FIELD HYGIENE 
 
 ANO 
 
 SANITATION 
 
 FORD 
 
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 cofflCLLMMifCiinnr 
 
CORNELL UNIVERSHY LIBRARY 
 
 3 1924 054 709 120 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tliis book is in 
 tlie Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924054709120 
 
ELEMENTS OF FIELD 
 HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 FORD 
 
ELEMENTS 
 
 OF 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE 
 
 AND 
 
 SANITATION 
 
 BY 
 
 JOSEPH H. FORD, B. S., A. M., M. D. 
 
 COLONEL, MEDICAL CORPS, U. S. ARMY. 
 
 APPROVED FOR PUBLICATION BY THE 
 SURGEON GENERAL U. S. ARMY. 
 
 WITH 152 ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 PHILADELPHIA 
 P. BLAKISTON'S SON & CO, 
 
 1012 WALNUT STREET 
 
Copyright, 1918, by P. Blakiston's Son & Co. 
 
 Reprinted November, 191 7 
 
 Reprinted October, 191 8 
 
PREFACE 
 
 One of the important subjects with which newly commissioned 
 officers must acquaint themselves is the care of troops. Disease 
 has killed more soldiers than powder and shot, and has occasioned 
 the defeat of many armies. 
 
 But when so niuch other military knowledge must be acquired, a 
 descriptioif of how troops are kept healthy should be brief. This 
 booklet, therefore, considers only those points that are of proven 
 value. Many illustrations are employed in order to give clear 
 ideas of the sanitary apparatus used in different armies and to 
 abbreviate the text. 
 
 The diagrams after Havard, Lelean, Tournade, Lewis and Miller, 
 Peck and Trinca, are reproduced by courtesy of Wm. Wood and 
 Company, Messrs J. & A. Churchill, M. Fournier, the Military Sur- 
 geon and the British Medical Journal respectively. The first men- 
 tioned have also kindly permitted the usage of Havard's text de- 
 scriptive of the figure reproduced. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 
 1. Military Hygiene and Sanitation. General Considerations . i 
 
 2. Personal Hygiene 6 
 
 3. The March 22 
 
 4. Camps 30 
 
 5. Water 123 
 
 6. The Messing o£ Troops 146 
 
 7. Camp Diseases 158 
 
 8. Illustrative Regulations Concerning Camp Hygiene and 
 Sanitation 192 
 
FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 MILITARY HYGIENE AND SANITATION- 
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 
 
 Hygiene is both the art and the science of preserving and improv- 
 ing health. It pertains especially to the individual. Sanitation 
 or public hygiene considers both the principles and apparatus em- 
 ployed for the purpose of promoting the health of communities. 
 
 The keynote of both hygiene and sanitation first, last, and all the 
 time, is cleanliness, — cleanliness of both mind and body, clean- 
 liness of thoughts and habits, of association and environment; 
 cleanliness of both the exterior and tissues of the body, for the 
 latter should be free from all noxious materials. The essential end 
 of both hygiene and sanitation is to promote cleanliness. 
 
 Military hygiene and sanitation consider the parts of these sciences 
 which are of a special value to armies, more particularly when they 
 are in the field. Circumstances then existing are, to a degree, pecu- 
 liar and peculiar measures must be adopted for the preservation of 
 health. The successful sanitary service of groups of men living 
 close to nature, unprovided with many of those refinements of 
 civilized life developed for static community service, presents 
 problems, often unique, which require prompt and resourceful 
 solution. Congregation of troops in such close contact as exists in 
 camps, facilitates the transmission of disease among them, while 
 exposure to the elements and the privations inseparable from the 
 military service tend to lower their powers of resistance. The prime 
 duty of the Medical Department is not the care of the individual, 
 harsh as they may seem, but the preservation of the health of the 
 command in order that its numbers and vigor may be unimpaired 
 
2 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 and its military value thus maintained. The Medical Department 
 seeks to contribute to this end also by such skilful treatment of the 
 sick and wounded as will insure their early return to the firing line. 
 Its medical and surgical service is humanitarian and individual. 
 Its sanitary service, which, from a military standpoint is of greater 
 importance, is utilitarian and collective. 
 
 The sanitary service of troops is not an imposition or a necessary 
 evil. It is an effort to assist the commander in preserving the health 
 and thus the number and morale of his troops. It is an essential 
 and integral part of the military organization. Though expen- 
 sive, sanitary measures are worth more than they cost. CarreU 
 estimates that on a cold business basis each healthy soldier is worth 
 $6000 to the state. A sick soldier is not only useless but reqtiires 
 the services of able-bodied people, is a constant source of expense, 
 perhaps a focus of infection, and later burdens the state through the 
 pension list. The skilled military commander will employ the best 
 sanitary service available and will utilize, if possible, the measures 
 they advocate, doing the best he can for his troops. 
 
 Discipline is essential for the proper enforcement of orders affect- 
 ing health. The sanitary adviser can do nothing if his recommenda- 
 tions are not enforced by the commanding officer. Under similar 
 circumstances the morbidity of those commands whose discipline 
 is lax, is invariably higher than is that of those whose discipline is 
 strict. An increased sick report is only one of the several ways in 
 which the demoralizing effects of lax discipline manifest themselves. 
 Though the sanitary function of the Surgeon ceases with his ad- 
 vice (unless his commanding officer authorizes him to give orders 
 on the subject) he may by tact, reasonableness and clear exposition 
 secure their enforcement when others less circumspect would fail. 
 In the last analysis, however, responsibihty for the health of the 
 command rests upon its commanding officer. Experienced line 
 officers appreciate the value of hygiene and sanitation and make 
 every effort to keep their troops in health. They realize that this 
 is a duty which they owe both to the individuals in their commands 
 and to the state. It is obvious that a fuUy manned vigorous organi- 
 zation can give a better account of itself in battle, for which armies 
 exist, than one whose vigor has been impaired and its ranks depleted 
 by disease. Other things being equal, the relative efficiency of com- 
 
MILITARY HYGIENE AND SANITATION 3 
 
 manding officers may be judged with much accuracy by the health- 
 fulness of their respective organizations. 
 
 This is all very obvious and trite, but many newly commissioned 
 line officers and newly enlisted men must be educated in the neces- 
 sity for sanitary precautions. Frequently it is necessary to educate 
 those of larger experience in certain phases of sanitary work which 
 they have not before encountered. Company officers especially, 
 since they influence the men most directly, should be instructed 
 in the necessity for the measures recommended. Usually both 
 officers and men comply with sanitary regulations promptly as 
 soon as they appreciate their value, and it is the duty of the sanitary 
 adviser to make this manifest. For non-compliance with the 
 published orders recourse must be had to disciplinary measures. 
 
 Important as are hygiene and sanitation they sometimes must be 
 ignored. Armies exist in order to win battles and sanitary measures 
 must ever be ancillary to the prime efforts to obtain that end. Mili- 
 tary exigencies must dominate before an engagement, during it, and 
 perhaps after it. 
 
 History abounds with instances when sickness either caused or 
 aggravated military failures; e.g., the faU of Athens, in the Peloponne- 
 sian War and the defeat of the Prussians at Valmy, a conffict which 
 made possible the fruition of the French Revolution. Many other 
 failures of lesser importance may be cited. The steady reduction 
 in the morbidity rates of various armies is due to the advancement 
 of medical science, to the development of sanitary apparatus, and 
 to an appreciation of the value of sanitary measures, but chiefly to 
 an enforcement of compliance with' the laws of health by officers of 
 both Une and staff. 
 
 Though it is impossible to over-emphasize the view that the essen- 
 tial aim of the medical service is maintenance of fighting efficiency 
 of the troops at the front, the great importance of sound sanitation 
 on the lines of communication must be noted. "However satisfac- 
 tory the civil sanitary organization in the zone of active operations 
 may have been prior to hostilities, it is inevitable that a certain 
 amount of disorganization and inefficiency must result from the in- 
 creased demands and stress of war. An advancing wave of units, 
 fuUy officered, equipped and organized, should leave in its wake few 
 insanitary conditions, but the matter is very different when small 
 
4 • FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 detachments subsequently use the line of communication. These 
 detachments lack equipment, trained personnel and organized medi- 
 cal supervision, and consequently the routes tend to become pro- 
 gressively more insanitary. The consequent potential danger be- 
 comes an actual menace when the routes still later are traversed by 
 returm'ng infective patients. The ultimate result is that the lines 
 of communication which should serve to maintain the fighting 
 strength by a stream of healthy reinforcements, may prove a source 
 of weakness by passing into the firing line men who have been in- 
 fected en route to the front, where they become foci of infections 
 which may be spread through the ranks." (Lelean.) It is thus 
 evident that there can be few more important duties for the medical 
 officer in the field than those which^deal with the maintenance of 
 sound sanitation upon the lines of communication. 
 
 The conditions surrounding the soldier in time of war render him, 
 until he has been hardened, more susceptible than the civilian to 
 certain diseases. The ailments most prevalent in armies in time 
 of peace differ from those in war. During campaigns troops suffer 
 from inclement weather, extremes of temperature, lack of proper 
 shelter, crowding, unsuitable or badly cooked food, overstrain, ex- 
 citement and anxiety. Sanitary conditions are then often of sub- 
 sidiary importance and are comparatively neglected with the result 
 that almost invariably disability and death from disease rapidly 
 increase. 
 
 The commonest diseases among troops are infections (which as 
 a rule are spread chiefly by contact), digestive disorders, rheuma- 
 tism, affections of the respiratory and nervous systems and of the 
 heart. In the United States Army the most prevalent infections 
 in time of peace, are venereal diseases, tonsillitis, bronchitis, diar- 
 rhea, influenza, pneumonia, rheumatism, measles, mumps, tubercu- 
 losis and malaria. The most common causes of death from disease 
 in former wars were cholera and typhus, both of which have invaded 
 armies in Europe during the present conflict. In our war with. 
 Mexico the commonest disease was a severe diarrhea, probably an 
 anomalous form of dysentery. In the Civil War the commonest 
 diseases were diarrhea, dysentery, malaria, typhoid fever, rheu- 
 matism, respiratory and venereal diseases; in the Spanish- American' 
 War and Philippine War, malaria, typhoid fever, dysentery, and 
 
MILITARY HYGIENE AND SANITATION S 
 
 diarrhea. Other diseases which frequently scourged armies are 
 plague and scurvy. In the present war in Europe, the commonest 
 ailments have been nervous disorders, diarrhea, dysentery, frost 
 bite, and (on the eastern front) cholera, typhus and typhoid. 
 
 The sick rate is highest for young soldiers under 20 years of age. 
 These men are especially subject to typhoid fever. The disability 
 rate then falls after this age up to the age of 45 when it begins to 
 rise. The death rate is highest in young soldiers 19 years of age 
 and under. It reaches its minimum between 25 and 30 years, rises 
 slightly up to 40 and rapidly thereafter. Rates for both morbidity 
 and mortality are highest during the first year of service; they then 
 gradually diminish, to rise again after 10 years service. The death 
 rate is lowest in the third or fourth year. In the tropics, young sol- 
 diers are even more liable to sickness than they are in the United 
 States. The lowest rates of admission, disability, and non-effective- 
 ness in the tropics are among soldiers past 40, though, these men 
 furnish the highest death rate. 
 
 The healthfulness of an army is not indicated by a comparison 
 of the number of deaths from disease with the number of deaths 
 from wounds. This popular standard of comparison is quite falla- 
 cious. The two causes of disability cannot be compared. It wotild 
 be as reasonable to attempt to determine the salubrity of a com- 
 munity by comparison of the number of deaths from disease to the 
 number of deaths by accident as to determine the healthfulness of 
 an army by similar standards. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 PERSONAL HYGIENE 
 
 Though much can be accomplished by suitable orders concerning 
 hygiene their value can be greatly enhanced by intelligent co-opera- 
 tion on the part of the men. To this end they should receive from 
 the Surgeon certain elementary instructions concerning the care of 
 their persons and their habits. 
 
 The importance of an adequate supply of fresh air at night is not 
 fully appreciated by most troops. Men tend to burrow for warmth, 
 and in trench warfare this is unavoidable. If the weather be cold, 
 they dose the inlets of fresh air in huts and tents. The resultant 
 re-breathing of contaminated air both lowers resistance to disease 
 and impairs mental and physical energy. The smaller the shelter 
 the better it should be ventilated. Adequate fresh air is especially 
 necessary if there occur an epidemic of any infectious disease of the 
 respiratory organs. The troops in the Punitive Expedition were 
 required in the dead of winter to provide adequate ventilation at 
 night, though they had but scanty ,bed covers and suffered some- 
 what from cold. The use of braziers was prohibited as they devel- 
 oped injurious gases. The fact that in but two instances did pneu- 
 monia attack two men in the same tent in the El Paso district where 
 fifty thousand men were encamped is attributed largely to the fact 
 that free ventilation of tents was enforced. 
 
 In the trenches men warm and dry themselves in dug-outs sepa- 
 rated from the main trench by low clay partitions. These are 
 heated by coal braziers. Lack of ventilation is necessitated by 
 military conditions at many points near the front. 
 
 Exercise is essential to health. Marching troops are healthy, not 
 only because of occupancy of new camp sites, but because of the 
 exercise they perform. The value of setting up exercises is quickly 
 manifest in recruits. The best form of exercise is that indulged in. 
 
 6 
 
PERSONAL HYGIENE 7 
 
 as recreation because of the psychological element it introduces. 
 For this reason, athletic sports in which all men participate should 
 be encouraged. Americans as a people. prefer to watch games, as 
 did the Romans, rather than to participate in them. Games not 
 only increase the vital functions of organs but their mental effects 
 are stimulating and keep men contented. 
 
 Rest is as important as exercise. Men should have eight hours 
 work, eight hours recreation, and eight hours rest. So far as pos- 
 sible, habits of exercise, recreation, and sleep should be regular. It 
 is particularly desirable that men get adequate sleep and that this 
 be as refreshing as possible. Young men require more sleep than 
 older ones. To secure a maximum of benefit men should sleep in 
 loose underwear and have adequate bed covering when in the field. 
 Paper blankets for troops in fixed camps where supplies are limited 
 may be extemporized by sewing a few layers of newspaper between 
 layers of bed ticking, burlap, etc. When these become soiled, they 
 are opened, the paper removed and burned, and the fabric cleansed. 
 Bedding should be aired and bed linen changed weekly. 
 
 Bathing promotes the physiological functions of the skin by clear- 
 ing the openings of the sweat glands which discharge from ij^ to 4 
 pints of sweat daily and are a most important regulator of body tem- 
 perature. It also frees the mouths of the sebaceous glands whose 
 secretions oil the skin and prevent it from becoming unduly hard- 
 ened and rough. Bathing also removes dirt and the germs which 
 may abound on the skin. Forty thousand have been counted on a 
 square centimeter. They may give rise to boils, carbuncles, 
 cellulitis, etc. Also any wound contracted through a skin that is 
 dirty is very liable to become infected. The influence of dirty 
 clothing and dirty skin in causing gas gangrene has been very 
 noticeable in this war. Almost all wounds are infected. The 
 introduction of adequate bathing facilities in our army was fol- 
 lowed by a fall in morbidity of about zo per cent. Many of our 
 most dangerous camp diseases such as typhoid fever, cholera and 
 dysentery are disseminated by dirty hands. Bathing also prevents 
 fouling of the air by emanations from the body due to the accumiUa- 
 tions of the excretions a»d fluid on the skin. Cold baths act as a 
 tonic and have a stimulating effect. Warm baths are sedative. 
 Bathing facilities are discussed in the chapter on camps. 
 
8 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 Men should wash the face, head, neck and hands every morning in 
 cold water. The scalp should be washed twice a week. The hands 
 should be washed with soap whenever soiled, before each meal, and 
 after each visit to the latrine. Good soaps for use in hard waters are 
 the Physicians' and Surgeon's, Sayman's, Walke's, "Coal Oil 
 Johnnie" and Palm Olive. Soap is a good disinfectant. The nails 
 should be kept short and cleaned frequently. When cholera is 
 present basins of two per cent, phenol should be provided near 
 the latrines. Nostrils and ears can be kept clean by the insertion 
 of a little vaseline which is then removed by the corner of a towel 
 or handkerchief. Sticks should not be introduced into the auditory 
 canal or nose. It is best that no beard be worn in fixed camp, but 
 if worn it should be trimmed short; daily washed and brushed. In 
 the trenches it is impossible for soldiers to shave themselves daily. 
 Many troops habitually wear beards when on active service in time 
 of war. 
 
 Excessive or offensive sweating is treated by painting on the af- 
 fected area a ten per cent, solution of formalin every other day. 
 Five or six applications may be necessary. 
 
 Since cleanliness is even more necessary among men crowded in 
 camps and in cantonments than it is under other circumstances, 
 appliances must be devised and facilities developed whereby it 
 may be obtained. These are considered in the chapter on camps. 
 In the absence of adequate bathing facilities, however, a sponge 
 bath may be used, or the body rubbed with a coarse fabric, e.g., a 
 gunny sack. This expedient gives an unexpected amount of satis- 
 faction. 
 
 Men should use their own toilet and smoking articles. By toilet 
 articles especially, a number of infections may be transmitted, e.g., 
 itch, ringworm and other skin diseases, body vermin, gonorrheal 
 infections, syphilis, smallpox, typhoid fever, etc. 
 
 Any irritation about the mouth or throat should be treated 
 promptly as it may give rise to ulcerations, abscesses, etc. Espe- 
 cially should attention be given to decayed teeth and to pyorrhea. 
 The importance of this disease is only beginning to be generally 
 appreciated. It is responsible for certain acute and chronic general 
 infections. Many of the latter are usually attributed to "rheuma- 
 tism." Teeth should be examined at least every six months by a 
 
PERSONAL HYGIENE 9 
 
 dentist. They should be cleaned with a soft brush and some tooth 
 powder or ordinary soap twice daily. As the tooth brush is easily 
 infected it should be washed after each using and kept in a container'. 
 Indiscriminate spitting should be discouraged strongly as it trans- 
 mits many infectious diseases. 
 
 Proper care of the feet of marching troops is a matter of prime 
 importance. Nails should be cut short and square. Corns should 
 be attended to promptly. After a march especially in hot weather 
 the feet should be sponged, clean socks put on, and those removed, 
 washed and dried. Wet or wrinkled socks especially, should be 
 replaced. Exposed parts should be protected by adhesive plaster 
 or greased with vaseline or tallow. The entire foot and ankle should 
 be anointed if the soldier has to stand in much water, as in the 
 trenches. Tender feet may be hardened by bathing in alum, form- 
 alin or alcoholic solutions. Soap or grease applied to the feet or socks 
 before the march wUl lessen friction. The foot powder issued by the 
 Medical Department prevents abrasions and blisters, and gives 
 excellent results. It consists of 87 parts talcum, 10 parts starch and 
 3 parts salicylic acid. Soaking the feet does more harm than good 
 as it softens the skin. Blisters that develop on the march are usually 
 treated by pricking them, expressing the water and covering with 
 adhesive j)Iaster. A better method followed by Capt. R. C. 
 Hefflebower, M. C, is the following: The blister and the surrounding 
 skin are painted with tincture of iodine, then a small fold of the 
 raised epidermis is caught between the blades of a pair of scissors 
 and excised leaving a small oval opening about KeX J^ inch in 
 diameter. In large blisters additional openings are made. After 
 the fluid has escaped, the area is again iodined, dried and covered 
 with adhesive plaster. The strips of the latter are narrow and over- 
 lap so as to conform exactly to the foot surface. Their ends are 
 always brought up over the sides of the foot to prevent roUing and 
 curling. This practice of treating blisters on the feet gives better 
 results than any other yet devised. Woolen socks are best. 
 
 Food shoidd be masticated thoroughly and eaten slowly. Large 
 quantities of liquids should not be drunk at meals. Too many arti- 
 cles of poor quality especially fruits and pastry are eaten at the re- 
 freshment booths that spring up around camp. The practice of 
 making regular visits to the latrine should be followed. Procrastina- 
 
lO FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 tion is a common cause of constipation. Natural processes should 
 be promoted by exercise and the use of bulky food. 
 
 Alcohol is now rightly regarded as a poison and its use is meeting 
 with increasing opposition. When none is obtainable, the discipline 
 and morale of troops is immeasurably improved. In the Punitive 
 Expedition, many old soldiers who had been frequent sources of 
 trouble rendered impeccable service and the effects of total absti- 
 nence were apparent both in guard house and hospital reports. 
 
 Smoking if practiced to excess may cause various nervous dis- 
 orders — headache, giddiness, insomnia, tremor, arrhythmia of the 
 heart, etc., but in moderate quantities, its effect upon those habitu- 
 ated to its use is soothing and its use should not be interfered with. 
 The practice of inhaling, hovjever, is deleterious because of the 
 large amount of nicotine absorbed. 
 
 Sexual intercourse is not essential to health. Attempts to excul- 
 pate its indulgence by lusty young men, removed from domestic 
 restraint, are far too frequently based on the assumption that the 
 reverse is the case. Emissions are an evidence of vigor and not of 
 its loss. The indiscriminate gratification of sexual desire usually 
 eventuates in contraction of a venereal disease, since most prosti- 
 tutes are infected. To reduce the prevalence of such diseases among 
 those who are unable to control themselves, the following procedure 
 is practiced in several services. After urination, the penis is washed 
 with soap and water, lo c.c. of a two per cent, solution of protargol are 
 injected and retained for three minutes. The head, neck and shaft 
 of the penis are rubbed with 33 per cent, calomel ointment in 20 per 
 cent. lanolin and 47 per cent, vaseline. To be effective this pro- 
 phylactic treatment should be employed not more than an hour 
 after exposure. In order to control venereal disease, troops are in- 
 spected twice monthly, once before the isth and again before the 
 30th by a medical officer accompanied by an officer from the respec- 
 tive company. Men foimd diseased are required to take appropri- 
 ate treatment. Also a record is kept of the prophylactic given, show- 
 ing the name of the person taking it, date and hour of exposure, date 
 and hour of administration and signature of the Medical Department 
 man administering it. Facilities for the administration of the pro- 
 phylactic and for keeping this record are provided at the regi- 
 mental infirmary. Acute cases, other than uncomplicated gonor- 
 
PERSONAL HYGIENE II 
 
 rhea, are transferred to the hospital. Men who fail to take the 
 prophylactic are brought to trial under the provisions of General 
 Orders 17 W. D. 1912, G. O. 31 W. D. 1912, and G. 0. 45 W. D. 
 1914. A record for syphilitic cases is also kept showing the treat- 
 ment given and progress in each case. It is also necessary to 
 keep a record of the number of venereal cases undergoing treatment 
 in order that any increase in these infections may be detected 
 promptly and controlled. 
 
 Prophylactic personal treatment against typhoid and paratyphoid 
 fevers, smallpox ' and cholera, and personal prophylaxis against 
 malaria, etc., are discussed in the chapter on transmissible 
 diseases. 
 
 Clothing should be well fitted, comfortable, with few constrictions, 
 and should not hamper movement, particularly of the chest and 
 abdomen. Shoes should be broad, at least two-thirds inch longer in- 
 side, than the foot, as the foot spreads and lengthens on the march. 
 Socks should be well fitting, not too tight, and free from holes. In 
 cold weather in trench warfare, it is especially necessary to have 
 loosely fitting shoes which will accommodate easily two pairs of 
 socks. Shoes should be hob-nailed and made impervious to water 
 by 4nbbing with neatsfoot oil or castor oU. The best type of foot 
 wear for officers in the field is a high waterproof boot which laces up 
 the front. For the enlisted man the Munson shoe is much more com- 
 fortable thin the new field marching shoe though not so durable. 
 In the march of the i6th Inf. out of Mexico 12.15 per cent, of the 
 men who used the Munson shoe and 65.13 per cent, of those who 
 wore the marching shoe developed blisters or abrasions (Hefflebower) . 
 The best type of foot wear for the soldier is believed to be a loose 
 shoe, on a Munson last with a heavier sole than the latter, hob-nailed, 
 and lightly dressed with neatsfoot oil. 
 
 Men require different amounts of clothing and there should be some 
 latitude allowed in the amount of underwear worn. Exposure to 
 heat or cold lowers bodily resistance and should thus be controlled 
 as far as possible. Underwear should be changed if possible weekly 
 in winter or twice weekly in summer and aired nightly in hot 
 weather. Men should not lend their clothing to each other as some 
 of the most dreaded camp diseases may be transmitted in this way. 
 In the absence of adequate warm clothing, comfort may be pro- 
 
12 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 moted by a folded newspaper placed underneath the shirt, or a 
 paper or chamois skin vest. Loss of gloves may be prevented by 
 tying these to the end of a cord which passes up the sleeves and across 
 the back. 
 
 Laundering presents many difficiJties in the field, especially in 
 trench warfare, but its necessity is indicated by the fact that laundry 
 water contains more bacteria than ordinary sewage. The disposal 
 of such water shotild therefore be practiced with great care and the 
 laundering place for troops on a stream should be that point down 
 stream from which water is obtained, — ^if possible at a distance from 
 camp. A good plan in semi-permanent camps is for men to boU 
 their clothing in discarded oil cans. If piped water is plentiful and 
 facilities for drainage ample, bath houses may be so constructed as to 
 provide a place where clothes can be washed. Under the usual 
 conditions in camp, however, movable tables or benches should be 
 provided. These should be placed in the rear of each company 
 street, but moved to a new spot every two or three days. Under no 
 circumstances should they be located in shady places. (Lewis and 
 Miller.) 
 
 Laundrymen may be employed by the several companies, or 
 other camp followers under adequate supervision may do • the 
 laundering by personal agreement with individuals. At Dublan, 
 in Mexico, a laundry emplo3dng 120 Chinamen was established by 
 private parties under the supervision of Colonel Glennan, the Divi- 
 sion Surgeon, and rendered excellent service at low rates. In fixed 
 camp, company or regimental bath and laundry houses are usually 
 provided. In European services laundries that can handle as high 
 as 5000 pieces a day, are mounted on trains of auto trucks which 
 move to selected points near the firing line. The machinery is 
 actuated from the motors. Bath trains similarly equipped with 
 laundry facilities also operate near the front in the services of 
 the central 'powers. These organizations are accompanied by a 
 personnel which repairs damaged clothing. 
 
 Most men are cleanly and do not harbor vermin. Lice are seldom 
 seen except on recruits or among troops deprived of bathing and 
 laundry facilities, as in time of war. But the men themselves are the 
 main source of infestation by these insects. 
 
 Experiments in detail and on a large scale, carried on among 
 
PERSONAL HYGIENE 13 
 
 soldiers in billets and trenches, by A. D. Peacock go to prove that 
 the measures suggested below are of great benefit. 
 
 1. Whenever possible, and as regularly as possible, the clothing 
 should be thoroughly searched for both lice and the "nits" or eggs. 
 If the removal of the white patch which binds the seams at the fork 
 of the trousers does not interfere with comfort, it is well to remove it. 
 Special care during the searching for the lice and eggs should be paid 
 to this region. Men should be afforded set times for inspecting 
 their clothes. There should be a general inspection by company 
 and medical officers each week. 
 
 2. The great source of danger is the presence of eggs on the cloth- 
 ing. These hatch in about a week. It is necessary, therefore, that 
 the trousers shoidd be ironed and brushed at least once a week. 
 
 3. Against the lice themselves, whenever necessary, the remedies 
 mentioned below are recommended. Powders, as a rule, should not 
 be used at the fork, but down the shirt and trousers. Care should 
 be taken to see that any powder which falls from the shirt to the 
 fork should be smaU in amount, as too much is liable to cause 
 smarting. A man in each unit should be responsible for these 
 preparations. 
 
 4. Just previous to going to the trenches, the clothing and body 
 should be treated as directed. 
 
 5. The preparations should be used about every four days. Ex- 
 periments in the trenches have shown this to give the best results. 
 
 6. Any material, blankets, empty sandbags, etc., which may be 
 present to increase the comfort of the dug-out or billet, should be 
 treated with the powder preparation. 
 
 7. Advantage of all the facilities offered at the bath should be 
 taken. 
 
 8. Old clothing should be removed. 
 
 "N. C. I." (much used in the British service) consists of naphtha- 
 lene 96 per cent., creosote 2 per cent., iodoform 2 per cent. 
 This preparation is a speedy killing agent and is the best all- 
 around vermicide tested. One ounce per man per week should 
 be dusted on the body or between the layers of clothing. 
 
 For practical purposes Peacock found that destruction of lice and 
 their eggs is best secured by immersion of verminous garments and 
 bedclothes in a gasoline or. benzine bath. Danger from fire and 
 
14 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 waste are avoided by using such a bath and extractor as are em- 
 ployed in a dry cleaning apparatus. In such an apparatus 90 per 
 cent, of the gasoline or benzine is recovered for future use. A gaso- 
 line or benzine bath is effective, especially for uniforms and woolen 
 garments generally. When this can not be effected " Vermijelli " 
 may be employed. This consists of soft soap s parts, mineral oil 
 9 parts, water i part. One ounce is applied weekly to the seams of 
 the clothing The object is to destroy the young as they hatch. 
 
 In Pershing's expedition into Mexico 3 gallons of gasoline per man 
 were necessary for "delousing" purposes. Maj. C. D. Buck, M. C, 
 found that the same result was obtained by placing a layer of clothes 
 on a sheet of canvas, sprinkling with gasoline, adding another layer, 
 again sprinkling, etc. The canvas was closed, tied tightly and left 
 for 3 hours. Where the clothing is such that it is not injured by 
 immersion in water, steeping the garments for half an hour at I2°C. 
 (S4°F.) in a soap solution containing 2 per cent, of trichlorethylene 
 or 10 per cent, of tetrachlorethane is eflEective. Or they may be 
 steeped for one hour in a solution of i pint of cresol to eight gallons 
 of water, disinfected by steam, or merely boiled in soapy water for 
 S minutes. Steeping for half an hour in a s per cent, solution of 
 eyllin in water maintained at 6s°C. (i49°F.) is effective on woolen 
 articles. Frequently these are treated by ironing, when wet, espe- 
 cially along the seams, and vigorous brushing with a stiff brush. 
 For reasons of economy the chlorine derivative of ethane and 
 ethylene can not be used at present in a dry cleaning process, but 
 their soap preparations are of value. 
 
 For cleansing the body itself, bathing or sponging with soap solu- 
 tions containing 2 per cent, of trichlorethylene or 10 per cent, tetra- 
 chlorethane gives the best results. In view of the known insec- 
 ticidal action of these chlorine derivatives of ethylene and ethane, 
 it is probable that good results would be obtained by shampooing 
 verminous heads with their soap preparations, and it is also probable 
 that a 25 per cent, solution of trichlorethylene in vaseline would 
 form an efficient insecticidal ointment. 
 
 It is almost certain that lice would not continue to live on the 
 human body if anointed daily with a 25 per cent, solution of tri- 
 chlorethylene in vaseline or on the body anointed twice daily with 
 a seilution of gasoline in vaseline, of similar strength. The odor of 
 
PERSONAL HYGIENE IS 
 
 such ointments is not pleasant, but when living under verminous 
 conditions, constant precautions have to be taken and every method 
 of destroying vermin should be employed. Any attempt to render 
 an army free from vermin in war time would require that all men 
 occupying the same quarters at the same time, or for alternating 
 short periods of time, should be regarded as a single unit for 
 which a receiving station with cleansing apparatus should be pro- 
 vided. Such an attempt would also require that the movements 
 of the men off duty be controlled. This would be limited by mili- 
 tary necessities. 
 
 After examining a number of known remedies, which were all re- 
 prepared and tested, Soulima and Elbert considered the following 
 agents to be the most efficient and the best adapted to the cir- 
 cumstances of armies in the field: (o) 35 per cent, cresol and 65 per 
 cent, naphtha soap; (6) 35 per cent, xylol and 65 per cent, naphtha 
 soap; (c) 5 per cent, turpentine, 5 per cent, gasoline, 2 per cent, oil 
 of cinnamon and 88 per cent. talc. The first named is specially 
 useful, as it not only kills the Uce and their eggs rapidly, but the 
 odor, which is retained for a long time by the clothing, will keep the 
 lice away for several weeks. A 10 per cent, solution in water is 
 recommended, body linen to be soaked in it, all outer clothing 
 well wetted, and the mixture rubbed in with a brush. 
 
 The mixture which was most satisfactory in Legroux' experience 
 consisted of oils of lemon grass, pennyroyal and eucalyptus, 300 c.c. 
 of each, and powdered naphthalene, 100 grams. The oils evaporate 
 in the order given. Pieces of cloth or felt carrying from 6 to 8 drops 
 of this mixture and fastened to the underclothing at those spots 
 where lice generally congregate will prevent breeding. .To cleanse 
 the clothing, ironing the seams and doubled or lined parts with a 
 very hot iron is effective. Linings should be wetted with 5 parts of 
 the mixture in 100 parts of alcohol and ironed at once. MUitary 
 accoutrements shoidd be put into a barrel or other container which 
 can be closed almost hermetically and exposed to the vapor of the 
 mixture at a temperature of from 105° to ii2°F. Five c.c. per cubic 
 meter are sufficient and the exposure should be for 20 minutes per 
 cubic meter. Eggs on the hair may be destroyed by an ointment 
 made from 2 c.c. of the mixture and 8 grams of vaseline well blended. 
 
 Perhaps the best method of destroying both lice and their eggs 
 
i6 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 in clothing is to subject the clothing for 20 minutes to the action of 
 steam under pressure. The whole of the clothing must be treated 
 at the same time, and, as complete change is not possible in the field, 
 the process fails in practice even when the somewhat cumbrous 
 
 W^>r~ -^ ' 
 
 M. 
 
 ji 
 
 ^^HK iS^n 
 
 Wt 
 
 m^^- P '■ ^^hI 
 
 Fig. I. — Rolling steam or formalin disinfector, closed. 
 
 apparatus can be set up. This difficulty is overcome in the Aus- 
 trian service which provides bath trains where 3000 men a day can 
 be bathed and their clothing disinfected. Reserve clothing for 
 these men to use in the meantime is carried on the train. 
 
 Fig. 2. — Rolling steam or formalin disinfector, open. 
 
 A 2 per cent, solution of cresyl, freshly prepared, is quite sufficient 
 to kiU all lice with which it comes into contact for 10 minutes. A 
 quart of cresyl in 12}4 gallons of water is enough to kill the lice in the 
 body linen of 62 men, each garment being wrung out to recover the 
 
PERSONAL HYGIENE 
 
 17 
 
 liquor as far as possible. Careful and vigorous brushing of uniforms 
 with a hand brush in the open will rid them of both lice and eggs, 
 which fall on the soil and die. 
 
 H. C. HaU, ist Lieut. M. R. C, recommends the following method 
 of destroying lice and their ova. When nits are found, even though 
 the louse is not discernible, it should be considered that the vermin 
 are present and the following procedure instituted. Clothing other 
 than woolens and leather articles should be placed in boiling water 
 ten minutes, or clothes including woolens should be soaked in a 
 
 Fig. 3." 
 
 -Field clothing disinfector. i, Boiler; 2, formaldehyde generator; 
 3, disinfecting chamber. {Austrian Service.) 
 
 mixture of equal parts of hot vinegar and kerosene. This mixture 
 kills both vermin and ova, the former ingredient destroying the 
 louse, the latter its eggs. After soaking, the garments are passed 
 through a clothes wringer to remove as much of the solution as 
 possible. Gasoline he states will loosen the nit from the hair but 
 does not destroy it. For head lice, clip the hair, apply the above 
 mixture, and wash with soap and water. The axillae and pubes 
 should be inspected for head, body, and crab lice. 
 
 To properly apply fumigation every door, window, and crack 
 should be sealed and objects in the apartment well spread out. 
 2 
 
i8 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 Instead of one large deposit of fumigant, several smaller ones ixi 
 various parts of the quarters should be employed. Sulphur fumi- 
 gation is very reliable for rats, bedbugs, lice, and fleas. There 
 should be an admixture of at least lo per cent, of sulphur dioxide 
 with moist atmospheric air, i.e., s lbs. of sulphur should be burned 
 for each looo cubic feet of space. Disinfection is not completed 
 within less than 12 hours. The following method is the safest and 
 cheapest means of using sulphur. Six inches of wet — not moistened 
 — sand are placed in a s-gallon gasoline can. The sulphur is placed 
 
 •COVE.R 
 
 FELTRIN6 
 
 BARREL- 
 
 PERFORATED WOODEN FRAME 
 GROUND LEVtL 
 
 STOKING 
 
 rlANK SUPPORTS 
 
 Fig. 4. — 'Serbian barrel. The underground furnace economizes heat 
 and brings the top of the barrel to a convenient level. A series of barrels 
 may be arranged over a trench and embedded in mud. The depth of 
 the water tank should be comparatively small in proportion to its area. 
 Clothing to be disinfected is placed in this barrel. (After Lelean.) 
 
 in an earthen pot and lowered into the sand. Holes are punched in 
 the sides of the can two inches and more above the top of the pot 
 to allow a ventilating draft of air. Alcohol is poured on the sulphur 
 and lighted; the top of the can is now closed and a pot of water 
 placed on it. The heat from the burning sulphur will boil the water 
 in this pot and develops the moisture needed to make sulphur 
 fumigation efficient. Where time is an important element, sulphur 
 is too slow and uncertain. 
 
