks or Thoroughbreds for all saddle purposes, lazily cantering to my lady's hand, or fiercely charging as at Balaklava, Winchester, and Mars-la-Tour. The horse has been used for purposes of war from earliest time, and while there has gradually developed during latter years a tendency on the part of some mili- tary men to belittle the services that have been rendered 2 The Cavalry Borse and His Pack. by cavalry in modem wars, and also to predict for that branch of the service a diminishing sphere of action in future conflicts, let not the young cavalry officer concern himself along these lines. In order to controvert such narrow statements, reference is only necessary to the operations of cavalry in our own great Civil War, in the war between France and Germany, the war between Tur- key and Russia, the colonial campaigns of our own coun- try in the Philippines, and those of Great Britain in South Africa ; all of these campaigns are replete with important work performed by cavalry, and well illustrate the great necessity for a sufficient amount of cavalry in active ser- vice. The changes in modern methods of war have not and will not diminish the prestige and importance of the cavalry arm ; but, on the contrary, will demand of it great- er skill, greater endurance, greater preparedness, greater peril, and there will be greater need of superior, well- trained horses and men. The first we hear of the horse seems to be in the Bible, where we are told that Pharaoh pursued the Israelites with several hundred chosen chariots pulled by horses, and that he also pursued them with men on horses, about fifteen hundred years before the birth of Christ. Although modem Europe, England,, and America owe much to Arabia for the improvement of breed, it may well be doubted whether horses were found in Arabia in very early times at all. The author of the Book of Job, in describing the wealth of that patriarch, who was a native of Arabia and the richest man of his time, makes no mention of horses. Five hundred years later Solomon imported gold, silver, and spices from Arabia, but all the horses of his own cavalry he procured in Egypt. Among the articles exported from Egypt to Arabia in early times were horses. In the fourth century two hundred Cappadocian horses were sent by the Roman emperor as the most valuable present he could offer to a powerful prince of Arabia. So late as the seventh century the Arabs had few horses, for at the close of Mahomet's mur- The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 3 derous campaign against the Koreish near Mecca, his captures contained thousands of camels and sheep, but no horses. These and many other circumstances suffi- ciently prove that however superior may be the present breed, it is comparatively lately that the present horse was naturalized in Arabia; indeed, the Arabs do not deny this, for until their horses began to be deservedly valuable, within the last century, they were content to limit their pedigree to one of five on which Mahomet and his four immediate successors fled from Mecca to Medina on the night of the Hegira. At an early period in the history of war, as in the pres- ent day, strength, activity, endurance, and skill with weapons were the great qualifications for a soldier, and the skilled warrior who had the greatest endurance was likely to be successful; he, therefore, who, encumbered with defensive armor, had a long distance to march before coming to close quarters with his adversary was at a disadvantage by being out of breath and weary at the commencement of the conflict; this has, in all probabil- ity, been the cause of the first use of the horse in war. It was soon perceived that the soldier who could be carried without fatigue and placed fresh upon the spot where he would be obliged to exert every energy in deadly conflict would have a great advantage in a hand-to-hand strug- gle over one who had been obliged to march heavily laden for a long distance ; this probably led to the invention of chariots of war. The earliest records prove clearly that these chariots were used to convey the warriors to the field of battle; on approaching the foe, the warrior, after throwing his projectile weapons, alighted from his chariot to engage in the inevitable hand-to-hand conflict, while the charioteer turned the horses' heads around towards camp and awaited nearby; the warrior, if wounded or hard pressed, could then conveniently retreat to his char- iot, which was open to the rear and low to the ground, leap in, and be carried to the safety of his own camp. Homer gives many instances of the employment of these 4 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. war chariots at the siege of Troy in his "Iliad"; in the fourth book, speaking of Agamemnon, he says: "He left his steeds indeed, and his brass variegated chariot, and these his servant Eurymedon, son of Ptolymeus, son of Pirais, held apart panting; him he strictly enjoined to keep them near him against the time when weariness should seize his limbs commanding over many." This war chariot was used simply as a means of rapid conveyance, and there is no evidence in Homer of its being in itself used as an offensive weapon, nor is there any record of horses being mounted and made use of for the saddle. In the fifteenth book of the "Iliad," in a simile. Homer refers to a man mounting a horse in driv- ing it to water, and vaulting on and off its back, and men- tions it as a feat creating surprise, which leads to the infer- ence that horsemanship as an art was almost unknown in his day. It is asserted by Pire Amyot that chariots were in use in China as early as 2600 B. C, and that cavalry also were in use about the same time in that country. It is difficult to believe these statements, however, as the Chinese pride themselves upon their antiquity greatly, and 6ne is apt to believe some of the Chinese history is like the Welsh gentleman's pedigree, which contained a note op- posite the name of the tenth or twelfth member of his family, to the effect that about this time lived Adam in the Garden of Eden. Chariots were used in India at a period more remote than the siege of Troy ; in Egypt also ch&riots were in use in the eighteenth centufy before the Christian era, or more than five hundred years before the Trojan War. When Joseph was taken into favor by Pharaoh, he made him ride in the second chariot which he had, showing that chariots were in use for some purpose at that early date. This is the earliest mention of the use of the horse in history. The early term "horsemen" was at that time applied to the charioteers, and is often confounded with the present acceptation of the word, which means men mounted on horses. Horsemen are not represented on The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 5 Egyptian monuments, even upon those of a later date, while chariots are continually represented. If cavalry had existed, the artists of those days would certainly have represented them. In the Assyrian sculptures chariots appear first, and as horsemen come into use they also are represented. The first use of the chariot seems to be de- scribed in Genesis, forty-first chapter, forty-third verse, and this places the date at 1715 B.C.; and the first use of the chariot for war purposes is contained in Exodus, four- teenth chapter, ninth verse. History shows these chari- ots drawn by horses to have been used in the Trojan War, also used by Cyrus, also by the Britons against the Romans, and Herodotus mentions the Zaveces, a nation of Africa, as employing the chariots with their women as charioteers. It is impossible to fix the period at which cavalry was first used ; they were not known in Greece at the time of the Trojan War, or when Homer wrote. The Bible does not speak of cavalry until after the time of David; but when Herodotus wrote, cavalry was in general use in Asia, and had been for a long time. It is generally supposed that horsemen fighting as cavalry and riding on horseback came into use about one hundred and twenty years after the Trojan War. It is very likely, although there is no historical evidence of it, that the Scythians were the. first people to use the horse to ride upon; once the custom was originated, it required but a very short time to make it universal. The Scythians were very skillful with horses, and continually in the habit of mounting them long before the Greeks had conceived the idea of men riding upon horses at all, for it is clear that the fable of the "Centaurs" was originated by the Greeks having seen or heard of the horsemen, whom they mistook for single animals, half man and half horse. About the year 885 B. C, Assyrian sculptures began to show mounted men, cavalry, and later on, in the years 722 to 705 B. C, the representations of the reigns of Sargon and Sennacherib show considerable cavalry. At first the horse of cavalry was peculiarly 6 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. equipped ; he wears a head-stall, a collar, and a string of beads; the trappings being almost the same as for the chariot horse of that time; the bit was a heavy species of snaffle ; there appears no saddle ; the seat of the earli- est pictures is remarkable, showing the knees drawn up as high as the horse's back and pressed close against the neck and withers, the legs and feet being naked and hang- ing close to the shoulder. These cavalry representations in the early sculptures illustrate the very earliest ideas of mounted soldiers, and that the proper and natural way of sitting the horse was not then discovered. Later, as the years roll by, many changes are observed. A pad or cloth, either square or of the shape of the mod- ern saddle-cloth, is used in place of a saddle ; it is usually fastened with a single girth, although sometimes a breast- strap and a species of crupper appear; all these are highly ornamented; there is a marked improvement in the seat ; it is much more graceful and correct ; the reins are now held in the left hand, the right being used for the spear; the collar disappears. Later, about 680 B. C, the saddle-cloth shows great enlargement and is made of thick hide or felt as a protection against missile weapons. The early Greeks had no cavalry; later on it came into use as a part of the army, and the horses were provided with defensive armor, while their riders wore boots and spurs, and their weapons were the lance, the long sword, and sometimes the javelin. The cavalry of the Greeks used neither saddles nor stirrups, nor were their horses shod ; the troopers either mounted their horses bareback, or used a light rug or mat of skin upon which they sat. Alexander the Great was the first among the Greeks to employ cavalry to a great extent ; he divided it into heavy (which used coats of mail, helmets, brazen greaves, swords, and short thrusting pikes) , light (carrying only a sixteen-foot lance), and dragoons (intended to fight both on foot and on horseback). Alexander had one regiment of Thessalians and one of Macedonians in which the men and horses both were almost completely covered with The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 7 armor. These two regiments were the flower of his cav- alry. Alexander was the first to use the cavalryman and horse as a projectile weapon. In later years the Greek cavalryman was trained to sit well upright upon his thighs, and not as if in a chair, and was taught to cling to his seat with the thighs, letting the leg from the knee down hang loosely; the reins. were carried in the left hand, and training in horsemanship was very popular. Xeno- phon, the earliest writer on the horse, tells how to choose with geat care the cavalry horse, and impresses upon the reader the necessity for caring for the feet, and advises standing the horses on smooth, round stones in order to harden the feet, as shoes were not then known. He advo- cates the occasional dismounting of the troopers to relieve the horses, when in field service. If the early legends which form the basis of the first period of Roman history are entitled to any credence, it is clear that the mounted service was both understood and made use of to a certain extent from the very foun- dation of the state, although the persons whose names are mentioned in connection with it were probably myth- ical. Romulus had three troops of one hundred men each, as a sort of body-guard, made up of the patrician youths; these were armed with sword and javelin, and were trained to fight both mounted and dismounted. The social class from which the Roman Cavalry was drawn was the highest, both in rank and wealth, in the com- munity. This seems to have been the custom in all the early nations, except some of the Greek States. The Ro- mans were the first to use the curb-bit. They used neither saddles nor stirrups; a pad or covering was used to sit upon, and this' was kept in place by a girth, a breast-leather, and a crupper. Their sole defense was a round shield, covered with ox-hide, and a helmet. They had lances, swords, and javelins. As they were lightly armed — in fact, almost destitute of protection — they incurred great risks. Later on armor came into Roman use. The Car- thaginian Cavalry, under Hannibal, wore coats of mail. 8 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. helmets, brazen greaves, and carried swords and a short thrusting-pike. The Numidian Cavalry was Hannibal's best mounted force ; their horses were small, thin ani- mals, and were ridden without saddles; the men were poorly equipped — in fact, almost naked — and the horses were managed with whips or thongs of leather. These Numidian troopers performed such enormous service that it is hard to realize they were so badly equipped. They used no reins nor bridles, for Polybius, in describing the battle of the Ticinus, speaks of the heavy cavalry with reins being placed in the center, and the Numidians, without, on the flanks. Strabo says that "the Numidian directed his horse with a small rod, and, without being led, the horses would follow their troopers like dogs." The corroborative testimony of Polybius, Strabo, Silius Italicus, Herodianus, and Virgil confirms the statement that the Numidian used no reins. Later, under Publius Scipio, the Roman Cavalry was modelled after the Greek, . then considered the best. Great training of the individ- ual trooper was given, and it is interesting to note that each trooper ' ' was taught to make the right or left about face." The Romans, from earliest time, used both bridle and reins. There were no stirrups used until nearly two hundred years after the invention of the saddle, or about the end of the sixth century. There is some difference among early writers about the Roman shoeing; it is cer- tain they did not use the iron shoe with nails. In Greece we know the iron shoe was not used, for Xenophon tells us how to harden the hoof. It is certain, however, that the Romans conceived the idea of an artificial covering as protection to the horse's foot, for it is a well-established fact that mules and beasts of burden were sometimes provided with a metal or wooden shoe, called "solea," which was held in place by thongs of leather crossed over the hoof. Suetonius tells how Nero went with two thous- and mules to compete at the Olympic games, and all these mules were provided with shoes consisting of a plate of silver attached to the hoofs by thongs. The mules used The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 9 by Poppsea are said, on the same authority, to have been shod with shoes of gold. All these statements prove the use of horseshoes of one kind or another during the Empire, and although there is no direct evidence that the cavalry horse was shod, it is fair to assume that the Romans would not have neglected them when they used shoes on mules and other beasts of burden. The earliest positive evidence of the use of horseshoes nailed to the hoof is that furnished by the skeleton of a horse found in the tomb of Childeric I. with shoes fastened in that way; this was found in 1653. Childeric I. reigned A. Di 458 to 481, so this fixes the date of horseshoes as far back at least as 480. Caesar employed thousands of Germans in his cavalry ; they rode their horses without pad or saddle-cloth of any kind, and considered the use of pads as a gross luxury, so much so that they never hesitated to attack any cav- alry that was found riding upon pads or clotlas. The early Spanish Cavalry were trained to dismount, fasten their horses by pickets attached to their bridles,- and then fight on foot. This is believed, to be the first historical knowledge of picketing horses,. and has come down to us as the lariat and picket-pin. Later on, we find the Par- thian Cavalry mounted on fleet and active animals, using a headstall and single rein and the horses ridden with hardly any equipment. By the, year 312 we find the Roman Cavalry completely covered, in armor, horses as well as men, and both very heavy. In the feudal ages the Saracen Cavalry occasionally wore breast-plates to protect the horses ; they wore cui- rasses, boots, gauntlets, and other defenses, and were much given to embellishing their bits with silver orna- ments. They used the lance, battle-axe, and sword. The Greek Cavalry at this period, as given us by the Emperor Ir OF THE HORSE WITH FIVE TOES. Period, spread over considerable portions of the present Territories and States of New Mexico, Wyoming, and Utah. That similar animals may have existed in other parts of the world is extremely probable. It is only within recent years that these fossils have been discov- ered and brought to light. A little animal, scarcely larger than a fox, presented the most generalized form as yet discovered; besides the four well-formed toes of the fore foot, it had at least a rudimentary fifth toe. The transition from this horse-like animal of the early period 20 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. to the horses of modem times has been accom^panied by a gradual increase in size. The diminutive Eocene animal above was succeeded by an animal about the size of the sheep in the Miocene Period; this again, in the Pliocene Period, was succeeded by an animal about the size of the donkey; and it is only in the Pleistocene Period that ani- mals appeared which approach in size the present horse. Important structural changes have also taken place, owing to the changes in the life of these animals and the changed conditions of their work and surroundings. The neck has become elongated, the skull altered in form, FOSSII, SKELETON OF THE HORSE. WITH FOUR TOES. the teeth greatly modified, the limbs lengthened, and the toes reduced in number to one. The small horse-like animals of the Eocene Period with four, or rudiments at least of five, to6s on the fore foot have already been mentioned. In the early Miocene Period the animal most like the existing horse was one the remains of which have been found both in Europe and America in a fossil state. In these fossils there were three well-developed toes, reaching the ground, on each foot. In later times the lateral toes were much reduced The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 21 in size and did not reach the ground, though containing the full number of bones. Horses, or rather horse-like creatures, were later met with in the Pleistocene Period, whose feet, for the first time, showed the true horse exactly or nearly as we know it now, with but one toe. The outer toes were reduced to rudiments of the metacarpals or metatarsals only, the so-called ' 'splint bones " being entire- ly concealed beneath the skin, and the middle toe, greatly elongated and broadened, forming the present hoof. Fos- sil remains of true horses, differing but very slightly from the smaller and inferior breeds of those own existing, have EVOLUTION AS SHOWl»T BY THE SKELETON OF THE FOOT. been found abundantly in deposits of the most recent geological age in almost every part of America, from Escholtz Bay in the north to Patagonia in the south. In the southern continent, however, they became quite ex- tinct, and no horses, either wild or domesticated, existed in either of the Americas at the time of the Spanish Con- quest, which is the more remarkable, as, when intro- duced from Europe, horses proved, by their rapid multipli- cation into countless wild herds, that the climate, food, and other circumstances were highly favorable to their existence. The former great abundance of horses in 22 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. America, as revealed by fossil remains, and their later complete extinction, and their perfect acclimatization when reintroduced by the Spaniards, form curious but as yet unsolved problems in geographical distribution. There are at present six distinct modifications of the horse type in existence, sufficiently distinct to be reckoned as species by zoologists, and yet so closely allied the one with the other that they will, at least when in captivity or domesticated, breed with perfect freedom with any of the others. These are the horse, the common ass, the zebra, the quagga, the dauw, and the Asiatic wild ass. From the evidence of philology, it is plain that the horse was already known to the Aryans before the period of their dispersion. The Bible is replete with instances of his early use, as has been shown. To say that the horse originated in Africa or in early Persia and Armenia is to conjecture only, and each cavalryman is left to do this for .himself. As our own American horse of good blood is but a descendant of the English horse of good blood, which in turn comes down from the Arabian, which, as evidenced above, is a descendant of the North African horse, etc., the above facts enable us to know more of the animal we ride in our cavaky to-day. Ever since the horse has been known to man, use has been made of him for saddle purposes both in peace and war; without him military history would be barren of those stirring events with which we are all so familiar, and which make us look forward to the achievements of our cavalry in all future wars. From the very beginning, no doubt, riders in all lands devised ways and means of carrying with them on horseback the simple necessities of camp and field. Every cavalry service has found it absolutely imperative to carry equipment, clothing, am- munition, and rations upon the individual horse, and it is an interesting study to read of the many experiments tried in all armies for the improvement of the cavalry horse and the packing and carrying of necessities on 2'he Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 23 his back. No tribe or nation has ever ridden long with- out devising some simple means of carrying on horseback those indispensable articles necessary to the welfare and protection of both horse and rider. In early times the pack consisted of a rude affair in which necessary articles were tied together and hung in front and behind the rider over crude saddles made of the skins of wild animals sewn roughly to sticks or arches, and it has only been with the knowledge and experience which come with time and study and skill and usage that these barbaric contrivances gradually assumed modem forms, until to- day the pack is a wonderful and scientific arrangement, upon which improvement would be difficult. It was quickly realized that the less the pack and the more carefully it was adjusted the more service would the horse render ; that it should be hung low to help the horse preserve his natural equilibrium ; that it should not chafe the horse nor interfere with his free action at all gaits; finally, that the horse himself should be well trained, well bred, well cared-for, and his rider fearless and skillful and considerate. These were the cardinal principles governing the handling of the cavalry horse and his pack ages ago, and they apply equally well to-day. There is a limit quickly reached in the breeding of cavalry horses and in the reduction of the cavalry pack; the first depending upon the horse supply of the coun- try in which the cavalry is raised, the average price paid by the Govertiment, the climate, the method of purchase, and especially the demand; the second depending upon the country in which the cavalry is to operate and the importance of independence and efficiency in all the vari- ous duties cavalry is called upon to perform, for the pack is lighter or heavier according to season, service, resources, and climate. CHAPTER II. . ! Classes of CavaIvRy. Heavy Cavalry— Medium — Light — Different Classes of Each— In- terchangeability of Designations — Arms — Equipment — Weight of Men and Horses in Each Glass — Height of Horses in Differ- ent Classes — Austrian Cavalry — English — Russian — Belgian — German — French — American. Cavalry is not merely good men mounted on good horses and armed with modern weapons and a good sup- ply of ammunition. The history of the first two years of the Cavalry in the Civil War amply demonstrated this, at an enormous expense to the Government. Volun- teer cavalry regiments, hastily organized, mounted, and armed, lasted but a comparatively brief time, owing to ignorance and carelessness in the care of horses and the lack of time to train them in cavalry work. As a result these regiments were constantly having to be supplied with remounts, until finally the Cavalry Bureau was organized in 1863 to take charge of everything pertaining to the Cavalry. It was not until these regiments had learned cavalry life by nearly three years of active war service that results were commensurate with the expense of keeping them in creditable condition. In no branch of an army is ignorance or carelessness so costly as in its cavalry arm. Horses are not merely machines of speed. Endurance for arduous service can be expected and acquired only when the horses are guarded jealously against all unnecessary harsh treatment, and when feeding, watering, saddling, packing, grooming, marching, and camping are well understood and system- atic methods employed. In the cavalry arms of nearly all foreign services, the cavalry is divided into two and sometimes into three The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 25 classes, known as light, medium, and heavy cavalry In the American and Austrian Cavalry services no such distinctions are made. Where these distinctions are made, the chief difference among the classes is in the weight of men and horses; the name of the class itself indicating whether the horses and men are light weight, heavy weight, or medium weight. However, there is considerable distinction between the role of heavy cav- alry and the other ; to use an old quotation, ' ' No carpen- ter would use his mallet as a hammer, or his chisel as a saw ' ' ; and it would be the grossest folly to employ heavy cavalry on reconnoitering duty, on raiding, patrols, or screening duty, if either light or medium cavalry form part of the cavalry with the army. Medium cavalry exists only in one or two of the European armies, and the line of distinction between it and the light cavalry is not always clearly defined, and for this reason the division of cavalry into heavy and light seems the more reasonable. In mounted shock-action heavy cavalry finds its proper field, while in all the arduous varying duties of patrolling, screening, reconnoitering, raiding, escorting, and scout- ing light cavalry stands pre-erhinent. No better defini- tion of light cavalry can be imagined than that given by that splendid light-cavalryman, De Brack, himself a pUpil of La Salle, Montbrun, Colbert, and Pajol: "I/ight cav- alry is to precede our column, scouting our flanks, sur- rounding them and concealing them with a bold and vig- ilant curtain, following the enemy step by step, haras- sing and annoying him, discovering his designs, exhaust- ing his forces in detail, destroying his magazines, captur- ing his convoys, and finally forcing him to expend in defensive operations the strength from which he might otherwise have reaped the greatest advantage." The British Cavalry is divided into Dragoon Guards, Dragoons, Hussars, and Lancers. The Dragoon Guards are heavy, its most illustrious regiments being the House- hold Cavalry; the Dragoons are medium, and the Hus- sars and Lancers are light. The horses of the British 26 i'he Cavalry Horse and His Pack. Cavalry are about the same, averaging i5i hands high and looo pounds in each class. The men in the light cavalry are f romjs feet 4i inchesito 5 feet 6 inches ; m the medmm, BRITISH cavalryman;on|horse. 5 feet 6 inches to 5 feet 8 inches ; and in the heavy, 5 feet 8 inches to 5 feet 10 inches. Thus, very light men under 5 feet 4^. inches are excluded from light cavalry, The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 27 and large, po^yerful men over 5 feet 10 inches are excluded from the heavy. A distinction is made in the houses as well ■as in thefmen, the light cavalry getting the lightest horses to 'go with their light men, and the heaviest horses/o^go with the heaviest men. All British_Cavalry are armed BRITISH INDIAN LANCER AND HORSE. with carbine and saber, and officers arid non-commissioned officers carry pistols, and the Lancers in addition carry the lance. ^Equipment and accessories composing the pack vary according to the service ; and the pack, owing to the vast difference in service in England's many colo- nies, varies greatly in weight. 28 The Cavalry Tlorse and His Pack. The German Cavalry is divided into Cuirassiers, Uhlans, Dragoons, and Hussars. The Cuirassiers and :'»- .s:xm'~».,. GERMAN UHtAN MOUNTED. Uhlans are heavy, and the Dragoons and Hussars are light. In the heavy cavalry the average weight of horses is 1083 pounds, and the average weight of the trooper is The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 29 187 pounds. In the light cavalry the horses average about 950 pounds in weight and the troopers 143 pounds. All the German cavalry regiments are armed with the RUSSIAN CAVALRY SOLDIISR MOUNTED. 30 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. lance, saber, and carbine, and of&cers and non-commis- sioned officers carry revolvers. The Russian Cavalry is divided into Cuirassiers, Uhlans, Dragoons, and Hussars, largely similar in weight i 1 ^^^ 2 ^>^j ^4,'T^^H ■•^^» m m^ ^iJL«h 1 ■ '^^ !* !' mmm" COSSACK OFFICER MOUKTED. and size to the German. The Cuirassiers and Uhlans are heavy, and the Dragoons and Hussars are light. All the cavalry regiments are armed with saber and rifle with bay- onet, and the officers and non-commissioned officers carry pistols. The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 31 The Belgian Cavalry is divided into Chasseurs, Lan- cers, and Guides. The Guides are heavy, and the Chas- seurs and Lancers are light. The Chasseurs and Guides RUSSIAN HUSSAR OFFICER MOUNTED. 32 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. are armed with carbine and saber ; the lyancers carry the lance, the carbine, and revolver. The Austrian Cavalry is not divided into light and heavy. Its Cavalry is known as Dragoons, Hussars, and Lancers, but all are considered light cavalry ; all are sim- AUSTRIAN HUSSARS IN FIEI.D UNIFORM. ilarly armed and equipped, carrying the saber and mag- azine carbine, and the officers revolvers. The French Cavalry is divided into Cuirassiers, Dra- goons, Chasseurs-k-Cheval, Hussars, Chasseurs d'Afrique, Spahis, volunteer scouts, and remount companies. The The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 33 Cuirassiers are heavy cavalry, the Dragoons are known as Cavalry of the Line, and all the others are light cavalry. The Dragoons and light cavalry are armed with a maga- zine carbine of small caliber and sabers; the officers and sub-officers being armed with revolvers in place of AUSTRIAN DRAGOONS IN FIEI,D UNIFORM. the carbine. Each man in the cavalry also has a d3ma- mite cartridge weighing about 3^ ounces attached to the saddle. ' The American Cavalry before the Civil War was com- posed of mounted regiments as shown in the following table . 3- 34 ^^^ Cavalry Horse and His Pack. FRENCH HUSSAR SOLDIER MOUNTED The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 35 french:cuirassier mounted. 36 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. First Dragoons, organized by Act of Congres March 2, 1833; Second Dragoons, organized by Act of Congress, May 23, 1836; converted into a regiment of Riflemen by Act of August 23, 1842; recon- verted into Second Dragoons again by Act of April 4, 1844; , Mounted Rifles, organized by Act of Congress, May 19, 1846; First Cavalry, organized by Act of Congress, March 3, 1855 ; Second Cavalry, organized by Act of Congress, March 3, 1855. On May 4, i86i, one new cavalry regiment was or- ganized by direction of the President and designated the Sixth Cavalry ; this action of the President was confirmed by an Act of Congress on July 29, 1861. On August 3, 1 86 1, the designations of these regi- ments were changed by an Act of Congress, as follows : The First Dragoons became the First Cavalry; The Second Dragoons became the Second Cavalry ; The Mounted Rifles became the Third Cavalry; The First Cavalry became the Fourth Cavalry; The Second Cavalry became the Fifth Cavalry; The Sixth Cavalry remained the Sixth Cavalry. After the Civil War four new cavalry regiments were organized, as follows : Seventh Cavalry, by Act of Congress, July 28, 1866; Eighth Cavalry, bv Act of Congress, July 28, 1866; Ninth Cavalry (colored), by Act of Congress, July 28, 1866; Tenth Cavalry (colored), by Act of Congress, July 28, 1866. The colored regiments were composed ofj colored en- listed men, the ofi&cers being white. llie Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 37 At che outbreak of the Spanish-American War in 1898, therefore, the American Cavalry was composed of the above ten regular regiments, all designated simply "Cavalry," each regiment possessing approximately .1,000 officers and men. Various volunteer cavalry organiza- tions were mustered into the United States service for this war, in a somewhat similar manner to that adopted during the Civil War. Also similarly, these volunteer regiments were later mustered out of service when no longer needed. On February 2, 1901, five new cavalry regiments were added to the Regular Establishment, as follows : Eleventh Cavalry, by Act of Congress, February, 2, 1901; Twelfth Cavalry, by Act of Congress, February 2, 1901; Thirteenth Cavalry, by Act of Congress, Feb- - ruary 2, 1901; Fourteenth Cavalry, by Act of Congress, Feb- ruary 2, 1901 ; Fifteenth Cavalry, by Act of Congress, February 2, 1901. And the above is the present approximate strength and the present designations of the American Cavalry. From 1 86 1 all regiments have been designated simply "Cavalry," and are practically light cavalry, as American Cavalry has ever been. The cavalry work in our early wars, in the Civil War, in our Western campaigns, and in our more recent colonial campaigns, has distinctly been light cavalry work, although desig- nated under the common head of "Cavalry." Judging by the size and weight of our men and horses, American Cavalry might better be termed Dragoons, but its work has always been that defined by De Brack as light cav- alry work, and such we really are, and such our work and training have always made us. Indeed, the Dragoon is generally a light cavalry man. In the British Cavalry Dragoons are medium, but in the other services Dragoons 38 The Cavalry Horse and His PacJc. are classified generally as light. The classifying of the Cavalry as medium is surperfluous. There is no well- defined set of duties for medium cavalry, and it being in no sense a heavy cavalry, it is wiser to call it light and obviate a meaningless designation. Under Sheri- dan, Wilson, Merritt, Minty, Buford, Bayard, "Grimes" Davis, Famsworth, Ulrich Dahlgren, Pleasanton, Stone- man, and others on the Union side, Morgan, Stuart, For- rest, and others on the Confederate, American Cavalry did all that De Brack's definition implied. Referring again to the quotation used in the early part of this chapter, that "No carpenter would use his mallet as a hammer, or his chisel as a saw," it cannot be impressed upon the cavalryman too forcibly that this cavalry maxim is the deduction of all great cavalry lead- ers from their own experience in handling the different classes of cavalry. In cavalry work, to obtain satisfac- tory results, the two classes must be used in their proper field. While it often becomes necessary in campaigns to utilize the available cavalry at hand in work for which it was not intended, such work should be demanded only in emergencies ; better still, the cavalry should be husbanded according to its character, and not frittered away in unnec- essary details on courier, orderly, and headquarters work. When its opportunity comes, its work will demand all its strength and endurance, and there is no more speedy way of ruining it than by utilizing it recklessly for the thous- and minor duties occurring in war and field service, duties which could far more economically and wisely be performed by mere mounted orderlies from infantry organizations. To husband the strength of horses and men always is a lesson that we cannot learn too well. We should not imagine, in our zeal to do well, that every note must be carried at a mad gallop, every march made a forced one, every camp a hardship, every bit of groom- ing a useless waste of time, or every man and horse equally intelligent, enduring, and caoable CHAPTER III. The Horsb Supply. Definition of Term — Remounts — Horse Supply of England — Its Remounts — ^Average Cost — Training — Horse Supply of Ger- many — Its Remounts — Average Cost — Training — Of Russia — Of France — Of Austria — Of America. The term "horse supply' defined means simply the horse population of the country of which mention is made. Upon it depends the ability to raise and maintain a cavalry force, to a large extent. Russia leads the world, having the greatest horse supply of any country; next to which comes America (the United States) ; then the others: Austria, Germany, France, and England about even, and the lesser countries proportionately smaller. By the term "remount" is meant the horse pur- chased to fill up the vacancy caused in a cavalry service by the loss of one of its horses. In time of peace the pro- curing of proper remounts is not a very difficult matter, some countries supporting government breeding-farms for this purpose, others supporting or partly supporting studs only, while others procure their .remounts by pur- chase. In time of war the subject of remounts becomes one of the most important as well as one of the most difficult to handle. Germany possesses a horse supply of over 4,000,000, nearly 3,000,000 of which are found in Prussia alone. These enormous resources give Germany ample horse- flesh from which to select its yearly remount of about 9,000 horses, the average price of which is $180, not including the additional expenses of travel, etc. The class of horses principally used for light cavalry purposes comes from Prussia, Eastern Prussia, and is a mixture of about 50 per cent pure English blood and 25 per cent 39 40 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. of Lithuanian or Oriental blood. Both in nature and looks the Eastern Prussian horse largely resembles the horse in Southern France known as the "Tarbeen." The minimum height for the different classes of cavalry is as follows: heavy cavalry, i6 hands; light cavalry, in- cluding its various classes, 15^ to 16 hands. The average weight carried by the light cavalry man is 250 pounds, and as an average a light cavalry horse lasts about ten years. To the system of obtaining remounts for the German Cavalry and their splendid course of training before the animals are permitted to take part in drills is, in a great measure, due that wonderful precision of movement which marks all their mounted evolutions. The remount ser- vice of the German Government is considered of such importance that it is under a special department of the War Ministry, at the head of which there is an inspector- general of remounts with the rank of major-general. A brief description of this remount system will serve to show the great pains taken in Europe to produce superior cav- alry horses, and it may be taken as the best system in existence. In the first place, the entire country is divided geo- graphically into six great circles, and to a certain number of the remount d6p6ts are assigned these territorial divis- ions for their sources of supply. Horses are, in times of peace, purchased at from three to four years old by com- missions consisting of cavalry officers and veterinarians under the orders of the Remount Department of the War Ministry. This commission begins its work in May of each year and continues until September. The date at which purchases will be made is announced beforehand, so that sellers may have an opportunity to prepare. The number purchased is always 5 per cent over and above the number required, in order to make allowances for losses and those proving unfit for service. In the Bavarian and Saxony systems the remounts are sent directly to the regiments after purchase, but in the Prus- The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 41 sian system they are distributed to four remount d6p6ts, where they are kept for a year, during which time they have an opportunity to develop. At the end of ttis time , all remounts not unfit for the cavalry service are sent to their regiments. At the head of each remount dipbt is a civil official, the administrator, who is selected for his good judgment in regard to horses, his own good horse- manship, and his ability as an agriculturist. Under him is an accountant, with an inspector over each of the farms, from one to four under the administrator's charge. There are from one to three veterinary surgeons at each dep6t, and one forage-master for each farm. The grooms are hired civilians, and the remainder of the employees are old soldiers. The stables on these remount farms are mere closed sheds, in which the horses are never tied up, but are allowed free access at all times to the paddocks adjoining their stables. They are neither marked in any way except by a numbered ticket, nor shod, and receive only ten minutes' grooming a day. Their daily allowance of forage is 12 pounds of hay, 7^ pounds of oats, and 15 pounds of straw, with green food several months in the year. The cost of maintaining these animals is in some degree reduced by agricultural sales and by cattle-breed- ing, but it is stated that the annual cost of maintaining one animal averages $65. Each regiment annually receives a certain number of horses and has an equal number condemned. !Each reg- iment has in addition a remount fund, out of which it is at liberty to purchase young horses on its own account, the regiment having a right to sell at once any young horse which appears worthless as a cavalry animal during his first two years' service, and also of ridding themselves at once of an animal accidentally disabled. Thus the remount fund, before mentioned, accumulates from sales of this character, and also from the sales of the forage which has accumulated,- due to the loss of such horses from the regiment. Once a year each regiment sends a 42 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. detachment under charge of an oificer to the d6p6ts,^to receive its authorized quota of remounts. < The training of the remounts at the remount depots receives the greatest attention. The greatest care is taken from the very beginning not to spoil their disposi- tions and to gradually accustom them to military duties. The first few weeks they are merely ridden aroimd among the old horses to make them feel at home in their new sur- roundings and to accustom them to having the weight of a rider on their back. They are then gradually taught to allow their teachers to handle them on all parts of their bodies, and the greatest patience is exercised to give them confidence in their riders. Later on much atten- tion is paid to jumping, and the remounts are taught first to go over the obstacle led alongside an old horse, and afterwards by themselves. Much importance is also attached to teaching the remounts the gaits and to pro- ficiency in passing easily and promptly from one gait to another. In order to be ready for the immense number of remounts which would be required in the event of war, a muster of all the horses in the empire is made every ten years. Every horse-owner is bound to produce for the committee who make the census in each department all his horses, excepting stallions, horses under four years of age, horses blind in both eyes, mares with foal, and horses worked underground in the mines. Out of this num- ber submitted are picked riding and draft animals. On mobilization, each province must furnish the number of horses required, a fixed price being paid for them by the State. As' a partial recompense for this obligation forced upon the people, the Government provides thor- oughbred stallions for the service of mares throughout the country. The war strength of the German Cavalry consists of 3,203 officers and 106,993 men, of which number 6,498 are non-combatants. As it is accurately determined that Germany has within her bounds 215,709 trained