ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING A.BENTON GREENBERG AND CHARLES B.HOWE WJLEY TECHNICAL SERIES si ill i liiii: CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY GIFT OF Prof. John N. Til ton ARCHITECTUEE DATE DUE ADS- ■«« ,» «b «^V 1 I • w^fH l^li.iHtiMJJiliMliBi mJmmm . 1 ipf«'». WLl 1 ) I*?,!" CAVLORD Cornell University Library NA 2700.G79 Architectural drafting, Cornell University Library The original of this bool< is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924015429826 THE WILEY TECHNICAL SERIES FOR VOCATIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS EDITED BY J. M. JAMESON GIRARD COLLEGE THE WILEY TECHNICAL SERIES EDITED BY J. M. JAMESON TEXTBOOKS ON DRAFTINQ By CHARLES B. HOWE, M.E., and Associated Specialists Agricultural Drafting. By Charles B. Howe, M.E., 4to, x+63 pages, 45 figures, XXVI plates. $1.25 net. Loose Leaf Manual in Agricultural Drafting. By Charles B. Howe, M.E. Forty problem sheets to supplement the above text in Agricultural Drafting. Price two cents each. Architectural Drafting. By A. Benton Greenberg, B.A., Formerly Inspector and Draftsman, Supervising Archi- tect's OfBce, Washington, D.C.; Engineer and Inspector, Building Department, New York City; Practising Archi- tect. In Collaboration with Charles B. Howe, M.E. 4to, viii-|- no pages, S3 figures, X plates. $1.50 net. IN PRE PARA TION Mechanical Drafting Engineering Drafting Engineering Trade Drafting The Loose Leaf Drafting Manual : Reference and Prob- lem Sheets to supplement the texts in Drafting For Full announcement, see page ziz. ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING BY A. BENTON GREENBERG, B.A. FoEMERLY Inspector and Draftsman, Supervising Architect's OfricE, Washington, D.C; Engineer and Inspector, Building Department, New York City; Practicing Architect IN COLLABORATION WITH CHARLES B. HOWE, M. E. FIRST EDITION FIRST THOUSAND NEW YORK: JOHN WILEY' & SONS, Inc. London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited I913 H/7 Copyright, 1913, By A. B. GREENBERG and CHARLES B. HOWE Cry- THE SCIENTiriC PRESS ROSEHT DRUMMOND AND COMPANY BROOKLYN, H. Y. PREFACE In the preparation of this text on architectural draft- ing, the aim has been to present the cultural aspects of the subject as well as the practical; to instill a love for and an appreciation of aU that is good and beautiful in architecture, as well as to lay a practical foundation for those to whom a knowledge of architectural drafting would be a vocational advantage. To comprehend the difficulties encountered by the architect in estimating the loads of a modem office building, in calculating and providing for the thrusts of a Gothic structure, or for the strains of a dome such as St. Peter's, leads to broader knowledge and to a deeper and more enlightened appre- ciation of good architecture. It is quite as essential in the training of an architectm"al draftsman that he should acquire a thorough knowledge of construction and an vmderstanding of the principles involved, as it is that he should become expert in the operations of drafting. The authors have departed from the usual plan of presenting a series of plates to be copied. Mere copy- ing leads to superficial knowledge and mechanical skill, instead of promoting self-reliance and originality. The principles set forth in the text are illustrated by drawings representing types of construction and design. After a drawing is thoroughly understood, the student's knowl- edge of the principles involved is to be tested by requir- ing him to solve either a similar problem or one that is a step in advance. This method leads the student into a broader and freer way of thitiking and working. He should be taught to observe closely, to vmderstand fuUy, to digest thoroughly, and to apply what he has acquired with originality. Model drawing plates as well as problem plates are presented on loose-leaf sheets, from which may be selected a course of study that is adapted to local needs. It is believed that this plan wOl enable those instructors who IT PREFACE prefer their own course of study, to use the text to advan- available for a course of one or two years in secondary tage. Frequent additions will be made to the list of prob- schools. lem sheets and instructors are invited to correspond The authors tender their acknowledgements to The with the authors and to make suggestions freely. National Fire Proofing Company, who have kindly loaned The text has been adapted in its scope to the time material for reproduction. INTRODUCTION In arranging this text, an elementary knowledge, of mechanical and free-hand drawing on the part of the students, has been assumed. For this reason, no descrip- tion is given of those instruments which ordinarily would be included in a rudimentary treatise in either subject. Special emphasis, however, is laid upon a description of such tools and materials as are used to a greater extent by architectiiral draftsmen than by those in aUied trades and professions. The abiUty to sketch rapidly is of inestimable impor- tance to the mechanic as well as to the architect. During the erection of a building, problems in construction are constantly arising. The foreman and superintendent may have occasion to discuss some detail of construction. In such discussions, sketches, rough but accurate, are fre- quently of the greatest assistance. These sketches are made on any available part of the structure. Should the archi- tect appear upon the premises, the question is presented to him. He either approves a plan already discussed or suggests, also with sketches, an entirely new solution. Enter any house in course of construction and you wiU find on the unfinished plastered walls or sheathing rough sketches, reminders of just such discussions. The student, therefore, should be given practice in quick, freehand drawing. He should be able to supplement his state- ments with sketches. This may be accomplished by requiring him to render freehand all solutions to the problems given, either on cross-section paper, or, better stiU, in note books. The teacher shotdd also illustrate his talks with quick sketches, that the student may have constant training in reading and interpreting drawings. All building operations are regulated by local laws or ordinances. The authors have adopted the New York City Building Code for this text as well as for all plates, not only because the requirements are ample and always on the side of safety but also because they form the basis VI INTRODUCTION of practically all other building regulations. It has been deemed expedient to dwell at greater length upon frame buildings than upon those constructed of brick, concrete, or steel, because the former are more easily comprehended, require a minimum of static computa- tions, and have many details, particularly of interiors, in common with all classes of buildings, masonry or otherwise. CONTENTS SECTION I Drafting Implements PAGE Architectural versus mechanical and freehand drawing — Instruments — Drafting materials; scales, pencils, rendering outfit, tracing paper, tracing cloth, Whatman paper — " Stretching " 1 SECTION II Theoey and Practice of Drafting Definitions; plans, sections, elevations, details, specifications- Technique of expression — Conventions; materials, plans- Principles of expression — Design SECTION III Materials of Construction Brickwork; manufacture, classification, joints, bonding, terms — Stonework; kinds — Masonry walls; varieties, joints — Cement; kinds — Mortar; kinds — Concrete; plain and reinforced — Terrar cotta; ornamental and structural — Blocks; concrete and terra- cotta 22 SECTION IV Building Construction A. Masonry Selection of site — ^Arrangement of rooms — ^Water-proofing — Excavar tion — Footings — ^Walls; kinds, thickness — Brick construction — Stone masonry construction — Concrete construction; lajdng, , forms — Different methods of reinforced concrete, concrete block and terra-cotta construction 31 SECTIONV Building Construction B. Frame Frame construction; braced, balloon and combination — Partitions — Chimneys — Roofs; finish, types — Wall covering; siding, clap- board and shingles — Stucco — ^Windows — Doors — Interior trim — ^Plastering — Stairs; terms, classification, layout, construction. 45 vii Till CONTENTS SECTION VI Design Architecture defined; utility, beauty — Factors in design; expres- sion, proportion, fenestration, decoration — Style — Structure principles; pier, lintel, arch, truss. 69 APPENDIX I Specifications Object — Scope — Order — Index — General conditions and sub-head- ings — Mason's specifications— Carpenter's specifications — Plumbing specifications — Electrical specifications — Heating specifications; and sub-headings under each trade 75 APPENDIX II Estimating Cost of labor and material — Estimates; kinds — ^Approximate esti- mates; methods — Detailed estimating — ^Arrangement of esti- mating sheet — How to estimate: — Excavations — Masonry; stonework; brickwork; plastering — Carpentry — Roofing — Plumbing — ^Piping and wiring — Heating — Hardware — Painting- and papering — Summary — Estimating data and tables 88 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING SECTION I DRAFTING IMPLEMENTS 1. Architectural versus Mechanical Drawing. Archi- tectural drawing is characterized by a freedom and "snap " totally alien to mechanical drawing. The latter must be absolutely exact, rigid, and drawn with a very hard pencil. Once having decided upon the shape of a piece of machiaery, it must be worked up with a precision which admits of Uttle originality in the design of its constituent elements. They must all be of a definite size and form, one part fitting into the other with a mathematical exactness. No such limitations hamper the architectural draftsman. However definite the problem in hand, he may exercise his originality in any number of ways. The designer has before him the entire field of architectural styles from which to choose: The Egjrptian, the Greek, the Roman, the Rennaissance, the Gothic or the Art Nouveau. One style may appropriately be selected or a judicious combination effected; but even if the style or external adornment of the building has been decided for him, the draftsman can stiU show his initiative in the height of the rooms, in the proportion of the openings, in the color schemes of the exterior and the interior, in the construction, and in numerous other ways. 2. Architecture a Science. We have remarked upon the mathematical accuracy of mechanical drawing. The impression, however, must not prevail that architecture is inexact. Architecture is a science as well as an art and as such must be exact; but it is an exactness that admits of some freedom, provided of course, that it is exercised on the side of safety. To illustrate: The building laws of particular localities prescribe definite loads which every ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING member of a structure must be capable of sustaining. Absolute accuracy must therefore obtain in the calcula- tion of beams, girders and their supports; in the thick- ness of walls, etc. A larger factor of safety, however, may be assumed, which will necessitate an increase in the size and weight of the various members, with no detriment either to its stability or its design. 3. Architectural versus Free-hand Drawing. Archi- tectural drawing combines the principles of both mechan- ical and free-hand drawing. The draftsman in the prelim- inary stages of a problem uses a soft pencil with which he does a considerable amount of sketching. In the gradual development of the design, he makes less use of freehand and more of mechanical drawing; in no stage of the work, however, entirely abandoning either. The mechanical element in architectural drawing aids in the development of,, manual dexterity, while sketching assists in the training of observation and memory. 4. Tools and Materials. In view of the close relation between architectural, free-hand, and mechanical drawing, referred to in the preceding paragraphs, the student of architecture should provide himself not only with the tools and instruments of the mechanical draftsman but also with such other accessories as will aid him in making quick sketches; such as soft pencil, soft eraser and tracing paper. 5. Instruments. Little need be said of the variety, care and use of instruments, for one can find such infor- mation in any standard work on mechanical drawing. We shall therefore dismiss the subject with only a word as to the quality of tools. Procure the best instruments, as with reasonable care, they can be made to last a life- time. The ordinary drafting outfit is shown on Plate I. Fig. 1— Flat Scale. Graduated |, i, i and 1 inch to the foot. 6. Scales. There are two types of scales: flat and triangular. The latter has more graduations than the former but the difficulty in handling the triangular scale Fig. 2.— Triangular Scale. Graduated A> Ai I. i, h i, h 1. Ui 3 inches to the foot, and on one edge, inches and 16ths, and the time lost in finding the required division added to its greater cost, render it less practical than the flat scale. Both varieties are illustrated in Figs. 1 and 2. DRAFTING INSTRUMENTS AND MATERIALS PLATE I. LETTERING PEN ; ! '^''^^ "^'^'^^ "~ - M T SQUARE ^i==-=^c=s; ^=..-=-. '^4 STEEL E RAS E R TRIANGULAR BOXWOOD SCALE -|, ^, |, 1 |, 7, 7, ' . 'j. ^ "^""^^ """^^ ''^^"^'iV l'^- „n, 1 1 3 13 1-4' ~'l ■ H- 2,3,4 IN, TO THE FOOT, 7? IN. TRIANGULAR BOXWOOD CHAIN SCALE: 10, 20, 30,40, 50, 60 PARTS TO THE INCH ERASING SHI E 1_ D ^er-iCIl- POINTER (F-ILE) , c^C K LIFTER ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 7. Drawing to Scale. A drawing that is made to scale is a representation of an object either in its full size or with all its dimensions proportionately reduced. Very rare indeed is the case in architectural drawing when anything is represented greater than full size. The scale of " one eighth of an inch equals one foot " means that every one eighth of an inch on the drawing represents one foot in the finished structure. Three-quarter inch, one inch, one inch and a half, and three inch scales are most frequently used for special drawings to illustrate ■clearly the important units in a design, typical details, or some unusual point in construction. As a rule, capitals, bases, entablatures, decorations, stairs, sections of mold- ings, fireplaces, and mantels are drawn to the large scales. Working drawings are made to a scale of i inch to the foot, while preliminary sketches are laid out at 3^ inch or | inch to the foot, depending upon the size of the building. The scale to which a drawing is made is generally placed in the lower right-hand comer of the sheet and may be stated -either in figures, thus: i" = l'_0"; i inch = 1 foot; or graphically, thus : 8. PencUs. Pencils of a superior quality only should be used. Chief among the characteristics of standard pencils are correct and uniform grading, resistance to wear, and the absence of grit in the graphite. For sketch- ing, a soft pencil designated in the trade by the letter B is appropriate; a 2B pencil may also be used. If a softer grade is employed, the drawing is liable to become soiled. Suitable pencils for preliminary work are F and HB; for finished drawings, H and 2H. A pencil harder than 2H will indent the paper and make erasures difficult. 9. Equipment for Rendering. All academic problems and exhibition drawings are rendered either in India ink Fig. 3— Ink Slab. or water-color. The student should therefore procure a box of water-colors and three good brushes; two of camel's hair and one of sable. He should also provide himself with a slate ink slab, similar to the one illus- trated in Fig. 3. Into this receptacle a little water should be poured and a stick of ink (Fig. 4) rubbed, with a rotary DRAFTING IMPLEMENTS motion, over the ground edges of the slab. The result will be a uniform mixture admirably suited for washes and fine line work. A nest of porcelain saucers or a pallet slab, as shown in Figs. 5 and 6, completes the outfit. Fig. 5. — Nest of Cabinet Saucers. Fig. 4. Sticks of India or Chinese Ink. Fig. 6. Ink and Color Slab. 10. Tracing Paper. Tracing paper should be used unsparingly in the preliminary studies of a project. Every new idea that enters the mind of the draftsman should be jotted down, studied and worked up. The first sketch, being the initial effort in the interpretation of a problem, can almost invariably be improved upon by further con- sideration of its program. Subsequent alterations may be made by simply placing tracing paper over the previous efforts, tracing those parts which require no change and then making the necessary additions and substitutions. Besides the economy wrought in the laying out of the work, tracing paper is valuable in that at the end we have for comparison, in a very convenient and well preserved form, all possible solutions of the problem. The better grade of tracing paper may be used for finished working drawings and prints may be taken directly from it. If stretched, that is, if its edges are glued to a board and the entire surface slightly moistened with a sponge and allowed to dry taut, it will take water-colors without shrinking or buckling. It may then be effectively moxmted. 11. Tracing Cloth. For more important work the final drawings should be made on tracing cloth. Many prints may then be taken, more vigorous erasures made, and the drawing may otherwise be subjected to greater wear and tear. The duU side should be used for pencil or brush work in preference to the smooth; either side may be used for ink. To insure the ready flow of ink, chalk dust or specially prepared powder should be sprinkled over the surface and then rubbed vigorously with a piece of flan- nel. All particles of dust or powder must be removed before inking. 12. Whatman's Drawing Papers. Whatman's paper possesses an elasticity and diu-ability of surface that make it peculiarly adapted to ink and wash drawings. ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING For pencil, ink, and very fine line work, a grade known as Whatman's " Hot Pressed " paper is used. It has a smooth surface. Whatman's " Cold Pressed " paper has a finely grained surface and is suitable for water-color painting. 