PERSONAL HYGIENE 1 9 
 
 For practical purposes formalin fumigation will not destroy insect 
 vermin satisfactorily. Hydrocyanic gas is quick in action, an hour's 
 exposure sufficing. It does not destroy fabrics, is very penetrating, 
 and destroys most of the eggs of vermin when brought into direct 
 contact with them. Its great drawback is its danger to human 
 life. It may be generated as follows. Potassium cyanide and com- 
 mercial sxilphuric acid of each an ounce to 2j^ ounces of water are 
 employed for each hundred cubic feet of space. The potassium 
 cyanide is placed in a piece of cheese-cloth (or better in a large castor 
 oil gelatine capsule) and dropped into the mixture of sulphuric 
 acid. An old box car, all openings being sealed, makes a conveniept 
 disinfecting chamber for the service of contiguous camps on the 
 railway line. 
 
 To prevent the spread of lice in Germany every soldier is " de- 
 loused " before he is allowed to leave the front and in every railroad 
 station a soldier is posted who demands of every military person 
 who comes from the front his card certifying that he has been thus 
 treated. In the prisoners camps, " de-lousing " is done with very 
 simple means. The lice are killed with steam and dry heat, 
 applied in a wooden building lined throughout with roofing 
 pasteboard. The steam is developed in a locomotive which is 
 run close to the barracks. The men enter a room and deposit 
 their watches and other valuables in a locker opening also into the 
 outer wall. The clothing is marked with a number, hung upon a 
 hook, and carried into the sterilizing room where it hangs in rows as 
 in a wardrobe. A tube brings the steam from the locomotive. It 
 enters with a force of twelve atmospheres. A wooden screen pre- 
 vents the steam from blowing the clothing off the hooks. Maxiinal 
 thermometers are suspended among the clothes and a thermometer 
 and manometer are arranged so they can be read from outside. In 
 the course of half an hour the temperature in the room is brought to 
 iio°C., which is more than enough to kill lice. Leather goods are 
 sterilized with dry heat in another room heated by the steam as it 
 goes through the pipes. In the meanwhile the men have passed 
 into a room where the hair and beard are cut, the hair on the bodies 
 being shaved. They pass then into a room where there are 
 large tubs and douches. Here the men are soaped and scrubbed. 
 They then pass into another room located on the other side of the 
 
20 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 sterilizing room and their clothing is handed to them, well dried. 
 After the sterilization they then leave the establishment, getting 
 their valuables by unlocking the lockers from outside the building. 
 A thousand men can thus be de-loused and cleansed in an hoiir's 
 time. The barracks themselves can be disinfected as required, by 
 steam from the locomotive. 
 
 In order to control the presence of vermin among camp followers 
 in the Punitive Expedition these persons were brought to the office 
 of the Canip Surgeon by the guard when they sought to come in 
 past the outposts. Their persons and their clothing were examined 
 for vermin. If any. were found, clothing was immersed in gasoline 
 and a gasoline sponge bath given, followed by soap and water. The 
 camp follower was then given a pass good for ten days, at the end of 
 which time he was required to return for re-examination. At this 
 time also he was given the first dose of typhoid prophylactic and 
 was vaccinated. A record was kept showing the name of each 
 person thus treated, dates of typhoid prophylaxis, vaccination and 
 last examination. Sentries were instructed to examine the passes 
 of civilians in camp, and, if these were obsolete to deport bearers 
 beyond the outposts. At Columbus, N. M. , a " de-lousing " plant was 
 erected, consisting of a sheet iron box 20 feet square divided into 
 four rooms. In these successively, persons undressed, took their 
 gasoline bath, a bath of soap and water, and re-dressed in clothing 
 which had meanwhile been soaked in gasoline and dried. In this 
 arid and sunny climate garments dried quickly. 
 
 The following thirty admonitions pertaining to personal hygiene 
 were published to the Eleventh Division, El Paso, Texas, upon the 
 recommendation of Maj. H. L. Gilchrist, M. C, U. S. Army, Division 
 Surgeon. 
 
 Don't disobey the laws of common sense; fail to realize that you, 
 personally, are responsible for the condition of your health, and if 
 you take the same care of yourself in camp as when at home, there 
 is no reason why your health should not be equally as good if not 
 better; fail to keep your person dean at all times; fail to take" a 
 bath at least once each week and put on a clean change of under- 
 clothing; fail to wash your hands and face before eating; fail to 
 wash your hands after visiting the latrine; fail to have a good tooth- 
 brush and use it once daily at least; fail to change your socks fre- 
 
PERSONAL HYGIENE 21 
 
 quently; fail to keep your finger nails clean at all times; fail to have 
 your bowels move at least once each day; keep your tent too hot; 
 think cold pure air is detrimental to good health; think hot impure 
 air is conducive to good health; sit around a hot fire in a closed tent 
 on a bright sunny day; fail to keep your tent properly ventilated 
 at all times; fail to air your bedding daily; fail to extinguish the 
 fire in your tent before retiring, remembering that it burns up the 
 ojtygen or air intended for you; enter a heated tent and fail to remove 
 your overcoat or sweater, immediately upon entering; leave a heated 
 tent and go out into the cold, bare-headed and without proper 
 clothing to protect the body; fail to realize that colds are contagious, 
 and avoid the breath of one suffering, from such condition; fail to 
 devote several minutes daily to taking lung exercises; fail to seek 
 the advice of your surgeon when feeling ill and fail to follow his 
 advice when given; eat too rapidly; take active exercise either before 
 or after a hearty meal; over indulge in alcoholic liquors; forget 
 that the large majority of prostitutes are diseased; fail to use a pro- 
 phylactic immediately after having intercourse with a prostitute; 
 censure your commanding officer or the Government for the con- 
 dition of your health if you disobey these rules. 
 
 To these, for troops in the trenches may be added. Don't fail 
 to examine clothing and person, on every opportunity, to rid them 
 of lice. Don't fail to brush or shake clothing frequently. Don't 
 wear tight shoes, or other clothing. Don't forget to oil your feet 
 before going into wet trenches. Don't fail to dry wet shoes and socks 
 when opportunity permits. Don't fail to exercise hands and feet 
 when these are cold. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 THE MARCH 
 
 Marching is the simplest, most important and most exhausting 
 form of military exercise. Its importance in the present war has 
 not been as apparent as in others for the troops occupy what are in 
 effect elongated fortresses and when they must be moved quickly 
 from one part of the line to another they are carried often in motor 
 trucks. Nevertheless, numerous occasions yet arise when speedy 
 movements by marching are essential. Consequently the aphorism 
 attributed to T^apoleon that more battles are won by legs than arms 
 is not yet entirely obsolete. All branches of the service, but espe- 
 cially the Infantry, should be trained in marching. The latter should 
 be able to cover from 15 to 20 miles a day without much fatigue. 
 
 When practicable marches begin in the early morning after ample 
 time has been allowed for men to breakfast, for animals to feed and 
 water, and for wagons and animals to be packed. Breakfast should 
 be very digestible, otherwise it will not be assimilated and will be 
 a source of weakness instead of strength. Meat extracts such as 
 beef tea and soups favor assimilation. If the march' is to be a long 
 one the men should carry luncheons, unless rolling kitchens or fire- 
 less cookers accompany them. Canteens are filled, also water carts, 
 if these are used. If water require purification this should have been 
 done the preceding evening. Fires should be extinguished, kitchen 
 and latrine pits filled and camp thoroughly policed immediately 
 before departure. 
 
 The march should begin and end slowly. A full meal should not 
 be served until half an hour after arrival in the next camp. 
 
 A successful march places the troops at their destination in the 
 best possible condition. This event is secured by careful prepara- 
 tion, strict discipline and due observance of sanitary precautions. 
 Ample notice should be given so that preparations should be made 
 
 22 
 
THE MARCH 23 
 
 without haste. Hardship should be reduced to a minimum. March- 
 ing troops are usually healthy. During Sherman's march to the sea 
 which lasted six months, the sick in the Georgia column were less 
 than two per cent, and in the Caielina column 3.4 per cent, though 
 this was operating in swampy, country and much harassed by the 
 enemy. 
 
 Foot troops do not start as a rule before broad daylight and 
 mounted troops an hour later. Men and aninials get their best sleep 
 in the early morning. Animals will not water as a rule before daylight. 
 In hot weather the start is made as early as possible subject to the 
 above limitations. During the heat of the day, especially in the 
 tropics, the troops may halt from 1 1 to 4 when the march is resumed, 
 but as a general rule troops prefer to finish the march as soon as 
 possible after it is begun. Also arrival at a strange place after 
 nightfall occasions difiSculties otherwise avoidable. Night marching 
 is to be avoided as it has a most injurious effect on both men and 
 animals. Its deleterious results were manifested by French's 
 division in South Africa. 
 
 The march is usually at route order. In this the men are not re- 
 quired to preserve silence npr keep step but the ranks must cover 
 and preserve distance. The military step is more fatiguing than 
 that of ordinary walking for its movements are constrained and there 
 is much loss of energy in the vertical oscillation of the body. The 
 attitude assumed in marching should approximate that of a person 
 about to ascend a flight of steps. Body and head are inclined for- 
 ward and the chest is thrown out to favor breathing. The feet should 
 be raised just enough to clear obstacles and the muscles of the front of 
 the leg relaxed when the foot strikes the ground. If heel and toes 
 strike almost simultaneously shock is reduced. The foot should be 
 slightly everted but not more than 10 or 12 degrees. 
 
 Infantry usually marches in column of squads, column of twos 
 being formed only when the road is narrow or the weather hot. 
 Cavalry marches in column of fours on good roads or when compact 
 formation. is necessary, otherwise in column of twos. Artillery 
 marches in single column of carriages or very rarely in double 
 column if breadth of road permits. When Infantry are in column 
 of four, Cavalry in column of two and Artillery in single column, 
 the following road spaces may be assumed, viz., two men for each 
 
24 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 yard of Infantry, one man per yard for each mounted man, 20 yards 
 for each gun, caisson or wagon and 12 yards for each auto truck. 
 
 The rate of march for mixed commands is regulated by that of the 
 foot troops but is modified by a number of circumstances. It 
 varies with the length of the march, condition of the troops and the 
 size of the command. The longer the column, the slower its rate. 
 Sandy, rough, muddy or slippery roads, broken country, narrow 
 defiles or bridges, dust, great heat, strong head winds, storms, ice, 
 and snow, all reduce the rate of speed. The rate prescribed for 
 Infantrv is 100 yards per minute or 3^^ nules per hoiu:. On the 
 road the maximum expected is 3 miles an hour, or, including halts 
 2H to 3 miles an hour. Under average conditions the rate of an 
 Infantry column is from 2JI to 2H miles per hoiur. The average 
 march of Infantry is about 15 miles a day but for large bodies, it is 
 about 12 rmles. Small commands of seasoned troops marching on 
 good roads in good weather can average 20 miles a day. The maxi- 
 mum for one day's march for seasoned Infantry may be assumed to 
 be from 28 to 30 miles but a march of this character cannot be pro- 
 longed as a rule more than 36 hours. History presents many excep- 
 tions however to this general statement as the march of Friant's 
 Division to AusterUtz (78 miles in 46 hours). Forced marches im- 
 pair the efficiency of troops and their fighting abilities. Foot troops 
 make them by increasing the number of marching hours and ar- 
 ranging accordingly the periods for halts, sleep and cooking. As 
 far as possible they follow the rules for the average march. In 
 forced marches of mixed commands, foot troops are favored as much 
 as possible. They are not intermingled with other troops, they are 
 assigned the best roads, their packs are lightened or carried on wag- 
 ons if possible. 
 
 The average rate for Cavalry in the field is 3^ nules an hour or 
 including halts sH to 3K miles. The usual gait is the walk. The 
 average march after men and animals are hardened is 25 miles a day. 
 
 Under favorable conditions of road and weather a rate of 50 
 miles in 24 hours can be maintained for three or four days. On such 
 marches the usual hourly halts are made. In addition, a halt of two 
 hours is made at the end of the first half of each day's march, during 
 which the horses are unsaddled and permitted to roll, feed and lie 
 down. The rate is about 5 miles an hour, excluding halts. 
 
X O-A JJtLTk.lS.\^±i. 
 
 25 
 
 Under very favorable conditions a single march of loo miles can 
 be made in from 24 to 30 hours. On such a march the usual hourly 
 halts are made; in addition halts of 2 hours are made at the end of 
 the first and second thirds of the march, during which the horses 
 are unsaddled and permitted to roU, feed and lie down. The rate 
 is about sJ^ miles an hour, excluding halts. 
 
 For distances from 30 to 40 miles a rate of six nules an hour, ex- 
 cluding halts, can be maintained under favorable conditions of road 
 and weather. If the command be small, well seasoned and lightly 
 equipped; the rate may be even greater. The usual halts are made. 
 
 If the distance to be covered by forced marches is about 150 miles, 
 the march begins at the rate of not more than 50 miles a day. For 
 distances greater than 200 nules the daily march is from 30 to 40 
 miles. 
 
 On forced marches where the road is level or nearly so and the 
 footing good the men are occasionally required to dismount and 
 march for short distances at a fast walk or slow double time, leading 
 their horses. They are also permitted to loosen or remove their 
 sweaters or overcoats, if their comfort will be materially increased 
 thereby. 
 
 Field Artillery, if alone, covers 15 to 20 miles a day. Otherwise 
 its rate is that of the command of which it forms a part. Horse 
 Artillery has the rate of the Cavalry it accompanies. 
 
 Trains drawn by animals make from 2 to 4 nules an hour accord- 
 ing to the condition of animals and roads, size pf loads and length 
 of column. The length of the daUy march is about the same as 
 that of Infantry. 
 
 Troops should be informed of the length of halts and should not be 
 kept under arms longer than is necessary. The first halt is made after 
 marching three quarters of an hour and is of about fifteen minutes' 
 duration so that men may attend to the calls of nature. For this 
 reason, it should not be made near habitations. Thereafter troops 
 in the American service usually halt ten minutes in every hour. 
 In hot weather, in difficult country, or for unseasoned troops, halts 
 may be made at more frequent intervals and for longer periods. 
 The men fall out and remove equipments, but remain near their 
 places in the column. Intervals of marching may be modified 
 slightly to take advantage of good halting places such as those 
 
26 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 with clean dry sites affording shade in summer or protection from 
 ^ wind in winter. Men should not sit or lie on wet ground. In 
 certain services, if the ground is wet, a few men form a circle and 
 sit on one another's knees. 
 
 For Cavalry after the initial fifteen minute halt five minute 
 halts are allowed during which the men examine the animals feet, 
 adjust saddles, etc. 
 
 Artfllery halts for five to ten minutes, adjusts harness, etc. 
 
 Special attention should be given on the march to the backs of 
 animals. The pack or saddle blankets should be smooth. If 
 bunches form, a sack wet with cold water should be kept tightly 
 cinched over them during long halts and at the end of the march 
 and they should be rubbed by hand at frequent intervals. 
 
 Long halts in good weather are not desirable unless the march 
 be more than 15 miles for Infantry or 25 miles for Cavalry. In 
 such cases, a halt of an hour may be made at meal time on a favor- 
 able site. The men stack arms and remove equipments. Mounted 
 men re-adjust saddles and loosen cinches. 
 
 Halts are not made in towns or villages except to procure water 
 or supplies. In continental armies mounted men or cyclists are 
 sent ahead to instruct citizens to put out tubs and buckets. The 
 men remain in column and details are sent for whatever is necessary. 
 Commands the size of a regiment usually halt simultaneously at the 
 word of command; in longer columns a simultaneous halt may be 
 made by synchronizing watches before the march begins and 
 by determining upon the designated moment for the halt. 
 
 The chief difficulty on the march especially in hot weather is 
 controlling thirst. Many troops have the water habit and will 
 empty their canteens at the first halt. The difference between habit 
 thirst and necessity thirst should be recognized Clearly. Unneces- 
 sary water drinking causes profuse perspiration and gastric dis- 
 turbance, and is distinctly weakening. 
 
 The body temperature on the march rises to from 100.4° to 101.4°. 
 This is physiological and is necessary for the efficient performance 
 of work. It may go up to 102° without iU effects. The optimum 
 temperature is about 100.5°. It is kept from rising too far chiefly 
 by evaporation which is favored by suitable clothing and the proper 
 amount of water. On a march of 15 nules, 1300 calories must be 
 
THE MARCH 2^ 
 
 dissipated by evaporation, unless the weather be cold. The 
 evaporation of one quart of water will remove 600 calories, so that 
 on a march of this length and at its end, a little more than two 
 quarts are necessary to replenish the amount of fluid lost. At 
 the end of 7H miles the soldier wiU have evaporated one quart of 
 water. For seasoned troops this should cause no inconvenience 
 but the loss of two quarts is followed by slight discomfort. The 
 loss of one gallon is dangerous. 
 
 Water should be drunk only at halts and at the word of com- 
 mand. Each man should drink one pint of water after marching 
 •}}4 miles and thereafter one-third of a pint hourly. By this means 
 a steady supply fully adequate to meet requirements is afforded 
 and the amount of body fluids kept well within nprmal limits. 
 
 This procedure based on evaporation statistics, etc., is applicable 
 in such climates as those of middle and western Europe. In hotter 
 and drier climates a larger amount of water is necessary. 
 
 There is no other element of the march except the care of the 
 feet which has so direct an influence upon the welfare of the troops 
 as has the proper use of drinking water. 
 
 Canteens, should be fiUed by order and not by straggling. Un- 
 certainty concerning the quality and quantity of the water next 
 available after canteens are emptied is also a reason for causing 
 preservation of 'the supply on hand. If practicable, sources of 
 water should be examined by field laboratories and marked good or 
 bad. 
 
 Weak t^a or coffee slake thirst better than water. Also they are 
 sterilized. Sugar is a tonic and a muscular restorative which is 
 immediately assimilated. It may be used to advantage in tea or 
 coffee or in the form of chocolate. 
 
 Thirst may be alleviated by carrying in the mouth a bvdlet, 
 pebble or twig. On long marches when the local water supply is inade- 
 quate or for the service of troops in the trenches, a supply should 
 be provided carried on vehicles or pack animals. (See chapter on 
 Water.) The effects of exposure to direct rays of the sun are allevi- 
 ated by the wearing of leaves or a moist handkerchief in the hat and 
 the use of smoked glasses. 
 
 If the temperature is high and the atmosphere humid, in order to 
 prevent heat exhaustion, the men should march in files on each side 
 
28 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 of the road, leaving the middle open. Shirts and collars should be 
 opened, sleeves rolled up, and loads lightened by means of one wagon 
 for each battalion. 
 
 If a number of men are overcome by heat in a short time, an aid 
 post shoul4 be established in a shady place and the incapacitated 
 left in charge of a subaltern if the regiment is obliged to continue 
 its march. This situation very rarely occurs in well-seasoned troops. 
 
 In cold weather especially if attended with wind, rain or snow, 
 the men should march in colunm of fours. At every quarter hour 
 the exterior files should be replaced by the interior ones. 
 
 Our regulations require that men falling out on the march present 
 a pass signed by the company commander when they seek assistance 
 from the surgeon. The object of this order is to prevent straggling. 
 In the French service, passes of two colors are given. One indicates 
 that the man should be relieved of his equipment, the other that 
 he should be adrpitted to the ambulance. The object of this is to 
 facilitate prompt action on the part of the surgeon, thus avoiding 
 delay to any organization in the rear. If the pass indicates that 
 admission to the ambulance is believed advisable the surgeon enters 
 the ambulance and there makes an examination while the vehicle 
 continues its march. Men who have been admitted to the ambu- 
 lance may be discharged after resting several hours to be replaced 
 by others. 
 
 In hot weather or where the supply of water is doubtful, animals 
 should be watered before leaving camp, but frequently they will 
 not drink before sunrise or untU about ten o'clock in the forenoon. 
 Use should be made of opportunities to water on the march. Artil- 
 lery and train animals are either watered in camp or during long 
 halts on the march. 
 
 Straggling is to be prevented vigorously. It has a demoralizing 
 effect both on the individual and on the command. 
 
 Care of the feet is discussed in the chapter on Personal Hygiene. 
 Injuries to the feet are prevented chiefly by well fitting shoes, well 
 fitting socks and cleanliness. Injuries received on the march which 
 require medical attention are teno-synovitis and tarsalgia (which 
 often complicate flat feet), and fractures of a meta-tarsal bone 
 (usually the second). Such fractures are the result, as a rule, of 
 marching over rough ground, in worn shoes. The surgeon should 
 
THE MARCH 29 
 
 examine the men's feet daily and treat minor injuries until the meQ 
 have learned to care for these themselves. 
 
 An irritable condition of the heart not infrequently follows severe 
 marching, especially in hot weather. It is manifested by shortness 
 of breath, a degree of exhaustion, and an irregular and intermittent 
 pulse which is increased in frequency upon very slight exertion. 
 The patient may ultimately recover under a complete rest treatment 
 which is usually protracted. 
 
 This condition should not be confused with the normal increase 
 of the heart beats which follows ordinary marching. The pulse 
 may reach 140 without manifesting a morbid condition. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 CAMPS , 
 
 The selection of a camp site, as stated by Lord Wolsey, should be 
 determined by sanitary conditions if contact with the enemy is not 
 expected within 48 hours. In the presence of the enemy or before or 
 after a battle, or while marching or maneuvering for position, sani- 
 tary considerations must be utterly subordinated. Troops may 
 have to camp many nights on objectionable sites. "Nevertheless 
 sanitary considerations are given all weight possible, consistent with 
 tactical requirements." (Field Service Regulations, U. S. A.) 
 
 When no tactical requirments need be considered and the camp 
 is to be occupied several days or weeks, great care should be exer- 
 cised in selecting its site. Occupancy of an insalubrious location 
 may cause greater losses than the battles of the campaign. An ex- 
 perienced medical officer should assist in the location of a camp. 
 In this matter, his responsibility is very grave. 
 
 The camp should be located on ground high enough to secure a 
 dry soil and good drainage, but this should not pollute the grounds 
 of a camp which might be established below it. A large ditch below 
 the camp may overcome this difficulty. 
 
 Favorable sites are low ridges with gentle slopes, a gently sloping 
 plateau, or the high bank of a rives. In cold weather a slope to 
 the south with woods or hUls to the north to break the force of winds 
 is advantageous. In hot weather the camp should be on high 
 ground free from underbrush but shaded with trees. Trees and 
 shrubs protect from the sun and modify extremes of temperature. 
 
 The soil should be dry, porous, and drain easily. Healthy camp 
 grounds are gravel, sand, loam and volcanic rocks such as granite, 
 trap and gneiss, except when fissured or too level to afford good 
 drainage. A rocky soil, however, often presents difficulties in 
 driving tent pegs. 
 
 30 
 
CAMPS 31 
 
 Undesirable sites are the following: (i) Vicinity of marshes, or 
 stagnant pools for they render the soil damp, exhale npxious gases, 
 and breed annoying insects. (2) Old camp grounds, which have 
 not been disinfected by sun, wind and rain. The time for this varies 
 widely but as a rule in dry weather, two or three months will remove 
 danger of soil infection. (3) The vicinity of cemeteries is liable to 
 be polluted by the action of earth worms in briqging disease causing 
 germa to the surface. (4) Thick forests, the base of hills, dense 
 vegetation, made grounds, clay or alluvial soil, punch bowl depres- 
 sions, enclosed ravines. In all of these the soil is damp, or in the 
 three last mentioned sites becomes so after scant rainfall. Mois- 
 ture in the soil renders it cold and predisposes to neuralgia, diarrhea, 
 rheumatism, etc. 
 
 The grcfund water as a rule should be at least 10 or 12 feet from 
 the surface but in porous soils 6 or 8 feet may be sufficient. Clay 
 and marl sites are especially undesirable. White sand does not 
 absorb much heat during the day, loses little at night, and usually 
 contains but little organic matter. If nearly pure, however, it is 
 soft to the foot and its glare is troublesome unless colored glasses 
 are worn. 
 
 The water supply should be adequate, accessible and suitable for 
 drinking purposes without purification. All proper economy in the 
 use of water should be exercised, especially in bath houses, in order 
 to prevent waste and to avoid insanitary puddles. Drainage ditches 
 should be dug when necessary. Except in very dry climates or 
 over porous soils the disposal of waste water is the most difficult 
 problem in camp sanitation. 
 
 Wood, grass, forage and supplies should be at hand or readily ob- 
 tainable. Grass should be preserved and protected as it mitigates 
 the heating of the soil by day and its chilling by night, prevents 
 mud and dust, and does not reflect light and heat. Since vegeta- 
 tion affords insects shelter in their flight, camps in malarial countries 
 especially should be cleared of underbrush. In this circumstance 
 high grass and other vegetations should be cut. A screen of trees 
 between mosquito breeding waters and a camp will prevent many 
 of these insects reaching it, but a line of trees, high grass or bushes, 
 extending between the two wiU facilitate their travel and should be 
 destroyed. 
 
32 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 In enemy territory information should be obtained from the in- 
 habitants concerning any prevalent disease of man or animals in 
 the proximity of the camp grounds. 
 
 The site should accommodate the command with as little crowding 
 as possible. The concentration of large numbers of men under 
 primitive hygenic conditions favors the spread among them of in- 
 fectious diseases. This is limited by giving each man as much space 
 as possible. Not more than 5000 men should be placed in one.camp 
 if avoidable and its organizations should be scattered as far as tactical 
 considerations, topographical conditions and facilities for internal 
 administration permit. There should be good roads to the camp 
 and good interior communications. Mounted men should keep to 
 the roads. 
 
 The form of the camp should be such as to facilitate the prompt 
 location of troops after a march and their prompt departure when 
 camp is broken. The form assumed in any given instance will 
 depend upon tactical conditions and the area and configuration of 
 the site. In the presence of the enemy camp sites are contracted 
 but when tactical considerations need not be considered expanded 
 areas are utilized. Forms and dimensions of camps are given in 
 the appended data from the Field Service Regulations. 
 
 When camp is to be established the point where each organization 
 is to locate is designated. Places where water is to be obtained for 
 drinking and cooking purposes, where animals are to be watered, 
 and where clothing may be washed, are defined. Such places are 
 located in the order - mentioned from upstream down. Guards 
 should be posted at once to insure proper use of the water supply. 
 When several commands are encamped along the same stream, 
 the senior officer present exercises control in designating sites where 
 water is obtained for the purposes mentioned. If the water supply 
 is of doubtful purity, it is treated in the manner indicated in the 
 chapter on water. 
 
 Men should not lie on the damp ground. In temporary 
 camps they should make beds of grass, leaves or boughs, or 
 use ponchos or slickers. In cold weather, if fuel be plentiful 
 the ground may be warmed by fire and beds made after ashes are 
 raked away. 
 
CAMPS 
 
 33 
 
 SHELTER 
 
 In camp troops are usually under canvas. It gives shelter against 
 sun and rain, to some extent against cold and wind, but chills or 
 heats up rapidly and does not afford protection such as that given 
 by even the most primitive buildings. In the United States at least, 
 tentage is more expensive than structures built of lumber if occu- 
 pancy lasts more than six months. Comfort in tents is promoted by 
 flys which should fit more closely in winter than in summer. In 
 sunlight the temperature is higher in a tent than in the shady open 
 
 Fig. 5. — Screened tent. 
 
 air. In countries where insects abound tents may be screened. In 
 cold weather tents are made more comfortable by lining the wall 
 with flannel or paper. Comfort is promoted in protracted camps 
 by erecting tents on walls 2 to 6 feet high made of wood or of adobe 
 bricks. These walls conform to the dimensions of the tents. In 
 sandy soil where tent pegs will not hold these may be replaced by 
 bundles of brush which are tied to the tent ropes and buried in the 
 sand. In fixed- camps, tents or roofs are sometimes erected over 
 excavations to promote warmth but this advantage is offset by 
 3 
 
34 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 Fig. 6. — Frames for tents on adobe walls. 
 
 Fig. 7. — Shelter tents on walls. 
 
 Fig. 8. — Pyramidal and hospital tents erected on adobe walls. 
 
CAMPS 
 
 35 
 
 dampness and the practice should be discouraged. Tents may be 
 heated by Sibley stoves, by adobe brick fireplaces with chimneys 
 made of mud or tin, or by galvanized iron cans or tins closed at the 
 top except where the stovepipe emerges. Spark arrestors should be 
 provided, preferably at the top of the chimney where their condition 
 is readily noted. They soon clog in this situation but if inserted 
 in the stove pipe where it leaves the stove they burn out quickly 
 and their condition is not so easily determined. Tents may be 
 heated also by grouping four tents around a central fireplace; by 
 a crescent shaped wall against which an open fire is built in front of 
 a tent and which reflects the heat into it; by making a fire pit in 
 
 Fig. 9. — Semi subterranean quarters. 
 
 front of the tent and leading the heat and smoke in a zigzag course 
 across the tent floor to an outside chimney; or by erecting three tents 
 against three sides of a hut which is heated by a stove and which 
 communicates with the tents by doorways. Board flooring increases 
 comfort and available space. If this is not obtainable, the floor may 
 be made of three inches of finegravelorof a layer of stone of the same 
 depth filled in and covered with well tamped earth. Tents should 
 be ditched in permanent camps or if the weather is unsettled. In 
 summer, tent walls should be raised or tents furled daily, weather 
 permitting, in order to air bedding and clothing. In cold weather, 
 ventilation should be insisted upon. Lewis and MOler secured this 
 in the pyramidal tent by replacing the hood with a metal cap which 
 had a hole to accommodate the stovepipe. The cap was supported 
 at a height of four inches above the canvas by two small pieces of 
 
36 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 timber. This device promoted ventilation and protected the tent 
 from rain, but to secure adequate results, it was supplemented by 
 leaving tent doors partly open. 
 
 Where timber is obtainable and the camp is of some duration, 
 log huts with weU plastered joints, canvas roof and fly, aflord 
 excellent protection and are preferable to tents. Smart's hut, built 
 of log walls with a canvas roof, measures 13 X 7 feet and is 6 feet 
 to the eaves. It can accommodate 4 men on two double bunks, one 
 
 Fig. 10. — Ventilation of pyramidal tent. (Lewis and Miller.) 
 
 on each side of the doorway. Light and ventilation are provided by 
 roof, door and chimney. Woodhull recommends two huts, 8 feet 
 by II standing end to end 6 feet apart, with doors opening upon a 
 connecting porch. Each hut accommodates four men. In a cold 
 climate one fireplace and chimney between the huts is sufficient. 
 
 Cantonments. — When lumber is available cantonments may be 
 erected. Huts may be made to accommodate from 100 to 150 men. 
 They should be built of shiplap and in cold climates should be cased 
 inside by boards nailed to the scantling uprights. In warm climates 
 
CAMPS 
 
 37 
 
 this inner boarding may be replaced by heavy paper or dispensed 
 with. At Fort McPherson, Ga., barracks were erected in 1898 with 
 tar paper exteriors and heavy paper lining the scantlings. Similar 
 
 Fig. II. — Log hut. 
 
 construction of hospital buildings on the line of communication has 
 been employed by Austria during the present war. Warmth is due 
 to the air blanket created more than to the materials employed. 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 -Hospital wards, Base Hospital No. 2, Fort Bliss, 
 monitors along ridge and panels in wall. 
 
 showing 
 
 Buildings in cantonments, in warm climates especially, should be 
 ventilated by monitors extending the entire length of the building. 
 These are screened with mosquito netting. Panels are provided in 
 the ceiling whereby in cold weather ventilators may be closed in part, 
 and heat retained. Panels are also provided in the sides of a hut. 
 
38 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 These may be raised to allow air to enter through screened aper- 
 tures. Doors and windows should be screened in all habitations. 
 
 Cantonments should be heated by stoves large enough to receive 
 a. length of cordwood. The quantity of metal in them should be 
 
 Fig. 13. — Screened kitchen and dining room tised on the Mexican border. 
 
 large so that they will maintain a relatively steady heat. The out- 
 put of heat may be made more available by sheet iron drums placed 
 upon their stoves. Combination kitchen and dining room with 
 
 Fig. 14. — Portable hospital hut. (Austrian service.) 
 
 screened sides which may be closed by panels should be provided for 
 aU organizations. 
 
 A very important type of shelter which is steadily coming into 
 greater use is the portable hut. It is constructed in sections that 
 
v^rt-iittx-a 
 
 39 
 
 may readily be cleated into position. Its walls and roof are usually 
 made of varnished canvas. Varnished papier mache is also em- 
 ployed. This type of structure, because of its great solidity, is 
 especially valuable in the hospital service at or near the head of the 
 line of communication. The huts usually accommodate from lo to 
 20 men. One accommodating the latter number, can be erected in 
 about four hours. Their use appears to be restricted to permanent 
 and semi-permanent camps. The writer has inspected several in 
 
 Fig. 15. — Adobe hut. 
 
 Galicia and in Servia which had passed through much hard service 
 but which were yet habitable, and more suitable for hospital usage 
 than tentage. Drawbacks to their employment further afield 
 than the line of communication are their weight, bulk, and the time 
 required for their erection and demolition. 
 
 In the earlier fixed camps of the Punitive Expedition, after the 
 weather became warm, the troops erected shelters made of brush 
 or brush and mud, about the size and shape of shelter tents. Ofiicers 
 built brush shelters around their tents as a protection against wind 
 and dust. Arbors with tops and three sides made of boughs and 
 
4° 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 covered with boughs or canvas, or both, were quite the most com- 
 fortable habitations available at this time, especially if their floors 
 and walls were dashed with water at intervals. Later more per- 
 manent structures were erected. The enlisted men constructed 
 adobe brick walls 3 feet high and on these erected their shelter tents. 
 Doors were added to some of these shacks, and, when the weather 
 became colder, extemporized stoves were installed. In some camps 
 log huts were erected, the interstices chinked with mud. In these a 
 space for ventilation the thickness of the rafters was left between 
 the roof and the walls. Many officers constructed huts of adobe 
 
 Fig. 16. — Windbreaks made of brush. Water bag in background. 
 
 brick. A common type housing three officers was 13 X 18 feet 
 7>2 feet high in front and 6 feet high in the rear, interior measure- 
 ments. The roof was supported by beams extending from front 
 to rear and consisted either of wattled boughs covered with mud and 
 silt from the river bed or well tamped adobe on a board base. Usu- 
 ally three windows made of boxes with tops and bottoms removed 
 were provided and shelf room was afforded by boxes built into the 
 walls. Doors and windows were screened but as the cold weather 
 approached the latter were closed with glass or sheets of celluloid. 
 Fireplaces were also installed. A good type provided a place above 
 the fire where an oil can with a faucet could be set into the front 
 wall of the chimney, for heating water. Another device was to 
 
CAMPS 
 
 41 
 
 Fig 18. — Officer's house (designed by Capt. Geo. B. Lake, M. C). 
 Ground plan. A, Hearth; B, stove; C, chimney. Scale K inch = i foot. 
 
42 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 insert a cylinder of sheet iron 34 of its length into the front wall of 
 the chimney, so that it might assist in radiating heat. The use of 
 brasiers was forbidden, two men having been suffocated by the gases 
 which these developed. Another type of building was an elongated 
 adobe structure accommodating 20 men. This type was inadvisable 
 because of the difficulty of ridding it of vermin which were propor- 
 tionately more easily introduced. The best buildings for barracks 
 were elongated structures divided into four non-communicating 
 rooms, each lodging four men. 
 
 Habitations in trenches should be drained to the outside 
 rather than under-drained. Water which accumulates in drains 
 
 Fig. 19. — Field hospital ward tent. 
 
 shordd be removed periodically by pumps. Walls should be 
 made double and the interspace filled with sand or brushwood. 
 Iron sheathing is incorporated in the earth covering of the gun 
 emplacements. 
 
 KITCHENS 
 
 Kitchens in the Punitive Expedition were at first protected from 
 the sun by arbors, or tent flies. Coolness under the latter was 
 promoted, if two flys were used by pitching them parallel 6 in. 
 apart. Later, more permanent structures were built of adobe, usu- 
 ally with the kitchen at one end, the mess hall at the other. The 
 combined adobe kitchen store room and mess hall prescribed in 
 the 1 6th Infantry for each company, measured about 32 feet 
 
CAMPS 
 
 43 
 
 square by 7 feet high at the eaves and 1 1 feet high at the ridge. 
 It was built of adobe and roofed with canvas, and was divided 
 from floor to ridge by a wall. One half constituted the mess hall, 
 the other the store room and kitchen. The wall between the kitchen 
 and mess hall was pierced by two large openings or windows 
 through which the men were served as they filed by. Plans of 
 these kitchens and dining rooms are shown in the diagrams. 
 
 The proper preparation of food in the field, the care of food and 
 kitchens are matters of prime importance. The welfare of the 
 command is determined largely by its receipt of adequate 
 nourishment. 
 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 ,^^ 
 
 /^ 
 
 
 a|p^^ 
 
 ^y 
 
 1 o^/itl^^^B 
 
 ^R^* 
 
 ^^*''^s 
 
 
 i^"* -•' 
 
 ^i 
 
 
 W- ' 
 
 ngmlinji 
 
 ^HL ■ -~-;Se?**^3KS*-,:P,.-".-:- - 
 
 ^.J; ^ 
 
 Fig. 20. — Brush shelter for kitchen. 
 