The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 43 cavalrymen, there is, in case of war, an excess of 115,000 to draw on for train and artillery work. As it is not possible to give in detail in this book the remount system of each country discussed, what is believed to be a t)T)ical remount system is placed before the reader in the above, to enable him to appreciate the great care and attention given in Europe to the cavalry arm. Austria, often mentioned as possessing the finest cav- alry in Europe, has a horse supply of nearly 4,000,000, but these horses are nearly all raised in a haphazard, indifferent way. These horses of Austria are very similar to the native horse of Russia, probably owing to the fact that great numbers of Russian horses are introduced into Austria annually. As the Government owns its own government studs, imperial studs, and local studs dis- tributed thoughout the empire, the Austrian cavalry horse is carefully bred and reared and vastly superior to the general run of horses. As a remount is required yearly of over 6,000, the large breeding and training depots are at all times scenes of great activity and ex- periment. The Austrian Regulations require that the cavalry horse be between five and seven years of age, of a minimum height of 15^ hands. At this height a horse can be accepted only when, especially well developed. As the entire cavalry service of the Austrian Empire is considered light cavalry, its horses would seem to be some- what large. However, as the Austrian cavalrjrman car- ries 297 pounds, including himself, a smaller horse seems to have been found undesirable. The average service of the cavalry horse in Austria is about seven years ; the average price paid by Austria is $101.32, whenever they need to purchase outside mounts. This price is low, con- sidering the very fine class of animals Austria uses in her cavalry. But it must be considered that Austria buys young remouiits when her government supply is not suf- ficient, buying three-and-a-half and four-year-old horses, 44 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. and training them over a year before assigning them to a regiment. Russia has a large horse supply of over 25,000,000 in European and Siberian Russia. Southern Siberia furnishes a small 14^-hand horse of hardy build, and Southern Russia a somewhat larger horse, though prob- ably a mixture of Siberian and Southern R.ussian blood. These southern horses are ^principally utilized for the light regular cavalry, although several Cossack regiments are mounted wholly on the South Siberian horse of 14^ hands, and are said to be ideal light cavalry. The Gov- ernment buys horses very young, and subjects all but those destined for the Cossack regiments to severe train- ing. The Cossack horse is sent direct to his regiment, the Cossack being an acknowledged horse-trainer and rough- rider and generally on duty at remote frontier garrisons, where the time for training green horses is plenty. The light cavalry horse of Russia must be from 15 to 15^ hands high, from three and one-half to seven years old, and the average price paid is about $150. After twelve years' service, all cavalry horses are arbitrarily condemcned, good or bad. These condemned horses are allowed to be sold to officers, generally bringing from $12 to $20. France, in the campaign of 1870-71, was obliged to purchase horses abroad for the remount of her troops, despite its horse population of over three million. Its annual remount, even in time of peace, is nearly 15,000. The foreign purchases, made mostly in America, gave little satisfaction; it being claimed that the remounts secured were irritable, ^ badly formed, and unable to stand hard service. It 'would seem France must have gotten mongrel Western horses, and that the fault rested principally with its own purchasing commissions. The "Tarbeen" horse of Southern France is an especially fine light cavalry animal of more or less Oriental style and blood, but the supply is limited, though regular and even. Many Algerian horses are also purchased yearly, cavalry commissions regularly visiting Algiers for this purpose. The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 45 The Algerian horse is a descendant of the Barb, and pos- sesses in consequence Moorish blood. The French light cavalry regulation horse is from 14^ to 15^ hands high, flowing tail and mane, four years old, and either geld- ings or mares. The "Tarbeen" horse and the Algerian horse are both light i4i-hand horses as an average, and every year the commission goes throughout Southern France and Algeria for the purpose of getting these horses for light cavalry remounts. The French cavalry horse is specially trained under special instructors at Saumur, at St. Cyr, at the War School at Paris, and at several other large cavalry remount d6p6ts. The horses are usually bought at three and one-half years, trained one year, and put in their regiment at four and one-half years. The average purchase price is $160, and the average length of service eight years. Belgium's horse population, about 300,000, belongs apparently to one well-known type, the Flemish, which formed a distinct race, and was often mentioned in ancient history as the horse of the time, and still shows strong qualities and fair proportions. In occidental Flanders he is very tall, strong, and enduring, but prin- cipally purchased for artillery and draft purposes. The best subdivision of this class is procured for the light cav- alry in and 'around Bruges. This horse is more evenly gaited, more active, and of better shape and small. Bel- gium only requiring a yearly remount of about 1,000 cavalry horses, she has no difficulty in procuring desir- able ones. The Government purchases either geldings or mares, from five to six years of age; horses with prominent noses as well as mixed colors, piebald, gray or white faces are not purchased. For Chasseurs the height is 15 to 15^ hands, and for the I^ancers 15^ to 15^ hands. The purchase price is an average of about $75. The average service of the light cavalry horse is about seven years. England has been called upon many times in the breeding of horses in our own country to furnish us some 46 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. of her thoroughbred or half-bred blood, and the use by us of the English blood in breeding has been to improve the quality of American horses very greatly. As the quality of cavalry of every nation must ever depend mainly upon the quality of horse the country produces, this use in America of thoroughbred English stallions has given us a finer standard of horses from which to make purchases to mount our own cavalry. Let us see what the English Thoroughbred horse is, and thereby better understand our own. Before the days of the Stuarts there was no reason to consider the English horse in any way superior to the horse of Europe ; in fact, at that time the Asiatic horse was held to be superior to any other, and it remained for James I. and Charles I. to introduce Arab blood into England; but Charles II. may be said to have laid the foundation of the present English breed by the importation of four mares, from which may be traced many of the most cel- ebrated horses of the last century. However, the main stock of the very best English blood of -to-day lies in the three following Eastern horses: first, the Byerly Turk, introduced into Ireland in 1689; and second, the Darley Arabian, imported early in the eighteenth century; and third, perhaps the. most important, the Godolphin Arab, which seems more properly to have been a Barb, and was first used as a sire in 1731. The blood of the latter pre- dominates to a greater extent than that of any other in the English Thoroughbred of to-day. We have every reason to believe that the well-bred horse of that time was diminutive in size as compared to those of the pres- ent. Babraham, a son of Godolphin, was the only well- known horse of his time that measured 16 hands, and we find it chronicled that out of 130 famous thorough- bred English horses in the middle of the eighteenth cen- tury, only 18 reached 15 hands, 11 of which sprang from the Godolphin, 3 from the Darley Arabian, and 2 from the Byerly Turk. We may thus fairly look upon the Godolphin as having first generated size in the English Thoroughbred The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. {j horse, although feeding, care, and attention to crossing have aided. The growth of racing in England gradu- ally led to cross-breeding for one purpose alone — speed, and as a result of this the "Thoroughbred," as he is called erroneously, gradually developed an elongated frame, as beautiful as his predecessors or more so, but to the eye of the cavalryman displaying diminished muscles and less prominent sinews and sharper and less powerful withers. As we find, especially in Kentucky and Ten- nessee, many Thoroughbreds out of stallions descended from the Godolphin Arab, the Byerly Turk, and the Bar- ley Arabian, and as English Thoroughbred stallions are so extensively used in cross-breeding in America, it is well to know something of what we mean when we speak of good blooded horses. The latest census of the horse supply of Great Britain shows a total of about 3,000,000, 2,000,000 of which are employed in breeding and agriculture and 1,000,000 privately or in trade. After obvious deduc- tions for age, size, and unsoundness, about 70,000 horses are considered likely to be found fitted for military purposes. On reference to the estimates laid before Par- liament annually, it is found that the total number of army horses of all classes belonging to mounted troops in Great Britain, Ireland, and the Colonies, exclusive of the regi- ments in India and of oflBcers' horses, is nearly 16,000. From the same source it is found that the annual re- mount of these troops is about 2,000. The 31 regiments of British Cavalry make an average of about 24,000 of all classes, and when it is stated that the British Cavalry has but 1 6,000 horses and requires an annual remount of about 2,000, it must be explained that England does not mount full regiments in its Cavalry. For instance, the House- hold Cavalry contains 27 officers, 2 warrant officers, and 404 men, but only 275 riding-horses and 10 supernu- merary horses per regiment. This rule applies to all its Cavalry of the I/ine as well. The British Army Book explains this by saying: "There is a constant flow of 48 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. recruits passing into the ranks and temporarily unfit, men in hospital, others employed as regimental cooks or in other necessary dismounted capacity, men on guard and men employed as officers' servants, and it will not be hard to understand that the commanding officer's difficulty lies in finding effective men to mount his horses, rather than the horses for mounting his men. If one of our 31 regiments were to take the field, it would be complete as an administrative body, with leaders, staff and regimental machinery, and there would remain only the need of supplying the additional horses." Such a departure from our own ideas seems to us to be radically at fault and a departure from well-understood cavalry principles, although recently the American Cavalry has begun to do this to a small extent. The horses for the British Cavalry are purchased by an inspector-general of remounts, assisted by a staff of cavalry officers and veterinary surgeons. Ordinary remounts are purchased from five to six years of age, between 15^ and 16 hands in height, and are sent either direct to regiments or to the remount d6p6ts. The average price for the light cavalry horse is very high, being found to be about $245 ; the average length of ser- vice is about eight years. When, from any cause, a reg- iment requires remounts, the regimental commander makes application to the inspector-general of remounts, who supplies the horses required. To facilitate meeting the military demands for re- mounts in time of war, a system of registration through- out England and Ireland is arranged, being voluntary on the part of the owners. Owners having large numbers of horses are invited to register them; those which on inspection by an officer of the Remount Establishment are found suitable are registered, the owners signing an agreement and receiving ten shillings annually for each horse so inspected and registered. The register of the horses is kept on file in the War Office, and each horse is inspected annually by one of the officers of the Remount The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 49 Establishment, and the price at which they are to be pur- chased by the Government, if needed, is agreed upon. By the terms of the agreement, owners are boimd, on the proclamation of the National Defense Act, to furnish, after forty-eight hours' notice, horses- serviceable, sound, arid of age, height, and class agreed upon at the previous aiinual inspection. If the owner fails to furnish the number and class of horses registered, a penalty of $200 per horse is inflicted. The agreement can be terminated by either party on six months' notice. There are about 14,000 horses so registered at present, 10,500 for draft or artillery use, and about 3,500 for cavalry purposes, which is sufficient for England's home defense and for small forces embarking for foreign service. To further meet the demands of war-time, the resources of England's col- onies and also of foreign countries have been in the past and would probably be again largely utilized. Officers of the Remount Department have often visited the horse districts of Canada and of our own Western ranches and purchased remounts, and during the Crimean War the countries of the Mediterranean contributed largely. In the Abyssinian War, Syria and other countries sold horses to the British Cavalry. The British cavalry horses are sent upon purchase to the remount dep6ts usually, and are placed immediately under the instruction of riding masters and rough-riders, who train not only the young horses, but also all recruits, either officers or soldiers, and this initial training nat- urally greatly affects the entire future equitation of the British Cavalry. CHAPTER IV. American Horse Supply and Remount. Horse Population — Area — Variation in Size, Quality, and Price- Remounts — Experiments — Average Cost — Length of Service — System of Purchase — The Regulation Cavalry Horse. In the United States the horse population is a little over i6,ooo,poo, and is scattered from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from Mexico to Canada, representing many different sizes, qualities, and classes and varying greatly in value. Attention is called to the detailed, statement given by States in Appendix I. It is believed that no horses, as we of to-day under- stand the modern horse, were in America prior to 1529, and a careful study of various histories on this point furnishes no data whatever antedating this year. In the year mentioned a band of horses were introduced into America by the Spaniards in Texas, and, as was the custom in the early colonial days, they were turned out to make their own living. The horses at that time were kept entire (stallions). These horses were sold, as far as possible, for domestic use, others roaming at will towards the north and west, and no doubt from them originated our numer- ous herds of wild horses. In 1539 De Soto, the Spanish explorer, landed in Florida with 500 men and 237 horses. His course was northward and westward. He reached the Mississippi River, as we all know, and there died. His party con- tinued across the ^reat "Father of Waters," and trav- eled northward and westward still, crossing the Missis- sippi with 150 horses and 250 men. Later they became discouraged, and reached the Gulf of Mexico in Texas, built boats, and left on their return to Spain. When they sailed away, they left their remaining horses, which 50 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 51 were few, on the Texas shores. These few horses and those which had become disabled and left on the way through the wilderness, many of them being stallions and mares, furnished the foundation for the great herds of wild horses which have existed in the Southwest and Texas for centuries in this country. The settlers of Jamestown, in 1607, brought from England many horses for use in the "New World." In 161 1 there was another large importation of horses at the same place, and quite a number of importations of Eng- lish horses into Virginia followed all the way up to the year 1620. The colonies of North and South Carolina secured their horses from Virginia. Henry Hudson, an Englishman, discovered the har- bor of New York in 1609. In the following few years many horses were brought to this part of America by the English. In 1629 six vessels arrived at Boston from England,, bringing people and their horses. In these six vessels there were 25 mares and stallions. Salenj, Massachusetts, was founded in 1626,. and in 1629 receiyed a large importation of Dutch horses, and from then "on for several years there was quite a number o£ importations of Dutch, Swedish, Danish, and French horses into the colonies of New York, Connecticut, Mary- land, and New Jersey. Port Royal, Canada, known as New France, was set- tled by the French some time prior to the settlements in Virginia, and many French .pacing horses were imported. Quite a number of importations of Dutch and English horses followed, and the breeding ot horses became quite a business in the Colonies as early as 1640. Breeding horses in Rhode Island became quite common as early as 1650. Two-thirds of the horses imported into the Colonies in early times seem to have been pacers. They made excel- lent saddle-horses, which seemed to be in great demand in the early days before the country had carriage-roads, traveling being nearly all performed in the saddle. 52 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. Along about 1 700 wild horses became quite plentiful in Virginia, and they were hunted for sport, as everyone caught not having a brand belonged to its captor. Thus, from these historical proofs of the early horses in America, it can be seen that the horse was bred in this country for over one hundred years, laying a very great foundation for the horse of to-day. There was thus introduced into America in the earliest colonial days the horse with English blood, the horse with Dutch blood, with French, with Spanish, with Swedish, and with Dan- ish blood. Last, but not least, came the blood of the English race-horse, which has been imported into America from very early colonial times. These importations of the English thoroughbred racing-horses commenced about 1750, and have continued almost every year since then, largely influencing the style, disposition, size, shape, and quality of our best animals. The remount system used in the United States Cav- alry is one that is regulated by Acts of Congress. It is known as the contract system. All purchases are made by officers of the Quartermaster's Department, assisted by veterinarians, and all horses are sent direct to regi- ments. Contractors under this system agree to furnish to the Government, at an agreed-upon contract price, a specified number of horses conforming to the Army stand- ard. Occasionally contractors are required to present the horses at some designated point for inspection and purchase by the Government, while at other times agree- ment is made between the Government and the con- tractor under which officers of the Quartermaster's De- partment or Cavalry, accompanied by veterinary sur- geons and the contractors, visit particular sections of the United States and inspect and purchase therein the horses presented by the contractors. There is no distinction made in the American cav- alry service between light and heavy cavalry, and the regulation cavalry horse is the same for all regiments, but in each regiment (composed of twelve troops each), The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 53 each troop is mounted upon horses of the same color, so far as possible. The cavalry horse in our service must be sound and well bred, gentle under the saddle, free from vicious habits, with free and prompt action at the walk, trot, and gallop, without Talemish or defect, of a kind dis- position, with easy mouth and gait, and otherwise to con- form to the following description : A gelding of uniform and hardy color, in good condition, from 15^ to 16 hands high, weight not less than 950 nor more than 11 50 pounds, from four to eight years old, head and ears small, forehead broad, eyes large and prominent, vision perfect in every respect, shoulders long and sloping well back, chest full, broad and deep, fore legs straight and standing well under, barrel large and increasing from girth toward ' flank, withers elevated, back short and straight, loins arid haunches broad and muscular, hocks well bent and under the horse, pasterns slanting, and feet small and sound. A horse under five years old is not accepted unless a specially fine, well-developed animal. As soon as cavalry horses are purchased in our service, the letters "U. S." are branded on the left shoulder; and as soon as the horses are assigned to troops, they are branded on the front of the hoof of the near fore foot with the number of the regiment and the letter of the troop. As soon as horses are assigned to the troop, they are assigned to individual riders, who exclusively train and use them. Many experiments have been made in the American Cavalry with the various different classes of horses found in the United States. In Texas from 1865 to 1875 we used what might be called a mongrel, with the excep- ' tion of a few well-bred horses that came from Tennes- see and Kentucky. After a few long and hard Indian campaigns, these well-bred horses were the only ones remaining of the original mount. We experimented with the Texas cow pony, but one scout rendered them unfit fo: immediate future service. The average weight of a cav- alryman fully armed and equipped is about 225 pounds 54 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. as a minimum, and as the cow pony weighs only 700 to 850 pounds, the proportion of dead weight is too much for the frame. A good proportion is 4 to i. Thus a 225-pound load takes a 900-pound horse. From 1875 to 1888 we got our cavalry Worses principally from Kansas City and St. l/ouis, Mo. While many of these horses were good, still a large percentage of them were of Clydesdale blood, which stock is fit only for draft-horses. Later an attempt was made to supply us with ranch-bred horses from California and Nevada, one or two regiments being so mounted. It was con- siderably a success, these chosen horses being about threcrquarters American and one-quarter Spanish blood and possessing remarkable endurance and stamina for long service over most difficult country, and were as hard as steel. They were small, average 14^ to 15 hands, and from 900 to 950 pounds in weight, and were very great "rustlers." Many of these horses were seen and recog- nized in the service years afterward, still performing the roughest kind of cavalry field work and apparently good for plenty more service, but the supply was very small. At one time we mounted part of our cavalry upon Oregon horses bred out of native mares by ordinary stal- lions of Clydesdale blood, and the result was most unsat- isfactory — no nerve, no agility, no intelligence, and heavy in hand. Troop H, Fourth Cavalry, at that time one of the troops that were using these horses, had two Thor- oughbred horses given to it by General Stanley. Ser- geants were assigned as riders, and these two horses were in excellent condition even after H Troop had been twice newly mounted. Our experiments in the past have shown that many advantages are derived by purchasing none but horses which are at least fairly well bred. Most men appreciate the good qualities of a horse they are obliged to ride, and it is a well-known fact among caval- rymen that when a maii is mountedvUpon a fine, well- bred, intelligent horse, he will give it far more attention than if he were mounted upon a mongrel, heavy, lumber- The Cavalry HorSe and His Pack. 55 ing one. The Success of the Cavalry Bureau during the Civil War was remarkable in fitting for further service thousands of temporarily incapacifated horses that had become broken down through ine3f,perience and careless abuse by hastily enlisted men. Civilian experts for a time were used by the Quartermaster's Department to choose and purchase the horses for our cavalry regiments in conjunction with plficers from that department. In the past, boards of cavalry officers have been used for the pvffchase of our cavalry remounts, but ' ' it has frequently happened that officers of other arms of the service have been employed on this duty. Purchase in open mar- ket in the past has also been tried, by boards of offi- cers appointed from the organizations requiring horses. These boards were permitted to go into the districts where horses cotdd be procured and purchase such horses as were found to be acceptable, the only restriction being as to a certain average price for all the horses purchased. This method gave great satisfaction to the Cavalry, but was objected to by the Quartermaster's Department, and, having no warrant of law to sanction it, had necessarily to be abandoned." The purchase of our remounts under the present sys- tem does now meet with the entire satisfaction of cavalry officers, it being held by many cavalrymen that we are better qualified to do the purchasing, ■ because of greater familiarity with the qualities, conformation, training, and use of our cavalry horses. About $600,000 is ex- pended annually for our remount in time of peace of about 8,000 animals for all purposes. This makes an average of $75 a head, a sum too small to procure well- bred horses ; but a species of scale exists, making it prac- ticable to pay as high- as $125 for cavalry horses, for which price very satisfactory animals can be procured. This can be readily seen by a perusal of Appendix I. Judging by the idea which prevails- in European cav- alry services, it would seem that the horses purchased for the American Cavalry are too old when first bought; if 56 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. purchased at four years old, they would not be too young for at least a year of careful training before being placed in regiments, owing to the great care our horses receive : but at seven and eight years old horses have certainly passed the best period for training. Physically, the regulation horse of the American Cavalry service, as actually seen in our troops, is a powerful, fine, and tolerably well-bred animal, possessing sufficient bone and sinew, intelligence and courage, energy, lightness, and endurance for all light cavalry work. A horse of the minimum regulation height and weight is the most satis- factory. Occasionally a few horses creep into the cav- alry possessing the maximum height and weight allowed, but these are undesirable, for they have been found too unwieldy, cumbersome, and slow of gait and action for our light cavalry work. As the regulations governing our cavalry recruiting service require that the cavalry recruit shall weigh not more than 1 60 pounds, and as the men enlisted for the cavalry generally average 15 or 20 pounds less than that, which is the weight usually assigned to light cavalry regiments, the light horse described as the minimum regulation animal allowed is the one procured as far as practicable. The horses of Kentucky and Tennessee are pre- eminently tlie best fitted for the saddle and light cavalry work. The neck is long, withers prominent, chest deep, and girth well developed. They make, in spite of often deficient loins and lack of croup, the best of saddle ani- mals. In the States of New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa, Missouri, and Kansas the production of horses is very great, especially of draft animals. The introduction of English blood some years ago seems to have produced some improve- ment, especially in spirit and intelligence. On the other hand, horses are so abundant in America, either native bom or possessing some Spanish extraction, that many excellent, beautiful, hardy, and small animals can be The Cavalry Horse and His tack. 57 found. Texas produces a considerable number of horses, but in the cavalry trials which have been had with them they were objected to as lacking in roundness of sides and thighs and having weak limbs and defective hocks. A few years ago, however, Texans introduced a cross-breed of American and full- or half-blood English stallions, which has also tended to improve the standard of horse in the Southwest. In California, and other parts of the West also, the introduction of English stallions of full blood during the past twenty-five years has largely improved the breed. The Kentucky and Tennessee Thoroughbreds are all the outcome of cross-breeds from full-blood English stallions. They are all admirably muscled, low, and add to these qualities symmetry of curve and length of forearm. The question of whether a thoroughbred horse is desirable for cavalry purposes is a much- mooted one. While the real Thoroughbred horse may not be wholly desirable for cavalry work, yet the other extreme, as rep- resented in Clydesdale, Percheron, and Norman horses, is vastly worse, and a horse half-bred midway between these two mentioned classes, small, hardy, agile, and quick, probably typifies the light cavalry horse of to-day. CHAPTBR V. Classes of Horses. Perchenm— Clydesdale — English Shire — Cleveland Bay — Hackney — French Coach — German Co.ach — Thoroughbred — Saddler — Trotter — Pacer— Kind Required for Cavalry. There are a great many breeds of horses throughout the world, caused by cross -breedmg of various standard types. As an outcome of this haphazard cross-breeding, Western America is overrun with a small hardy horse of Spanish extraction. Southern Russia is overrun with a somewhat similar class of horse, the outcome of cross- breeding between South Siberian and Southern Russian native horses. Mexico possesses a native breed of horses with almost pure Spanish blood, the first horses there hav- ing been introduced by the Spanish explorers of centu- ries ago. South Africa, in like manner, has a native, breed of horses of small, hardy build and great endtuance, which were introduced there by the Dutch centuries ago. In like manner most of the countries of the world have cer- tain breeds of horses which may be said to be native to the country. These various breeds of horses swell into a thousand classes when their lineage is traced and pains taken to establish the history of any particular class. However, among the various breeds of horses there are certain well-known breeds in modern use in Eturope, Great Britain, and the United States and elsewhere that have become deservedly famous for the size, style, dispo- sition, and qualities possessed. From these several well- known types there also spring a hundred classes created by cross-breeding and careless breeding. This has pro- duced thousands of horses possessing generally more or less standard blood, but often little if any likeness to their parent strain, yet amply qualified for cavalry purposes. 58 The Gavalrt/ ]forse and His Pack.- 59 These cross-bred horses are probably better adapted to the hardships of cavalry life than a pure-blooded horse, and are accustomed to inferior forage, inferior care, and privations which would soon ruin thoroughbred animals. As every caxralry officer is sooner or later called upon to examine and insp2ct horses for the cavalry service, it is Well to recognize the standard type of each of the well- known classes that exist in Rurope and America to-day, and to have the ability to recognize suitability or unsuit- . ability of each for cavalry service. Those most com- monly known are the Percheron, the Clydesdale, the Eng- lish Shire or Cart Horse, the Cleveland Bay, the. Hackney, the French Coach, the German Coach, the Thoroughbred Trotter or Pacer, the Thoroughbred Saddler, and per- haps one or two others It will be sufficient to the cav- alry officer to be reasonably familiar with the classes of horses mentioned above. Other classes are not so well known, the lineage is not so well traced, and much is guess-work. The Percheron breed of horses was brought to a high state of excellence in the district which was once known as I^a Perche, in Northern France, south of Normandy, corresponding in the main to the present departments of Eure-et-Loir and Orne, which, along with the other de- partments of Eure, I/jir-et-Cher, and Sarthe, comprise the chief breeding-ground or original home of the Percheron, and nowhere else, are they found more purely bred or so nearly allied to the original type. Horses from this region have been largely imported into the United States^ where they are now bred and reared extensively; the first importation to attract wide attention being made nearly fifty years, ago into Ohio, where they were commonly known as French horses, but' siace, upon closer study of their origin and history, they have b^en de.-agnated as Percherpns. From; ti me to time other importations were made^ andthe appellation of Percheron has been firmly fixed upon thes ^ horses-throagh- oat the United Stages. All together, howaver, there has Missing Page TJie Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 6i been much disagreement in this country as to the proper name of these horses, arising principally from the fact that earlier importations of French horses had been called Normans, and these French horses have been vari- ously known here as Percherons, Percheron-Normans, Norman-Percherons, Normans, and French Horses — a superfluity of names excedingly confusing and unsatis- factory. The publication of the Percheron Stud-book in France in 1883 simplified the matter, and the breed is now called simply Percheron. The lineage of a large percentage of the most noted of the modern Percherons seems to have been satisfactorily and definitely traced to the sire Gray Arabian, GaUipoli, imported into France about 1820, and to the Arab blood is generally attributed the more general gray color; the form, disposition, and general characteristics also being strong evidence of their being of Arabian descent, while their original size is believed to be derived from the large black horses of Flanders. In that part of Normandy contiguous to the coast, especially north of the river Seine, the Flemish element seems to have made its influence more strongly felt, and there the horses possess more of the Flemish and less of the Percherron characteristics than those bred farther south in the heart of La Perche, which will account for the diversity in the character of the horses brought to America. Those procured near the coast or north of the river Seine have usually leaned strongly toward the Flemish type ; they are larger, coarser, and more sluggish, with less energy, endurance, and action than those bred in Eure-et-IyOir and the adjacent departments, and are better adapted to heavy draft purposes than their lighter but more hardy, active, and stylish relatives of the inte- rior, frequently weighing from 1700 to 2000 pounds in high flesh, and producing larger horses when crossed upon our common stock. In France the original color of gray is the most pop- ular, while in this country black is perhaps the favorite. 62 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. According to high authority, the French breeders develop the blacks not especially for quality, but to suit the fancy of Americans; and if the quality feature is in the smallest degree lost sight of, there is great likelihood of not Only piroducing an inferior animal, but at the same time one altogether too large. Probably the most desirable horses of this breed at the present time will weigh between 1650 and 2000. The Percheron horse, no doubt, stands among the first of the draft breeds of the world. He has excel- lent conformation, attractive style, activity, and endur- ance, considerable speed, united with power, amazing streng^ for his weight, and a kind and docile disposi-' tion. He is especially adapted to the moving of immense loads at a rapid rate, and in the early days of France was largely used in drawing heavy diligences and post- coaches. Clydesdale. — The Clydesdales seem to have had origin in South Central Scotland, in the rich valley of the river Clyde, from which they take the name. Scot- tish authorities almost unanimously designate the Upper Ward of Lanarkshire as the place where they were first brought to any considerable degree of perfection and prominence. According to records, and the views of various prom- inent-writers on this subject, the breed undoubtedly has in its veins the blood of the great Black horse of Flanders, and it is reasonably certain that the Clydesdale is the product of native mares of lyanarkshire bred to imported Flemish sires, about the close of the seventeenth or begin- ning of the eighteenth centuries. The Clydesdale, no doubt, largely owes its present distinctive character to these native mares of Lanarkshire, known as the Loch- lyoch stock, mostly of brown and black color, with white faces and some white on their legs, gray hairs in their tails and occasionally scattering over the body, and inva- riably a white spot on their bellies, the recognized mark of purity of blood. Their progenitors were likely of Eng- lish origin and of a somewhat mixed character. There 64 The Cavalry^ Horse and His Pack. is, however, reason to believe that Flemish stallions had been introduced into Scotland long before this, and previous records show that Scotland was recognized as an excellent district for horse stock-breeding even during the early Stuart reigns. The earliest positive recorded mention of great horses in Scotland is July i, 1352, when William, Earl of Douglas, obtained a special edict of "safe conduct" from King Edward I. to take "ten grooms and ten large horses from certain places in Scotland to certain places in Teviotdale in the King's dominion." Available data and information fail to indicate when or where the Clydesdale was first introduced into this country, but as the Clydesdale Society of America was organized in 1877, it is not altogether improbable that they were quite numerously imported from some time prior to that year, at least to such an extent that a Clydesdale society and stud-book were very desirable and valuable, not to say well-nigh indispensable; and, with the exception of the Percherons, there has been no other breed of draft-horses so extensively imported into the United States as these. Their popularity is, no doubt, well merited, and they have exercised a potent influence in the horse stock of America. With our breed- ers the color has always been an especially strong point in favor of the Clydesdale, the prevailing colors being dark, with usually more or less white markings on face, feet, and legs. Bays and browns predominate, although there are now and then blacks, grays, and chestnuts. The approved modem Clydesdales have large, round, open feet, with particularly wide coronets, heels wide and clearly defined, and the presence of a heavy growth of long, silky hair from the knee and hock to fetlock is gen- erally accepted as an indication of quality and good breeding. Pasterns long and set back at an angle, tail set well up, and the quarters and thighs should not be too sharply marked off; bones wide, flat, thin, and dense. They should have wide chests and low counters, with limbs planted well under them; oblique shoulders lying The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 65 well back on high withers, and arching high necks, are also quite characteristic and very attractive. The head should be of medium length, and broad between the eyes and at the muzzle. An open, level countenance, vigor- ous eye, and large ear are also greatly valued. Clydesdales are, as a rule, for such heavy horses, both fair walkers and trotters. English Shire or Cart Horse. — From time to time centuries ago heavy horses from Germany, Holland, and Flanders were imported into England, and the mingling of their blood with that of the horse stock found there, and breeding from the best of successive generations, resulted in a type of sturdy, slow-going animal favorably known there as the English Shire or Cart horse. With this draft-breed, as with the others, the famous Black horse of Flanders seems to have been a dominating influ- ence in their formation, and they so nearly resemble the Clydesdale in some ways that many intelligent breeders of both. England and Scotland have argued that the two breeds should be classed as one. For many years the Shire has been extensively bred and reared in England. As the various draft-breeds of the world apparently have for their ancestry the great Black horses of Flan- ders, the following from "The Breeds of Live Stock" should be of interest: "No point in equine history is better- established than is the fact that to the regions bordering on the western coast of Europe, once known as Normandy and Flanders, the world is indebted for the basis 'of its various breeds of draft -horses. Flanders especially was famed, away back in the Middle Ages, for its famous breed of Black horses, and this race appears to have been the prevailing one throughout the north of ancient Gaul and of Ger- many from the mouth of the Rhine eastward, and Pro- fessor l/ow thinks inhabited in the wild state the vast region of marsh and forest which stretched all through Europe eastward to the Euxine Sea. It was from this source that the rulers of Great Britain drew in large num- The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 67 bers for the purpose of increasing the size of the horses of the island. How or when this breed originated is a subject upon which history throws no light. But as early as the eleventh century they were largely imported into England, and royal edicts and regulations were re- peatedly issued for the purpose of encouraging the use of large stallions of this breed." While some are grays and roans, blacks, bays, and browns are the prevailing colors of the Shires, often marked with more or less white in the face and on the feet and legs, and, as with the Clydesdales, an abundance of fine silky hair from the knee or hock to fetlock is considered an indication of pure breeding. The Shire stallion should stand 17 hands high or over; legs big and massive; hair plentiful at all seasons without tend- ency to wooUiness. Their action should be straight, level, and true, and the walk be forward and free. Hocks should at all times be kept together and in position ; feet wide and open at the heel, with wall of sufficient depth to avoid giving the foot a flat appearance; the pasterns should .slope sufficiently all around to enable smooth work. The head is of special importance, and should always be thoroughly masculine in character, while the bones should be as wide and massive as can possibly be had; the depth of both the heart and short ribs should be conspicuously present, and the walk true and level, without anv symptoms of rolling. These horses weigh from 1800 to 2000 pounds, and , make no pretensions to gayety of carriage or dash, but are slow of motion and very powerful, and their extreme weight admirably fits them for the labors of the field, heavy truck and wagon use, as well as for transporting enormous loads. In recent years these heavy horses have been imported into the United States, although not in large numbers, especially to the agricultural States of the Mississippi Valley. ' 68 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. ClevbIvAND Bay. — One of the oldest and most pop- ular of the English Coach breeds is that called Cleveland Bay, on account of the uniformly bright golden-bay color of the horses bred in the vale of Cleveland, York- shire, England. The exact origin of the breed is a matter of some spec- ulation. One authority states that they were a cross between Thoroughbred stallions and the large, active, and stylish native bay mares of Yorkshire, and were bred to fill the demand for fast, powerful, and stylish horses, useful for moderate farm and town work. Another theory, considered by many the most reasonable, is that it has' been produced by a system of natural selection from the original breed of horses found in the southern part of the island of Great Britain, with the possible introduction of Eastern blood, probably the Barb, at a very early age. It is an established fact that the existence of a breed of clean-legged, active, powerful horses was acknowl- edged more than two hundred years ago. Unfortunately, no written record of their early history was kept, and our chief source of information concerning it is tradition. In the early written record of the breed there appears the following description: "Yorkshire has long been famed for its breed of horses, and particularly this, the East Riding, in almost every part of which numbers are still bred, the prevailing species being those adapted for the coach or saddle. In the north part of the vale of York the breed has got too light in bone for the use of farmers, by the introduction of too much racing blood; but the most valuable horses for the saddle and some coach- horses are there bred. In Cleveland the horses are fuller of bone than those last described ; they are clean, well made, very strong and active, and are extremely well adapted to the coach and plow.'' Up to the earlier years of the eighteenth century the Cleveland Bays, previous to that time also called Coach •JO The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. horses and Chapman horses, were probably not known as a distinct breed. The Cleveland Bay Horse Society was formed in 1884, and the standard of the breed was raised by the creation of a stud-book. The Cleveland Bay is the embodiment of combined substance and quality. His usual height is from 16 to i6f hands; his weight, from 1250 to 1500 pounds.' He has a fine head, full bright eye, long arched neck, oblique shoulders, deep chest, short back, long quarters, strong cordy legs, and perfect feet. His color bay, full flowing mane and tail, and black legs, usually clear of white. His notable hardiness of constitution and staying powers, style, and elegant conformation are well calculated to make him a favorite with those who seek an animal seem- ■ ihgly so appropriately named "the general utility horse." Hackney. — While there is more or less of the cus- tomary speculation as to the antiquity, origin, etc., of this race, as with others, it seems that all authorities are practically agreed that the Hackney has been bred and reared in Northern England counties for more than one hundred and fifty years, and is most probably the prod- uct of the Thoroughbred and the Norfolk County strains of blood, so blended and cultivated that an almost dis- tinct race is established, combining all the desired char- acteristics of the two families. In the earlier days these horses were particularly adapted to and distinguished for riding and driving purposes, and as evidence of their peculiar fitness for either it might be well to mention the fact that the Hackney scarcely ever gallops, but relies entirely upon the trot and walk as methods of locomotion. For a long time, however, they have been bred more es- pecially with a view to developing horses that can draw any sort of a rig at a rapid pace on the road, for which purpose they are pre-eminently and practically useful, and in recent years there has been an active demand for them in the United States. 