13. Stretching. If the paper is " stretched," it will take water-color without shrinking or buckling. A stretch is made by bending up the edges of the paper one inch all around, very carefully, so that there are no creases. The paper is then moistened thoroughly with a soft sponge, applied gently over its surface. No water should be allowed to remain in pools or be permitted to run over the edges. The paper is now ready for the glue or paste, which should be generously applied to the underside of the folded edges. To insure a perfect adhesion, the paper should be stretched toward you while the edges are being pressed down with the fingers of both hands. Start this operation at the midpoint of the edge of the sheet, working simultaneously toward the right, and left; continue in this way on the other edges. The paste is then squeezed out with the back of a knife or other hard object. Occa- sionally the knife is rubbed vigorously over the edges to secure a better adhesion. In the meantime the paper should be kept thoroughly wet. Then remove the surplus water with a clean sponge, place the board in a horizontal position, far removed from any kind of heating apparatus, and allow it to remain in this position until the paper is dry and stretched taut. 14. Manila Paper. Manila paper of a medium weight is always used for full-size drawings. These are gener- ally executed with a soft pencU and are prepared while the building is in course of construction. Manila paper comes in rolls of one hundred yards each and is from thirty-six to fifty-four inches in width. It takes India ink and crayon well but can stand only a moderate number of erasures. SECTION II THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DRAFTING 15. Methods. Architectural drafting may be studied by either the analytic or the synthetic method. In the lat- ter, the order of procedure is first to draw a structure in its entirety and then to make a study of its details. For the synthetic method it is claimed that the student follows the same course he would pursue in an office and that he works with a clearer understanding than he would if he had to draw a number of miscellaneous, unrelated parts of a building. On the other hand, the adherents of the analytic method contend that the most uncouth and impracticable designs are made by students who know nothing of the construction of the various recurring elements of a structure, such as doors, windows, roofs, etc. 16. Synthetic-analytic Method. A happy medium may be fovmd by combining the good points of each system in the synthetic-analytic method. The student should constantly refer to a complete set of plans as he draws details. A building, it should be remembered, is an aggre- gation of connected units; system and coherency must 1;herefore prevail in its representation. The foundation should be considered first; then the superimposed walls, the crowning roof, the exterior finish, and finally, the interior embellishments should follow in consecutive order. These elements should be carefully studied by themselves and in relation to one another. The plans should be con- sulted for width of openings; elevations and sections for height of openings. Studied in this manner, the begin- ner soon acquires a proper conception of the elements when represented conventionally. Knowing them and their conventional representation, it will not be difficult for the student to combine them in original designs. 17. Plans. A plan is a horizontal sectioji taken through a building at such a height above the floor as wiU show to best advantage the arrangement and construction. See Plate II. A plan reveals the outline of exterior walls and their thickness, the arrangement of rooms, means of communication, positions of all openings, fixtures and other appurtenances. " Plans " include not only the plans of the various floors but also all elevations, sections, and details. It is PLAJSrS. PLATE II. (o) Elevation. X- (c) Transverse Section on Line Y-Y. mtimmmm (&) Plan (d) Longitudinal Section on Line X-X. (e) Detail of Facade. THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DRAFTINO a term appKed to any set of drawings necessary to give a builder a clear understanding of the completed structure. The most important drawing is the ground floor plan, for it determines in a great measure the arrangement of the rooms of all the other floors and consequently fixes the character of the elevations. 18. Sections. A section is the view obtained by cut- ting through a building vertically. Its purpose is to show the construction, arrangement and architectural treatment of the interior of a structure. If a building is cut through its center crosswise and vertically, the resulting section is known as transverse; see Plate II. A longitudinal sec- tion as illustrated in (d), is obtained if the building is cut through lengthwise and vertically. A section is marked by the same letters that identify the traces of the cutting plane on the plan. The section plane may be discon- tinuoiis, that is, carried in a zig-zag covu-se through dif- ferent rooms, if by so doing more information may be obtained. To illustrate: the trace of the section plane X-X if continued in a straight line would not show the. design of the screen. Therefore, the section line is broken at A. It is again broken at A', for, if continued in a straight line, it would pass through a solid wall. By changing its direction to pass through the main entrance, a maximum amount of information is given. 19. Elevation. An elevation is a vertical projection of the exterior of a building or part thereof; see Plate II. It reveals the style of architectiire employed, the height between floors, the size and position of the openings and the kind and dimensions of the materials. The front elevation of a building is sometimes referred to as its fagade. 20. Details. Details are enlarged scale drawings of parts of a structure; see Plate II. They are used to elucidate those decorative and constructive features which cannot be shown with sufficient clearness and accuracy on small scale drawings. Detail drawings are either made fuU size or to a scale large enough to make them intelligible" to the mechanic. The most common scales used for this purpose as well as those parts usually rendered to an enlarged scale are enumerated in Section I, paragraph 7. 21. Specifications. The specifications contain a clear and concise description of all the materials entering into the construction of a building, their quahty and the char- acter of workmanship required in their erection. This subject is presented in detail in Appendix I. 22. How to Approach a Problem. Plan and elevation should be worked up simultaneously. The exterior and interior of a binlding should be conceived as a imit. The disadvantage of completing one to the exclusion of the other becomes apparent when one considers their recip- 10 ARCHITECTUKAL DEAFTING rocal relations and interdependence. A design may present a beautiful appearance, with its well proportioned and properly distributed window openings, with its wide belt courses and its imposing columns and pilasters; but when the plan is drawn, and all the parts placed as indicated on the elevations, a partition may be found to come directly in the center of one of the windows, or, wide belt courses may be impossible or columns not feas- ible, because they shut out too much light. Similar incon- gruities will result if the plan only is considered. Open- ings in the walls of a plan, when transferred to the eleva- tion, may show an exterior ill-proportioned and lacking in balance, symmetry and unity. 23. Starting Point in Design. A building should be designed from within, outward; or in the language of L. E. Sullivan, " Form should follow function." Start with the organic character of the building, then give a charm- ing but proper expression to its function. Consideration should be given first to the plan or layout of the structure, always keeping in mind its purpose, the convenience and health of its occupants, and the strength and appropri- ateness of the materials that enter into its construction. For every line of the plan drawn there should be a mental image of the elevation of that line. The student should learn to visualize. He must so train his imagination that he can mentally construct the appearance of the edifice from the plan without resorting to paper and pencil. Occasionally it proves helpful to make " thumb- nail " sketches, that is, small free-hand drawings of the various elevations of the building. 24. Procedure. Whether it is the student working on a theoretical problem or the architect meeting a prac- tical issue, the method of procedure is the same. The first thing the architect does is to familiarize himself thor- oughly with the conditions or program. This he accom- plishes by means of a series of sketches drawn to no definite scale; the problem is attacked from every possible angle. He experiments with the conditions, analyzing them, combining them, and testing them, until he finally reaches a tentative solution in harmony with his standards of architectural excellence and with the least expenditure of economic vmits. Thus far no T square, triangle or other mechanical draw- ing tool has been used. However, once having decided upon a scheme which to the designer appears to be the best possible solution of the problem, he brings to his aid his tools and instruments and attacks the problem mechan- ically. The draftsman makes drawings of the tentative solution to |-inch scale. In large work iVinch, or even ^-inch scale is used. The walls in these drawings are in pocM, that is, shown black. This is done for the pur- pose of setting the walls off in relief, thereby making them THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DRAFTING 11 more vivid and easier to trace. About half a dozen solu- tions of the project, — generally referred to as preliminary drawings, — consisting of plans, elevations and probably one or two perspectives, are drawn on tracing paper and shown to the owner. The strong and weak points in each study are pointed out and discussed. The scheme selected is now redrawn, embodying the suggestions made by all interested parties. The finished sketch is again submitted to the owner and if it meets with his approval working drawings are made to a scale of i" to the foot and the specifications are written. 25. Contracts. One complete set of plans and speci- fications is sent to each of several contractors and bids are invited. The lowest bidder is usually awarded the contract. If the estimates are too high, the plans and specifications may be modified and new bids invited, or, if the owner is capable of doing the superintending himself, the work may be let in sections, separate bids being received from the carpenter, the mason, the plumber, etc. If the architect superintends the job, he inspects the work during its progress, at irregular intervals, to ascer- tain if it is being built in accordance with the plans and specifications. As superintendent, the architect has the authority to reject inferior materials and to order the removal and reconstruction of defective work. There are two methods of making payments: first, when the work is completed and approved by the architect, and, second, when a section of the work is finished and approved. 26. Technique of Expression. All lines should be made of an even tone, firm, clean and distinct. To give a draw- ing character the silhouette oi' outline is made heavier than the rest; see Plate III. Sometimes the texture of the line is changed to dis- tinguish surfaces in shadow from those in high light, or to differentiate parts of a building, or units in a group of buildings in the foreground from those in the background. Lines are not made heavy at the outset; they are all drawn uniformly light at first and then those are accen- tuated which tend to give the building prominence, and help to infuse fife and vigor into the drawing. Lines intended to meet at an angle are permitted to extend beyond the point of intersection. This practice should not be carried to excess; the lines should never project more than ^ of an inch. The profiles of all curved moldings, particularly in drawings to one eighth inch and one quarter inch scales, may be made free-hand to good effect. All these prac- tices tend to take away from architectural drawing the stiffness and severity which are characteristic of mechan- ical delineations. 27. Order of Inking. In general, lines are drawn from left to right, and from the bottom up. The exterior walls DESIGN FOR A CITY HALL. PLATE III. i a: o -o- a maximum number of steps into a minimum amount of space. They consist of two parallel flights so arranged that the outer or face string and handrail of the lower flight come in the same vertical plane as the face string and handrail of the flight above. Winders and risers of uncom- fortable shape and size must often be used to crowd the requisite number of steps into the small area and, therefore, dog-legged stairs are relegated to the rear of the house. At (D) is shown a plan of an open- newel stair, the distinguishing features of which are the well hole (x), and the landing (y). Although encroaching upon valuable space, they justify themselves by enhancing the appearance of the entire stair- case and yielding a great deal of light and comfort. A geo- metrical stair {E) is the highest type of stair and is con- structed without newels at the turning points. Lay Out. In setting out stairs, the first point lo be con- sidered is the height from floor to floor, which in this case, Fig. 52, is 9' 6". To find the number of risers the total height, must be divided by the height of the riser, which - STAIR- WELL - mtfwrv^m ^^^^^^ ^ ^^^^S -run- Fig. 52. — Stair Arrangement. is assumed to be 1"; the quotient, 16f, will be the number of risers required. But as all risers must be of the same height, it will be necessary to change the height of the riser 68 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING either to 71" or 6tl", obtaining respectively 16 or 17 risers. To determine the width of the tread, apply the following rule : Rise X run should not exceed 75 nor be less than 70. Experience has shown this to give the most com- fortable tread. Accordingly, in our case, we may adopt a 10" or lOi" tread. To obtain the run of the stairs multiply the width of a tread by the number of risers less one. Headroom, that is, the vertical distance from the underside of the face of the trimmer above to the tread of the step directly below, should be 7' 0". This distance not only gives ample clearance for a tall person but also permits furniture to be moved from one floor to another without injuring the plastered walls. In laying out stairs care should be taken to have the outer face of the riser adjacent to the newel post come directly in the center of its base. The direction of the stairs, whether up or down and the number of risers from one floor to the next should be indicated on the plan; see (A), Fig. 51 Construction. At (A), Fig. 53, is shown the most practical method of joining treads and risers, and of securing balusters. When the ends of steps are exposed to view, the face string is notched to receive the treads and risers as shown at (B). A string thus cut is known as an open string. A closed string (C) is one that is employed in con- structing steps the ends of which are hidden from view. In this type, trenches, (x), are cut into the string, and ^OSIN' Fig. 53. — Details of Stair Construction. they are made large enough to allow for the insertion of small tapering wedges, (y), which are glued and driven in place after the treads and risers have been set. SECTION VI DESIGN 111. Utility. Architecture is a harmonious combina- tion in a structure of utility and beauty. By utility is meant the ftmction, or purpose, of a building. The uses to which buildings are put are many and varied, and the considerations to be taken into account in their planning, are therefore manifold and complex. Thus, a hospital must be so planned as to give each chamber not only a maximum amount of air space and simlight, but also automatic heating and ventilating apparatus must be installed to maintain a uniform temperature. Every detail must be so constructed as to insure sanitation; ■windows in the surgical quarters must be suitably arranged; devices must be provided to deaden or eliminate all noise; especially fitted quarters must be constructed for con- tagious diseases; every ward must have its particular equipment. In the design of a hotel, skill and ingenuity must be exercised in confining in the engine rooms, scarcely exceed- ing ten per cent of the cellar floor area, the hydraulic and pneumatic machinery, electric generators, engines, heating, lighting and ventilating apparatus, and machinery for elevators. The same complexity of conditions exists in school buildings, churches, etc. The detail of the utility of a design is too vast a subject to be taken up in this brief and elementary treatise. 112. Beauty. In the consideration of beauty, we encounter entirely different conditions. Beauty cannot be defined; it is an elusive principle, but its manifestations are apparent and readily recognized. Any monument, whatever its function, must conform to one or more of the architectural laws of beauty. An examination of the greatest achievements in the field of architecture will reveal definite methods of procedure, — certain ideals which the architects tried to achieve, and certain principles that guided them in all their work. Every architectural classic has its variable and invari- able elements. The variable attributes of a design are temporary and local in character. They are particular and individual in that they are the traits of a single buildiag. The invariable attributes are universal and common to the 69 70 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING masterpiece's of all ages. They are the " permanent residuum " of architecture. What these eternal features, these principles of architectural design are, we shall endeavor to set forth. " Laws and rules," says Helmholz, " on whose fulfil- ment beauty depends, are not consciously present in the mind of the artist who creates the work or of the observer who contemplates it." Nevertheless, these rules are fol- lowed either consciously or unconsciously by every master designer. 113. Factors in Design. Design in architecture is a pleasing disposition of parts. Among the factors that contribute toward evolving designs of character are expression, proportion, fenestration and decoration. 