 The Army Field Range No. i complete weighs approximately 264 
 lbs. with utensUs. With the Alamo attachment it is designed to 
 cook for 152 men. On the march the range is ordinarily set up by 
 simply leveling the ground, and by placing the oven and boiling 
 plate side by side so that their doors will be at the same end. The 
 oven should not be banked but sufficient earth should be tamped 
 along the sides and closed ends to prevent the passage of gases 
 beneath. When used for one day only a few shovelfuls of earth are 
 removed from the place to be covered by the boUing plate. If the 
 range is to remain in place for several days a trench should be pre- 
 pared as shown in the diagram. When the range is set for more 
 than one day in one spot, bake pans should be elevated slightly 
 above the floor by angle irons. If sand or earth be used on the 
 bottom of the oven chamber a hole is soon burned through the 
 
44 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 bottom plate. In permanent camps, instead of using a trench, 
 a range may be installed on a brick wall 8 inches thick and three 
 bricks high. The outside of this wall is banked with earth. In 
 permanent camp, garbage may be consumed and fluid evaporated 
 by placing the stove on a pit four feet long, three and one-half 
 
 Fig. 
 
 -Army field range, without Alamo attachment. 
 {Manual for Army Cooks.) 
 
 feet wide, and one foot deep. This pit is filled with rocks. Liquid 
 refuse is poured through a chute to the bottom of the pit, and 
 garbage is burned on the fire. 
 
 The present regulations provide for the use of equipments "A," 
 " B " and " C " in the field. The first is used in campaign, the second 
 in mobilization or concentration camps and the third in permanent 
 camps. Equipment "A" provides quite limited kitchen facilities 
 
CAMPS 
 
 45 
 
 Fig. 22. — Upper figure shows army field range No. i with Alamo at- 
 tachment, assembled for use. In the lower figure the solid lines show 
 trenching for same and the dotted lines the trace of the base of the oven, 
 boiling plate and Alamo attachment. {Manual for Army Cooks.) 
 
46 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 but these are adequate for protracted periods. The Punitive 
 Expedition used it with but few additions for lo months. Its 
 evolution of cooking facilities when in fixed camp is indicated in the 
 appended photographs and diagrams. At first the fire was built 
 over a trench filled with stones and crossed from end to end by a 
 horizontal iron bar. From this depended hooks or wires to which 
 horseshoes were fastened to act as hooks for cooking vessels. Oil 
 cans were often used for boiling. Baking was done in a pan sup- 
 ported over a fire on four tin cans or stones and covered by coals 
 upon a sheet of tin. The next device was a fire pit one foot deep 
 filled with rocks not less than four inches in diameter. It was 
 
 Fig. 23. — Equipment "A" oil cans used as receptacles. 
 
 surrounded on three sides with walls nine inches high and eight 
 inches wide, close enough together to support bakepans, there being 
 at first no metal available for supports. Liquids were poured into 
 the bottom of this pit through a tube made of tin cans, the upper 
 one of which was removable. Its bottom was perforated to act as 
 a strainer. 
 
 In a later type an oven was erected over one end of the fire pit a 
 draft being provided either by a chimney or a hole left in the end wall. 
 In some ovens a second fire was used to heat the top of the oven and 
 to boil water. Detached ovens with either one or two chambers 
 were also evolved. The best type of cooking apparatus finally 
 developed consisted of parallel adobe walls supporting transverse 
 rods supporting vessels on which meat and vegetables were boiled. 
 Heat from this trench was carried under, back of, and over an oven 
 
CAMPS 
 
 47 
 
 Fig. 24. — Evolution of cooking facilities in the Punitive Expedition 
 
 Fig. 25. — Evolution of cool{ing facilities in the Punitive Expedition. 
 
 Fig, 26. — Evolution of cooking facilities in the Punitive Expedition. 
 
48 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 chamber, as shown in the diagram, to emerge up a chimney at the 
 front near the fire pit. In some cases the chimney was at the back 
 and the column of heated air divided to pass over and under the 
 
 Fig. 27. — Evolution of cooking facilities in the Punitive Expedition. 
 
 Fig. 28. — Evolution of cooking facilities in the Punitive Expedition. 
 
 Bake oven. 
 
 oven chamber. The advantages of the combined oven and kitchen 
 pit were that one fire was adequate for general cooking, baking, 
 and incineration. The oven was constructed as follows: Two 
 
CAMPS 
 
 49 
 
 parallel trenches were dug the width between them being that of the 
 fire box. An end trench was also dug. These trenches were filled 
 with adobe mud and on this walls were erected eight inches thick. 
 When a suitable height for a fire box was reached (about twelve 
 inches), strips of iron, heavy wire, etc., were laid across the walls 
 and the space between them. These supported the top of the fire 
 
 Combined Stove, Ot/en snd Incinerator used bi/ Companies of the Id^-^USInfantry 
 
 Built of Adobe BrIcK & Tin. 
 
 I. stones forming fire bed. 
 Z. Drain from waste strainer 
 
 3. Rack from which kettles were 
 
 4. Oven 
 
 5. Pan top of oi/en to hold hot ashes 
 wall 9" thick. I3"hiqh. 
 
 Side Elevation — DIagramatic 
 Showing waste strainer 
 
 1. Waste Strainer 
 
 2. Drain- to cany liquid wastes 
 down over heatea stones. 
 
 Fig. 29. — Combined stove, oven and incinerator. (After Hefflebower.) 
 
 box and on them the floor of the oven was built. It consisted of a 
 layer of iron, or tin, a layer of sand about an inch thick, and a 
 second layer of sheet iron or tin. The walls including those of the 
 oven were then continued upward until the desired height of the 
 oven was reached. Pieces of iron or heavy, wire were then laid 
 across the top of the oven and its top was covered by a sheet of tin 
 4 
 
5° 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 Fig. 30. — Combined range and oven. Door of oven at left (Demmer.) 
 
 -4-6"- 
 
 8" 
 
 5^ 
 
 Shows ground plan 
 
 Support "A" la.id a.cro35 
 on opp osite wait suppo rt 
 ot/en. 
 
 A- Arch Supports 
 
 B -Sheets of Tin on Iron 
 
 ~. V 'B^^K.e Pan 
 
 mmtm 
 
 m 
 
 ^^ 
 
 /fl 
 
 y^A>: 
 
 A. A A A 
 
 V A 
 
 A A 
 
 Di rect ion 
 
 • of heat 
 
 A A 
 Sand 
 
 Fire Box 
 
 ■ 4'-0'- 
 
 St 
 
 -Z0~ 
 
 Oven 
 Door 
 
 f 
 g''_ Fire Box <Z 
 
 L 
 
 ^8"- 
 
 Medial Cross Section 
 
 Fig. 31. — Improvised adobe range. 
 
 Front View 
 
CAMPS 
 
 SI 
 
 Fig. 32. — Austrian field cooking liettles. 
 
 Fig. 33. — Austrian field cooking kettles. 
 
52 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 or iron supporting about a quarter of an inch of sand. The outside 
 walls were then completed and the bake pan set in position in the 
 top. The bottom of this pan was supported by the outer wall and 
 
 Fig. 34. — Field oven (American). 
 
 
 
 Fig. 35.— Wheeled field oven (Austrian) with tent. 
 
 in direct contact with the heat passing over the top of the oven. An 
 outlet was provided and a chimney arranged. An opening was left 
 at one end for the fire box, at the front of the oven, and one on the 
 
CAMPS 
 
 53 
 
 side for the oven chamber. The structure was then covered with 
 a thick layer of adobe (Fig. 31). 
 
 The material for stove pipes, top and floor of oven was obtained 
 from hardtack boxes or oil cans. Often the chimney was made of 
 adobe. The strips of iron used in making arches to support this 
 chimney or to shape the oven chamber were obtained from dis- 
 carded wagon tires, auto truck springs, etc. Sand was found pref- 
 erable to any other substance for use in making the bottom and 
 top of the oven. Such an oven can cook 150 loaves of excellent 
 bread daily. Its output in other respects was said to at least equal 
 that of the army range. 
 
 Rolling Katchens. — Rolling kitchens have long been in use in 
 European armies and have proven their value under European 
 
 Fig. 36. — Rolling kitchen in Punitive Expedition. 
 
 conditions of warfare. They are indispensable in trench warfare. 
 Different types are in use in the several armies. The most 
 generally satisfactory one consists of two main portions, which 
 are connected in much the same manner as a cannon and limber. 
 The forward section carries supplies of small articles, spices, sugar, 
 etc., and kitchen utensUs. The rear section, in which cooking is 
 done, is provided with three boilers (in the later types) each con- 
 taining about 25 gallons. These are suspended from the circular 
 plate which forms the top of the fire box. This plate may be 
 revolved so that each boiler in succession may be heated. Usually 
 food is cooked in two receptacles and coffee or tea boiled in the third. 
 
54 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 There are certain other refinements in the latest models for baking, 
 etc. One of these kitchens is adequate for 250 men. 
 The advantages of the rolling kitchen are the following: 
 It uses a small amount of fuel, can keep up with the troops, have 
 hot food ready on arrival in camp, can be driven forward to the 
 trenches after nightfall to supply hot food with a minimum of in- 
 convenience, conserves all the nutriment of the food stuffs cooked, 
 and, by providing tea or coffee reduces the temptation to drink 
 polluted water. 
 
 Fig. 37. — Wheeled kitchen. Austrian army. i. Limber, containing 
 cooking utensils, etc. and affording driver's seat. 2. Cooking chamber 
 accommodating 3 kettles. 3. Kettle removed from its socket in lid of 
 cooking chamber. 
 
 Usually the rolling kitchen is accompanied by a wagon which 
 carries beef, flour, bread and other bulky food supplies, together 
 with forage for the animals. The rolling kitchen used in the 
 Punitive Expedition proved too cumbersome for that service. 
 These vehicles will not be well regarded in the U. S. Army generally 
 until the troops come to rely almost exclusively upon boiling for the 
 preparation of their foodstuffs other than bread. 
 
 Small commands especially can utilize in the field the principle 
 of the fireless cooker. Food is boiled for about half an hour, the 
 length of time for such preparation varying with different articles 
 
cAMi-a 55 
 
 and with the efficiency of the fireless cooker employed (see Manual 
 for Army Cooks, page 1 24) . It is then placed in a closed receptacle 
 in which heat is conserved by a surrounding box packed with straw 
 or other non-conducting material. In the Austrian service inde- 
 pendent commands of 25 men are each supplied a rectangular fire- 
 less cooker, made of nickeled steel, having a capacity of 25 liters. 
 It is provided with a screw lid and is carried packed in a corrugated 
 sheet iron container. This in turn is enclosed in an asbestos lined 
 box. The container is removable and demountable and can be 
 used as a grate when the food is being boiled in the cooker. 
 
 Kitchen Refuse. — In very temporary camps kitcheii refuse is 
 thrown into pits near the kitchens. Solids, including tin cans, are 
 
 C/ioss 
 
 o'V 
 
 f^XouXA^ 
 
 Fig. 38. — Rock pit kitchen incinerator. This incinerator is not es- 
 sentially different from the type in use in the U. S. Army for several years. 
 {Lewis anU Miller.) 
 
 passed through the fire. -The refuse is covered daily and.these pits 
 are filled in before the command moves. In more permanent camps 
 the following devices may be employed. 
 
 The rock pit incinerator consists of a pit 12 inches deep, 4 feet 
 long, and 3 feet wide filled with stones not less than 4 inches in 
 diameter. The walls are carried up 6 inches above the surface on 
 three sides. One end is left open. 
 
 The. Guthrie incinerator is. about 8 feet long, 2 feet high, and 
 is made of bricks laid in cement which are later banked up with 
 earth. One end is open, the other closed. Over the closed end is 
 erected a Sibley stove or better a length ofji6 inch tile pipe or a 
 chimney 6 inches square, internal measure. The walls support an 
 
56 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 Detail Drawinq 
 
 for "^ 
 
 Incinerator 
 
 Longitudinal Section 
 
 Walls to be of Brick laid in CementorClau 
 LineoF \ n rj 
 
 '\5ibi4,^!XJkir^ " 
 
 
 
 Sh&etlronPaHZZ"x49xe'peeit = = 
 ] (Bottorh of Panjii C: -v? 
 
 L 
 
 
 IT 
 
 %>/pe 
 
 P/an 
 
 Fig. 39. — Detail drawing for incinerator. 
 
UAMi'S 57 
 
 evaporating pan made of sheet iron about 4 feet long, 20 inches 
 wide, and 6 inches deep. An over-flow hole is provided near the 
 top at one end. This pan may be near the chimney or if an open' 
 space is left between the two this should be crossed by iron bars on 
 which solid garbage may be dried. A piece of sheet iron on the bars 
 will increase the draught. The rock pit and Guthrie incinerators 
 are thus discussed by Lewis and MiUer. 
 
 "Rock Pit Incinerator." — Advantages — (a) Where stone is avail- 
 able the construction is simple, quickly carried out and inexpensive. 
 (b) Its use in mobilization and concentration camps trains the 
 
 Fig. 40. — Guthrie's incinerator. 
 
 troops in a method which will probably be available for such use 
 under all conditions of service. Disadvantages: (a) Requires a 
 very considerable amount of time and patience in its operation, as 
 the liquid must be added to it in small quantities at a time. (6) 
 The interstices between the stones soon become clogged with ashes 
 necessitating the reconstruction of the incinerator, (c) Owing to 
 the time and trouble involved in adding the liquid garbage, there is 
 great temptation for the cooks and kitchen police to dispose of 
 dish water by throwing it in the company street, or some other un- 
 authorized place, (d) If the sides of the incinerator are banked up 
 with earth which is not thoroughly packed and hard, they afford 
 an exceptionally favorable breeding ground for flies, (e) When 
 this type of incinerator is unused for a period of more than ten days, 
 as may happen when the company goes on outpost duty or to the 
 
58 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 target range, flies may breed in the pit itself. Porosity of the soil 
 has much influence upon the value of the rock pit incinerator. 
 • "The Guthrie Incinerator. — Advavtages. — (a) With the occasional 
 renewal of the evaporating pan the same incinerator may be used 
 indefinitely. (6) The liquid may be added in considerable quantity 
 at a time, which does away with the temptation to dispose of liquid 
 garbage surreptitiously. Disadvantages: (o) The material for its 
 construction costs in the neighborhood of I20. (6) The experience 
 gained in its operation is of little value in the training of troops for 
 active service, (c) If the evaporating pan is not thoroughly scraped 
 and cleaned every day a thick crust soon forms on the bottom of the 
 pan, which results in a largely increased consumption of wood and 
 in the destruction of the pan. id) The draft is not sufiScient, but 
 this may be corrected by substituting a 6-inch tile pipe tor the 
 Sibley stove. 
 
 "it has been the writers' observation that any of these incinerators 
 will dispose of the liquid and solid garbage of an organization pro- 
 vided they are intelligently managed. They are, however, expen- 
 sive to operate where wood costs as much as it does on the Mexican 
 border. For batteries of artillery and other large organizations the 
 allowance of wood, as given in Equipment Tables, Quartermaster 
 Supplies, is insufficient. In the El Paso district an increase of H2 
 cord a day for each incinerator was recommended and authorized. 
 In our opinion the rock pit incinerator is the incinerator of choice 
 for all camps not provided with sewer connection. Economy of con- 
 struction and the training derived from its use are of so mudi im- 
 portance that they outweigh the disadvantages referred to above. 
 We believe, however, that as much as possible of the garbage of an 
 organization should be consumed by the same fire that is used in the 
 preparation of the food. To accomplish this purpose we recommend 
 that a pit, a little larger than the fire box, i foot to 18 inches deep 
 and filled with stones less than 4 inches in diameter, be provided 
 under each field range. The liquid is preferably added by pouring it 
 through an improvised funnel attached to a tube which terminates 
 at the bottom of the pit. This tube may be constructed of one or 
 two joints of stove pipe or from tin cans. Care should be taken 
 however to prevent flooding the fire. Solid garbage should only be 
 added when the range is not in active use for other purposes. If 
 
CAMPS 
 
 59 
 
 carefully managed and kept free from ashes this pit will consume the 
 greater portion of the kitchen waste, making it necessary to use the 
 outside incinerator for only a short time each day, possibly only 
 when the use of some particular article of food makes an extra 
 amount of waste. 
 
 "If the Guthrie type of incinerator is used, it is especially important 
 that an overflow hole in the end of the pan be provided. This was 
 not done in the incinerators furnished in the El Paso district with 
 the result that the pans were continually boiling over and polluting 
 
 Fig. 41. — Adobe incinerator. 
 
 the ground in their immediate vicinity. The cross bars in front of 
 the pan on the new model Guthrie incinerator are evidently intended 
 to provide a p'ace to boil water for washing mess tins. By lacing 
 them with baled hay wire, they may be used as a grate upon which to 
 dry solid garbage preparatory to placing it on the fire. In our 
 opinion this is the best use to which these bars may be put." (Lewis 
 and Miller.) 
 
 Various types of incinerators were developed in Mexico. One 
 of these was made of mud walls 3 feet long, 2 feet wide and 2 feet 
 high. It was closed at one end and covered with puddled clay. At 
 the other end it was closed by two doors, one above and one below 
 
6o 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 the grate on which garbage was dried. A chimney removed the 
 gases and provided draft. A rock pit under it evaporated liquids. 
 Another new popular type was similar to the rock pit incinerator but 
 its walls were higher and it was crossed by a grate. 
 
 Fig. 42. — Adobe incinerator. (Popular type in Punitive Expedition.) 
 
 Fig. 43. — Kitchen soakage pit. {Manual for Army Cooks.) 
 
 When the wood supply is scant, waste water may be disposed of 
 in pits, but this practice is avoided if possible. Such pits are usually 
 about s feet square and 4 or 5 feet deep. The sides and bottom are 
 well broken with a pick. They are covered with boards, or, if this 
 be lacking, by boughs covered with earth. A hole is left in the top 
 to receive a snugly fitting, removable box. This has a removable top 
 
CAMPS 
 
 6l 
 
 and a screened bottom made of burlap or mosquito net. The object 
 of this is to strain out the fats which would quickly prevent absorp- 
 tion of liquid by the soil. The value of the strainer is increased if 
 the bottom be covered with two layers of burlap and over this there 
 be an inch or two of sand. The addition of s grains of alum to the 
 
 Fig. 44. — Hopper in cover of pit for reception of liquid garbage. It 
 contains a removable burlap- sack supported by upturned nails acting as 
 hooks. 
 
 Fig. 4S.- 
 
 carry the pump 
 tank. 
 
 ■Excavator wagon and pump, best type. The wagon should 
 mp. Utilized to remove liquid waste from kitchens to septic 
 
 first gallon of fluid would form a flocculent precipitate which would 
 impede the passage of fine particles of refuse. Solids and fats 
 arrested are removed and burned on the fire; liquid is usually ab- 
 sorbed by the soil but may be removed by an odorless excavator. 
 From time to time the sand must be renewed especially if alum 
 
62 riELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 be used. Liquids collected in cans or covered pits near kitchens 
 may be removed by an odorless excavator to a communal pit 
 several hundred yards from camp. In this septic action occurs. 
 Such a pit may be used for several weeks depending on its size 
 and the porosity of the soil. Flies do not breed in it until the 
 margins are saturated. The pit is then filled with water to drown 
 the larvas and it is later fiUed in. Such a pit may be divided 
 irto compartments like a grease trap. 
 
 Grease Traps. — A grease trap used in the English service is made 
 b\- dividing a box i^to two compartments by a vertical partition 
 which does not quite reach to the floor. It leaves an interval 
 about an inch high. The box is filled with sand to a depth of 
 
 
 Fig. 46. — Grease trap. 
 
 two or three inches. The side receiving fluid is covered with 
 a removable colander-like^ receptacle to arrest solids. It may also 
 contain any absorbent material which wiU arrest fats and may be 
 removed and burned. Waste water will be freed from fat, as it 
 passes through the sand and under the partition, up into the second 
 compartment so that it can be absorbed by the soU. It escapes from 
 the box through a notch in its side or a pipe and goes off through a 
 ditch. It may first be passed through settling tanks before it 
 enters the ditch. Another device is to employ a half barrel as a 
 separating tank. Grease rises and is skimmed away, the fluids are 
 s)rphoned off. Precipitation of small particles of solids other than 
 fats can be accelerated by alum five grains to the gallon. 
 
 Another type of grease trap is the following: 
 
 A pit is dug 3 foot cube, with a surface trench leading into it s 
 feet long and 9 inches wide and deep. At the end farthest from 
 the pit is a tin containing hay, with an outlet in the bottom, lead- 
 ing into the pit. Inside this tin is another containing hay, tea 
 
CAMPS 
 
 63 
 
64 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 leaves or sawdust. The trench is lined with tin and filled with 
 brick or coke in the size of walnuts. Both pit and trench are cov- 
 ered. Grease is arrested so that clear water flows into the pit. 
 The brick or coke is removed and burned free of grease every other 
 day and replaced. Hay, etc., are burned and replaced. 
 
 A modification similar to the grease pit just described above is 
 to provide a box 4 feet long, 2 feet wide and 3 feet deep. A partition 
 8 inches from one end reaches to within 3 inches of the bottom. 
 
 Fig. 48. — Meat wagon devised by Truby and Furlough. In actual 
 use the framework is enclosed in a tightly fitting canvas cover. {Lewis 
 and Miller.) 
 
 The whole box is then iiUed from below upward with 12 inches of 
 broken brick, walnut size, 6 inches broken brick, pea size, 3 inches 
 of sand and a covering of hay. Water percolates down and up to 
 the outlet and runs into a soakage pit. The hay is burnt daily 
 and sand removed and replaced at frequent intervals. 
 
 Care of Food Stuffs. — Supplies should be protected from sun, 
 flies and dust, both before and after issue to kitchens. Wagons 
 hauling supplies should be freshly cleaned. Meats should be 
 
C AMI'S 65 
 
 covered with cloths which are washed daily. For the delivery of 
 meat to large camps, a covered auto truck equipped with iron 
 uprights and cross bars from which the meat is hung, is very de- 
 
 FiG. 49. — Adobe meat house, Dublan. 
 
 Fig. 50. — Adobe meat safe. 
 
 sirable. A screened meat house should be provided if delivery does 
 not occur direct from abattoirs or packing houses to companies. 
 There should be a daily inspection of fresh meat, bread and 
 vegetables of at least one prepared meal and of kitchen apparatus, 
 
 5 
 
66 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 especially water containers, the meat saw, meat grinder, and dish 
 cloths. 
 
 Certain expedients are extemporized for comfort and for preserva- 
 tion of food in camp. Meat may be protected by each company in a 
 safe, built of bricks, burlap or net, door and windows being closed by 
 burlap or mosquito netting. Garcia's meat safe is a truncated pyra- 
 mid covered with double burlap. It supports a water-filled oil can 
 with a perforated base. The meat safe is kept cool by the evapora- 
 tion of the water as it trickles down its sides. A small safe for 
 
 Fig. si. — Garcia's burlap meat safe, 
 
 fruits, milk, etc., is cooled by evaporation from an oya set in a hole 
 in the top of the safe. An ice box and a swinging cage may be made 
 as indicated in the enclosed illustrations from the Manual for Army 
 Cooks. Dining tables should be made of i X 12-inch material with 
 the middle board removable so that vertical surfaces may be cleaned. 
 Xitchen table tops should be made of 3 X 6-inch material, five 
 boards wide. Cracks should be close, the second and fourth boards 
 left unnailed, so that by lifting the loose boards all exposed surfaces 
 may be scrubbed without trouble. On no account should kitchen 
 or mess tables be constructed of tongued and grooved lumber. A 
 
^n.ixi.x tD 
 
 67 
 
 mess table may be extemporized by digging a circular or rectangu- 
 lar trench one foot deep, throwing up the earth to the center and 
 leveling off. Water coolers may be made by inserting a faucet in 
 a vinegar barrel, with removable top. 
 
 The kitchen floor should be wet down daily, sprinkled with lime 
 or ashes, and places where flies collect should be burned over. If 
 these insects abound, kitchen and mess tents should be burned out 
 
 Fig. S2. — Chest cooled by porous water jar. 
 
 * 
 
 nightly with torches made by fastening tin cans to sticks and filling 
 these with oil and inserting burlap to act as wicks. A torch may be 
 made by simply wrapping burlap on the end of a stick with wire 
 and soaking it with oil. 
 
 Flies. — Prevalence of flies should be prevented by destroying 
 their breeding places. Their abundance is inversely proportionate 
 to the efficiency of camp police. They multiply especially in 
 manure, in latrines that have been neglected and in the soil near 
 neglected incinerators which is kept warm by the fire and moist by 
 
68 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 fluid that has not evaporated. Prevention of breeding in manure 
 is discussed later. 
 
 For the destruction of flies, traps, fly paper and swatters are 
 employed. If these insects are numerous, it is the practice in some 
 comniands to exercise the entire organization for half an hour daily 
 with fly swatters. Fly paper may be made by heating together 
 five parts of castor oil and eight parts of resin by weight until it is 
 stringy when cool, and painting on glazed paper. The mixture 
 
 IMPROVISED COLO STORE 
 
 KEROSINE TINS WITH 
 COVERS HINGED WITH WIRfl 
 
 BASIN MADE 
 OF DRIED MUD 
 OR PUDDLED 
 SAND AND 
 STRAW 
 
 ' K ■ '! 
 
 ■ I 
 
 ■ 1 I ■' r . (11 
 
 
 — i— 
 
 
 Ml 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Mn 
 
 1 
 
 
 _i_ 
 
 
 i m 
 
 In 
 
 _i_ 
 
 _l 1 
 
 UJ 
 
 u== 
 
 J-i. 1 1 1 p 
 
 , porous native 
 'water jars 
 
 3j RED NATIVE BRICKS, 
 VERY POROUS 
 WITH OPEN 
 
 JOINTS. 
 BRICKS TO BE 
 DRENCHED 
 WITH WATER 
 EVERY HORNINIi 
 
 WATER. 
 
 Pig. S3- — Brick box cooled by evaporation. The interior shotdd be, 
 sterilized before use and weekly thereafter. (After Lelean.) 
 
 should not be brought to the boiling point. The fly paper is hung 
 to advantage' from the ridges of cook tents, or the mixture may be 
 painted on wires which are hung into latrines or stretched across 
 mess tents. Fly traps are usually made of wire net, are about two 
 feet six i;iches long, one foot wide and sixteen inches high. There is 
 provided a re-entrant prism also made of net which should be nailed 
 at its base to the sidebars of the frame so that it covers the trap's 
 .^ntfre area, less the thickness of the wood strips. This prism should 
 be .about ieight inches, high and its sides should slope to give an angle 
 of bfetween =70 and 80 degrees at the ridge.; Apertures not more than 
 
CAMPS 
 
 69 
 
 Fig. 54. — Field ice box. It can be readily constructed according top 
 above design. It should be well banked with earth on sides, rear, and 
 top and should face north. (Manual for Army Cooks.) 
 
7° 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 J^ inch in diameter should be made by forcing the threads of the wire 
 apart and not by cutting it. They should be about two inches apart. 
 When no wood is available for frames the traps are made in a 
 generally cylindrical shape, closed up the side and along the top by 
 
 ■^Bpl fl^ P ^^f i P™™^ ! 
 
 Fig. SS- — Swinging cage. Especially useful in the tropics and in 
 camp. It should be suspended in a manner that a cup of oil placed as 
 shown will prevent insects from reaching the cage. Dimensions about 3 
 feet cube. {Manual for Army Cooks.) 
 
 wire from hay bales. The legs of traps should be not more than 
 one inch long. Traps may also be made of kegs, boxes, tin cans, 
 etc., by removing tops and bottoms and leaving short projections 
 to act as legs. The top is covered with net and the bottom 
 provided with a re-entrant cone, prism, or pyramid of wire net. 
 
CAMPS 
 
 71 
 
 The English employ in Egypt much larger fly traps some of which 
 are 6 feet square and 8 feet high. These all employ a platform 
 which extends beyond the trap so that it may support small sloping 
 shelves which afford a lighting place for the insects. These enter 
 
 Fig. 56. — Dining table. 
 
 through a narrow slit provided between the walls of the cage and 
 the alighting boards. 
 
 Traps should be baited at regular intervals. This is important 
 but usually is neglected. Excellent baits are beer, a mixture of 
 cheap molasses and water, brown sugar one part and water four 
 parts, banana and milk, a paste made of peas or a mixture of brown 
 
 Fig. 57. — Diagram of fly trap. 
 
 sugar, cheese and water that has been standing for a few days, etc. 
 Truby had excellent results in the El Paso District with a bait made 
 of potato water, bran, yeast and brown sugar. It fermented in 
 about 24 hours and remained serviceable indefinitely, so long as it 
 
72 PIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 was kept moist. Whatever fly bait is employed it shovdd not be 
 of the same material as other food that flies have free access to. 
 
 An excellent fly trap is that devised by Ober. Lieutenant 
 Ober describes his trap as follows: 
 
 "Two triangles are marked out on any scraps of board lo or 
 12 inches wide by i foot or more long, and K to %-inch holes 
 are bored through at the three angles (b, c, d) H inch from the 
 edges. This is done before the triangular pieces are sawed out, 
 to prevent splitting while sawing. 
 
 " A triangular piece (.4) is cut out of the base of each triangle, 
 its base extending to within ij^ inches of the sides, and is so 
 
 .o-o-o--cx/lq,'0/]'N> 
 
 Fig. 58. — Ober's fly trap. 
 
 marked that it can be readily replaced in the position it occupied 
 before cutting. These large triangular pieces, together with 
 their respective smaller pieces, form the ends of the fly trap. 
 
 " Then cut three strips of inch board (e, /, g) i to iK inches 
 wide, as long as the wire screening is wide, and securely fit 
 them into the holes (&, c, d). This forms the frame around 
 which the screening is placed and securely tacked to the edges 
 of the larger triangular pieces, beginning at the top of the frame. 
 At the base the screening is tacked to the sides and apices of 
 the small triangular pieces which are then returned to their 
 respective places, thus forming a triangular space B beneath the 
 trap, in which the bait is placed. One of these triangles may be 
 permanently nailed, or held in place by small J^ to H-inch thick 
 thumb-button latches; the other piece is to be held in place by 
 thumb-screw buttons or screws so that it may be readily re- 
 moved, the attached screening slightly lowered and the flies 
 
CAMPS 73 
 
 promptly spilled out; after which this piece can be replaced, 
 secured, and the trap is again ready for use. If nails and screws 
 are used to fasten the small triangular pieces, tack a H-inch 
 thick strip to their bases to elevate the trap so the flies can get 
 under to the bait which should be placed beneath the triangular 
 screened space B in the bottom of the trap. 
 
 After fastening the small triangular pieces in place the first 
 time and smoothing the sides of the triangular space then 
 formed by the screening, small holes, i to 2 inches apart, should 
 be made ' through the screening in the apex of the triangular 
 space, by any instrument capable of making a hole, the size of a 
 lead pencil or a little larger, through which to allow flies to 
 enter the trap." 
 
 Poisoned fly baits may be used. Such are a solution of formalin 
 in milk, sugar and water, or in water only, 4 ounces to the 
 quart, or a solution made by dissolving one pound of sodium arsenite 
 in boiling water and adding to this a ten per cent, solution of brown 
 sugar in 10 gallons of water. Poisoned baits should be placed in 
 shallow dishes containing crusts of bread which will afford lighting 
 places for the insects, and kept moist with the solution. 
 
 Cockroaches. — Cockroaches around a kitchen may be destroyed 
 by dusting the floor with sodium fluoride, either pure or diluted 
 one half with flour or gypsum. Other useful powders are borax, 
 either pure or mixed with pulverized chocolate in the proportion 
 of one to three, and pyrethrum. A sweetened flour paste contain- 
 ing two per cent, of phosphorous to 98 of glucose and flour is 
 used. Pyrethrum, if of good quality is an excellent agent in 
 closed rooms or tents, against flies, cockroaches, fleas and other 
 insects. 
 
 Kitchen Service. — Foods should be prepared and served in a 
 cleanly manner. Cooks should be clean and neat in appearance 
 and at all times their equipments and kitchens should be clean. 
 Men suffering from venereal orgastro-intestinal disease should be 
 relieved from duty in the kitchen. Troops should be instructed 
 to clean their mess utensils carefully after each meal and for that 
 purpose a supply of soapy water and another of clean water 
 should be kept boiling at meal times. Men should clean their 
 utensils in the. former and rinse them in the latter. Unless the 
 
74 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 water is kept boiling, it will be chilled by the first utensils used 
 and be of little use to those who come later. The keeping of un- 
 eaten portions of food in tents employed as habitations should be 
 prohibited. 
 
 Ptomaine poisoning may be caused by left over cooked meat kept 
 too long or left uncovered, fish in which decomposition has begun, 
 hash made of potatoes and meat not put in the ice box or put into a 
 rapidly cooling oven for protection, and soiled utensils, particularly 
 the meat grinder, on which a certain amount of food may remain 
 after use to decompose and infect the next meat on which it is used. 
 
 Fig. $g. — Abattoir. Dublan, Mexico. 
 
 If the meat used in camp comes from a slaughter house under its 
 supervision this should be inspected daUy, at least after each period 
 of usage and kept rigorously clean. No carcass should be accepted 
 without the approval of a veterinary surgeon. Refuse and offal 
 should be buried. 
 
 Refuse from the kitchen should be removed regularly at a stated 
 hour daQy. As a rule most of this is burned in the fire, but there is 
 always an incombustible residue which should be passed through the 
 fire and removed to the dump. 
 
 No hucksters should be allowed in camp other than those for 
 general delivery to messes. The bringing of melons into camp 
 should be prohibited. 
 
 The sale of food stuffs and drinkables by keepers of neighboring 
 booths should be rigorously controlled. Only those persons should 
 be permitted to make sales who have been examined for vermin by 
 
CAMPS 
 
 75 
 
 a medical officer, vaccinated, received typhoid prophylactic and 
 who keep themselves and their premises clean. Such persons 
 should be re-examined twice monthly and their establishments in- 
 spected daily. With a few carefully supervised exceptions they 
 should be permitted to sell only foods and drinks in original packages 
 or cakes, if the latter are protected by insect proof receptacles. 
 The sale of pie should be prohibited. Concessionaires should be 
 required to care for their latrines properly and to make proper dis- 
 posal of their refuse. 
 
 BATHING FACILITIES 
 
 If camped along a stream men usually bathe in it, at the point 
 below the place where animals are watered. A shower bath may be 
 extemporized by punching naU holes in the bottom of a five gallon 
 
 Fig. 6o. — Bath tank at El Valle. Mexico. 
 
 oil can and raising this to a convenient height by a rope passing 
 over a beam or the limb of a tree. Or a barrel supported on an 
 elevated platform may be used. If the ground water is high it may 
 be pumped from a tube well directly into the barrel. Lacking 
 this, water in containers is carried up a ladder and poured into the 
 barrel to be used as needed. A perforated tin under the faucet will 
 furnish the shower effect. A number of devices for heating water 
 for use in baths were developed in the Punitive Expedition. The 
 simplest of these was to simply heat the water in a galvanized can 
 over the fire in an incinerator. In the nth Cavalry, water was 
 heated on the top of an adobe stove, which warmed the bath house, 
 
76 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 but was Stoked from the outside. The water was then carried up a 
 ladder and poured into the barrel from which the shower was drawn. 
 
 Fig. 6i. — Detail of shower bath used in nth Cavalry. A, Wall of 
 barrel; iJ, lever for raising cut-off; C tin can to steady cut-off; D. canvas 
 bag filled with sand; £, shower head (tin can with perforated bottom); 
 F, cord for releasing shower. 
 
 Fig. 62. — Saville bath house. 
 
 The outlet was usually closed by a faucet or a bag of sand. An- 
 other plan was to heat the water in a pipe which made a coil in an 
 
77 
 
 
 Sc^/,£ ^lAfCfi. 
 
 J^J^^ 
 
 \(?rafes moySe. 
 . ^ om/Hecf ror i^ooef 
 
 ^„«i«=- „if( S/Airirf nil ^mMxm^ 
 
 5. I ,... ..!,... ■ ^ T 
 
 ^ o 
 
 Pig. 63. — Saville water heater. (Lewis and Miller.) 
 
78 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 incinerator and lead it into an elevated keg in the bath house. At 
 Columbus an improvement was to lead it into a detached boiler in 
 the bath house. The output was diluted with cold water as re- 
 quired in the spray heads. Yet another apparatus devised by 
 
 Fig. 64. — Bathing car. (Austrian service.) 
 
 ■^•fjSJtl 
 
 Fig. 65. — Austrian field laundry showing demountable frame for tent 
 (steel) ; self-propelling engine; mangle (on left) ; centrifugal drying machine; 
 and tank supported on framework. 
 
 Major Saville, Q. M. C. was in use among the troops around El Paso. 
 Its principle and method of operating are indicated by the diagram. 
 "The apparatus cost $35 for each unit or $70 per regiment, and was 
 easily installed. Freezing can be prevented by withdrawing the 
 
 Jt4 
 
CAMPS 
 
 79 
 
 water through a cock provided for that purpose, but if through 
 neglect freezing occurs and extends into the water main, great care 
 should be exercised in starting the next fire lest dangerous fires 
 occur." (Lewis and Miller.) 
 
 In the trenches water is heated in a small collateral trench which 
 contains a small boiler. This boiler may be covered by a barrel 
 in which clothes are steamed. After use the water is flung on the 
 ground as far as possible from the trench. For the service of some 
 troops in the trenches, bathing trains are run up close to the front. 
 They consist of a railroad train which has been specially devised, 
 
 Fig. 66. — Car for disinfecting clothing. {^Ausirian service.) Part of 
 train for bathing. 
 
 equipped with shower baths heated from the engine and with cars in 
 which clothing is disinfected. Such a train also carries a supply of 
 clothing which men use until their clothing is returned to them. It 
 accommodates 3000 men a day. Among the Allies, automobiles 
 equipped with apparatus for heating water and with collapsible 
 bath tubs are in use. An appliance said to be used by the Austrian 
 Army for heating water in the trenches is a series of electric stoves 
 which are connected with a dynamo. This is actuated by the motor 
 of the truck which carries this equipment. 
 