72 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. While Hackneys of all colors may be seen, those predominating are chesnuts, bays, and browns. The approved stallions should not be over 15! hands high. The conformation of the head should be symmetrical, wide at the jowl and tapering gently to the muzzle, and the eyes of good size, ears small and pointed; neck of fair length, nicely bent and rather thick at the base, though free from coarseness ; chest wide and let down behind the forearms, giving plenty of space for the heart and lungs. Shoulders must be deep and lie well back; the leg bone short, flat, and largely supported with sinew, large at girth and closely ribbed up; fetlock short and strong; the foot circular and tending to the upright, and the frog well hollowed out and pliable. The thigh must be muscle itself; hocks clean and accurately jointed. The step should be short and quick, and good knee action is also essential ; consequently plenty of freedom and liberty about the shoulders is necessary. The Hackneys possess the elegance of a Thorough- bred, much of the sturdiness and substance of the Cart horse, along with a robust and vigorous constitution, and their appearance conveys the impression of strength, intelligence, courage, and quality combined. French Coach. — ^The Coach horse of France resem- bles quite closely in size, action, and appearance the Cleveland Bay, which is the highest type of English Coach horse, and owes. its existence to very similar cir- cumstances and lines of breeding. The blood of the Thoroughbred largely predominates in both, the only difference being in the mares that have constituted the basis. As early as 1780 the French Government began a sj^- tematic effort to improve the native horse stock of that country, especially for the cavalry service, by the intro- duction of Thoroughbred and Hiuiting stallions from Eng- land, and offering their services to the farmers at a merely nominal fee. From that time down to the present the French Government has continued its paternal super- 74 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. vision of the horse-breeding interests of that country, introducing from year to year Thoroughbred stallions in considerable numbers, and selecting the best of the male produce resulting from the union of the imported stallions and the French mares for use in the stud. Some of these imported stallions left a marked impress upon the stock of the country, notably among those being the horse Young Rattler, iinported about 1820, whose produce were especially remarkable for their stylish, high-headed ap- pearance and high, proud-stepping action. The get of this horse were selected by the government agents for breeding purposes, and to him more than to any other of these imported sires is ascribed the origin of the present so-called Coach horses of France. The foundation had been previously laid by crossing and re-crossing with the Thoroughbred, but Young Rattler and the stallions of his get gave the qualities which the French people especially fancied for coaching uses. Since that period this Coach- horse type, has received, more largely than any other, per- haps, the fostering care and patronage of the Government, and certainly very marked improvement has been effected and a considerable degree of uniformity secured. X. * The departments of Ome, Calvados, Manche, Seine- Inferieure, and a portion of Eure in Western Normandy comprise the principal Coach-horse district of France. Until comparatively recent years, French Coach horses had attracted little attention at the hands of Amer- ican importers and breeders, but later the growing demand for large, stylish, high-stepping carriage teams and single drivers has led to their importation in considerable num- bers. The stallions crossed with trotting-bred mares produce horses of substance, style, intelligence, confor- mation, and true road-action, coupled with fine courage. Many of these also possess a remarkable sweetness of dis- position, entitling them to be loved as well as to be admired. The prevailing color is bay, but there are many chestnuts and occasionally a black. These horses are of good disposition, of uniform type, large, handsome, The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 75 high-headed, resolute, high-acting, capable of drawing the coach, break, landau, brougham, mail phaeton, or kin- dred vehicle at a good rate of speed. German Coach. — The northwestern portion of the German Empire, largely composed of the provinces of Hanover, Mecklenburg, that western part of Schleswig- Holstein between the rivers Elbe and Eider, and the grand duchy of Oldenburg, has for more than two centuries been famed for its highly developed type of trotters and coach- ing horses. Carefully selected for generations and en- hanced by a strain of Thoroughbred blood, they now form a breed of good constitution, style, and action, much in demand for carriage use and general purposes. Early in the seventeenth century Hanoverian stock was exported for the purpose of improving the breeds of other countries, principally Great Britain, which country afterwards furnished in return many Thoroughbreds, the infusion of this blood proving of great benefit to the Han- overian type by moderating their massiveness without loss of strength. These horses are chiefly distinguished by their elegance and stateliness of movement, and are much used as state coach-horses. We are told that ever since their introduction into England in 1820 these horses have drawn the royal carriages, and it is said the King's stables now contain more than one hundred specimens of the breed. A bay of this breed, 16^ hands high, was rid- den by the Einperor of Germany at the Queen's jubilee celebration. The German Coachers owe much of their rapid devel- opment to the fostering care and patronage of the Govern- ment, which lent encouragement to the breeding interests as early as 1735 and established a government stud. Spe- cifically for coach purposes, its paternal supervision date back for more than a century. Formerly the privilege of standing the stallions was reserved to the rulers, but later was granted to farmers under certain imposed con- ditions and restrictions intended to maintain the char- acter of the breed brought to such a high standard under The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 77 government regulations. Regularity of movement and adroitness in walk and trot have been the aim of good breeders. The introduction of fresh blood apparently meets with no opposition if it promises improvement in either endtuance or style. Possessed of large, strong bones, they are also suitable for agricultural purposes. There are comparatively few German Coachers in the United States, but the importations, which have only been made in recent years, have produced an unusually favor- able impression. They mature very early, being fit for work at two years and for breeding purposes at three, and are always spirited and hardy. Besides being excep- tionally fine coach- and carriage-horses, they are not excelled for general purposes. They have proved them- selves able to transmit their qualities to their offspring with great certainty. The horses are nearly all solid colors— bay, brown, or black, stand 15! to i6f hands in height, and weigh from 1300 to 1600 pounds. The typical Coacher should trot very regularly, with free knee and hock action, be stylish and handsome, have short or medium back and good quarters. His shoulders should slope gracefully back, carrying a lengthy, well-arched neck and cleanly chiseled head free from meat. He should have a clear, full, expressive dark eye, and the visage of a Thoroughbred. His limbs and feet should be absolutely sound, with clean, flat bone, and his action should be high, bold, and square, with sufficient speed to roll off eight to twelve mUes an hour with ease and grace; his disposition spirited and intelligent. Thoroughbred. — Probably Ihe oldest and best es- tablished of all breeds of horses of Europe and America is the Thoroughbred, a distinctly British production, es- pecially noted and prominent throughout the world for endurance and running speed on the race-course. At a very early period attention was directed toward the improvement of the native horse stock of Great Brit- ain, and, as these horses were especially deficient in size, efforts were first put forth to remedy this defect by the The Oavalry Horse and His Pack. 79 importation of the large, heavy horses from Normandy, Flanders, and Germany, but apparently there was no well-defined or settled purpose in view. At one time the object sought seemed to be increased size, and at another speed, grace, and beauty, for which Oriental blood was introduced, but not until the last half of tjie seventeenth century was the breeding for speed and endurance begun to be systematically conducted. Accordiiig to excellent authority, it seems that the foundation upon which the Thoroughbred was built was the promiscuous blending of the blood of native horses of England primarily with the larger animals from Nor- mandy, Flanders, and Germany, and later with the lighter and more active horses of Spain, which were themselves practically identical with the Barbs. Numerous impor- tations were also made from Fgypt, Morocco, and Tunis, and likewise from Arabia and Turkey, until there was more or less of this Oriental blood in all the horse stock of Great Britain, except those bred especially for agricul- tural purposes. While the mingling of the blood of the Orient with the old races of England furnished the foun- dation from which was eventually evolved the now well- established Thoroughbred, much credit should also be given the English breeders, who, in their wisdom and care of selection and mating for successive generations, have probably been a more powerful factor in the formation of the breed as it exists to-day than the Oriental blood to which its superiority is so widely attributed. For more than two hundred years horse-racing has been a chief amusement and recreation among English people, and to this fact and the constant growth and popularity of the sport is largely due the careful breeding and consequent purity of lineage of the English Thorough- bred horse. The term "Thoroughbred," when applied to horses, is used most frequently to designate one particular breed, and that is the jninning horse, and, as both the name and breed are derived from Great Britain, all our American Thoroughbreds are necessarily imported English animals or their descendants. 8o The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. Most of these horses are altogether too light, too nerv- ous, and too excitable for everyday business uses, and of course are ill adapted for slow, heavy draft; but in speed, courage, and endurance their superiors do not exist. Many of the Ibest stallions and mares of England have been imported to the United States, and their influence on our horse stock has been most potent. As a means of improving other types, such as cavalry, hack, harness, and road horses, and as it is especially important and essential to have such horses of sound feet and legs, con- siderable speed, and medium weight, together with a capacity to bear a continuation of severe work, a cross with the Thoroughbred is likely to give the desired results. It is doubtful that there ever was a road-horse or trotter of prominence that did not possess in large measure this superior blood. "Breeds of Live Stock" says: "The Thoroughbred having been for so many generations bred with especial reference to his capacity as a race-horse, it is not surpris- ing that he should have acquired peculiarities of form and temper that render him undesirable for the more sober and steady uses of everyday life. He has been bred to run, and the form best adapted to speed and the mental qualities that most certainly insure the pluck and energy and determination so essential to success in a hard- fought race have been the qualities' aimed at by breeders and the standard by which selections have been made. Such a course of breeding has made the Thoroughbred as a racer rather too lithe and light in form and too nerv- ous and excitable in temper for ordinary business uses; but in speed, endurance, and resolution they surpass all other breeds, and there is scarcely a race-horse in exist- ence but may be improved by a cross with them." Thoroughbreds are usually divided into three classes : Trotters, Pacers, and Saddlers. The trotting horse, like his immediate fellow, the pacer, is distinctively an American production of modem times, and is the outgrowth of the commercial tendencies The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 8i of Americans, coupled with their ardent love for tests of speed and the possession of speedy, level-headed road- sters for light business or private pleasure-driving, either singly or in pairs. Courtesy of Hon. F, D. Coburn. "CRESCEUS.' Champion trotting stallion of the world; winner of the $20,000 purse in the stallion race of 1900. While breeders and trainers in the United States have done most to develop trotting horses, their earliest history goes back to England, where the trotting instinct was first recognized and encouraged by tests of speed and 82 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. endurance. However, no records of note have ever been established across the Atlantic, and the development of the breed has been principally accomplished by enter- prising Americans. In the earlier days of this century .the, improvement of the highways and the manufacture of lighter vehicles created a demand for light harness horses of beauty, style, and speed, capable of drawing a . wagon and driver at a moderate speed for several hours at a time. Previous to this nearly all traveling was done on horseback, as the rough and well-nigh impassable roads of the period rendered journeying by means of the heavy wagons both slow and tedious. The trotting gait was originally a natural inclination of some certain individual horses, and has been built up by cross-breeding of these horses. Our American horses are largely permeated with the blood of the English Thor- oughbred. Many of the best stallions and mares in Eng- land have been imported to this coimtry, and their influ- ence is seen on every hand. It enters largely into the groundwork of all our trotting strains, and it is doubtful that a single great road-horse or trotter has been pi-oduced in this country that did not possess a large share of this su- perior blood as a foundation upon which the trotting super- structure has been built. In no department of stock- breeding is the influence of heredity and of patient selec- tion with a view to transmission and improvement of a desired quality more apparent than in the breeding of the trotter. Fifty years ago the American trotting horse, as a breed, was unthought of, and one that could trot a mile in less than 3 minutes was a wonderful animal; but the ability to" trot fast was a desirable quality, and breeders sought to perpetuate it. Animals that excelled the average as trotters were selected to breed from, with a view to. perpetuating and intensifying this quality; but as its possession was at that time an accident — a sponta^ neous variation. — it was found that but few of the imme- diate descendants of the animal first chosen with a view to breeding fast trotters could trot faster than their 84 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. remote ancestors ; but when such of them as did show improvement in this direction were again selected for breeding purposes and coupled, it was found that, while there were still many failures, the proportion of the de- scendants that showed improvement in the trotting gait beyond the average of their ancestors was materially increased; and so, by selecting from generatipn to gener- ation from such families as have shown a tendency to improvement in this quality, we have made considerable progress toward founding a breed of trotting horses. The trotting horse now appears as, a permanently established type. In order that a horse may trot or pace, he must have the proper physical conformation, adapta- tion to the gait, and a favorable condition of mental and nervous organization. Unless possessed of mental or nervous habits, impelling him to trot or pace, he will not choose and tenaciously hold to these gaits. Speed depends upon similar conditions, and the horse lacking the quick temperament and highly organized nervous composition will not go fast at any gait. All these tendencies are, to a greater or less degree, capable of acquirement, and, once acquired by education, growth, practice, or blood, are easily transmitted or inherited. The best trotters of to-day possess the inherited qualities of conformation, style of action, speed, and endurance well suited to render them valuable on the track or road and the means of much pleasure to their owners or drivers. Most of the fastest pacers came from the best lines of trotting breeding, and the pacing gait is acquired by them after their training begins. The great- est inistake made by breeders of trotters has been' in mating for speed alone, to the neglect of size, style, and soundness, and the result is that a vast percentage of so- called trotting stock, which lacks in speed, is too small in size and too ordinary in conformation for much value in any direction. Regarding pacers, in his book, "Horse Breeding," Mr. J. H. Sanders discusses the changeability in some 86 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. horses from a trotting to a pacing gait, and vice versa, as follows : "Experience has most thoroughly demonstrated the faqt that the trot and pace are, to a very considerable de- gree, interchangeable, and that most horses can be taught to adopt either the one gait or the other, at the pleas- ure of the rider or driver, as an intermediate manner of progression between the walk and the gallop. In- stances where horses that have shown unusual speed as pacers have been changed into speedy trotters, mainly by increasing the weight of the shoes on the fore feet, are of everyday occurrence; and trotters may with equal facility, be taught the pacing gait by the use of hobbles so adjusted as to compel the animal to move both legs on the same side together instead of moving the fore leg in unison with the hind leg on the opposite side, which con- stitutes the difference between the pace and the trot." The success which has attended these and other -methods of changing horses from one gait to the other, and the further fact that horses which show great speed as pacers so frequently descend from the well-established trotting families, has led to the generally established belief among horse-breeders that the trotting and pacing- gaits are essentially the same ; or, rather, that the taking of the one gait or the other is more a matter of accident or training than of inheritance. This theory, however, may be accepted no further than to admit that the form which is usually found in the fast pacer (a rather steep' rump, with high, thin withers and well-bent hock) is one which appears to be well adapted to great speed in trot- ting when once the gait has been changed by any process, of training. It is undeniable, however, that the form which is usually seen in our fast trotters is not that of the natural pacer, for with the former we frequently find that the animal is higher at the hips than at the withers; and while horses are frequently seen possessing this con- foripation trained to the pacing gait, yet they never take- kindly to it, neither do they ever become fast pacers. 88 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. The trotter or pacer should have size and weight — 1 6 hands, 1200 pounds; but this does not imply that a trotting-bred animal of less size is worthless. Indeed, the ideal size for a fast or even useful roadster or a har- ness race-horse is 15^ hands high, possessing quality and substance, and weighing a little the rise of 1000 pounds. True many horsemen prefer larger ones, but practical horsemen and experienced road drivers stick very close to these latter specifications. Trotting-bred coach-horses come in another class, and should have more size. But in road- and race- horses, breeding, substance, and quality, with medium size, should not be sacrificed for height and pounds. The American gaited saddle-horse is purely and dis- tinctly American, and was formerly produced almost exclusively south of the Mason and Dixon Line, before that line was erased from the map of the United States. He is older, however, than the Mason and Dixon Line, or even the Stars and Stripes. He is often referred to as the Kentucky saddle-horse, but we must give Virginia, Ten- nessee, Georgia, Missouri, and other States due credit for what they have done in developing and improving the gaited saddler as we now see him — educated and accom- plished, refined and polished, noble and good-mannered, majestic and beautiful; perfect in symmetry and con- formation; high-headed, high- tailed, arch-necked, fiery- eyed; dignified and royal; armed with muscle, bone, and sinew; endowed with substance, stamina, and endurance! lithe-limbed, nimble-jointed, and sure-footed — the pride of his owner and the admiration of all who see and know him. This saddler is also a roadster, safe and speedy, and an all-ptirpose horse. Although new to many in the North and West, he is of remote origin. He has served his country for more than a century. He went with Colo- nel Castleman and his Kentucky regiment to the Porto Rican War. He carried the chivalry of the South in the Civil War. Morgan's Raiders were mounted on him when The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 89 that daring chieftain made his bold dash northward. He served his country before his country had a name. He carried "Light-Horse Harry" Lee, and Marion, the Courtesy of Hon. F. D. Coburn. CHAMPION GA.ITED SADDLE MARE "LADY GLENN. "Swamp Fox," when these famous men of the Revolu- tion had neither home nor country. We trace him back to the plain-gaited saddle-horse of 1730. After that date 90 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. we find him developing into the five-gaited saddler or gaited saddle-horse. There are at least four distinct classes of saddlers — viz., the plain-gaited or walk-trot-gallop horse, the hunter or cross-country horse, the gaited saddle-horse, and the high-school horse. The plain-gaited horse is required to only walk, trot, and canter, but he must be an. artist in these three gaits or he is of but little value as a saddler. In general make- up he is a fine animal and is the English style of a saddle- horse. He is usually a harness-horse, too, and a good, roadster. The hunter is a short-tailed, stately animal, trained to jump hurdles and fences and go over the bars without endangering life and limb of horse or rider. He also goes the walk, trot, and canter gaits, and is quite similar to the plain-gaited saddler in general make-up. Both have docked tails and plucked • manes, and are sometimes called "park hacks." The gaited saddler goes all the gaits of the hunter and the walk-trotter. In addition to the walk, trot, and canter, he goes at least two more distinct gaits and he often goes four more, making in all seven distinct, clear, clean, unmixed gaits. The gaits required to entitle him to recognition as a gaited saddle-horse are walk, trot, can- ter, rack, and running walk, fox-trot, or slow pace. He has his choice of either of the last three named for his fifth gait, but he must go the first four, and he must have the proper breeding. The slow pace, or amble, as it is some- times called, is the least desirable of the seven gaits, and, except as a ladies' saddler, is seldom chosen as the fifth gait. The running-walk and fox-trot are business gaits, and are highly appreciated for road work, and long- distance rides. The walk (flat-footed) should be regu- lar, spirited, and quite rapid, except when the horse is allowed to loaf for a rest after a brisk brush along the road. If a horse walks 4^ or 5 miles an hour, he is good enough at this gait. The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 91 The running-walk is faster and easier than the flat- footed walk, and is quite similar in speed and ease to the fox-trot, but not quite so fast. It is a delightful all-day gait, and is performed with four be5.ts, like the rack, but not so fast or lofty. In going this gait the horse's reins are rather loose and he takes some of the arch out of his neck, and, if in full sympathy with his work, keeps time with his step by the nodding of his head. A horse of good endurance and clever at this gait will make from 6 to 7 miles an hour, and travel from 60 to 75 miles a day without great fatigue to himself or rider. The fox-trot is quite similar to the running-walk, yet it has a distinct "loose- jointed" motion and "jog" not observed in any other gait. This, too, is an all-day gait, and good up hUl and down, and this is where a fox-trotter and running-walker make time in an all-day journey. The gaited saddler goes from a flat-footed walk into all his other gaits direct, but he should return to the walk from the canter and rack through the trot, and he should make all his short turns and sharp curves on the trot if going faster than a walk. The rack is probably the most fascinating gait, and, if well done, is the hardest on the horse. He must go at a tension and rack against the bit, and he must get action from his hocks and shoulders as well as from his knees. If he goes in form, he will carry a high head and a high tail, arch his neck, and hold a vertical face. He must be pulled together, and remain collected from start to finish. If he goes in a pure, clear, bold rack, his feet make four- beat music, the rhythm of which cannot be mistaken for that of any other gait. The rack was formerly called a "single-foot" gait, and this term describes the action of the feet exactly, as only a single foot strikes the ground at one time. Now comes the canter, which is the most graceful of all gaits and one that is quite easy for both horse and rider. There is a vast difference, however, between the canter of a gaited saddler and the gallop of an unre- 9? The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. strained horse or the lope of a bronco. Any horse will lope or gallop when pushed beyond his trotting or pacing speed, but the gaited. saddler goes from a walk, or even from a standstUlj into a graceful, enjoyable, hammock- like motion, which we call a canter ; his legs are never so well under him as when in the canter, and his neck is never so beautifully arched. The high-school horse is simply the gaited saddler, finished in education, polished in manners, and taught other gaits, steps, and movements. When thus edu- cated, when thus finished, he is a paragon of grace, '^ase, and beauty, and when in motion he is poetry set to i^.aSTc, ■ CHAPTER VI. Thb Cavalry Horse. The American Cavalry Horse Compared to Others — General Char- acteristics — Stallions — Geldings — Mares — Age — Bones — ^Teeth — Neck — Knees — Hocks — Back — Tail — Croup — Proportions. It has been seen from the preceding chapter that cer- tain well-known types of horses exist frorii which have sprung all the various styles of horses in modem use. Each of these classes is especially adapted to the per- formance of certain work, as heretofore explained. To attempt to use a Percheron as a gaited saddle-horse, or a Thoroughbred trotter at the plow, would be manifestly demanding of an animal work for which Nature never intended him, and in like manner the experience of the different cavalry services of the world has gradually developed a distinct and separate class of horse for cav- alry work. This horse might be said to embrace the dis- position, spirit, agility, and intelligence of the Thorough- bred gaited saddle-animal and the large bone and strong sinew short back, stout forehand, strength, and hardihood of a Hackney, Clydesdale, or Percheron. The horse generally found best suited for cavalry work is one which possesses the necessary strength of bone and sinew, fair proportions, steady gaits, normal mouth, good health, good intelligence, and good blood. Many ex- periments made by the American Cavalry with many styles of horses and the various experiments in cross-breeding for cavalry purposes that have been made in Europfe andQreat Britain in the past have led to the adoption of certain fixed rules in accepting cavalry horses. In a preceding chap- ter it has been shown what is held to constitute the light cavalry horse and the heavy cavalry horse in several of 94 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. the best cavalry services. The regulation cavalry horse in our own service has already been given in detail. It will be seen that certain general qualifications are deemed by all cavalry services to be indispensable. These points among the various services are generally the height, weight, age, and sex. Let us see what they usually are in the best services : German light cavalry, 15-2 to 16 hands in height; Russian Hght cavalry, 15 to 1 5-1 hands in height; French light cavalry, 14^ to 15^ hands in height; English light cavalry, 15-1 hands in height. The weight in all these services for the. light cavalry horse is from 900 or 950 as a minimum to 1050 pounds as an extreme maximum. As Austria and the United States are not divided into light and heavy cavalry, but are both practically light cavalry, let us see what they have: Austrian cavalry, 15-1 to 16-1 hands, 950 to 1 100 poimds ; American cavalry, 15-1 to 16 hands, 950 to 11 50 pounds ; It will be noticed that the Germans, the Americans, and the Austrians all use large horses, even for their light cavalry. Let us see what the heavy cavalry is in some of these countries : German heavy cavalry, 16 to 17 hands in height ; Russian heavy cavalry, 1 5- 1 to 1 6 hands in height ; French heavy cavalry, 15^ to 1 6^ hands in height; English heavy cavalry, 16 hands in height. It will be seen from the above that the French and Russian and English heavy cavalry horses are all about equal in size to the American and Austrian cavalry horse. The weight of these horses of the heavy cavalry in Ger- many is about 1080 pounds; of the Russian, about the same; and of the others, approximately the same also, some of them running as high as 11 50 pounds, but rarely beyond that. In some of these countries there exists the central class of cavalry known as the medium. Let The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 95 us see what the specifications are regarding height and weight : French medium cavalry, 15 to 15-1 hands, 1080 pounds ; English medium cavalry, 15-2 hands, 1050 pounds ; From the above tables it wUl be readily seen how some countries use the horse as a medium cavalry animal which other services desire as their light or even heavy horse ; in fact, the general average of them all will best show what the size of the cavalry horse for the light cav- alry service is, and this may be roughly set down as about 15^ hands in height and about 1000 potmds in weight. This horse is amply big enough for all light cavalry work. The Russian Cossack uses a still smaller animal, often not above 14^ hands, and does the hardest sort of field service. Now let us examiae as to the age of the horses used in the various services : Germany procures its cavalry horses between three and four years of age, but does not put them into reg- imental or field service until over four and usually over five years of age. Austria-Hungary procures its cavalry horses between five and seven years of age, taking younger animals, how- ever, very frequently — often as young as three and a half- to four years old, if especially good. Russia procures its cavalry horses between three and a half and seven years of age, but does not use the younger horses for a year or more, during which time they are being trained at the dep6ts. France procures its cavalry horses between three and eight years of age, also training the new horse for over a year before sending him to the regiment. England procures its cavalry horses between five and six years of age, and the United States procures its ani- mals for cavalry service between four and eight, horses under five years being bought only when especially well developed. 96 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. It would seem from the above, that experience has warned us not to use the horse when he is too young, for active field service ; that the horse six years old and up- wards can stand it, but the younger horse needs careful handling and training while his bones and form are maturing; also that the purchase of these horses under four years of age is advisable, wherever the horse is first subjected to long, careful training, as he learns more quickly than when older, and consequently can be mould- ed into a better troop-horse. It now remains to be seen what these great cavalry services do as regards the sex of the horse : Germany procures either geldings or mares; Austria procures either geldings or mares ; Russia procures either stallions, geldings or mares ; France procures either geldings or mares ; England procures either stallions, geldings or mares ; United States procures only geldings. A gelding is a castrated horse ; the castration is usually performed when the horse is about one year of age, after he has gotten past the age when to castrate him might injure his form and strength. The castration of the cav- alry horse is necessary as a means of control. The Amer- ican Cavalry service has never used mares ; the use of them . is always attended with more or less danger of becoming in foal, especially if herded where there are other horses. They require more care and attention in this respect than they they would be worth in service. As to the physical strength, mares are frequently found fully equal to the geldings. The objections to the stallions are that they are inclined to be vicious and are often unmanageable to such an extent as to render them a nuisance anywhere near a troop. It would be impossible to herd them together loosely, as they would seriously injure themselves by des- perate fighting. The gelding has been found to possess all the strength of bone and sinew and all the intelligence and spirit one could wish for, provided castration has not been performed too early in life. The period of gestation The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 97 is eleven months, and after the colt is born he should not be castrated for at least a year. A horse castrated too late, say two years or upwards, generally possesses unusual strength and development, but is inclined to retain some of the viciousness of the stallion and be a bother in a troop. On the other hand, castrating too early often produces ewe necks, narrow frames, or other weaknesses. The American Cavalry service is light cavalry in all its work and training, in the weight of its men, and its armament and pack, and therefore requires light, strong, agile horses. Large 1 100-pound, i6-hand horses are gen- erally less agile, slower, and more lumbering than the 950- pound, 14^- or 15-hand horse of light, hardy build and quick action. The use of a very large horse in such cav- alry as the American Cavalry is not only an abomination to the man that has to ride him and a severe trial both to his patience and endurance, but a serious handicap to the troop in which the man is riding; and as a further illus- tration of the suitability of small horses for light cavalry work, it might be remarked that an 800-pound pack-mule frequently carries 250 pounds on his back in an awkward, elevated, balance-destroying manner and accompanies cavalry over all country ; then surely a 900- or 950-pound horse ought to be able to carry the same load carefully distributed, hung low to help preserve his equilibrium, and frequently relieved by the dismounting of his rider. At different times in the past the American Cavalry commands on the frontier have experimented with West- em ponies for cavalry service, usually with unsatisfactory results. This is not strange, for while we all know of particular ponies of 750 or 800 pounds exhibiting great endurance, the average Western pony is not sufficiently well bred to possess or produce standard qualities. In many parts of the West the writer has known many ponies to exhibit remarkable stamina, endurance, and intelligence in all the work required in the cattle cotmtry, and there is no doubt that such animals can be found throughout the United States in large numbers and at comparatively small cost. 98 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. It has generally been held by our cavalry officers of years of experience in Western field service that the large horse used by the American cavalr)Tiian is necessary, but the advantage in having a smaller horse is in the greater ease to the trooper (and this wonderfully affects the horse, especially in the field with heavy pack-saddles) and the increasing of the efficiency standard by the smaller, lighter, more agile horse being far more in hand ; and, furthermore, if the horse weighs but 900 or 950 pounds, he should be smaller in height, in proportion, and not weigh less at the expense of strength and symmetry. Duriiig two years' service in the Philippines with the Fourth Cavalry the writer used a 14^-hand horse, weigh- ing only a trifle over 900 pounds. He carried exactly the same weight in equipment and kit as the horses of the troopers, and was subjected for weeks and months at a time to the same exposure, work, forage, weight, and duty; he was one of the best animals in the troop at all times — hardy, strong, and in good condition. This horse was not especially cared for because he belonged to an officer, but underwent equal hardship, and held his own fully among hundreds of cavalry horses of more or less correct regulation type. It may be added that this horse was condemned by the Government as being too small for service in 1899, and it was afterward that he under- went the campaign and field service mentioned above. The horse mentioned was simply a plains-bred Nevada horse. Occasionally the writer observed here and there among the cavalry commands in the Philippines horses which had crept into the service despite the fact that they were smaller than the regulation horse, and in every instance that he can recall these small horses were giving most satisfactory service. Troop I of the Fourth Cav- alry, at first mounted on native Filipino ponies of exceed- ingly small build, were afterwards mounted for the bal- ance of its field service on American horses averaging about 14! hands and 950 pounds, and these horses were found most desirable. A large horse spreads the light 2'he Cavalry Horse and His Fade. 99 cavalryman out absurdly, forcing him to curve his. legs inward at a most unnatural angle to grip at all, and there is nothing easy about the seat or the gait or the manage- ment of the horse. The immediate bad result of this is a tendency on the part of the average rider to loxmge in the saddle, and it would take a most exceptionally patient trooper not to lounge on a large, heavy horse, and this lounging in the saddle on field service is disastrous to a cavalry command, A mixture of Thoroughbred and Percheron or Thor- oughbred and Clydesdale or Thoroughbred and Hackney produces a fine light cavalry horse; he is small, between 14^ and 15 hands, weighing between 900 and 950 pounds, strongly knit, hardy, and agile. No cavalry has ever attempted to mount its men exclusively on Thoroughbred horses. The cavalry is the most expensive branch of an army, and to procure the Thoroughbred animals required would be too enormously expensive an experiment to try. Experience has taught that the care of the Thorough- bred horse is more than can be given him in field service. Experience has also taught that good horses suitable in every way for cavalry can be procured in sufficient num- bers, while Thoroughbred animals could not. Most coun- tries possess animals in large numbers possessing stand- ard quaUties, which, by care in selection and training, amply fulfill requirements. The American regulation cavalry horste seems to cover all good points in an ideal light cavalry animal, except perhaps a little too much height and weight, as a maximum, if the light cavalry horse in use in most European cavalry and the light horse used so extensively in all parts of the West can be taken as the result of ex- perience and experiment. There are some apparent defects in horses which at once render them unfit for cavalry service; among these are lack of fair proportion in, the relative parts of the frame, evident to the eye: cow-hocks, knock-knees, long lOO The Cavalry Horse and His Pack,. backs, tall withers, goose-rumps, bad teeth, defective eyes narrow chests, knee-sprung, ewe-necks, sway backs, buck- knees, roach backs, straight pasterns, short straight shoul- ders, narrow flanks, and many others ; but those named PROPORTIONS COMMON AMONG HORSES. (HAYES.) 1. Length of body {CDl = 2V4 times length of head. 2. Height at withers (E F) = height at croup (G H). 3. Length of head (A B) = depth of body at lowest part of back (I J). 4. Length of head (A B) = distance of "swell" of muscle at posterior angle of shoulder-blade to point of hips (LK). 5. Width of head (M N) = V length ofhead (AB). 6. Leneth ofhead (A B) = distance of point of shoulder to top of withers 7 Width of head (MN) = width of uppHrparl of neck (OP). 