1 14. Expression. Expression in sculpture and painting is easy to comprehend. But expression in architecture cannot be made to convey the same ideas or sentiments, for it has neither the susceptibility of painting nor the plasticity of sculpture. On the other hand, architecture may express the emotions of the designer, the impulses and ambitions of the nation as well as of the individual. The triumphal arches of the Romans express the warlike character of the people. The Parthenon expresses to the highest degree the refinement and grace of the Greeks. The furniture designed during the reign of Louis the Fif- teenth portrays the degradation of its times. Cathedrals are made lofty, for they thus express most admirably our spiritual sentiments. Every building of distinction bears the impress of the personality of the designei". Bernini's works, Palladino's, Wren's, and H. H. Richardson's,, are easily distinguished because of their intense individuality. Master designers put their souls into their work, making the final structures as easily recognizable as if their authors' names were chiseled in every brick and stone. But far more important is the expression in a building of its plan, its interior arrangement, and its purpose. The expression of function is of primary importance. As has been intimated in the early part of this work, every build- ing must give some suggestion of life. Architecture " speaks a various language " that all who see it may know its purpose; its evidence must be prima facie. A structure should be built obviously and naturally for the purpose for which it was intended. This is done by properly recognizing and frankly exhibiting on the exterior its internal organism. In some buildings, the very necessities of the structure constitute unmistakable expressions of purpose, as for example, libraries, railroad stations and armories. In all buildings, whether the function is evident or not, structural lines should be emphasized not concealed, and all sham and pretense should be eliminated. We should strive for truth and sincerity in architectural expression. DESIGN 71 115. Proportion. By proportion is meant harmony in the relations of the parts of a structure. To be in good proportion, a composition must be so divided as to produce a pleasing relation of one part to another and of each to the whole. Since a weU designed building is one in which there is proportion of masses, proportion of details, and proportion of details to masses, it follows that the simpler the design, the less adjustment will have to be made. The beauty of the Greek Parthenon is of a far higher type than that of Notre Dame, because the perfect proportions of the Parthenon are seen at a glance, while in Notre Dame the relation of space and mass are more subtle and its divisions are so numerous that its refinement and excellent pro- portion reveal themselves only after very close observation and prolonged study. To obtain good proportion, emphasize the principal masses and subordinate the subsidiary masses. That element in a composition which is of most importance should dominate both in size and position. No definite rules, however, can be formulated. Practice, observation,, and good taste are the only guides and means whereby a pleasing relation of parts in a composition can be secured. Many attempts have been made to reduce proportion to a scientific basis. One individual went so far as to solve the entire, complex problem by means of a mathematical formula; another by a geometrical figure. But these men lost^ sight of the fact that architecture is an art as well as a science. Vignola (1507-1573), after making an exhaustive study of the proportions of the classic monuments, wrote a book on the five orders of architecture. This treatise, however, should not be construed as an attempt to reduce archi- tecture to a mechanical or mathematical basis. It simply sets forth the proportions of the finest examples of Greek and Roman structures. Vignola's proportions of the orders have become standard. The term order denotes the column and the entabla- ture. The Greeks to whom must be given the credit of originating the modern columnar system of design, used and developed to a high degree of perfection three orders only; viz., Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The Roman orders — Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian— are a simplification of the Greek orders, and although not so refined and beauti- ful, are much more practical and more easily executed. Greek moldings are conic in section; they are com- posed of curves of the parabola, hyperbola, and ellipse. Roman moldings are made of arcs of circles and can, there- fore, be struck with a compass. 116. Fenestration. A pleasing arrangement of voids and solids is an essential and ever present feature of all good design. Voids are meant to include windows, doors, arch-openings, etc. Solids refer to the wall surfaces between 72 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING the voids. The allotment and distribution of voids and solids are regulated by climatic conditions, the size of the rooms, and the uses to which the rooms are to be put. In warm countries the windows are made small to keep out the glare of the sun. Large rooms should have large openings, small rooms, small openings. There should be no false suggestion on the outside concerning the interior arrangement. Decep- tion in design should be condemned, for it is not good architecture. The function of a building also determines the character of fenestration. A prison, for example, should have small windows placed close to the ceiling. Stores should have large window spaces to admit of the appropriate display of merchandise. Openings should come directly over one another; piers should be superimposed and should rest directly on the ground, never over a void. The wall surfaces at both ends of a building shoxild be made wider than the intermediate surfaces. If columns or pilasters are used at the ends of the wall, they should be doubled. These practices tend not only to give the building an appearance of strength and security, but they satisfy aesthetic demands in that they break the monotony of repetition of the same motif, call a natural stop and afford a resting place for the eye. A more pleasing effect is produced if windows are grouped vertically in an odd number of rows instead of in an even nvimber. That is to say, if windows are superimposed, three or five rows would look better than four or six rows. As a general rule doorways and windows are made twice as- high as they are wide. The basis for all these practices is simply the result of experience and good taste. GENERAL MAXIMS IN FENESTRATION 1. Small openings, widely spaced, give an effect of solidity and power. 2. Large openings, crowded, make the design appear weak. 3. Windows should be grouped vertically. 4. Windows should be placed in an odd number of rows. 5. Windows and doorways are generally made twice as high as they are wide. 117. Decoration. Ornament must be judiciously applied; unless it arises naturally out of the constructive needs of the building and forms an integral part, it should not be introduced. Ornamentation is subservient to con- struction; for, not only is the former dependent upon the latter for its existence, but it can be shown that all decora- tion is an evolution and that its origin can be traced to some practical need. Thus, the entablature is but an DESIGN 73 elaboration of the simple overhang on a roof to keep the water away from the face of the wall, or to shelter from the glare of the sun; the widening of the capital and base of a column is dictated by practical necessities; the arch was invented to span wide openings, and to carry heavy superimposed loads. The hst might be extended, but those given are sufficient to show the derivation of ornament and its complete dependence upon construction. The aesthetic element in architecture should never rival or outweigh the practical. Ornament must never be super- ficial. Beauty should be wrought into the very structure. Ornament applied to one or two points of interest calls attention to the saUent features of a composition. The eye is first attracted to these important points and then naturally moves along, until it takes in all the subsidiary elements of the design. Conservatism in the use of ornament leads to refinement, harmony, and unity. Lavish- ness, on the other hand, distracts attention, rriakes no differentiation between the prominent 'and minor features of a composition and ultimately leads to vulgarity in design. 118. Style. In classic antiquity and in fact all through the Middle Ages, the duties of an architect were compara- tively few and simple. Rare, indeed, was the case where he did not combine with his profession one or more of the other arts and sciences. Michael Angelo, the sculptor, Raphael, the painter, Perrault, the physician. Wren, the mathematician, are a few conspicuous, examples. At the present time, however, building has become so wide in range, and so complex in its constructive processes and materials, that specialization is the natural consequence. Despite its highly technical character, architecture is a subject that is susceptible of treatment appealing intensely to the interests of the sttident. There is no art or science more intimately connected with our everyday fife. It touches the life of man at every point. On account of this intimacy, architecture has been referred to as the index or mirror of civilization, for it reflects most accurately the character of the times, the moral tone of the people, the religious sentiments, and the intellectual and political achievements of the age in which the work has been produced. History furnishes many such illustrations. Without the architectural remains of the Egyptians, their history would have been a closed book to us. The high state of culture and civilization of the Greeks and the Romans is unerringly reflected in their superb monuments. It is a mistake, however, to believe that all that is noble in architecture can be found only in the products of the past. Reverence has chained the mind to antiquity, but the glorious monuments of Greece, Rome, and the Renaissance, have been equalled and in a sense surpassed in modern times. All architecture is endemic. It is 74 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING peculiarly adapted to the country, the people, and the conditions that brought it into being. The beginner is apt to copy blindly from the past, deluding himself into the belief that the more fragments of' some ancient master- piece he introduces into his work the greater will be his success as a designer. Nothing can be more erroneous. A study of the classics of architecture will reveal that they were all conceived to supply a definite need. Moreover, all architecture is dynamic. It is a living art vitally and inseparably connected with contemporary life. The sky- scraper was brought into being to meet a new economic condition, namely, the limited area of land available for building purposes. Every building is born of some human need. Nothing could be more discordant, therefore, than to copy a style that is conceived for a particular purpose and that repre- sents the ideals of a particular people at a particular time and place, and to apply that style, wholly, to another structure that is totally at variance with the conceptions of the original, " Beauty," says Millet, " is that which is in place." We should study the past achievements of the master designers of all periods to see how their monuments can be made to' serve present day needs. A survey of the conditions that lead to the creation of the epoch making styles "of architecture, will reveal the very important fact that adaptation and not imitation has ultimately led to the evolution of a new style. By style in architecture is meant the prevailing artistic manner of treating buildings of a given period. AU archi- tectural styles have sprung from four basic structural principles of architecture; namely, — the pier, the lintel, the arch, or the truss. A pier is an upright member; it is characteristic of all monuments antedating the classic era. A lintel is made up of a single horizontal crosspiece or beam resting on two or more vertical supports. The Egyptians first used" and the Greeks later developed this form of construction. An arch consists of several blocks supported bj'- mutual pressure and by vertical uprights called abutments. It is the distinguishing characteristic of all Roman archi- tecture. The Roman arch is semicircular in form. Later, two arcs of intersecting circles were used so as to form a pointed apex. This style of arch forms the basis of Gothic atchitecture. The truss is a combination and elaboration of all the structural principles thus far considered. It is an assem- blage of members so arranged that each piece takes care of the strain to which it is subjected, the whole acting in unison. This form of structure admits of the bridging of very wide spans and is the basis of modern construction. APPENDIX I SPECIFICATIONS 119. Object. Since it is impossible to represent graph- ica,lly all the information necessary to erect a building, speci- Jtcations must be written to supplement the drawings. Plans portray the design of a structure, whUe specifications outline the conditions of its erection. It was stated in the early part of this work that working drawings are necessarily of a conventional character and, hence, convey only a limited amoimt of information. They indicate the form of an object, the dimensions, and the relations of its com- ponent parts, while specifications, on the other hand, describe the kind and finish of the materials employed, and the quality of workmanship that must be brought to bear upon its construction. 120. Scope. Specifications should cover, in a clear and explicit manner, every point not included in the plans. Nothing should be taken for granted and no loophole left for the substitution of inferior materials or for any makeshift in construction. In addition to conveying information about materials and workmanship, the speci- fications should clearly define the relations of the contract- ing parties that responsibility may not be shifted. 121. Order. The order of writing the specifications should follow closely that of the actual execution of the work. A separate set of specifications is written for each branch of the work; thus there are mason's, carpenter's, plumber's specifications, and so on. Whether the contract is let in sections or awarded to one general contractor, who may or may not sub-let portions of the work, separate specifications are a great convenience. Every set of specifications is prefaced by a paragraph setting forth the name of the owTier of the proposed work, its location, the name and address of the architect, etc. This paragraph reads as follows: Specifications of the labor and materials to be furnished in the erection of a house to be constructed for at in accordance with the accompanying drawings and these specifications and under the supervision of Date Architect Address 122. Index. An index precedes a complete set of specifications if they are of any great length. This index may be arranged as shown below: Title. General Conditions . Masonry Plastering Steel and Iron Carpentrj'^ Hardware Painting Page. 75 76 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING Title. Page. Glazing Plumbing Gas Fitting. . . .■ Electric Wiring Heating Roofing and Sheet Metal 123. General Conditions. A statement sufficiently com- prehensive to include any kind of building operation, intro- duces every specification. In the event that the contract is let to one general contractor, this introduction need be given but once. Among the principal conditions set forth in this statement, the following may be cited: The duties and obligations- of the contracting parties; the interpreta- tion of plans and specifieatjons; the course to be followed in case of conflict or omission; materials, and workman- ship. Several items included under " General Conditions " are given below: Workmanship and Materials. All materials are to be the best of their several kinds as herein specified; all labor must be per- formed in the best manner by skilled workmen, and both mate- rials and labor are to be subject to the approval of the architect. The contractor shall furnish all materials, utensils, scaffold- ing, labor, transportation, etc., required for the performance of the work herein specified. Compliance with Laws. The contractor is to comply with all laws and ordinances in force in the state, and city, and he shall be held liable for all penalties imposed on account of any violation of said laws in the construction of the building. He shall be liable for all penalties and for all damages to hfe or limb that may occur due to his negligence or that of his employees, his sub-contractor or people furnishing material to him for the erection of the building, and should any such accidents occur,, or damage, the contractor shall make good and pay for the same, and shall defend, at his own expense, any and all suits at law arising from such causes. He shall obtain and pay for the neces- sary permits for dumping, placing materials in the street, sewer and service connections, etc. Drawings. The , drawings referred to in this specification are as follows: 1. Basement plan or excavating plan. 2. First floor plan. 3. Second floor plan. 4. Roof plan. 5. Front and rear elevations. Etc. Explanation of Drawings. Anjiihing which is not shown on the drawings, but which is mentioned in the specifications, or vice versa, or anything not expressly set forth in either but which is reasonably implied, and any labor evidently necessary to the completion of the work shall be furnished and performed the same as though specifically shown and mentioned in both. Should anything be omitted from the drawings or specifications which is necessary to a clear understanding of the work, or should any error appear in the various instruments furnished or in the work done by other contractors affecting the work included in this specification, it shall be the duty of the contractor to notify the architect. In the event of the contractor failing to give such notice, he shall make good any damage or defect in his work caused thereby. Figured dimensions shall govern scale measurements, and full size and large scale details shall be preferred to small scale drawings; but measurements are, in all cases, to be checked by the contractor from work in place at the building. Removal of Rubbish. The contractor shall remove all d6bris and rubbish resulting from his work from time to time, as the APPENDIX I-SPECIFICATIONS 77 superintendent shall direct, and shall keep the premises neat and tidy. 124. Mason's Specifications. That section of the con- tract which is given to the mason for execution has among its principal divisions the following: Excavation. Under this heading are included such items as excavating, blasting, backfilling, grading, shoring and underpinning. This contract is to include all excavating for cellars, areas, foundations, footings, drains, etc., of dimensions and to depths shown on the drawings, or required by the gi-ade. All excava- tions for walls to be 12" larger all aroimd than showii on the draw- ings. The top soil, or all loam, to be separated and deposited where directed, so as to be used for top dressing, when the grading is done. The mason shall do all blasting of rock that may be required to clear the site of the building; the rocks to be used in the new foundations and walls, or to be sunk where directed. Materials. Cement, mortar, concrete, etc. Under each respective head is given a full description of the properties and proportions of the ingredients that compose the materials and the manner of mixing and laying them. Cement. The cement shall be Atlas Portland, or other Port- land that may be approved by the superintendent. Lime. The lime shall be best quality hydrated lime. Sand. The sand shall