 The following is the type of fixed bath house adopted by Capt. 
 Goode, R. A. M. C, as described in the Journal R. A. M. C.,Sept. 16, 
 1916. "As regards the building itself, a plan is subjoined. (See 
 
8o 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
CAMPS 
 
 8l 
 
 appended diagrams.) The original canvas structure was replaced 
 by a portable wooden building. It consists of a large undressing 
 room, a bathroom with eight showers, the officers shower bath, a 
 large dressing room, a room for soiled underclothing, a storeroom 
 for the issue of clean clothing, a boiler room, and lastly, an ironing 
 
 
 I scar 
 
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 SPAAYS 
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 SPKAYS 
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 ROOM I 
 
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 MOM 
 
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 TANK 
 
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 POR'CH \j 
 
 IRONINO MOM 
 
 PORCH 
 
 I: £. 
 I li 
 
 77 
 
 -J i-^ 
 
 GROUND PLAN. 
 ScAiE OF Fte.r. 
 
 tNTMice 
 
 Fig. 68. — Captain Goode's bathing plant. 
 
 room for the purpose of destroying the eggs and lice in the khaki 
 clothing. 
 
 "The water is pumped by means of a little petrol engine into a 
 i6,ooo gallon tank, 24 feet high; thence it runs by gravity to the two 
 connected tanks which feed the boilers, which are independent of 
 each other. The water (hot, cold, mixed hot and cold) feeds the 
 
 6 
 
82 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 1^' 
 
 
 ssa 
 
 
 il 
 
 0, 
 
 3 
 
 O 
 
 I 
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 3s 
 
 -j! 
 
 V 
 
 ssS 
 
 Si 
 
 9 ' 
 
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 £3 
 
CAMPS 
 
 83 
 
 eight sprays by gravity, sprays being used to economize water, 
 since only ij^ to 2 gallons are required per man instead of six when 
 using tubs. Originally all water had to be carried to the baths 
 by means of a motor tank, holding 1 20 gallons, from a stream about 
 
 neto 
 
 TNKSli 
 
 R Q AD 
 BLOCK PLAN. 
 SCALC or FCET. 
 
 SO <o 30 30 10 o 
 
 Fig. 70. — Captain Goode's bathing plant. 
 
 i}4 miles away, as, for convenience of troops, the baths had to be 
 placed in a field some way from the nearest brook. Later three 
 sources of supply were used, the brook mentioned, a shallow well, 
 and rain water from the roof of the plant. This was supplemented 
 
84 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 by purifying and re-using the bath water. These three sources 
 are connected up to the motor pump. Thus any one may be used 
 separately to supply the elevated storage tank. 
 
 "The method employed for bathing the men is as follows : two thou- 
 sand men can be bathed per diem. The men are sent to the bath 
 in batches of fifty to seventy-five every half hour, commencing at 
 8 A. M. and continuing until 12 Noon; then again from 2 P. M. to 
 6 P. M. The men come to the bdths without arms as a rule. Here 
 they undo their puttees and boots and take off their tunics. They 
 then enter the undressing room in batches of thirty-two, and undress. 
 Their breeches are then handed in to the ironing room, where they 
 are ironed in order to kill the lice and nits. The trousers are usually 
 put through the Thresh disinfector. The men, in batches of six- 
 teen, then pass through to the sprays, handing in to the soiled 
 clothes room, their shirts, socks and pants. Three minutes is the 
 usual time allowed under the hot spray, during which time they soap 
 themselves aU over, the last half minute being used to wash off 
 all the soap. In the summer the last half minute consists of a 
 cold shower. Thence they go into the dressing room being served 
 on the way out with a clean shirt, a pair of pants and a pair of socks. 
 Meanwhile an attendant has brought around their boots, tunics 
 and other belongings from the undressing room to the dressing room, 
 placing them on the number corresponding with that from which 
 they were taken, the numbers being painted on the tables. When 
 dressed they leave by the exit door and form up outside, another 
 batch of sixteen immediately following through in the same order. 
 The shirts and pants are put through the Thresh disinfector in 
 lots of eighty for from twenty minutes to half an hour at a tempera- 
 ture of 2i6''F. Twenty minutes suffices if a bottle of formalin has 
 been poured into the Thresh disinfector. The clothes are sorted 
 and the rags burned. The following morning the rest of the clothes 
 are conveyed in wagons to a distributing center where spring water 
 abounds and where labor is obtainable away from the firing line. 
 Here an employee sorts and distributes the clothing to fifty washer- 
 women who boil, wash, dry, iron and mend them, and then return 
 them tied up in bundles of ten to the distributing center. The 
 same wagons after being washed with cresol solution, return to the 
 baths with loads of clean clothes, each batch of clothes being re- 
 
CAMPS 85 
 
 turned on the third day. Several thousand new shirts, pants, and 
 socks are required monthly to replace wastage. 
 
 Some of the water is used over again. This is of the highest 
 importance for two reasons; firstly, clean water, or even water of 
 any kind, is very scarce. Secondly, it is highly objectionable to 
 pour 2000 to 4000 gallons of soapy water into the ditch near the 
 baths. If this were allowed, it would accumulate and decompose 
 because of the flatness of the country. The following method was 
 devised by Capt. Basil Hughes and Capt. Goode: — ^The soapy water 
 runs from the bath house into a mixing tank. Slaked lime is placed 
 in this tank, and thoroughly mixed by means of a windmill mixer, 
 constructed from a couple of bicycle wheels and a hoop-pole. When 
 thejivind fails, the mixing must be done by hand, which is hard work. 
 The lime throws down the soap as insoluble calcium stearate, bring- 
 ing down at the same time all the dirt and impurities. The effluent 
 runs through three up-and-down settling tanks, placed all on the 
 same level. These are built of brick with concrete floors. The 
 partitions are removable wooden frames with canvas centers. The 
 three settling tanks are respectively 3, 4 and s feet wide. This 
 gradual widening of the tanks tends to retard the flow of the stream 
 thereby assisting precipitation. AU the calcium stearates wUl be 
 found to have settled in the first two tanks. The third tank 
 is used for precipitating the lime and removing the soapy oils.- 
 This is effected by means of washing soda, which is run into the tank 
 from a drum containing a saturated solution of sodium carbonate. 
 This precipitates the calcium salts — chiefly hydroxides — as insoluble 
 calcium carbonate, which immediately falls to the bottom of the 
 tank. In addition to this, the sodium carbonate causes the soluble 
 oils from the soap to separate out. These oils, which give the water 
 an odor of soap, float on the surface and are absorbed by means of 
 canvas or sacking nailed to wooden frames. The canvas is changed 
 daily. From this third settling tank the water flows into a charcoal 
 filter, containing four inches of powdered charcoal between two 
 layers of sacking. Through this filter it runs into a bricked, con- 
 creted well, and is pumped thence into the elevated tank by the 
 petrol pump. Thin canvas screens, stretched on strong wire frames, 
 are placed in the channels connecting the precipitating tanks. 
 These hold back the scum of lime which separates out on the water 
 
86 I'lELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 cooling. The first precipitation tank is cleaned out every three 
 or four days, and the mixing tank daily. The sludge is buried. 
 The sludge, which is odorless except for a slight smell of lime, does 
 not show any tendency to decompose. The water after treatment 
 is quite clear, free from dirt, soap, lime and soapy oils; furthermore, 
 it gives a good lather with soap on being used again. The same 
 water may be treated by this method and used an indefinite number 
 of times. The only fresh water required is that to replace the loss 
 caused by cleaning the tanks. No great quantity, however, is req- 
 uisite, since most of the contents of each tank can be pumped into 
 the succeeding one until the sediment is reached. In experimenting 
 with the working model, in order to ascertain the size of the charcoal 
 filter required for deab'ng with 4000 gallons a day, it was sl\^wn 
 that the rate of flow through the filter varied directly as the height 
 of the super-imposed column of water. A charcoal filter 6 feet 
 square was found to be adequate. This filter consists of a wooden 
 frame 6 feet square and 18 inches high, lined with zinc. The floor, 
 made of zinc, is perforated with holes of medium size. The latter 
 is covered with sacking, on which a layer of powdered charcoal 4 
 inches thick is spread; this is covered with sacking which is changed 
 and washed daily. A separate bathroom for officers, on the same 
 principle, has been added, accommodating thirty-five in one day. 
 The system is characterized by its easy method of construction, its 
 simplicity and mobility. It has been working for several months, 
 and its results have proved satisfactory in every way. Capt. Goode 
 strongly recommends it as highly suitable where large numbers of 
 men have to be dealt with and more especially in those places where 
 water is scarce." 
 
 When the retention of water is not desired as in the plant de- 
 scribed by Capt. Goode, its disposal may be a matter of some diffi- 
 culty. A supply of five gallons per man per day for all uses about 
 the camp is adequate and the employment of a larger amount 
 should be discouraged unless sewer facilities are provided. Most 
 suUage water may be disposed of on or in the soil. In the El Paso 
 District ablution water was scattered widely in the sun. Water 
 from bath houses was led into pits 15 feet in diameter and 20 feet 
 deep. If the pit reached a sandy layer it usually drained well, but 
 if fluid did not disappear it was removed by an odorless excava- 
 
CAMPS 
 
 87 
 
 tor and disposed of two miles from camp. When the sides and bot- 
 toms of the pit became covered with soap and grease, the infiltrated 
 soil was removed to a depth of six inches. 
 
 In order that suHage water may be absorbed it is essential that 
 it be freed as far as possible of finely emulsified fat which clings to 
 absorbent surfaces, occludes them and becomes offensive. 
 
 The only generally available material for filtration of finely 
 divided fat from sullage is sand. The following device for its re- 
 moval is similar to that for removal of fat from waste water at kitch- 
 ens. A box or a pit lined by puddled clay, should have a few 
 inches of sand placed in it. It is divided by a transverse vertical 
 
 Pig. 71. — ^Ablution trenches, and disposal of waste water. (Pike.) 
 
 partition. The lower edge of this partition should be two inches 
 below the surface of the sand but an inch or two above the bottom 
 of the pit. Sullage is discharged into one compartment, passes 
 through the sand and underneath the partition, so that a clean 
 effluent flows away from the top of the distal compartment in the 
 box. A plug of absorbent rnaterial floating in the proximal com- 
 partment will entangle the floating fats and the mass can be re- 
 moved and burned. The sand gradually becomes clogged and the 
 surface layers must be renewed. This may be effected conveniently 
 either by having a bung in the side of a box so that the water can 
 be run out, or by having the sand placed in a removable tin per- 
 
88 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 f orated at the base. Pike describes another device, as follows: 
 "The water passes from the ablution bench through a biscuit tin 
 containing hay, into a pit filled with broken brick. From the bottom 
 it rises through a second pit also filled with broken brick, whence 
 it flows through surface drains filled with rubble or cinder, either 
 direct into a ditch or into a patch of ground prepared by digging 
 over the surface one foot deep. A second patch of ground is pre- 
 pared for use when the first becomes water logged,- the two being 
 worked alternately (Fig. 71). 
 
 A more elaborate soap trap and one which gives excellent results 
 is illustrated in the sketch. It is suitable for standing camps. 
 
 
 1 II 1 
 
 J 
 
 : 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 " 
 
 Plan 
 
 Fig. 72. — Soap or grease trap. (Pike.) 
 
 It consists of a stout wooden box, four feet square and two feet, 
 four inches deep, which is divided vertically into six compartments, 
 four filled with straw and two with coke, thus providing alternate 
 downward and upward filtration. From the box the effluent dis- 
 charges from a pipe into a boarded pit s feet square and 4 feet, 
 9 inches deep, containing three inches of coke covered with 9 inches 
 of sand. The floor of the pit slopes to a small central chamber 13 J^ 
 inches square, formed of one layer of loose bricks covered with sand 
 and wood or tin. The water from the box falls onto a board resting 
 on the filter and is thus distributed over the surface without dis- 
 turbing the sand. After passing through the filte* it drains into 
 the catch pit, whence it flows through a discharge pipe into the ditch 
 or pond. 
 
V-AJHiro 
 
 89 
 
 The following sketch illustrates a modification of the above 
 design suitable for use in the field. Its practical advantages are 
 that it can be dug in the ground; it requires a fall of only 2 feet 
 6 inches and it obviates the necessity for the somewhat cumbersome 
 box. 
 
 The dirty water passes through a tin containing hay, into a trench 
 6 inches deep and three feet long, through a second tin of hay, the 
 sides of which are perforated back and front, and into a pit 3 feet 
 square and 4 feet deep. A wooden partition wall reaching from the 
 surface to within 6 inches of the bottom divides the pit into two 
 
 ■^ 
 
 P/en 
 
 K»s 
 
 
 (M 
 
 
 Fig. 73. — Soap or grease trap. (Pike.) 
 
 compartments connected at the base. The water passes down 
 through 2 feet 3 inches of broken brick and one foot 3 inches of 
 coarse rubble in the first, and up through one foot 3 inches of coarse 
 rubble and 2 feet 3 inches of fine ashes in the second. It then 
 passes into another pit through a pipe with a rose spray. This 
 second pit is 2 feet 6 inches deep with a slight fall to the outlet pipe 
 leading to the pond or ditch. The effluent falls in a spray on to a 
 tray of perforated tin resting on a final filter bed, composed of 6 
 inches of sand over 3 inches of broken brick — the outlet pipe being 
 protected by a small catch pit made of loose bricks covered with 
 tin. 
 
90 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 Having removed the fats disposal of the effluent is usually not 
 difficult. In geological formations where clay exists it may be in 
 "pockets" with intervening porous material, and the porous 
 interspaces can be found by trial pits. If there be a continuous 
 clay layer, suUage cannot be absorbed and the site is so damp and 
 cold that it is not suitable for camping purposes. If this effluent is 
 cleared of soap and oil and the soil absorbent, the suUage may be 
 disposed of either by soakage pits or broad irrigation. The former 
 are similar to those just described for the El Paso District. They 
 may be smaller — one for each company. The method of disposal by 
 broad irrigation is applicable to sloping surfaces which may either 
 allow the liquid to soak into the soil or drain down the surface into a 
 ditch. If the liquid be allowed to soak into the soil parallel ditches 
 should be dug along the contours and the fluid allowed to ffll them 
 successively. The ground should be divided into areas which should 
 be used for a day and then allowed to dry for a day or more, when 
 the soil lining the ditches should be turned and loosened preparatory 
 to being used again. 
 
 When water is piped into camp ablution water is drawn from a 
 faucet. The practice of providing a rock filled soakage- pit near a 
 faucet is disapproved by Lewis and Miller as organic refuse is often 
 thrown on it, and flies soon begin to breed in the moist, polluted 
 soil on the sides of the pit. They advise that the drip be arrested 
 by one large flat stone and led away into the open ditch, after 
 passing through soakage pits, as indicated in the diagram. 
 
 Each division should be provided with two baths each capable of 
 caring for 80 bathers an hour, and two trucks carrying disinfecting 
 apparatus. 
 
 Laundry. — Laundries employing Hospital Ward tents may be 
 erected as near the front as possible. They should have concrete 
 floors, with shallow drainage runnels, which lead into a series of 
 settling tanks fflled three-fourths with coke. The water flows 
 from one tank to the other over or under an incomplete partition. 
 The tanks should be examined daily and the effluent led into a 
 soakage pit. Excess can be carried off by a ditch. 
 
 Latrines. — Field Service Regulations require that latrines be 
 placed at the opposite end of the company street from the company 
 kitchens. Usually one is provided for each company, and one for 
 
CAMPS 91 
 
 the officers of each battalion. They should be dug if troops halt 
 only for a few hours. In sites subject to inundation, they should be 
 ditched and the edges banked. If dug in sandy soil they may have 
 to be provided with retaining walls of timber as in the camp at 
 Galveston in 191 1 or revetted with sand-bags. In rocky soil they 
 may have to be blasted as in the El Paso District, where each 
 latrine pit^cost $30. 
 
 Latrines for very temporary use are about 4 feet long, i foot wide 
 and I foot deep for each day's use, though provision of 2 feet 
 would be better. The men using these trenches straddle them so 
 that both urine and feces are discharged into the pit. This method 
 of use is much better than that of squatting on the edge of the pit, 
 which results in the ground under foot soon becoming soiled and 
 muddy with urine which is tracked into camp. These pits in many 
 respects are much more desirable than the large ones, unless these 
 be protected by boxes, provided for fixed and semi-fixed camps. 
 Each man using an open trench should cover his deposit with 
 earth thrown iiito the pit from a tin can and not ^kicked in 
 carelessly with the foot. 
 
 A short, uncovered straddle trench accommodates one person at 
 a time. They should provide for 33 per cent, of the unit for one 
 day's stay or 20 per cent, for a longer camp. The frontage in feet is 
 one-fifth of the total strength. The widtji of the latrine area of 
 a company is 4 feet for each two days' stay. These pits should 
 be fiUed in when filled to within one foot of the surface, covered 
 with puddled clay and marked. 
 
 An improvement on the short, open straddle trench is provided 
 by the Lucas top which will permit three men to use the trench at 
 once, and which renders it fly proof. This top may be made of wood 
 or sheet iron. 
 
 The straddle trench is undoubtedly superior to the long deep pit 
 for temporary camps, but has never been popular in the American 
 service. The pit usually employed for permanent or semi-per- 
 manent camps is 3 feet wide at the top and 2 feet at bottom and 8, 
 or better, 10 feet deep. Its length depends on the size of the com- 
 mand it is to serve. From 5 to 8 per cent, of the command should 
 be accommodated at one time, and 2 feet of linear space allowed to 
 each man. As usually constructed in the field, where box seats are 
 
92 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 Ti: 
 
 1^^ IOI4." i-_r«- 
 
 'i— -3Q'--H^ —JO- -^- -30"- -"f^^dO- z^. 
 
 <<5 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 iDoorn 
 •mphiniis 
 
 Foot 
 
 ^ door D 
 
 Foot 
 
 Board ; 
 
 </oorD 
 
 board 
 
 Door 
 
 m 
 
 Plan 
 
 Longitudinal Section 
 
 Door 
 
 Board 
 
 Cross 
 a^20"-^ section. 
 
 iTrench 
 Note. 
 Material rough pine. 1^62^4" to be clinch 
 nailed to thewside foot boards. In use the fool- 
 boards are kept covered with dirt. With one 
 foot on each board the movement of feet deposits this dirt on 
 faecal matter in trench. Cost ttbout*t<^forZSinksforan material 
 
 Fig. 74. — ^Lucas' straddle trench cover. 
 
 
 
 
 I » - 
 
CAMPS 
 
 93 
 
 not obtainable, the pit is slightly (i foot) wider at top than at bottom 
 and is provided with a seat. This is a long pole or sapling resting 
 on forked sticks or curved logs about 3 feet beyond the ends of the 
 pit. Each man is required to cover his deposit with earth. 
 
 The latrine is surrounded with brush, or a canvas or burlap screen, 
 and covered with a tent fly or other suitable material. 
 
 The Havard box is thus described by its inventor. "The latrine 
 box is 10 feet 6 inches long, 16 inches high and 3 feet 8 inches wide 
 
 Fig. 75. — Movable latrine box, with one-half of the top shifted over the 
 other half for inspection and disinfection. {Havard.) 
 
 at bottom so as to safely cover a pit 3 feet wide. The sides or walls 
 have an inward slant of 4 inches and are locked together by the end 
 pieces and two traverses. The top consists of two longitudinal 
 halves, simply laid on and kept from slipping by blocks; each 21 
 inches wide, projecting 2 inches beyond the side, and perforated 
 by three holes which alternate with those of the other half. Each 
 hole, II inches long, is covered with a strong hinged lid which can 
 only be raised to an angle of 45 degrees, so that it is self closing and 
 prevents standing on the edge of the box. 
 
94 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 Each box consists of eight pieces perfectly interchangeable with 
 those of any other box, and weighs 175 pounds. It can be put 
 together without screw, bolt or hook, or taken apart, by one or two 
 men in a few minutes. To disinfect the pit, the attendants lift 
 
 Fig. 76.— Latrine box, usual type. Seat cover raised. (See diagram at 
 end of book for dimensions.) 
 
 Fig. 77. — Latrine box. lid raised for treatment by oil and lamp black. 
 This mixture is strained immediately before use through a sieve made of 
 two layers of wire mosquito net tacked to a square wooden frame 8 
 inches square and i inch deep. 
 
 the half of the top nearest to the earth pile and shift it over the 
 other half, thus uncovering the pit and obtaining a good view of 
 the contents. One pit 10 feet long covered with this box will do 
 a company for a week; if the stay is to be longer, the pit should be 
 of the,standard length of 20 feet and two boxes used, end to end. 
 
CAMPS 
 
 95 
 
 For urinals, tubs, cans or boxes must be provided, one at each 
 end, with a pipe, gutter or trench leading into the pit." 
 
 An important addition are strips of tin nailed under the front of 
 each hole to deflect urine into the pit. 
 
 The boxes at present provided in most permanent camps are not 
 demountable and have the seats facing in one direction. When 
 
 Fig. 78. — Extemporized latrine box. 
 
 "as \i<«% 
 
 
 Lea4Kep 
 
 Inside ^^v^. 
 
 1 ''^'*''t^'"4fel''^<'««n. 
 
 Collar (Vg" 
 
 Fig. 79. — Hopwood latrine box used in camps at Columbus. (After 
 Lewis and Miller.) 
 
 this type is used, the cover should be hinged, to give easy access to 
 the pit, for the boxes are heavy and unwieldy. 
 
 A better box than the elongated one is Hopwood's, which is similar 
 to Havard's except that it is not demountable, and has the seats 
 back to back. It is greatly superior to the elongated box as it 
 requires less lumber and is more wieldy. 
 
96 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 Hopwood recommends a galvanized iron can as a urinal, which is 
 emptied into the pit each morning. 
 
 Whether Havard's or Hopwood's box is used these should be pro- 
 vided with a sill or collar, 8 inches wide, to prevent crumbling of the 
 edge of the pit. The box rests on this sill but is not attached to it. 
 
 These boxes may be extemporized from shoe or clothing boxes, etc. , 
 but these makeshifts are fragile and warp readily. In such cases 
 warped lids should be padded and fringed with burlap, and cracks 
 or knot holes occluded by the same material. The inlets for urine, 
 
 Fig. 8o. — Garcia's latrine cover. 
 
 if troughs are used, should be fly proof. A fly trap should be kept 
 habitually over a disused seat if the pit is found to harbor flies. This 
 trap should fit snugly to the seat. If a pit becomes heavily 
 infested it should be filled with water to a depth of four inches 
 above deposits in order to drown larvas. A barrel of fresh lime 
 is then slaked in the pit. The heat thus developed destroys 
 larvae which may have escaped destruction by the water alone. 
 Truby, who devised these measures advises, that if latrines be but 
 lightly infested they be burned out twice daily with oil. 
 
 Garcia recommends that when lumber is scarce, the wooden sides 
 
CAMPS 97 
 
 of the box be replaced by an adobe wall 2 feet high surrounding the 
 pit. Special bricks measuring 6 X 18 inches are required to avoid 
 making the wall too wide. A frame made of i X 6-inch lumber is 
 set into the top of the wall. The cover fits into this frame. It is 
 easily handled by two men. Other advantages are the small amount 
 of lumber required, the chimney effect of the walls and the greater 
 portability of the top and frame than that of the latrine box. 
 
 Latrines should be inspected by a medical officer at 9 A. M. and 
 at 4 P. M. daily. They should be inspected each two hours by an 
 enlisted man detailed to that duty. A permanent detail should 
 care for them. Seats should be scrubbed and urine troughs or cans 
 should be swabbed out burnt out respectively with crude oil. All 
 trenches should be filled in before a command moves. 
 
 The practice of burning out latrine pits inaugurated by Col. Ebert 
 has proven generally satisfactory when carefully performed. For 
 this purpose i gallon of oil and 15 pounds of straw daily are pro- 
 vided for each company latrine. The box should be removed 
 during combustion and the fecal matter stirred into the fire with a 
 pole. This incineration if thoroughly carried out with dry fuel is 
 practically successful in making latrines fly proof. When oil and 
 straw are not obtainable as was often the case in the Punitive Ex- 
 pedition, the ashes from the company kitchen should be scattered 
 in the pits. 
 
 In the El Paso District the practice of burning out was discon- 
 tinued and a mixture of lamp black or bone black in crude oil, i 
 pound to 3 gallons, was employed. From K to i J^ gallons of this was 
 applied by a spray pump daily and once each week or ten days the 
 sides of the latrine were sprinkled. It is essential that the lamp or , 
 bone black be as fine as flour otherwise it will not pass through the 
 apertiures of the spray. The mixture must be stirred constantly 
 while being pumped and sprayed, or mixed and heated and passed 
 through a fine mesh sieve. By this method, a squad of one N. C. O. 
 and 4 Mexicans can treat 75 latrines in 5 hours using 55 gallons of 
 oil for this purpose. The equipment at El Paso consisted of a 
 wagon and drum containing oil, a force pump and spray. The 
 pump was used to spray walls only as the outlet was small and 
 choked quickly in cold weather. At Camp Funston, for 3000 men, 
 the spraying was done by two Mexicans, using a small hand pump 
 7 
 
98 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 and two buckets. The mixture may be poured from a sprinkling 
 can. Crude oil alone for this purpose has been suggested but its 
 value is much less than that of oil and lamp black. For proper 
 use of this method, tops of latrine boxes should be hinged so as to 
 allow free access to their interiors and to the pits. 
 
 When pits are filled to within two feet of the top they should be 
 filled in, rounded up, marked, and covered with 4 inches of puddled 
 clay. 
 
 Fig. 81. — Hand-and-foot spray pump for use in applying bone black 
 and crude oil mixture in latrines. Bone or lamp black may be of any 
 quality provided it is fine as fiour. The mixture is strained before use by 
 passing through a sieve made of several layers of metal mosquito netting. 
 Several spray tips should be on hand in reserve. 
 
 The necessity for properly disposing of urine is not generally appre- 
 ciated because of its comparative inoffensiveness.in small quantities. 
 One thousand men, however, void daily 300 gallons. In this num- 
 ber of men there are certain to be some who are typhoid carriers 
 whose urine may contain 100 million bacteria to the cubic centime- 
 ter. Evaporation is impracticable for small units though a number 
 of devices have been employed for that purpose. Urine cans are not 
 always available and the congestion at the latrine after reveille is 
 such that additional facilities should be provided. The English 
 service employs two trenches, 6 inches deep and 8 feet long at an 
 angle of 30 degrees, leading into a soakage pit. The disadvantage 
 of this practice is that one side soon becomes fouled and that urine 
 is tracked into camp. Lelean recommends that each regiment be 
 supplied with two dozen nested funnels 4 feet long, 6 inches in di- 
 
CAMPS 99 
 
 ameter at one end and 2 inches at the other. In their absence tubes 
 made of tin cans can be employed. A pit is dug and filled to near 
 the top with broken stone, or tin cans in which many holes have 
 been punched may be used. The funnels or the improvised tubes 
 are inserted at a convenient height. The pit is then filled up, cov- 
 ered with sod and roped oflf. The funnels are lightly plugged daily 
 with grass to make them fly proof. 
 
 A sewer system is the cheapest method of disposing of excrement 
 in a permanent camp. This however requires a relatively large 
 water supply which is not always obtainable. In the camp at 
 Galveston, where a sewer was available, a limited amount of water 
 proved adequate by using the following method. Two galvanized 
 .iron troughs, 20 feet long, and 18 inches deep were provided 
 for each battalion. They sloped downward slightly to a common 
 center, where a vertical chute, ordinarily closed by a padlocked 
 plunger, descended into a manhole of the sewer. The lower end of the 
 plunger which entered the chute was 6 inches in diameter. A cross 
 piece through the handle prevented the plunger descending more 
 than 2 inches into the chute. Below this point was a net made of 
 J^-inch G. I. wire with J^-inch interstices, to act as a strainer. The 
 troughs were filled twice daily with water to within 4 inches of the 
 brim at the lowest point. They were emptied twice daily and 
 flushed with a hose, fastened to the faucet from which each pair of 
 troughs was filled. The net provided at the outlet was essential, as 
 the sewer was emptied by a centrifugal pump and despite standing 
 orders, obstructing matter such as old clothing, orange or banana 
 peeling, etc., was occasionally thrown into the troughs. 
 
 A better apparatus devised for a similar purpose by Major 
 WUlard F. Truby for occluding the outlet of a latrine trough con- 
 sists of a wooden screw, 6 inches in diameter, one-fourth of whose 
 side is cut away. This allows a space down which the overflow 
 may pass, yet arrests large obstructions. The. best device for the 
 outlet from these troughs is similar to that provided for the 
 modern bath tub. A screen over the outlet arrests obstructions 
 to the pipes, an overflow hole is provided at a convenient height, 
 and a plunger, outside the tub, controls the outlet pipe. 
 
 Pollution of the camp area by urination or defecation should be 
 punished promptly and rigorously. 
 
lOO 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 Whitewashed urine cans or tubs should be placed in company 
 streets at night, removed at reveille, emptied into latrines, burned 
 out with oil and sunned during the day. 
 
 Fig. 82. — Galvanized iron latrine shelter. 
 
 In fixed camps latrine shelters consisting of a galvanized iron 
 shed may be provided, as that devised by Hopwood. If pits are 
 properly cared for it is not necessary that such shelters should 
 be screened. At Dublan, Mexico, when no other material for 
 
 Fig. 83. — Latrine shelter made of adobe bricks. 
 
 privacy was obtainable, the latrine areas of the 24th Infantry 
 were surrounded by adobe walls, 4K feet high. 
 In some localities because of tactical considerations or the geolog- 
 
CAMPS 
 
 lOI 
 
 ical formation none of the methods described above for the dis- 
 posal of excrement is applicable. In the trenches excrement is 
 disposed of in several ways. The simplest plan was for men to 
 
 Trench 
 
 6 7 
 
 1 Communicating trench 
 
 2 Pit ^ 
 
 3 Frame oF Pit 
 
 4 Trench around the Pit 
 5-6-7 Successive sites of Pit 
 
 Fig. 84. — {After Tournade.) 
 
 parapet ^^fffll^fflS^^B^^^^^^. 
 Shelters ^^ '^ ^^^f""^^^ i^ine 
 
 Dressing 
 andWater^ 
 
 Support 
 
 \ Latrine 
 
 Supports 
 
 Fig. 85. — Communicating trench from supports to firing line. Corners 
 rounded to permit loaded litters to pass. Not drawn to scale. {Eltinge.) 
 
 leave the trenches at night and defecate at any convenient point 
 in their rear. This drew flies, and excrement was soon tracked into 
 the trenches and dug-outs. Then latrines were dug at convenient 
 
102 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 places and used at night. These latrines, a feet long, a spade width 
 wide and as deep as possible, were dug in small trenches, off shoots 
 from the main one or from the communicating trench, or behind 
 contours that afforded protection from enemy fire. Eventually on 
 the western front, the paU system was adopted. Excrement was 
 received in bucliets placed in bomb-proof cellars. These were re- 
 moved by the troops when relieved who cleaned them, buried the 
 contents and brought them back when they re-entered the trenches. 
 A battalion of looo men excretes 600 pounds of filth daily, of which 
 goo pounds is liquid. This excrement is received in 10 buckets. 
 The fluid in one bucket can be absorbed by 10 pounds of sawdust or 
 other material of equivalent absorbent and fuel value. Fluid can 
 
 Excreta. Pit 
 
 Latrine 
 Urinal 
 
 I 
 
 Pig. 86. — Trench latrine. Diagrammatic. Not drawn to scale. (Pike.) 
 
 be evaporated under field conditions when mixed with 66 per cent, 
 of its weight, of combustible material (matrix) such as sawdust or 
 dry stable litter, which is then burned. Under more favorable con- 
 ditions, this ratio of efficiency is doubled. 
 
 The total fuel required to completely incinerate the 500 pounds 
 of liquid excreted by a battalion daily is, on the foregoing basis, 330 
 lbs. As the total combustible refuse from such a unit averages 
 about 1500 pounds a day, it should be self supporting or at most re- 
 quire less than 100 lbs. of sawdust daUy, if the refuse used is not 
 adequately absorbent. Dried manure may be employed. Each 
 horse passes about 8 pounds a day — enough to incinerate the excre- 
 ment of 4 men (Lelean). 
 
 The following are certain types of disposal by the pail system em- 
 ployed in the British service in the trenches. Small communica- 
 tion trenches are made leading from the main firing and support 
 
CAMPS 
 
 103 
 
 FLY-PROOF SEAT FOR LATRINES 
 
 (PAIL SYSTEM) 
 
 SUPPORT FOI^ 
 >^EAT WHEN 
 BUCKET IS OUT 
 
 METHOD 
 
 REMOVING BUCKET 
 
 Fig. 87. — Fly-proof seat for latrine, pail system. This system may be 
 used for one or a number of flat-topped bucketSi The cover is removable. 
 It packs flat with the rest of the frame during transport, and in use is 
 supported by the top of the bucket. {After Lelean.) 
 
I04 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 IMPROVISED LATRINE FOR FIRST-LINE TRENCHES 
 
 (FLY-PRDOF) 
 
 SKETCH OF LATRINE 
 
 POSITION OF ROPE ~ 
 WHEN TIN 15 IN USE 
 
 LEATHER 
 .HINGES 
 
 / 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 
 METHOD OF REMOVING 
 TIN FOR EMPTYING 
 
 4 t 
 
 KEROSINE 
 TIN 
 
 ■m^-^^*^ 
 
 \ -ROUGH WOODEN 
 \ [^BISCUIT BOX 
 
 Ml 
 
 SECTION 
 
 Fig. 88. — Improvised latrine for first line trenches. {After LeUan.) 
 
CAMPS 
 
 lOS 
 
 trenches. These are fitted up with latrine buckets or urinals, and 
 urine cans may be suspended from the walls. 
 
 Containers are of various materials, e.g., a stout galvanized iron 
 bucket shaped like a coal scuttle with a swinging handle on the top 
 and a fixed handle half way up the front or back, cresol and paraffin 
 
 FOpT RESTS 
 
 ;aagj eovTIgr 
 
 SHAFTS- 
 
 CROSS SECTION 
 
 I .2 
 
 I— I I 
 
 SCALE IN fEET 
 
 FOOT RESTS 
 
 SLIDING COVER <^ 
 
 PORTABLE FLY-PROOF LATRINE 
 
 (NATIVE pattern) 
 
 Fig. 89. — Of service for use in the trenches. The lid may be made of 
 tin — wood, swells when wet and jams when dirty. Entire cover remov- 
 able. {After Lelean.) 
 
 drums, chloride of lime cans, hard bread tins, etc., fitted with wire 
 handles. A combined latrine was made of two chloride of lime tins. 
 Men were instructed to squat over these tins in such a way that urine 
 was caught in one tin and feces in the other. To insure their occupy- 
 
io6 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 ing the right site, bricks or blocks of wood were placed to Indicate 
 the position of the feet. The advantage of keeping the solid and 
 liquid excrement separate is that much less earth is necessary to 
 cover the former and the container fills less slowly. A better plan 
 is to suspend a trough and a row of buckets beneath a pole or seat. 
 The former catches the urine and conveys it to a soakage pit. The 
 latter are removed as required. 
 
 Pig. 90. — Latrine separating urine and feces. (Pike.) Urine is 
 caught in a trough which leads to the urine pit. Feces are caught in 
 pails and removed daily. 
 
 Yet another plan is to perforate latrine tins with holes, a few 
 inches above the bottom and sink them in a trench filled with broken 
 bricks. The urine drains into a pit and the solids are buried or 
 burned. 
 
 MacPherson's system uses a large rectangular can cut in half. 
 These halves are supported at their overlapping ends on a trestle. 
 Urine is caught in the front tin and feces in the back. Before using 
 this apparatus a man takes a piece of newspaper cut to convenient 
 size and places it in the back tin. After defecation, he takes the 
 two halves apart, empties the urine into a tub and the feces into 
 an incinerator. The process is simpler than it sounds. 
 
 To disinfect feces tubs, chloride of lime is used from time to time, 
 or a sprinkling of cresoL' The latter is also used in urine tubs. 
 Latrine buckets should be cleaned daily. They should be mopped 
 out as soon as emptied with 3 per cent, cresol and smeared with 
 vaseline. Sandbags are hung at the doors of dug-outs, for reception 
 of rubbish which is collected and burned daily. 
 
 The excrement is usually buried in pits about 10 feet square 
 and 4}^ feet deep, with fly proof covers. These covers are 
 removed daily and the pits burned with hay and oU. Or, in 
 uncovered pits, a foot of earth is thrown on each day's deposits. 
 
CAMPS 
 
 107 
 
 For the disposal of excrement and refuse, various types of in- 
 cinerators are now used in the English service. Two main types are 
 
 Fig. 91. — MacPherson's latrine for separating urine and feces. {Pike.) 
 
 Fig. 92. — Trench urinal. (Pike.) 
 
 recognized — the open and the closed. The former consists merely 
 of a grate and its supports. Objections to incinerators of this type 
 
io8 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 are that they are slowly erected and started, use a large amount of 
 fuel, give rise to offensive odors, are easily rendered ineffective by 
 rain, and their contents are blown away by winds. 
 Of the closed types several patterns are described. 
 