8. Height of withers (E F) = length of body (CDj, abont. can readily be observed after some experience, and rejec- tion of horses possessing them is imperative. Contract- ors will often present horses for purchase by the Gov- ernment possessing these defects, and while some of them 21) e Cavalry Horse and His Fade. 101 may not be signs of actual unsoundness, such animals should be rejected if being purchased for cavalry work. Let us consider these separately; many of them may be seen among the animals of a large command, as some poor horses will always creep in among the good ones. Fair Proportion. — As the horse, stands at 'ease, he should be viewed from all directions — fiom both sides, from the right and left front and rear, from the direct front and direct rear, etc. By taking, the size of the head as the unit of measurement, the various proportions of the horse may be ..quickly obtained, approximately, by reference to the figure. It is seen that, with fair proportion — I^ength of head equals" length of shoulder from withers to point of shoulder ; and Equals length of barrel from immediately be- hind the shoulder-blade to immediately in front of the hip-joint; and Equals the depth of the barrel from the cen- ter of the back to the belly, taken perpen- dicularly; and Equals distance from stifle to point of hock; and Equals distance from point of hock to the ground, along the leg; and Two and one-half times the length of the head equals the height of the withers above the ground; and Equals height of top of croup above the ground; and Equals the length of the horse, taken from the point of the shoulder to the rear of the buttocks, horizontally. All these measurements must be taken as a shoe- maker measures the length of the foot, and they are approximate only. Some horses will, of course, vary somewhat, and still the general appearance of correct proportion will be good, while others will fall far short of I02 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. any reasonable proportion by being long-headed, long- backed, low-withered, short-shouldered, etc. After ex- perience, these points will be quickly caught by the eye, but it will pay the new cavalryman to actually do some measuring, and if he does so, he will learn much regarding relative proportion of the parts of the horse. IDEAL HEAD. The Head. — It should be reasonably small and neatly cut; the eyes should be large, clear, and intelligent and the vision perfect. This may be fairly ascertained by waving the hand before the eyes, and observing whether or not the horse blinks or moveg away the head; if not, suspect defective vision. The forehead between the eyes should be fiat and broad ; the distance from the eye to the point of the jaw should be large; the width between the The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 103 lower jaws should be great; the nostrils should be large, ppen, laealthy, and free from coarse, bristly hairs, as these indicate inferior blood ; the teeth should be sound and all present ; the tongue and bars should be free from bruises, sores, or calloused places; the ears should be small and well carried; the lips should be thin, heakhy, and firm; the chin-groove should be smooth, with no rough THE "EWE-NECKBD" HORSE. prominences on the edges of the jaws at this place; the head should be carried well up, in a spirited ma:nner. The horse should have what is known as a good face — if the line of the face, when viewed from the side, is straight, it is considered good; if this line curves inward, as though scooped out, the face is called "dish-faced," and is some- what unsightly; if, on the contrary, the face curves out- ward, it is known as "Roman-nosed"; it is unsightly in I04 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. proportion to the amount of curvature outward ; the more the curve the more ugly becomes the face, and this "Roman nose" is also apt to be accompanied by small nostrils. The head should be well set on the neck, and wholly lack stiffness in movement. The Netk. — The neck should be moderately long, full, reasonably arched, with a good, neat crest, and grad- ually grow larger as it approaches the shoulders; the muscles on the sides should be strong, well developed, and prominent; the under side, or "throttle," should be full and well outlined; the neck should not bulge out at the upper end .on, Insensitive sole. over navicular bone. s, Sensitive sole. ■mm, Flexor perforans tendon. ff. Insensitive frog. N, Great pastern bone. G, Sensitive frog. 0, Extensor pedis tendon. B, Coronary band. P, I,ong inferior sesamoid liga- I, Small paste rn bone. ment. hoof at the end of a system of levers, actuated by springs, and all working together to bear the horse's weight, to pro- pel him forward or backward, to give such ease and light- ness to his tread as will produce least fatigue and wear on him generally. The foot is perfect, generally, as Nature made it, but cavalry service has taught us that we cannot leave it so for the work he must perform, as work and soil rarely harmonize.Vit is said that on the sands of Arabia ANCIENT TYPES OF SHOES. Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 11, 12, 13, 18, and 19 are Nos. 5 and 15 are Syrian shces. ancient Roman shoes. Nos. 7 an 1 17 are Arabian shoes. No. 8, ancient Roman she;, fastened on No. 9, French shoe of XIII. century. without nails No. 10, Tartar-Chinese shoe. Nos. 14 and 16, African shoes. 134 The Cavalry Horse arid His Fade. and Northern Egypt the horse is generally unshod, and that his feet are as Nature made them. The climate is hot and dry and the soil flinty, yet the horse's foot is said to be perfect, hard and dense, firm and small, and able to stand the wear and tear upon it; yet no cavalry has ever gone through either of these countries with unshod horses, if it could be avoided. The hoof consists of three parts, distinct, which, though inseparably connected one with the other, may be readily separated af- ter death by maceration for a few days in strong soda water. These three parts are known a,s the crust or wall, the sole, and the frog. The crust reaches from the hair to the ground, and av- erages about 3^ inches in depth. The front is known as the toe, the back as the heel, and the intermediate part on each side as the quarter. When the crust is looked at from one side, it should form an angle of about 45 degrees with the sole at the toe. The crust is often described as a section of a truncated cone. The back of the crust should join the sole, so as to leave a moderate substance at the heel. The front of the crust is rather more than ^ inch in thickness, while at the back the crust is barely more than \ inch thick. This proportion is, however, rather confined to the fore foot, for in the hind there is little difference between the toe and quarters in point of thickness. In examining the cut of the sole, it may be seen that the crust is bent inwards NATURAl, HEAI,THY SOLE. The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 135 towards the frog at the heel on each side — these are the bars, which, in the natural foot, appear as sharpened prominences extending from the heel into the center of the foot, between the sole and the frog, and which are use- ful as buttresses supporting the crust from being crushed inwards'by the superincumbent weight. The sole is the 6, Cleft of frog. C, Frog. D, Seat of corn B, Bars. A, Sole. K, Crust or wall. GROUND SURFACE OF FOOT. PROPERLY PREPARED FOR SHOE. plate at the bottom of the foot, and is slightly concave on the lower surface, and is fixed to the inner. edge of the crust and the outer sides of the bars, and not to their lower surfaces. Its usual thickness is about ^ of an inch, but it will vary greatly in different horses, 136 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. and it is thicker where it runs back between the bars and the crust. The frog is the prominent triangular and elastic substance which fills up the space between the heels posteriorly, the bars on each side, and the sole in front. In the middle is a longitudinal fissure, called the cleft, the sides of which should form an angle of about 45 degrees. In front of this cleft is a solid wedge of the elastic horny substance constitutiag the frog, which lies immediately beneath the navicular bone and has received the name of cushion. Posteriorly this is spread out into a thin band on each side, which cov- ers the bulbs of the heels and passes around the upper part of the crust. The foot of the horse is a most com- plicated structure, both externally and internally, which is liable to derangement whenever the hoof (or homy case) is interfered with. Perhaps in no other organ does an injury so soon produce a return at compound interest, for the inevitable first result is a malformation of the hoof, and this again only adds to the original mischief. Hence it is that in the foot, more than in any other part even, prevention is better than cure, for in many of its diseases it happens that a cure cannot be obtained without rest, and yet it is also a fact that the secretion of horn will not go on perfectly without the stimulus of necessity afforded by exercise. Shoeing is an almost unavoidable consequence of the horse's domestication, and an artificial protection for the foot is one of the penalties which civilization inexorably demands, and nowhere more than in cavalry service. That the ordinary iron shoe is the best and least hurtful means that can be devised, must be admitted, for, even with American ingenuity to help us, nothing yet has been discovered that will take its place. That the systems of horse-shoeing, as they now obtain, are pregnant with mischief to the foot, no one who is conversant with the facts will venture to deny. As a matter of physiological fitness, the shoe and its mode of attachment are utterly indefensible. Each time a, horse is shod, each time a nail The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 137 is driven, means so much injury to the foot. The better the job the less that injury is, but there is no such thing as absolute immunity from this evil. If we impose upon our horses work of a nature which entails upon their feet more waste of horn than Nature can replace during the ordinary intervals of rest, we are obliged to adopt a defense of some kind. It would be futile to inveigh against the form of protection in almost universal use — the iron shoe — unless we are prepared with a substitute not open to the same or equally serious objections. "In preparing the foot for the shoe, do not touch with the knife the frog, sole, or bars; in removing surplus growth of that part of the foot which is the 'seat of the shoe,' use the cutting pincers and rasp, and never the knife. The shoeing-knife may be used, if necessary, in fitting the toe-clip. 'Opening the heels,' or making a cut into the angle of the wall at the heel, must never be done; the rasp may be used on this part of the foot when neces- sary, and the same applies to the pegs. No cutting with a knife should be permitted; the rasp alone when neces- sary. Flat-footed horses should be treated as the neces- sity of each particular case may require. In forging the shoe to fit the foot, be careful that the shoe is fitted to and follows the circumference of the foot clear round to the heels. The heels of the shoe should never be extended back straight and outside of the walls at the heels, as is frequently done. Care must be taken that the shoe is not fitted too small, the outer surface of the walls being then rasped down to make the foot short to suit the shoe, as often happens. Heat may be used in preparing and shaping the shoe, but the hot shoe must never be ap- plied to the horse's foot under any circumstances. Make the upper or foot surface of the shoe perfectly flat, so as to give a level bearing. A shoe with a concave ground surface should be used." The above paragraph" outlines the regulations govern- ing horse-shoeing in the United States Cavalry, and is the outcome of many years of hard service and vast experi- 138 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. ence. It gives the principles of American Cavalry shoe- ing very plainly, and differs more or less from the meth- ods used in foreign services. The practice of trimming the frog and thinning out the sole till it visibly yields to pressure, of the thumbs is brutal and ruinous. The frog is Nature's cushion and hoof -expander, placed there by an all-wise Hand; by its elasticity it wards off concussion from the less elastic portions of the structure, and by its resilience assists in maintaining the natural expansion of its horny surrounding; that is to say, it does so in its REGULATION AMERICAN CAVALRY SHOK PROPERLY ON FOOT. SIDE VIEW OF SAME. natural state, but' the knife's touch is fatal to it; once cut and carved and deprived of pressure, those very acts cause it to shrink, dry, and harden, and at once lose those very attributes which constitute its usefulness to the foot. By paring down the thickness of the sole until only a thin film of soft, partially formed horn is left, protection is taken away from the sensitive construction within, and the sole itself, or what is left of it, dries and shrinks upon exposure to the air, and thereby entails a further and still more serious injury to the foot. The practice of remov- The Cavalry Horse arid His Pack. 139 ing the bars, known as "opening the heels," is also brutal and injurious. It means nothing more than opening a road for them to close over. On a foot that has had its frog and sole "trimmed" in the above fashion and the bars removed, many an amateur shoer places a shoe, often too small, and the rasp is then called into use to reduce the hoof to fit the shoe for appearance's sake. It is sad that Art and Nature should so often be at variance. This rasping down of the hoof -wall weakens the entire struct- ure of the hoof incalculably, yet this is a very common practice among new troop blacksmiths unless guarded against. The shoe should be as light as the weight of the horse and the nature of his work will permit. Heavy shoes not only burden the animal that must wear them (for there is truth in the old saying that "An ounce at the toe means a pound at the withers"), but they also increase the concussion inseparable from progression. The legitimate mission of the shoe is to prevent undue wear of the walls, and a light shoe will do this quite as well as a heavy one. It is, moreover, entirely erroneous to suppose that a heavy shoe necessarily wears longer than a light one, as expe- rience proves the contrary, in many instances, to be the case. Even among the mammoth draft-horses used in America by great express companies, whose shoes must of course be made with reference to the weight they have to bear and the inordinate strain to which they are sub- jected when the animal which wears them is at work, do not require great, heavy iron shoes, which but add unnecessary weight and consequently greater concussion to the feet. The shoe should stop before it reaches the frog on either side, as contraction is liable to result if the frog is clamped between the two ends of the shoe. If this has been done, however, the frog and foot can be often gotten back into shape by lowering the walls at the heels a little, so as to restore frog-pressure, when the latter will speedily recover its lost characteristics, and a healthy condition will gradually return. I40 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. In many countries what is known as hot-fitting — that is to say, after the foot has been trimmed and leveled, momentarily applying the shoe at a red heat to the foot — - is generally practiced to the almost entire exclusion of any other method, and the system is not only found to answer, but receives the endorsement of many acknowl- edged competent authorities. The advantage claimed by the advocates of hot-fitting is that a more accurate accommodation for the shoe is obtained by this method more readily than by any other, and that the contact between hoof and shoe is consequently made more inti- mate and enduring. They also claim that in moist climates it is the only way by which the shoe can be made to stay on the foot for any length of time. In no part of the United States is there a single place where this hot-fitting need be done, nor is there any such spot outside of it. In every cavalry garrison of the American service, both in the United States and in the Philippine Islands, ordi- nary cold-shoeing has been found most efficacious, and no other way has ever been used, least of all hot -fitting ; and in the shoeing of horses for the most severe field service, both in hot and cold climates, it is doubted if any nation in the world has had more opportunity to learn the most beneficial way of doing it than has the American Cavalry. The fewest nails, and these of the smallest size that will properly hold the shoe, should be used. Three of the commonest mistakes made in shoeing horses are using too many nails and these of too large a size, and driving them too high up into the walls. If a perfectly level bear- ing has been obtained, it is astonishing how few and how small the nails need be to hold the shoe in place securely. After the nails have all been driven in, the ends should be twisted off and the stubs rasped down smooth, to avoid the horse's cutting himself, and also to prevent any of the nails from working loose. No shoe should be allowed to remain on the horse for more than one month, or five weeks at the outside in case of emergency. Some horses require to be shod oftener. Climate, season, work, etc., all have The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 141 their influences as to shoeing the horse, but the above length of time is considered as long as the shoe can rea- sonably be expected to sit well on the foot, as the steady growth of the hoof will cause the crust to lap over the shoe at the edges, and thus the shoe will be doing more damage than good. The shoe on the horse's foot during summer months is required only to prevent wear and tear upon the foot, but in winter the necessity for shoeing is made more imperative, as the ground is still harder than in summer, and the slippery condition of the roads and trails requires a special style of shoeing^ to prevent the animal from fall- ing. Various patterns of shoes have, from time to time, been fashioned to meet this latter requirement, but the commonest of all the styles tried, fashioned with toe- and heel-calks, or calkins, is, though perhaps faulty, the one best suited to the requirements of winter traveling. The shorter, the sharper, and the smaller the calkins are, so much the better for the foot, so long as they answer their purpose. High calkins, while they confer no firmer foot- hold, may injure both the foot itself and the leg to which it is attached. Navicular disease is believed by some authorities to be one of the results of high calkins, besides a string of other ailments of more or less severity. In using calkins, care must be taken that the one at the toe is of the same height as the two at the heel ; otherwise undue strain is thrown upon the part of the foot that is lowest, and consequently both foot and leg will be in- jured. Owing to the wearing down of the toe-calk, the shoes will require more looking after in winter than summer, in ordinary cavalry work. The calk often per- forms a slight twisting motion in the ground, as the foot is planted, if only the toe-calk is used, and this is liable to work the shoe loose. The practice in the American cavalry service has been to "rough shoe" the troop-horse only when absolutely necessary in winter, and is rarely done, except for a few mounted patrols in and about the garrison or camp; when "rough shoeing" is done in the 142 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. troop, the horses having on the shoes with calkins should be kept sufficiently far apart from each other and the rest of the troop animals to prevent their injm-ing other horses by kicking. A kick from a "rough" shoe often results in broken bones. Shoeing for gait has produced many styles of shoes, and some of these are marvels of ingenuity and many are successful. By intelligent use of special styles of shoes, the gait of the horse may be changed considerably or FRONT VIEW OF SCOOP-TOE ROI,I- III hi dog S .0 •B is? S.sa .2.Q01 Q Length of branches from center of up- perring to cen- ter of lower ring. 1 2 3 In. m 5 In. In. In. 1% In. 31/2 ay, 3% In. 5^ In. 02. 13 13H 14)4 In. 9« In. 1 In. 1 1 1 In. 5%. . The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 157 this means of control that we must deal with especial care and understanding. In the American cavalry service the snaffle-bit is issued to each trooper, and this is used for watering pur- poses when in the field and for the training of the horse in the elementary drills, etc. For regular cavalry work beyond this, the curb-bit is used. The weight of the American curb-bit now in use is given in the table below Fig. 62, and it is made in three sizes: No. i, No. 2, and No. 3. These three sizes differ only in one measurement — the length of the mouth-piece, the length of this being 4J inches in the No. i, 4! inches in the No. 2, and 5 inches in the No. 3. All the dimensions of this bit are given in detail below Fig. 62. From this plate it will be espe- cially noticed that the height of port is i\ inches, or one- half the length of the port, which is 2^ inches ; also that the upper branches are if inches long, or one-half the length of the lower branches ; it will also be noticed that the plane of the branches coincides with the plane of the port; it will also be noticed that the center of the upper ring, the centel of the end of the mouth- piece, and the knob in the end of the lower branch throjigh which the rein- ring passes form three points in the same straight line; it will also be noticed that t^e upper ends of the upper branches slightly incline outward, away from each other; it will also be noticed that the mouth-piece is J inch in diameter through its entire length. Let us consider the reasons which govern these dimensions, as they are all the result of careful study of the principles of bitting. 158 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. The Weight. — This must be no more than is abso- lutely necessary to sufficient strength. Additional pounds in the horse's mouth materially affect his management and his gaits. The discomfort caused by a bar of any- thing in the mouth is too apparent to need illustration, and additional weight only increases this discomfort. Ex- perience has shown that i inch in diameter is all that it need be to possess the required strength, and thus weight may be limited here. Frequently a mouth-piece less than i inch may be used advantageously, and more weight saved. The lower branches are made tapering smaller toward the ends, thus saving additional weight. As a matter of weight, the single curb-bit is a great ad- vantage over the bit and bridoon of the European cavalry services. Length of Mouth-piece. — As horses' mouths differ in width, so must the length of mouth-piece, to enable us to fit them all properly. No pinching of the mouth at the sides can be permitted; not only is this clamp- ing uncomfortable and even painful to the horse, but also chafing to the tender lips at the sides. Some years ago General Carter (then captain of the Sixth Cav- alry) measured the mouths of the horses in the cavalry squadron at Fort Leavenworth, and found that one-third of the mouths measured less than 4 inches, and nearly all were between 3f and 4^ inches. Only two horses measured as much as 5 inches. To have the bit too wide will allow the bit to come against the sides of the mouth as the reins are pulled, thus bruising it. As the horse waves his head slightly in traveling, the branches of the bit will swing against the sides of the mouth if the mouth-piece be too long, thus causing a succession of more or less painful blows on the lips at the sides. Too long a mouth-piece will also make the adjustment of the curb- strap bad, as it will be stretched out and thus rest on the tender bones above the curb-groove instead of setting snugly all arotmd this groove. As these bones are sharp and narrow, this bad position of the curb-strap will cause much pain. The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 159 Height of Port. — This must be only sufficient to allow the tongue to lay comfortably in it ; never high enough to touch the palate, which causes much pain and makes the horse bore away with his head from the rider's hand. The object of the port is to take just enough pressure off the tongue to throw the required weight on the bars of the horse's mouth, and no more. As these bars are sensi- tive, and the mouth-piece of the bit rests on them, or (with a low port) partly on them and partly on the tongue, great pain can be caused by having too high a port, and thus throwing enormous weight on the bars. This height of port must be carefully considered, and a bit used that will regulate the weight on the tongue and the weight on the bars of the mouth, as circumstances require. The use of the extremely high port often noticed in the cattle country among cow-boys is not only irrational, but destroys the very purpose of the port by crushing the palate, which was never intended to be touched, and thus losing that very pressure on the bars that is required. Such a high port causes acute pain in the wrong place, and nothing else. Length of Port. — This must be just enough to allow the tongue to lie in the port without having its edges cut. If too narrow, the edges of the under side of the port rest on the edges of the tongue, and a sharp jerk may cut the tongue half in two; if too wide, the edges on the under side of the port will rest on the bars of the horse's mouth and bruise them badly. The edges of the port should never be too sharp, for even with the best bit and adjust- ment cutting of the tongue or bruising of the bars may result if the rider has a heavy hand. Length of the Upper Branches. — The length of these upper branches is governed by the principle of leverage involved, which will be discussed later. Length of the Lower Branches. — The length of these is also governed by the leverage action, and will be dis- cussed later. Whether these lower branches are straight, curved, or double curved, makes little difference, as the i6o The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. straight length of the branches must be a continuation of the line of the upper branches. Outward Inclination of the Upper Branches. — This in the No. I bit is, measuring from top of branch across to the top of the opposite branch, as can be seen in table below Fig, 62, 5^ inches; in the No. 2 it is 5f inches, and in the No. 3 bit it is 6 inches. Were these branches parallel to each other, their tops would, owing to the broadening of the horse's jaw as it goes higher, crush into his jaws above the mouth, and a fit could not be secured ; the mouth-piece would be pushed too far down on the bars toward the incisor teeth, and the tops of the branches would bruise the jaws. To prevent this, they incline out- ward, and should not touch the horse's cheeks. As some horses are unusually large in the jaws above the upper ends of the mouth, a bit, otherwise fitting properly, may have the upper branches crowding into the cheeks, and must be slightly bent out more than usual to fit correctly. As both the cheek-pieces on the bridle head-stall and the curb-strap must be buckled into the rings on the tops of these upper branches, they must be bent outward far enough to prevent these straps from chafing the lips or cheeks, as frequently happens. Plane of the Port Must Coincide with Plane of the Cheek- pieces. — If the plane of the port inclined backward, the port would continually dig into the back part of the tongue; if the plane of the port inclined forward, the port would dig into the roof of the mouth as the horse stood at rest, and would turn forward and downward and press backward on the tongue whenever the reins were pulled. This faulty position of the plane of the port would consequently take the pressure off the bars when the reins were pulled, and place the entire weight on the tongue, which would probably injure the tongue, and would also require more pressure on the reins to control the horse. The Center of the Hole in the Upper Ring, the Center of the End of the Mouth-piece, and the Center of the Knob in the End of the Lower Branch Must Lie in the Same The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. i6i Straight Line. — If the line formed an angle such that the lower branch inclined to the rear, pressure in the leverage action would be lost, and the action of the bit, would par- take more and more of the simple action of a bar-bit the farther to the rear the lower branch was inclined. If the lower branch inclined to the front, pressure would be against the mouth-piece instead of around it, and a pull on the reins would push the mouth-piece farther and farther up into the edges of the horse's mouth the greater the lower branches inclined forward. Having considered the actual bit and its dimensions, we now come to the principle of leverage, the great con- sideration in the curb-bit. For an exhaustive consider- ation of the curb-bit from every standpoint, combined with great personal experience in cavalry bitting, as well as elucidating the results of the labors of other investi- gators in the same field, the writer would commend to> the new cavalryman the work of the late Major Francis Dwyer, of the Imperial Austrian service, entitled "Seats and Saddles, Bits and Bitting." To those who will read this- exhaustive treatise on bitting it will appear like a reve- lation, so startling and novel is its information, and it may be added that cavalrymen the world over have adopted! this work as authoritative. In the use of the bit in the horse's mouth, one thing, and only one thing, is desired — to control the cavalry horse with the least possible pain. To do this, the curb-bit cannot be merely placed in the animal's mouth and allowed to stay there by buckling up the head-stall so that it cannot fall out, but it must be placed on the bars, ia the proper position ; must not touch either molars or tusks, and must be so adjusted that the curb-strap will rest snugly in the curb-groove under the bars. Before going into the principle of leverage itself, there are some dimensions of the horse's mouth which must be understood before the bit is placed in it. These measurements may be classified as the width of the mouth, the width of the tongue channel, and the height of the bars above the chin-groove. Let us see what these measurements are, and how to take them. 1 62 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. Width of the Mouth. — This is, as the words themselves explain, the width of the horse's mouth ; but as this varies according to the point at which the mouth is considered, it must be taken at a particular place, and this place must be the place where it is determined the bit shall rest. The mouth grows wider and wider as it approaches the cheeks, obtaining its widest part at the upper termination of the lips. Inside of the mouth are the "bars" — these are the upper surfaces of the two lower jaws between the tusks and the first molars, where there are no teeth. Under the mouth, behind the chin, is the groove called the "chin-groove" or "curb-groove." The bits must rest somewhere on the bars, and as pain would be caused if the bit struck the teeth, it must be placed on the bars at such a point that this is impossible. As the curb-groove is to hold the curb-chain (or strap), this point on the "bars " must be chosen so that the curb-strap, when placed cor- rectly, will lie snugly and neither mount up onto the tender, sharp under edges of the lower jaws or fall down ■onto the chin itself. This point, then, at which the width of the mouth must be taken, can be known, and is about 1^ inches above the tusks and i inch or ij inches below the first molars and directly above the curb-groove. The actual point known at which the width of the mouth is to be taken, insert a round, smooth stick (about i foot long and ^ inch in diameter) into the mouth, across the bars, at the selected place. This stick should have the inches and fractions of inches marked upon it, and must have a short stick attached to one end of it, firmly, per- pendicularly to it. This short stick should not be over 3 or 4 inches long, and should be so fastened to the mouth- stick that not more than i inch of it is above it ; if the upper part is too long, it may touch the jaws above the upper edges of the mouth, and if too short, may be drawn slightly into the mouth, enough to spoil the measurement. Adjust the stick on the bars at the right place mentioned, so that the short stick at the end just lightly touches the side of the mouth without pressing it in. Have the stick The Cavalry Horse and llis Fack. 163 in the mouth over the tongue ; then slide the thumb-nail along the other end of the stick in the mouth until the nail touches lightly the horse's mouth at the side ; remove the stick and read the width on it carefully; this will give the width of the mouth at the correct place, and conse- quently a bit can be selected slightly wider, but very little, so that its mouth-piece and upper branches will set as they should when the mouth-piece of the bit is occupying the place on the bars where the stick rested. Care must be taken that the stick, when placed in the mouth, rests on each bar at the same place, and neither end higher nor lower on the bars than the other. Width of the Tongue Channel. — This is the width of the space occupied in the mouth by the tongue as it lies quiet. The measurement is more difficult to take than the others, but, as it regulates the width of the port and consequently the amount of pressure on the tongue and the amount on the bars, it must be taken carefully. Open the horse's mouth and draw the tongue out with the hand to one side. Having removed the short perpendicular stick from the mouth-stick, place the mouth-stick in the horse's mouth at the same point as before, from one side, so that the end farthest in the mouth just touches the inside of the opposite bar near the top; slide the thumb along the other end of the stick as before, until the nail is at the inner edge of the near bar, at the top of it and at a point exactly opposite the other end of the stick, as was done in, measuring the width of the mouth; withdraw the stick and read the measurement. Height of Bars. — The "bars" in the horse's mouth have already been explained in the measurement of the width of mouth ; they are the upper surfaces of the lower jaws between the tusks and the first molars. The height ■of the bars means their height above the bottom of the chin-groove, taken perpendicularly, and regulates the length of the curb-strap or chain, and the same consider- ations as regards choosing the place must be observed as before, and the place must be the same. Place the 1 64 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. mouth-stick in the horse's mouth as before, over the tongue, until it is resting on both bars as in the measure- ment for width of mouth. Before doing so, the short stick should again be fastened on one end perpendicularly, and this short piece should have the inches and fractional parts marked on it. After the mouth-stick is correctly- adjusted, place another straight stick parallel to it and tangent to the bottom of the chin-groove, but not press- ing into the groove ; move this stick sideways until one end of it touches the. short stick depending from the mouth-stick, and then read the length on the short stick; this gives the height of the bars, and from this the length of the curb-chain or strap can be determined. The length of the curb-strap (or chain) has been found to be about li times the length of the mouth-piece. Knowing the various dimensions of the curb-bit and the reasons therefor, and knowing what measurements of the horse's mouth af e necessary and how to take them, the fitted curb-bit is now placed in the animal's mouth and its leverage action studied after the curb-chain or strap is adjusted. Let us consider now this leverage action. "With a plain, smooth snaffle, there is no question of lever-action ; the amount of power applied to the reins is conveyed unaltered in quantity to the horse's mouth; to use a scientific expression, there is none of that mechan- ical advantage obtained which a mechanical power alone is capable of conferring. A still greater amoimt, how- ever, of mechanical advantage may be obtained by means of a lever — a bit furnished with a ciurb of a proper length acts as such. There are, we know, several kinds of levers, and it will depend altogether on the manner in which the bit and curb are arranged whether we obtain a lever- action that is favorable to us or quite the contrary. It is therefore necessary to say a word or two on the pirin- ciples of lever-action. "In the first order of levers the power is applied at one end, the weight being placed at the other, and the ful- The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 165 crum (or prop) between the two, dividing thus the lever into two arms, a longer and a shorter one; the mechan- ical advantage obtained is proportionate to the relative length of these two arms. Thus, if PF (Figure 64) be equal to twice WF, a power equal to i applied at P will counterbalance a weight equal to 2 applied at W, but as regards the curb -bit it is more necessary to observe that the power and the weight move in opppsite directions or rotate around the fulcrum (or prop) as is shown by the arrows. Appljring this to a curb-bit, the cheeks of which represent the lever, there can be no question as to where the power is applied, being the lower ring to which the rein is attached, nor as to the direction in which it is to act, being towards the rider's hands ; and if the bit acts as p PF = 2 FW. Fig. 64. FIRST CLASS OF LEVER. a lever of the first order, the fulcrum (or prop) must be represented by the bars in the horse's mouth on which the curb-bit rests, and the pressure of the curb-strap or curb-chain on the chin would necessarily represent the weight to be raised. But it has been shown that in lev- ers of the first order the power and weight move in oppo- sit;e directions in their rotation about the fulcrum; in this case, therefore, the horse's chin, in consequence of the pressure exercised by the curb-strap, should move forward — that is to say, away from the rider's hand ; and the greater the lever power of the bit, and the stronger the pull on the reins, so much the more would the horse be induced to stick out his nose — -a very frequent occur- rence. Now, in actual fact, there is no weight to be raised, in the purely mechanical sense of the expression; 1 66 The, Cavalry Horse and His Pack. it is a question of the infliction of a certain amount of pain from which the horse shrinks, and if the curb acts more painfully than the mouth-piece in conseqence of its construction or position, we obtain the action of a lever of this first order, which we never wish." As the infliction of unnecessary pain is brutal, and hiuch more so if by its infliction we are not getting what we want — that is, easy management and control of the horse — let us see what can be accomplished by using a lever of the second order. " In a lever of the second order the power and fulcrum act, or are placed, at the opposite extremities of the lever, the weight being between the two. The mechanical advantage is proportioned to the relative distances of the power and weight from the ful- crum. Thus, if PF (Figure 65) be equal to 3 and WF p Note: PW = 2 WF. Fig. 65. SECOND CI, out the saddle, still H A Ml much of this destruc- Mn ro^c' « believed to come from ^t M* 9 ' V^ ignorant or careless ^^ ^^V'*'Imi saddling and a failure ^^K j^flfll^W to place the saddle ^^H( wS^^^ where the Cavalry '^^B- ^*&*^^r4 ^"^' Regulations di- rect it to be put: "Place center of the saddle on the middle of the horse's back." Instead of this, men are often observed saddling up by plac- ing the saddle well for- ward on the withers, and a popular idea seems to prevail, even among some old soldiers, that the saddle should be placed as far forward as the conformation of the THE '■McCLLELAN,, SADDLE The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. i8i horse will permit. The writer well remembers an old- time cavalry sergeant who always used to say to his men: "When you feel tired, place the saddle well for- ward on the with- ers and it will rest you." The writer recalls hear- ing a recruit tell the sergeant one day that he could not get the sad- dle any farther i forward, and the old fellow growled out: "Well, put it on his neck." The horse, when ENfGLisH cavalry saddle for officers. subjected to the weight of the rider, saddle, and equipment, sustains about two-thirds of the weight on the fore legs, if the saddle be too far forward, and the fore legs are no more quali- fied to carry this excessive prepon- derance of weight than the hind ones. True, the fore legs are weight-bearers and the hind ones propellers, but there is such a thing as overload- ing these same front legs, and a sure way to do it is to saddle up "well forward on the withers." GERMAN CAVALRY OFFICER'S SADDLE. 182 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. The further back the saddle is placed, after it passes the center of motion (which is the center of the horse's back), the rougher becomes the action of the horse on the rider, and consequently it is never placed there, and only gets there when it slides back accidentally. Many horses appear easier to the iiiexperienced rider when he puts the saddle far forward on the withers. When a trooper has assigned to hipi a roughly gaited animal, he soon dis- covers this, and begins to saddle up as far forward as pos- SADDLING Too FAR FORWARD. sible. He quickly finds that by putting the saddle far forward it seems to make it easier on him, and at once it becomes a settled conviction in his mind that the sad- dle should he placed here, unconsciously believing that be- cause he thinks it is easier on him it does not injure the horse. The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 183 The backbone of the horse is very similar to an arch, with the feet, fore and hind, for the abutments. To a certain extent this arch is a flexible one, and it has one characteristic especially true of this mechanical device, that of best supporting weight when it is applied equi- distant from the abutments. The center of the back is also the "center of motion," and most authorities have agreed that this point lies over the fourteenth or fifteenth vertebra. This point is the preferable place for the cen- ter of the saddle to rest, because the supports here have less inertia to overcome than they have at any other point, and for this same reason the rider is subjected to- less jar here from the motion of the horse, and because of the flexibility of the horse's back the rider's comfort is materially increased by the springy-motion obtained here. Most writers on this subject advocate this position of the saddle, and in the American service we have always so instructed our men; but because so few of them go into the reasoning of saddling, many of them get the saddle too far forward. Let the center of the saddle be placed over the center of the horse's back, draw the cincha mod- erately tight, and after an hour or two of marching, halt, dismotmt, readjust Tjridle, saddle, pack, and especially the saddle-blanket, and cinch-up reasonably tightly, and the result will be, at the end of the day's work, that both horse and rider will be found ready and willing for the coming service. There will be certain saddles which will require more attention, these having spread somewhat or the horse having lost much flesh. A very good way to avoid hurting the back of the horse in such cases is to place the bed-blanket over the saddle-blanket, and, if necessary, even turning in the front comers of this bed-blanket, to secure an even surface ; but under no circumstances must any wrinkles be permitted to be in the two blankets any- where, as they are sure causes of sore backs. A cavalry saddle, in order to be as good as possible, should not warp or spread in several campaigns under all conditions of weather, nor break or bend when the 1 84 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. saddled horse rolls on it, or when he falls or is thrown on it. It should further be so made that the lot of baggage a trooper is required to carry can be conveniently fas- tened to it with the weight evenly distributed. It should have as large a bearing surface as possible in conformity with the horse's back, without touching either withers or fore-part (top) of the croup ; should leave the spine wholly uncovered, and it should be as light 1 as it can possibly be made and still fulfill the other conditions. Each saddle in the troop should b e care fully fitted to the individual horse's back, when the horse is in moderate flesh, and should then belong to that particular horse at all times, the same as the bit. A saddle, if adjusted so that the weight and fit are accommodated to the horse's physical confcftr- mation and physical strength, will give vastly greater satisfaction than one arbitrarily issued to the trooper for "MULEY" SADDLE-TREE. 