be clean, sharp building sand, free from loam or other impurities. Broken Stone. The broken stone shall be clean and sharp, free from dust and of a size that will pass through a two-inch ring or smaller. Mortar. The mortar shall be composed of one (1) part Port- land cement, and three (3) parts sand. Add enough water to form the proper consistency. No mortar shall be reused or re- tempered. Concrete. All concrete shall be mixed as follows: One (1) part Portland cement (Rosendale cement may be used for cellar floors), two (2) parts sand, and five (5) parts broken stone. The sand and cement shall be mixed into mortar as specified; the aggregate drenched and drained, mixed with the mortar until each piece is thoroughly coated, then immediately put into place in continuous layers, and tamped until free mortar appears on the surface. Stonework, Brickwork, Terra-cotta, Etc. As an illus- tration of the manner in which these subjects are treated, the following clauses relating to brickwork will suffice: Common Brickwork. Brick to be first quality common brick, hard burned, square edged, well shaped, and of a uniform size, free from swollen clinkers, or broken brick, and satisfactory to the architect or the superintendent. All brick shall be thoroughly saturated with water just previous to laying, and laid Avith flush joints not less than J inch thick, in full beds of mortar, with all joints full and slushed up every course. All brickwork shall be built level, plumb, square, and true, well bonded and bedded in mortar, with every sixth course a header course throughout the walls. Bats and broken bricks shall not be used in any part of the work, except where it is neces- sary to cut brick to make the sizes given on drawings. No brick shall be laid in freezing weather. Face Brick. Face brick shall be pressed brick of an approved (light gray) color, harmonizing in color with that of limestone or sandstone. The facing must be well bonded to the body of the wall. Anchors, Plates, Etc. Build in all anchors, anchor plates, and bed all beams, channels, etc., in a firm, secure, and approved 78 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING manner. Beams, channels, plates, etc., to rest on a perfectly firm and solid bed. Chimneys. Build the chimneys of hard brick in mortar made with one part cement to two parts lime, with flues (8"X8" or 8"X12") as shown on the drawings; above roof to be of selected brick laid in mortar made with equal parts of lime and cement, and the upper four courses to be laid in clear cement. The brickwork of chimneys to be kept in all cases at least one inch clear of any woodwork. All "widths" to be four inches thick, well bonded into the walls, and all flues shall be lined with terra- cotta flue lining and carried up separately'to the top. Turn 4-inch trimmer arches, on centers, to all fireplaces. Plastering. The plastering shall conform to the fol- lowing specifications: Lathing. All walls, ceilings, and partitions, except the side walls of the cellar, are to be lathed with sound, dry (spruce or cypress) lath, all laid horizontally, J" apart, joints broken every sixth lath, and well nailed to every bearing. Where irregular or curved surfaces occur, metal lath (of f " mesh, No. 20 wire cloth or No. 24 U. S. gauge) shall be used. All metal lathing shall be coated to prevent rust. Plastering. All plastering shall be three- coat work, except the finish coat which may be omitted back of base and wain- scoting. Scratch and Brown Coats. The scratch coat shall be composed of I bushel of goat hair and 1 barrel of lime to 3 of sand; and the brown coat of 1 barrel of lime to 6 of sand and one-quarter bushel of hair; all to be thoroughly worked and stacked at least 8 days before using. Finish Coat. The finish coat shall be composed of white plaster-of-Paris lime putty, and fine washed sea sand. All work shall be done in the most workmanlike manner, walls and ceilings plumb and even, angles sharp and true. 125. Steel and Iron Work. If the job warrants it, a separate specification is written for all the steel and iron work; but in a moderate-sized building it is embraced in the mason's contract. Extent of Work. The contractor shall furnish, fabricate, paint and erect all the steel and iron work shown on plans, and as described in these specifications, and necessary to finish com- pletely this part of the contract. The sizes of. all beams, chan- nels, angles, plates, etc., are shown on plans and no deviation of any kind will be permitted from these sizes. Drawings. Drawings referred to in this specification are the general scale drawings and also the special steel framing plans. The contractor shall submit to the architect for approval all shop drawings and details. The approval of these will be only as to strength, and does not relieve the contractor from respon- sibility for his dimensions. Approved shop drawings shall be used in setting all work. Quality of Material. The material used in this structure shall conform to " Manufacturers' Standard Specifications " as pub- lished in the Carnegie Steel Company's handbook. Rivetting and Bolting. Rivets and bolts for structural steel shall be |" in diameter. Rivets shall be used for all such con- nections of beams and girders as may be indicated on drawings. All rivets shall, when driven, be tight, fill the holes completely, and have full heads concentric with the hole. Inspection and workmanship are then taken up in detail. Painting. All scale, dirt and foreign substances to be removed before painting. All surfaces to receive one coat of Graphite Paint No. 35 after the pieces are punched and before they are assembled. All surfaces accessible after the material is erected shall have a second coat of Graphite Paint No. 30. Air painting shall be done on dry surfaces. APPENDIX I— SPECIFICATIONS 79 126. Carpenter's Specifications. All the items of wood- work in connection with the construction of a building are collected and systematically itemized in the carpenter's specifications. Framing. All framing timbers to be carefully selected, of the dimensions given and to be put up straight and true. The sills are to be halved at the corners and bedded in mortar. The corner posts shall be tenoned into the sill and well braced. The girts shall be mortised and tenoned into the posts and secured with oak pins. Double the floor beams under all partitions ruiming the same way. Beams built into a masonry wall shall have a 3" firecut. Frame around all chimneys, wells, and other openings, placing no timber within 2" of brickwork of chimneys. Headers and trimmers to be doubled and spiked. Headers that carry more than three tail beams to be hung in W.I. stirrups. Bridging. All floor beams to have one row of (li"X3") cross bridging to each span of 8 feet or over, properly cut and secured at each end with two 8d nails. Sheathing. Cover the entire frame (except on such roofs as are to be shingled) with (1"X9") rebated hemlock sheathing, .surfaced on one side to an even thickness, put on diagonally, all driven up close and securely nailed to every bearing with two 8d nails. Cover over the sheathing with approved building felt, laid with not less than 3" lap. Line with the same felt under all corner boards, casings, etc. If the sizes of the timbers are not specified on the draw- ings they should be given here in addition to a description of the kind and quality of the material used; thus: Timber. All timber, unless otherwise specified, is to be of good sound spruce free from shakes, clefts, wanes, and any other defects which may impair its strength and durabiUty, Sizes of Timbers. (Dimensions in inches.) Sills 4X6 to 4X10. Girders 6X8 to 8X10, yellow pine. Floor joists 2X8 to 3X10, 16" on centers. Ceiling beams 2X6. Collar beams IX 10, placed on every second pair of rafters. Headers and trimmers 4" by the depth of the beam, or joists doubled. Posts under girders 8" square; 6" or 8" round. Posts at corners and angles, 2X4 spiked to 4X6 or 4X8. Braces 2X4 and 4X4. Girts 4X6 and 4X8. Ribbon 1X6. Plates 4X4 and 4X6. Studs, — walls and partitions — 2X4 hemlock, spaced 16" on centers throughout. Studs, — bearing partitions and around openings — 3X4 or two 2X4. Rafters, common, 2X6 to 2X8; hip 2X9; valley 3X9. Sheathing |X6 and |X8. Finished flooring |X4. Exterior Finish. Material. All exterior finished wood, except where otherwise specified, to be (pine or cypress) free from all sap, shakes, knots or other defects of any kind. Walls. Exterior walls to be covered with the best clear white pine clapboards, (6") wide, laid with IJ" lap, well nailed to every bearing with Gd nails set in for puttjdng. Roofs. Shingles. Cover the roof, where marked " shingles," with xxxx sawed pine shingles 18" long, laid 5J" to the weather and secured with at least two 4d nails to each shingle. All roof shingles are to be laid on 1X2 spruce lath placed the proper distance apart for nailing. 80 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING Unless cornices, water table, belt courses, etc., are drawn to an enlarged scale, they should here be described in detail, thus; Water Table. The water table shall be li"X8" and shall have a 1J"X2|" cap with tongue on its upper end and finished with a l"Xl^" ogee molding under cap. Stock. All stock for interior finish to be the best quality of the kind specified, thoroughly seasoned, and kiln dried, free from all knots and sap wood, well hand smoothed, and sandpapered before putting up. Interior Finish. Trim and Base. All windows and doors and finished rooms throughout the building are to be provided with trim and base, to be thoroughly seasoned and dried and in accordance with detailed drawings. The woodwork for all trim and finish in respective rooms and all halls Shall be of the following description, unless specified to the contrary: White Pine. Use clear white pine for sash in frame and exterior walls. Birch. Use first quality birch in the following rooms: (epecify rooms). Oak. Use first quality quartered white oak in the dining room (mention other rooms). Flooring. Rough flooring to be 1"X6" N. C. pine, tongued and grooved, laid diagonally on the joists and blind nailed at every bearing with two 8d nails. Flooring to extend, close to outside sheathing and to be well fitted around all studs. Finished floor for (kitchen) to be 2 J" face maple; (dining room, living room, and hall) to be 2i" face red oak; all other floors to be yellow pine dressed and matched, blind nailed to every bearing and to be scraped and smoothed at all joints. Window Frames. All window frames unless otherwise shown, to be made for double hanging sashes, using best quality sash cord and If" steel axle pulleys with lacquered iron faces and with iron weights to balance the sashes. All jambs and heads are to- be 1|" thick of N. C. pine, to have 2" sills and |" sub-sills. Cellar sashes are to be arranged to swing in and are to be hung with two brass butts; two small hooks and one button to be placed, on each sash. Door Frames. All door frames are to be blocked solid for hinges and locks; jambs are to be of cypress f" thick, and are to have |"X2" stops of cypress. All outside frames to have 2" oak sills and 1|" jambs and casings. Doors. All doors are to be paneled and molded in accordance with the scale and detailed drawings furnished for the same. All wood in the door to be well kiln dried. All doors to be blind tenoned. All veneered doors shall have white pine built-up cores and (Ij") veneering welb glued on both sides. All doors shall be constructed of wood corresponding with the finish of the room in which they occur. Hardware. All rough hardware required to complete the carpenter's contract must be furnished by this contractor. The contractor to allow ($200) for all finished hardware, which is' to be selected by the architect and purchased by the contractor. Should the amount exceed this sum the owner will pay the' additional cost; if less, the amount \ ill be deducted from the total amount due to the contracto 127. Painting. The painting and glazing specifications should be as follows: Painting. Workmanship and Materials. All materials to- be of the very best of their several kinds in quality as herein specified, to be delivered at the building in the original packages- with seals unbroken and labels attached, and must not be opened until inspected by the architect. Shellac all defective surfaces before priming. Putty up alt nail holes, cracks, etc., after priming. APPENDIX I— SPECIFICATIONS 81 Exterior. Paint all sash, frame, and all exterior woodwork, all iron railings, grills, and all other exterior iron work with three (3) coats of pure lead and oil, tinted as directed by the architect. All shingles to be dipped, while perfectly dry, in good creo- sote oil stain, the color to be selected by the owner and to be given one brush coat after laying. Interior. All the trim of principal rooms and halls to receive one coat of stain filler and three coats of approved hard oil finish rubbed down between coats and left with a dull finish. Floors. Oak floors after being dressed, planed and scraped by the carpenter shall be finished as follows: First, fill with one coat of paste filler carefully rubbed off after being set. Then apply one coat of shellac and, over this, two coats of an approved wax rubbed down with a weighted . brush after each coat. Graining, staining, and kalsomining are treated in a similar manner as above, detailed specifications for which may be obtained from any paint manufacturer. Glazing. Glass for cellar sash shall be first quality double thick American glass, free from flaws, stops, or any other imperfec- tions; glass to be securely fastened in place and be well bedded • in putty, tacked, and neatly traced. Glass for all other sash shall be (best clear French plate), well bedded, tacked, and puttied. Art glass, where shown, to be provided by the owner and set by the contractor. 128. Pltimbing Specifications. This work consists chiefly of sanitary fixtures and gas fitting to be furnished, set and connected and the extending and connecting of drains, water and gas supply lines. All work of the plumbing contractor shall be done in accordance with local ordinances, anything shown on the drawings or this specification to the contrary notwithstanding. When the entire plumbing system is completed, the plumber shall turn on the water supply and leave the entire system in per- fect working order. He is to guarantee his work for one year from the date of completion, and repair all damages caused by defects in his workmanship or materials during that period. The arrangement of all pipes must be as straight and direct as possible. Offsets will be permitted only when unavoidable and must not be made at an angle of less than 45°. Materials and Workmanship. All materials shall be of the best quality, free from all defects, and all work must be done in a workmanlike manner. Cast iron pipe and fittings shall be sound, cylindrical, and smooth inside, free from all defects, of a uniform thickness and of a grade known in commerce as " extra heavy." All wrought pipe shall be lap-welded and of the grade known in commerce as " standard " with the maker's name stamped thereon. Wrought iron pipe shall be evenly cut, well reamed, and all burrs completely removed. Lead pipe shall be drawn pipe of the best quality and of the grade known in commerce as " AA." Brass ferrules must be best quality, bell shaped, extra-heavy cast brass, not less than 4" long. The brass pipe used in connection with this work must be of the best quality, annealed, seamless, drawn tubing, of standard iron-pipe gauge, plain, polished, nickel-plated, or tinned as required. House Sewer. All sewer pipes to be first quality vitrified clay pipe with socket joints laid upon a solid bed with uniform fall, to the outlet. All joints to be bedded in fresh Portland cement, wiped smooth on the inside. Changes in direction to be made with long bends. House Drain. The house drain shall be the required lengths and sizes of extra heavy cast iron pipe when under ground, and of galvanized wrought iron when above ground. 82 ARCHITECTUKAL DRAFTmG The house drain and sewer shall be at least (4") in diameter and greater if they discharge rain-water. The house sewer shall be connected with the house drain at a point two feet outside of the front wall of the building. Trap the house-drain with a (4") extra^heavy cast iron run- ning trap placed just inside the front cellar wall. This trap must have two cleanouts, with brass screw cap ferrules calked in. Fresh Air Inlet. A fresh air inlet shall be connected with the house drain just inside the house trap and shall be of the same size as the drain pipe up to 4 inches. Standing Soil, Waste, and Vent Pipes. " Connect one 4" cast iron soil line with the house drain. The soil line shall have 4" TY branches for water-closets and 2" Y branches for other fixtures. Connect one 3" main waste line as shown on the plans; branch waste pipes shall be 2", all of extra heavy cast iron. Connect each line of soil and waste at the foot of the house drain and run independently in full caliber above the roof. Fit up 2" galvanized wrought iron vent lines, as indicated on the drawings. Provide 2" branches for water-closets, and I5" branches for other fixtures. Where soil, waste, or vent pipes extend above the roof, they shall be at least 4" in diameter, the increase, if any, being made below the roof surface. At no part of the roof is the pipe to be less than 3 feet above it. All soil, waste, and vent pipes passing through the roof shall be so arranged as to prevent leakage. For this purpose the con- tractor shall use a flashing of 20-ounce sheet copper, 20" square and a copper tube of like weight 15" long soldered to the same. This is to be slipped over the pipe and a recessed coupling screwed down over the copper tube. The flashing must be neatly and perfectly secured to the roof, and the soil, waste, or vent pipe continued up from coupling the required height. Leaders. Inside leaders shall be of cast or wrought iron and trapped with cast iron running traps so placed as to prevent freezing. Outside leaders shall be of galvanized iron (copper), and, if connected with the house drain, shall be of cast iron pipe, trapped on the inside. Leaders shall not be used as soil, waste, or vent pipes, nor shall any such pipe be used as a leader. Traps. Traps shall be of the same weight and thickness as their corresponding branches, well supported and set true with respect to their water seals. Traps shall be placed as near the fixtures as practicable and so arranged that in no instance will the waste from a fixture pass through more than one trap before entering the house drain. All traps shall be placed in such locations or be so arranged as to be readily accessible and shall be fitted with approved heavy cast brass screw plugs. Every fixture must be separately trapped and no trap shall be more than 2 feet from any fixture. Coimections. All joints in cast iron pipe shall be made with picked oakum and molten lead, made impermeable to gases by imbedding the lead with hammer and calking iron. Where lead connections are made to wrought iron pipe, brass pipe soldering nipples, the same size as the branch of wrought iron pipe, shall be used and the joints shall be wiped. Threaded connections on brass pipe must be of same size as iron pipe thread for the same size of pipe and must be tapered. All connections between lead pipe and between lead and brass or copper pipes shall be made by means of wiped solder joints. Supports. The entire vertical drainage system, comprising the leader, soil, waste, and vent lines, shall be supported on the floor beams by means of wrought iron clamp hangers of approved pattern. All horizontal parts of the system shall be supported at intervals of not over 5 feet by being hung from the floor beams on heavy adjustable wrought iron hangers. APPENDIX I— SPECIFICATIONS 83 "Water Supply. Tap the water main in street; connect and run to the building a line of " AA " lead supply pipe. Place one stop cock or valve under the sidewalk at the curb and another upon the service pipe just inside the front wall; continue in the building with a 1" hne of galvanized wrought iron house main, with f " branch to fixtures. Arrange all lines so that the hot and cold supply can be shut off from each group of fixtures indiependently. All rising lines shall have a stop cock at the foot of each line. Diameters of branches to any fixtures shall not be less than §" except water-closet branches which shall not be less than f " in diameter. The distance between hot and cold risers shall in no case be less than 6". Fixtures. The following fixtures are to be furnished, set and connected ready for use. Kitchen. 