 FIELD 
 DESTRUCTOR 
 
 Pig. 93. — Incinerator. {After Lelean.) 
 
 1. The roofs and walls consist of sheets of corrugated iron. 
 The walls are perforated near the bottom and receive the bars of a 
 grate which cross the bottom of the chamber. 
 
 2. The roof and walls consist of sheet iron, hinged to a grate over 
 which they can be made to fold up for packing. Extensions of the 
 
CAMPS 
 
 109 
 
 rods which attach the plates to the grate act as legs. A chimney is 
 hinged to the roof. This apparatus weighs 50 lbs. and has a 
 capacity of 8 cubic feet. 
 
 3. Another typ^aving a capacity of 16 cubic feet is illustrated in 
 the accompanying diagram of a field destructor. The essential part 
 
 THE M^MUNN INCINERATOR 
 FOR INFECTIVE SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS 
 
 HINQED 
 EXCRETA 000ft 
 
 IRON TRAY FOR LIQUIDS 
 
 'accessory BRAUeHT 
 
 ^FIRE BARS 
 
 oaDaQODoooDcaoaoDaDDDaDaooaooatiDQOOODQi 
 
 I'.y- v,y:^^-^-;ey-^^i^^y:^y..^Jf^, 
 
 Fig. 94. — Tray receives urine. Sawdust is added. It increases 
 evaporation 30 per cent. When thoroughly hot, wet sawdust is raked 
 into incinerator while feces mixed with sawdust are thrown in on the drying 
 plate. More are added as required. One such plant disposed of the 
 following in 24 hours: 130 gallons of liquid, excreta, of 200 patients, 180 
 lb. of wood, so lb. of sawdust and hospital refuse. Requires one man's 
 steady attention. (After Lelean.) 
 
 is the bafile plate which separates the fire box from the chimney. 
 The material introduced is burned and escapes as ashes and thor- 
 oughly oxidized gases, which renders this device void of offense. 
 The minimum effective flue temperature is 50° degrees F. A 
 drawback to the use of this device is its weight, 3200 lbs. (Fig. 93). 
 
no 
 
 FIEID HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 No excrement should be thrown on the fire until this is white hot. 
 About 30 pounds of excrement are thoroughly mixed with 30 pounds 
 of absorbent fuel. This quantity of material is thrown on the 
 
 Plan 
 
 '''^^^mSm^' 
 
 Elevation 
 
 1- 
 
 Section A. B 
 
 Fig. 95. — Incinerator, (i'ifte.; 
 
 
 D 
 
 
 3 
 
 Plan 
 
 Side elevation 
 
 Front elevation 
 
 Fig. 96. — Turf incinerator with corrugated iron front. (Ptfte.) 
 
 fire every half hour with other fuel as needed. This apparatus 
 will disppse of the dejecta of 1000 men daily. The fire should be 
 damped at night and stoked in the morning. For the transportation 
 of the buckets low trucks are provided to prevent spilling. Th&y are 
 
CAMPS 
 
 III 
 
 equipped with hoops and swivel hooks from which the buckets are 
 suspended by the handles. 
 
 A more elaborate incinerator is such as that figured in the dia- 
 gram 94. 
 
 Such apparatus shown should contain two grates, on the first of 
 which material is dried and on the second incinerated. 
 
 For extemporized incinerators the best material is brick, but in its 
 absence puddled clay is used. A convenient method is to use sand- 
 
 VERTICAL 
 SECTION 
 SFtxSFt. 
 
 - Shoot 
 Leadinti- 
 to Trayr 
 
 Air Chamber 
 
 fiaeces traif (Sheet inn e-g from cresol drums) 
 tfteins. wide Z^toSins deep, supported 
 by pieces of iron attached to central 
 &.sides oFinc/nerator. 
 
 Central air cone 
 
 (OMiron) 
 
 'rating of old iron 
 (e-g hoop iron) 
 
 peadinq to 
 faeces tray. 
 ■For refuse 
 
 For lighting and 
 remqvinq 
 
 'onnecting Bars 
 
 'Tbpof air cone 
 
 ^barnt tins. 
 
 EXTERNAL VIEW HORIZONTAL SECTION 
 
 SHOWING DOORS REQUIRED 
 
 Pig. 97. — Turf incinerator. {After Trinca.) 
 
 bags containing wet clay, or rectangular tin cans filled with clay and 
 chinked with mud may be used. The bags burn but the clay 
 remains in the shape desired. Draught holes should be arranged in 
 the first row of sandbags. Upon them should rest a grating of iron or 
 stout wire fire bars. A very common mistake in making incinerators 
 is to make tbem of too large a diameter for their purpose. For 1000 
 men 6 feet diameter and 3 feet 6 inches high is a workable size. For 
 smaller units, a diameter of 3 feet is adequate, the height being the 
 
112 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 CC 
 
 D 
 
 Plan 
 
 /7777Z 
 
 m/m 
 
 vwrn/mmM/w////' 
 Section A.B. 
 
 iTTTJfS, 
 
 ^ ifiiiii)im>iinimiiuw>w/M/m 
 
 ^ 
 
 Section CD. 
 
 Fig. 980. — Underground incinerator. {Pike.) 
 
 Longitudinal 
 Section 
 
 imn 
 
 TransvenseSection 
 
 Fig. gSb. — Underground incinerator. {Pike.) 
 
 w 
 
CAMPS 
 
 "3 
 
 same as for the larger unit. The illustrations shown are of incinera- 
 tors made of sandbags, with a cone of corrugated iron, wired to a 
 tripod of iron bars, fixed in the sandbags. The cone affords a 
 powerful draught. 
 
 -/y^- 
 
 Pig. 99. — Trough latrine and pit. {After Tournade.) 
 Tournade recommends the following for use in immobilized . units. Its 
 principle is to receive excrement in an antiseptic fluid and after contact 
 for 12 hours, deliver it into a pit.. 
 
 A pit is dug from 3 to 6 feet long and 6 feet deep. Perpendicular to 
 one side of it, is dug a ditch 15 inches wide and 6 feet long. Its bottom 
 inclines toward the pit with a $ per cent, slope. The trench is fitted with a 
 removable metal trough, 2 m. long with a bottom sloping toward the pit. 
 Where it projects over the pit there is a hole normally closed by a leather 
 flanged, wooden plug. This is provided with a long handle. Removal of 
 the plug empties the trough into the pit. The trough is 12 inches wide at 
 the bottom, 15 inches wide at top, its depth at the shallow end is 10 inches, 
 at the deeper end 13 inches. A solution of 4 per cent, cresyl or any other 
 effective antiseptic is recommended. To prevent splashing, the surface is 
 covered with a layer of paper. A better plan is to use a longer, deeper 
 trough of parabolic shape, half fill it with water, and to disinfect the 
 effluent if need be, in the pit. This apparatus is used on some French 
 lines of communication. 
 
 Another extemporized incinerator is made of turf. One side of 
 the incinerator may be made of corrugated iron, running in a groove 
 and the other three sides of turf. The advantages of this is 
 8 
 
114 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 that the incinerator is more readily cleaned. Underground in- 
 cinerators also are used. 
 
 Trinca's incinerator is made of brick or stone cemented by a mix- 
 ture of clay 5 parts and cow manure i part. This is a very bind- 
 ing material. The air space is below ground in order to save 
 material. With an apical opening an intense heat is produced. 
 The tray is perforated to allow liquids to fall on the fuel beneath. 
 Combustible refuse is introduced through "R" then tin cans, and 
 on this manure. Feces are poured in through special chutes F & 
 F' and evenly distributed over the tray after the refuse has been 
 ignited and is burning freely. It may be kept burning indefinitely. 
 The advantages of this apparatus are that refuse is the only fuel 
 needed, large amounts of material may be burned in a small space, 
 it will consume manure and feces, does not develop offensive odors, 
 and is economical of material. 
 
 Fig. 100. — Shelter for horses at Namaquipa, Mexico. 
 
 Stables. — Shelter in cold weather and shade in hot should be 
 provided for the welfare of horses and mules. Watering troughs 
 should be provided. 
 
 Disposal of Manure. — Picket lines should be ditched and kept 
 policed, refuse being removed daily. They should be burned over 
 weekly with one gallon of crude oil and 15 pounds of hay or straw 
 for each animal. 
 
 No grazing should be allowed within 2000 yards of camp. 
 
 Manure may be burned in dry climates by spreading an area not 
 more than 4 inches deep where it wUl not be crossed by wagons. 
 
CAMPS 
 
 "5 
 
 It is allowed to dry two days and then set on fire. Or it is burned 
 in windrows 2 feet wide and 2 feet high, made by throwing off the 
 manure from the tail of a wagon. They are about 8 feet apart 
 and after drying a few hours they are spotted with oil on the wind- 
 ward side at 6-foot intervals and fired. Windrows are raked to 
 cover a narrow space, to prevent burning feet of animals. The next 
 day the wagons straddle the windrows and dump the manure on 
 their ashes. In wet weather especially it is essential that the win- 
 drows be worked over constantly, and the smudge kept going by 
 turning the unburned manure over on to the smouldering part but 
 not in such quantities as to smother it. 
 
 Fig. ioi. — Windrow melliud of burning manure. In the foreground piles 
 of manure are made into a windrow. 
 
 During the rains when the amount of manure is large, it may be 
 dumped in piles containing 20 to 30 wagon loads, or over the edge 
 of a ravine, at a point not less than two miles from camp. The pile 
 should be ditsant from a through road as passing men and animals 
 bring flies into camp. These piles are liberally sprinkled with oil 
 and ignited, or if over the edge of a ravine, the fire is started at the 
 bottom. The manure is consumed but not rapidly enough to pre- 
 vent fly breeding. This was the method followed in the Punitive 
 Expedition. Another plan is to spread the manure in a long narrow 
 pile, not more than 12 feet wide at the top nor more than 5 feet 
 high so that successive wagons driving over it may pack it tightly. 
 Each new load is packed tightly by shovels. The British spray the 
 surface and sides with borax solution (% lb, to i gallon of water). 
 
[i6 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 Lewis and Miller employed the Panama incinerators in the El 
 Paso District with excellent results. These were grates made of 
 railway iron about 30 feet long and 10 feet wide, with a rail 3 feet 
 high. The grate was supported about 3 feet above the ground by 
 concrete or railroad iron uprights on cement foundations. The rails 
 forming the floor were at right angles to the long diameter. The 
 incinerators were placed broadside to the prevailing wind. No 
 
 Fig. 102. — Railroad iron or Panama incinerator for manure. This 
 incinerator was partly burned out when the photograph was taken. 
 Ordinarily the manure is piled higher than here illustrated. (Lewis and 
 Miller.) 
 
 purchased fuel was necessary. A fire started with a refuse box from 
 the dump consumed from 25 to 50 loads a day. This device offered 
 better results than did the windrow method as by the latter some 
 larvae escaped. It consumed from 25 to 50 wagon loads a day. 
 In wet climates this incinerator should be covered with a galvanized 
 iron roof. 
 
 A device for the use of small commands is a cylindrical incinerator 
 made by wiring together sheets of galvanized iron. It is about 5 
 
CAMPS 
 
 117 
 
 feet high and 4 feet in diameter. This is placed over the junction 
 of two trenches, intersecting at right angles. These trenches are 
 
 IMPROVISED INCLINED-PLANE INCINERATOR 
 
 METHOD OF CUTTING. 
 KEROSINE TINS 
 
 FEEDING END 
 METHOD OF FIXING 3 
 PLATE5 TOSETHER. 
 BEFORE BENDING 
 
 PLAN SHOWING SCHEME 
 
 ASH PIT 
 
 INCINERATOR. ^- 
 
 j__ r 
 
 DUMP OR 
 DRYme 
 
 SROUMD 
 
 WALLS TO HELP DRAUfiHT 
 
 Fig. 103. — Fixed inclined plane incinerator, made of four gasoline or 
 kerosene cans cut and joined %y mutually engaging notches cut in the 
 edges. They make an enclosed arch on a base of straw or mud and are 
 covered with mud or tibbin (chopped hay i part, mud 7 parts). Nails 
 shown in first part of figure prevent refuse sliding through. Tin plate 
 used over feeding hole according to direction of wind. Two such incin- 
 erators can dispose of the refuse (other than feces) of a regiment. {After 
 Lelean.) 
 
 8 feet long, i foot wide and i foot deep under the container. Or, 
 instead of trenches, apertures 8 inches in diameter may be made at 
 
ii8 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 opposite sides of the cylinder at its base. A few tin cans should be 
 thrown in to form a grate. In such a cylinder both garbage and 
 manure may be burned. Tin cans distributed in the mass facilitate 
 the draught and a little oil greatly facilitates combustion. In wet 
 weather it should be covered with a sheet of tin. A similar container 
 
 SECTION OF BELOW ATA-A 
 WHEN PACKED FDR TRANSPORT 
 
 F0LDIN6 
 
 •^°«R"gatS' 
 
 SCALE • IN FEET 
 
 ^FOLDINS LEDSE TO SUPPORT CONTENTS 
 
 PORTABLE INCLINED-PLANE INCINERATOR 
 
 Pig. 104. — Same principle as above. Apparatus is knock down and 
 portable, can always be turned to face with the wind. Ashes removed 
 through V-shaped apertures in floor by knocking side of incinerator. 
 (After Lelean.) • 
 
 can be made of mud over the intersection of two intersecting 
 trenches. Another device for a small command is a wire frame 
 or grid with meshes 5 inches square. It is about 4 feet cube 
 and is supported 2 feet above the ground. 
 
 Yet another device is a mud or brick chamber 10 X 8 X 14 feet 
 employing a grate. Stoke holes are provided in the sides. These 
 
CAMPS 
 
 119 
 
 are about 15 inches square and are on the ground level. Manure 
 is thrown in through a two foot aperture in the top, covered by a 
 removable lid. A fire is started before the manure is thrown in, and 
 after it is burning briskly, the dampers are closed. Ashes are 
 raked out from under the grate. 
 
 In the British service at some places on the western front, manure 
 is placed in long piles and covered with a foot of earth. In others 
 it is destroyed with rubbish in mud or galvanized can incinerators. 
 
 The reduction of fly breeding by means of chemicals has as yet 
 found no place in our military service. Chemicals recom- 
 mended for this purpose by the Department of Agriculture are 
 the following: 
 
 Fig. 105. — Imaginary cross-section of an arrangement suggested" for 
 trapping maggots, for use where manure production is large: a. Pump; 
 c, concrete floor and walls of cistern; o, outlet pipes leading from floor of 
 maggot trap to cistern; p, platform maggot trap; t, cistern for liquid 
 manure; g, ground level. (Hutchinson.) 
 
 Borax may be scattered on the surface every two or three days, 
 in the proportion of 3 lbs. to 40 bushels of manure. 
 
 The following solution, viz.: sod. arsenitis i lb., brown sugar 
 10 lbs., water 10 gallons, may be scattered at frequent intervals. 
 It kills adult flies who come to lay their eggs. 
 
 A later recommendation is to apply one pound of calcium 
 cyanimid and two to four pounds of acid phosphate per square foot 
 of surface, or 4 pounds of cyanamid and four or more pounds of 
 acid phosphate for eight bushels. This process both destroys the 
 flies and increases the fertilizing power of the manure. 
 
 A method for the destruction of larvse, with conservation of 
 
I20 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 manure, is indicated by the diagram. Larvs leaving the manure 
 pile to pupate are caught in a water filled cement pit and drowned. 
 Camp Police. — There should be a daily police of camp, the site 
 of each organization being cared for by it, and communal areas 
 being cared for by a detail or employees under a qualified supervisor. 
 A tin can in front of each tent should collect the refuse discarded 
 by its occupants. Refuse should be hauled to the dump. 
 
 ijtoit 
 
 Fig. io6. — Rubbish dump. The only exposed rubbish is along the 
 advancing margin of the pile. The top of the dump is entirely covered 
 over and smooth. (Lewis and Miller,) 
 
 "This should be kept in a very restricted area. It is built up 
 to a very considerable height (10-15 feet) by successive layers. Tin 
 cans, bottles and such combustible material as is not disposed of 
 in the manure incinerator are dumped over the edge of the bank 
 which is formed as the pile progresses. A fire is kept burning along 
 the advancing edge of the pile and if the rubbish and tin cans are 
 properly interspersed, all combustible material will be consumed. 
 The ashes from kitchen ranges are deposited on top of the burned 
 tin cans as the pile advances. The dump must be compact; tin 
 
CAMPS 
 
 121 
 
 cans are not left uncovered and animals are not allowed to pass 
 over exposed bottles or other debris which might injure their feet. 
 The photograph shows a dump made up of incombustible rubbish. 
 There is no rise of ground in the vicinity." (Lewis and Miller.) 
 
 In the camp at Columbus, N. M., the "cake tin incinerator" 
 was used. 
 
 Dead animals are usually buried. Lelean recommends a modifica- 
 tion of this practice. A pit is dug beside the animal, which is 
 eviscerated and the viscera buried. The carcass is dragged over 
 the pit, 40 lbs. of hay or straw are placed in the ccelum and over the 
 
 Fig. 107. — Cake tin or cone incinerator. 
 
 surface. This is wet with a quart of kerosene and iired. The 
 method aims at charring the surface of the animal and sterilizing 
 the soil fouled by the blood. 
 
 Bivouacs. — On marches and in the presence of the enemy troops 
 often are obliged to bivouac. From a tactical point of view bivouacs 
 are convenient, but for sanitary reasons are resorted to only when 
 necessary. The general principles governing selection of camp 
 sites apply with even greater force to those for bivouacs. The 
 ground should be dry and protected from both sun and wind. Light 
 woods are nearly always good sites. To reduce the force of winds, 
 windbreaks may be constructed, either by brush, sloping with the 
 wind at an angle of 45 degrees, or by a bank of earth 3 feet high. 
 The trench from which it is taken should be on the outside of the 
 protected area. A circular enclosure 1 5 feet in diameter with a fire in 
 its center promotes comfort. The men lie with the feet to the fire. 
 
122 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 Billets. — When troops are likely to remain many days or weeks 
 along a line of fire confronting the enemy, they should be encouraged 
 to make themselves as comfortable as possible in the trenches by 
 timbered dugouts, etc., and should be relieved by fresh troops at 
 short intervals. The interval on the western front is (usually) two 
 weeks. In such case, the troops when relieved should make every 
 possible use of local buUdings, erect temporary structures and should 
 have available additional camp equipments, tents, surplus kits, etc., 
 sent up from the line of communication, and should not be billeted 
 in houses if this can be avoided, lest they contract infections from 
 the inhabitants. If billeting is practised, however, houses and 
 occupants should have been inspected by a medical ofiicer, and the 
 doors of those habitations harboring infection, marked in a dis- 
 tinctive manner, e.g., by red chalk. To prevent imitation by civilians 
 who do not wish their houses occupied, a record should be kept 
 of those marked and verified at intervals. 
 
 Unless the force billeted is small, it usually has to be distributed 
 among several buildings. This has a demoralizing effect on dis- 
 cipline with a consequent effect on sanitation. Also the public and 
 private sanitary conditions in small towns frequently are very un- 
 satisfactory. But billets can be kept in a cleanly condition by 
 standing orders, frequent inspections, and detailed supervision. 
 Since the billets on the western tront are occupied alternately by 
 bodies of troops which relieve each other in the trenches, there is 
 no opportunity and small incentive for cleaning them properly. 
 Frequently they are infested with vermin. Constant efforts must 
 be maintained to destroy verinin and their eggs, for reinfestation of 
 billets often occurs, when troops come in from the trenches. 
 
 The methods used to destroy lice and fleas are discussed else- 
 where. Bed bugs may be destroyed by successive fumigations at 
 3 day intervals as the eggs may not be destroyed by one fumigation 
 alone. The agents most used are sulphur, one pound to each looo 
 feet; pyrethrum, five ounces per looo feet; or camphor and phenol 
 equal parts, four ounces per looo feet. Formaldehyde is unreliable. 
 If fumigants are not available employ a spray of benzine or gasoline or 
 paint surfaces with a 25 per cent, emulsion of petroleum in water. 
 Infested clothing and bedding should be steamed. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 WATER 
 
 Quantify. — ^The approximate quantities of water needed per man 
 per day are as follows: 
 
 For drinking only (minimum) 3 pints 
 
 For a day's march and bivouac or one night 
 
 camps (for drinking and cooking only) 1 gallon 
 
 Camp where no clothing is washed 3 gallons 
 
 Camp where clothing is washed 5 gallons 
 
 - Fixed camp where water is piped 25-30 gallons 
 
 In fixed camps with piped water supply, the number of gallons 
 required is computed as follows: 
 
 Drinking i, Cooking 2, Ablutions 2, Laundry 
 
 8, Shower 5, Water closet 6. 
 
 The quantity of water required per horse or mule per day is from 
 6 to 10 gallons on the march or in camp, but in hot or dry weather 
 this is sometimes increased to 1 5 gallons. Mules need less water as 
 a rule than horses, and 6 gallons usually will suffice. 
 
 To estimate the quantity of water yielded by a stream, the follow- 
 ing formula is used: 
 
 B X D X V X 10,800 = gallons in 24 hours. 
 
 In this formvda, B is the breadth of the stream; D is the average 
 depth; V is the average velocity. This average velocity is four- 
 fifths of the surface velocity, which is determined by noting the time 
 that it takes for a floating stick or chip to traverse a measured length 
 of the stream. The available output of a stream is increased by 
 constructing dams. 
 
 A gallon of water weighs 8 lbs. 3 ozs., and contains 231 cubic inches. 
 A cubic foot of water weighs 62J lbs. and contains 7I gallons. 
 
 133 
 
124 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 The capacity of a cylindrical vessel in gallons is the product reached 
 by squaring the diameter in inches, and multiplying this product by 
 the length in inches, and by the fraction 0.0034. 
 
 The quantity yielded by a well is estimated by rapidly lowering its 
 surface by a measured depth, and noting the time it takes for it to 
 refill. The volume of water in this space in cubic feet is the product 
 of this depth by three-fourths of the square of the diameter, all in 
 feet. 
 
 Sources of Water. — The purest water is rain water. It always 
 carries some slight constituents and impurities of the atmosphere, 
 especially coal, sand, coal dust and a minute quantity of organic 
 matter including a few bacteria. Rain water is highly aerated, 
 wholesome and palatable. It is very soft, an excellent solvent of 
 soap, well suited for washing and cooking purposes. In the field in 
 the tropics, it is often caught in troughs made of split bamboo from 
 which the joint partitions have been removed. These are hung 
 under the eaves of a tent or hut and carry the water into containers. 
 The first portion of the rainfall is more or less contaminated and 
 should be rejected if rains have been infrequent. 
 
 Springs are classified as land or main springs. The former dis- 
 charge water that has percolated into the earth until it has met an 
 impermeable stratum; the latter are the outlets of subterranean 
 reservoirs which lie between two impermeable strata. The former 
 are intermittent and their output is occasionally polluted, since the 
 soil has not strained out the bacteria carried down from the surface. 
 Whether they are contaminated or not may be judged with a fair 
 degree of accuracy after inspection of the area which they drain. 
 Main springs are continuous and their output usually is pure. 
 Springs in chalk or limestone formations should be regarded with 
 suspicion as they are frequently mere outcroppings of streams that 
 may have been polluted some mUes away and have disappeared 
 below the point of contamination. Cracks and fissures in a rock for- 
 mation, especially limestone or chalk, may lead from a privy to a 
 distant outlet. 
 
 The output of a spring may be increased by digging it out and 
 lining it with wattle- work, an empty box or barrel from which both 
 top and bottom have been removed, or by brick and stone. Surface 
 drainage is kept off by a trench or a rim of clay. 
 
WATER 
 
 125 
 
 The water from streams draining inhabited areas should always 
 be considered unsafe for drinking purposes until it has been purified. 
 Streams are contaminated both by surface washings and by the 
 deliberate usage of them as a means for removing sewage from 
 adjacent habitations. This pollution is greatest in the Spring, 
 when melting snow and abundant rains wash down sewage that has 
 accumulated for several months. In countries having a dry and a 
 rainy season, the water is most polluted at the onset of the rains. 
 At this time intestinal disturbances are most prevalent. The water 
 
 Fig. 108. — Well with wattled walls sunk in sandy bank of stream. 
 
 in streams is highly complex, the composition varying according to 
 the geological nature of the water-shed drained and the nature and 
 degree of pollution it has undergone. It practically always con- 
 tains animal matter in suspension. Though river water undergoes 
 spontaneous purification, so that from twenty to fifty miles below a 
 city it may be almost as pure as it was above it, such purification 
 should not be relied upon. This purification is effected by sedi- 
 mentation, dilution from tributary streams, solar action, oxidation 
 and biological action, which is probably the most important factor. 
 
126 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 The most active biological elements are the nitrif)nng bacteria, 
 which break up organic matter into simpler bodies. Their action is 
 increased by falls and rapids which favor oxidation. 
 
 Lake water has much the same character as river water, but is 
 more free, as a rule, from serious organic impurities. In large lakes, 
 the dilution of accidental contamination renders this practically 
 negligible, but does not compensate for and control deliberate and 
 systematic pollution. Small lakes or ponds, because of the smaller 
 volume of water contained by them, are proportionately more 
 liable to serious contamination than are great ones. 
 
 Wells were formerly classified as shallow or deep, but this standard 
 is now discarded. The most important elements in determining 
 the purity of well water are: 
 
 1. Whether it traverses an impermeable stratum. 
 
 2. Whether in chalk or limestone formation a fissure conducts 
 into it deleterious material from some neighboring or distant point. 
 
 Drainage from a source of contamination, e.g., a latrine into a well 
 or spring, can be determined by the fluorescin method. The strength 
 of the solution used is twenty grains to five gallons of water. The 
 solution must be rendered alkaline by the addition of chemically 
 pure sodium bicarbonate. Large quantities of the solution may be 
 placed in the suspected latrine, but better, a hole may be dug adja- 
 cent to it and twice this amount of the solution thrown in and 
 washed through with several buckets of water. The well should be 
 pumped and the water tested at intervals of half or quarter of an 
 hour beginning fifteen minutes after fluorescin is placed in the hole. 
 The water in the well is tested by looking at it through a depth of one 
 foot in a glass tube or jar against a white background. A green tint 
 should show very distinctly in a dilution as high as one part in 
 ten million. A stronger solution of fluorescin ■ can be used if 
 necessary. 
 
 Wells are usually polluted from the surface and not from the 
 subsoil drainage as is generally supposed. The filtering power of the 
 soil is usually suflBcient to protect against pollution, unless the soil 
 is overburdened with organic matter, or a cesspool or broken 
 sewer, etc., is very close, or fissures exist in the soil and subsoil 
 through which impurities may pass. Surface configuration, char- 
 acter of soil and proximity of sources of pollution should be 
 
WATER 
 
 127 
 
 examined to determine the purity of the water, if the fluorescin 
 test is not available. A source of possible contamination is 
 determined according to its distance from the well. Several 
 standards have been used, e.g., a distance of 50 feet from the mouth 
 of the well, or a radius of from 2 to 4 times the depth of the well 
 according to the character of the soil, or daily fall of water in the 
 well, or 1 50 times the distance which the water in the well is lowered 
 by one hour's pumping. 
 
 Requirements of a well are the following: 
 
 1. Deep enough to secure efficient filtration of the water entering 
 it. 
 
 2. Lined with cement, or stone or brick set in cement, so that the 
 water may enter only at the bottom. 
 
 Fig. 109. — Tube well. 
 
 3. Provided with a coping of cement sometimes carried up 2 or 
 3 feet to prevent entrance of water around the top. 
 
 4. Protected by a water and dust-proof cover and a pump, which 
 should be at one side of the well and not over its center. 
 
 Tube wells consist of several lengths of iron piping about 4 inches 
 in diameter. The lowest length is pointed. At each end of each 
 
128 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 length are grooves which engage a collar, by means of which the 
 lengths are successively screwed together, as the preceding length 
 is driven into the ground. These wells can not be driven even 
 through moderately hard rock. A pump is screwed to the upper 
 end when water is reached, but it can raise the water only 25 feet. 
 The output is at first turbid, but later becomes clear. The use of 
 suqh wells is restricted by the fact that each weighs 1400 pounds. 
 
 If no other suitable sources of supply are found, tube wells are 
 often driven by troops in field service in fixed camps. The most 
 common sites for these are at the base of the steeper side of a 
 valley; the bottom of gullies or gulches, especially just below the 
 point where two of them join; the lowest depression in abroad 
 valley or plain; the point where vegetation is greenest, insects 
 most abundant, or where the morning mist hangs longest. Also 
 they are driven at low points on the banks of streams since the soil 
 filters the output, making it purer than water from the streams. 
 
 The diseases caused by polluted water are mentioned in the 
 chapter on transmissible diseases. 
 
 Protection of Water. — Whatever its source, the water supply 
 should be guarded rigorously. When several commands are placed 
 along a stream, this guard is regulated by the sem'or oflacer present. 
 Water for troops is obtained at a point above that used by animals, 
 and the point for bathing purposes is below it. 
 
 Examination of Water.— The purity of a sample of water cannot 
 be determined except by laboratory examination. Impure waters 
 almost invariably have a color varying from green to yellow or 
 brown when examined through a depth of two feet but on the 
 contrary, not all waters of such colors are polluted. Many waters 
 that are clear and pleasant to the taste are infected, while per 
 contra colored water may not contain pathogenic bacteria. Some 
 unpleasant waters, containing salt, magnesia, iron or sulphur are 
 not unhealthful. Odor is no criterion of purity, for some waters 
 that are malodorous because of inorganic substances, diatoms or 
 algae, are not detrimental to health. Most odors are suspicious 
 however, especially if of animal origin and of an offensive putrescent 
 character. Odors are more readily detected if the water is heated 
 and shaken in a half-filled bottle. 
 
 The sources of the water supply should if possible, be examined by 
 
WATER 129 
 
 an expert and marked good or bad. This is imperative in countries 
 infected with cholera or other harmful bacteria. It is also essential 
 in territory vacated by the. Germans since they poison the 
 wells. For the purpose of making such examinations, most 
 services are now equipped with motor laboratories. What is 
 better for the purpose is a portable outfit weighing about 100 
 pounds, employed in the British service. It consists of a sampling 
 cabinet which can be carried by hand to the well, and is enclosed 
 by a double casing of tins which are utilized as incubator and steril- 
 izer. Accessories necessary for the examination of 500 samples 
 are carried in a separate box. Sixteen samples of water can be 
 examined continuously, providing eight test tubes for each sample; 
 one of agar for the total count and seven of McConkey's 
 taurocholate-lactoro-litmus broth. The size of the samples tested 
 ranges from }4 to 20 c.c. and totals 50 c.c. 
 
 The number of bacteria in water is less important than the kind. 
 An arbitrary standard which is a good general working rule, is that 
 good drinking water should not contain more than 100 per cubic 
 centimeter, but in applying this rule the source of the water should 
 be considered. The kind of the bacteria present, i.e., whether they 
 are pathogenic or not, is indicated to a degree by the temperature at 
 which they thrive. Those which grow at 37°C. are of more interest 
 than those which grow at 2o°C., while those that grow at 40°C. 
 include the typhoid bacillus and other water-borne pathogens. 
 The following maximum limits of bacteriological impurity have 
 been adopted by the United States Public Health Service: 
 
 1. The total number of bacteria developing on standard agar 
 plates, incubated 24 hours at 37°C., shall not exceed 100 per cubic 
 centimeter. Provided, that the estimate shall be made from not 
 less than two plates, showing such numbers and distribution of 
 colonies as to indicate that the estimate is reliable and accurate. 
 
 2. Not more than one out of five c.c. portions of any sample 
 examined shall show the presence of organisms of the bacillus coli 
 group when tested as follows: 
 
 (a) Five lo-c.c. portions of each sample tested shall be planted, 
 edch in a fermentation tube containing not less than 30 c.c. of lac- 
 tose peptone broth. These shall be incubated 48 hours at 37°C. 
 and observed to note gas formation, 
 g 
 
130 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 (6) From each tube showing gas, more than 5 per cent, of the closed 
 arm of fermentation tube, plates shall be made after 48 hours' 
 incubation, upon lactose litmus agar or Endo's medium. 
 
 (c) When plate colonies resembling B. coli develop upon either of 
 these plate media within 24 hours, a well-isolated characteristic 
 colony shall be fished and transplanted into a lactose-broth fermen- 
 tation tube, which shall be incubated at 37°C. for 48 hours. 
 
 For the purpose of enforcing any regulations which may be based 
 upon these recommendations the following may be considered 
 sufficient evidence of the presence of organisms of the Bacillus coli 
 group. 
 
 Formation of gas in fermentation tube containing original sample 
 of water, (o). 
 
 Development of acid forming colonies on lactose litmus agar 
 plates or bright red colonies on Endo's medium plates, when plates 
 are prepared as directed above under (6). 
 
 The formation of gas, occupying 10 per cent, or more of closed 
 arm of fermentation tube, in lactose peptone broth fermentation 
 tube inoculated with -colony fished from 24 hour lactose litmus 
 agar or Endo's medium plates, (c) . 
 
 These steps are selected with reference to demonstrating the 
 presence in the samples examined of aerobic lactose-fermenting 
 organisms. 
 
 3. It is recommended, as a routine procedure, that in addition to 
 five lo-c.c. portions, one i-c.c. portion, and one o.i-c.c. portion 
 of each sample examined be planted in a lactose peptone broth 
 fermentation tube, in order to demonstrate more fully the extent 
 of pollution in grossly polluted samples. 
 
 Purification of Water. — The water supply of a camp should be 
 wholesome for drinking purposes without further purification. This 
 is not always obtainable and purification is necessary. Water may 
 be purified by boiling, filtration, chemicals and ultra-violet light. 
 
 The simplest method of purifying bad or suspicious water in the 
 field is by boiling it for twenty minutes, although a temperature of 
 i6s°F. for 10 minutes will destroy all ordinary parasitic germs. 
 This latter method requires less time for heating and cooling, 
 less fuel and causes less loss of gas. Its advantages are that it requires 
 no special apparatus except a thermometer. The disadvantages 
 
VV AilLJX. 
 
 131 
 
 of boiling are the length of time necessary for water to boil and 
 to cool, its consequent flat, insipid taste (unless it be aerated by- 
 pouring it repeatedly from one vessel to another, which should 
 always be done) and especially the quantity of fuel necessary. To 
 overcome these objections various kinds of apparatus have been 
 devised none of which is now in use in our service though yet em- 
 ployed in foreign armies. They are essentially similar. Raw 
 water is boiled by petroleum or other fuel, and made to pass into a 
 compartment, separated by a thin diaphragm from that which the 
 raw_ water occupied before it was heated. This causes a rapid ex- 
 
 FiG. no. — Henne.nberg water sterilizer. 
 
 change of heat, the raw water being warmed, the purified water 
 cooled. In the Philippines a type of this apparatus was provided 
 for the service of each company. Though somewhat complicated 
 it gave great satisfaction. It weighed 96 pounds, burned one quart 
 of oil in 3 hours and had an output of 30 gallons per hour. In sev- 
 eral European armies larger apparatus using the same principle is 
 mounted on wheels. The water undergoes a preliminary filtration, 
 is heated, and carried into the cooling chamber by ebullition and 
 expansion. This wheeled apparatus gives an output of from 350 
 to 400 gallons an hour. Types of such apparatus are the Forbes 
 and the Griffith in the British Army, the Hennenburg in the 
 
132 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 German and Austrian and the GaiUard des Maroux in the French. 
 In the Griffith apparatus, water is raised to a temperature of 180 
 degrees when a valve is opened automatically and the water is 
 allowed to pass to a cooler. The objections to these wheeled steril- 
 izers are their cost, weight, limited output, and their necessity for 
 fuel that may not be obtainable. Their use appears to be re- 
 stricted to the line of communication or positional warfare. 
 
 In the field filtration has been attempted by the Maignen, Pasteur 
 and Chamberlain and Berkfield filters, depending respectively upon 
 the arresting powers of asbestos and charcoal, unglazed porcelain, 
 and infusorial earth. The objections to all of these are their liability 
 to become infected, to pass impure water and to clog. Fragility 
 and limited output are further deterrents to their use in the field. 
 
 Filtration by sand has been practised by placing a box or barrel 
 inside another, the inner receptacle being open at both top and bot- 
 tom. Sand filled both inner and outer receptacles to about one- 
 fourth their height. Water was usually poured into the inner re- 
 ceptacle whence it passed through the layer of sand and rose to its 
 proper level in the outer barrel, from which it was drawn off by a 
 faucet. This apparatus clarified water, but did not remove all 
 bacteria. Also it was liable to become infected, unless fresh sand 
 was used frequently, so that the output was worse than the 
 intake. 
 
 The efficiency of filtration by sand depends upon the formation of 
 a gelatinous layer, due either to natural agents which produce zoo- 
 glea, or to aluminum hydroxid which is formed when alum is thrown 
 into water. The defects in the filtration plant which used two barrels 
 or boxes may be overcome by using sand which has been purified in 
 sterile water, and by precipitating a layer of aluminum hydroxid 
 upon the surface of the sand in the inner receptacle. In the opera- 
 tion of such a purification plant it is essential that the gelatinous 
 filtering layer be not disturbed and that this sand be cleansed at 
 least every other day. Water must be introduced into the inner 
 receptacle gently, preferably through a syphon whose discharge 
 end is turned upward, otherwise the value of the apparatus is 
 (i^stroyed. 
 