'McCLELLAN" TREE. use on any horse he may be given to ride. As it is occa- sionally necessary to change the troopers to other horses, owing to sickness among the animals, etc., issuing the sad- dle to the trooper instead of to the horse often results in The Cavalry Horse and His Pack: 185 saddles fitting very poorly. The effect of this bad fitting, especially in field service, will very frequently result in sore backs, and sore backs are the ruin of a cavalry com- mand, temporarily at least. In the . British Cavalry each regiment is furnished with an adjustable saddle known as the "Wilkinson." This adjustable saddle is so arranged as to accurately measure each horse's back. It is a great advantage, and is the rational method of issuing saddles to fit each horse. -The Austrian Cavalry also use adjustable saddles for issuing purposes, and that service has con- ducted many exhaustive experiments in this line, re- sulting in several very fine types of the adjustable sad- dle. Several other foreign cavalry services also use an "WHITMAN-DWYER" SADDI The Cavalry Horse and His Pack: 243 drink anyway, and the delay thus caused will place such a gap between the men who are on the lead horses and the balance of the herd that the herd will not follow. As soon as the horses ridden by the men mentioned above have entered the water a few feet, the balance of the men lead or drive the herd toward the water and gradually force the horses into it, when, after some experience, the herd will strike out after the leaders and swim across. The men on the near bank then cross by means of the boats or rafts, the horses are saddled up, and the command ■ moves forward. The writer has seen the above method employed many times by the American Cavalry in the Philippine Islands, and it rarely failed to work satisfac- torily, even in bad weather, when the rain was pouring down in torrents during heavy thunder-storms. In a large command several troops often cross at one time, each troop crossing at a point well away from the others. When General Lawton's cavalry command was crossing the Rio P^mpanga, at Cabanatuan, in Northern Luzon, in , the fall of 1899, during the rainy season, the horses of the entire command were crossed in this way, the majority of the men and the wagons and guns passing across either on boats found along the shore or on ferry rafts made on the spot. The Rio Pampanga at the time was a wild, rushing torrent some 300 yards wide, and the crossing was one of the most difficult encountered by the troops on that arduous campaign. A week before, this cavalry command crossed the same river at San Isidro, by means of the rope ferry. At times, however, no ford can be found, no bridges, and no material is at hand to construct rafts or boats, and it becomes necessary to cross both men and horses by swimming. In using this method the most painstaking care should be constantly exercised to prohibit haste and crowding. The command, if small, should enter the wa- ter in column of trooper, with plenty of distance between individual men, the best swimming horses and men taking the lead. When the space to be swum is short, it is often 244 The Cavalry Horse and His Paclc. possible for it to be accomplished as described above, by simply entering the water and swimming across, and in small streams this is often done ; but it is always a serious risk, and should rarely be attempted unless the distance to be passed over by swimming is very short — lo or 20 feet. In a large command the same strict precaution should be observed, and if other crossing-places can be located, several columns cross simultaneously. If only one crossing-place is available, it is still wise to make haste slowly and cross in column of trooper, though many crossings have been successfully made in column of twos. But the time lost and the danger incurred by the inevitable crowding and pushing in a heavy column is too great to justify the risk of attempting to cross a wide and deep or unknown river with the horses packed and the men on their backs once in a thousand times. When it becomes necessary to have the men cross with their horses, experience has shown that it is best to leave the horse saddled and bridled, stirrups crossed, cartridge-belt and pistol strapped to the pommel of the saddle, reins knotted on the neck to prevent their entan- gling the horse's legs, and as the horse begins to swim the rider should gradually float off to the down-stream side, keeping hold of the pommel with one hand and the reins with the other, which should be used very gently and only to guide the horse, never to stop him. The landing-place should be awell-chosen one, somewhat farther down stream, to allow for drift. By splashing water in the horse's face if he attempts to turn or go wrong, much can be accom- plished in making him swim in the right direction. Horses swim low, and, if allowed unrestrained action, will at once assume the natural swimming position. Attempts to make them hold their heads or forehands up tend only to confuse and frighten them. When rider and horse strike bottom at the point of landing, the rider should wade ashore and lead his horse out and not attempt to mount him in the water. Occasionally the violent swimming of the horse causes the rider to lose his grasp on the saddle. The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 245 Instead of pulling on the reins, and thus confusing the horge, the rider should grasp the tail and allow the horse to tow him ashore. The writer has seen horses so con- fused by the rough and ignorant actions of frightened riders that they have turned completely over backwards. This is not at all an unusual occurrence. Another method frequently used in the field in cross- ing rivers is to place the men with their equipments in boats or on rafts, and then tow the horses one, two or three at a time across the stream. This takes consider- able time, but has been found in actual service a very safe and satisfactory way. When no boats are available for this, use can frequently be made of a narrow foot- bridge; the men crossing on the foot-bridge, the horses swimming beside it, and the men leading the horses. In almost every troop there will be some men who do not swim, and when neither bridges, fords, boats, nor rafts are available, these men men have frequently been crossed by requiring each man to enter the water naked and push- ing a log or plank before him or lying upon it, and thus paddling himself across. The horses in this case swim across with their equipments on, as described, with a few good swimmers ahead. How to discover a ford, prepare banks, rafts, boats, etc., is described so fully in the "Manual of Field Engin- eering," written by Major Beach, of the Cavalry, that no discussion of these points is necessary here. The French Regimental System of Training. — The practice of the French Army in crossing rivers is carried on very extensively every year. A place is chosen wide and deep enough to permit swimming, and, if possible, near a bridge, and where shallow water can be found near by, so that the new horses may be trained in fording prepar- atory to their later lessons in swimming. Care is taken in choosing the place that no debris is allowed to remain on the bottom of the river, while depth and speed of the current are carefully measured and soundings are taken in several places crossing the river at the point to be used. 246 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. These facts are carefully gathered by the Engineers and to such an extent that any mile of any river has its plottings ready to be furnished to any regiment needing them. The first few horses are crossed by swimming and held on the other bank at the point of landing. The crossing places should be shady,- as the sun striking on the water was foimd to have a permanently bad effect on the eyes of both horses and men. The bottom of the river-bed should be sloping to the point of exit and the point of entrance. The other general rules used by the French are similar, to a great extent, to our own. THR FRENCH RAFT OF SACKS OR BAGS. \The Material Used. — This^consists of small boats, rafts, boards, ropes, buoys, grappling-hooks ; all of these are indispensable. The French stretch one or two ropes across the river, and build one or two rafts of great sta- bility, but easy to be displaced. These rafts are built with twelve or eighteen barrels and sometimes two strong boats joined together and covered over on the top with flooring. These rafts are large enough to permit seven or eight men to embark on them easily. The edges of the rafts are built so as to be sufficiently high above the water to The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 247 prevent the horses when in tow from getting their heads on top of the edges of the rafts. The edges of the rafts are provided with cleats or stringers to prevent the men from slipping off as they hold the horses by the halters. Patrols. — Patrols are posted on both banks; the men chosen are good, strong swimmers, experienced in practical bridge-construction, and belong to/ a special detail in each regiment known as Sapeurs-Mariniers. SOI,DIERS CROSSING ON THE ".SAC-CACHOU" WITH EQUIPMENT. These men are trained in the spring to manage boats with horses in tow and to paddle the boat with one oar, and also to manage the boat with a long pole; to build every kind of raft and guide them with the hand, or rope, or pole;, they are trained in constructing rope ferries, etc. They are taught cording and splicing of rope, how to use the pulley, the capstan, and the blopk and tackle. When the weather is warm enough, they are trained in swimming for long periods and distances, diving, rescuing mentor 248 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. horses in danger, throwing the buoy, 'the building of tem- porary break-waters, platforms for embarkment and dis- embarkment for horses, etc., etc.; so in the training of the passage of rivers they form an efficient body of men in each regiment. They are subdivided into chiefs of rafts, landing-men, conductors of life-boats, and Jife-saving div- ers. They are arranged on both sides of the river during a crossing ; they are signal-men also, and possess a code of . '^*^'^' ' ;'^^ ^/^ ^'St '^ irnnnTiiiiiiiMniMi ^' /•* — n — 7~: — 1 " ■ '■ ~ ^■ SP ^^9^^ A i^H^U 4^ ^'S^f:^^^S mm hI B .;"■ :■- -M^&ig^ ;:"'■•■ ■^^P^-Ta H^^g '.!f*».l-^ --—*>"""■ ' __'^^-.i.^r-^-i— -*.jh.. --;._- CROSSING A CART ON THE BAG-EAPT. signals pertaining to their own work. Each man in the detail has one particular duty assigned to him, and thus the men work systematically and together without con- fusion. Under this system, in the summer of 1897, about 1500 horses crossed one river several times, this river be- ing 60 meters wide and 49 meters deep, making 10,000 passages all told, without the loss of a horse or man. A careful register of the operations is made at the time, showing the time, current, depth, weather, number of The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 249 men and horses, temperature of the water, tides, the lim- pidity of the water, the direction and intensity of the wind, the influence of the rays of the sun, etc. No man or horse is permitted to enter the water immediately after eating. The exercises are usually very exhaustive for both men and horses, and the condition of each man and horse is carefully observed and a record kept. The Sapeurs-Mariniers are often in the water for hours at a time during a crossing, and need especially good care to be kept in a healthy and efficient condition. As a re- ward for good work in the crossing maneuvers, furloughs or money after the completion of' the work, for diving, for guiding the boats, for the best horseman, etc., are given.! The French troops use to a large extent in their training the Austrian position, which consists of the horseman float- ing on one side or the other of the horse, holding the sad- dle or mane, and thus being dragged by the horse. This position is similar to the American. The French in the above training use the cinquenelle, the sac-cachou, etc. The two mentioned are used per- haps more largely than any other method; the former (the cinqiiemlle) consisting of a wire rope stretched across the river, to which the raft, is fastened, and thus pulled across by the men on the raft — in other words, a rope ferry, except that the wire rope has a tensile strength far exceeding that of any other rope of reason- able diameter. The metal cinquenelle used by the French' Cavalry weighs approximately one-third of a pound per meter, and the resistance to rupture of the rope is guar- anteed by the manufacturer to be not less than 3600 pounds per meter. In using this rope J:he two ends are made fast to tripods, trees, or "dead men" on both banks, and tightened until the arc- formed by the rope is the least possible, approaching the straight line. Tests made by the French show that the cinquenelle, if sub- jected to a tensile stress of 1800 kilograms on 50 meters length, will form a parabola which will measure 2 centi- meters, approximately \ inch. However, such a force 250 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. would stretch the rope to such a degree that a very small weight would serve to rupture the rope. The height of the cinquenelle above the water should be at least 6 inches, but it will often be found impossible to keep the rope from resting r&ore or less in the water. The cinquenelle is carried rolled upon a wooden cylinder. When using the cinquenelle, the men and their equipments cross on the raft attached to the cinquenelle, and the horses are crossed by either swimming in herds^or towed a few BUII,DING THE FOOT-BRIDGE OF SrCCE-SSIVE RAFTS. at a time behind the raft. The French found that a metal rope of ^ inch in diameter would sustain, a ten- sile strain of about 12,500 pounds and weighed about i pound per meter. This is probably as large a cinquenelle as need ever be used. As the cinquenelle will take the shape of a corkscrew if not properly rolled when not in use, and as in this condition it will be impossible to stretch it straight again, it should be rolled loosely The Cavalry Morse and His Fade. 251 in the shape of an "8." If kept rolled upon the spools, it will also take the defective form mentioned above. The sac-cachou, mentioned above, is a rubber bag filled with air and cylindrical in shape. By the use of the cinque- nelle and sacks, the French have crossed a squadron of cav- alry over a river 100 meters wide in an hour ; the current being i meter per second. In 8 minutes they calculate to pass 1 7 horses by swimming, together with 1 7 men and their equipments by means of the raft and sack. They often use two or three cinquenelles at a time, and thus hasten the crossings. Another method used by the French is known as the Dunop bridge, which is a narrow foot-bridge that can be taken apart and put together again very quickly, and does not Aveigh much. By tying the sacks to the cinque^ nelle at 20-foot intervals and laying the Dunop bridge across the sacks, a very convenient form of foot-bridge is quickly secured, and the horses are crossed, each one swimming beside the foot-bridge, led by his trooper on the bridge. Temporary chutes are often constructed at the point on the near shore where the horses enter the water, like a passage-way, with flaring wings, to facilitate entrance into the water. Cavalry should be able to cross all streams coming in its way. In case it comes across important rivers where the distance to be passed in swimming is long, it will be able to make the passage only with the aid of boats or rafts. A command in which none of the men can swim cannot undertake with any prospect of success to cross difficult rivers, either with or without boats. It is neces- essary, therefore, considering the importance of swimming for cavalry, that particular attention be given this subject. In most of our cavalry garrisons a large" enough body of water to permit the swimming of horses and men for prac- tice is to be found. If necessary, the place chosen can be deepened as desired. One of the best' exercises to teach horses to cross rivers is to accustom them to going into deep water without being frightened. The 252 The Cavalry Horse and. His Pack. fear which takes possession of most horses when they enter deep water will gradually disappear with practice. The best results are obtained by allowing swimming horses the greatest liberty ; it is also the best way to avoid acci- dents. In order to make the horse swim, it will be sufficient in most cases to have him handled by a cool man possessing experience and ability to himself swim well. In a deep river a slight current is very useful, for experience proves that a horse ceases to struggle as soon as he feels the force of the current; experience has also demonstrated that it is easier to swim when there is a slight current. The horse, as soon as he loses touch of the bottom, swims in the direction in which his head points. All that is necessary, therefore, is to give the desired inclination to the head — that is, point it in the direction the horse is to go. The swimming horse is most easily directed by means of the snaffle, knotting the reins on his neck that they may not catch his feet. When the horse starts to swim, the trooper leaves his back ; to leave the back too soon before the horse has commenced to swim often causes the horse to stop as he is accustomed to do on land. Practice is necessary to teach the trooper the right moment at which to slide off. In the German cavalry service the trooper is taught to slide off towards the M/)-stream side of the horse. In the other services and in the American, the Jown-stream side is prescribed, and should be the way taught. While great liberty must be given the swim- ming horse that he may move freely, nevertheless it must be made apparent to him that he is still under control, and he must not be allowed to have his own way as regards direction. Stubborn horses should be taught swimming by the best swimmers. Often a change of riders will effect satisfactory results more quickly than keeping a timid man with a stubborn horse or an impatient man with a good one. Ordinarily the rider ought not to re- main on the horse's back while swimming. The rider grasps the .horse with his legs and brings his weight to The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 253 bear on the hind quarters; the horse, being thus con- strained in his movements, is liable to go over backwards or turn on his side. With some horses, especially those that swim low, it is advisable that the trooper sit behind the saddle, to allow the fore quarters to float high. In the American cavalry service it is required that swimming be taught as follows : 1. Horse equipped with watering bridle only, the trooper floating beside him, on down-stream side, holding a lock of the mane in the up-stream hand. 2. Horse swimming and trooper swimining behind him, holding the tail, the horse thus towing him. 3. Horse swimming, trooper seated on the horse, with or without saddle. 4. The troopers will also be practiced in swimming the liorses when fully armed and equipped. 5. Swimming the horses in herds. 6. Towing the swimming horse from a boat. Many stubborn horses Can be taught to swim by using the longe. The longe is to be held double, both ends in the hand, the horse led into the water, and the rider, hold- ing the two ends of the longe and sitting in the end of a boat, which precedes the horse, should lead the horse into deep water and compel the horse to swim and swim straight. Just before the horse reaches foothold on the op- posite bank, one end of the longe should be dropped and the longe pulled through the halter-ring and gathered in the boat, thus teaching the horse to continue swimming and leave the water unassisted. As the horse gradually im- proves the longe may be withdrawn further in stream, until finally nothing is necessary except to start the horse swimming, and he will go across. The longe .should be neither too long nor too short, generally about 15 feet, and should have neither knots nor rings in it. Even aft- er the best and most daring men have expended every method, there will occasionally be found some horse that will either not enter deep water or that will turn around persistently and start back. One or two such horses in a 254 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. roop will often influence the entire herd, especially if they are among the leading horses, by going half across and then turning and swimming back. These horses soon become known in the troop, and when necessary to swim all the horses, these intractable ones should be withheld from taking the water until the herd is well started, and then driven in to follow. If boats or rafts are available, it will pay to tow these few stubborn horses over by leading GERMAN I,ANCE-BO AT— FIRST STEP IN CONSTRUCTION them after the boat, one man sitting in the stern and hold- ing the halter-strap. Tt is rarely possible for a rider to remain on his swimming horse and lead another horse. It should never be attempted except for very short dis- tances and with horses known to swim readily and coolly. The saddle and pack should in field service be removed and sent across by artificial means whenever possible, as keeping it on the horse's back interferes very materially ■The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 255 with the horse's actions, and the risk of drowning is very great. While on land the horse carries the packed saddle ■steadily, it is a very different undertaking when swim- ming. The blanket and saddle-bags absorb water, and the pack becomes very much heavier and topheavy. With out support for his feet, the horse burdened with a heavy packed saddle frequently loses his equilibrium and turns on his side, when drowning results. While it is generally the force of the current that turns the horse on his side when swimming with a rider or pack, even in still water the danger is too great to risk if other means be at hand, and except for very short distances, 10 or 20 feet, in well- known streams, it should never be attempted unless the passage is imperatively necessary at that point and no other better way is possible. In some European cavalry services, especially the German, each cavalry regiment is furnished with two or more portable folding boats and the necessary bridge material. The German Folding Boat. — This boat is formed of three parts, each regiment carrying several of them com- plete. The boat is made pointed at both ends. The body is made of wood and jointed by means of pivots; the body is covered on the interior and exterior by canvas varnished with Berton varnish. The space between the two envelopes is filled up with air, which makes the boat insubmergable. The bottom is all wood ; the flooring and the cross-beams keep the ribs from closing up ; the stern and the bow are joined to the boat by means of screw- bolts and ropes. All together, the boat measures 6 meters 50 centimeters in length and i meter 50 centimeters in width; the stern and the bow, joined together, form a small boat of 3 meters 40 centimeters in length. Each German cavalry regiment has two boats and the material permitting it to construct a bridge 3 meters wide and 8 meters long, or a foot-bridge i meter wide and 20 meters long. The material is composed of small beams with 'hooks at the ends, so they can be joined together, and 256 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. cross-beams already prepared, and these beams have mor- tise holes to receive the ends of the aprons, so that it is supported securely; anchors, and ropes, and hooks, and oars complete the material. At Aldershot, in England, a large pond has been con- structed, in which the British Cavalry are now regularly trained in swimming, both man and horse, separately and together, under varying conditions, an effort being made to GERMAN I from slipping back when in use ; the other end of the rami> rests upon the ground or station platform. As the flodr of the car door is usually about 4 feet high, the length of the ramp must be about 12 or 14 feet, thus obtaining a slope of about i on 3 for the horse to walk up. If the slope be too steep, the horse will rush up in excited jumps, his head high', and injure himself by striking his head against the top of the car door in entering, while a gentler slope would require the ramp to be too long and heavy to carry around. The slope mentioned above is the one generally used. Only one horse is led up the ramp at a time, and until he is wholly within the car and away from the doorway no other horse should be allowed on the ramp. In wet or snowy weather the floor of the ramp should be sprinkled lightly with ashes or dirt, to prevent slipping. The Fechet portable ramp (see page 273), one of the best known in our service, was devised by Major E. G. Fechet, of the Sixth Cavalry. The ramp consists of seven boards, 1.5 inches by 7 inches by 12 feet, joined together in three sections (two for the outside, A A, and three for the middle, B) by wooden strips (C) r inch thick and 2 inches wide, bolted to the upper surfaces, i foot between centers. These strips also serve as footholds. Along the middle of the outside boards extends a side-rail (D) 3 inches by 3 inches, held firmly by iron straps (E) i inch by i inch. On the outside of each side-rail are three sockets (F) for the standards (G), which are 3 feet high, along the tops of which are to be stretched ropes or chaias, from which are hung horse-blankets or canvas. On the under side of each section, 3 feet apart, are bolted iron cleats (H), 0.5 inch by 2 inches, beginning at 18 inches from the ends. On the ends of each section are bolted FECHET'S PORTABLE RAMP. (See page 272.) 274 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. iron claws (K) for catching the car floor or door-sill, to prevent slipping when in position for use. The three sec- tions are held together for use by four iron tie-bars (L), i inch by 2 inches, which are placed under the cleats (H), and the whole then firmly keyed. This form of ramp may be made longer or shorter, narrower or broader, as desired. By taking out the standards, it may be hung on the sidje of a car, between a door and an end. It is easily takefa apart and carried in a wagon, and as easily put together again when needed. It is designed to combine both strength and lightness. Its weight is about 400 pounds complete, and could be considerably reduced without im- pairing its efficiency. The two illustrations below show a common form of portable ramp, easily made and carried about. The illus- COMMON RAMP. trations explain themselves ; ordinary railroad ties (S S) are placed beneath the ramp when in use, to strengthen it, but need not be used if the boards are stout. AA are 121 I 2 FLOOR VIEW OP SAME. the horse-blankets, B the safety-posts, B the car-floor hooks, RR lariats used as side-rails, over which the blankets are hung. In the second illustration the No. I's The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 275 represent the upper cleats to prevent slipping, the No. 2's are the sockets for the uprights (PPP), and the left section is the lower side, showing cleats (K) extending wholly across to hold the boards together. All the cleats are riveted on, a lower cleat being beneath each upper one. Horse-shoes may be used as the floor-hooks (D), and with available lumber and nails this ramp can be-quickly made. Another excellent form of portable ramp which has been found of splendid use in actual service is very simple, and can be carried hung to the side of a car ready for unloading. It must always be remembered that horses once loaded have to be unloaded, and frequently at the worst places, as small, isolated way-stations or barren, level plains, devoid of timber or habitation. This port- able ramp consists of six long timbers, 4 inches by 4 inches by 14 feet; six short timbers, 4 inches by 4 four inches by 6 feet, and twenty-four boards* 1.5 inch by 12 inches by 6 feet, with footholds nailed lengthwise on one side. This is easily put together and very practical. To unload or load horses, rest the ends of three of the long timbers, equally spaced, on the car floor, the other ends resting against a short timber sunk in the ground and staked down. On these place the boards forming the floor; on each side of the ramp, on the boards, lay a long timber and fasten the ends to the timbers underneath. The boards should have cleats on the under side to prevent slipping sideways. If necessary, some of the remaining boards can be set edgewise between posts of the short timbers, as an intermediate support. Another form of portable ramp is one devised by Ivieutenant N. F. McClure, of the Fifth Cavalry, which is a sort of modification of one improvised by Lieutenant E. S. Avis, Eighteenth Infantry. The arrangement con- sists of eight good oak planks, each 12 feet by i foot by 2 inches, and two trestles; five planks for the roadway, the sixth plank serving as a reserve plank in case one should break, and the remaining two are for sides to the ramp. The roadway has seven cleats of hard wood on 276 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. each side, making fourteen cleats on the floor, half on one side and half on the other. Those on the right side are slightly higher in position than those on the left side of the floor. Each cleat is of hard wood, i foot by 3 inches by i J inches, and is bolted to the planks or put on with long wire nails going clear through and clinched on the imder side. The holes for the bolts and nails are bored, and each cleat has four of the bolts or nails. The roadway planks are, therefore, not fastened to each other. A cast-iron shoe is placed as a hook on the end of each plank on the under side, enabling each of the boards of the ramp to be hooked on to the edge of the car floor at the door, thus preventing slipping of the ramp when a horse is upon it. These shoes are 4 inches from the ends of the boards, so that the latter may extend well into the car. These hooks rea^h down at least 4 inches, so as to catch on to the door-rail of the car. There are sev- eral different kinds of these door-rails, but a hook of 4 inches will fit any kind. On the under side of each road- way plank are fastened four other cleats, two to each tres- tle. These are put in pairs, just far enough apart to admit of the tops of the trestles slipping between them. These cleats prevent the trestles from slipping from imder the roadway. They should be far enough apart to allow the trestles to slip in and out easily. The ' 'horse " of the trestle should be of 6-inch by 4-inch pine, and should be planed off so that the whole top surface will be in contact with the under side of the roadway. The legs nearest the car should make a smaller angle with the ground than the other legs of the trestle, to make the trestle more stable when a horse's weight comes on the ramp. The larger trestle is 3 feet high; the smaller one, i foot 6 inches. By sinking the legs into the grovmd slightly, they can readily be adjusted. In muddy weather boards or flat stones are placed under the trestles. While it may not always be possible to carefully pre- pare a portable ramp similar to one of those described above, still it should be done if material is available, and The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 277 if it is known a day or two beforehand that the troops are to take the train, and it generally is, time is sufficient to make one ; in fact, one could be made and kept on hand by every troop to he used, when needed, without having to make one at the last minute. Many ingenious methods are open to the energetic cavalryman, and the above descriptions will give a clear idea of what is necessary. These portable ramps may, as has been said, be hung from the car for unloading. Unloading should be conducted as carefully as is the loading, with every attention to de- tail. Time is always saved by going at this duty in a right and sensible way, although the way may not at first appear to be the quickest ; but before the last horse has been unloaded, the advantage of care will have demon- strated itself many times. Occasionally it becomes necessary to unload the horses from the cars en route, for feeding, watering, and exercise; this does not happen often, but should be done every twenty-four hours if possible. The stock cars now in general use are supplied with watering- and feeding- troughs on the sides, and the stock can be attended to without being taken off. Whenever the train stops for any length of time, an inspection Of all the cars shotdd be briefly made, and all doors tried, as some may become loose and slide open. At Sea. — In loading cavalry horses on steamships, caring for them on board, and unloading them at the end of the journey, greater care is required than is neces- sary when transporting them on railroad cars. To the greater difficulties encountered in the loading and un- loading of the horses on horse transports is added the arduous and multitudinous duties of preserving them from injury and disease while on board, feeding, watering, policing the ship, proper ventilation, drainage, etc. To these must be added caring for the inevitable cases of sickness that occur and the efforts constantly necessary to prevent contagion. In loading horses on stock cars, both the ramp and the car are stationary ; while in loading them upon steamships, 278 I'he Cavalry Horse and His Pack. it is generally necessary to lift the animal bodily high into the air, swing him through space, and set him down on a deck often rolling more or less. The danger of acci- dent to the horse and all concerned is very considerable. Frequently when the horse feels himself lifted up into the air, he becomes panic-stricken and struggles desperately. All this requires that every care be exercised and that strong, substantial methods and materials be used. LOADING ON TRANSPORT BY RAMP. Occasionally it is practicable to use a ramp similar to the ones described above, simply leading the horses aboard one at a time, taking them to their stalls, and tying them in. Generally, however, either a sling of heavy canvas or a portable "box" must be used to lift the horse up to the deck and lower him down through the hatches to the deck containing the stalls. This is almost always the case on large transports, and several methods of performing this work have been used so frequently as to have become I'he Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 279 well known on account of their successful results. One or two of these methods will serve to illustrate plainly enough. The Sling. — The sling is a heavy canvas strip about 3i feet wide and 5 feet long, strongly bound along the edges with leather to prevent tearing. It is passed under the horse's belly as he stands on the wharf or I,OADING ON TRANSPORT BY CHUTE. lighter beside the ship. The two ends of the canvas are then brought together over the horse's back and securely fastened together. Breast- and breeching-straps of broad, heavy canvas are then buckled on snugly to the sling. The hook on the end of the pulley-rope from the deck engine is then securely fastened to a ring in the top of the sling, and the horse is hoisted up by 28o The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. thedeck engine, care being taken that the horse is level in the sling. If the horse is frightened or stubborn, it is usual to blindfold him before the engine starts to lift him up. The horse is swung well up in the air, then swung over the hatch, being gently lowered through it to the deck upon which his stall is. Men are stationed up and down the hatchways to prevent the horse from swing- ing against the floors as he goes down, and on the stall- deck where he is to alight is placed a thick quantity of loose hay to break the shock of landing and save the horse's legs from injury. Several men here undo the rigging and sling from the horse ; the horse is led to his stall and tied in, while the sling is drawn up for another horse. This method, which has been used in both the British and American services for both loading and unloading cavalry horses, has been found strong and satisfactory, though not so much so for loading as the portable loading-box; but the sling is better in unloading at sea, when it is nec- essary to lower the horse directly into the water. The Portable Box. — This consists of a large, square, deep, wooden box without a top, the ends of the box being removable. The horse is led into the box from one end, as it rests on the wharf or lighter ; the end is then closed, and a broad strip of heavy canvas is passed across the horse's back, and fastened securely to both sides of the box to prevent his jumping out or rearing up. The horse is usually tied in the box by the halter-strap, and, if nervous or stubborn, is blindfolded; then the entire box is lifted up by means of the deck engine and lowered gently down the hatchway. This method has been found most effect- ive, where lifting the horse has been necessary. Men must be stationed up and down the hatchways to prevent the box from swinging against the sides of the hatchway. Ropes are frequently attached to the four sides of the box, their ends being held by men on the four sides of the floors to be passed on the way down to the stall-deck, and the box is thus kept in the center. Thick masses of hay must be placed at the point of landing, to break the shock. The Cavalry Horse and His'Pack. 281 Kvery horse transport should be carefully inspected, cleaned, and disinfected before a single horse is permitted to be loaded. The transport must be able to accommo- PDTTING HORSE IN PORTABLE BOX. date comfortably the number of horses assigned to it. The boat must be well ventilated, must be free from ver- min, must have no bad smells that cannot be readily cor- 282 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. rected, and the height between decks, from deck to beam, must be at least 7 feet. Vessels with less than 30 feet beam are not suitable for transporting horses. The hatchways for horses should be at least 10x10 feet or I,IFTING HORSE IN PORTABI3 the American West many years. In the cowboy saddle this seat can more readily be assumed than in either the English or "McClellan" saddles, as the stirrups in the former hang frqm the center of the saddle instead of from a point somewhat farther forward, as in the two latter saddles. \; \,^ wBLjii n^ 1^ ^ BHH- BBbB K'n'iJlr THE ' TONGS ACROSS THE WAI,L"' SEAT. The "tongs across the wall" seat is used largely by inexperienced riders and rarely by good ones. Its chief characteristic consists in keeping the knees stiff and straight and sticking the feet out to the front. When- ever the trot is taken up, it is necessary to materially alter the position of the legs, and in fact the entire position of the seat changes, owing to the difficulty of clinching with 304 The Gavalrii Horse and His Pack. the thighs while keeping the legs stuck out stiffly. Riders who use this seat generally manage to ride horses possessing easy gaits, especially at the trot. When using this seat, FRONT VIEW, "TONGS ACROSS THE WAI,L" SEAT. there is a tendency to lean back, thus boring the cantle of the saddle into the horse's back — in fact, it is next to impossible to ride at an increased gait and lean any The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 305 other way in this seat. Among even good riders this seat is occasionally seen on parade and at reviews, it being especially a "pose" seat. Some men in a troop learn this seat and they hold to it persistently, despite constant THE "HUNTING" SEAT. efforts to teach them its inadaptability for cavalry riding. The seat, like the "fork" seat, though to a much greater extent, is not only uncomfortable to the rider when in line, but is very exasperating to the adjacent men, who, before the drill is over, generally manage to kick the man's legs 3o6 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. and feet repeatedly, to break him of it. It may be taken for individual riding out of ranks, but the rider who attempts to use it in a cavalry troop will suffer many hard kicks and jolts and be the recipient of much hard swearing from his comrades. The "hunting" seat, known also as the "long" or "chair" seat, is the typical cross-country seat when rid- ing after hounds or in park-riding, and, in its place, is found to be very excellent, especially where jumping of four-barred country fences forms such a particular part - of the riding. In this seat it is customary for the rider to hold the reins, together, with both hands. This is im- possible in the "military" seat, where the trooper needs one hand for his weapons at all times. The stirrup used with the saddle usually employed by these riders is of steel and open. The hooded stirrup of the American cavalry- man would be unwieldy and unnecessarily bulky on this saddle, while it has always been one of the parts of our military saddle especially held to; and for keeping the trooper's feet dry and shielded from the cold and wet of his long rides, as well as for the safety to the rider, the hood is an important part of the military saddle, and affects the seat in a way, by defining the length of foot that can enter the stirrup, while with the open steel stir- rup of the hunting saddle the foot usually goes' in clear to the heel of the riding-boot. In the "hunting" seat the rider rests well down on his buttocks, the thigh is extended forward, .generally at an angle somewhat more obtuse than that of the horse's shoulder; the leg from the knee to the ankle is loose and straight down, and if inclining in either direction, generally somewhat forward ; the stir- rup is very short, and the heel of the rider's foot is con- siderable lower than his toe; the calf of the leg touches the sides of the horse, and it will be observed that this is the only one of the seats described in w;hich this is the case; the calf does not press against the horse, but, owing to the entire seat and the short stirrup, it touches slightly, especially when jumping or galloping. In this respect The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 307 the "hunting" seat resembles the Indian seat somewhat, except that in the Indian seat the leg from the knee down is drawn back and the heels touch the horse's flanks when the rider is, as the Indian generally is, riding without a saddle. The "military" seat in the American Cavalry (see Frontispiece) is the result of years and years of hard riding on the vast Western plains, and is well calculated to have RKGULATION SEAT, WITH IK. '''^^^^^ H ^- •■ -^;- • -r^^ ^^ »»'■■■ '■ ..' '"■■ ■'-' '■■. '-■",-' ■";'■ ', '■''' .~ ■■ _ '.