1-24" X 18" porcelain enameled roll rim sink and back, all in one piece, with iron brackets, with N. P. compression faucets, with N. P. trap, with N. P. open strainer, with galvan- ized concealed air chambers. 1-18" X 6" galvanized hot water tank to hold not less than 60 gallons and tested to 250 pounds of pressure, mounted on an iron pedestal, etc. (Specify in detail all other fixtures, giving name of manufacturer, catalogue number, etc.) All fixtures are to be connected and the entire plumbing system is to be made complete and ready for use. The general contractor will do all the cutting and digging required for the plimiber. The plumbing contractor ig to run the house drain two feet outside of the building and to make proper connection with the drain to the sewer. Tests. When each house drain and all the soil, waste and vent branches connected thereto are entirely roughed in, all openings are to be plugged and each system filled with water to the height of the building. Any defects in material or work- manship which may appear shall be permanently repaired and the tests repeated until the work is entirely satisfactory. A smoke test shall be applied and a written notice shall be given to the architect when all fixtures, drain, soil, waste and vent pipes are connected and in complete working order as required by the plans and specifications, whereupon an approved smoke testing machine, together with the materials shall be furnished by this contractor at such time as the owner shall designate and a smoke test of the entire system shall be made in the presence of the owner or such person as he in writing may designate. The final certificate shall not be signed until this test has been made and the work proved tight to the satisfaction of the owner. Gas Fitting. All necessary gas pipe and fittings of proper sizes shall be furnished and run to outlets as designated on the plans. The sizes of pipe shall measure internal diameter. The pipe used shall be of the best quality, plain, black, genuine wrought iron, welded gas pipe. All pipes shall be free from splits, flaws or other defects and of a true and uniform section. All fittings shall be heavy malleable iron, beaded, galvanized fittings. Where pipes of different sizes come together, proper reducing fittings shall be used; no bushings will be permitted. All outlets shall be f" in diameter, except for the gas range which shall be larger, and secured, plumb, in place and all outlets shall be capped until covered by fixtures. No pipe shall be less than ^"; all short branches of |" and f" gas pipe; also, all outlets shall be of the grade known as extra heavy. After the several lines are completed, they shall be proved gas tight by the contractor for gas fitting by ether test and mer- cury gauge, in the presence of the owner or other person author- ized by him in writing and to the entire satisfaction of the archi- tect and the approval of the gas company. At the completion 84 AECHITEOTURAL DRAFTING of the work the contractor shall furnish a certificate from the gas company. Gas outlets of one light each are to be provided as follows and as indicated on the plans: Cellar, 2 outlets, First floor, 5 outlets, including range, Second floor, 1 outlet. Third floor, 1 outlet, etc. All nipples are to be of the exact length required for putting on fixtures without alteration, and all are to be square with the wall or ceiling from which they project. All bracket outlets are to be exactly 5' 6" above the finished floor. Service pipe is to be extended through partition wall where shown on the plans and is to be capped. 129. Electrical Specifications. These specifications are intended to embrace all the labor and material, except as noted below,* necessary for the installation of wires and fixtures in the residence. All the work herein included shall be done according to the rules and regulations of the National Board of Fire Underwriters and subject to the inspection and approval of the local Board of Fire Underwriters. The contractor shall pay all charges for this inspection, secure satisfactory certificates and deliver the same to the architect. System. The system for lighting is (three wire, 60 cycle, alternating current, 104 volts). Wire. The wire used in this connection shall be of the very best quality (98 per cent) conductivity, and shall be the best grade of approved standard " rubber covered." * The general contractor will do all the necessary cutting in the concrete and mason work and will repair and make good after all cutting for the in- stallation of the electrical work. All wires must be of such size that the drop in potential at the farthest outlet shall not exceed 2% under maximum load. No wire shall be less than No. 14 B. & S. gauge. Conduit. All wires, except in the basement, shall be run in approved metal conduits to all outlets marked on the plans or specified. No wires shall be drawn in until all mechanical work on the building is done and until after the plastering is dry. Wires of different circuits must not be drawn in the same conduit, but the two or more wires of the same circuit should be drawn in the same conduit. No smaller conduit than |" inside diameter shall be used; all conduits shall be securely fastened by approved clamps or metal straps; conduits shall be run under the plaster of side walls and under the flooring. All conduits shall be permanently and effectually grounded. No connection for ground with any gas or water piping within the building will be allowed. After the wiring is completed it shall be tested, and all defects shall be made good. Switches and Fuses. The main switch and cut-out, meter board and other cut-outs as required, are to be furnished and installed by this contractor. The main switch is to be of an approved knife type of ample capacity and mounted on a slate base, properly inclosed, and located as directed. The switch is to be connected and wired complete to receiving meter; all fuse posts sjhall be furnished with Noark, D. W. or other. approved, screw clamp, contact pattern, inclosed fuses, with blowout indi- cators on the front of the fuses. Fixtures. All fixtures sjball be cemented and properly set. The electric and combination fixtures shall be put up complete, including all wire attachments of sockets, etc., with wiring and insulating joints. All joints in the gas piping shall be made tight with red lead so as to be entirely free from leakage under the full pressure of APPENDIX I— SPECIFICATIONS 8& the gas mains. After the fixtures are in place they shall be proved by air test with mercury gauge. The air pressure shall raise a column of mercury six inches in height and maintain the same for thirty minutes. The test shall be made in the pres- ence of the owner or of a person designated by him. Schedule of Lights. Basement: 5 drop lights, 16 c.p. each. 1 bracket light, one 16 c.p. combination. 1 ceiling light, one 16 c.p. (on stairs) controlled by a switch at the head of the stairs. First Floor: Porch: — 1 ceiling light, one 16 c.p., controlled by a switch in the front hall. Front hall: — 1 ceiling hght, one 16 c.p., controlled by switch. Etc. All side outlets are to be exactly 5' 6" above the finished floor. Tht owner will furnish all fixtures and switches required in the above schedule, except drop fights and the main switch; and the contractor is to install properly and connect the same. All other materials are to be furnished by the contractor. All the work under this contract is to be complete and ready for use, thoroughly tested, and warranted for one year after acceptance. Bells. Install electric bells as follows: A bell from the front door to ring in the rear hall. A bell from the north, side door to ring in the rear hall. A bell from the rear outside door of the refrigerator room to ring in the rear hall. A foot-bell from the dining room to ring in the kitchen. Bells from the sitting room and the second story hall, to ring , in the kitchen and attic hall. All bell wires are to be run behind the plastering in tubing of suitable material and dimensions; said tubing to be imbedded where necessary in the concrete or plaster. The owner will furnish all push-buttons, bells and batteries. The contractor will furnish the wire and all other materials necessary and prop- erly install the buttons, bells and batteries as directed, leaving, everything complete ready for use. 130. Heating Specifications. — Hot Water. — ^This specifi- cation contemplates a complete two-pipe circulating system, guaranteed perfect in every respect. Quality of Materials. All materials used in the construction of this apparatus are to be the best of their respective kinds, all fittings to be heavily beaded and made of the best gray iron with clean-cut threads, and, when practicable, Y's and 45° L's are to be used. Heater. Furnish and set up in the cellar, where shown on the plan, one (specify name of manufacturer and number of apparatus) water-boiler guaranteed free from all flaws and defects. The heater to be set on a substantial foundation of concrete put in by the general contractor. Furnish and deliver one complete set of fire tools. Smoke-pipe. Connect the boiler to the chimney by means of smoke-pipe made of (No. 20) galvanized iron, the diameter of the pipe to be equal to the outlet on the heater. Trimmings. The boiler to be provided with one expansion, thermometer registering from (80° F. to 250° F.). Attach to the main flow pipe, near the boiler, one Standard altitude gauge. Water Connections and Blow-off. Feed-water with its supply pipe will be brought within (6 ft.) of the boiler by the plumber 86 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING and left with one (f-inch) cast-iron fitting for boiler connection, which is to be made by this contractor, connection to be provided with a suitable cock. A draw-off cock is to be placed on the lowest point of the system and to be fitted for hose-nipple attachment. Pipes. Furnish and run all necessary flow and return pipes of ample size, connecting them to radiators with pipes of ample size to insure the free and rapid flow of hot water to the radi- ators and the easy flow of the cooler water back to the heater. All connections from the risers to the radiators are to be made below floors. All flow and return pipes in the basement are to be supported by neat, strong, adjustable hungers, arranged to allow suitable expansion and contraction, and properly secured to timbers overhead. At all points where pipes pass through ceilings, floors, or partitions, the pipes shall be encased in iron or tin tubes and the holes protected with floor or ceiUng plates. All ells, tees and crosses used shall be long radius. The proper pitch upward for all horizontal pipes carrying hot water and the downward pitch of all pipes carrying the cooled water are to be observed. Reaming. The ends of all pipes used in the construction of this apparatus are to be reamed out and all obstructions removed before the pipes are placed in position. Expansion Tank. The expansion tank is to be made of (No. 22) galvanized iron, (30 inches) high and (16 inches) in diameter, and is to be furnished with a proper gauge-glass with brass mountings complete. It is to be placed above all the radiators, in some suitable place, and supported on a proper shelf. From this tank an overflow pipe shall be run to the basement or other suitable place with a vent pipe through the roof. Radiators. Furnish and set up the following radiators, viz: Room. Size. Sections. Sq. Ft. Parlor 18X55 22 49.5 Sitting Room 26X25 10 37.5 Dining Room 26X17.5 7 26.25 Hall 26X5 2 7.5 Etc. Total, (12) Radiators (374.25) In all (462 sq. ft.) of direct, (162 sq. ft.) of indirect, plus (200) for piping loss; total surface (824 sq. ft.). The direct radiators to be (specify the manufacturer's name) hot-water pattern, plain. Air-valves. Each radiator shall have properly connected to it a nickel-plated air-valve to be opened and closed with a key. Radiator Valves. All direct radiators shall be properly con- nected to the system of piping with an approved quick-opening, nickel-plated radiator valve and union elbow. Radiators are to be connected at the top and bottom. , Indirect Radiation. The indirect radiators shall consist of (seven) sections of (specify manufacturer's name) hot-water radiator, connected together with tight joints and firmly sus- pended from the basement ceiling by suitable wrought-iron hangers. The stack shall be so piped and hung as to permit a quick, noiseless, and constant flow of the heated water throughout. The stack is to be enclosed in a galvanized iron chamber with proper inlet for fresh air and a corresponding outlet for warm air, and connected by a galvanized pipe to the registers in the rooms which the stack is intended to heat. The registers are to be of approved pattern, electro bronze plated, and of the following sizes: hall, (10X14); sitting room,. (10X14); dining room, (10X14). APPENDIX I-SPEOIFICATIONS 87 Covering of Pipe. All flow and return pipe and fittings in the cellar above the floor to be properly covered with asbestos or magnesia sectional covering with canvas cover and secured by brass lacquered bands. Boiler Covering. Cover all exposed parts of the boiler, except the front, with plastic asbestos 1| laches thick, neatly appUed and trowelled smooth. Regulator. Furnish and install, where directed, an approved regulator (No. 2) complete, properly connected with check damper in the smoke pipe, and left complete. Workmanship. All work is to be done in a neat, substantial. and workmanlike manner, and the apparatus, when completed, is to be thoroughly tested and left in good working order. Testing. Upon completion of the work herein specified, the apparatus shall be tested in the presence of the architect. The owner shall supply all necessary fuel for testing said apparatus. Guarantee. The contractor is to guarantee that the appara- tus, when completed in accordance with this specification, will be of ample capacity to evenly maintain a temperature of 70° F. in the rooms in which radiators are located, when the outside temperature is at zero, and that the apparatus throughout will have a free and rapid circulation when in operation. APPENDIX II ESTIMATING The highly technical character of estimating precludes the possibility of discussing this subject exhaustively. An attempt will be made in these pages to make a few state- ments concerning the conditions that affect all estimating and the various methods employed in arriving at the cost of a projected building. 131. Cost. The most difficult problem attached to estimating is the cost of labor and material because wages and prices vary. In no two localities are prices exactly alike, and in the same locality they are constantly fluctuating. One must, therefore, study local market con- ditions and be fully conversant with current prices of labor and materials before he can submit a fair and reasonable estimate. If the estimate is too high, the contract will be awarded to a competitor, and if too low, the contract will have to be carried out at a loss. To guard against the latter contingency, the following matters are usually attended to before commencing the actual calculations of cost: The contractor should visit the site of the build- ing with a view to ascertaining exact conditions. He should make inquiries regarding the nature of the soil, the facilities for transportation, and labor conditions. All these are items that have a direct bearing upon the cost of the building. If the ground is marshy or if spring or rock is encountered, the piles, draining, refilling, and blasting that are necessary to obviate these difficulties add materially to the cost of the proposed structure. The distance of the base of operations from railroads or wharfs, the ease with which labor may be obtained, and the season of the year also affect the cost. Catalogues and price lists are indispensable to the suc- cessful contractor. These must be constantly revised to be kept up to date. They should be carefully arranged and indexed for easy reference. 132. Estimates. Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of estimates: approximate and detailed. Approximate estimates are made only in cases where plans and specifica- tions have not been fully completed or before the plans are drawn. An owner wishes to have a fairly accurate idea of the cost of the designs which have been submitted to him by the architect as studies of a projected dwell- ing. The efficient architect can very readily accommodate his client. Conversely, the owner wishes to spend a hmited amount of money, say $10,000, for a residence; the archi- tect accordingly designs a house not to exceed that limit of cost. 133. Basis of an Approximate Estimate. The approx- imate method of estimating is based upon the following proposition: Buildings similar in style, function and material will, if built xmder the same conditions, cost the same. If, therefore, we know the cost of different types of structures already built, we can easily obtain 88 APPENDIX II— ESTIMATING 89 the approximate cost of a proposed structure of a similar ' type by comparison, ascertaining how many units of cost of the building already erected are contained in the building to be erected. 