 Filtration through sand and a layer of aluminum hydroxid may 
 also be practised by digging 4 trench near a stream, lining the trench 
 
WATER 133 
 
 with puddled clay and two revetments, one between the trench and 
 the stream, and the other on the further side of the trench. The 
 trench is partly filled with successive layers of small stone, gravel 
 and sand, and on these a layer of flocculent gelatinous aluminum 
 hydroxid. The water from the stream is led into the trench by a 
 syphon, whose discharge end is upturned in order that the filtering 
 surface may not be disturbed by the flow of water. The filtered 
 water is drawn from the trench through a pipe which passes through 
 
 Fig. III. — Filtering apparatus of Darnall filter. (Havard) 
 
 the outer revetment and into the layer of small stones. This 
 method can be followed to advantage only where the geographical 
 situation is unusual, i.e., when one bank of the stream is higher 
 than the land near it, as the lower side of an irrigation ditch. 
 
 A much simpler and quite satisfactory procedure is to dig a pit 
 near the side of a stream, and dip from it the water that seeps 
 through. Such water has been strained by the natural zooglea in 
 the stream bed as well as by the intervening soil. In semi-perma- 
 
434 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 nent camps this pit may be lined with wattle work, or a barrel, keg 
 or box, from which both ends have been removed. 
 
 Several other more elaborate devices utilize the straining effect 
 of aluminum hydroxid. The best of these is the Darnall filter, 
 which consists of a syphon with a cylindrical metal framework sur- 
 rounding its ascending arm; a cloth which surrounds this framework 
 and is the essential part of the filter; a syphon primer, two water 
 cans, a galvanized iron tank and a crate. The precipitant consists 
 of alum hydroxid and sodium carbonate in proportions which satisfy 
 each other chemically. Five grains of alum to the gallon are suiS- 
 
 FlG. 112. — Darnall filter in operation. 
 
 cient to clear the most grossly polluted water. When the precipi- 
 tant is added to water a flocculent precipitate is formed which en- 
 tangles parasites and arrests them on the surface and in the body of 
 the filtering cloth. This becomes clogged eventually and must be 
 removed and brushed, but as the output continues to diminish, the 
 cloth is removed, washed, boiled and dried. Meanwhile it is re- 
 placed by another. This apparatus removes 98 per cent, of the 
 bacteria in water; clarifies it and will deliver 50 gallons of water an 
 hour. It weighs 52 pounds, and is quite the best apparatus yet 
 devised for filtering water in the field. 
 
 The Japanese field filter (the Ishiji filter) consists of a conical 
 canvas bag having a capacity of 24 gallons and with two spouts or 
 branches just above the apex. These spouts contain sponge disks 
 
WAXJIK 13 S 
 
 which effect filtration. The apex of the cone receives the, sedi- 
 ment. This filter employs two powders, the first consisting of 
 potassium alum, potassium permanganate, aluminum silicate, the 
 second chiefly of aluminum silicate and small amounts of tannic and 
 hydrochloric acids. After the filter has been filled a suitable quan- 
 
 SELF CLEANING FILTER 
 
 CLEAR 
 WATER 
 
 Fig. 113. — Sand and alum filter. (After Lelean.) 
 
 tity of the first powder (enough to plainly discolor the water) is 
 added and stirred up. After a few minutes about one-half as much 
 of the second powder is added and stirred until the discoloration 
 caused by the first has been removed. After the precipitate sub- 
 sides, in IS or 20 minutes, the leather spouts are untied and the 
 
136 riELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 water 'allowed to pass. The hydrochloric acid assists the decompo- 
 sition of the permanganate while. the tannic aCid removes the color. 
 The result is satisfactory with clear water but much less so with tur- 
 bid water. A modification of this process is to place in the radial 
 spouts perforated boxes containing alum, silicon, potassium per- 
 manganate and charcoal. As the water passes through it forms 
 aluminum hydroxid which is arrested by the sponges and helps 
 their filtering action. 
 
 A sand and alum filter which may be extemporized in camp con- 
 sists of two concentric inverted cones or pyramids, separated by a 
 narrow interval. The outer receptacle is extended upward as a 
 cylinder or rectangular box to form a tank. A pipe drains the drink- 
 ing water from the bottom of the inner receptacle, and another pipe 
 drains the waste water from the apex of the outer one. The inner 
 receptacle is filled with a heaped-up quantity of sand, and this is 
 covered by a layer of alum hydroxid. Water is poured gently 
 into the tank. Gross impurities roU down the sides of the 
 heaped-up filtering mass and escape in the waste water, which 
 may be poured in again after sedimentation. 
 
 If no filtering apparatus is at hand, but alum and sodium bi- 
 carbonate are available, the addition of. five grains of the former and 
 one and one-half grains of the latter to a gallon of water wiU clarify 
 the muddiest water in one or two hours and carry down 95 per cent, 
 of the containedbacteria. 
 
 Chemical Sterilization. — The most generally satisfactory means 
 of purifying water in the field is the use of chlorinated lime — the 
 so-called chloride of lime. This is a lumpy powder, made by satu- 
 rating slaked lime with chlorine. It shotild contain 35 per cent, of 
 this gas available for use. By available chlorine is meant the 
 amount that is liberated readily from its combination in the powder. 
 The chlorine content diminishes rapidly on exposure to air. A per- 
 centual calcium chloride carrying 7 5 per cent, of chlorine is advocated 
 but is not now obtainable in America. Its advantages are greater 
 stability, and the smaller amount of the chemical necessary for a 
 given result. The germicidal value of calcium chloride is due to 
 the action of carbon dioxid in water upon the calcium hypochlorite 
 in the powder, producing hs^ochlorous acid which in turn liberates 
 exygen, and develops chloramines. 
 
WATER 
 
 137 
 
 It is the nascent oxygen and more especially the chloramines 
 which destroy bacteria and not the chlorine content of the calcium 
 chloride, as such. 
 
 The amount of chlorinated lime which must be used to purify 
 water depends upon the strength of the former and the composition 
 of the latter, particularly in reference to the amount of organic mat- 
 ter the latter contains. In water containing little organic matter 
 bacteria wUl be reduced 99 per cent, by i part per million, but 
 for a similar reduction in sewage i part per 25,000 is necessary. 
 
 Fig. 114. — Lyster bags supported by stacked litters. 
 
 When impure water containing organic matter is attacked by hypo- 
 chlorites, it develops unpleasant flavors; therefore it should undergo 
 filtration through several layers of cloth before the powder is added 
 to it. Five parts of powder per million parts of water are usually 
 considered adequate, but if there is grave danger of pollution, more 
 should be added. Havard recommends for general field service 
 from 5 to IS parts per million. Lyster controls deterioration of the 
 powder by preserving it in brown glass capsules which are broken 
 just before use. In order to effect a percentual certainty one tube 
 is provided for each bag of water containing 40 gallons. Each tube 
 
138 , FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 contains 1 5 grains, giving two parts of available chlorine for a mil- 
 b'on parts of water. The Lyster water bags are made of rubber 
 lined canvas, with a hemispherical bottom to receive sediment and 6 
 spring faucets are placed around the bottom of the bag just above 
 this hemispherical portion. These bags have given excellent serv- 
 ice in Mexico and along the border. Improvements recommended 
 in the bag are that it be made of heavy canvas and provided with 
 a cover preferably of a filtering material that can be tied over the 
 top, used as a strainer, removed and boiled. Another modification 
 suggested is that the bag be made in half sizes so that platoons 
 operating independently may be equipped. The manner in which 
 the powder is added is important. It should not merely be thrown 
 into the water but should be first made into a paste, all lumps being 
 carefully broken up, then thinned to a dilute suspension, and then 
 stirred into the water to be purified. The contents of one of the 
 Lyster tubes should be thinned by the gradual addition of at least 
 a pint of water before it is stirred into the water in the bag. 
 
 Parties not supplied with measured quantities of the powder use 
 the following method recommended by Havard: A teaspoonful is 
 leveled off by rolling a pencil over it, rubbed up with a cup of water, 
 and diluted with three more cupsful. A teaspoonful of this dilu- 
 tion is thoroughly mixed in a 2-gallon pailful of water. This water 
 should not be drunk for at least an hour after the chloride has been 
 added. 
 
 Disadvantages of the hypochlorite method are that it increases 
 the hardness of water and may give it an unpleasant odor and taste. 
 The formor objection is more theoretical than practical. The latter 
 may be overcome by agitating the water. 
 
 The advantages of this method are cheapness, quickness, con- 
 venience and general reliability. 
 
 A portable plant weighing 222 pounds for the h3rpochlorite treat- 
 ment of piped water supplies has been devised by H. A. Whittaker. 
 It will treat satisfactorily 1,000,000 gallons a day which can be 
 increased to 4,000,000 with added effort on the part of the operators. 
 Its use in the military service is restricted to fixed camps or billets 
 with piped water supply of doubtful purity. 
 
 Sodium hypochlorite is slightly more efficient than the calcium 
 salt and forms less precipitate but it is more expensive. 
 
WATER 139 
 
 Sodium bisulphate is an excellent agent for sterilizing water in 
 canteens. For that reason it is of peculiar value in the cavalry serv- 
 ice whose equipment must be as scant as possible and where small 
 detachments operate without apparatus for purifying water. Thirty 
 grains should be added to each quart. Firth recommends that it be 
 made up in tablets with saccharine and oil of lemon. The water 
 should not be drunk for about 20 minutes. This agent can be used 
 only in aluminum canteens as it forms toxic sulphates with other 
 metals. 
 
 Calcium permanganate has been used recently in the German 
 army to purify the water in canteens in the proportion of about i 
 grain to the quart. A tablet containing the salt is dissolved in a 
 canteen full of water agitated and allowed to stand for 10 minutes, 
 when a tablet of manganous sulphate is added. A precipitate forms 
 which must be filtered off by a filter paper cap over the mouth of 
 the canteen. The disadvantages of this method are the fragility of 
 the filter paper cap, the possibility of confusing the tablets and the 
 time interval which thirsty soldiers would be prone to abbreviate. 
 
 Potassium permanganate has been used to purify water in the 
 proportion of a grain to the quart. As a workable rule, enough is 
 added to give the water a pinkish tint. Its effects are due to the 
 nascent oxygen liberated but its action is weak, very slow, somewhat 
 uncertain in the strength used, and it imparts an unpleasant taste 
 and color to the water. Its use is restricted usually to purif jdng 
 waters supposed to have been infected with the B. cholerse which is 
 peculiarly susceptible to its action. Wells are disinfected by adding 
 potassium permanganate in the proportion of 60 grains to the gallon. 
 After 24 hours the water is pumped until it is colorless. Dead 
 aquatic flora and fauna should be removed. 
 
 Copper sulphate destroys algas in water in the proportion of one 
 part per million, but it will not destroy pathogenic organisms except 
 in such strength (one part to SOjOoo) that it would be toxic to per- 
 sons drinking it. 
 
 Iodine hberated from a mixture of iodide and iodate and after an 
 interval removed by sodium hyposulphite has been used for steril- 
 izing water in canteens in the French army. The agents were put 
 up in red, white and blue tablets in order to make them easily dis- 
 tinguishable. Because of the fact that the first two must be crushej 
 
140 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 together before they were added to the water and because of the 
 time interval — ten minutes — that had to be allowed before the 
 third was added their use has been discontinued. 
 
 Dakin and Dunham report that the most suitable substance for 
 sterilizing drinking water in the field is one which they have devised, 
 viz., p-sulphon dichloramino benzoic acid. As the synthetic name 
 is cumbersome, the term halazone^ has been proposed for the tablets 
 containing it (CI2N.O2S.C6H4.COOH). These are easily prepared 
 from cheap, readily available materials and are reasonably stable. 
 One part of the agent per 300,000 will sterilize an ordinarily heavily 
 contaminated drinking water in about thirty minutes destroying 
 b. typhosus and b. cholerae, etc. In this concentration a very slight 
 taste is perceptible, especially in warm water containing little 
 organic matter, but the water is perfectly palatable. The active 
 chlorine is utilized less rapidly than that in bleaching powder, for 
 which reason the disinfection process continues for a longer period. 
 By the use of this agent fifty gallons of water can be sterilized for 
 one cent. Its action on aluminum is negligible. 
 
 Ultra-violet Light.— Ultra-violet light has been used to purify 
 water in the French and Austrian services but its development 
 requires the use of bulky apparatus, parts of which are very delicate. 
 Also its value is much diminished in turbid waters or those contain- 
 ing colloid material. Its use in the field has not proven practicable. 
 
 Several methods have been employed for carrying water to troops 
 at points where this is not readily accessible. The Hennenberg 
 sterilizer is provided with a water cart. A cart which both purifies 
 and retains the water is used in the English service. In the Austrian 
 service a small native wagon in the service of each company carries 
 barrels. The French employ a water train and also have steel 
 water wagons, each weighing 1200 kg., and carrying 3000 kg. of 
 
 * The starting point, in the production of this agent is the development 
 of p-toluene sulphonamide by the action of ammonia on p- toluene sul- 
 phonic chloride. This last mentioned is a very cheap waste product in 
 the manufacture of saccharine and is obtainable in relatively large 
 quantities. 
 
 A description of the technique followed to produce halazoae is believed 
 to be out of place here. It can be found in the article by Dakin and 
 Dunham on page 682 of the British Medical Journal for May 26, 191 7. 
 
WATER 
 
 141 
 
 water. Each wagon has a purifying capacity of 3000 litres per 
 hour and can supply 25,000 to 30,000 litres per day. Fifty feet 
 of woven wire hose are supplied. The wagon is divided into two 
 equal compartments. Chloride of lime is used for the purification 
 of the contents. 
 
 Lyster has recommended for use in our service a canvas tank 
 which would fit the body of an escort wagon. It would be provided 
 
 Fig. 115.- 
 
 -Field apparatus for sterilizing water by ultra-violet light. 
 (Austrian Service.) 
 
 with spring faucets similar to those used on the water bag he devised. 
 It has also been recommended that a fiat water tank be fastened to 
 the bottom of the company wagon. This should be provided with 
 spring faucets at the rear of the vehicle, from which men may re- 
 plem'sh their canteens. 
 
 The necessity for some such apparatus was often keenly felt by 
 the troops in Mexico, where the heat and aridity conspired to 
 increase thirst. The difiiculty was overcome in part by carrying 
 kegs of water on wagons, in some organizations, but this primitive 
 arrangement did not fuUy pi^et- requirements. Troops in the 
 
142 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
WATER 
 
 143 
 
144 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
WAIJI-K 14s 
 
 trenches are supplied with water from tanks set up about 1,000 
 yards froin the firing line. These are filled by piping, or by 
 horse-drawn water carts. The water is purified by adding 2 
 grams of bleaching powder to the contents of the average water 
 cart, viz., no gallons. From the tanks the water is carried in 
 kerosene tins through the communicating trenches to a dug-out 
 in the support trench, i.e., the second line trench, where it is 
 stored as a reserve for the troops in front. At this point the 
 men in the trenches fill their canteens. 
 
 10 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 THE MESSING OF TROOPS 
 
 A duty of maximum importance is the proper subsistence of the 
 troops, — the unit or detachment commander must see that the food 
 provided is sufficient and properly prepared. The value of food 
 when served, depends upon the ability of the system to appropriate 
 it to the needs of the body, and the 5000 or more heat units stored 
 up in the ration, when chemically analyzed, quickly dwindle below 
 the 3500 which are necessary for the laboring man, when the 
 ration is damaged in transit, wasted by the cooks, or is so poorly 
 prepared that much is thrown away as unfit to eat or if featen proves 
 indigestible and therefore unnutritious. Much information of 
 proven value for the preparation of food in the field is found in 
 "The Manual for Army Cooks" published by the War Department, 
 "The Mess Officers Assistant" and "The Mess Sergeant's Hand- 
 book" by Holbrook. These books are obtainable from the Book 
 Department of the Army Schools, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. 
 
 "Preparation of food, or proper cooking, has much to do with the 
 nutritive value. Cooking changes food into more soluble forms 
 and renders it more nutritious and appetizing. The application of 
 the heat necessary for cooking destroys most disease germs, para- 
 sites, and dangerous organisms that the food may contain. This 
 applies to both animal and vegetable food. The cooking of meat 
 brings out the flavor and odor of the extractives and softens the 
 gelatinoids of the connective tissues, making the meat more tender. 
 Extreme heat, however, has a tendency to harden the lean portions 
 (albuminoids) and decrease the 'flavor. Meats lose much weight 
 in cooking, mainly through the loss of water. The nutritive value 
 of beef soup depends upon the substances dissolve^ by the water 
 out of the meat, bones, and gristle. 
 
 In many vegetables the valuable portions (carbohydrates) are 
 contained in tiny cells with thick walls on which the digestive juices 
 have little effect. The heat of cooking ruptures these walls and 
 
 146 
 
THE MESSING OF TROOPS 147 
 
 makes the starch more soluble. The heat tends also to produce 
 agreeable flavors by changing the starch into sugar. Flour is made 
 more palatable in the form of bread, cake, and pastry through the 
 use of compressed air, yeast, or baking powder." (Manual for 
 Army Cooks.) 
 
 The losses incurred by disease are greatly reduced if the troops be 
 well nourished and this can be secured only by intelligent supervision 
 of the mess and due regard to camp sanitation. The efficiency of 
 any organization commander may be measured as much by the 
 intelligent supervision he gives to the messing of his company as 
 by any other standard. Well-fed troops are in better physical 
 condition than others who are not so carefully looked after; their 
 nervous -systems are in better shape, they are more contented and 
 vigorous, they respond cheerfully to the demand^ made upon them. 
 No better returns are made to an officer than that which comes from 
 the care and attention bestowed upon the mess. Generally speak- 
 ing the essentials to a successful mess are: An interested command- 
 ing officer, an efficient mess sergeant, good cooks, suitable equip- 
 ment. The organization commander must study the ration and its 
 possibilities, developing himself by observation, experiment and 
 supervision. No part of his duties is so eisily mastered and yet so 
 generally neglected. 
 
 He should first learn what constitutes the ration and actually 
 make a drawing of it from the Supply Departmeijt, in order that he 
 may see it in bulk and appreciate just what there is to work with. 
 The ration is based upon actual requirements developed by many 
 years experience and generally speaking is sufficient. The mess 
 officer's daily inspection of the kitchen too frequently consists of a 
 nine or ten o'clock visit in which the cleanliness and general appear- 
 ance only are taken into consideration. Although this inspection 
 is necessary, it is more important to be present at meal time to note 
 the service as well as the quantity and quality of the food served. 
 The officer in charge is not expected to usurp the duties of the mess 
 sergeant, whose efficiency is generally over estimated, but it may 
 be necessary for him to prepare the bills of fare himself, and if he 
 does not do this himself fo carefully study them at his morning in- 
 spection. They should be complete, a constant variety provided, 
 and the food articles should constitute a well-balanced meal. He 
 
148 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 should taste the food and express his approval or disapproval of the 
 manner in which the food has been prepared, paying special atten- 
 tion to the seasoning. He should frequently remain in the kitchen 
 during the service of a meal and satisfy himself that the quantities 
 and proportions of- food are properly served. His mere presence 
 promotes e£&ciency. He should inspect garbage cans daily. 
 
 The following details are important: Cooks, if unfamiliar with 
 the ration, should not be allowed to use more than the allowance 
 for the day. If they do so, food will be wasted and the command 
 go hungry before the expiration of the ration period. Perishable 
 articles must be carefully preserved; frequently they must be con- 
 sumed before others to prevent deterioration or loss. Unnecessary 
 waste must be prevented by the careful preparation and service of 
 suitable quantities of food. 
 
 Potatoes must be peeled thin or not at all, and the bread served 
 in thin slices or in smaU quantities as desired. Untouched food 
 left over from each meal must not be thrown away but should be 
 carefully preserved and used in the preparation of palatable dishes 
 for a subsequent meal. 
 
 Mess waste is usually due to waste by the cooks or by the men, 
 or to ignorance or dishonesty of the mess sergeant. Cooks waste 
 food by improper preparation, in which event the food is spoiled 
 and must be thrown away; by cooking too large a quantity, so that 
 what is left spoils before it can be used or by throwing away food 
 left over in serving dishes because of wasteful habits or laziness. 
 They do not care to bother with the preparation in appetizing form 
 of left overs. Inspection of garbage can or incinerator daily will 
 sometimes show gross waste of good wholesome food. Waste by 
 men in the troop frequently occurs when they are permitted to 
 help themselves, for they will help themselves liberally and once 
 taken by a man on his mess-kit, food is never used again. The 
 simple way to avoid this waste is to have one man serve each com- 
 ponent of the meal in succession, in reasonable quantities. Then 
 if a soldier wants more he can come back for it. Dishonesty on 
 the part of the mess sergeant can be controlled only by vigilance, 
 examination of all records and supplies and price. An honest 
 mess sergeant may easily, through ignorance, run his mess into debt 
 through injudicious buying of too great a quantity of perishable 
 
THE MESSING OF TROOPS 149 
 
 supplies, ill considered storage or ill considered issues. Places for 
 storing rations should be carefully selected. Kitchen cleanliness 
 comprises that of cooks and equipments. Cooks who are per- 
 sonally neat and clean almost invariably have clean kitchens. They 
 should be required to keep the face and hands clean and the face 
 shaved. The kitchen equipment should be clean. This does not 
 necessarily mean polished but it does mean sanitary. Vessels and 
 utensils should be cleaned after every time of use. Especial atten- 
 tion at inspection should be given to the meat grinder, the meat 
 saw, the tines of forks and point where a knife blade joins the 
 handle, dish towels, etc. In garrison or in fixed camp there should 
 be purchased a few serving dishes, gravy bowls, syrup pitchers, 
 etc. Ordinarily men should be detailed to serve as waiters, but 
 in the presence of an epidemic of disease affecting the gastro- 
 intestinal tract, only those men free from disease should assist in 
 either kitchen or mess haU in handling the food. 
 
 In such cases there should be a permanent detail of healthy men. 
 Proper seasoning of all dishes is of prime importance. Soups are 
 cheap and palatable food when properly prepared. In fixed camps 
 men should present clean hands and faces and wear a coat or 
 olive drab shirt at meal time. 
 
 A ration is the allowance for subsistence of one man for one day. 
 There are five rations used in the army, viz., the garrison ration 
 used in garrison and in permanent or maneuver camps; the travel 
 ration for troops traveling otherwise than by marching and separated 
 from cooking facilities; the reserve ration carried on the persons of 
 the men and in the supply trains and which constitutes the reserve 
 for field service; the field ration prescribed, in orders by the com- 
 mander of the field forces; and the emergency ration, as the name 
 implies, for use in emergency and to be used only on authority of 
 an officer or in an extremity. The Filipino ration is also provided 
 for native troops. Components of these rations are given, with 
 substitutes, in the Army Regulations, except the field ration which 
 is prescribed by the commander of the field forces varying according 
 to circumstances. It may consist of the whole garrison ration or 
 it may consist only of the reserve ration (bacon, hard bread, coffee, 
 sugar and salt) or it may include such portion of the garrison ration 
 as' in the judgment of the commander is necessary. The food ar- 
 
150 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 tides of the reserve ration may be supplemented by food supplies 
 shipped from the rear or grown in the country in which the Army 
 is operating. The only restriction on the commander is that the 
 supplements or substitutes correspond generally with the component 
 articles or substitutive equivalents of the garrison ration. 
 
 A ration goes to the organization in one of two forms, either as 
 cash or as food. When the garrison ration is designated the cash 
 allowance of the organization, which is the sum of the cash value 
 of the individual rations of all the men in the organization, for the 
 ration period (which we will assume is a month) is credited to the 
 company, on the first of the month. The company then orders, 
 throughout the month, whatever food it wishes to buy from the com- 
 missary. If at the end of the month the company purchases 
 amount to less than the ration allowance, the balance is paid to the 
 company in cash by the Quartermaster. If however, the company 
 purchases amount to more than the ration allowance, the company 
 must pay in cash for what it has overdrawn and if there be no fund 
 the company commander must pay it out of his own pocket. When 
 the field ration or the reserve ration or the travel ration is pre- 
 scribed, the quantities of food representing the total of all rations 
 to which the orgam'zation is entitled are issued to the troop com- 
 mander, and it is his duty to see that these rations are made to 
 last for the allotted period of time. 
 
 A most important item is the achievement of a balanced ration. 
 This is one that supplies proper nourishment to the body without 
 waste excess. The principal food ingredients are protein, fat, 
 carbohydrates, mineral matter and water. 
 
 The chief uses of food are three: (i) To form the material of the 
 body and repair body waste. (2) To fmrnish muscular power and 
 energy for the work that the body has to do. (3) To yield heat and 
 thus keep the body warm. A well balanced ration is one that pro- 
 vides proteins, fats, carobhydrates, mineral matter and water in 
 the proper relative proportions. That is, it should contain enough 
 protein to repair the body waste caused by the labor performed, 
 enough fat and carbohydrates to maintain body warmth and yield 
 energy in the form of heat and muscular power; enough mineral 
 matter to share in forming bone and assist in digestion. Protein 
 occurs most abundantly in animal foods, meats, fish, eggs and daiiy 
 
THE MESSING OF TROOPS ISI 
 
 products and in the dried legumes, as beans and peas. Butter and 
 lard are exceptions to this statement as they represent the fat of 
 milk and meat. Protein in meats varies from 14 to 26 per cent, of 
 the edible portion. It forms 28 to 38 per cent, of cheese and 18 to 
 25 per cent, of dried beans and peas. It makes up 7 to 15 per cent, 
 of the cereals, being least abundant in rye and most abundant in 
 oats. Wheat flour contains from 9 to 15 per cent, of protein. ■ Fresh 
 vegetables contain practically none at all. 
 
 Infected meats may transmit a number of infectious diseases, 
 e.g., tuberculosis, typhoid fever, anthrax, ray fungus and certain 
 ailments caused by bacteria which occasion disease in animals and 
 may cause sickness in man, e.g., mUk sickness. Also they may 
 • transmit tapeworm (especially beef, fish and pork), and trichina 
 (by pork). Ptomaine poisoning follows infection of meat that oc- 
 curs after butchering and either before or after cooking. The proc- 
 ess of cooking does not destroy the toxins that the bacteria causing 
 this disease develop. Meats are preserved by freezing (which will 
 not destroy all parasites) or by salting, packing, curing or smoking. 
 But the prolonged ingestion of meats thus preserved iiq.pairs diges- 
 tion. Cans whose ends bulge should be rejected. 
 
 Protein is less readily absorbed from vegetables than it is from 
 meat. 
 
 Fats generate heat and warmth; they are found abundantly in 
 meat, butter, olives, oatmeal, corn and nuts. They have great 
 fuel value in small bulk, but an excess is difficult to digest. Men can 
 live in excellent health on meat and fat alone. The amount of 
 fat in the body varies greatly with food, exercise, age and other 
 conditions. When more food is consumed than is necessary for 
 immediate use, part of the surplus is stored in the body. The pro- 
 tein and fat of food thus becomes body protein and body fat. When 
 the food supply is short this reserve material is drawn upon for 
 supplementary fuel. 
 
 The chief source .of fat are the animal foods, though some fat is 
 derived from vegetables the most noteworthy of which in this re- 
 spect is corn. Oatmeal contains about 7 per cent. The quantities 
 in meat vary from 10 per cent, in beef tenderloin to 80 per cent, in 
 fat salt pork. MUk averages about 4 per cent, of fat, butter is nearly 
 pure, fat and whole milk cheese (or so called cream cheese) contains 
 
152 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 from 25 to 40 per cent, of fat. Most cheeses are about one-third 
 protein and one-third fat and are therefore highly concentrated 
 foods. Both milk and cheese may develop poisonous toxins 
 through bacteria present, e.g., tyrotoxicon. Also milk may trans- 
 mit a number of diseases, e.g., tuberculosis, typhoid, and para- 
 typhoid fevers, dysentery, diphtheria and scarlet fever. With the 
 exception of oatmeal which contains about 7 per cent., there is but 
 little fat in cereals or in legumes. In green vegetables and fruits it 
 is almost wanting. 
 
 Carbohydrates include starches, sugar and fibre of plants. They 
 are found chiefly in vegetable foods, e.g., potatoes and grains. They 
 are the source of body energy and may be converted into fat but 
 the two are not interchangeable as they have different functions- 
 to perform. Their fuel value, weight for weight, is about that of 
 proteids, but less than that of fats. They may be taken in large 
 amounts. 
 
 The carbohydrates, are almost entirely absent from animal foods, 
 but form the most important element of vegetable foods. They 
 •make up from 65 to 75 per cent, of the cereals, 60 to 70 per cent, of 
 the dried legumes, and the bulk of the nutrients of fresh vegetables 
 and fruits. The most important forms- in which carbohydrates oc- 
 cur are wheat and vegetables. An excellent quality of bread is 
 prepared in field bakeries. The formation of "rope" can be pre- 
 vented by adding i quart of vinegar to each 100 lbs. of flour, if the 
 bakery becomes infected. Cornmeal bread is nutritious, palatable 
 and relatively cheap. Raw fruits and vegetables should be well 
 cleaned before eating. The heat of cooking is usually sufficient to 
 kill all infectious organisms. 
 
 Together with the food ingredients should be noted inorganic 
 salts, water and vitamines, which are essential to health. Vitamines 
 exist in foods in very minute quantities, but their absence may 
 give rise to several diseases, e.g., scurvy, beri-beri, and possibly 
 pellagra and rickets. Also organic acids are. essential to health. 
 Condiments and spices are of great culinary value as they improve 
 flavors and thus promote digestion. Cooks should have, a good 
 knowledge of seasoning. 
 
 , No articles of food contain these different nutritive "constitu- 
 ents in proper proportions. Some foods are too rich in proteids; 
 
■nus MjfissiNG Or iROOPS 153 
 
 others contain too much carbohydrates and fat. The former state- 
 oaent applies to all animal food and<to such vegetables as dried peas, 
 beans and lentils, etc. Most other foods, however, contain an 
 excess of starchy matter. 
 
 A proper ration must be a mixed one, the excess of a particular 
 element in one article being offset by its deficiency in another. 
 This conclusion is the result, not only of scientific investigation, but 
 of practical experience. Hence the popularity of such combinations 
 as bread and butter in which the proteids and carbohydrates of the 
 bread are supplemented by the fat of the butter; beans and bacon, 
 wherein the proteid and carbohydrates of the beans are balanced 
 by the proteid and fat, principally fat, of the bacon; potatoes 
 and beef, in which the carbohydrate of the potatoes is complemented 
 by the proteid and fat of the beef. It is not possible to prescribe 
 a hard and fast diet that would perfectly meet the requirements of 
 all individuals for they perform different duties and have different 
 idiosyncrasies. The diet is selected to meet average require- 
 ments. Nothing better than the Army Ration has as yet been de- 
 vised. About II per cent, of it is proteid, about 10 per cent, fat, 
 about 46 per cent, carbohydrate, the remainder being water, mineral 
 matter, ash and refuse. The ration is ample in garrison but seems 
 to fall slightly below what is necessary in active field service. This 
 is largely due to the impossibility of carrying along or caring for left- 
 over food which, in consequence, miist be thrown away. This can 
 be met only by careful supervision of quantities and equivalents 
 used. It is not necessary or desirable that the company commander 
 limit himself to the particular articles enumerated in the ration. 
 Substitutes are provided for, and to give variety should be used. 
 For beef, can be substituted mutton, veal, pork, game, fowl, fish, 
 liver, beef hearts, sweetbreads, ham-butts, eggs or sausage; for 
 potatoes, carrots, turnips, salsify, sweet potatoes, pumpkins, green 
 peas and beans; for dried fruits, fresh fruits when available, for cof- 
 fee, hot or cold tea and cocoa; for dried beans, dried or split peas, 
 lima beans or lentils. All such substitutions may be made without 
 materially affecting the almost perfect balance of the ration or 
 markedly increasing the cost. 
 
 In handling the ration, the savings made on one component of 
 the ration may be used for the purchase of similar articles not found 
 
154 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 in the ration table. For instance, if the i8 ounces of bread, per 
 man per day, on which the ration allowance is based, are not purchasad 
 from the commissary the fund saved may be used to purchase 
 oatmeal, etc. With the savings on coffee one can purchase tea and 
 cocoa. The principal savings should be made on the bread and meat 
 allowance. Meat savings are made by purchasing a variety of 
 meats from the packing house, the tendency being to purchase 
 those of less value than beef. In this way the meat diet is varied, 
 a considerable saving in money is made and the men are issued a 
 variety of food articles not otherwise obtainable. For instance 
 when the cost of beef was 11.29 cents per pound, in the fiscal year 
 1915-1916, we could buy numerous substitutes and make a saving 
 on each. The quantity of bone, cartilage and inedible parts in 
 beef is about one-fifth of the carcass weight and computations are 
 usually based on this amount. In veal and light weight cattle it 
 is greater. If one-fifth is added, the price of the edible part of the 
 beef wiU be 13.55 cents per pound. If we can, therefore, purchase 
 meat or meat products with no inedible or refuse portions, we may 
 pay about one-fifth more for it than the value of the article replaced 
 and not lose. This fact enlarges the list of outside purchases thus 
 insuring a still greater variety. It has been found from experience 
 that if messes expect to subsist the men on the ration allowance, noth- 
 ing should be permitted to go to waste. Especially is this true in 
 the case of food left over from previous meals. All such left-overs 
 should be used up in the next twenty-four hours. Potatoes left 
 over should be used in meat baUs, hashes, potato cakes, croquettes, 
 and hash; corn in corn chowder; tomatoes in tomato and maca- 
 roni soup; beans and peas in soup or in salad with celery and lettuce. 
 From left-over bread can be made croutons, cutting the bread into 
 small cubes and toasting in the oven. It is used in bread pudding, 
 plum duff, bread dressings, or put in the oven, toasted crisp and 
 then run through a meat grinder, the crumbs resulting therefrom 
 being used for breading beef steak, fish, meat balls and croquettes. 
 These crumbs may also be used as pie filler and in the preparation 
 of batter cakes, mu£5ns, etc. Such things are all inexpensive. 
 Capt. Bach summarizes certain points as follows: 
 I. Look in your garbage cans and incinerator daily to see if good 
 food or thick potato peelings are in them. 
 
xiui; MitsBiJNG ui iSOOPS 155 
 
 2. Be present at at least two of the meals of your company to_ 
 see how the food is served and that the men take no more on their 
 plates than they can eat. Taste the food yourself. 
 
 3. Carefully check once each week the standing of the mess as 
 to its financial condition. 
 
 4. Have your mess sergeant (after consultation with the cook) 
 prepare a bill of fare for the ensuing day, check this and see that 
 balanced meals are provided. See that the cooks prepare the 
 articles shown on the bill of fare. 
 
 5. Look through ice boxes or refrigerators, see that they are clean . 
 and that left-over foods are properly cared for. 
 
 6. Insist that meat be boned before it is cooked; that the bones 
 be put in the stock boiler for at least twelve hours before being 
 burned in the incinerator. This stock can be used for soups, gravies, 
 etc. 
 
 7. Have potatoes sorted as soon as received from the commissary 
 and rotten ones thrown out. 
 
 8. See that the bread served is cut in small pieces. This will save 
 you at least 25 per cent, of your bread cost. Let the men come 
 back for more if they want it. 
 
 9. Do not let the cooks throw away good food. Utilize left- 
 overs. 
 
 Bills of fare for one week illustrative of a balanced and palatable 
 ration are given on pages 43-46 of the "Manual for Army Cooks." 
 
 A sick animal has hair that is rough, staring and dingy; the muzzle 
 is hot and dry, eyes are congested and watery. It has accelerated 
 pulse and respiration, and ruminates irregularly. Animals below 
 the following minimum weight should not be accepted: beef, 550 
 lb., cows, 365, calves, (i month) 150, sheep, 48. 
 
 The butchered animal's viscera should be inspected. The fol- 
 lowing are the characteristics* of healthy beef "which has been cut 
 at least an hour (fresh meat is always dark) : bright, clear, cherry 
 red color, marbled with fat; it is firm and elastic, but to the touch 
 is soft and very smooth. It shotdd not pit nor crackle on pressure. 
 It should exude a bright red juice. A purple color indicates that 
 the animal has died of disease; a pale, moist appearance that the 
 animal was very young and sickly, a dark, stringy appearance that 
 it was old. The fat should be reasonably plentiful, firm in consist- 
 
IS6 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 ence and oily to the touch. The cellular tissue should be very white, 
 without infiltration, and without exudation of fluid when cut. 
 The odor of the meat should be fresh and not disagreeable. The 
 marrow of the lolig bones of the hind legs is firm with a light pink 
 color, that of the fore legs is yellowish, with the consistence of 
 honey. The pleurae are glossy, transparent, glistening. The arteries 
 contain no blood. The lymphatic glands are of normal size, of an 
 amber color on section. The cut surface is glossy and regular, and 
 allows but a small quantity of fluid to exude. 
 
 Poor meat is flabby, pale, thin, of a washed-out color, blood stained 
 or spotted, or even mahogany; frequently infiltrated with bloody 
 infiltration; not infrequently it has a greenish tinge, sometimes in 
 spots only. The odor is stale, sometimes acid or foetid, as if it 
 had been treated with chemicals. At times the surface has a 
 spoiled appearance. Decomposition always begins in certain 
 limited areas. To test the full volume of the meat, plunge a knife 
 in to the bone, through a cut made in the surface. The knife should 
 not touch the edges of the superficial cut. If the knife can be 
 withdrawn without resistance of the tissues, it indicates that the 
 meat has begun to decay. Also the odor of the knife on withdrawal 
 wiU indicate the condition of the deeper parts of the meat. If 
 only the superficial part is affected, this should be cut away, and the 
 remainder used. 
 