^:'«^::' —^ -^*- ■*• '■ I 'H* 0. F n t D 1 ►-' C * V* /* L t. F'>PsT RH-Ef KAP*^ ^^■> INTERIOR OP AN AMERICAN RIDING-HAI^L. should not be allowed to do so except under experienced troopers. Training. — In training the cavalry horse for his work in the troop, care, patience, and skill must be constantly exercised. The "riding-hall" exercises, which form so large a part of the winter training in garrison to-day, do much to accustom the new horse to the sights and sounds and work in the Cavalry. To this is added the troop 314 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. drill in summer on the drill-ground out-doors, and then comes target practice and "mounted pistol practice"; later on parades, reviews, etc., all are gone through, and the horse gradually grows accustomed to the fluttering of flags, the playing and passing of bands, the galloping of many horses near him, the reports of firearms around him and then from his own back. As soon as the new horse is received in the regiment, he is assigfned to a troop according to color; the troop commander then assigns the horse to an experienced, well-trained rider, and so far as practicable the horse is ridden by no one but his own rider thereafter. This assigning of a horse to a trooper has two good effects — the horse and rider rapidly get to know each other, and the trooper, knowing the horse is for him alone, will exert himself in many ways to teach the horse his work; it also gives the trooper a strong sense of proprietorship in the animal, and very frequently a strong fondness springs up between the man and his horse, and all this helps in the horse's care and training. Ofiicers cannot be too careful in taking horses away from the men who have ridden and trained them, for it does much to discourage the man and ruin the horse. It is re- markable how fond many troopers become of their partic- ular mounts. The writer has known troopers to buy their horses, when sold at auction, out of their own little pay, rather than see them go to some stranger. This sentiment is one that the young -officer coming to a cavalry troop is not at first apt to fully appreciate, and he may make changes, without meaning to wound his men, that will cause men to be discontented during the remainder of their enlistment in the troop. As soon as the new horse is assigned to a troop, he is turned loose among the other troop-horses in the troop "corral," and in a few days establishes himself among them. At first the old troop-horses, like human beings, watch the new animal, and sometimes one or two kick and bite at him ; but the young healthy horse generally dis- plays sufficient fighting qualities during the first few days The Cavalry Horse and His Fade. 315 to compel them to refrain. A stall is assigned the new horse in the troop stable, usually so that he will have an old troop-horse for a stall-companion ; the horses in Ameri- can cavalry stables usually stand in double stalls in pairs. The new horse is walked around the garrison at "horse exercise," and this accustoms him gradually to the uii- usual sights and sounds of a military garrison. Each day he is taken to the riding-hall or "bull-ring" (an out- door elliptical track resembling the track in the riding- hall), in company with the other new horses and a few old troop-horses, and here he is put through the "bending" lessons, the gaits, and is taught to lie down, to respond to the snaffle-bit and reins, to understand the spurs and use of the legs, etc. Gradually he reaches the stage of sad- dling, and is carefully put through that ; then comes jump- ing the ditch and hurdle, with and without the saddle; and he is taught to lead. When accustomed, to the snaffle- bit and reins, the curb-bit and bridle are put on and he is gradually accustomed to their use. While almost all for- eign cavalry services use the double-reined bridle known as the "bit and bridoon," the American Cavalry: use only a single bit and rein. While the double-reined bridle has many points of excellence to recommend it for cav- alry use, nevertheless the single rein and curb-bit are very simple, the reins are easily adjusted in the hand, and the weight is less. There are some horses who will not learn to take the curb -bit without careful training, and these animals should be handled gently, that their mouths be not injured. Roughness in teaching the new horse to take the curb-bit often results in his never readily taking it, probably through anticipated pain learned in his train- ing days. The spurs must be used sparingly, and never but at the right moment ; when the reason for using them at the time has passed, they should not be allowed to touch the horse as the legs swing. The constant pricking of his flanks with the spurs only excites him and accom- pHshes nothing. The writer has for some time ridden a well-trained, intelligent horse accustomed to cavalry work, 3i6 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. which rushes forward excitedly whenever the rider's heels approach his flanks, through fear of the spurs, probably learned years ago, and from which the horse has never re- covered. If the spurs are permitted to touch the flanks by careless riders, the horse may gradually become cal- lous to their touch, and when used for a proper purpose, will not respond to them without being forced to do so by the rider using them fiercely. The best and most patient riders in the troop should be used in handling the new cavalry horse, and the train- ing should always be under the immediate and active supervision of an officer ; absence of the officer altogether is better than his inactive presence; if he is careless and indifferent, the men are very apt to be more or less so,, and some of them perhaps actually brutal at times. It must be appreciated, in detailing troopers for this train- ing of the new horse, that, as has been said above, the best rough-rider in the troop may not be the best trainer, and, in fact, may not be fit to train the new cavalry horse at all. The system of training, as briefly outlined above, and as contained in full in the American Cavalry Drill Regulations, is the one used in our service, and is known as the "Rarey" system of training; it has been used for many years with excellent results. The originator of this system of horse-training was an American named Rarey. In company with a Mr. Goodenough, he developed his sys- tem and used it to such excellent advantage that he not •only made considerable money out of it, but placed a sys- tem of horse-training before the public that has been used, especially by the Cavalry, ever since, with some modifications. The year 1858 was a memorable one for the horse-trainers and horsemen of England, as in that year Rarey introduced his system into that country at a charge of ^25,000, which the English horsemen paid. The Rarey system was founded upon three ideas: first, that the horse is so constituted by Nature that he will not offer resistance to any demand made of him which Tie fully comprehends, if made in a way consistent The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 317 with theMaws of his nature ; second, that he has no con- sciousness of his strength beyond his experience, and can be handled according to man's will without force; third, that man can, in compliance with the laws of the horse's nature (by which he examines all things new to him), take any object, however frightful, around, over, under, or on him, that does not inflict pain, without causing him to fear. Needless to say, Rarey and his partner were required to subdue many ferocious horses before he could make horsemen believe in his ideas and methods, and some of the horses he broke from restless, fierce brutes into gentle, easily managed animals proved the worth of his system very thoroughly. A full outline of the Rarey system would require a book in itself. Most of the meth- ods employed by Rarey are used in the American cavalry service to-day, and have been quite thoroughly tested by actual use. As has been stated in a previous chapter, training the cavalry horse in any of the artificial gaits is not only unnecessary, but is a positive disadvantage, and should not be done. The time spent on the regular, legitimate training will fully occupy both horse and rider without attempting to teach things of no cavalry value. As in the United States cavalry service but a few new horses are, as a rule, received in the troop at a time, it is possible in each troop to entrust their education to a few picked men, who should not be changed until the horses are sufficiently instructed to take their places in the rank. Restlessness and impatience in the horse fre- quently arise from an exuberance of spirits or playfulness, which must be carefully distinguished from that which arises from viciousness and timidity. When restless, the horse should be handled quietly until he becomes calm ; when submissive after punishment, he should be treated kindly. The power and qualities of the horse can best be brought out by. kindness and encouragement; if harsh treatment is adopted, he will become timid, then sullen, and, at length, violent and unmanageable. 3i8 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. The first object to be attained in training the horse is to render him gentle and tractable; this is done by slow, progressive lessons. All proper means must be employed, such as feeding, handling, patting him, taking up his feet, etc., and the practice of the longe. When the horse will allow his feet to be readily handled and lifted, the trooper should practice gently tapping them, to accustom him to the action of shoeing. In entering the stalls and moving about the new horses, the men should speak to them quietly and endeavor to inspire confidence in the animal that no harm is intended. As many of the new horses are entirely unused to the Army forage and methods of feeding, the men looking to their training must exercise care, else digestive disorders may result. By commencing with the larger part of the ration consisting of hay and bran, and gradually increas- ing the ration to the regulation amotmt, the horse will gradually be brought to the habit of eating the service ration without injury. From the time of their arrival the new horses should be exercised at least one or two hours each day in the open air ; for this purpose the new horse is equipped with the halter only and led by a trooper who is mounted upon an old troop-horse. After a few days, a snaffle-bit may be placed in the horse's mouth, with the reins tied loosely and allowed to lie on the horse's neck. In the training of the cavalry horse there are some appliances used that are well known, easy of manufact- ure and adjustment, and very efficacious in their results. Among these are the "cavesson and longeing rein," the "running rein," the "dumb jockey," and throwing-straps. The Cavesson and Longe. — "The cavesson is a light halter with the brow-band, throat-latch, and cheek-pieces like the bridle head-stall, and has a nose-band that may be adjusted with a buckle. A ring in which to fasten the longeing-strap is attached to the front part of the nose- band about 2 inches in front of each cheek-piece square ; there is sometimes a running ring in the chin-strap for the The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 319 longe. The longeing-strap is from 20 to 30 feet long. The lariat may be used. The snaffle bridle having been properly fitted, the horse should be encouraged and the cavesson put on. The nose-band should be placed about 3 inches above the nostrils, so as not to affect the horse's breathing; it THE CAVESSON AVD LONGE ON HORSE AND OFF. A, Cavesson proper, wh^ch is a piece of iron bent to the areneral shape of the horse's nose, and covered with leather, stitched to the bandB, which is tightened to the required degree by the buckle B'. In the front (cen- ter) of A is the ring G, to which the longeing-rein is buckled, and on the sides the terrets H, H, to which reins may be attached for use by mounted men. B, Back strap to adjust cavesson A by buckle B'. C, Cheek-pieces of head-stall, which can be adjusted to suit size of horse's head by buckle C. D, Strap stitched" to cheek-piece C of head-stall, to prevent them from work- ing forward into the horse's eyes. E, Throat latch. F, Brow-band, the ends of which are turned over and stitched, so as to allow the head-stall, cheek-pieces, strap C, and throat latch E to slip through in adjusting them. G, Ring in front of cavesson to which longeing-rein is attached. H, H Terrets. ridged, for use When horse is mounted. B', Buckle of back-strap B. C, BucHe of head-stall to adjust same. D'. Buckle to adjust strap D. E', Buckle to adjust throat latch. should act both as a nose-band and curb, and should go over the snaffle. It must not be buckled so tightly as to make the horse uneasy. An additional strap from cheek- piece to cheek-piece under the jaw-bone will keep the cavesson back from his eyes. These preparations should 320 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. be made with great care, so as not to alarrti the horse. The first lesson to teach the new horse is to go forward. Until he does this freely, nothing else should be required of him. When he obeys freely, he should occasionally be stopped and caressed. The practice of the longe is to supple and teach the horse the free action and proper use of the legs with regard to his cavalry work ; it thus aids in forming his gaits and in fitting him for the service. This first lesson should be begun on a circle from 15 to 20 feet in diameter. As horses are usually fed, watered, saddled, and led from the near side, they are inclined to lead better from that than the off side. It will, therefore, generally be found necessary to give two lessons on the right side to one on the left. If the horse hesitates or stands still when he is ordered to move on, he should be encouraged, as such hesitation oftener comes from fear or ignorance as to what is required than from obstinacy or vice. The horse is first led several times around the circle at a walk. A man with a whip follows at a short distance and shows the whip occasionally, if the horse is inclined to hang back ; if this does not produce the desired effect, he should strike the ground in rear of the horse and at length touch him lightly with the whip until he obeys. After he has begun to move freely at the walk, the man holding the longe should gently urge him to trot and grad- ually lengthen the rein, so that the horse may scafcely notice it. He should continue to go round the circle at an active pace nearly opposite the horse's shoulder, so as to keep him out and press him forward. If the horse takes kindly to this lesson, the man hold- ing the longe may lengthen it by degrees until he has only to turn in the same spot, the man with the whip being careful to keep the horse out to the line of the circle. Should the horse break his pace or plunge, the rein should be shaken horizontally, without jerking, until he returns to the trot. The trooper holding the longeing-rein should The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. ■ 321 have a light and easy hand. For the first two or three days the horse must not be urged too much; if he goe? gently, without jumping or resisting, enough is accom- plished. He should be longed to the right, left, and right again, changing from the trot to the walk and back again in each case. He should be frequently halted by gently feeling the reins and speaking to him, and at the conclusion of each lesson the rein should be care- fully shortened and gathered up in the hand and the horse led to the center of the circle and caressed before being dismissed. After a few days of the above practice, the horse may be urged a little more in the trot, but the greatest care and attention and patience are requisite to teach him to use his limbs without straining them; much harm may be done in this instruction by a sudden jerk or a too forcible pull on the longe. Care must be taken that the lessons are not made so long as to fatigue or fret the horse; at first they should be short, and gradually increased in length as the instruction progresses. The man holding the longe- ing-rein should take it short in one hand, at the same time patting and rubbing the horse about the head and neck with the other; he should then try to bend the horse's neck a little to the right and then to the left by means of the longeing-rein ; the bend should be in the very poll of the neck, and this exercise should be repeated at the end of each lesson, cautiously and by slow degrees, until the horse responds easily. This will greatly facili- tate the future instruction of the animal. The longe is used to instruct new horses, especially the timid ones, to jump the bar and ditch. The use of the "war bridle" has been known to cav- alrymen for many years, and will be found of great value in training during the first few months. The illustrations show clearl}- how to adjust it, either in the ordinary form or in a second form; and its use will often assist mate- rially in the training and produce gratifying results. 322 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. Bending Lessovs. — Before beginning the bending les- sons, it is well to give the horse a preparatory one of obedi- ence, to make him sensible of the power man has over him. This first act of submission will prove of great service ; it makes the horse quiet and gives. him confidence, and gives the man such ascendency as to prevent the horse at the outset from resisting the means employed to bring him ^ FIRST FORM WAR BRIDI,E ON HORSE. under control. However, this lesson must be one that will not frighten or abuse him, and the following method is frequently used : Go up to the horse, pat him on the neck and speak to him; then take the reins off the horse's neck and hold them at a few inches from the rings of the snafHe-bit with The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 323 the left hand; take such a position as to offer as much resistance as possible to the horse should he attempt to break away; hold the whip in the right hand with the point down; raise the whip quietly and tap the horse on the breast. The horse naturally tries to move back to avoid the whip; follow the horse, at the same time puU- SECOND FORM WAR BRIDLK ON HORSB, FIRST POSITION. ing against him and continuing the use of the whip. Be careful to show no sign of anger nor any symptom of yielding. The horse, tired of trying ineffectually to avoid the whip, soon ceases to pull and moves forward ; then drop the point of the whip and make much of him. This repeated once or twice usually proves sufficient. 324 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. The horse, having found how to avoid the punishment, no longer waits for the application of the whip, but antici- pates it by moving up at the slightest gesture. The "running-rein" is of great value in teaching the horse to keep his head in a proper position and affords val- uable aid in his first handling; if judiciously used, it saves the rider a great deal of trouble and the horse much ill- SECOND FORM WAR BRIDLE, SECOND POSITION. usage and simplifies the subject of "bits and bitting"; it is especially useful in controlling horses that are inclined to bolt. As it can be used to advantage both before and during the "bending lessons," it is described here: It should act directly on the snaffle-bit itself and is wholly independent of reins. The running-rein consists of three The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 325 parts — the chin-strap, rein, and martingale. The chin- strap, about 6 to 8 inches long, on which is suspended a loose ring, is fastened to both snaffle-bit rings. The martingale lias only one ring; the loop through which, the girth passes is made adjustable by a buckle. The martingale is so adjusted that when taut the ring will SECOND FORM W.AR BRIDINhU~ ^/yyw^^y^yyyw^^^^^^^^y^^^. HORIZONTAI, SECTION OF DOUBI,E STALL. often back out of the stall as far as his halter-strap will permit, in an effort to get his feet all on level ground, and in doing so his hind feet should not come into the drain- age gutter, which runs along the entire line of stalls at ■the hind end. The above measurements of the stall, are those usually employed in constructing our cavalry siables, 350 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. and allow ample room for the two horses to stand or lie down comfortably. The manger in each stall is a long hay- rack of wood, built from the floor of the stall, and is about 3 feet high, flaring outward at the top ; if built straight, without this flaring, it is difficult for the horse to reach down to the bottom of the manger, unless the manger is made very wide, which requires much space that can be saved. The width of the manger at the top should be about 2^ feet, the bottom being about i8 inches. The manger .extends across the entire width of the stall. In each stall two feed-boxes are placed, one for each horse ; these are usually made of iron, but can be readily made of wood, which allows of easy and inexpensive repair when worn or broken. The feed-bok should be about 8 inches deep, i8 inches wide at the top, and somewhat smaller at the bottom, and be as long as the manger is wide. One feed-box should be placed at each end of the manger, for if the two are placed together in the center, it will often happen that one of the horses in the stall will eat both feeds, especially if one of the two horses is timid. The hay in the manger should be put in liber- ally, and well shaken up, filling the entire manger. Both horses eat out of the same manger, thus both allowances of hay are put in together ; it is more than one horse will usually eat when there is grain in his feed-box, and no harm comes even if one horse eats practically all the hay the manger will hold, no matter how hot or how wet he may be. In every cavalry stable a few single stalls are con- structed, to be used by vicious or sick animals, as cir- ■cumstances require. These single stalls are built like the double stalls, the only difference being in the width. Single stalls are usually at least 5 feet wide. The partitions between stalls should be as high as the tops of the horses' heads at the manger end and slightly lower at the hind end. If these partitions are too low, it allows the horses m the adjoining stalls, if tied too long, to reach over the partition and eat the feed in tiie adjoining feed - I'he Cavalry Horse and His Pack, 35 1 boxes, and to fight with the horse in the adjoining stall. The boards forming these partitions should have spaces between them of about 2 inches to allow for passage of air. In each stable two or three "box" stalls should be constructed, for the accommodation of the sickest horses in the troop; only one animal should be placed in a "box" stall at a time, and the sick horse in the stall •should never be tied, but allowed entire freedom in the stall. These "box" stalls should be at least 12x12 feet square, and should be boarded up on all four sides, with a door at the hind end. In making the board sides, spaces ■of 2 or 3 inches should be left between the boards, to allow for full and complete ventilation; if the boards forming the sides are placed close together, the stall, hav- ing no circulation of air, becomes very close and hot. The ceilings of the stables should be about 12 or 15 feet high. The name of each horse and that of his rider are printed on a board or tin and placed above the end of the stall ; the name borne by the horse is never changed, and follows the animal throughout his service. The horses are usually named by the troop commander, who occa- sionally permits the man to whom a horse is assigned to do the naming^ It is customary in some squadrons to name all the horses in Troop A with names commencing with "A," all the horses in Troop B with names com- mencing with "B," etc. The flooring in the stable is a most important mat- ter. T'lere are three materials commonly used in making the flooring — heavy wooden boards, Belgian stone block- ing, and clay, and each has its advantages and disadvant- ages, all possessing many points of excellence. In modern cavalry stables the first two materials are largely used, but dirt flooring has been used for many years with great satisfaction. Owing to the inexpensiveness of this floor- ing and its easiness upon the horses' feet, it perhaps sur- passes either of the other two materials, though it requires some attention to keep its surface filled in. The clay is both a disinfectant and a deodorizer. It can be damp- 352 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. ened in hot weather to keep ths horses' feet cool, and will never produce stiffness or stockiness. Boards and brick or stone pavements are objectionable because they not only make horses stiff, but they prevent the horse's put- ting himself in the most natural and comfortable positioil by pawing a hole for his front feet to rest in, and so take the strain off the tendons of the hind legs. It is to ac- complish this same object that the horse backs out of his stall into the gutter, when possible for him to do so. When the board flooring is used, it covers the entire stable, both center passage-way and stalls; it is easily cleaned and gives a fair foot-hold to the horses, but it is expensive and in time absorbs much urine, which rots the boards, and the pounding of the horses' iron-shod hoofs upon it causes some splintering, which is more or less apt to injure the animals' feet. This splintering also sends into the air of the stables fine, flaky particles of wood, which, being breathed by the horses, will cause disorders of an annoying sort. The drainage afforded by the wooden flooring is very good, but the wet boards become slippery and retain more or less dampness in time. When the Belgian block flooring is used, it covers only the center passage-way of the stable, the flooring of the stalls being then made of either dirt or boards. To place the stone flooring in the stalls would cause much injury to the horses' feet, being too hard. This Belgian block floor- ing, while also easily cleaned and giving good drainage, is very expensive, and as it wears very slippery in time (especially is this so when wet), danger to the horses from falling is considerable. The writer has seen many horses fall violently while being led over this sort of flooring. This flooring not only wears slippery itself, but the iron shoes of the horses also become slippery after short wear, thus doubling this danger. The dirt flooring, when used, covers both the center passage-way and the stalls; it is easily pawed up by the horses, and it is necessary to keep filling in both stalls and passage-way, to keep the even surface required. If this is neglected, holes both in the The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 353 stalls and passage-way gradually appear, and danger to the horses of wrenching and spraining their knees and pastern- joints is to be feared. However, the dirt flooring is very cheap, costing only the manual labor of the stable-men and troopers, and, if proper material is used, furnishes excel- lent flooring, easy on the horses' feet, affording fairly good drainage, and because of the ease with which this material can be procured, will be found in most stables. The dirt flooring should be of clay, clean and free from rocks, glass, or other sharp particles, and without lumps. In fitting the stall for the floor, the entire floor of the stall INTERIOR ARRANGEMENT, SHOWING DRAINAGE. should be picked loose to a depth of i foot at least, and all soiled or soaked dirt should be removed altogether;; the loose dirt should be then well tamped down, and the new clay placed on top to a depth of about i foot, the stall level. The entire floor should then be pounded down until it is hard and firm. If slightly wet, the clay will pack much better than if dry. Abounding in mountain-sides there exists a sort of hard dirt, known as "marl," well known to cavalrymen. This makes one of the very best and most endurable dirt floors, and is found near almost any cavalry garrison. Gravelly or 354 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. sandy earth should not be used ; it wears away rapidly and too quickly to justify the labor. However, at times this is all that is available, and it must then be used. In the Philippine Islands the writer constructed a flooring of sand, buUt upon layers of crushed brick taken from an old ruin, and it made a very satisfactory flooring, especially as nothing better was to be had. The flooring required weekly filling in, however, more or less, but the surround- ing country was flooded and marshy, the soil soaked into slimy mud, and the sand from the nearby river was all that could be used. It gave good drainage, this being aided by the base of crushed brick. In constructing the stable for the cavalry horse, drainage is an all-important consideration. No matter how well lighted, policed, and ventilated, health cannot be expected if poor drainage exists. In constructing the flooring, this consideration enters in most materially. Some of the urine will soak into the flooring, no matter how well managed the drainage is. This must be hosed and scrubbed out. Any inclination of the flooring com- pels the horse to stand somewhat up-hill, and this is very tiresome to him. To relieve himself of this slanting sur- face, the horse will either paw out the front end of his stall floor, if of dirt, or else he will back out as far as his halter-strap will allow, to get his hind feet on ground level with his front feet. It must be appreciated what slope of the stall floor does to the horse, and in laying the floor make no slope. The slope recommended by some men, from manger to hind end, is believed to be wrong. In actual fact, many.of the stalls and center passage- ways of cavalry stables are made perfectly level, with no slope for drainage at all. In many cavalry stables even the drainage-gutters in rear of the stalls are lacking. It cannot but be admitted that horses placed in these stables are found to stand much more naturally and with more comfort. Horses will paw out a hole for their front feet, even if the floor of the stall be perfectly level. As this is true, the effect of sloping the stall from front to rear can The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 355 be quickly understood — a torture to the horse as long as he is in the stall. This sloping of the stall is an old set idea which many find hard to give up, but it is even useless, considering drainage alone, regardless of the fatigue and strain on the horse. As a matter of fact, the sloping stall of dirt doesn't drain. The horse invariably urinates in his stall in the same place, and that place is near the cen- ter of the stall ; this is true from, the simple fact that the stall has only so much width and the horse occupies the center of it if it be a single stall, or the center of his half if it be a double stall. The wisest plan, therefore, is to make the floor of the entire stable, stalls and passage- ways, level, and every few weeks dig out the central spot in each stall where the urine has soaked in, removing all the soiled clay entirely, and fill up the hole with new, fresh clay. Fresh clay, as remarked above, acts as both a de- odorizer and a disinfectant, and its renewal when soiled keeps the stall fresh and clean and healthy. The new clay put in these holes should be slightly dampened and lightly tamped down. — ^not puddled or packed hard. The spot needing to be renewed is comparatively small, rarely over a foot and a half or so in diameter, and nearly circular. Furthermore, the stall, when the bedding is down, will not drain , even if it has a slope, as what does not soak into the clay floor will be absorbed in the hay or straw used as bedding. As the cavalry h.orse is rarely in his stall except when it is bedded down, this is generally what really happens. Consequently sloping the stall at all may be regarded a,s an obsolete idea, and an inspection of most of our cavalry stables will show that it is now rarely practiced. Paragraph 1117 of our Cavalry Drill Regulations, speaking of drainage for the picket-line, states that " there should be shallow trenches behind the horses to carry off the rain, the ground on which they stand having just enough slope to let water run into the trenches, or there may be a single drain in the center along the line of posts. Constant attention must be given to keeping the ground 356 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. about the picket-line in good order," and Paragraph 1118 of these Regulations states that "except at night,. when the horses are bedded down, no manure or urine is to le- main in the stalls ; the stable police remove it as it ac- cumulates;" and further, "Clay is the best for earthern floors; gravel or sandy soil is not suitable. The sloping of the floor of stalls from manager to heel-post is injurious and uncomfortable for the animal, making him stand. in an unnatural position, with the fore legs higher than the hind ones ; when the earthern floors are level, the horse will paw a hollow for his fore feet, unless he can elevate his hind quarters by backing out of the stall." The above shows plainly what the opinion of the cavalry ofiBcer is, based upon actual experience, and the slope in stalls has been proven a mistake and is now aban- doned in favor of the level flooring for both stalls and passage-ways. In most permanent cavalry garrisons a regular sys- tem of underground sewerage exists, connecting with each stable, and the drainage-canals empty into the main waste-pipe; but if this arrangement does not exist, as it did not in the temporary garrisons in the Philippine Isl- ands, the drainage-canals in the stable should be run out of the stables at one end, and there, forming one main canal, provide for the drainage to a considerable distance away. Stalls must not be allowed to remain in a urine- soaked condition, but should be picked-up all over the stall, the soaked soil carried away, new soil filled in after the stall has dried out, and then the whole dampened and well tamped down, being allowed to dry and harden, if possible, before the horse is allowed to re-enter the stall. As this is ofteai necessary, there should be in every cavalry stable a few extra stalls, to allow for the repairing of soiled ones. When the wooden floors" are used, round holes are sometimes bored here and there in the stall flooring, to allow the filth to run through and thence into the drainage-gutters and to the outlet; but this method weakens the boards forming the floors, and also !Z7if Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 357 soaks the ground underneath the stall, causing a vile odor. Usually with the board flooring the drainage is secured by very slightly sloping the floor of the stall, as explained, and hosing and scrubbing the flooring fre- quently, but this slope is alway bad. The police of the troop stables is performed daily, twice, once in the morning and again in the afternoon, by the troopers on duty in the stable. These men, usually six in number, are assisted by a daily detail from the troop of two men, known as stable police. Shortly before "reveille" the horses are fed by these men, and then turned out into the "corral" or paddock adjoining the stable. Whenever circumstances permit, the horses should be turned loose in the paddock during the day- time, if no herding is done. When this is impracticable, they should, except in very cold, windy weather,- or in very hot weather where there is no shade, stand most of the day at the picket-line, as they have better air and are less confined, while the stables become drier and more healthful. The stable-men, as soon as they turn out the horses, clean out the stalls and center passage-way, and thoroughly police the entire stables and immediate vicinity. The manure and refuse is hauled away in the troop wagon and dumped at a designated place, where it is later burned up. In cleaning out the bed- ding, the soiled part is carried away, while that which is still sufiiciently clean to be used once more is sepa- rated from it and either left in the stall or spread out in the sun to dry. The allowance of bedding in the American cavalry service is 100 pounds of hay or straw a month for each animal, and it is sufficient, if due economy is exercised, to provide good, fresh beds in the stalls. After policing the stables and stalls in the morning, all doors and windows are left wide open and the stalls and center allowed to dry and air. Occasionally inclement weather may prevent this, but it should never be allowed to be dispensed with if it can be avoided. Just before afternoon "stables" the stable-men haul in the 358 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. new bedding and hay, bed-down the stalls, fill the mangers with hay, fill the feed-boxes in each stall with grain, and Sweep out the entire stable. Once or twice each week the entire stable should be scrubbed out with water and stable-brooms. This scrubbing is especially necessary if the flooring is of wood or stone, as much manure will adhere to these floors and ordinary sweeping will not remove it. Once or twice each week disinfectants should be sprinkled in each stall and in the center passage-way. About once in every three months the entire stable should have its interior whitewashed. Stalls that have been used by sick animals should be disinfected as soon as the sick horses are removed from them, and until this is done no other animal, sick or well, should be allowed to enter them. There is considerable danger of contagion if care- lessness exists in these matters. Slight, hardly notice- able discharges from sick animals lodge on the woodwork and other parts of the stalls, and disease is easily carried to other horses. As horses often gnaw the woodwork of the stalls in which they are standing, the disease is car- ried into the system with little difficulty. As this gnaw- ing mars and injures the woodwork and causes splinters, it is well to coat all woodwork in the stalls of the horses with a thick coat of coal tar or other ill -tasting but harm- less mixture. The same precaution may be followed with regard to troughs, picket-posts, and picket-lines. This coating should be thoroughly dry before putting horses near it. During the night lights should be hung in the center passage-way; these lights should be regular stable lan- terns, securely hung, and so placed that no loose animal can reach them. No other lights should be permitted in or about the stables, and under no circumstances should smoking or fires be allowed anywhere about the stables, nor should any rubbish be burned in their vicinity, whether the horses be in them or not. Horses are easily frightened by fire, and it is difficult to control them. Accustomed to absolute safety while in their own stableS, The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 359 they are only gotten away from thertl during a fire with much difficulty, and if taken out and turned loose, are very apt to re-enter their stables and perish. It has been said that horses are attracted by fire, but this is not believed to be so ; the horse tries to remain in his burning stable sim- ply because it is his home, wherein he has been accustomed to feeding and sleeping and being well cared for. The horses, in case of fire occurring at the stables, should be removed to a safe distance and securely tied up. Kvery cavalry stable should be generously supplied with axes and water-buckets, kept constantly at hand, always in the same place, and always filled and ready for immediate use, and these should never be used for the work about the stables or for anything else other than fire. On one occa- sion an inspector appeared at a troop, and, in examining the precautions at hand in case of fire, found that one or two of the axes had been used by the stable-men and were not in their racks, and the water in the fire-buckets (it being winter), not having been changed in the morning, was frozen in every bucket into solid masses of ice, and nearly all the buckets, as a result, had been burst by the pressure to such an extent that even after the ice was with difficulty removed, hardly a single bucket would hold water. Fortunate for the cavalry horse, indeed, that no fire had occurred. As it is absolutely necessary that all the horses except the very sick ones be removed from the stables during the day, to allow for policing and drying and airing out the stables, a paddock, or "corral," as it is called in in the A.merican service, is attached to each stable, with a side-door leading from the stable into it. This cor- ral should be of sufficient size to accommodate all the troop horses with comfort, so that they may be turned loose in it and move about. This corral has only ordi- nary dirt surface In the corral is placed a picket -line of sufficient length to tie all the horses to it when neces- sary; the line should be of stout, 2-inch rope, stretched taut and run through stout posts; the line should be 360 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. about 7 feet above the ground. The picket-line floor should be raised somewhat above the surrounding part of the corral, in order that it may be kept well drained and dry, and should have a very slight slope from cen- ter outward. Occasionally the flooring of the picket- line is filled in with stones, but this has been found un- satisfactory, owing to the fact that the horses often have to be tied to the picket-line for hours at a time, and standing upon the uneven, rocky flooring wears away the hoofs too much, and particles of jagged stone, sticking up here and there, are apt to injure the soles of the feet Experiments with these stone floorings on picket-lines have, at various times, been made in our service, and while some officers have contended for them, it has generally been considered tmsatisfactory, even if not positively injurious. The corral and picket-line should be kept clean, and should be policed at least once a week thoroughly, as much rubbish is blown in and much dirt accumulates from the horses, from which dry, unhealthy secretions and flakes arise. At one end of the corral should be placed a watering-trough, constantly kept filled and cleaned, and the horses should have free access to the water at all times; a cover for the trough should be kept at hand, in order that horses coming in warm cannot drink until cooled off ; if no cover is at hand, care must be taken that the trough is emptied before the horses are turned loose if warm. As much sediment is depos- ited in the trough by the water itself, by the drinking and slobbering of the horses, and by the wind and dust, the trough should be emptied and thoroughly cleaned at least twice weekly. Splinters occasionally break off on the inside of the trough, and care must be taken that these are all promptly removed, to prevent their being swallowed by the horses. The American cavalry horse in garrison is groomed twice daily at the stables. The troopers of each troop march to their stables for this purpose shortly after breakfast and again in the late afternoon. Each horse The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 361 is groomed about twenty minutes, the morning grooming being somewhat shorter, owing to the early morning ■drills. In some posts the morning grooming is held after the troop returns from the morning drill, and this is con- sidered the best time for the morning grooming; how- ever, even when this is done, the troopers must brush off their horses before saddling, as much dirt gets on the animals during the night, and if saddled up without their backs being cleaned, soreness and abrasion may occur. Whenever the weather permits, the horses at both the morning and afternoon grooming are groomed in the ■open air, at the picket-line in the corral. This is done in order that the dust and loose hair from the ani- mals may not remain in the stables. Especially at after- noon ' 'stables " should the horses be groomed at the picket- line, as their being groomed inside would cause this dust and hair to settle in the feed, and in addition, the horse, being in the stables all night, would be compelled to breathe in much of this floating hair and dust. In inclement weather only should the horses be groomed in the stables. When groomed inside, they should be first all led in and tied in their proper stalls, and then groomed. When the horse is led into his stall, he is tied t'o the man- ger by the halter-strap ; this strap should be tied only so long as to enable the horse to feed and lie down comfort- ably; a strap too long may become entangled in the legs and throw him; it also allows the horse, if ill-tempered, to reach over and bite his stall-mate. Occasionally, in place of this halter-strap is a steel chain ; but, owing to the necessity of quickly untying the horses in case of fire or any disorder, the chain is very unsatisfactory; it frcr quently becomes knotted so much as to make untying it impossible without considerable delay, and in time of emergency the only way to untie the horse is to slip the halter off and turn him loose, which must be avoided, especially in case of much noise or excitement. The importance of having a careful, well-trained lot of stable-men about the stables, to care for the horses. 