134. Methods. Several methods are used in obtaining approximate estimates, with a greater or less degree of accuracy. One method in common practice is to esti- mate by the cost per square foot of floor area. This method is convenient in obtaining approximate costs of office buildings, loft buildings, and other buildings where the plan of one floor is typical of the arrangement of all floors. Another method is by the cost per unit of accommodation. This method is of particular advantage in calculating the costs of such structures as schools, churches, hospitals, theaters, prisons, etc. The system of estimating, however, that is attended with greatest success and accuracy, is that of cubing. This method consists of finding the cubic contents of a proposed structure and multiplying that by the average known cost per cubic foot of structures already built, and as nearly alike as possible in every respect to the building upon which the estimate is being made. In finding the approximate cost of a build- ing by this method, great care must be taken to compute its cubical contents in the same manner that was used in computing the contents of the one already erected. The plan most commonly followed is to multiply the square feet in the plan (the measurements to be taken from the outside face of the walls) by the height from the level of the cellar or basement floor to the average height of the roof. Porches, verandas, and other additions are usually figured at one-half their total cubage. 135. Detailed Method. At best all of the above methods are an approximation and are, therefore, inexact. To obtain a more accurate estimate the detailed method must be followed. By this method, the actual quanti- ties of the materials are taken off, categorically arranged and calculated, the cost of labor is figured, contingencies are provided for, a percentage of profit is added and a total is obtained that is as close to the actual cost as human ingenuity can accompHsh. The principal divisions of an estimate are given below, arranged in a form that will be found convenient in summa- rizing for the grand total. Excavation, Stonework, Brickwork, Carpentry, Roof and Sheet Metal Work, Plastering, Heating, Plumbing and Gas Fitting, Electric Wiring, Painting and Glazing, Hardware, Etc., etc. Owing to the variable character of the prices for materials and of wages, the authors, instead of arbitrarily quoting prices have analyzed the subject in such a way that the student can tell at a glance the different items that enter into a particular estimate. Thus, instead of giving the price of 1000 bricks laid complete in a wall, the amount of mortar required to lay 1000 bricks and the time it would take to lay them are given, and the student, by obtaining local prices for these items, can ascertain, accurately the total cost. 90 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING In estimating, follow the actual construction of the building as closely as possible. First, figure the cost of surveying, clearing the site and laying out the ground. Then measure up the amount of excavating required for the cellar walls, piers, etc. Follow this with the masonry work, concrete footings and cellar floor, stone foundation walls, and brick exterior and interior walls. Carpentry work comes next in order. Plastering, paint- ing, glazing, plumbing, electric lighting, etc., follow in the order given. At least 5% of the total cost of the building must be added for incidentals; that is, for the use of equipment, loss, hability, expenses, etc; and 10% for profit. Every item in the estimate should contain the following information: (1) quantity; (2) description of the work; (3) price; and (4) extension. Thus, 65 cubic yards concrete footing 1:3:5 @ 16.50, $422.50." 1500 square feet terra-cotta block Dartitions, @ 10.15, $225.00. As each item is taken off the drawings, the specifi- cations relating to that item should be read carefully and such information jotted down as is not included on the plans. The student is urged to follow rigidly the system herein outlined in taking off and in recording quantities. The main headings should be written in a clear, bold hand, should be numbered consecutively and underscored with a double line. All sub-headings should be underscored with a single line. Descriptive matter, dimensions, prices, and extensions of the different estimates should be placed under one another. Never use ditto marks to repeat figures. 136. Heading. Commence the estimate by giving the fol- lowing information, arranged as shown below: Location . . . Owner Address. . . . Architect. . . Address. . . . Description. Date received.. . Date submitted . Estimator Checked by Amount $ , (A) EXCAVATION The unit of measurement for excavation is the cubic yard. Determine the actual amount of material that has to be displaced to receive footings, foimdation walls, piers, chimneys, areas, porches, etc., and multiply the total obtained by the cost of excavating per cubic yard. This rate is variable and depends upon, (1) the character of the soil; whether wet or dry, clay or rock, etc.; (2) the manner of handling the material; whether with wheelbarrow, or horse and cart; and (3) the use to which the material excavated is put; whether it is to be taken away from the premises or left there to be used later for filling in and grading. When piling or blasting has to be resorted to, the cost is greatly increased. 137. Estimating Data. Among the important items to be considered under excavating, are the following: Cellar Catch basins Pumping Footings Pipe trenches Piling Piers Elevator pits Pilling Areas Shoring Grading Earth and clay will increase by about 30% of its original volume when excavated; sand and gravel by 16|%; loam by 20%; and rock by 50%. APPENDIX II-ESTIMATING 91 When an excavation is of greater depth than 6 feet (the height which one man can throw), stages- must be built, thus increasing the cost per cubic foot of material excavated. There- fore, in taking off measurements, divide as follows: " not •exceeding 6 ft."; " exceeding 6 ft. but not exceeding 12 ft." etc. Excavation for trenches for walls, piers, etc., should be kept separate from cellar excavation. Always excavate one foot outside of the foundation walls to allow ample room for the workmen to point, etc. In one working day two men should excavate, that is, dig and load into carts or wheelbarrows, 10 cubic yards of sand, gravel or soft clay, or about 6 yards of stiff gravel or clay. Refilling and grading amounts to about one-third the cost of earth excavation. 138. Arrangement of Estimating Sheet. The estimating sheet should be arranged as follows: 1. Excavation. Cellar: 29'0"X30'0"X4' 10"=4205cu.ft. = 156 cu.yds. @ 81,25=8 Wall, 110'0"X3'0" Xl'O" =330 " =12 " @ 1.50 = $ Pier, 2'6"X2'6"X1'0"X3= 19 " = 1 " @ 1.60 = 8 Total excavation I 2. Masonry. (See page 93.) Note. Fractions of J or more are counted 1. (The prices given above are used only for purposes of illus- tration. Under no condition should they be taken as standard. Having calculated the amount of material to be excavated the student should apply to some local contractor for prices and figure out his cost accordingly.) (B) MASONRY 139. Stonework. The unit of measure in stonework is the cubic foot, although the perch is sometiijies used. A 'perch is a mass of stone I65' long, IJ' wide, and 1' high and containing 24f cubic feet. To calculate by the perch, however, .is unreliable because in some localities a perch is figured at 22 cubic feet, while in stiU others 16§ cubic feet constitute a perch. In estimating the quantity of stonework required the operation is as follows: The length of the wall (which is measured around the outside, thus counting the corners twice), is first multiplied by the height of the wall, and then by its thickness. In measuring rubble masonry, no deductions are made for openings unless they exceed 15 square feet, in which case an allowance of one-half their area is made. In stone walls, openings less than 3 feet in width are disregarded; if over 3 feet, they are deducted. The practice of dis- regarding openings and of reckoning comers twice is accounted for by the increased cost of labor and additional material necessary in the construction of these parts. Steps, sills, lintels, belt-courses, coping, and all other trimmings or ornamental members are measured by the lineal foot and the local prices for these items should be obtained by the student. Estimating Data. A mason and helper will lay about 60 cubic feet of rubble in a day or about 40 cubic feet of ashlar. It requires \ cubic yard of sand and § barrel of cement (or if lime is used, ^ of a barrel), to lay one cubic yard of rubble wall. One barrel of Portland cement, 2 barrels of sand, and 5 bar- rels of broken stone will yield about 20 cubic feet of concrete. 92 ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING 140. Brickwork. A common method of calculating the quantity of brickwork, i.e., brick plus mortar required, is to figure the entire superficial area of the waU in square feet and to allow: TJ bricks per square foot for a wall 4 in. or J brick thick. 15 " " " 9 " 1 224 13 n and so on, adding 7J bricks per square foot for every increase of 4|" in the thickness of the wall. Outside measurements (girt) of brick walls should be taken to compensate for the time lost and the labor spent in bonding angles. No deductions are made for openings in walls built of common brick, unless the openings are large and numerous; nor is any allowance made for stone or terra-cotta trimmings. In computing for pressed brick, deduct all openings. Hollow walls are reckoned as if solid Estimating Data. A mason and helper should lay about 1000 common bricks in 6 hours or from 450 to 550 face brick in one 8-hour day. The thicker the wall the greater will be the number of bricks that can be laid. Thus a man can lay about one and one-half times as many bricks in an 18-inch wall as he can lay, in the same length of time, in a 9-inch wall. Of course the complexity of the design, the height of the building and the season must always be taken into consideration in determining the amount of brick that can be laid in a given period. It takes 1| barrels of lime and f cubic yard of sand to lay 1000 bricks; if cement is used in the proportion of 1 to 3, it takes 1| barrels of cement, f cubic yard of sand, and 10% of the mix- ture of lime, to lay 1000 bricks. The following table shows the quantity of mortar required to lay 1000 brick with varying sizes of joints: Joints j^- ■inch thick. 8 cu .ft. mortar. " 1 1 1 12 i t " A i i 12 i I " 1 i i 15 1 1 " 1 2 1 1 18 it More generally speaking, allow \ cubic yard of mortar per cubic yard of brick masonry. One thousand, brick when laid up in the wall occupy approximately 2 cubic yards. Chimneys are figured by counting the number of brick required for one course and allowing 5 courses to the foot of height. 141. Table of Quantities. be found useful: The following equivalents will often 4 bags make 1 barrel of cement. 2J bushels of lime or cement make one barrel. 1 barrel of lime contains about 3.6 cubic feet. A bricklayer's hod will hold 20 bricks or f cubic foot of mortar. 1000 bricks closely stacked occupy 56 cubic feet. 1000 old bricks, cleaned and loosely stacked occupy 72 cu.ft. 500 bricks make 1 cart load. To allow for breakage, add 5% to the actual number of bricks needed. 142. Masonry Items. For the purpose of checking masonry work, the following list of material and of parts of the build- ing requiring masonry work are given: Materials. Members. Lime Footings Cemeiit Foundation walls Sand Piers Broken stone Chimneys Gravel Chimney breasts APPENDIX II— ESTIMATING 93 Materials. Members. Cut stone: Granite Flue linings Bluestone Area walls Limestone Cisterns Sandstone Exterior walls Marble Partition walls Carved stonework Brick Face Rough Bolts and anchors Labor 143. Arrangement of Estimating Sheet. The masonry esti- mating sheet should be arranged as follows: 2. Masonry. Concrete Footings : 1:3:5 Portland cement, sharp sand, and 2" broken stone; in forms. ■Side waUs 30' 0" X2' 0" X 1' 0" X2 = 120 cu.ft. Front and rear walk ... 25' 0" X2' 0" X 1' 0" X2 = 100 " Chimney 4' 6"Xl'0"Xl'0" 5 " Piers 1'6"X1'6"X1'0"X3= 7 " 232cu.ft@27(»=$ Foundation Walls : Rubble stone in Rosendale cement 1:3; up to grade. Side waU 24' 0" X 1' 6" X4' 4" = 156 cu.ft. SidewaU 28'0"X1'6"X4'4" =182 " Front waU 27'0"Xl'6"X4'4" =176 " HearwaU 27'0"Xl'6"X4'4" =176 " 690cu.ft. @22^ = $ Brickwork : Rough brick; from grade to underside of first tier of beams; in Portland cement mortar 1 : 3. SidewaU 28'0"Xl' 0"X2' 8" = 75 cu.ft. SidewaU 28'0"Xl'0"X2' 8" = 75 " Front waU '. . . . 25'0"Xl'0"X2'8" = 67 " RearwaU 25'0"Xl'0"X2'8" = 67 " 284 284 cu.ft. LESS OPENINGS Window 2'6"X1'6"X1'0"X6 = 23 cu.ft. Door 3'0"X1'0"X2'8" = 8 " 31 cu.ft. 31 253 cu.ft. 253X224=5693 rough brick 69X 8 = 472 face brick (see below) Net rough brick 522H-5% = 5482 or 5500 brick @ $20 per M.=f Face brick, in colored cement 1:2; running bond. Front 15'0"X2'8" =40 sq.ft. Return 4'0"X2'8" =11 " Chimney..'. 3'0"X2'8" =8" 59 sq.ft. Face brick 59X8 (brick per sq.ft.) =472 brick @ $60 per M. =$ $ (Again the student is cautioned to obtain local prices for the various items above enumerated. The prices here quoted are simply illustrative.) (C) PLASTERING The square yard is the unit of measure by which plastering is estimated. There is no uniform rule regarding allowances for " outs," i.e., door and window openings. In some localities, no deductions are made; in others, one-half the area of the openings is deducted; while in 94 ARCHITECTUKAL DRAFTING ■still others, only openings. of a specified area are deducted. The student should, therefore, make inquiries regarding the practice obtaining in his locality. In taking off quantities for plastering, measure each room separately, arrange them categorically ,_ floor by floor, and reduce the measurements to square feet of wall surface as the dimensions of each room are set down. Then compute the number of square feet of " outs," and deduct this amount from the total number of square feet of plastering before reducing to square yards. Some of the more common practices in taking off quan- tities for 'plastering are the following: (1) Pilasters and all strips less than 12" wide are measured 12". (2) For closets, add one-half to the actual dimensions. (3) Charge a double price for all circular or elliptical work. (4) Figure cornices by the square foot if they are com- posed of plain members, and by the lineal foot if they are composed of enriched moldings. (5) Add 5% for each 12' in height above the first 12', on interior work, and 1% for each 20' in height above the first 20', on exterior work. 144. Estimating Data. Lathing. Laths are put up in bundles of 50 or 100. To cover 100 square yards, 1500 laths and 10 pounds of 3d finishing nails are required. Under ordinary cir- cumstances a man should lath 100 square yards per day. Plaster. To cover 100 square yards, the following quantities are needed; for 3-coat work, 2 cubic yards of sand, 2 bushels of hair, 12 bushels of lime, and 100 pounds of plaster of Paris. For 2-coat work, 10 bushels of lime, IJ bushels of hair and 1| cubic yards of sand are required. Two plasterers and one helper should average 45 square yards of 3-coat plastering or about 65 square yards of 2-coat. Given the above figures, the student should have little difficulty in computing the price per 100 square yards. of plastering once he has obtained the rate of wages and the price of plasterer's supplies. 145. Arrangement of Estimate Sheet. Arrange the plastering estimate sheet as follows: 3. Plastering. 3-coat work on spruce lath. Living Room. Walls 57' 0"X 9' 0" = 513 sq.ft. Ceiling 14' 0"X14' 6" = 203 " Dining Boom. Walls 48' 0"X 9' 0"=432 " Ceiling 12'0"X12'0" = 144 " Etc. 1292 sq.ft. Deductions: 8'0"X7'0"X2 = 112 6'6"X7'0" = 46 6'0"X5'0"' = 30 6'0"X4'0" = 20 208 1084 sq.ft. Total plastering 1084-4-9 = 121 sq.yds. @ 50(i! per sq.yd. =$ (D) CARPENTRY Lumber is. calculated by the foot, board measure. A board foot is a piece of lumber 1 foot long, 1 foot wide, and 1 inch thick. To find the number of board feet in any piece of timber divide the sectional area in inches by 12 and multiply the quotient by the length in feet. Thus, a 2"x9" floor joist, 18 feet long, contains 2x9 12 Xl8=27ft. B.M. The following table shows at a glance the number of board feet contained in stock lumber from 2"x4" to 14"xl6"> from 10' to 32' in length. APPENDIX II— ESTIMATING 95 TABLE OF BOARD MEASURE Length n Feet Inches. 10 13 14 16 18 30 33 34 36 38 30 33 2X 4 61 8 9i 101 12 13* 14! 16 17* 18! 20 21* 2X 6 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 ,2X 8 13i 16 18f 21i 24 26! 29* 32 34! 37* 40 42f 2X10 161 20 231 26! 30 33* 36! 40 43* 46f 50 53* 2X12 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 2X14 23J 28 32f 37* 42 461 51* 56 60! 65* 70 74! 2X16 261 32 37i 421 48 53* 581 64 69* 74! 80 86* 2iX12 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 2iX14 29J 35 40f 46! 52* 58* 64* 70 751 81! 87* 93* 2iX16 33i 40 46| 53* 60 66! 73* 80 86! 93* 100 1061 3X 6 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 3X 8 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 3X10 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 3X12 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90 96 3X14 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84 91 98 105 112 3X16 40 48 56 64 72 80 88 96 104 112 120 128 4X 4 m 16 181 21* 24 261 29* 32 34! 37* 40 42f 4X 6 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 66 60 64 4X 8 261 32 37* 42! 48 53* 58! 64 69* 74f 80 85* 4X10 331 40 461 53* 60 66| 73* 80 86! 93* 100 106! 4X12 40 48 56 64 72 80 88 96 104 112 120 128 4X14 46i 56 651 74! 84 93* 102! 112 121* 130! 140 149* 6X 6 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90 96 6X 8 40 48 56 64 72 80 88 96 104 112 120 128 6X10 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 6X12 00 72 84 96 108 120 132 144 156 168 180 192 6X14 70 84 98 112 126 140 154 168 182 196 210 224 6X16 80 96 112 128 144 160 176 192 208. 224 240 256 8X 8 53J 64 74f 85* 96 106! 117* 128 1381 149* 160 170! 8X10 66i 80 93* 106! 120 133* 146! 160 173* 1861 200 213* 8X12 80 96 112 128 144 160 176 192 208 224 240 256 8X14 93i 112 1301 149* 168 1861 205* 224 242! 261* 280 2981 10X10 83^ 100 116i 133* 150 166! 183* 200 216! 233* 250 266! 10X12 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 10X14 1161 140 163f 186! 210 233* 2561 280 303* 326! 350 373* 10X16 133* 160 1861 213* 240 2661 293* 320 3461 37'3* 400 4261 12X12 120 144 168 192 216 240 264 288 312 336 360 384 12X14 140 168 196 224 252 280 308 336 364 392 420 448 12X16 160 192 224 256 288 320 352 384 416 448 480 512 1 14X14 163J 196 2281 261* 294 3261 369* 392 4241 457* 490 522* 14X16 186f 224 261* 298! 336 373* 410! 448 485* 522! 560 597* In obtaining an estimate of the carpentiy work, the following three divisions are suggested: (a) lumber; (b) mill work; and (c) labor. Each of these has further sub- divsionSj which will be taken up in due order. 