 In old animals the fibres of the meat are long, thin and dry; in 
 very young ones they are soft, pale, spongy, or if the animal be 
 very young, gelatinous.* The fibrous- tissue in spoiled meat is of 
 a dirty white color and infiltrated, the marrow is more or. less fluid, 
 sometimes brownish and does not fill the osseous canal. Fat is 
 scant", pale^ injected, scarcely oily to the touch and appears like 
 coagulated oil. In some undesirable carcasses the glands are en- 
 larged, injected, suppurating or taseous. The vertebro-costal 
 glands, the intercostal glands near the sternum, in the 3", 4" and 5" 
 interspaces, the large gland near the shoulder blade and the retro- 
 pharyngeal and maxillary glands especially are liable to be affected 
 in diseased animals. 
 
 Of the total weight of an ox, from 50 per cent, to 54 per cent, 
 should be meat; of a cow 46 per cent, to 54 per cent, (being greater 
 in young animals), of a calf 60 per cent., of a sheep 50 per cent. To 
 
THE MESSING OF TROOPS 157 
 
 calculate the weight that should be available add four-sevenths of 
 the total weight to the total weight itself, and divide by three. To 
 determine the number of rations that an animal would furnish, 
 divide the weight on the hoof in pounds, by two and one-j5fth, i.e., 
 each kilogram of the living animal represents one ration. The 
 weight of cooked meat is generally 35 to 38 per cent. 
 
 Meat should be distributed by auto trucks provided with sus- 
 pension apparatus and hooks. These trucks should be ventilated 
 through screened openings. If suspended transport is not avail- 
 able, the floor of the vehicle should be covered with a clean cloth 
 and contact between the sides of beef avoided by placing straw 
 between them. Compression is an important element in accelera- 
 ting the decomposition of food. These vehicles should be ventilated 
 as above noted. Meat cloths should be washed after each usage 
 and the wagon cleaned with sodium carbonate solution. No other 
 supplies should be transported with meat as it rapidly assumes their 
 odors. Changing meat from one wagon to another should be done 
 as sddom as possible. If possible this should be done in the shade. 
 Meat should be cooked within 48 hours at most after removal from 
 refrigeration. If delivery of the meat is delayed and there is no 
 occasion for its immediate service, it should be cut into small pieces 
 and boiled ten minutes, after which it is removed, salted and sus- 
 pended in a sack — not kept in a closed vessel. 
 
 In warm weather, quarters of beef, when received by organizations, 
 sometimes appear to be tainted. The outside of the meat is wet and 
 rather slimy and the odor is that of spoiled meat. Frequently 
 however all that is necessary is to remove the disagreeable odor. 
 The meat itself may be perfectly sound. The odor can be removed 
 by washing the outside of the meat with a solution consisting of 
 I gallon water, i pound salt, i pint vinegar and 2 tablespoonfids of 
 baking soda. If, after washing thoroughly with this solution, the 
 meat is fresh and sweet it may be used with perfect safety. 
 
CHAPTER VU 
 CAMP DISEASES 
 
 Transmissible diseases, i.e., those caused by parasites or micro- 
 organisms are the most common causes of morbidity in the military 
 service. The infections most frequently encountered (including 
 especially those which occur in epidemics) are peculiar to the human 
 race, e.g., typhoid fever, mumps, measles; but others also occur 
 which may develop in both men and animals, more frequently in 
 the former, e.g., tuberculosis. Yet others are common to man and 
 to insects in which the disease germs undergo different develop- 
 piental stages, e.g., malaria; while some are contracted from animals, 
 e.g., hydrophobia, malta fever and anthrax. Frequently diseases are 
 transmitted by insects which act merely as mechanical agents, and 
 in which the germ undergoes no developmental process, e.g., plague 
 is thus transmitted by the flea and typhoid fever by the fly. 
 
 The causes of infectious diseases are predisposing and direct. 
 Predisposing causes {i.e., susceptibUity), are inherited or acquired. 
 Acquired susceptibility is usually commensurate with some de- 
 pression of vitality. This may be brought about through a lowering 
 of vital resistance by: 
 
 1. Exhaustion, physical or mental, especially if associated with 
 anxiety or worry, and with insufficient sleep, rest or recreation. 
 
 2. Previous infection with a disease, e.g., pneumonia, susceptibility 
 to which is thereafter increased. 
 
 3. Malnutrition from inadequate food or digestive disease. 
 
 4. Over feeding, leading to retention of poisonous wastes. 
 
 5. Faulty ventilation and overheating of rooms. 
 
 6. Alcoholism and vicious habits. 
 
 7. Exposure to cold, and 
 8 Uncongenial climate. 
 
 Many persons harbor parasites whose activity remains latent 
 until the host's vitality is depressed. The direct causes of infectious 
 
 iS8 
 
CAJki- liXqilASES 1 59 
 
 disease are living, minute unicellular micro-organisms which belong 
 to the lowest orders of the vegetable and animal worlds. 
 
 Bacteria. — Such vegetable organisms (bacteria) abound through- 
 out nature. They are classified according to several standards: 
 
 1. Disease-causing qualities; those causing disease are pathogenic, 
 others are non-pathogenic. 
 
 2. Environment; those that live in the tissues of animals or plants , 
 are parasites; those that live in dead organic matter, the soil, air or 
 water, are saprophytes. The line of separation between these 
 two classes, however, is not clearly drawn or fixed, as some species 
 develop under both conditions, e.g., the bacillus Welchii, which 
 lives in the soil and causes gas gangrene in man. However most 
 bacteria which cause disease do not live long outside the body. 
 Saprophytes are vastly more numerous than parasites. Their 
 activities in nature are beneficial to the human race, since they split 
 up animal and vegetable refuse into simpler chemical bodies, which 
 can be assimilated by plants. Also, through their activities they 
 destroy the parasitic bacteria with which they come in contact. 
 They thus make vegetation possible, and in turn the animal life 
 which is supported by it. 
 
 3. Shape; cocci are spherical bacteria, bacilli are straight rods 
 from two to ten times as long as wide, and spirilla are curved. 
 Most bacteria measure about one twenty-five thousandth of an 
 inch in their shortest diameter. 
 
 4. Obtainment of oxygen; all bacteria require oxygen. Aerobes 
 are those that obtain it from the air, anaerobes from carbohydrates, 
 easily oxidized bodies, etc. Those which- obtain it from either 
 source are facultative. For their growth, bacteria require food, 
 moisture and a suitable temperature. There is a certain optimum 
 temperature at which each species grows best, that for pathogenic 
 bacteria being as a rule that of the human body. Bacteria multiply 
 by splitting transversely after they have reached a certain size. 
 If the environment is favorable, they grow and reproduce rapidly, 
 obtaining mature size in from twenty to thirty minutes and one 
 parent cell may produce one million descendants in ten hours. 
 Under unfavorable conditions some varieties produce spores which 
 will resist injurious influences, but, when favorable conditions 
 recur, will develop into the mature parasites. 
 
l6o FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 Certain varieties of bacilli and spirilla have hair-like appendages 
 or flagellse, by means of which they are actively motile. Patho- 
 genic bacteria are destroyed or their development is retarded by 
 direct sunlight, drying, unfavorable temperature, and various 
 chemical agents. The degree of heat or cold necessary to destroy 
 bacteria varies greatly. Most non-spore-bearing varieties are killed 
 by steam in a few moments, but many varieties can withstand dry 
 heat at two hundred and twelve degrees for an hour. The chemicals 
 which are most used to destroy bacteria, are phenol {i.e., carbolic 
 acid), chlorinated lime, mercuric chloride, formaldehyde, sulphur 
 dioxide and potassium cyanide. 
 
 Protozoa are unicellular micro-organisms belonging to the ani- 
 mal world. Like bacteria, some varieties are parasitic; others 
 are saprophytic. Also they are pathogenic or non-pathogenic. 
 Their structure is more complex than is that of bacteria, and they 
 cannot exist on such simple foods outside the body. Some of 
 these pathogenic protozoa, e.g., those causing yellow fever, are too 
 small to be seen through the microscope. The life cycle of many 
 pathogenic protozoa is more complicated than is that of bacteria. 
 Some require two hosts for their development, e.g., those causing 
 malaria which develop dififerent stages of their life cycles in man and 
 in' the mosquito.. The most common diseases caused by protozoa 
 are malaria, yellow fever, dengue, elephantiasis, sleeping sickness, 
 entamebic dysentery and syphilis. 
 
 Infection. — Infection with a specific disease may be brought 
 about in three ways: 
 
 1. Direct contact, which may be immediate or mediate. 
 
 2. Indirect contact. 
 
 3. Through an alternative host. 
 
 Contact infection is that which occurs from a diseased person, 
 either from direct personal contact with that person himself 
 (immediate contact), or with some article which the patient has 
 infected (mediate contact) . Immediate contact infection may occur 
 through shaking hands, etc. Mediate contact infection may follow 
 the use of some article which the infected person has used, e.g., hand- 
 kerchiefs, toilet articles, pipes, mess articles, rifle, etc. This mediate 
 transmission occurs as a rule within a few hours after the object 
 was infected. Most parasites are frail and die after exposure of 
 
CAMP DISEASES l6l 
 
 but a few days to indirect light or air. Infection by immediate or 
 mediate contact, i.e., by carriers, is the commonest way in which 
 diseases are spread. This is especially true in the military service 
 where contact is close, frequent and intimate. 
 
 Carriers. — Carriers comprise : i. Those who have had a disease 
 and continue to excrete the parasite causing it, by discharges from 
 the nose and mouth, in the urine or in the feces. 
 
 2. Those who give no history of a given disease, e.g., typhoid, 
 pneumonia, diphtheria, etc., but who harbor the parasites causing 
 it. Though the germs may have given rise to no symptoms in 
 the carrier, they may, when transferred to another person, cause an 
 acute infection because of his greater susceptibility. An important 
 class of carriers are the missed cases, who have the disease in so mild 
 a form that it escapes detection, but who nevertheless may cause 
 a most virulent infection in those to whom they transmit it. They 
 are especially dangerous to their associates, since they continue 
 to mingle with them as freely as when they are well. Carriers may 
 be acute, chronic or temporary. The first discharges parasites for 
 a few weeks after an attack of the disease; the second for months or 
 years; the third are those who have never had the disease, but who 
 harbor and discharge the parasites for a brief space of time. This 
 discharge of parasites may be intermittent. For this reason, a 
 typhoid fever patient in our army is not returned to duty until 
 three successive weekly examinations of stools have been negative. 
 
 The manner in which some infections are spread is not yet fully 
 understood. In the camp at Dublan, Mexico, an epidemic of 
 pneumonia occurred, but only two patients came from the same 
 tent. Similarly epidemic cerebrospinal meningitis occurred in the 
 camp around El Paso, no two cases appearing in the same company. 
 Over four hundred cases of pneumonia were admitted to the 
 Base Hospital at Fort Bliss, in the eight months ending March 31, 
 but in only three instances did two of these cases develop in the 
 same tent. 
 
 Indirect Infection. — Indirect infection occiurs through water, 
 food, air or the earth. The infectious diseases transmitted by 
 water are most commonly certain types of diarrhea, dysentery, 
 typhoid and paratyphoid fevers and cholera. 
 
 Water. — Diarrhea may be caused by the following micro-organisms 
 11 
 
l62 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 in water, viz., b. coli, b. enteritidis, b. pyocyaneus, b. proteus, b. aero- 
 genes capsulatus or b. mesentericus. Typhoid, paratyphoid fevers 
 and cholera may be caused by infected water. Both bacillary and 
 entamebic dysentery may be transmitted by drinking water, though 
 but few epidemics of water-borne dysentery have been reported, and 
 entamebic dysentery does not always occur in epidemic form. 
 The commonest varieties of baciUi causing dysentery are the Shiga 
 or Flexner strains, but numerous other strains have been incrimi- 
 nated. The entameba histolytica is the only rhizopod known to 
 cause dysentery, but a very similar, comparatively rare disease, is 
 caused by the a ciliated protozoon, the balantidium coli. All dis- 
 eases caused by drinking water affect.primarEy the alimentary tract. 
 Water may also convey the eggs, larvae or other stages in the life 
 cycle of various intestinal parasites, e.g., the round worm (ascaris 
 lumbricoides), pin worm (oxyuris vermicularis), whip worm (tri- 
 churis trichiura), bilharzia haematobia and, in some cases, those of 
 the guinea worm (dracunculus medinensis), and the hook worm 
 (ankylostomum duodenalis and riecator americanus). 
 
 Food. — Food is frequently an agent in transmission of disease. 
 Milk is an excellent culture medium for many pathogenic germs and 
 has been responsible for numerous epidemics of typhoid fever, Malta 
 fever, scarlet fever, diphtheria and epidemic sore throat. If drawn 
 from tuberculous animals it may cause tuberculosis. Vegetables 
 grown in earth enriched with the night soil may transmit cholera, 
 typhoid fever and dysentery. The meats most commonly causing 
 disease are pork, which may be infested with trichina, and shell fish 
 which may have been infected with germs of typhoid fever or dysen- 
 tery. Ptomaine poisoning follows the use of food which has been 
 infected by any one of several varieties of bacteria, especially the 
 bacillus enteriditis, but properly speaking, it is not an infectious 
 disease. It is caused by the products which the bacteria have 
 formed in the food before and after ingestion, arid not by the inva- 
 sion of the parasites into the body, i.e., these bacteria affect food 
 primarily and the body secondarily. 
 
 Soil. — Through its products, soil may be an agent in the transmis- 
 sion of infections because of the contamination which itmaytmdergo 
 whether by man or animal. Though most disease germs excreted 
 by man die in a few days, some survive for a longer period. Certain 
 bacteria which animals pass may live in the soil indefinitely, e.g., 
 
CAMP DISEASES 1 63 
 
 those causing tetanus and anthrax; others normally exist in the soil, 
 e.g., b. cedematis maligni. The tetanus bacillus is often found in 
 the excrement of horses and cattle, and is common in the soU of 
 warm countries. Anthrax bacilli may mtiltiply in the soil and earth- 
 worms may bring its spores to the surface from buried carcasses 
 through five feet of earth. Several other species that are pathogenic 
 to man also multiply in the earth. In the European war tetanus 
 and gas gangrene have been common complications of wounds, for 
 the reason that in trench warfare, men's clothing and skin have 
 been fouled with earth, and germs, and these have been carried into 
 the wounds. 
 
 Air. — Air may transmit germs as these minute creatures are practi- 
 cally always attached to particles of dust and to droplets of fluid ex- 
 pelled from the nose or mouth. Since pathogenic bacteria are soon 
 destroyed by air and sunlight, dust is a means of transmission 9nly 
 under exceptional circumstances. Though bacteria are not found 
 as a rule in expired air, infected rriaterial may be propelled into the 
 air several feet in droplets, whether by speaking, sneezing, coughing, 
 etc., so that a carrier may thus be a menace to his companions. 
 People living in close contact, as in crowded and unventilated rooms, 
 tents, etc., are especially exposed to infection in this manner. The 
 diseases most commonly transmitted by droplets are measles, scarlet 
 fever, influenza, diphtheria, tonsillitis, pneumonia and poliomyelitis. 
 
 Insects. — Certain diseases can be transmitted from man to man 
 only through an alternative insect host, in whose bodies the parasites 
 develop a different phase of their respective life cycles. Such diseases 
 are malaria, yellow fever, dengue and elephantiasis, transmitted by 
 mosquitoes. Rocky mountain spotted fever, Texas fever and West 
 African relapsing fever are transmitted by ticks. It is yet undecided 
 whether the parasites causing some diseases, e.g., typhus, may not 
 undergo certain changes in the body of the insect transmitting them, 
 so that these are in fact alternative hosts and not mere mechanical 
 agents in transmission. Transmission by an insect host in which the 
 germ undergoes a distinct life cycle is called biological in contrast to 
 mechanical transmission, in which certain insects act merely as car- 
 riers of parasites from one person to another, and in whose bodies 
 no separate life cycle occurs. Mechanical transmission by insects 
 has been responsible for numerous epidemics, e.g., plague is thus 
 
164 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 transmitted by the flea; paratyphoid, typhoid, dysentery, (both 
 bacillary, and en tamebic), cholera, tuberculosis, glanders, contagious 
 ophthalmia, small pox and other exanthemata and skin infections, 
 erysipelas, etc., by the fly; European relapsing fever and perhaps 
 typhoid fever and plague by the bed bug; tjrphus fever by the head 
 louse, much more frequently by the body louse and probably by the 
 crab louse and possibly by the bed bug. Probably Asiatic and 
 Algerian relapsing fever are transmitted by hce. 
 
 Infection by parasites may occur through the skin or the respira- 
 tory, digestive, or genito-urinary systems. Since parasites are 
 numerous on the skin and clothing, they are frequently carried into 
 wounds where they may give rise to local or general infections. 
 They may penetrate into the air follicles and sweat glands, causing 
 boUs and carbuncles. They may be introduced by the bites of in- 
 sects or rubbed into a bite caused by an insect carrying germs. The 
 nose and upper air passages are the avenues of infection in diph- 
 theria, measles, scarlet fever, epidemic sore throat, etc. Through 
 the alimentary tract enter the germs of typhoid fever, dysentery, 
 etc. The tonsils are the port of entry of several general infections, 
 e.g., rheumatism. The greatest number of infections occur through 
 the nose and mouth. Venereal diseases are the most common in- 
 fections occurring through the genito-urinary tract. 
 
 Conditions of Infection. — Infection occurs only when four essential 
 conditions exist, viz., the host must be susceptible, the invading para- 
 sites must have sufficient virulence, their numbers must be adequate, 
 and they must enter by appropriate channels. Susceptibility varies 
 between individuals of the same race, and in the same individual from 
 time to time, for reasons mentioned above. Similarly, different 
 species of parasites vary greatly in their relative virulence, and in 
 a given species certain strains of individuals are much more virulent 
 than others. Virulence is increased by the passage of the parasites 
 through successive hosts favorable to their reception, a fact which 
 explains why the virulence of infection increases as an epidemic 
 develops. The parasites must be numerous enough to overcome 
 the power of resistance which the body is able to offer. A certain 
 number of parasites may not be able to cause infection which a larger 
 number of the same strain and virulence would effect. In this 
 respect their activity is comparable to a military attack, large 
 
CAMP DISEASES 165 
 
 numbers succeed where small numbers fail. The channel through 
 which infection occurs must be suitable. The germs of cholera 
 cause no abdominal symptoms when injected under the skin; they 
 must enter by the mouth. Gonococci do not set up infections in 
 the alimentary or respiratory tracts but only in the genito-urinary 
 tract or in the eyes. 
 
 When parasites give rise to infection they multiply rapidly, and 
 produce poisons known as toxins. The chemical composition of 
 these varies widely. Each variety develops its own type of toxins. 
 They cause the body cells of the host to develop anti-bodies which are 
 antagonistic to the harmful action of the bacteria. The character- 
 istic symptoms of the disease are caused by the poisons which the 
 parasites develop and by the anti-bodies produced by their diffusion. 
 The course of infections presents the following periods or stages: 
 (i) Incubation, which begins at the time of infection and lasts from 
 a few hours to several weeks or months, until the first symptoms 
 appear. It is during this stage that the invading parasites are mul- 
 tiplying in the body. (2) The prodromal period which follows this, 
 presents general, definite, symptoms such as muscular weakness, 
 headache, chills, slight fever, etc., due both to the poisons of the 
 parasites and their effects on the tissues of the body. (3) The 
 period of acute symptoms, which is characterized by the typical 
 symptoms of the disease. It is at this time that the parasites reach 
 the maximum of their activity and toxins and antitoxins are pro- 
 duced in greatest quantity. (4) Periods of decline and convales- 
 cence, during which the bacteria are destroyed, and their toxins 
 eliminated. A fatal result ensues when the defences of the body are 
 overcome by the destructive effects of the parasite. 
 
 Immunity. — ^The body possesses several defenses against infec- 
 tion. The first of these is mechanical, and is afforded by the skin 
 and mucous membranes. The second is that afforded by the 
 secretions from the latter, which act, both chemically to destroy 
 parasites, as does the gastric juice, or mechanically, to wash them 
 away. In addition to these there are the defenses which the blood 
 normally possesses or which the body develops when it is invaded. 
 These defenses against infection constitute the condition known as 
 immunity. If parasites enter the body, they may be destroyed by 
 normal blood serum or by the white cells in the blood. If these 
 
1 66 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 fail, the body develops anti-bodies. Some of these destroy the 
 parasites, others render them inert, so that they may be destroyed 
 more readily by the white cells in the blood, and yet others neu- 
 tralize the bacterial toxins. The essential reasons of immunity 
 are not yet fuUy understood. The mechanism varies with different 
 infections and at different stages of the same infection. 
 
 Immunity may be natural or acquired. The former exists when 
 the parasite is unable to grow in the body, e.g., the immunity of the 
 lower animals to typhoid fever. This form of immunity is hereditary. 
 Acquired immunity is that due to antitoxins which the body pro- 
 duces when invaded — not to substances already present in the 
 blood, as in natural immunity. It is not hereditary. Two forms 
 are recognized, active and passive. The former is produced by the 
 individual as a result of a previous attack of a certain disease, the 
 latter as the result of an artificial inoculation, in order to prevent 
 infection. An example of the former is the immunity following an 
 attack of typhoid fever, the latter, the immunity developed after 
 injections of t5T)hoid prophylactic. The former usually lasts 
 through life, the latter for about 3 years. Passive immunity 
 follows the injection of antitoxins developed by another animal. 
 An illustration is that following the injection of anti-diphtheria 
 serum. This is drawn from a horse which has been immunized by 
 the injection of increasing doses of the diphtheria bacillus. 
 
 Disease germs leave the body by the following routes: 
 
 1. In the secretions from the nose and mouth, as in tuber- 
 culosis, influenza, etc. 
 
 2. The discharges from the bowel, as in t3fphoid fever, cholera and 
 dysentery. 
 
 3. The skin, as in boils, syphilis, leprosy. 
 
 4. The urinary tract, as in typhoid fever. 
 
 5. The blood, by the bites of suctorial insects, as in malaria, 
 t3rphus and yellow fever. 
 
 FILTH DISEASES 
 
 Typhoid Fever. — The most important diseases transmitted by 
 dejecta, are t3^hoid and paratyphoid fevers, dysentery and cholera. 
 These are ts^pical excrement -borne diseases. They are also trans- 
 mitted by contact, water, food and flies. Epidemics of them are 
 
CAMP DISEASES 167 
 
 especially prone to occur in armies, since some of the troops are 
 carriers. Recruits who harbor the parasites^, are constantly joining, 
 and the men are so closely associated that contact infection is greatly 
 facilitated. Typhoid fever is the most common filth disease, and 
 was the most formidable infection inthe military service before the 
 introduction of specific prophylaxis. It is common in civil life, and 
 was frequently introduced into the army from that source, either 
 through newly enlisted carriers or through recruits joining in the 
 incubation stage of the disease. It is reasonable to assume that 
 of every 1000 recruits 3 are carriers and one or more others in the 
 incubation stage. Its symptoms are often misleading, for they may 
 be similar to those of a simple diarrhea, gastro-enteritis, malaria or 
 a mild malaise, and this fact prevents prompt isolation. The para- 
 site enters the body through the mouth and leaves it in the bowel 
 discharges, urine, and in about one-fourth of the cases in the 
 sweat and sputum. Usually it does not live more than two days 
 outside the body. In fecal matter it lives for two or three days if 
 not exposed to the sun in clean dry soil, and from three to four 
 days in soil polluted with organic matter and saprophytes are 
 present. In water it disappears in from three days to two weeks 
 but may live in ice for months without loss of virulence. It 
 multiplies rapidly in milk without changing taste or appearance, 
 and survives in milk products of which the most dangerous is ice 
 cream. It multiplies in some soft drinks sold by camp followers. 
 The disease is transmitted by contact in probably 60 per cent, of 
 the cases. The transfer sometimes occurs in dry fecal matter or 
 urine on the hands, body or clothing of the carrier or of a patient 
 in the incubation stage. This matter niay be transmitted directly, 
 or through the medium of some objects which the carrier has touched. 
 Of the 20,000 cases which developed in the army during the Spanish 
 American war among 107,000 troops in camp, the greatest number 
 were caused by contact. Many patients continue to excrete the 
 bacilli in both feces and urine after convalescence, about 4 per cent, 
 excrete it ten weeks after the end of the fever and .2 or 3 per cent, for 
 a year afterward. Most of these carriers discharge the germ for 
 years and some throughout life. Other carriers, who number about 
 three per thousand of our adults, excrete the bacteria for years or 
 for life,, though they give no history of having had the disease. 
 
1 68 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 although probably, at some time they have had a mild attack. The 
 parasites may be discharged intermittently. Those excreted in 
 the feces come from idcers in the gall-bladder, and those in the 
 urine from ulcers in the urinary bladder. Because of the percent- 
 ages of carriers and patients in the incubation stage, all dejecta 
 must be considered infective. 
 
 Carriers who handle the food supplies are the most serious menace 
 in a company. Flies may carry germs on their feet or proboscides 
 or in their digestive organs from latrines to the kitchen and dining 
 rooms. Contaminated drinking water causes 35 per cent, of the 
 total cases of typhoid fever in civil life. Before the water supply 
 was so carefully selected and purified the percentage was much 
 higher. 
 
 For similar reasons water-borne typhoid became less common in 
 fixed camps, before the introduction of prophylactic. The danger 
 of infection by polluted ice becomes less the longer the ice is in stor- 
 age. At the end of 4 months the danger is almost negligible and at 
 the end of 6 months, quite so. 
 
 Food infection is not uncommon. Milk or its products are the 
 most common agents of transmission of this class. Fresh vegetables 
 eaten uncooked, e.g., radishes, lettuce, etc., if grown on polluted 
 ground or washed in polluted water may cause the disease. Oysters 
 or other shell fish grown or washed in polluted water have occasioned 
 small epidemics. Infection of a body of men may follow uncon- 
 scious contamination of food by a cook who is infected. 
 
 Soil infection follows its contamination with urine or feces. The 
 former is especially dangerous as urine is relatively innocuous. 
 From such soU bacteria may be washed into drinking water or scat- 
 tered by flies and dust. 
 
 Prevention of typhoid fever is effected by measures applicable 
 to other infections of the alimentary tract. Water supplies 
 should be protected. If they become contaminated they should 
 be purified. Milk and food products should be supervised 
 carefully and inspected frequently. Food should be protected 
 from contamination by flies, dirt, soiled hands, etc. Cases of ty- 
 phoid fever should be isolated and regulations enforced covering 
 the disinfection of stools and urine, scalding of milk bottles, scrub- 
 bing and washing of hands by attendants, etc. Carriers should not 
 
CAMP DISEASES 1 69 
 
 be, permitted to assist in preparation or service of food or employed 
 in vocations where close contact is involved. Personal cleanliness 
 should be enforced among troops. Excreta should be disposed of 
 properly and effectively. Protective inoculation should be prac- 
 tised. This is given immediately after entering the service to all 
 persons except those over 45 years of age and those who have had a 
 previous attack of typhoid fever, or who have been immunized 
 within three years. The fact that either of the last two exemptions 
 is applicable in a given case is determined by the responsible medical 
 officer. He should not accept the statement of the person exempted, 
 unless supported by official records. 
 
 Officers under 45 years are immunized every 5 years, and en- 
 listed men on the first enlistment following the original course of 
 administration. Except when directed by the War Department 
 only two complete courses of immunization are required during 
 service in the Army. 
 
 "Recruits will be immunized at places of enlistment, unless, be- 
 cause of special assignment or other reason, the men are not to re- 
 main at the station long enough to allow the completion of the course, 
 in which event the immunization will be completed immediately 
 after they join the organizations or stations to which assigned. On 
 the descriptive and assignment card of every recruit or reenlisted 
 man wiU be noted "Typhoid immunization completed . . . 
 (date) ..." or "Typhoid immunization not administered," as 
 the case may be. In the latter case, company and detachment 
 commanders will see that the immunization is begun immediately 
 after the men join the organizations or stations to which assigned. 
 In every case in which immunization has been completed, the 
 remark "T3^hoid immunization completed . . . (date) ..." 
 will be entered on the soldier's descriptive list. 
 
 " Civilian employees who are subject to field service of any kind, 
 including those on transports and in the mine planter service, will 
 be immunized as soon as employed. Officers under whom such 
 employees are working will enforce this order. 
 
 " The typhoid prophylactic to be used is manufactured exclusively 
 at the Army Medical School, Washington, D. C, and detailed di- 
 rections for its use are given in circulars from the Surgeon General's 
 Office. Records will be kept at the hospital, of all officers, soldiers, 
 
170 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 and civilians in the military service who receive the anti-typhoid 
 prophylactic, giving the dates of immunization. (Par. i. G. 0. 4, 
 1915 — 2240717, A. G. 0., as amended by Par. IV, G. O. 23, 
 191 S — 2273630, A. G. O.) Civilian camp followers and civilian 
 employees, especially cooks, should be immunized immediately 
 after employment. Paratyphoid fevers are similarly controlled. 
 
 " The prophylactic prepared by the Army Medical School con- 
 tains 1,000,000 killed typhoid bacteria and 750,000 each of para- 
 typhoid A and B per c.c. It is injected by a hypodermic syringe 
 at from 7 to 14-day intervals, J^ c.c. at the first injection, i c.c. at 
 the second and third. - The skin is painted with iodine at the point 
 of injection, before and after injection. UsuaEy there is no reac- 
 tion, excepting a- slight redness and tenderness at the point of 
 puncture, but slight headache, malaise and moderate fever develops 
 in a few cases. As a result of this immunization, and improved 
 sanitary measures in general, typhoid fever has now almost dis- 
 appeared from the U. S. Army." Similar precautions are to be 
 taken against paratyphoid fever. 
 
 Cholera. — Asiatic cholera has invaded the United States on 
 several occasions, and on several others has been arrested at 
 quarantine. It has been imported into the Philippine Islands twice 
 since the American occupation. During the present war it has 
 caused serious losses to the armies in the Eastern war zone, and in 
 the civilian populations of Russia and Austria. The disease is 
 carried by man from place to place. The parasite enters the body 
 only by the mouth, and leaves it chiefly by the feces. It is very deli- 
 cate, is quickly killed by sunlight, drying, or by a relatively low 
 degree of heat. It can withstand freezing only for short periods, 
 nor can it survive in an acid medium. Some persons who ingest it 
 do not develop cholera as the parasites are destroyed by the acid 
 gastric juice. Deranged digestion, especially that following the 
 use of alcohol, predisposes to infection. Raw fruits,, crude fibrous 
 vegetables and other fermentative or irritative food seem to favor 
 the growth of the parasite in the intestinal tract. 
 
 In communities, camps, etc., it is spread in much the same manner 
 as typhoid fever, viz., by contact and indirect infection through 
 water, food and flies. Unrecognized, mild cases and convalescent 
 carriers are important agents in its spread. Healthy carriers are 
 probably more common than in typhoid. In Manila six per cent. 
 
CAMP DISEASES 171 
 
 of the healthy people in infected districts were found to be carriers. 
 Preventive public measures should be along the same lines as those 
 used to prevent typhoid fever. Particular attention should be 
 given to removal of carriers, to the preparation and service of food 
 by non-carriers, and to its protection from flies. Water should be 
 boiled, all food taken thoroughly cooked, and table ware boiled after 
 using. Facilities for washing hands in 2 per cent, phenol should be 
 provided at latrines in the presence of epidemics. Protective 
 inoculation has been practised in India, Japan and the Eastern 
 theatre of the war. The prophylactic now used is similar to that 
 employed against typhoid fever, but the period of immunity is 
 shorter. Some authorities place it at one year, but in the Austrian 
 service it is believed to be much less and is considered to be relatively 
 absolute for 3 months only. 
 
 Dysentery. — Two important varieties of dysentery are recognized, 
 the bacillary and entamebic. The former is caused by the b. 
 dysenteriae. Of this organism at least two varieties are recog- 
 nized, the Shiga and Flexner types, but there appear to be 
 several other closely related parasites which may cause similar 
 symptoms. The disease is of world wide distribution and has been 
 very fatal in armies. Prior to the present war Osier stated it had 
 destroyed more soldiers than powder and shot. 
 
 Infection takes place by the mouth and bacilli leave the body only 
 in the stools. In the latter respect it differs from typhoid. Its mode 
 of distribution is similar to that of typhoid fever. Flies played an 
 important r61e in its dissemination in the Punitive Expedition. In 
 South Africa, Mexico, and in the western war zone, dust may have 
 been an important factor in its spread. 
 
 Carriers and mild convalescent and mild acute cases are im- 
 portant agents in its dissemination. Water-borne epidemics are 
 not uncommon. Overcrowding and lack of cleanliness facilitate 
 its spread. 
 
 Entamebic dysentery is found in all climates but is most com- 
 mon in the tropics. It is caused by the entameba histolytica, a 
 protozoan animal parasite. The disease is usually chronic with 
 intervals of improvement and relapses. Under conditions adverse 
 to its growth, this parasite forms spores (cysts) which will produce 
 the disease if ingested. 
 
172 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 Its methods of transnussion are similar to those of the bacillus 
 of dysentery. As its spores are more resistant than the bacteria of 
 dysentery, it is believed that it may be transmitted more commonly 
 by dust than is the b. dysenteriae, but in this way much more 
 rarely than by flies, contact, etc. 
 
 Prevention: The measures to prevent dysentery are similar to 
 those for the prevention of typhoid fever. It is believed that the 
 bacillus of dysentery often -will not cause the disease if the digestive 
 tract be normal, but aggravates any disturbance of it, such as that 
 caused by exposure to cold and wet, by errors in diet, etc. An 
 attack of diarrhea appears to have a potent predisposing in- 
 fluence. In the presence of an epidemic great care should be 
 exercised in eating uncooked food. Lettiice, etc., should be im- 
 mersed for yi hour in a 0.5 per cent, solution of hydrochloric acid. 
 When diarrheal diseases become prevalent in camp, all food should 
 be cooked. The mortality varies from 6 to 30 per cent. 
 
 One attack of baciUary dysentery produces a certain degree of 
 immunity. This however is not absolute, as one person may have 
 2 or 3 attacks in a season. There is no immunity against entamebic 
 dysentery. 
 
 Protective inoculation against dysentery has proven unsatis- 
 factory, since the human body does not produce anti-bodies against 
 it, with much certainty or in large quantities. Horses may be im- 
 munized however to a high degree, and the serum of immunized 
 animals is therefore used in the treatment of the disease. 
 
 INSECT-BORNE DISEASE 
 
 The dissemination of disease by insects has been suspected for 
 centuries but was not proven until Theobald Smith in 1893 showed 
 that Texas cattle fever is disseminated by the tick. Several genera 
 of insects convey infections and have caused fatal epidemics. 
 Bubonic plague, popularly known as "the black death" carried off 
 one-quarter of the population of Europe in the 14th Century, malaria 
 has rendered uninhabitable some of the most fertile regions of the 
 earth and is believed to have precipitated the fall of Grecian civiliza- 
 tion, yellow fever has scourged tropical and subtropical America, 
 and southwest Europe, and typhus fever has decimated numerous 
 armies. 
 
CAMP DISEASES 1 73 
 
 Biological as contrasted to mechanical transmission has been 
 mentioned in an earlier part of the chapter. In this former the 
 parasite is presumably a protozoan, in the latter it is almost always 
 a bacterium. In general, insect hosts are not harmed by the 
 parasites they transmit. 
 
 Insects transfer infections in several ways: The mouth -parts, 
 legs or bodies may be smeared with the virus or it may remain at- 
 tached to the insect's proboscis, or be contained in the dejecta, or 
 in the digestive tract and spread when the insect is crushed. As a 
 rule only one species or at most a single genus transmits a particular 
 disease biologically. Malaria is confined to anopheles, sleeping 
 sickness to glossina palpalis, etc. 
 
 The virus of some diseases may be transmitted from insects to 
 their progeny. So far as known this occurs only in insects having 
 an incomplete metamorphosis, as the ticks. Many insect-borne 
 diseases are place diseases, because the insects that carry them 
 abound only in certain localities. 
 
 In some diseases a period of incubation in the insect is necessary, 
 during which the parasite develops. 
 
 The most common insect carriers are the mosquito, the common 
 fly, the flea and the louse. Less common are ticks, sand flies, and 
 bed bugs 
 
 Mosquitoes. — Several varieties of mosquitoes transmit disease. 
 Malaria is transmitted by Anopheles, yellow fever by Stegomyia, 
 now called ^Edes, and dengue and elephantiasis by the Culex. The 
 genera of mosquitoes differ greatly in their habits. The Stegomyia 
 and Culex breed about houses, frequently in artificial collections of 
 water, the Anopheles in swamps and terrestrial waters only, as a rule. 
 The flight of the latter is about half a mile, but they may be carried 
 six miles or more by winds. They are soon killed by strong direct 
 sunlight, and by storms. Both sexes subsist on vegetable matter, but 
 the female of certain species requires a meal of blood from man or 
 animals for the fuU development of the eggs. These insects lay 
 their eggs on the surface of still water. In a day or two these 
 hatch into larvae and these, in turn, in about a week or 8 days into 
 pupae. The mature insect emerges from the pupa case in 2 or 3 days. 
 The full period of development from the eggs to the adult mosquito 
 is from 9 days to 3 or (rarely) 4 weeks, depending on the species. 
 