362 Tlie Cavalry Horse and His Pack. stables, and property and handle the feeding, is such that it is the custom in the American service to permanently detail six men in each troop to live at the stables and take charge of the work there. These men are known as the stable sergeant, who is in direct charge, subject only to the orders of his troop commander; the stable orderly, who acts in the absence of the stable sergeant; the farrier, whose duty it is to care for and administer to the sick animals under the daily supervision of the troop commander and veterinary surgeon; the saddler,, who repairs the troop saddlery; the blacksmith, and the wagoner. One of these men, at least, is required to be always present in the stables ; he is responsible for every- thing in and about the stables. These six men form the troop stable crew, and are exempt from guard, kitchen police, post fatigue, etc., attending only certain drills,, muster, and inspections. As their duties about the stables are numerous and imperative, they should be spared alt outside work that separates them from their stable work. These stable-men, however, must be required to attend a sufficient number of daily drills and weekly inspections to- be kept abreast of their fellow troopers in all cavalry work. The stable sergeant especially should be carefully chosen, and should be an old soldier if possible, skilled in the care of troop-horses and fond of animals, and he should have a stern attention to duty, both as regards his own duties and those of the stable-men; upon his careful attention to the duties in the stables depends the health of the- horses to a large extent. In the American service the morning feed is placed ip the feed-boxes shortly before "reveille," and consists of half of the daily allowance of- grain, 6 pounds ; . the entire daily allowance of grain is 12 pounds of oats,, com, barley, or bran. No hay is fed in the morning. A wheeled cart is supplied to each stable, holding suffi- cient grain for one feed; this is pushed down the center passage-way, while two of the stable-men, one working- on each side, fill the feed-boxes from wooden or tin feed- The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 363 pails capable of holding the required amount of grain for one feed for one horse. In modern stables, where there is a passage-way on each side of the stables between the mangers and the stable walls, tracks have been laid for the cart to run, and this much expedites the work; by using wooden rails, this scheme is practicable wherever there exists these passage-ways in the stables, and should be constructed. The afternoon feed of grain is placed in the feed-boxes in the mangers shortly before afternoon "stables" in the same way. The entire daily allowance of hay is also fed in the afternoon at the same time, con- sisting of 14 pounds for each horse. As soon as the afternoon "stables" are finished, the troopers lead in. their horses to their stalls and tie them in, watering them just before taking them in to their stalls. A commissioned officer from each troop superintends the morning and afternoon "stables" in each troop, superintends the grooming, the watering, and inspects the stalls and stable of the troop throughout; at after- noon "stables" this officer also inspects the entire police of the stable, and satisfies himself that the stalls are fresh and clean and properly bedded down for the night, and that the proper allowance of grain and hay of good qual- ity is in each stall for each animal ; he inspects the stable lanterns and -ascertains that they are ready for lighting, inspects the sick horses and inquires as to their treat- ment, being accompanied at the time by the farrier and stable sergeant; examines the shoeing with the troop blacksmith; inspects the saddle-rooms and grain-room; and investigates anything reported to him by the stable- men regarding the horses. The new officer inspecting the stables should keep himself from perfunctorily walking up and down the picket-line as the men are grooming, receiving the first sergeant's report, and leaving. While he will see many older cavalry officers apparently do this, he must realize that these officers are all men of experi- ence, who can quickly see by a glance whether or not all ■ is as it should be ; but the young man new to the cavalry 364 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. will find "taking stables" is a very important matter, and he will learn much by observing everything pertain- ing to the management of the troop stable when he is there, if he does all there is for him to do; he will also, by his interest, encourage the stable-men to renewed efforts to have their particular stable in fine condition and the horses looking well. The work of these men is hard and important, and he can learn much from them regarding the cavalry horse and his pack, by getting all there is out of "stables." VERTICAI^ SECTION OF INTERIOR OF CAVAI.RY STABLES, SHOWING PREFERABLE ARRANGEMENT. In each cavalry stable there is a grain-room at one end, and this should be of sufficient size to hold ten days' feed of grain for all the horses in the stable. The allow- ance of hay is usually drawn by the stable-men daily. Hay is furnished either baled or loose ; if baled, care must be t^ken that the wire from the bales is carried away at once, and not allowed to lie around the stables, near the horses, which may be severely cut by it. In the grain-room The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 365 there should be kept two or three mouse-traps always set, as mice are very plentiful here. The grain itself should be piled off the ground (when the flooring is of dirt), and occasionally rejiiled, as the under bales and sacks will mould and become wormy if left there too long; if the flooring is of dirt, the under sacks should be raised off the ground by means of poles placed parallel to hold them, as these under sacks of grain will quickly mould from the dampness. In one end of the stable is the saddle-room; along the walls are placed rows of saddle-pegs, each capable of holding one saddle and the horse equipments belonging to it. Each trooper should be assigned a peg, which should be numbered, and the arrangement of the saddle and horse equipments on each peg should be prescribed in orders posted up in the saddle-room. Troopers are careless of their equipments in this way, and frequently lose small parts of their equipments. Every part of the saddle and horse equipments belonging to each trooper should be plainly marked or stamped with the trooper's troop number, to prevent loss, and each trooper must be made to understand he will be held to strict account- ability regarding his own equipments, and under no cir- cumstances should he be allowed to borrow the equip- ments of any other trooper — least of all without permis- sion. The men should be required to keep all the horse equipments on their pegs ; in this way the troop, if turned out suddenly, has everything at hand and easily found. Each troop has its own blacksmith shop near its stable, and the horse-shoer selects the horses needing shoeing in the morning, and, taking them to the blacksmith shop, attends to them. The work of the troop blacksmith is of the greatest importance, and is hard. He is care- fully inspected, and not permitted to experiment with any horse unless authorized to do so by the troop com- mander. As the horse-shoeing of the troop is very hard physical work, a man should be detailed whenever nec- essary to assist the blacksmith. In hot weather, when 366 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. the insects are bad, this is very necessary. It must always be appreciated that a good troop blacksmith is a treasure indeed, and not to be worn out by hard work, when a lit- tle consideration will save him so much and result in better shoeing of the horses. In garrison, when the weather permits, all the troop horses are taken out to graze after morning drill ; they are kept out until shortly before afternoon "stables," and brought in quietly to the picket-line. Each troop herd is kept apart from the other troop herds, and should be far ■enough away so that any excitement in one herd will not be commtmicated to the others. This herding of the troop horses is most important; not only do the animals have a chance to eat the fresh, luxuriant grass, but the troop horses are thus taught to leave the stables and return to them quietly. This is a great advantage when in the field, and requires much training before it can be ■well done. When the horses are herded, each troop furnishes its own herd-guard of 4 or 5 men, i of whom should always be a non-commissioned officer. These men should be mounted upon good, well-trained horses, and it is their duty to take the herd to a good gfrazing- place, let it graze during the day, and bring it in in the afternoon quietly. The herding-ground should, if pos- sible, be near good water, and the horses should be per- mitted to have free access to it at all times whUe grazing. No halters or straps should be left on any of the horses. Light is an all-important consideration in the cavalry stable; however, the windows should be so placed that the glare will not shine directly into the horses' eyes as they stand in their stalls. Too strong a light shining directly into the eyes of the horses is injiu^ious, and per- liaps even more so than too much gloom. If the win- dows are so placed that opening them will throw the light into the horses' eyes, shutters should be so arrailged that they will open inwards and from the top; this will cause the light to be deflected upwards and away from the horses, and at the same time will furnish ample light for I'he Cavalry Horse and His Paclc. 367 the interior. The windows should never be used as ven- tiilators, as the drafts blow across the horses' backs. The walls directly facing the horses should be left dark ; white- washing them brings a deflection of strong light into the animals' faces, and is injurious. Horses coming to the stable in a warm or wet Con- dition should be turned loose in the corral, care being taken that the watering-trough is either covered or emp- tied, to prevent their drinking while hot. The horses will cool off without harm if allowed to walk about in the corral if the weather is fine. Stables are frequently more or less chilly, and bad results may come from tying the horse in his stall while heated or wet; when necessary to tie the horse inside, either a horse-blanket should be thrown over him tmtil he is cooled off, or, better still, one of the troopers should wisp him dry with hay or straw. In discussing the questions connected with the size, form, and arrangements of cavalry stables, it must not be forgotten that we have to deal with an animal gener- ally high in spirits, condition, and strength. This cavalry horse, like the athlete, cannot be housed and denied exercise without injury. If a horse is to be kept for pleasure only, and is not regularly exercised on those days when he is not wanted, he will in time get out of health, no matter how clean and hygienic the interior of his stable may be, or how good the management indoors. A com- mon complaint among amateur horsemen is that their horses, well housed, are often not so free from disease as those of some cab or express company in the same neigh- borhood, which are often kept in dark, close stables, often underground (as in large cities). The reason is obvious enough. The over-fed and under-worked horse, stimu- lated by his food to a great extent, is apt to have some organ become inflamed, and if the lungs or bowels do not show disease, the heels crack or the joints enlarge, and after a single day's work the horse exhibits lameness pf a more or less serious character. On the other hand, the hard-worked horse of the express company^s'in the fresh 368 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. air a large part of the time, exercising, and thus the injury done to his blood inside the close stable is remedied when he is out; but even he will become sick if the unhygienic surroundings continue to be his home at night. The food of the hard-worked horse is expended in nourishing and repairing his muscular system, and there is no sur- plus to form the foundation of disease. If this is so with the pleasure horse and the express company animal, how much more important are exercise and good surroundings for our cavalry horse. In considering the cavalry stable, its situation and aspect are two important points to be considered; upon these depend, first, the power of excluding damp; and secondly, the best means of keeping up a tolerably even temperature in winter and summer. It must not be for- gotten that the horse is a native of a dry country, and cannot be kept in health in a damp situation unless he is especially well cared for. Either in-doors or out, for any prolonged period of time, the horse cannot be subjected to damp without disease showing itself. Nothing except starvation tells injiuriously upon horses so soon as damp when exposed to it. The horse loses all spirit, work soon tires him, his coat is staring, he will finally scarcely touch his feed, and as time goes on he becomes emaciated, and severe disease, often in the form of an epidemic, more or less fatal, shows itself. If a change is not made, many deaths will result. Grease, cracked heels, swelled legs, hidebound, inflamed eyes, coughs, and colds are diseases which attend damp, and if present even in a slight degree, any of these diseases are sufficient to interfere with the use of the horse. It must be realized that the horse is peculiarly helpless — tied, watered, fed, etc., as he is by man ; he can do little for himself, and must accept what- ever is given him as food or abode. In choosing the situation, therefore, a spot should be chosen which will be high enough to allow perfect drainage at all seasons of the year; hence, low or, marshy ground is unsuitable. No periodically overflowing. 27ie Cavalry Horse, and His Pack. 369 stream should ever be allowed to discharge its contents into the foundations or under the stable, for even if the floor of the stable itself is kept dry and above water, yet the soil underneath will be saturated, and, acting like a sponge, will allow the damp to creep up the walls inces- santly. Care should be taken that the site chosen is such that the rainfall of the surrounding country cannot find its way under or around the stables. While canals and ditches will do something to meet this, it is better to avoid it altogether by choosing a site out of the way of all flood- water, and with a good fall. As to the aspect, there is some difference of opinion as to whether it should be northerly or southerly, all being adverse to a direction either east or west, the former being too cold and the latter too hot. Generally a south- em exposure is best; however, one reason given adverse to a southern exposure is undeniable in the main and grounded upon fact: this is, that a more even temper- ature can be maintained if the situation is sufficiently sheltered from the stroke of the wind. A southern expos- ure allows the sun to enter with great power in the sum- mer. Animal life is always benefited by the direct rays of the sun, although when the heat from it is intense, the mischief done is so great as to counteract the advantage. The more sun that can shine into the stable the more quickly will it be dried and freshened and bad odors and moisture expelled, but this applies only when the horses are out of it. The proper temperature in the cava'lry stable should be maintained as evenly as possible while the horses are in it. Some officers contend for an amount of heat which would raise the thermometer to 60 or 65 degrees Fahrenheit, while others would never have the stables above 45 degrees. To obtain a regular temper- ature is difficult. In ordinary climates, cavalry stables must be kept as cool as possible. If the horses do not stand directly in the draft, the colder the stables the less will they suffer if suddenly called to take the field. This regulating the temperature daily in troop stables 370 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. is often not possible beyond a- certain point. In ex- treme cold weather it is custonia,ry to keep the horses warm by means of heavy canvas, blanket-lined horse- covers buckled over the horses with surcingles attached to the covers; these blankets, however, should never be used unless the weather is especially and unusually cold, and they should be removed from the horses whenever they are exercised, and always when the temperature has risen to a reasonable height. Sorne of the horse- covers are without the blanket-lining, and these should be used occasionally, especially in hot southern climates, to protect the horses' backs from the fierce rays of the sun, which are apt to cause blisters. These light blankets are sometimes used also to keep the snow off the backs, but this is not done often. In Camp. — What has been- said in regard to caring for the cavalry horse and his pack in garrison applies in general to the care to be given him when in camp, and, owing to the greater exposure, even more thoroughness and exertion must be taken to keep the horse in condi- tion. As it is rarely practicable to erect even temporary stables in camp, the horse must of necessity be exposed to all conditions of weather, -damp food, muddy picket- lines, etc. By knowing what is necessary and custom- ary in garrison, precautions may be taken in the camp and field that will largely save the horse from disease, cure him of his minor ills, and make the exposure less dangerous. In camp the horses of each troop are tied to elevated picket-lines tightly stretched between stout posts, sim- ilar to the picket-lines for the corral. Occasionally the picket-lines in camp are stretched along the ground, being held in place by long iron or wooden pins at inter- vals and at each end. This latter method should not be used if the camp is to be occupied for any length of time, as there is considerable danger of the horses getting tangled up in it, by their restless moving across it, back and forth. The horses are tied to the elevated picket- The Cavalry Horse and His Po,ck. 371 line by their halter-straps, and each horse should be tied sufficiently long to enable him to reach his head down to the ground, to enable him to eat the hay, and to allow him to lie down. Guards must be immediately placed over the troop horses when they are tied to the picket-line ; the horses often tangle their feet in the straps and picket-rope when it is stretched along the ground, and often several horses will, by circling around each other, become so badly tangled up as to injure one or more of them. If the ground picket-line be used, the guards must be especially watchful and quickly free any horse which may get caught. Occasionally a horse will catch the picket-line (when it is stretched along the ground) in one of his hind fetlock-joints, and, by plung- ing to get free, so badly bum and cut this joint as to totally unfit him for duty for weeks. Horses caught in this way have been known to be seriously burned and cut their pastern-joints to the bone before the men could free them. The elevated line prevents this danger, saves the rope and haltei--straps from being cut and worn by the horses' sharp hoofs, and lessens the liability to injuries more or less serious. Horses tied to the picket-line in camp should have more room than when tied to the corral picket- line ; in camp they must stand all day and night, and they must have room to lie down comfortably. In the Ameri- can cavalry service each troop often carries a complete 2-inch picket-rope about 100 feet long or more, with the necessary long pins. In the absence of this, a most successful picket-line may be made, either elevated or along the ground, by utilizing the lariats and picket- pins of the troopers. When elevated, this lariat picket- line is stretched double and tied between trees, wag- ons, or posts; when it is stretched along the groujnd, the iron picket-pins of the troopers hold it in place, as well as convenient- bushes, etc.; if the ground is devoid of firni soil or bushes, the picket-pins should be sunk in the ground, horizontally, about i foot or more. This is a very strong method of preventing the horses from pulling < o >< o( < > u < o Hi H $ H ;x The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 373 the pins up. The picket-line, whether along the ground or elevated, should be in one continuous line, straight, and half the horses tied on one side of it and half on the other side; when ground is not available for the one straight line, the line should not be made either curved or angular, but two or more short lines are preferable. The place chosen for the picket-lines should first be carefully inspected, and the ground should be on clear, hard soil, free from broken glass, stones, brush, boggy land, etc., and should have a slight slope for drainage. If time permits, the center should be slightly elevated down the entire length of the line, and ditches a foot deep dug on each side the entire length, and far enough back of the line on each side to prevent the horses from back- ing into the ditches in their efforts to get on level ground. As picket-lines that are used get muddy rapidly, this drainage must be early provided for and maintained, else scratches, quittor, thrush, and many other foot diseases will occur among the animals, and are often hard to cure, especially if the muddy condition continues. The slope of the picket-line to each side should be no more than enough to afford good drainage. Holes pawed out by the animals should be promptly filled in. As the troop picket-line soon becomes untenable in muddy weather, each troop should have two, near each other, in order that one may dry while the horses use the other. This is very necessary in a permanent camp. While suit- able ground for two picket-lines for each troop is not always available, the' second line should be prepared and ready for use whenever it is possible. Even such serious, contagious diseases as farcy and glanders result from the use of muddy picket-lines soaked with filth. If the camp is to be occupied for any length of time, it is necessary to have the picket-line thoroughly policed daily, and this should be done morning and evening by the stable-men, assisted by the stable police, as in garri- son. All refuse should be hauled away from the camp to a considerable distance, and dumped in a designated place, and later burned up. 374 ^^^ Cavalry Horse and His Pack. In the camp the same routine stable duty is performed as in garrison. There are two groomings daily, morning and evening, and two feedings. The grain is fed in nose- bags and the hay scattered along the center of the picket- line. Hay is only fed in the afternoon, as in garrison. If the horses are to be kept on the picket-line all day, feed- ing a little hay about noon is a good practice. Half the grain is fed in the morning and the other half in the afternoon. The entire troop attends to this feeding,, each man feeding his own horse. The horses in camp are watered twice daily; the morning watering is done about two hours after morning feeding, and the afternoon water- ing just before afternoon "stables"; after the afternoon "stables," the horses are fed the grain and then the hay; sometimes the feed is given at the same time as the groom- ing. The troop watering should be superintended by a commissioned officer in the troop, and this officer also superintends the grooming and feeding. No horse should be hurried while drinking, and all those drinking together at one time should be held until all in the bunch have finished. Horses will rarely finish drinking if other near- by horses are led away from the watering-place. The water- ing-place for the horses in camp should be below the drinking-places of the men, and above the places set aside as bathing-places for the men, for the washing of clothing, the dumping of rubbish or slops or other unclean purposes. Lanterns should be kept ready at the picket-line, to be used by the stable-men or guards in case of need at night. When there is sufficient transportation with the com- mand, each trooper is provided with a horse-cover similar to those used in garrison; these should only be used in very cold weather. When there are no horse-covers with the troop, the saddle-blanket may be used. The saddles and packs of the troopers are usually kept by them in their tents in temporary camps, or in per- manent camps on improvised saddle-racks off the ground, either in front or rear of the tents to which they belong or along the picket -line. The saddles, saddle-blankets, and The Cavalry Horse and His Pack-. 375 packs should never be left on the ground, as it rots the leather and rusts the equipments, and the saddle-blankets, becoming filthy, are certain to injure the horses' backs when used. When grazing is practicable, each troop turns its horses loose under guard. The horses are kept out until shortly before afternoon "stables." If this herding has been practiced in garrison, the horses are easily brought in to the picket -lines quietly, and this should be insisted upon. All the troopers in each troop should be at the picket-line before the horses come in, with their halters, ready to catch up and tie the horses as they arrive. Herd- ing may often be necessary at night. As this is both dangerous and extremely fatiguing to the men, it should be done only when absolutely necessary, but the men must not be saved if the forage in camp is poor; then grazing is of the utmost importance, and in field service often furnishes the chief source of forage for the ani- mals. Better to have tired troopers than dead horses. Care should be taken, when night herding is to be done, that the grazing-grounds of each troop during the day are sufficiently far out to preserve the grazing near the camp for use during the night. When herding at night is necessary, the guards should be doubled, especially if the night is stormy or any sudden alarm is to be feared. Usually, for day herding, with a troop, 4 or 5 men and i non-commissioned officer are sufficient. The strength of this herd-guard must, of course, be increased according to the danger to be feared. In the Philippine Islands this guard was never less than 8 armed men, mounted, as the danger of attack from insurgents was always great. After the horses have learned to herd well, they rarely separate, and in case of alarm, if they can be headed toward camp, they will generally all remain together and go there. Occasionally there are a few horses in the troop known to leave the herd at everj'^ alarm. If there is any danger of an attack, or the weather is bad, it will be wise to keep these few horses lariated out near the 376 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. camp, or even tied to the picket-line, as, in case of a sudden fright, these few horses, starting off in the wrong direc- tion, may influence the entire herd to follow them, and all efforts to turn them back may prove unavailing with- out hard riding and much fierce work. When herding is not possible and the supply of oats and hay is limited, the horses are picketed out by means of the troopers' lariats and picket-pins. The halters in this case are left on the horses, and the halter-straps tied securely around the horses' necks ; one end of the lariat is snapped into the halter-ring and the other end is at- tached to the picket-pin of iron, which is then driven into the ground. As the lariat is about 20 feet long, this gives each horse a grazing circle of 40 feet diameter. This method requires considerable room, as the horses must be tied well apart, in order to prevent them from becoming tangled up with each other. This method has been found satisfactory in some respects, but unsat- isfactory in others. As some horses frequently catch their hind legs in the rope and struggle to free them- selves, the fetlock- joints of the hind legs are sometimes badly burned and the horse disabled for several weeks. In soft ground the iron picket-pin does not hold well, and a loose horse running among men or the other horses is a dangerous thing, as the lariat goes flying through the air, with the heavy picket-pin whizzing at the loose end. In such ground it is better to sink the picket-pin, horizon- tally, at least a foot in the ground. This method (lariat^ ing) is the one used by the American Cavalry, under the conditions mentioned, after many experiments in the field. When the horses are out on the lariats, they should never be left to themselves ; several mounted men should be at hand, on guard, watching the horses, and should be on the alert to prevent any injury. A method of securing the troop horses in camp and field for grazing, so that they may be grazed without being herded or held, and at the same time kept together and ready for immediate use, has been one occupying much The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. ^ilJ attention from cavalry officers for years. Various exper- iments have been tried, none, however, giving entire sat- isfaction. The lariat and picket-pin, described above, seem to come nearer to success than any other means known, and yet are still not wholly satisfactory. At one time hobbles were issued to the American troopers ; these consisted of two circular leather cuffs connected with a short steel chain about a foot long. The cuffs were •clamped around the horse's two front fetlock-joints. It was found, however, that after the horse became accus- tomed to the hobbles, he could travel miles. Side-lines were also tried, and for years were issued in our service ; they consisted of a rope and two cuffs, and were clamped around the horse's front and hind fetlock-joints (the front and hind feet on the same side) , the rope being pulled up until only about a foot or so in length. The horse, after getting used to these side-lines, also learned to travel more or less rapidly. Frequently it is an absolute, imperative necessity in camp and field service to graze the troop horses as much as possible. Hay and grain are oftentimes wholly lack- ing, or so scarce as to be kept for the sickest and weakest animals in the troop. Herding the troop horses loosely, as described in the first method above, seems the safest way known, and even this can be satisfactorily accom- plished only after the troop horses are well trained to it. Even then the danger of stampeding exists, and this may be brought about by only one restless, nervous horse becoming frightened, a vicious clap of thunder, a severe flash of lightning, or the mere striking of a match at night. The writer has seen a herd of thousands of cattle on the Western plains stampeded by such simple frights, more than once, and rush madly at a thundering pace across the vast prairies at a frenzied rate for miles. Life on the vast steppes of Russia has taught the Cossack many methods of overcoming difficulties in the field, and he has for years tethered his horse in camp by means of a short rope about 6 feet long, one end of which has a 378 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. leather cufif (on the inside of which the hair is left) ; this cuff is buckled around the horse's near front fetlock-joint, and the other end of the rope is hooked to a long wooden pin with an iron point, somewhat resembling our picket- pin, which is driven into the ground. By this method the horse has a circle in which to graze of about 6 feet, and as the pull on the rope is horizontal, the pin is less apt to be dragged out of the ground. As tHe shortness of the rope prevents the horse from turning around, he is not liable to injure his hind legs by entangling the rope in his fetlock-joints. The horse has to be moved to a new place frequently to get good grazing. However, the horse has to be watched at any rate when on a rope among other horses more or less nervous. The writer has used this Cossack method in the Philippine Islands, where the ground was often soft, and by bury- ing the pin the scheme has worked better than any of the others described above for the grazing of troop horses. The British Cavalry have used in its colonial campaigns a method which is said to work well so far as the grazing and security of the horses are concerned, but it keeps the troopers awake practically all night. This method con- sisted in driving one picket-pin into the ground and then tying four or five horses to it, the pin in the center. Between the ropes the troopers placed their saddles near the pin, and then lay down with their heads together near the pin, using their saddles as pillows. Any movement of the horses awoke the men, and thus the danger of a horse escaping was small, but the men got very little sleep, and ran the risk of being injured should the horses become frightened or tangled up. The writer has often known cowboys in the cattle country to tie one end of their reins to their own wrists and, lying down with their saddles for pillows, let their horses graze around them. The horse will almost never step upon the man, and any unusual occurrence at once awakes the sleeping cowboy. This method is hardly to be considered as practicable for a troop of cavalry ; it is cited only to illustrate a little The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 379 more fully some of the various methods that are employed for the accomplishment of the purpose. In camp it is of the utmost importance that the sick horses be given every care. Almost wholly exposed to the elements, and facilities for caring for them being very limited, the horses that are ill are far more liable to remain so, or get worse, than when housed in garrison stables. As soon as a horse becomes ill, he should be separated' from the other horses, and if the camp is to remain in one place for any length of time, rough sheds of the branches of trees, or of shelter tents, or other available material, as protection against weather and sun, should be con- structed some distance away from the picket-lines, and the sick horses each placed under one of them; this not only protects the sick animal from much exposure, but it gives him a somewhat dry place to stand upon, which is important when the horse is unwell. Every precaution should be taken to prevent contagion, as in the stables; disinfectants, if at hand, should be freely used; at all events, the ground under and about the sick-sheds should be policed and the refuse taken away and burned, so that no other animal can nose in it and thus suffer. The other horses should be kept away at all times from these sheds and sick animals. Often diseases which appear simple may in reality be very catching. The danger of disease spreading when in camp is too great to be careless in observing every precaution. As in garrison, nose-bags,, buckets, cloths, curry-combs, brushes, etc., that have been used about the sick horses should either be destroyed or thoroughly disinfected before being permitted to be used around the other horses. In camp a tent should be placed at one end ofr the picket-line of each troop, and some of the troop stable-men should be required to sleep here, in order that the guard may be able to get quick and efi&cient assistance, and the stable-men, who know the animals well, be ready for any emergency. What has been said in this chapter outlines in suffi- cient detail the importance of careful study and observa- 380 2'he Cavalry Horse and His Pack. tion of cavalry management in stables and camp. Much more might be added, but what has been presented will give a good general idea of how the cavalry horse is handled under the conditions of garrison and field ; more than this, and the practical working described, must come from actual personal experience and time. It is a large- subject, and its appreciation will go a long way towards keeping the cavalry horse and his pack in that perfect condition of health and efficiency required to accomplish all that the service demands. It occasionally happens, especially since colonial service has come into existence in the American service, that the young officer will be given a troop of cavalry in remote places. Here he must construct his own stables, and depend upon his own knowl- edge to protect his horses from suffering more than the occasion demands. By knowing what is done in garrison and camp, he is enabled to overcome difficulties as they present themselves, and to provide by his own ingenuity substitutes for the regulation methods wherever they are lacking. CHAPTER XVI. Grooming, Watering, and Feeding., Necessity for Grooming — Method — Time — In Winter — In Summer — Utensils — Cloths — Nostrils — Dock — Sheath — Grooming aft- er Drill — Hand Rubbing — Wisping with Hay — Washing — Rolling— The Mane— The Tail— Cooling Off— The Eyes- Watering — When to Water^— Theory — Amount — When Heat- ed — CleanUness of Water — Stagnant Pools — Marshes — Ac- cessibility of Water — Vinegar — Salt — Feeding — Oats — Corn — Barley — Bran — Weight of Daily Forage Ration — How Fed — Hot Feeds — Wet Feeds — Mixtures — Hay — Upland-^Lowland — Wet Meadow — Herding — Reduction of Grain Allowance When Herding — Good Hay — Mow-burnt — Dust — Haystacks — Palay — Sacati — Methods and Comparisons — The Horse's Stom- ach — Experiments — Feeding in the Field — Green Grasses — Exercise Necessary — Variety Necessary — Systematic Feeding Essential to Good Health — Grinding the Feed — Whole Feed The cavalry horse must not only be well cared for b means of good ventilation, fresh air, , liberal exercise, draiaage, light, even temperature, dryness, etc., but in his watering, feeding, and grooming constant care must be taken that the water and food are good, wholesome, and sufficient, fed at the right times, and varied occasion- ally to produce the best results, and externally he must be kept clean and fresh bodily Good stables and clean picket-lines and surroundings will do much for the horse, but these preautions are of little value if the watering and feeding are ignorantly or carelessly attended to, or the animal himself allowed to go dirty. Grooming. — The fact that the cavalry horse is kept in stables and in confinement is not the real reason, or the most important, why he should be well groomed and kept bodily clean ; for this, and the , chief reason, you must look at his work, and the highly nutritious and nitrogenous food he must of necessity take, in order to build him up and strengthen him for his work. It is the 381 382 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. amount of work and the difference in food which are the causes for artificial cleanliness in the horse in confinement, rather than the confinement and shelter themselves. Work of any kind, but hard and fast work especially, increases nervous impulse, muscular energy, and conse- quently increased secretions of the skin, as exemplified by the profuse perspiration of a horse doing violent exer- cise, particularly if he is not in the very best condition. It is simply another example of the safety-valve in the boiler. The greater the action of the skin the greater must be the attention paid to the sweat- and oil-glands and pores, which are in reality the safety-valves in this particular. Attention to bodily cleanliness is of far greater importance to the animal in confinement than it is to the creature in a state of nature. Animals at large take only the exercise that is necessary for them to dis- cover and secure the food and water they require, and the horse, living as he does upon grass which he finds almost everywhere, the exercise or work which he does in procur- ing his daily food is gentle in the extreme. Apart from this, his food— grass — is laxative in its nature, and the waste material and refuse of digestion in such a diet and such a life are carried off mainly through the action of the bowels and kidneys. The harder and faster the work a horse has to do, the more nutritious, the stronger, the more liberal must be his food ; consequently, greater must be the care and attention paid to his skin in order to keep the pores open, clean, and free, and, therefore, this scav- enger of the body in such a condition of perfection as to meet the constant demands which hard and fast work requires of it. It is almost inconceivable and very hard to believe, but nevertheless it is a fact, that a horse in robust health, good condition, and doing hard work gives off in twenty- four hours through the pores of the skin an amount of re- fuse and effete material equal to that excreted by the bowels; so it will be readily understood how necessary must be the attention paid to this investing membrane to 2'he Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 383 insure its constant and unimpeded action. Perspiration goes on constantly in an insensible and imperceptible way, "but of course greatly augmented under the strain of vio- lent exercise, when it issues as a wet and moist discharge known as "sudor," or sweat. It will follow, therefore, that the sweat-glands in the horse in a state of nature, where his exercise is gentle and constant, except when in ■a state of repose, his food light, green, and laxative, are, although always acting as required of them, not put to the violent exertion of those in a horse that is highly fed and doing great exercise. The sweat-glands, therefore, are not in such a perfect state of development in the former animal as they are in the latter, nor is it necessary that they should be so. The horse in confinement conse- quently requires the greatest attention to his skin and <;oat; artificial cleanliness, therefore — grooming, rubbing, •etc. — is of the utmost consequence and greatest import- ance to the horse in captivity. Grooming and cleaning not only keep the pores open and free, but they develop them in the same way that exercise and work develop muscle, and consequently keep them in a better condition to stand the strain that is put upon them by hard work. This strain is very considerable, and, if they are not in ■condition, they will not stand the strain, and the cavalry horse will not be able to keep in the excellent health and condition required, will not be fit for the work he is called upon to perform, and will not bring success to the troop. Grooming the horse not only keeps the sweat- and oil-glands open and working steadily, but it serves as well as a brace to the nerves of the surface by the fric- tion of the brush or wisp. It will be appreciated from . the above that the grooming must be done regularly and frequently, else it is more or less useless, as the pores will quickly work more or less irregularly and unsatisfactorily if the horse is allowed to go for any length of time without grooming, and the entire animal will exhibit lack of that mettle and coat that is necessary and indispensable to fine liealth for his work. Grooming, therefore, should be at 384 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. least daily, and in the American cavalry service is giv- en twice daily, morning and evening. The manner of grooming will vary somewhat according to the state the horse is in at the time ; that is, depending upon whether he has been sweated and is cool again, or if he is still wet from rain, snow, or sweat, or if he has been ridden through dirty roads or over deep country ; each of these conditions will therefore require some difference in treatment to get the best results. AMERICAN CAVALRY TROOP AT STABLKS. The usual morning grooming lasts about twenty minutes on each horse; for this purpose each trooper is furnished with a curry-comb and horse-brush, and should, in addition, have a hoof-pick and a grooming-cloth. As the horses are always groomed at the stables; it is neces- sary that the horse-cleaning articles be handy, and for this purpose there is a rack placed at one end of the stable,. The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 385 -containing as many pigeon-holes as there are animals or men, and each trooper is assigned one of the holes. Each hole should be numbered with the trooper's number, and the troopers should be required to keep their grooming materials at all times in their right holes. In the field each trooper should keep his horse-cleaning articles in his sad- dle-bags, to prevent delay and loss. The curry-comb is in- tended to remove the scurf or scales of the scarf-skin which are constantly produced from the true skin, and if allowed to remain at the roots of the hair, these have a tendency to confine sweat, and thus interfere with the relief to the circulation which is afforded by that natural process. When a horse's skin is once put in good order, it may be kept clean with very little use of the curry-comb ; but a dirty coat cannot well be got right by any other means. The body brush does not penetrate deeply enough unless the coat of the horse is very thin and short ; and no amount of wisping will be of any use. The curry-comb, there- fore, must be used ; it is also especially required to clean the loose hair and dirt from the horse-brush after every few strokes of the brush. There must be some skill dis- played in the use of the curry-comb; some troopers sweep it lightly over the horse's neck, back, flanks, croup, and legs as far down as the knees and hocks, without actually scratching the surface of the skin, while others bear down on it with considerable weight, and thus pun- ish the horse to such an extent as often to cause even a naturally good-tempered animal to use his teeth or heels most savagely. A light, thin-coated horse, even when very dirty and full of scurf, does not require the curry-comb to be pressed down hard upon the skin, while a thick-coated animal may require somewhat more pressure to clean away the fcetid matter in and about the pores. The pressure should be no more than is necessary to cleanse the skin, and it should never be used below the knees except, perhaps, to lightly scrape away thick accumulations of mud or dirt. In using the curry-comb, the trooper should begin at the neck on 386 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. the near side of the horse, curry-comb in the right hand, and should proceed over the shoulders, withers, breast and chest, fore legs to the knees, the back, barrel, flanks, and lightly on the stomach (abdomen), avoiding striking the penis or tender skin of the inner sides of the upper legs, thence to the croup, buttocks, and hind legs to the hocks. The trooper should then change to the off side, taking the curry-comb in his left hand, and proceed as before. After every few scrapes, it will be necessary to knock the curry-comb lightly against the woodwork, to jar off the loose scurf and loose hair, which soon fills the comb and its teeth. In cold weather, when the horse is half chilled, the curry-comb must be used very lightly, as the horse's skin is very sensitive; when the horse is wet, the curry-comb can do little, if any, good. The horse-brush is made of hog's bristles, is of an oval shape, about 9 inches long by 3 or 4 inches wide, with a strap of webbing or leather across the top for the insertion of the hand. The horse-brush is nec- essary at all times, unless the horse be very wet or wet and chilled. Using the horse-brush on the wet horse merely packs the damp, soggy hair down tightly, delays the drying of the hair, and is apt to cause the horse to chill by leaving the hair in this plastered condition; it does not clean the skin, and at such a time merely rubs the wet dirt into the pores and hair, and thus tends to prevent the pores from working freely. During the change of coat in the horse the brush should be used lightly, as its heavy use tends to bring off the old hair too rapidly, is apt to thin the coat, and brings the new coat out coarser than it would naturally be. To produce a beautiful coat, the old one should be left on as long as pos- sible, just as we find in the sheep which is not shorn, but allowed to shed its wool, the next growth will be much shorter and more beautiful. It must be remembered, however, that beauty of coat is second in importance to cleanliness of hair and free action of the skin and pores in it. In using the horse-brush, the trooper should The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 387 begin at the neck on the near side, curry-comb in right hand and brush in the left, after the curry-comb has been used as described; the brush should be used thence all over the neck, shoulders and withers, breast, chest, barrel, etc., following the course of the curry-comb and the direction of the hair; after finishing the near side, the trooper should repeat the work on the off side ; after every one or two strokes of the brush, it should be scraped clean with the curry-comb, as it quickly fills with dust, scurf, and loose hair. The brush should be used lightly on the tender skin of the inside of the horse's legs and thighs, and should be used to clean the legs from the knees or hocks down to the hoofs. The hoof-pick should now be used. It consists merely of an iron or steel hook made in the form of a right angle, one side of the angle long enough to hold the hook steady in the hand and the other side of the angel somewhat shorter and rather pointed at the end. The horse's feet should be picked up, one at a time, and the hook used to scrape away any dirt or small bits of gravel or stone that may have become packed between the shoe and the sole of the foot or around the frog. The pick must be used carefully, and never dug into the openings on the sides of the frog, which may cause injury to the foot. As the horse frequently picks up small particles of stone or wood or other more or less solid substances, these must be removed without delay, to prevent injury from tread- ing upon them; for this reason it is wise to have plenty of hooks hanging near the stalls in the stables and to carry a few when in the field. Occasionally these hoof -picks are attached to the tops of the curry-combs by rivets; this is a good way of keeping them always at hand. The troop blacksmith can make all that are needed, however, with little trouble. The pick should not be too sharp at the point, for many troopers have a heavy hand, and in cleaning out the foot may run the point too far in and cause lameness. 