146. Lumber. The items included under this head- ing are as follows: Sills Lookouts Girders Collar beams Posts Studding — Outside Girts Partition Braces Furring Joists — Basement Grounds First Floor Sheathing Etc. Siding Bridging Shingles Plates Building paper Rafters — Common Flooring — finished Hip under Valley Jack (Of course, the above list does not comprise every possible item. However, a sufficient number of examples are given under each heading to allow one to recognize and properly classify any item not mentioned above.) Beginning with the girders and following in the order of erection with sills, posts, joists, studs, etc., the number of board feet is computed in each member and itemized as shown below. The total number pf board feet is obtained, and this number is multiplied by the prevailing price of lumber per 1000 feet, board measure. A foot, board measure, is represented by the symbol i. ; a square foot, by g. 96 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 4, 6"X8"X8'0" girders = 128 J. 3, 6"X6"X6'0" posts = 54± 46, 2"X8"X12' 0" first floor beams = 736± 8, 6"X6"X14'0" silk =336± "Rtp pfr» Total feet framing lumber J. @ $38 per M. = 8000 shingles, red cedar, perfection, 6"X18" @ $5 per M. = 2000 Cp first floor flooring, F'X2i", N.C.T. & G. @ $45 per M. [q = . . . Etc. etc. Total lumber biU $ 147. Mill Work. Mill work embraces all finished lum- ber, that is, all lumber that has to be run through machines. This second part of the carpentry estimate lends itself to two divisions: exterior mill work and interior mill work. Some of the items included under each division are given below: (1) Exterior Finish. Window frames glazing blinds Door frames Porch rail balusters newels Cornices Corner boards Belt courses Water table (2) Interim Finish. Doors — sliding folding Window stops stools Casings Book cases Mantels Medicine case Shelving Floor mold, chair-rail, wain- scoting, picture molding, etc. The stock bill for mill work should be drawn up in the same careful manner as that outlined for the lumber bill. Every item taken off should be checked and constantly verified. 27 Windows, complete, with hardware, 30"X28", 6 Its. upper sash, 1 It. lower sash, @ $14 =' - 4 Entrance and vestibule doors, oak, complete 3' 0"X7 Xlf @ $30 =S 1 Medicine case, oak, glass shelving $ Picture molding, |"X1|", oak, 1200 hn.ft. @ 5 cts. =$ Etc., etc. Total miU work $ 148. Labor. Labor is figured by the square foot in some cases, by the hneal foot in others, and by the piece in still other instances. By the Sqtiare Foot. By the Lineal Foot. By the Piece. Flooring Cornices - Stairs Walls Belt courses Mantels Roofing Porch rails Closets Sheathing Inside trim Columns, etc. Siding ShingUng The authors suggest the following scheme in arranging prices, of materials and labor for the carpentry estimate. Material. 1 Labor. 60— 3"X12"X12'0", Y.P.S.L. Floor beams 1800 ± $35.00 M. $63.00 $30 M. $36.00> 1"X2", Spruce Bridging 1000 Un.ft. SO(J 5.00 If! l.ft. 10.00- i"X2i", N.C.T. & G. Flooring 2000 □ S45.00M. 90.00 2f« sq.ft. 40.00> Best Cypress Shingles 8000 $5.00 M. 40.00 6.00 M. 48.00 Etc. etc. $ Total labor, cost . . . $ 149. Estimating Data. Beams. To find the number of beams, divide the length of the building in feet by the distance (also in feet), the beams are placed on centers, and add one joist. Rafters are calculated in the same manner. APPENDIX II-ESTIMATING 97 About 850 feet, board measure, of conmion sized joists can be framed and set in one day by two carpenters working together. A conservative estimate of the number of rafters that can be laid by two men in one day would be 500 feet if the roof is plain; i.e., if it is not cut into by dormers, hips, etc. About 22 pounds of lOd nails are needed per 1000 feet of beams or rafters. Bridging. To illustrate the method of calculating the number of board feet of bridging required, let us assume a house 25' wide and 50' deep. Since bridging is placed 8 feet apart, two rows of double bridging are needed. Therefore 50X4, or 200, will give the number of lineal feet; multipljr-ing this by J, if the bridging is 2X3 inches will give the number of board feet; to this must be added 20% for waste in cutting and fitting. One man can put in place 500 lineal feet of 2"X3" bridging per day. Studding. To arrive at the quantity of studs, take the out- side measurements of the building and allow one stud for each lineal foot. This method of computing provides for the doubling of studs at corners, doors, and windows. If the studs for par- titions are calculated in the same mann^er, that is, one stud for each foot in length, no extra studs need be allowed for partition plates at the top and bottom. Two workmen can frame and put up from 600 to 700 feet of studding per day. One thousand feet of studding require about 15 pounds of lOd nails. Sheathing. Sheathing is estimated by the square, i.e., by the 100 square feet. To find the quantity of horizontal sheathing required, calculate the area of all surfaces (walls and roofs) covered, allowing nothing for openings. If diagonal sheathing is used, proceed as above and add 10% for waste in sawing both ends. When estimating for roof surfaces, add 25% to the actual a.rea to be covered. Two men will average 10 squares of horizontal sheathing and 8 squares of diagonal sheathing per day. Only half the former amount can be accomplished when applying sheathing on roofs, particularly if the layout is complex. About 25 pounds of IQd nails will be needed for 1000 feet of sheathing. Flooring. Flooring is estimated by the square or by the thousand square feet. Considerable material is consumed in cutting tongues and grooves in the boards. Therefore, to arrive at the amount of finished flooring required for a given room, multiply its width in feet by its length in feet, and add the follow- ing percentages: 50% for M"Xli" flooring; 37i% for if "X2" flooring; 331% for lf"X2J" flooring. An average day's work for two carpenters is 4 squares of matched flooring or about twice that amount of square edged flooring. Approximately, 35 pounds of lOd nails are needed per square. Siding. Obtain the gross superficial area, making no allow- ance for openings and add the following percentages for waste: 25% if 6" siding is used and 33i% if 4" siding is used. To the cost of 1000 square feet of siding must be added the cost of 1000 square feet plus 10% of building paper, and 18 pounds of 6d nails. Two men should set up complete from 600 to 650 board feet of siding. The above method of figuring includes labor and material for corner boards, and belt courses. Shingles. Assuming one side of a house to be 25'X30', the number of square feet will be 750; subtracting the " outs " which we will assume to be 150, the net surface to be covered will be 600 square feet; figuring 5 shingles to the foot, 3000 98 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING will be needed; allowing 5% for waste, gives 3150, the total number of shingles required to cover the given surface. Therefore to calculate the number of shingles required, find the area of the surface to be covered, deduct the " outs " or openings, and allow 5 shingles to the square foot; to this result add 5% for waste. One thousand shingles require 5 pounds of M nails. One man can lay 2000 shingles per day. For other methods of estimating quantities and labor the student is referred to " Roof Shingles," paragraph 99. Doors and Windows. Assume a typical window and figure it complete in every detail: frame, sashj weights, cord, etc.; also, labor on all these items. Having ascertained the cost of one window, multiply it by the number of windows in the build- ing. Proceed in the same manner with doors. It is advisable to make all doors and windows of stock size, for not only does that decrease the cost, but estimating is greatly f acihtated thereby. As an aid to the student in arriving at prices, the following analyses of a door and a window are given: Window d'X6' Window frame $ 6.00 Sashes (3' X 6' : double hung) 4 . 00 Blinds (2) 2.50 BUnd fastenings .25 Weights (30 pounds) 90 Sash cord (20 feet) 50 Sash fasteners .25 Jamb (16 feet) 48 Inside casing (16 ft.) 1 . 28 Stop bead .30 Labor, 12 hours 7.50 Total cost $23.96 Door2', 8"X6', 8"Xlf" Door, pine $10.00 Frame 1.00 Jamb 1.00 Casings 2.00 Saddle 40 Nails 10 Hardware .80 Labor 10 hours. . 6.25 Total cost $21.55 The student should acquaint himself with actual prices cur- rent in his particular locality and change or insert the figures to suit. One man can do the following: 1. He can set, glaze, put on hardware, fit, weigh sash and hang the weights of an ordinary size window (3'X6', 4 lights) in 1| days. 2. He can frame,, install jambs, trim, fit and hang one interior door in 1^ days; one sliding door in 2 J days; and one front door in 2 days. 3. He can set up 50 feet of three-member base per day, in- cluding grounds; 80 feet of two-member base; or 120 ft. of one-member base. Two men can install complete 1 wardrobe or 1 kitchen dresser (4 ft. wide by 9 ft. high) in one day. Stairs. Estimate in detail the cost of one step (riser, tread,, nosing, carriage, string, handrail, baluster and labor for cutting,, housing, setting and finishing same), and multiply by the number of steps in the flight. Front stairs cost from $4 to $5 per step: rear stairs from $2 to $3 per step; and cellar stairs from 85(4 to $1 per step. Of course these prices are not stationary; nor do they obtain in all localities. Any local stair contractor will gladly furnish the student current prices of the above items. Cornice. The method recommended to the student in figuring the cost of a cornice, is this: Allow one cent per linal foot for each inch in width or girth of cornice; this price will include all labor and material. (It can not be too often repeated that prices of labor and material herein given are used for purposes of illustration land are not to be taken as standard.) APPENDIX II— ESTIMATING 99 (E) ROOFING Roofing is estimated by the square which is equal to 100 square feet. 160. Slate Roof. Slates are laid with a lap of 3 inches, i.e., the top slate of the third course above will overlap by 3 inches the slate of the first coiirse below. Each slate is fastened in place with two nails, one in each upper corner. TABLE Showing Sizes of Slates, the Number of Pieces in a Square, and the Gauge, Allowing 3 Inches Lap Size of Slate (Inches). No. in «ach Square. Length of Exposure to the Weather. 12X 6 533 4J 12X 7 457 4i 12X 8 400 4J 14X 7 374 5i 14X 8 327 51 14X10 261 5i 16X 8 277 61 16X 9 247 6i 16X10 222 64 16X12 185 6i 18X 9 214 7i 18X10 192 74 18X12 160 74 20X10 170 84 20X12 142 84 22X11 138 94 22X12 126 94 24X12 115 104 24X14 98 104 To determine the number of slates required to cover one square, divide 14,400 by the exposed area of one slate. The latter is obtained by subtracting the lap (3") from the length of the slate, dividing by 2, and multiplying by the width of the slate. Thus, a 10"X16" slate has a "gauge" or an exposed length of — — = 6-1", which, multiplied by 10 equals 65, the area of the exposed surface; this area divided into 14,400, will give 222, the required number of slates for one square. An allow- ance of about 20% should be made for waste in cutting around chimneys, hips, etc. The number of nails will be twice the number of slates used. Slates up to and including 20", should be secured with 3d nails; larger sizes should have 4d nails. One roll of tar paper will cover one square of roofing surface. A man should lay one square of slate roofing, complete, in about five hours. 151. Shingle Roof. Shingles are estimated by the thousand. They usually come in 4-inch and 6-inch widths and are 16 or 18 inches long. They are put up in bundles of 250. To illustrate the manner of calculating the quantity of shingles required per square: A shingle 4" wide laid 4 J" to the weather will cover 18 square inches. A square contains 14,400 square inches, hence dividing this by 18 will give 800. Add 5% for poor or broken shingles. About 5 pounds of 4d nails will secure 1000 shingles. From 1500 to 2000 shingles per day would constitute a fair day's work when the surface is plain and 1000 shingles if the surface is cut up. TABLE Number of Shingles Per Square ■(Length of shingles 16") To the Weather. Number per Square. Covering Capacity of M. Shingles. 4 900 Ill 44 800 125 5 720 139 6 600 167 7 614 194 8 450 222 100 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING The above figures are for plain gable roofs; for hip roofs or those having many dormers and valleys, add 5% to the above quantities in addition to the 5% for poor or broken shingles. 152. Tin Roof. The standard sizes of tins are 10"X14" and multiples thereof, e.g., 14X20, 20X28, etc. Tins are laid with 1" laps; therefore, in finding the area of roof surface covered by a 10"X14" tin, for instance, deduct one inch from the length and the breadth and proceed in the same manner as described under shingle roofing in ascertaining the number of sheets needed to cover a square. One box of tin contains 112 sheets (14"X20") and will cover 182 square feet of surface if standing seajns are used, and 192 square feet if lock seams are used. Two men working eight hours should cover from 2§ to 3 squares of roofing per day, depending upon the character of the surface tinned. To the cost of labor must be added the following: 8 pounds solder, 2 pounds nails, 1 pound rosin, and 1 roll paper or felt, per square . Gutters and spouts are measured by the lineal foot; flash- ing by the square foot. (F) MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT In estimating the mechanical equipment of a building (plumbing, gas-piping, wiring, heating, and hardware), the contractor usually requests bids from experts in their respective lines of work and uses the figures submitted as a basis in arriving at the total cost of the entire contract. The suggestions given below are for that reason of the most general charac- ternand should be used in obtaining only very rough estimates. 153. Plumbing. Plumbing fixtures of the same quality and used for the same purpose will evidently cost the same per fixture if used in the same type of house whether installed in a building of four stories or in one of ten stories. Hence, by obtaining from a local contracting plumber the cost of installing complete per fixture the particular type of fixture you are bidding on, the question of estimating plumbing reduces itself to one of simple addition and multiplication. The work of taking off the quantity of fixtures needed is considerably less- ened if the specifications contain a schedule of fixtures. See " Fixtures," article 128. Plumbing, that is material and labor, costs from 8 to 10% of the cost of an ordinary dwelling. On a basis of 100, 30 would represent labor and 70, stock. 154. Piping and Wiring Approximate estimates for piping for gas and of wiring for incandescent lights may be based upon the number of outlets, the price of which any contractor will gladly furnish. The cost of piping, without the fixtures, is from 2 to 4% of the cost of the building. 155. Heating. A hot-air system cost approximately from 6 to 7% of the total expenditure for the ordinary class of house; from 8 to 10% if a steam heating system is employed; and from 10 to 12% if a hot water system is installed. 156. General. The layout or arrangement of the plumbing work affects to a considerable extent the cost of the mechanical equipment of a building. The cost of installing a sink, for instance, on the third floor, would be less if it comes directly over another sink on the second floor, than if both fixtures were in entirely different parts of the house. For, in the latter case two waste and two vent pipes would be required, while in the APPENDIX II-ESTIMATING 101 former case one waste and two short vents would suffice. Sim- iliarly, in the case of wiring and gas fitting, a number of outlets in close proximity would cost less per outlet than if they were widely separated. The cost of wiring would be affected by the manner of running the wires, whether through conduits, or by the knob and tube method. These instances are cited merely to show the complicated character of the subjects at hand and the rashness of going into further detail in their discussion. (G) HARDWARE Referring to the specifications for quality and finish, to the plans for quantity, and to the catalogue of a reputable firm (the name of which is usually specified) for net prices, the various hardware items are taken off, the cost figured, and an estimate obtained. Any errors that may occui' will be foimd due not so much to calcula- tion as to omission. It is therefore recommended that a complete list of all the hardware trimmings that usually enter into the equipment of a house be prepared and that the list be constantly referred to and checked as a precau- tion against probable omission. 157. Estimating Data. Below is ^ven a list of hardware items which may be used as a guide in preparing an estimate. Closets. Coat and hat hooks Shelf brackets Drawer pulls Catches Windows. Sash fasts Sash cords Sash weights Sash lifters Transom fixtures Doors. Miscellaneous Knobs Nails Escutcheons Screws Locks Bolts Butts Clothes hooks Hinges Bolts Sliding door hangers Letter plates Push plates Spring and catches Hardware will average about 2% of the total cost of the building. Labor may be reckoned at one-fifth the cost of the materials. NUMBER OF NAILS REQUIRED 1000 Shingles 3i lb. 3d 1000 Laths 6i lb. 3d fine nails. 1000 sq.ft. Beveled siding 6" 18 lb. 6d 1000 sq.ft. Sheathing 20 lb. 8d 1000 sq.ft. Flooring -. 30 lb. 8d 1000 sq.ft. Studding 15 lb. lOd 1000 sq.ft. Furring (1"X2") 10 lb. lOd 1000 sq.ft. Finished flooring (f ") 30 lb. 8d finishing nails. 1000 sq.ft. Finished flooring (If") 40 lb. lOd " 1000 pieces Bridging 1 X4 35 lb. 8d 1000 pieces Bridging 2X4 50 lb. lOd LENGTH AND APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF NAILS PER POUND Size 2d 3d 4d 5d 6d 7d 8d 9d lOd 12d 16d ?0d Length 1" li" 14" If" 2" 2i" 2i" 2|" 3" 3i" 2i" 4" Cut nails 800 480 288 200 168 124 88 70 58 44 34 23 Wire nails 876 568 315 270 180 160 105 96 69 64 49 31 Finishing nails . 1351 807 584 500 309 238 189 172 121 113 90 62 10^ ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING (H) PAINTING AND PAPERING Painting is estimated by the square yard of surface to be covered. It is customary not to take into account the size of openings in measuring the surface to be covered because the labor required in painting sill, sash, and casing would more than equal the labor required in painting a solid wall. The price per square yard varies with the kind of paint used, the character of the surface to be covered, and the need if any, of staging. Hardly any two painters use the same method in estimating their work, and no rules can therefore be laid down that will be applicable to all cases. Judgment and practical experience play a greater factor in painting than in any other branch of estimating. 