388 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. After the horse has been curry-combed, brushed, and his feet cleaned, the trooper should use the grooming- cloth all over the horse. This cloth is easily made from old blankets or other woolen material; the cloth should be about 2 feet square, and kept fresh and clean by washing. In using the cloth, the horse's eyes, nostrils, head, sheath, lips, and dock should be carefully wiped out. It is very refreshing to the horse to have the cloth slightly dampened when this is done, if the weather is not cold. The cloth should be carried all over the horse and fre- quently dusted off while being used, to prevent carrying dirt or dust back into the hair. The cloth, like the curry- comb and brush, is of no use when the horse is wet, and should not be used. In grooming the horse, the curry-comb should never be used to clean the mane or tail; its teeth easily pull out many hairs, and so injure these parts. The trooper should use his brush and hands to clean out dirt or mud from the mane and tail, and should use the brush and his hands when cleaning out the fetlocks. The skin in the fetlock joints is tender and easily injured, and nothing rough or harsh should be used here. The trooper can, by taking the mane or tail in his hands and separating it into two parts, rub the two divisions together and easily clean off the caked dirt or mud, after which a brisk brush- ing with the horse-brush will make it glossy and fresh. The grooming-cloth can be used in the fetlock joints and clean them out fully. Whenever the horse returns to the stable or picket- line in a wet condition, he should not be groomed with the curry-comb or brush; this applies when the horse is soaked with rain or snow; when only more or less wet from sweat from exercise, ordinary grooming is sufficient. However, to groom the horse with the curry-comb and brush when his coat and skin aie soaked from external moisture will do no good, and, as explained above, will simply pack down the wet hair and probably chill the animal, and never clean him. The horse should be wisped The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 389 dry with hay ; the trooper wisping the animal must work hard, and sweep the wisp backward and forward until the coat and skin are fairly dry; to absolutely dry out the horse's hair would consume more time than is ordinarily available to the trooper at stable-time. The wisp con- sists simply of a handful of dry, fresh hay or straw. If the horse can be exercised until cooled off, so much the better, but this also is not always practicable in cavalry. The trooper using the wisp should rub hard and quickly, backward and forward, beginning at the neck and work- ing over the horse as he does with the ordinary horse brush, except that the horse-brush should never be rubbed against the direction of the hair, except to remove caked dirt or mud. After the wisping is finished, the hair may be lightly rubbed down and smoothed a little, but it is" better to leave it as it is after finishing the wisping, as, in this way the hair dries more quickly, there is less danger of chilling the horse, and the skin is freer to throw off the internal moisture and waste material. Hand-rubbing the horse is invaluable, especially if the animal is wet or tired ; it acts much like the rubbing- down of the athlete. In hand-rubbing the legs, the trooper should place his two hands, palms fiat, around the horse's legs, below the knee or hock and rub down- Ward repeatedly. This rubbing should not be too rapid, and the trooper should use a firm hand, but no clinching pressure around the leg. The legs should be cleaned before being rubbed. The coat of the horse is changed twice a year, the long hair of winter coming off in April and May, or some- times earlier, when the stables afe warm and there is no exposure to severe cold. A slight sweat hastens this shedding. The long hair on the legs is about a month later in coming off, and indeed it will not fall till mid- summer unless some more violent means than are used in ordinary grooming are adopted. With some breeds the winter coat is not very much longer or coarser than that of the summer, while, others have most shaggy coats 390 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. in the winter months. About the middle of October or early in November the summer coat is thrown off, but some of the hair appears to remain as a sort, of under- coat, among which the long, coarse hairs of winter make their appearance. These long winter hairs continue to grow for a month or six weeks, and even after Christmas, if the weather is very cold, there will be an evident increase in length of the hair. In accordance with this growth of hair on the body is that on the legs, which become feath- ered all the way down the backs of the fore legs below the knees, and half way down the backs of the hind-legs below the hocks. Ijow-bred horses have more hair on these parts than thoroughbreds, but even these latter exhibit a great deal of hair on their legs. Grooming the horse tends somewhat to shorten the growth of hair, and to slightly thin it, but not enough to produce ill effects, and the grooming is necessary to remove the mass of loose short hairs which should come off. The long coat is Nature's protection against the cold of winter; but being long, and so more liable to catch and retain dust and dirt and parasites, it needs grooming to keep the skin underneath fresh and clean and the hair itself free from filth. In civil life clipping and singeing are often practiced, sometimes even in winter, and much has been written to .defend the practice, but while the long coat absorbs a deal of moisture, and therefore is dif- ficult to dry, at the same time it protects the horse from the chill winds of the winter months, and must be left as Nature makes it, only keeping it clean and fresh. In the cavalry service clipping and singeing are not permitted and should never be done. Occasionally the clipping of the^ long hair on the fetlock-joints is allowed, and if the weather is dry, this may do no harm; but, as the skin here is tender and easily injured, this should not be allowed if the weather is either cold, damp, or wet. Scratches are very liable to break out after the fetlocks are clipped, should the weather turn cold or raw. The Cavalry Horse and His Pach. 391 In the American cavalry service the manes and tails are never cut short, but allowed to grow long and fine. In some European services the mane is cut off an inch or two to give it an even edge, and the tail is cut off more or less after the manner of "docking," so common in civil life. In our service one or two regiments have made a practice of cutting off the tail so that its end is even with the hocks, and this practice has many advocates. The cruel practice, however, of cutting off any of the tail at all is injurious and exhausting to the horse, especially in the hot season, when he is surrounded with insects and requires his complete tail to protect himself. The long, flowing tail is very handsome in a troop, and, as the troop- ers keep the manes and tails in fine condition, it adds much to the appearance of the command and is the rational way. An exhausted horse is vastly benefited by wisping, grooming, and hand-rubbing, and, if carefully worked over, many a horse thought to be too exhausted to recover may be saved and freshened up by an hour's steady work when occasion demands. Many cavalry officers are dis- posed to favor the abolition of morning "stables" in the service, believing that little is accomplished that benefits either trooper or horse by such early-morning grooming; others favor having the morning grooming take place immediately after morning drill; this, indeed, seems to be the rational time, for the horse has, by exercise, warmed up and the pores have opened and discharged considerable waste material which should be removed, and not allowed to remain in the hair and on the skin all day. Many cavalry officers believe that two groomings of the horse in winter are unnecessary and even harmful. These officers contend that the excessive grooming of a horse in winter shortens the hair and thins the coat to such an extent as to render the horse very liable to chills and cold; that it keeps the pores of the skin too open and in too active condition at a time when the sweating of the horse is very slight. There is much to consider 392 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. regarding this theory. All men accustomed to horses realize, however, that the amount of grooming necessary in the hot season is considerably more than what is required in cold weather, just as less clothing is re- quired by man when the season is warm than when it is cold. However, in the American cavalry service the grooming in winter and summer is conducted just the same. This is a necessity in a cavalry service where there is much to be done, and it is wise to do all things as reg- ularly and systematically as possible, with as few varia- tions as circumstances require. As the necessity for grooming the cavalry horse is well appreciated in all services and is systematically and very similarly done by them all, in order to keep the horse healthy, clean, and fine in appearance, the grooming should be done well at both morning and evening stables. The trooper in grooming should assist the action of the brush and cloth by throwing his weight against it some- what; this makes the effort expended less and accom- plishes what is required. Using the arm alone, without adding the weight of the trooper's body in right propor- tion, becomes very tiresome before the horse is thor- oughly groomed and ready for the officer's inspection. Recruits are very apt to fail to appreciate that skill in grooming will save them much expenditure of muscle, and they either tire themselves out or (what is more nat- ural and human) they idle before the grooming is done, and thus the horse suffers. There are some parts of the horse's body somewhat difficult to reach and clean, and these are often neglected; as they are the parts where friction is considerable when the horse moves, it is espe- cially necessary that these parts be not neglected ; these places are found between the horse's thighs and under the breast and at the tops of the inner sides of the fore legs, and between the buttocks, and in the fetlock-joints. Dirt in these places soon causes soies and more or less disagreeable discharges, and they should not be allowed to be neglected. Some horses, especially new ones in The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 393 the troop, do not take kindly at first to the grooming; these are apt to be neglected also. When these animals are groomed, one man should hold the head or lift up one of the fore legs, while another man does the grooming. As horses like to roll in dry, dusty places, and also in wet places in warm weather, and as many horses come into the stable or picket-lines in very muddy condition, their coats and skin become coated with thick mud, which must be wholly gotten off. As many of the places where the horses roll may have been used by cattle or other dirty animals, there is liability of the horse, in rolling, getting parasites in the hair and skin ; these may cause mange or other disorders of the skin and mane and tail, and there- fore the horses require careful cleaning; this especially happens wherever the troop horses are being herded dur- ing the day. As this mud sticks fast, it is necessary to use the curry-comb to loosen it, and afterward use the brush and cloth and hands. The practice, however, sometimes prevails of washing the horse. In the Philip- pine Islands washing the horse all over (among the native inhabitants) was practiced as a regular thing. The lit- tle native horses there were taken to a nearby river or lake, led in up to their stomachs or deeper, and then water was splashed all over them until clean; they were then taken out and allowed to dry in the shade. In those islands the climate was so warm that little or no harm came from this practice to these wiry little native animals, but it was never practiced by the American Army there. In many fine private stables in America and Europe and England the washing of "hunters" is very frequent, but these horses are carefully dressed afterward, and not allowed to cool off exposed to sun, wind, or cold. In the treatment and cleaning of the cavalry horse this entire washing should never be permitted. In the first place, it is rarely warm enough to do so; and, in the second, carelessness in attending to the horse afterward would cause him to become ill after a little such treatment. When the horse is in this muddy condition, he should 394 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. be groomed as usual, although more carefully, and only his legs from the knees and hocks down allowed to ber washed. Even this should be done rarely, and never in damp or cold weather. When this is permitted, the horse's wet legs should be hand-rubbed afterward until warm. Washing the legs in cold or damp weather is apt to result unsatisfactorily at least, and it frequently causes "stocking" — swelling of the legs. Washing any part of the cavalry horse is rarely necessary; it is usually a lazy trooper's method of grooming, and such a man is not apt to hand-rub his mount afterward or pay much attention to the horse's comfort and warmth. The cavalry horse is groomed twice a day in the Brit- ish service — morning and midday — but when the troops do not come in from work before the dinner hour, the horses are groomed in the afternoon. At the evening stable hour but little grooming is done, the horses being merely generally rubbed down and wisped. In Germany the cavalry horse is groomed three times daily — morning,, noon, and evening. In France the cavalry horse while at the remount ddp6t is groomed, but not very thoroughly, owing to the small number of men and the large number of horses to care for ; the stallions are groomed once daily, and where salt water is available, they are given a salt- water bath, in place of the grooming, every two or three days. This grooming, when done, occurs in the evening. These stallions are, however, rubbed down both before and after exercise. The regular regimental cavalry horses are groomed twice a day, once between half past 8 and lo in the morning and again about 3 in the after- noon. In the Austrian service the horses are carefully groomed three times a day — morning, noon, and evening. Watering. — Were the cavalry horse loose and able to- go to water at his own convenience and as Nature urged him, there would be little left for us to consider in the watering of horses ; but this is not so. In confinement,, under the control of men, the horse must take his water when it is given him, must then, if thirsty, drink all he The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 395 can to avoid the physical inconvenience or suffering|of going a long number of hours without any more, and if the horse is an old cavalry horse, he has learned to make the most of his opportunities of drinking. All these con- siderations and many more teach us that the watering of our horses must be carefully done, its effects on the horse studied, and caution observed that he does not injure himself by overdrinking, drinking when heated, or drinking bad water, etc. Horses must be watered quietly and without confusion; the manner in which this duty is performed will bring good or bad results, according to its wisdom. In leading horses to and from the watering- trough in garrison, or to and from the watering-places in the field, the gait should never be faster than a walk, and the horses should never be watered unless cool and quiet. While the horse is actually drinking, his head should never be jerked up, nor should the horse be harshly spoken to or punished near the watering-place. In the field or on the march, the watering-place is from the most convenient running water; in garrison, it is from the watering- troughs in the various troop "corrals," and these troughs should be cleaned frequently, at least twice each week. In warm weather water drawn from a well should be allowed to stand awhile before being given to the horse, in order that the chill may pass off of it. Cavalry horses in each troop should be watered under the immediate supervision of the stable sergeant and the ofl&cer attending "stables," and in the field or carnp an officer should always be pres- ent. Ordinarily horses should be watered twice daily; in warm weather this should, if possible, be increased to three times. When in the "corral" or herding, the troop horses should have free access to water at all times, care being taken that the animals are all cool. When on the march, troop horses not too warm may be allowed to drink whenever good water is passed; those too hot should not be allowed to do so until cooled off sufficiently. The horses in the rear of the troop, often compelled to close up when distance has been lost by slight increases 396 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. of the gait, are generally the warmest in the command, and these should be looked out for. The water given to the horse to drink should never be taken from stagnant pools or low, marshy ground if it can be avoided. Giving the horse good, clean, fresh, sparkling water to drink is as necessary for him as for man. The impression that any water is good enough for the horse is one based upon inexperience only, and many ills result from carelessness in this regard. The quality of water for the horse' is one moderately soft, but it should not be rain-water collected in tanks, which soon becomes full of decomposing veg- etable matter. The health of a whole stableful of horses may be seriously injured by using rain-water that has been kept too long. Water not suitable for horses to drink may be made fairly good, if it be necessary to use the supply stored up, by filtration through charcoal, gravel, and sand. The use of very hard water often pro- duces what is known as "hide -bound," and sometimes affects the bowels in the form of serious diarrhoea ; but in the course of time most horses become used to drinking hard water, and then a change to soft water may cause some slight trouble. This change of water is of such import- ance to trainers of race -horses that in traveling to their races they frequently carry the water with them which the horse is accustomed to, despite the risk of the water being poisoned. Hard water, if it contains large quanti- ties of carbonate of lime, may be made to deposit it to some extent by boiling, but the sulphate of lime (or gyp- sum), which is a far more common ingredient, is as sol- uble in hot water as in cold. This watering the horse with good, pure water is very important. As the horse drops seeds of grain from his mouth into the water-trough at times, these often decay and gradually form a green slime in the watering-trough, which must be cleaned out. It is generally felt that live vegetable matter in a lake or pond is not in itself cause for fear as to the healthfulness of the water, but dead vegetable matter in the water at once renders it dangerous for drinking purposes, either for The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 397 man or beast. In the field and camp it will often be nec- essary for the horses to drink water that is anything but good, but whenever a selection is possible, it should be made, and the horses given as good as can be secured, as a serious matter of health, if not for the greater kind- ness it is to the horses. In very cold weather watering the cavalry horse but once, about noon, is sufficient ; this must not be set down, however, as a hard-and-fast-rule, for if the animal wants water more frequently, he should be allowed to have it. It is absurd to decide to water horses once or twice and no more daily. Let the horse drink naturally and as fre- quently as he desires, taking care only that the water is fit and that the animal himself is not too warm. Some horses will rarely drink very early in the morning, and these should be given an opportunity of drinking after they have traveled or exercised awhile. If a command has to march a long distance without water, so that it will be necessary to encamp en route, the horses should all be fed, but denied water until just before starting, when they are permitted to drink freely ; better still, water the horses twice before starting, as some of them will not drink even at the last moment, while, if two attempts will make them drink, the horses will be saved great suffering. On severe marching frequent watering is of great benefit. When horses are somewhat warm in marching, it is not harmful to water them all, if the march is to be immediately resumed. If very warm, a few mouthfuls will do no harm and will be a great relief, whenever the chance offers, but the horse must not be allowed to gorge himself ; three or four mouthfuls, under such conditions, are all he should be allowed to take. The daily allowance of water for the cavalry horse varies greatly with season, climate, the amount of work he is performing, etc. No hard and-fast-rule can be given. A horse should be allowed to diink what Nature demands. Care should be taken that the horse is not allowed to fill himself with water, as he will do if he has been denied it 398 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. for so long that he is craving it; the horse is unreasonable in this, especially when in confinement, and he must be watched. A loose horse rarely injures himself by drinking too much water, but again it must be added that he must not be turned loose when very hot. When the horse is at rest, he will ordinarily consume about 6 gallons or so of water daily; when at work, he requires from 8 to 12 gal- lons. This all varies, of course, with circumstances, but is a fair average. The trooper will use about i gallon a ■day for all purposes. A gallon of fresh water weighs 8J pounds,, approximately, or a pint to a pound. The cavalry horse should be watered immediBtely "before feeding, or not until at least two hours after eating. Watering the horse immediately after he has eaten floods the stomach and drives much of the food, especially the ■grain, into the intestines undigested, and causes much trouble and may ruin the horse. The animal also loses the nutrition in the food thus expelled from the stomach. By observing the faeces of a horse that has been watered immediately after feeding, there may be seen whole grains of the feed which have passed entirely through the horse without being digested. This is injurious to the delicate lining of the internal organs of the horse, and many i^istances are known where horses have died from this ill-timed watering. The stomach of the horse is very small, and should not be distended by large draughts of water at one time. Better several small waterings than ■one large one. What is remarkable about the stomach of the horse is this very small size; that of a large liorse will not contain more than 3 or 4 gallons, whereas the first division of the ox's stomach, the "rumen," will alone hold about 60 gallons. Another remarkable fea- ture is, that the stomach is so curved on itself that its two extremities — the oesophageal and intestinal portions — are quite near each other. This fact, the acute angle at which the oesophagus joins the stomach, the folds of membrane inside this junction, and which form a kind ^f valve, the special arrangement of muscular fibers The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 399 around this junction, together with the small size of the organ itself, are held to be the reasons why the horse can not vomit unless under very, special conditions, one of which is the rupture of the stomach. When the horse does vomit, the discharge issues out through the nostrils. Experiments with the stomach of the horse have dem- onstrated that this organ must fill and empty itself two or three times for each feed given. One experiment by a celebrated veterinary surgeon, made to determine just what occurred when the horse was fully watered on a full stomach, showed that 3 quarts of oats (out of 4 fed) had been carried into the intestines undigested. The grain of the ration, being full of protein, should re- main in the stomach as long as possible, for the digestion of this nutrient. Sanborn, the celebrated veterinary expert, studying the effects of watering just before and also after feeding, concludes as follows : "Horses watered before feeding grain retained their weight better than when watered after feeding grain. Horses watered before feeding had the better appetite and ate the most. Horses watered after feeding grain, in ratio to the food eaten, seemed to digest it as well as those watered before feeding. In a prior trial there was a small advantage in favor of feeding after watering, on digestion. Result: It seems advisable to water both before and after feeding." The above will show that even the most learned vet- erinarians differ as to the proper order of watering and feeding. In the. experiments cited above, made by San- bom, the watering after feeding was about two hours after feeding. In general, we may say that horses should have their regular and largest supply of water previous to feed- ing, and it may also be well to supply a limited quantity some time after feeding. This, however, because of the other many duties in the cavalry service, cannot well be done, and the watering before feeding usually is all that is given, unless chance later on offers another opportunity to water. When the horses come to the stable or picket- 400 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. line heated or fatigued, a little water, fresh, may be given with beneficial effects, but not too much — say 4 or 5 quarts. Then, when cooled off and rested, what they still require should be supplied. Feeding. — The horse in cavalry service receives two kinds of feed — grain and hay. The allowance of grain in the Cavalry of the United States is 12 pounds daily and of hay 14 pounds daily. There are some three thousand varieties of hay known, and these will be dis- cussed later on. Of the grains, there are four gener- ally used in the cavalry service^oats, corn, bran, and sometimes barley. This latter was used considerably years ago in the far Southwest, but, as it is not often used, one of the other grains mentioned usually takes its place. The allowance of grain and hay, as fed in cavalry services, differs very much from the allowance given to the horses of large express and cab companies in civil life. These latter horses usually are fed three times daily, as is the civil practice, while the cavalry horse receives only two daily feeds. This cavalry practice has been found to answer all purposes, to economize work, to keep the horse in excellent shape, and to allow, in field service, of long marches between the two feeds with no ill effects. Oats and hay are the ideal foods for the horse. However, variety is essential to him, and thus bran takes the place of the oats once or twice a week. As bran acts as a gen- tle laxative, it not only furnishes variety to the animal, but keeps the bowels open as much as is required. In field ser^'ice bran is often lacking, but the rich, green grasses of the prairies and valleys then take its place as a regulator of the horse's bowels. For this reason the feeding of grasses must be watched carefully, and a change made back to oats and hay in the feed of any horse whose bowels appear too loose. While change of feed for the horse is essential to good health and appe- tite, nevertheless great care must be taken that these changes are not too sudden and are composed of the proper grains and grasses, or the horse will suffer. The The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 401 cavalry, allowance given above is believed to be all- sufficient, and where grazing is indulged in, Ihe grain allowance may be, and frequently is, somewhat reduced; when the troop horses are not exercising much, the grain allowance need not be so large, and may often, as in winter, when there is much bad weather, preventing out- door work and drills, be reduced 2 pounds or so with beneficial results. The hay allowance is rarely reduced when hay is plenty. Race-horses in large stables are fed from 6 to 8 pounds of hay daily and from 15 to 20 pounds of the best oats daily; if needed, a bran mash oiice a week is given ; one-third of the hay is given after the morning ex- ercise and the balance at night, and the oats are fed at four feeds. In feeding the "hunter" more hay is given, up to 10 pounds daily, 6 pounds loose and 4 pounds cut and mixed with the oats, which run from 1,6 to 18 pounds a day. In Scotland a favorite feed is cut oat sheaves, and the horses do hard work upon it. When horses are in the stable much of the time, the feeding nmst be care- fully managed. In many parts of Canada roots are a favorite winter food. Swede turnips are relished by horses, and seem better food for them than carrots, which, however, are known for their fine effect as food upon the horse. Elaborate and careful experiments made years ago showed that horses do better on raw food. . Crushed or ground oats are much used in civil life, though the American Cavalry has never so fed it. Some horses have a tendency to bolt their food, half chewed, and some of the grain is voided, because of this, whole. Grinding helps to remedy such evil. In England some Oif the large companies which work a great many horses give mixed food, and use considerable quantities of American com. The following table will illustrate what constitutes a day's ration in several of these great company stables : 402 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. The North Metropolitan Company, London : com, 13 pounds; oats, 3 pounds; peas, i pound; beans, i pound; hay, 7 pounds; cut straw, 3 pounds; total, 22 pounds daily. The South London Tramway Company: com, 7 pounds; oats, 7 pounds; beans, i pound; hay, u pounds; straw, 3 pounds; total, 29 pounds daily. What needs special attention in feeding is the desir- ability of a quantity of hay and a small quantity of straw in the ration for these large companies. These rations are divided into from three to five feeds daily. The allowance of grain in the British cavalry service is 10 pounds of oats daily and 12 pounds of hay on ordinary feed; if out on active service, the oats are increased to 15 pounds. The forage allowance in the Russian cavalry service is 9 pounds 5^ ounces of oats daily, 9 pounds i ounce of hay daily, 3 pounds 10 ounces of straw daily. One month of grazing is given all cavalry horses per year and this is in lieu of all forage rations. If necessary, hay may be substituted for oats- at the rate of 4 pounds 8^ ounces of hay for 3 pounds if ounces of oats. In time of war the ration is 12 pounds 15^ ounces of oats and 13 pounds 9^ ounces of hay daily. The forage allowance in the "German Cavalry is dis- tinguished, according to the nature of the service which the horses are performing, into garrison, march, and field ration; again, it is classified, according to the breed of the horse for which it is intended, into heavy, middle, and light cavalry of the guard ration. In order to com- pare it with the American forage allowance, the following is the middle allowance for German cavalry horses, daily* Garrison: oats, 10.37 pounds; hay, 5.58 pounds; straw, 7.81 pounds. March: oats, 11.5 pounds; hay, 3.34 pounds; straw, 3.9 pounds. The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 403 Field: oats, 12.61 pounds; hay, 3.34 pounds; straw, 3.9 pounds. This is also the light cavalry allowance, nearly. The following is the forage allowance of the AustFO- Hungarian Cavalry, daily: In time of peace : 4.2 kgs.*of oats; 3.4 kgs. of hay; 1.7 kgs. of straw for litter. In time of war: 5.8 kgs. of oats; 2.8 kgs. of hay; no straw is allowed. For one-half ration of oats may be substituted an equal weight of ct)m, rye, barley, lentils, or vetch. For one-half ration of hay may be substituted one and one-half weight of barley or oat straw. The following is the French forage ration, on peace footing, for horses belonging to the troops : Heavy cavalry : hay, 3. 5 kgs.; straw, 4.25 kgs.; oats, 5.0 kgs. Medium cavalry: hay, 2.5 kgs.; straw, 3.5 kgs.; oats, 5.0 kgs. Light cavalry: hay, 2.5 kgs.; straw, 3.5 kgs.; oats, 4.5 kgs. The French forage allowance varies in many ways, according to the duty and according to whether the horses are also on grass or not. In the hot countries of Algeria and Tunis the following is the regular ration for horses belonging to the troops : In time of peace: hay, 2.5 kgs.; straw, 3.5 kgs.; barley, 4.5 kgs. In time of war: hay, 2.5 kgs.; straw, 2.0 kgs.; barley, 4.5 kgs. Indian com, buckwheat, wheat, and horse beans are substituted in the above forage allowances under cer- tain conditions ; carrots, barley meal, and bran are occa *NoTE. — I kilogram (kg.) is equal to 2.2046 pounds. 404 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. sionally given ,' the horses are also occasionally allowed mashes or green food. Oats. — Good oats should be sound and whole, with the covers on, and should have the beards on ; they should be rather milky, and, when dented with the thumb-nail, not be found brittle; they should have a sweet, fresh odor, be dry and clean and free from dust ; the oats may be either white or black, color not affectmg their value as a food. Old oats are readily told after a little experience ; they are very brittle, have a metallic luster, the beards are broken off and gone, and the covers of the oats are often lacking. These covers and beards, breaking off, gradually become so much dust in the oats and make them dirty and musty. Horses nurtured on oats show mettle which cannot be reached by the use of any other feeding-stuff; there is no other grain so safe for horses. The horse may be seriously injured, however, if by acci- dent he receives and eats an oversupply, although an oversupply of any grain is a risk, especially if the horse be hot. The comparative safety in oats is due in no small measure to the oat hull or "cover," which causes a given weight of grain to possess considerable volume, and because of this there is less liability of mistake in measur- ing out the ration to the horse. The horse, if left to him- self, will often eat too much oats and will even cause him- self pain by overloading his stomach, if not actual injury. Unless the horse is hard-pressed for time or has poor teeth, oats should be fed in the whole condition. Musty oats should be avoided. Horsemen very generally agree that very new oats should not be used ; however, Boussing- ault, the veterinary scientist, conducting extensive experi- ments with army horses, arrived at the conclusion that very new oats do not possess the injurious qualities attrib- uted to them. Oats should be kept off the ground and dry, as they quickly mould and become sour if exposed to damp or wet, and may become full of bugs or worms. Good oats should weigh about 40 pounds to the bushel. Corn. — Com is the common grain for horses in Amer- ica, and indeed, it might be said, throughout the world. The Cavalry Horse and Eis Pack. 405 Com is not the equal of oats as a grain for the horse, but, because of its low price and the high feeding qualities it possesses, this grain will be extensively used wherever large numbers of horses must be economically maintained. Com may be fed whole to horses, and in cavalry usually is, but in civil life it is often made fine by grinding, and is often mixed with various other concentrates. Ground com alone is a sodden substance in the horse's stomach, and should be diluted or extended with something of light character ; bran serves well for this purpose, because of its lightness and cooling effect, as well as for the protein and mineral matter it furnishes. Com is best suited for ani- mals doing plain, steady work ; it is lacking in ash and protein; this makes it undesirable for feeding growing horses. Wolff quotes the celebrated Lehman in the fol- lowing statement : "Com contains a high proportion of digestible carbo- hydrates, and tends to make horses fat and liable to sweat; while it improves their appearance, it detracts from their physical energy." Com should never be fed in hot weather or perma- nently warm climates, for thisTcason. Good com should be whole, free from dust or dirt, either light yellow or yel- lowish white, free from mould and vermin, and of a fresh, sweet odor. Com weighs about 56 pounds to the bushel. Barley. — On the Pacific coast and in the far South- west barley is extensively used for feeding horses in civil life. It is purchased by the cavalry service only when oats are not available. In civil life it is given to horses doing all kinds of Vork, from the light buggy horse to the express animal. When the horse's teeth are good and the labor not severe, barley may be fed whole. Ground barley, when mixed with the saliva, forms, like wheat, a pasty mass in the mouth, and is therefore unpleasant to the horse while 'eating it ; if, instead of grinding, the grains are crushed to flattened discs between iron rollers, they afe more palatable and acceptable to the horse. 4o6 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. Good barley should weigh between 45 and 48 pounds to the bushel. Bran. — Bran is used as a change from the oat forage of the cavalry horse, and should be given twice each week as a mash in lieu of other grain. One feed in the afternoon is the best way to feed it to the horses. It should be mixed with water and thus formed into a mash, but may be fed dry. Feeding bran dry is unsatisfactory, because the horse in eating breathes, strongly through his nose, thus scattering the bran out of the feed -box, whereby much loss occurs; it also is inhaled up the horse's nostrils, causing much sneezing and discomfort, and in the mouth it is not agreeable unless wet. The horse takes to it as an occasional change very readily. As it acts as a laxative, is should not be fed too often, twice a week being generally suffi- cient, with an occasional extra feed to the sick horse, if needed. Good bran should weigh about 20 pounds ta the bushel. In appearance, the bran, if good, should be a brownish yellow, with small white specks of the interior of the crushed seed, free from mould and vermin,, and free from lumps ; should be dry and sweet, clean in smell, and free from dust or dirt, and altogether light and flaky. As bran will sour very quickly if damp or wet,, care should be taken to keep it thoroughly dry until fed. The uneaten part, if any, should never be left in the . feed-boxes after the feeding is over, as it will sour there and spoil the new grain placed in the box for the next feed.. The following table shows the properties contained in the various grains used in the cavalry services : Woody Fiber. .Starch and Sugar. Fibiine and Albumen. Fatty Matter. Saline Matter. Oats. . . Com. . . Barley . ■ Bran . . . Hay. . . Straw. . 20. 6. 14. 54- 30- 55. 53- 62. 52. 2. 40. 27. 11.4 12. 13-5 20: 7- -5 .6 5- 2.5 4- 2. 0.6 2.5 I. 3- 7- 7- 5-5 12.5 14. 15. i3i 14. 12. The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 407 The hay and straw may vary somewhat. The above is old hay and wheat straw. Straw is not fed in the American service. It is used only as bedding. The allowance is 100 poimds per horse per month. The peculiarities of each horse must be studied be- fore it can be known whether the average quantity and quality of food which will suit the majority of horses doing the same kind of work will be enough or too much for him. Some animals pass their food through them so quickly that they do not absorb from one-half of the nutritive elements contained in it. However, in a large cavalry stable an average can be struck very quickly, much depending on the stable-men getting to know the animals in the troop, which they soon do. The blood of the horse fed on highly nitrogenized food does not differ on analysis from that of another which has been kept on the opposite kind of diet. Physiolog- ical research, however, tells us that muscle is composed of fibers apd that every time a bundle of them contracts a certain expenditure of nitrogen is made, calling for a corresponding supply from the blood, which cannot be afforded unless the food contains it. Hence, the badly fed horse, if worked, soon loses his flesh, and not only becomes free from fat, but also presents a contracted con- dition of the muscles. And thus science is confirmed by every-day experience ; and the fact is generally admitted that to increase the muscular powers of the horse he must have a sufficient supply of nitrogenized food. The nutri- tion of muscle requires nitrogen But in addition to this, the brain and nerves must be supplied with fatty matter, phosphorus and albumen. The bones demand gelatine and earthy salts, and the maintenance of heat cannot be effected without carbon in some shape or other. However, it is chiefly with nitrogenized food that we have to deal, there being pilenty of the other substances men- tioned in all the varieties of food which are not largely composed of fibrine. It may, therefore, be taken for granted that the cavalry horse requires oats or beans or 4o8 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. both mixed up together in varying proportions, together with such an amount of hay as will supply him with starch, gum, sugar, fat, and saline matters, which his sys- Courtesv of Hon. P. D. O burn. INDIAN GRASS tem requires. While, on the other hand, it may be added, the inactive horse does not use his muscular system to any extent, and therefore does not require much oats or beans. The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 409 Hay. — Hay or grass is indispensable; upon either one horses have kept up strong and well and performed their regular work for some time, when grain was not to be pro- cured. By reference to table on page 406 it will be seen Courtesy of Hon. F. D. Coburn. ORCHARD GRASS. of what hay is composed within itself. There are some three thousand varieties of grasses, wild and cultivated, from which hay is made for food for horses, and a few will be mentioned here. In general, hay is known as upland. 4IO TJie Cavalry Horse and His Pack. lowland, and wet meadow hay. These names in them- selves describe their location. The upland is considered^ Oourtesy of Hon. F. D. Coburn. Timothy grass. the best, then the lowland, and the wet meadow last. These three classes are generally distinguished from Tlie Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 411 each other by the fine, slender stalks of the upland, the rather wider and somewhat coarser stalks of the lowland, Courtesy ol Hon. F. D. Coburn, THE LITTLfe BUJE-STEM OF THE WEST. and the broad, wide, and vei-y coa!rse stalks of the wet meadow hay. Chief among the grasses out of which hay 412 The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. is made are timothy, considered the best, red-top, Ber- muda, orchard, Kentucky blue, and clover, red or white; Courtesy of Hon. F. D, Cobnrn. RED-TOP GRASS. all of which are largely raised in the Eastern United States, while in the Western part are the alfalfa, gramma. The Cavalry Horse and His Pack. 413 gietta, bunch buffalo, Western blue-stem. There are many others, both East and West. To distinguish the several varieties and classes of hay is not to be learned Courtesy of Hon. F. D. Coburn. KENTUCKY BI