158. Estimating Data. To ascertain the amount of paint needed, add the length in feet of the front, rear, and the two side walls of the house, multiply this sum by the average height and divide by 250. One gallon of prepared paint will cover from 200 to 300 square feet, or an average of 250 square feet of surface, two-coat work. The rougher and more porous the surface the greater will be the amount of paint used. About one pound of putty for stopping is required for every 175 square feet of surface. Some contractors figure painting at 1 cent per square foot for every coat applied. One thousand shingles dipped one coat and brushed one coat require 3 gallons of stain. One gallon may be figured to cover 150 square feet of surface brushed one coat or 100 square feet, brushed two coats. Labor may be calculated at from 1§ to twice the cost of the stock, depending upon the complexity of the work. 159. Papering. Wall paper may be purchased in double rolls 18" wide and 16 yards long. To find the quantity of paper required measure the perimeter of the room in yards, deduct only openings exceeding 20 square feet and add \ for waste in cutting around openings and for matching the pattern of the paper. The number of strips will be double the number of yards. Divide the number of strips required by the number of strips that can be cut from a roll and the result will be the number of rolls required. 160. Summary Sheet. When the student has com- pleted his detailed estimate, he should make up a recapitu- lation or summary sheet, which should be arranged thus : SUMMARY Excavation $ Concrete Stonework ... Brickwork Plastering Carpentry Hardware Tin work Plumbing and gas fitting Electric work Painting Total cost $ Incidentals, 5% of total Profit, 10% of total Grand total $ INDEX PAGE Aggregate 28 Anchor 37 Approximate estimating: basis of 88 methods 89 Arch 74 Architectural symbols 15 Architecture: adaptability 74 art and science 1, 71 definition 69 mirror of civilization 73 orders of 71 Architrave 64 Ashlar 26 Ash pit 51 Axes 19 Balance 19 Balloon frame 48 Balusters 66 Baseboard • • 64 specifications for 80 Bat 24 Batten, see Roof lath. Batter boards 32 fAGE Bay window ^^ Beams 45 estimating ^^ in brick walls 37 specifications ^^ in terrarcotta tile wall 43 size 46 spacing 46 support 48 tail 46 under partitions 49 Bearing partitions 49 Bearing walls, Portland cement for 28 Beauty in design 69 in decoration 73 definition 74 Bells 85 Blocks: concrete 41 terra-cotta 30, 42 Board foot 94 Boarding, see Sheathing. Bonding: angles in brickwork 36 brick 23 stone J 38 103 104 INDEX Box stairs 66 Braced frame, see Full frame. Braces 46, 48, 52 Brick: common 22 construction 36 conventions for 15 face , 22 footings 35 laying 36 manufacture 22 bize 23 specifications 77 testing .' 22 Brick walls : thickness 36 estimating data 92 Brickwork: bonding 23 estimating 92 joints in 23 pointing 23 specifications 77 terms 24 Bridging: estimating 97 floor 46 specifications 79 waU 49 Bridle irons, see Stirrup irons. Brushes 4 Building: details, conventions 17 materials, conventions 15 paper 54 specifications 79 stones 24 PAGB Casement window ^" Cement: for concrete 39 kinds 26 natural or Rosendale 28 Poriiland 28 specifications 77 Chair rail 64 Chimney: estimating brick for 92 flue , 50 framing for ■ 46 specifications 79 material for building 50 specifications 78 Clapboard 54 specifications 79 Closer 24 Coats of plaster 63 quantities of material for 94 specifications 78 Combination frame 48 Concrete: blocks 29, 40 composition 28 construction 39 convention for 15 estimating data 91 mixing, laying 39 reinforced 29, 40 specifications 77 Conduit 84 Construction: frame 45 masonry 31 materials of 22 Contracts 11 INDEX 105 PAGE Contracts, procedure 50 Comer board 55 Corner post 46 specifications 79 Cornice: estimating cost of 98 exterior 53 interior 64 Cost, see Estimating. Course in brickwork 24 Cubing 89 Decoration 72 Design 69 divisions of exterior 21 factors in 70 of plan and elevation 9 principles of 19, 21 procedure 10 Detailed estimating 89 Details: conventions for building 17 definition 9 scale of 4 Dimensioning 13 Dog-legged stairs 66 Door frame, specifications 80 Doors: design of 72 estimating 98 solid : 61 specifications 80 types 61 veneered 59 Dormer 59 Double-hung window, see Window. Drafting methods 7 • PAGE Drawing: architectural vs. mechanical 1 architectural vs. freehand 2 exhibition 17 instruments 2 moldings 11 preliminary 4, 11 . silhouetting 11 working 4, 11 Earth: convention for 15 increase in volume 90 Eaves '. 60 Eave trough, see Gutter. Elevation: definition 9 expression 70 plan and design of 10 Estimate: approximate 88 arrangement of sheet 91, 93, 94, 96 detailed 89 divisions 89 procedure 90 ■summary 102 Estimating: carpentry 94 excavation 90 hardware 101 heating 100 masonry 91 painting and papering 102 piping and wiring 100 plumbing 100 roofing 99 106, INDEX PAGE Excavation: estimating 90 size 33 specifications 77 Expression : in design 70 principles of 19 technique of 11 Exterior finish 52 provision for 45 Facade 9 Fenestration 71 Finish: exterior 52 specifications 79 interior 61 specifications • 80 standing, see Trim. stucco 57 Fireplace 51 Fixtures, plumbing 83 electrical 84 Flashing 55 Flight of stairs 65 Floor beams, see Beams. Flooring, estimating 97 kinds 64 specifications 80 Flue ■ 50 specifications 78 Footings: purpose 33 materials for; sizes of 35 Fore-and-aft partition 49 Forms for concrete 39 PASK Foundation wall : definition 35 materials 35, 41 Portland cement for 28 thickness 35 waterproofing 31 Frame, balloon 48 combination 48 construction ; . . . . 45 door, specification 80 full or braced 46 window, specification 80 Framework : 46 Framing around chimney 51 specifications 79 Freehand drawing, see Drawing. French windows 59 Fresh-air inlet 82 Full frame 46, 48 Furring brick walls 37 plaster, for 63 strips 56 terra-cotta 43 Gable roof 54 Gambrel roof 54 Gas fittings 33 Geometrical stairs '. 67 Girders 45 Girts ;• 43 specifications 79 Glazing g j Granite 24 Grounds gg Gutters 52 specifications jqq INDEX 107 PAGE Handrail 66 Hardware 80 estimating 101 Headroom 68 Headers : brick 24 wood 46 specifications 79 Heating: estimating 100 specifications 85 Hip roof 54 House sewer; drain 81 Ink, slab 4 stick of India 4 Inking, on tracing cloth 5 order of 11 Interior finish 61 Iron, see Steel. Joints in brickwork 23 specifications 77 stonework 26 Joists, see Beams. Key, plaster "1 to materials 1^ Landing ° ' Lath: estimating ^* metal ^^ specifications ' ° roof 52 specifications '^ size of wood specifications wood 56' ^1 PAGE Leaders 52 specifications 82 Lean-to roof 53 Ledge 51 Ledged door; ledged and braced door 61 Ledger board, see Ribbon. Lime, specifications 77 Limestone 24 natural cement 28 Lintel 74 Mansard roof 54 Marble 26 Masonry : estimating , 91 walls; materials and thickness 36 Materials : key to building 15 Mechanical drawing: architecture versus 1 characteristics 1, 11 faculties developed 2 Mechanical equipment 100 Moldings 71 profiles 11 Mortar, kinds 28 quantities per 1000 brick 92 specifications 77 MuUions 59 Nails 101 Newel 66 Non-bearing partitions 49 Nosing 65 Open-newel stair 67 Orders of architecture 71 Ornament, see Decoration. 108 INDEX PAGE Painting: estimating 102 specifications 80 Paneled doors 61 Paper: building 64 damp-proof, for walls 65 Manila 6 tracing 5 waterproof, for roofs 52 Whatman's 6 Papering 102 Partitions, kinds 49 estimating studs for 97 specifications .'..... 79 terra-cotta tile 43 Pencils ' 4 Perch 91 Piers, cellar 45 structural principle 74 Piles , 35 Pipes, heating 86 plumbing 82 Piping for gas, estimating 100 Pitch 53 Plans, definition 7 ■ elevation and, design of 9 expression of 70 Plaster: coats of 63 conventions for 15 estimating 93 ejcterior 55 interior 63 ornamental 63 specifications , 78 Plate. . . ; 46 PAGE Plate rack 64 Plumbing, estimating 100 specifications 81 Pointing 23 Principles of design 70 Proportion 71 Radiators 86 Rafters 46 estimating 96 kinds 50 Rendering equipment 4 rules 13 methods 14, 15 Ribbon 48 Ridge 60 Rise of, roof 53 step 65 Riser 65 Roof, estimating materials for 99, 100 finish 52 framing 49 lath 52 sheathing, estimating 97 terms 53 terrarcotta tile 43 types 53, 54 Rooms, arrangement 31 Rubble, kinds 26 walls, estimating 91 Run of, roof 53 stair 65 Sand, specifications 77 Sandstone , 24 Sash, see Window; specifications go Scale, definition , 2 INDEX 109 7AGE Scale of drawings and details 4, 11 Sections, building materials 15 definition; kinds 9 Sheathing, estimating 97 floors 45 roofs 52 specifications 79 Shingles, estimating quantity 97, 99 exterior covering 55 laying 52 painting 81 specifications 79 Siding, estimating 97 kinds 54 SiU 45 specifications 79 Site. 31, 88 Size of framing timbers .* 79 Sketches 10 Slate 99 Soil pipe 82 Specifications: aid to estimating 90 brickwork 77 carpentry 79 definition 9 electrical 84 general conditions ,- 76 glazing 81 hardware 80 heating 85 masonry ' 77 object 75 order of writing 75 painting. : 80 plumbing 81 steel and iron 77 PAGE Square foot of floor area, estimating by 89 Squared stone 26 Stability 20 Staircase 65 Stairs, arrangement '. 67 classification 66 construction 68 estimating 98 layout 67 terms 65 Stairwaj' 65 Stairwell 65 framing 46 Steel and iron specifications 78 Step 65 Stirrup-iron '. 46 Stone, broken, specifications for 77 conventions 15 footings 35 kinds 26 terra-cotta as substitute for 43 walls, thickness : 36 Stonework 24 estimating 91 Straight run stairs 66 Stretcher 24 Stretching tracing paper 5 Whatman's paper 6 Strings 66 kinds 68 Stucco 55, 57 Studs 46 double, for openings .• 48 estimating 97 Style, definition 74 structure principles 74 Switch, electrical 84 IIG INDEX PAGE Tail-beams 46 specifications 79 Terra-cotta blocks 30 advantages 41 backing , 43 construction 42 Terra-cotta, convention 15 flue lining 50 specifications 78 kinds 29 Throat, fireplace , 51 Timber, sizes of framing 79 Tin 100 Tracing cloth. 5 Transom 59 Traps 82 Tread 65 Trim 63 specifications 80 Trimmer arch 51 specifications 78 Trimmers 46 specifications 79 Truss, over openings 49 structural principle 74 Unit of accommodation 89 Unity 20 Utility 69 PACE Veneered doors ^" specifications °" walls ^^ Vent pipe ^2 Wainscot ^ Walls, covering for frame 54, 55 foundation, materials for 35 masonry "" stone 26 terra-cotta tile 43 veneered 57 Waste pipe 82 Waterproofing 31, 32 Water supply 83 Water table 55 specifications 80 Weatherboarding, see Siding. Webs 30 Winders . .• 65 Windows, design of 71 estimating 98 frames for, specifications 80 kinds 59 openings, framing (See Fenestration.) 48 Wiring 84 estimating IQO Wood, conventions for ■■■.., , 15 THE ^VILEY TECHIVICAL SEIMES Edited by J. M. JAMESON Carefully adapted texts which cover the various divisions of Electricity; Electrical Power and Machinery; Applied Mechanics ; Household and Agri- cultural Chemistry; Drafting and Design ; Steam and Gas Power ; Shop Practice; Applied Mathematics ; Agriculture ; Household Economics, etc. The following texts are announced; others are being added rapidly: ELECTRICITY The Essentials of Electricity: A Textbook for Wiremen and the Electrical Trades. By W. H. Timbie, Went- worth Institute. i2Tno, flexible covers, pocket size, xiii+ 271 pages, 224 figures. Cloth, J1.2S net. The Elements of Electricity: For Technical Students. By W. H. Timbie, Head of Department of Applied Science, Wentworth Institute. Small 8vo, xi+ss6 pages, 415 figures. Cloth, S2.00 net. Direct and Alternating Current Machinery. By Pro- fessor J. H. Morecroft, Columbia University. {Ready in Pall, 1913.) Alternating Currents. By W. H. Timbie, Head of Department of Applied Science, Wentworth Institute, and H. H. Higbie, Professor of Electrical Engineering, University of Michigan, (/n preparation.) Electric Lighting. By H. H. Higbie, Professor of Elec- trical Engineering, University of Michigan, (/n prep- aration.) Introduction to Industrial Electricity. By W. H. Timbie, Head of Department of Applied Science, Wentworth Institute, (/n preparation.) HEAT AND HEAT ENOINEERINQ Heat: A Textbook for Technical and Industrial Students. By J. A. Randall, Instructor in Mechanics and Heat, Pratt Institute. Small 8vo, xiv+ 331 pages, 80 figures. Cloth, $1.50 net. Gas Power.' By Professors C. F. Hirshfeld and T. C. Ulbricht, Cornell University. Small 8vo, viii + 198 pages, 60 figures. Steam Power. By Professors C. F. Hirshfeld and T. C. Ulbricht, Cornell University. (In preparation.) Heat and Light in the Household. By W. G. Whitman, State Normal School, Salem, Mass. U« preparation.) MECHANICS Elementary Practical Mechanics. By J. M. Jameson, Vice-President, Girard College; Formerly Head of Depart- ment of Physics, Pratt Institute. Small 8vo, xii4-32I pages, 212 figures. Cloth, $1.50 net. Mechanics for Machinists. By R. W. Burnham, Erasmus Hall High School, Brooklyn, Instructor in Even- ing Machine Work, Pratt Institute. (/» preparation.) MATHEMATICS Practical Mathematics. By C. R. Dooley^ Westinghouse Pittsburgh, Pa. By R. W. Burn- Pratt Institute Electric and Manufacturing Company, {In preparation.) A Shop Mathematics for Machinists. ham. Instructor in Machine Work, Evening School. {In preparation.) AGRICULTURE Poultry. By Professor J. C. Graham, Massachusetts Agricultural College. {In preparation.) Soils. By Professor A. G. McCall, Ohio State University. {Jn preparation.) Agricultural Chemistry. By Professor T. E. Keitt, Clemson Agricultural College. {In preparation.) Injurious Insects. By Dean E. D. Sanderson and Pro- fessor L. M. Peairs, West Virginia University, {In prep- aration. Agricultural Drafting. By Charles B. Howe, M.E. 4to, x+63 pages, 45 figures, 26 plates. Si. 25 net. FIELD MANUALS IN AGRICULTURE A carefully selected series of laboratory and field studies, with supplementary theory and information for classroom use. 4to, loose leaf or bound in paper covers. Studies of Trees: Their Diseases and Care. By J. J. Levlson, M.P., Lecturer on Ornamental and Shade Trees, Yale University Forest School, Forester to the Department of Parks, Brooklyn, N. Y. Exercises in Farm Dairying. By Professor C. Larsen, De- partment of Dairy Husbandry. South Dakota State Col- lege. Single exercises, 2 cents each. Complete, $z.00H£/. Exercises in Poultry Raising. By Professor J.' C. Graham, Massachusetts Agricultural College. {In preparation.) Studies of Insects. By Dean E. D. Sanderson, and Pro- fessor L. M. Peairs, West Virginia Agricultural College. {In preparation.) Market Gardening. By Professor F. L. Yeaw, Oasis Farm & Orchard Company, Roswell, New Mexico; formerly Professor of Market Gardening, Massachusetts Agricultural College. {In preparation.) Farm Crops and Soils. By Professor A. G. McCall, Department of Agronomy, Ohio State University. {In preparation.) Exercises in Agricultural Chemistry. By Professor T. E. Keitt, Clemson Agricultural College. {In preparation.) THE LOOSE LEAF LABORATORY MANUAL A series of carefully selected exercises to accompany the texts of the series, covering every subject in which laboratory or field work may be given. Each exercise is complete in itself, and is printed separately. These will be sold by the single sheet as selected or complete, bound in paper cover. Exercises in General Chemistry. By Charles M. Allen, Head of Department of Chemistry, Pratt Insti- tute. An introductory course in Applied Chemistry, covering a year's laboratory work on the acid-forming and metallic elements and compounds, 4to, 62 pages, 61 exercises. Selected exercises, as desired, to fit an ordinary binder, two cents each. Complete in paper cover, $1.00 net. Exercises for the Applied Mechanics Laboratory. By J. P. Kottcamp, M.E., Instructor in Steam and Strength of Materials, Pratt Institute. Steam, Strength of Mate- rials, Gas Engines, and Hydraulics. 4to, 60 exercises, with numerous cuts and tables. ' Sdected exercises as desired, to fit an ordinary binder, two cents each. Complete in paper cover, $i.oo net. Wiring Exercises. By H. A. Calderwood, Carnegie Insti- tute of Technology. {In preparation.) Quantitative Chemical Analysis. By Charles M. Allen, Head of Department of ' Chemistry, Pratt Institute. 4to. Single pamphlets, ten cents each. Complete in paper cover, %i.oo net. Exercises in Industrial Chemistry. By Dr. Allen Rogers, Instructor in Industrial Chemistry, Pratt Insti- tute. {In preparation.) Technical Chemical Analysis. By R. H. H, Aungst, Instructor in Technical Chemistry, Pratt Institute. Complete in paper cover, 85 cents net. Single pamph- lets furnished as desired. Qualitative Chemical Analysis. By C. E. Bivins, Instruc- tor in Qualitative Analysis, Pratt Institute. {Ready Fall, 1913.) Elementary Electrical Testing. By Prof. V. KarapetoS, Cornell University. Twenty-five direction sheets with numerous diagrams and cuts. Single sheets, two cents each. Complete in paper cover, so cents net. Exercises in Mechanics. By J. M. Jameson, Vice-Presi- dent, Girard College; formerly Head of Department of Physics, Pratt Institute. Fifty-two exercises with nu- merous cuts. Single exercises, two cents each. Com- plete in paper cover, 8s cents net. Exercises in Heat. By J. A. Randall, Instructor in Me- chanics and Heat, Pratt Institute. {Ready Fall, 1913.) Electrical Measurements. A.C. and D.C. By W. H. Timbie, Head of Department of Applied Science, Wentworth Institute. Forty-nine exercises with numer- ous diagrams and cuts. Single exercises, two cents. Complete in paper covers, 85 cents net. SHOP TEXTS Machine Shop Practice. By W. J. Kaup, Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company, Pittsburgh, Pa. Small 8vo, ix-)- 227 pages, 186 figtires. Cloth, ii.2S net. Pattern Making. By Frederick W. Turner and Daniel G. Town, Mechanic Arts High School, Boston. {In preparation.) Tool Making. By W. J. Kaup, Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company, and J. A. Chamberlain, Supervisor of Manual Training, Washington, D. C. {In preparation.) A Shop Mathematics for Machinists. By R. W. Burn- ham, Instructor in Machine Work, Pratt Institute Evening School. {In preparation.) DRAFTING AND DESIGN Agricultural Drafting. By Charles B. Howe, M.E. 4to, x-)-63 pages, 45 figures, 26 plates. $i.2S net. Loose Leaf Manual in Agricultural Drafting. By Charles B. Howe, M. E. Forty problem sheets to supplement the preceding text. Price, two cents each. Architectural Drafting. By A Benton Greenberg, B. A. Formerly Inspector and Draftsman, Supervising Archi- tect's Office, Washington, D.C, Engineer and Inspector, Building Department, New York City, Practising Archi- tect. In Collaboration with Charles B. Howe, M. E. 4to, viii -(-no pages, S3 figures, 10 plates. $i.So net. THE LOOSE LEAF DRAFTING MANUAL Reference and Problem Sheets to accompany the texts In Drafting and Design. These will be furnished singly as selected, and are designed to enable the instructor to adapt his instruction closely to the needs of his class. (In preparation.)