174 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 climate and especially the temperature. A high temperature 
 expedites development. 
 
 Some varieties of mosquitoes may live throughout the year and 
 have been seen alive and active in Montana in January. As a rule 
 the family is preserved in cold climates from year to year by the 
 insects which hibernate, in barns, brush, tail grass, etc., and by the 
 eggs and larvae of stronger species. 
 
 Forty-nine species of Anopheles are known to transmit malaria, 
 but some other species of this genus are unable to act as hosts. 
 Some species can act as hosts only for a certain species of the Plas- 
 modium — but can not become infected with others. The Anopheles 
 quadrimaculatus can convey only the parasites of tertian and 
 quartan malaria, the Anopheles crucians only that of aestivo- 
 autumnal fever. 
 
 Malaria is one of the most widespread of preventable diseases. 
 It is particularly prevalent in the tropics where it often has a 
 malignant form with high mortality. It has ravaged the southern 
 states of the Union and is believed to have been the cause of the 
 failure of early attempts at colonization in Virginia. The mosquito 
 becomes infected by sucking the blood of persons harboring the 
 malarial parasites. In the course of twelve days the parasites have 
 multiplied in the wall of the insect's stomach and entered the salivary 
 glands. They are discharged into the victim's tissues by the act of 
 stinging and find their way into the red blood cells, where they grow 
 and develop. The infected person usually does not develop 
 symptoms for a week. 
 
 Mosquitoes are exterminated most thoroughly and cheaply by 
 destroying their breeding places. This is effected by the drainage 
 or filling in the pools and swamps and protection or destruction 
 of artificial collections of water in which they breed. When 
 drainage and filling in are not practicable, oil or larvacide may be 
 employed. Oil forms a film on the water which prevents the larvae 
 and pupae from reaching the air, as a result of which they die in 
 about an hour. The best oil for this purpose is an intermediate 
 grade between the illuminating and heavier crude oils. This spreads 
 fairly rapidly, does not cost as much nor evaporate as quickly as 
 kerosene, and gives a visible oil film. The thicker oils do not 
 
CAMP DISEASES 1 75 
 
 spread as well, and for amount of surface are more expensive though 
 they cost less per barrel. 
 
 Oiling is applicable to the water surfaces of pools, ditches, streams, 
 shallow lagoons, edges of deep ponds, lakes and rivers and large 
 containers, which it does not pay to cover with net. More oil is 
 needed where vegetation grows in the water as this obstructs the 
 formation of a complete film. An oil film will not penetrate a 
 barrier of grass or move around it. In many waters obstructions 
 such as sticks and stones may interfere with its uniform spread. 
 
 The quantity of oil needed for a given area can not be stated be- 
 cause of the obstructions that it must overcome, temperature, etc. 
 All oils spread better in warm weather. The facility with which 
 a given commercial quality wih spread varies greatly. 
 
 Oil may be applied by several appliances, (i) A watering pot 
 is useful for small pools. (2) A knapsack sprayer, which is operated 
 by a pump and will throw a dirigible jet 20 feet. (3) A spraying 
 pump installed in a small flat bottomed boat, to oil the center of 
 lagoons, etc. (4) A drip can holding from 5 to 30 gallons for inter- 
 mittent or continuous application. Usually 10 to 20 drops per 
 minute for i foot breadth of the ditch will be enough to form a con- 
 tinuous film. The can is elevated 3 or 4 feet above the ditch so that 
 the drops will break on impact. In many cases the drip need be 
 operated continuously for only one or two days each week. On 
 long ditches several cans should be used, at appropriate intervals. 
 Though, drip cans are more economical than other methods of appli- 
 cation they tend, to clog, and require frequent attention. The flow 
 is regulated by one of several methods. The simplest is to drive a 
 nail surrounded by cotton into the bottom of the can. The flow 
 is regulated by the tightness with which the naU head holds the 
 cotton against the can. A better plan is to insert a compressible 
 flat tube about 3 inches above the bottom of the can and inserting 
 into this a lamp wick. Two inches of water are then placed in the 
 can and the vessel is filled with oil. Flow of fluid is regulated by 
 compressing the tube. (5) A small bundle of cotton waste, soaked 
 in oil, is used when the quantity of water is too small to justify the 
 use of an oil can. 
 
 "Larvacide" was used on the. Panama Canal Zone for destruc- 
 tion of larvae where there was much aquatic vegetation. It was 
 
176 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 made as follows: One hundred and fifty gallons of crude carbolic 
 acid containing not less than 15 per cent, of phenols were heated in 
 an iron tank having a steam coil with steam at 50 pounds pressure; 
 200 pounds of finely crushed and sifted common rosin were dissolved 
 in the boiling acid, and then 30 pounds of caustic soda dissolved 
 in 6 gallons of water were added. There was a mechanical stirring 
 rod attached to the mixing tank. The product was ready in a few 
 minutes, yielding about 3)4 barrels. As a mosquito larvacide it 
 was used by spraying an aqueous emulsion (one part of larvacide 
 to five of water) over the surface to be treated and along the margin 
 of pools and ponds or other mosquito-breeding places, so that the 
 resulting dilution of the larvacide had a thin, mUky opalescence 
 representing approximately a dilution of i to 5000. A i to 1000 
 dilution killed the larvae more rapidly, and was used for destruction 
 of larvae in overflowing pools, etc., and where the use of oil was not 
 practicable. 
 
 Underbrush and high grass in which insects find refuge should be 
 destroyed. 
 
 Mosquitoes should be destroyed in the buildings in cantonments 
 and fixed camps. This is done by a search for them with a flash 
 light and killing them by "swatters'' or the use of a wide-mouthed 
 bottle containing chloroform in cotton. If a dark band be painted 
 on the wall the insects will usually light on it, and will be found very 
 easily. Cantonments should be screened with a net of not less than 
 16 strands to the inch. This should be as far as possible, of copper 
 though s to 10 per cent, of zinc are permissible. A good, inex- 
 pensive screening consists of 65.75 per cent, copper, 34 per cent, 
 zinc and r per cent. iron. The less iron the better. In the field 
 as a protection against malaria individual mosquito bars, head nets 
 and gloves should be used. This is the best single prophylactic 
 measure that is then available except the daily administration of 
 quinine. 
 
 Prevention of malaria by the use of quinine has given good results. 
 Authorities differ in the dosage that should be used. Celli's 
 method, using a dose of 6 grains of quinine daily has given excellent 
 results in the Italian army. It shoiild be given to all troops in 
 malarious regions daily at retreat. If daily dosage is not practi- 
 cable IS grains should be given every other day. 
 
CAMP DISEASES 177 
 
 Many persons in malarious regions who appear perfectly healthy, 
 harbor the parasites of this disease and are therefore foci of infec- 
 tion. The proportion of such carriers varies widely in di£Eerent 
 districts. An average of the data collected by Craig shows that* 
 about one- third of the children and one-fourth 6f the adults in malari- 
 ous regions are carriers. These persons have at least one parasite 
 in the blood to each 500 white blood corpuscles. They should re- 
 ceive 30 grains of quinine daily until the plasmodia have disappeared 
 from the blood, then daily doses of 15 grains for two weeks, then 
 10 grains daily for two weeks, then the usual prophylactic dose 
 f pr at least 2 months. Acute cases should be protected from the bites 
 of insects by screened rooms or mosquito bars and receive systematic 
 treatment. 
 
 Yellow Fever. — Until recent years yellow fever was constantly 
 present in Havana, Vera Cruz, Panama, and other Spanish American 
 ports. They were foci from which epidemics spread to tropical and 
 subtropical ports on both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of America, 
 as far north as Boston, to the west coast of Africa and to the southwest 
 coast of Europe. It has been a scourge of the American continent 
 until Major Walter Reed, U. S. A., and his collaborators demon- 
 strated that the disease was caused by the bite of infected mos- 
 quitoes. The officers showed that the mosquito is infected by biting 
 a yellow fever patient during the first 3 days of the disease, and 
 after about 12 days. will convey the disease to the persons whom 
 it bites. These then develop the disease in from 3 to s days, this 
 being the period of incubation. The yellow fever mosquito, 
 (.iEdes calopus) has a wide area of distribution, ranging from 40° 
 north latitude to about 40° south. It is found in China and Japan, 
 the East and West Indies, the Philippines and the Hawaiian Islands, 
 The insect breeds as a rule in artificial collections of water, is usually 
 found near dwellings and has a short radius of flight, probably not 
 over 7S yards. It will not travel even a short distance over water 
 so that a vessel moored 1200 yards from shore is entirely safe from 
 its unaided approach. 
 
 There is no natural immunity to yellow fever but an attack con- 
 fers immunity which lasts throughout life. Many persons living 
 in districts where it is endemic have mild and unrecognized attacks 
 in childhood which give them life long immunity. It is these mild 
 12 
 
178 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 cases which are not recognized as yellow fever, which facilitate the 
 spread of the disease, for they are unrecognized and are not pro- 
 tected from the bites of mosquitoes. 
 
 Prevention of this disease may be accomplished by: (i) the 
 protection of all known and suspected cases from the bites of 
 mosquitoes; (2) protection of healthy people from the bites of 
 mosquitoes; (3) destruction of adult insects and (4) control of their 
 breeding places. Patients should be isolated in compartments 
 screened with a mesh of at least 18 strands to the inch. A mesh of 
 16 strands is usually adequate but not invariably so, as the Mdes 
 is a small mosquito. Houses in infected localities shovdd be pro- 
 tected in the same manner. As soon as a patient is removed from 
 his room and before mosquitoes have a chance to escape it should be 
 disinfected with sulphur dioxid 2 lb. per 1000 ft. Breeding is con- 
 trolled by screening or oiling tanks, cisterns, etc., and eliminating 
 standing water in and about households. 
 
 The prevention of yellow fever is much simpler than is that of 
 malaria, for the .^des does not fly far and its breeding habits are 
 easily controlled. Further, a patient is infective only in the first 
 3 days of the disease and thereafter is immune — ^is not a carrier. 
 
 Dengue. — Dengue, or breakbone fever, is an acute disease, occur- 
 ring in epidemic form in tropical and subtropical countries. It is 
 characterized by severe pains in the muscles and joints and by an 
 eruption similar to that of measles. It rarely ends fatally, but is 
 sometimes followed by a protracted period of debility. 
 
 The disease is constantly present at the beginning of the rainy 
 season in the Philippines. Epidemics have occurred along the 
 Mexican border, but not in very recent years. It is important 
 that the disease be differentiated from yellow fever with which the 
 early cases of an epidemic have sometimes been confounded. 
 The cause of the disease has never been identified. It is trans- 
 mitted by the Culex fatigans, a mosquito common throughout most 
 tropical and subtropical regions, and by the JEdes calopus. 
 
 Preventive measures are the destruction of the breeding places 
 of mosquitoes, the protection of patients from their bites, screening 
 of houses, etc. The culex mosquitoes breed at a distance from 
 houses, as well as in their vicinity, and have a strong flight. The 
 
CAMP DISEASES 179 
 
 measures used must be carried further afield than those for destruc- 
 tion of the yellow fever mosquito. 
 
 Flies. — Household flies are found in practically all parts of the 
 world, except the coldest regions. They are 99 per cent, of the flies 
 caught in houses. In summer camps they abound, unless measures 
 be taken to prevent their breeding. They are especially abundant 
 in cattle and horse raising countries. In some localities they are 
 replaced in a whole or in part by other similar species which have a 
 comparable effect however in transmitting diseases. Eggs are laid 
 preferably in horse manure, but also in human excreta, manure of 
 pigs and other animals, decaying animal or vegetable matter, 
 especially if soiled with excreta, kitchen refuse, etc., and polluted 
 soil. About 120 eggs are laid at one time. Several insects usually 
 deposit their eggs in the same spot, so that they appear in small 
 irregvdar clusters, from K to 1 inch in diameter. The eggs hatch 
 in from 8 to 24 hours and the maggots which emerge reach their full 
 size (about J^ inch long) in about 4 days. Prior to this they have 
 kept bdow the surface feeding on the organic matter but now they 
 migrate to find a suitable place for the pupal stage. This is usually 
 the edge of the manure pile, or near it on the ground. The pupa is 
 nearly cylindrical, from yellowish to dark brown in color. This 
 stage lasts from 5 to 10 days. The total time from laying eggs 
 to emergence of the adult fly is from 8 to 15 days, usually 10 
 days. In cold or dry weather it may be many months. As 
 a rule flies lay Only once or twice but six or seven generations 
 may develop during a summer. The species is perpetuated over 
 cold weather by the impregnated females and pupae who have 
 found shelter. Maggots scattered with manure may be destroyed 
 by dryness. Flies transmit disease by conveying germs on their 
 feet or other parts of the body, by vomiting liquids from their crops 
 or by voided intestinal contents in fly specks. Each fly has about 
 a million germs on its body but as a rule these die in a few hours. 
 Disease carrying germs may live several days in the crops and even 
 longer in the bowels of these insects, yet retain their full virulence 
 when discharged. As a fly consumes about its own weight of food 
 daily and defecates every few minutes, its chief danger is through 
 the fly specks it leaves. It is a common agent in the transmission 
 of cholera, typhoid and parats^phoid fever, dysentery, and other 
 
l8o FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 diarrheal diseases. It is also said to transmit the germs of tuber- 
 culosis, yaws, trachoma, plague, smaU pox, leprosy, anthrax, oph- 
 thalmia, erysipelas, tropical sore and the eggs of parasitic worms. 
 
 Frequently it is accused of transmitting diseases without adequate 
 proof, and some authorities believe that its importance in this 
 role has been overestimated. But that flies are important agents in 
 the spread of a number of diseases, especially those affecting the 
 alimentary tract is quite beyond doubt. 
 
 The influence flies exert in the transmission of disease is con- 
 trolled by (i) destruction of the insects breeding places, {2) destruc- 
 tion of adults and (3) prevention of their obtaining access to food. 
 The methods by which these ends are accomplished are discussed 
 in the chapter on camps. 
 
 Diarrhea. — Diarrhea and dysentery may, in war, cause more 
 deaths than typhoid fever. They increase in severity usually as 
 war progresses. They caused 57.265 deaths in the federal armies 
 during the Civil War corresponding to a yearly mortality of 17 per 
 1000 or one death out of every 3.5 deaths from all sickness. 
 
 Simple diarrhea may follow the use of indigestible, unwholesome 
 or excessive food. It is prevalent among newly raised troops when 
 cooks do not understand field cooking. Also it is caused by fer- 
 mentation or putrefactive organisms. Attacks are precipitated 
 by exposure to inclement weather, by damp soil and breathing foul 
 air, all of which probably act by lowering bodily resistance. It may 
 be caused by changes from a soft to hard water, by inorganic im- 
 purities in water, such as the calcium or magnesium salts, or by 
 diet or by bacteria. 
 
 Those parasites most frequently indicted are mentioned in 
 an earlier part of this chapter. Most epidemics of diarrhea 
 are of an infectious character and are spread by flies, contact, etc. 
 In camps, especially, diarrhea often is contagious and is spread in 
 the same manner as is typhoid fever. It appears that some of the 
 ordinary harmless bacteria in the intestinal canal may assume patho- 
 genic qualities when special conditions arise. 
 
 Many outbreaks of what was formerly known as "diarrhea" were 
 in all probability typhoid fever or more frequently some form of 
 dysentery. Outbreaks limited to companies or those subsisting at 
 a general mess are usually due to ptomaine poisoning. 
 
CAMP DISEASES l8l 
 
 Fleas.' — Fleas are important from a sanitary standpoint, because 
 of their agency in transmitting plague. The insects lay their eggs 
 in the hairs of their hosts, whence they fall freely to the ground. 
 Larvae emerge in from 3 to s days and in from s to 8 days more 
 metamorphosis is complete. Both the male and female are 
 capable of biting. 
 
 Over 300 species have been described. As a rule each species 
 prefers certan species of animals as hosts, but often attack others. 
 Plague is transmitted by the Indian rat flea (Sasmopsyllacheopis), 
 the common rat flea of Europe and America (CeratophyUus fascia- 
 tus) , the cat flea (Ctenocephalus felis) , the squirrel flea (CeratophyUus 
 acutis), the human flea (Pulex irritans), and probably by other genera 
 and species. It is stated but not yet proved, that they may also 
 act as agents in the spread of tj^hus fever. 
 
 Plague is primarily a disease of rats, and epidemics among human 
 beings are carried by extensions to them of epizootics of the disease 
 among rats. When a rat dies of this disease the fleas seek a new host 
 and thus spread the infection to other rats or to man. In this trans- 
 mission the flea's r61e is mechanical only. If its mouth parts are 
 infected its bite wiU cause the disease, or if its body be crushed and 
 the wound caused by its bite scratched, plague bacilli may be rubbed 
 into the woxmd. The bacillus pests can live 15 days in the alimen- 
 tary tract of a flea that has ingested infected blood. 
 
 Plague. — Plague is an acute disease, characterized by swelling 
 of the lymphatic glands (bubonic plague), hemorrhages into the 
 skin and mucous membranes, and, in some cases by pneumonia 
 (pneumonic plague). It has a high mortality. The pneumonic 
 form is especially fatal. Plague has caused more deaths than any 
 other epidemic disease except small pox. It is conveyed usually by 
 the rat flea but during the epidemic in San Francisco in 1907, the 
 common ground squirrel or gopher was found to be infected and 
 to be harboring fleas which transmitted it. 
 
 The pneumonic form of plague is also transmitted by contact and 
 by droplet infection. 
 
 The prevention of plague is effected chiefly by destroying rats, 
 for in their absence fleas do not spread the disease. The measures 
 for this purpose are removal of their food supplies, elimination of 
 their habitats, destroj^g them by natural enemies, traps, and 
 
l82 FIEIJ) HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 poisons. Since rats thrive on human food and garbage, all food 
 containers should be rat proof and organic waste destroyed. The 
 animals live and multiply in the walls and partitions of houses, 
 wharves, stables and outhouses, and in burrows under buildings. 
 The last mentioned are made rat proof by stopping the rat runs by 
 concrete or sheet iron. Wharves are protected from invasion by 
 rats from ships by rat guards on the ship's hawsers. Traps should be 
 placed along runways. The spring trap is far more economical 
 than is the cage trap. If food is abundant, trapping is relatively 
 futile. The bait should be different from the material that rats 
 can obtain otherwise where the trap is set. Baits for traps are 
 Vienna sausage, fried bacon, oatmeal, toasted cheese or toasted 
 buttered bread, fish, liver, raw meat, etc. 
 
 Poisoned baits in Manila proved lowest in efiSiciency but highest 
 in economy. Only seventy-two rats were killed for each 10,000 
 baits set. A favorite formula is a mixture of i pound of oatmeal, i 
 pound of coarse brown sugar and a spoonful of arsenic. Phospho- 
 rus may be used in proportion of 2 parts of yellow phosphorus to 
 98 of glucose. 
 
 Fleas in cantonments, etc., are destroyed by scattering flake 
 napthalin on the floors and closing doors and windows for 24 hours. 
 
 Protective inoculation against plague has been practised with 
 good results in India and in Manchuria. 
 
 Lice. — Lice are biting, blood sucking insects, parasitic on man and 
 warm blooded animds. The eggs are usually attached to the hair 
 of the host, or to the garments of man. They hatch in 10 or 15 
 days, and the insects moult 3 or 4 times before reaching maturity. 
 Several generations develop each year. They do not change hosts 
 so readily as some other parasitic insects. About 60 species exist 
 of which three are found on man: the head louse (Pediculus Capi- 
 tis or Humanus), the clothes or body louse (Pediculus Vestimenti 
 or Corporis), and the crab louse (Pediculus Pubis). The first men- 
 tioned is found in the hair of the head, the second especially on the 
 clothing and the third on the parts of the body covered with short 
 hairs, as the pubes, axillae and eye brows. The body louse and the 
 head louse are the agents in the transmission of tj^hus fever, possi- 
 bly also the crab louse. The duration of life on the body is not 
 known. The longest known period that they survive separation 
 
CAMP DISEASES 183 
 
 ( 
 
 from the host is 9 days. Eggs separated from the.body may remain 
 dormant 40 days. 
 
 Ninety -five per cent, of the men in the trenches examined by 
 Peacock, were found infested. Men in the bare trenches and in 
 dug outs were equally infested. 
 
 Usually there were twenty lice per man. Clean underclothing 
 becomes infested in half an hour. The main source of infestation is 
 the eggs on the clothing of the men themselves. Blankets are of 
 minor importance as harborers and centers of dissemination. The 
 sources of dissemination mentioned by Peacock are :( i ) living places, 
 dug outs, billets and bivouacs; (2) material, e.g., blankets, straw 
 and beds; (3) the soldier himself and his clothing and equipment. 
 It is believed that the insects transmit typhus fever mechanically 
 in the act of biting. The claim that a period of development in the 
 body oi the louse is necessary, has not been established. 
 
 Typhus Fever. — ^Typhus fever is an acute disease characterized 
 by great prostration, severe nervous symptoms and a peculiar skin 
 eruption. The duration of an attack is about two weeks. The 
 death rate varies from 10 to 50 per cent. The organism carr)dng the 
 disease is present in the blood throughout the febrile period and some- 
 times for 36 hours after the crisis. One attack usually confers im- 
 munity; mild types caused by attenuated virus have been described 
 under the name of BrUl's Disease and tabardillo. The disease has 
 occurred in widespread epidemics. It has been common among 
 those subjected to overcrowding, uncleanliness and general unhy- 
 gienic conditions. During the Crimean war it caused many fatalities 
 and during the present war has been especially prevalent in Servia. 
 Means of prevention are dbcussed in the chapter on Personal. 
 Hygiene. 
 
 DISEASES SPREAD BY DISCHARGES FROM THE NOSE AND 
 
 MOUTH 
 
 The principal affections spread by discharges from the nose and 
 mouth are tuberculosis, pneumonia, cerebro-spinal fever, diphtheria, 
 scarlet fever, measles, influenza, mumps and common colds. In all 
 these ailments, man, is the chief source of infection. Tuberculosis 
 however is also contracted through the mUk of infected cows. Di- 
 rect personal contact has a highly important r61e in the spread of 
 
184 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 these diseases. Droplet infection is common or the virus is conveyed 
 by towels, cups and other utensils and by carriers. In some cases 
 however, it is exceedingly difficult or impossible to trace the source 
 of infection. In the epidemic of pneumonia at Dublan, Mexico, 
 no two men contracting the disease slept in the same tent.' In the 
 epidemic of cerebro-spinal fever the El Paso district, no two cases 
 occurred in the same company. The avenue of infection is through 
 the nose and mouth. Shaw recommends such rules as the foEowing 
 to limit and contract the spread of diseases of this class. 
 
 Do not spit except in a handkerchief. 
 
 Do not allow nasal secretions to come into contact with anything 
 except a handkerchief. 
 
 Do not put the fingers into the mouth or nose. 
 
 Do not put anything into the mouth except food or drink. 
 
 Never cough or sneeze in the face of another. 
 
 Keep the hands scrupulously clean. Wash the hands with soap 
 and water immediately before eating. 
 
 Do not use a mutual towel or mutual drinking cup. 
 
 Tuberculosis, etc. — Tuberculosis is usually a chronic disease. It 
 is caused by the bacillus of that name and is transmitted most com- 
 monly by personal contact, either direct or indirect, by droplets of 
 sputum expelled in coughing or sneezing, by flies, water, and food, 
 especially milk. The organism is quite resistant to putrefactive 
 processes, and its diffusion by contaminated water should not be 
 disregarded. This is one of the most widespread of diseases, affect- 
 ing many domestic animals. It is the most universal and destruc- 
 tive diseases of man causing 10 per cent, of the total mortality of 
 the world. It is more common, generally Speaking, among civilized 
 than uncivilized peoples. SusceptibEity is enhanced by lack of 
 proper food and shelter, lack of air and sunlight, and other influ- 
 ences which depress vitality. 
 
 Practically 90 per cent, of children develop an attack before the 
 14th year, but usually this is so mild as to escape notice. A degree 
 of immunity results which protects most healthy adults against 
 another attack. Mild reinfection may take place throughout life 
 and has the effect of continuing the immunity. 
 
 Most persons harbor living tubercle bacilli which maintain the 
 individuals immunity, until his vitality is reduced. The bacilli 
 
uAMJ:' UlbJsASES 185 
 
 then become more active, are disseminated, and cause symptoms 
 of infection to appear. The most common form in adults is pul- 
 monary tubercidosis. 
 
 Preventive measures comprise those indicated by the rules given 
 above. The sputum of all patients should be destroyed, rooms and 
 articles recently used should be disinfected, and every effort made 
 to promote vitality, by fresh air, sunlight, food, sleep and exercise. 
 
 Pneumonia. — Pneumonia is caused by four varieties of related 
 organisms, some of which are found in the mouth of healthy persons. 
 The variety that causes the highest mortality is rarely found except 
 in cases of disease. 
 
 Pneumonia is the most common cause of death in the United 
 States Army. The disease occurs at aU ages, but is most prevalent 
 during the winter months. The mortality is from about 22 per 
 cent, for young adults to 40 per cent, or higher in young children 
 and the aged. Prevention consists in avoiding contact, either direct 
 or indirect, ventilation and avoidance of cold and wet or other de- 
 bilitating influences. 
 
 Cerebro -spinal Meningitis. — Cerebro-spinal meningitis may be 
 caused, by a number of parasites-^e.g., those of influenza, tubercu- 
 losis, and pneumonia, but, the name as commonly employed applies 
 to a disease caused by the diplococcus meningitidis. This organism 
 in time of epidemics is found in the secretions of the mouth and nose 
 of many normal persons. The disease is spread chiefly by healthy 
 carriers. Preventive measures are similar to those adopted in 
 pneiunonia. The inortality in different epidemics has been from 
 20 to 70 per cent., but has been notably reduced by antitoxic serum 
 (especially Flexner's) introduced into the spinal canal. 
 
 Diphtheria. — ^This is an acute disease characterized by patches 
 of false membrane usually in the throat or nose. It is caused by a 
 specific bacillus which may be foimd in the throats of healthy 
 persons. The disease is spread chiefly by mild cases and convales- 
 cents. Preventive measures include isolation of the patient until 
 laboratory examination reveals that he is free from the parasite, the 
 destruction of infected discharges, avoidance of contact and ad- 
 ministration of antitoxin. 
 
 Scarlet Fever. — This disease is attended with a skin eruption, 
 which is usually diffuse, but may appear only on the soles of the 
 
1 86 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 feet. Sore throat is another common symptom. It is transmitted 
 chiefly by carriers. Contagion takes place through the secretions 
 from the mouth and nose, and not through the desquamating skin. 
 Preventive measures are similar to those already indicated. 
 
 Measles. — Measles was the second most common cause of death 
 in the U. S. Army in the fiscal year 1915-1916. It is spread only 
 by discharge from the nose and throat. Apparently third parties 
 are not carriers. They become infective before the rash appears 
 for which reason fully adequate preventive measures are in effect 
 impossible. This difficulty is aggravated by the fact that at this 
 time the organisms causing the disease are most resistant. An 
 attack usually confers immunity. Preventive measures are the 
 prompt segregation of patients who have developed measles, and 
 in the presence of an epidemic the employment of nasal and buccal 
 sprays in all cases of common colds. Many of these eventually 
 prove to be the initial symptoms of measles. Also during epidemics 
 every man who has not had measles should report daily for medical 
 examination. Patients are usually isolated from 10 to 14 days, 
 though recent authorities state that 7 days is sufficient. Death 
 usually occurs as a result of streptococcic pneumonia, which gives 
 a mortality of from 82 to 92 per cent. The most essential point in 
 the treatment of measles is the avoidance of this or other complica- 
 tion. Cold and draughts are especially to be avoided. 
 
 Influenza. — Grippe is a highly contagious disease usually affecting 
 the upper air passages, but it may manifest itself by symptoms 
 referable to almost any organ. It is one of the most protean of 
 diseases. It occurs in. widespread epidemics and attacks a large 
 proportion of the population. The cause of the disease is a bacillus 
 which is disseminated by discharge from the mouth and nose. 
 Carriers are common. Its mortality is comparatively low. 
 
 Mumps. — Mumps like measles is contagious before the disease 
 manifests itself, and is disseminated by secretions from the mouth 
 and nose. It is usually spread by direct contact — rarely by indirect 
 contact. A patient may remain infectious for as long as 6 weeks 
 after the symptoms have disappeared. 
 
 Small Pox. — This disease is mentioned here only to call attention 
 to the fact that all persons entering the military service of the 
 United States are required to be vaccinated promptly. This vac- 
 
CAMP DISEASES 187 
 
 cination is repeated twice at weekly intervals, unless a "take" has 
 occurred, and upon reehlistment. A notation showing whether 
 vaccination was successful or unsuccessful is made on each man's 
 descriptive list. 
 
 Trench Fever. — There has appeared among the troops on the 
 western front, a disease heretofore unrecognized. This is known by 
 the name of Trench Fever. It has occurred only among men from 
 the trenches or near them, and men of the Royal Army Medical 
 Corps. Its incidence is not affected by age, service or disparities of 
 comfort occasioned by military rank. The incubation is from 6 to 
 22 days. 
 
 Two types of this fever are recognized. It is not yet fully es- 
 tablished that the two are separate entities. Both types have 
 identical initial histories and symptoms, and differ only in their 
 course. 
 
 Class A. The patient feels suddenly iU, and experiences head- 
 ache, dizziness and pains in the legs. He may be overcome so 
 suddenly that he falls down. Location of maximum area of head- 
 ache varies. Pain behind the eyes is common especially when they 
 are moved. Pain also occurs in the lumbar region and the lower 
 limbs, where it may be confined to the shins. It is often present 
 in the thighs and behind the knees, and is deep seated. Restless- 
 ness is common. A tendency to constipation often occurs. Fever 
 varies from 103° or 164° in the first day or two. The face is flushed, 
 and eyes are clear and bright. Bronchial catarrh is absent. Sweating 
 occurs. The tongue is furred and anorexia exists. The pulse rate 
 is only slightly increased and usually rises to about 100. About the 
 third day the temperature often falls to normal or subnormal 
 without abatement of symptoms. Thereafter the fever rises to fall 
 again about the sixth or eighth day. In some cases this intermis- 
 sion does not occur, but the temperature remains elevated for about 
 a week, when it then falls. Symptoms immediately ameliorate. In 
 many cases there is a single relapse, occurring within four days after 
 the temperature reaches normal. It lasts one or two days, is at- 
 tended with fever of 100° or 101° and is followed by a slight recur- 
 rence of the former symptoms. 
 
 Class B. The chief distinction between this type and the first 
 is the number and periodicity of the relapses. The disease has the 
 
l88 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 character of a true relapsing fever. The initial attack, which pre- 
 sents the same symptoms as Class A, lasts about 3 days. This is 
 followed by a variable number of days (usually 4) of good health 
 after which the symptoms recur. Fever may rise to 103.8°. This 
 is the first of a series of such attacks and each is sharper, the tem- 
 perature higher and the symptoms just as severe as in the initial 
 attack. The fever falls to normal in about 36 hours. The periodi- 
 city of relapses varies. After the second and third relapses most 
 of the symptoms ameliorate, but the pains in the shins remain. 
 Patients often can foretell the onset of a relapse. In both types the 
 only constant blood change is a pronounced punctate basophilia. 
 
 Trench fever is differentiated from typhoid and parat3^hoid 
 fevers by the negative blood cultures, examinations of the stools and 
 urine, and Widal examination and by the periodicity of relapses. 
 Malta fever was excluded by agglutination tests, dengue by the 
 absence of a rash, and influenza by the absence of bronchial catarrh, 
 a lower degree of prostration and the periodic relapses. Malaria 
 and relapsing fever were excluded by the absence of parasites in 
 the blood. The disease can be transmitted experimentally by the 
 whole blood (haemolized) but not by the serum. The method 
 of transmission in nature is unknown. 
 
 The following indicate approximately the incubation and segrega- 
 tion periods of some infectious diseases. Authorities differ on such 
 figures. 
 
 Usual number of days Incubation Isolation 
 
 Cholera 3 to 6 12 
 
 Chicken pox 4 to 16 20 
 
 Diphtheria i to 10 12 
 
 Erysipelas i to s 12 
 
 Influenza 3 to 4 s 
 
 Measles 8 to 14 10 
 
 Mumps 4 to 25 21 
 
 Plague 2 to 8 21 
 
 Rubella 7 to 18 10 
 
 Scarlet fever 1 to 21 40 
 
 Trench fever 6 to 22 ? 
 
 two succes- 
 sive negative 
 cultures 
 
CAMP DISEASES 189 
 
 Usual number of days ilnoubation Isolation 
 
 Typiioid fever 10 to 14 23 ■ 
 
 three nega- 
 tive succes- 
 sive weekly 
 cultures 
 
 Tjfphus fever S to 20 14 
 
 Yellow fever 3 to 5 S or 6 
 
 DISEASES CAUSED BY EXPOSURE 
 
 Trench Feet. — A condition common among soldiers who serve in 
 the trenches is known as trench feet. The most important causes 
 are cold and wet, in combination. Pressure is an aggravating factor 
 but probably not a cause. Cold and wet, causing a rapid loss of 
 heat, cause first a local vasoconstriction, leading to defective circula- 
 tion through 'the feet and then to vasomotor paresis passing on to 
 paralysis with ■ consequent haemostasis, cedema and gangrene. 
 Pressure aggravates the trouble. 
 
 The onset is gradual, the teet feel cold and eventually lose sensa- 
 tion. Pain, except the discomfort associated with cold feet, is 
 not complained of at first. Later, as the feet begin to swell there 
 is pain around the ankles, occasionally extending up to the calves. 
 If boots are removed at this time the feet swell immediately and it 
 is impossible to replace the boots. The pathology of the condition 
 is similar to that of Reynaud's disease. Two varieties are recog- 
 nized, the red and the white. The majority of the cases resemble the 
 former but in some the foot is dead white. This is believed to be 
 a precursor of the congested type as the foot eventually assumes 
 that appearance. 
 
 On admission to hospital the feet are usually in all stages of 
 jividity from a pink blush to a dead black gangrenous appearance. 
 They are greatly swollen, the skin is covered with bullous eruptions, 
 containing a blood-stained fluid. The discoloration is often sharply 
 demarcated at the mid-tarsal joint. The feet are cold. In mild 
 cases there is oedema over the tarsus with Uttle discoloration. Often 
 the only color change is a light pink flush, on the ball of the great 
 toe and the tips of the toes. There is a patchy anaesthesia. In the 
 white cases the foot is stone cold, dead white and has lost sensation. 
 
 Gangrene rarely followed even the severe cases, except that a 
 
igo FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 superficial sloughing occurs. Pain increases at night, is aggravated 
 by warmth, and extends up to the leg. It persists long after the 
 circulation has been restored, and the feet appear healthy. Men 
 whose feet are greatly swollen and appeal gangrenous complain of 
 little pain. In some cases there is great tenderness of the soles of 
 the feet after acute symptoms have disappea.red. 
 
 The condition is treated by elevating the feet, powdering with 
 boracic acid and wrapping in absorbent cotton, which is changed 
 twice a day. Massage, twice daily, when it can be borne, gives 
 good residts. Painting with iodine appeared to benefit certain 
 neurotic cases. Pain was treated by morphine. Other agents were 
 unsatisfactory. Foot drill is highly beneficial to convalescents. 
 Recurrences upon exposure are frequent. Feet and foot gear should 
 be inspected before the troops enter the trenches. Shoes should 
 be roomy and well greased at intervals. The junction of sole 
 and upper especially should be attended to in order to prevent 
 rotting of the seams. Before entering the trenches the feet and legs 
 should be anointed with 3H to 4 oz. of a 5 to 10 per cent, ointment 
 of salt and lard or whale-oil. Rubber boots are much used. 
 Trenches should be drained if possible or provided with fascines 
 of brushwood. 
 
 Constant care of the feet is necessary. Men should be encouraged 
 to stamp their feet, move the toes, and exercise generally. Wash- 
 ing the feet should be encouraged. Lukewarm water containing 
 half an ounce of mustard to the gallon should be employed. Dried 
 socks should be put on and the shoes dried when possible. The 
 legs should be kept elevated when at rest. 
 
 Frost Bite. — Severe frost bite causing loss of feet or hands has 
 been quite common in the trenches. Among its causes in addition 
 to cold are: dampness, high winds, nervous exhaustion, over 
 indulgence in alcohol and lack of proper rest, food, and physical 
 exercise. To prevent it winter clothing should be distributed 
 systematically. Garments should be loose and the circulation 
 unimpeded by light equipments. The foot gear is most important. 
 Soldiers .in the trenches should unlace their leggins frequently and 
 move and rub their feet briskly. The face is protected with a 
 hood, the hands with woolen mittens. Feet, legs and hands, as well 
 as the ears, nose and chin, are ^o be rubbed with a specially pre 
 
CAMP DISEASES 19I 
 
 pared ointment containing ten per cent, of salt. When glasses 
 are worn the metallic parts which come in contact with the skin are 
 covered. Immobility and inertia must be carefully guarded 
 against, especially in the case of sentinels, whose posts should 
 be sheltered from the wind. They should be relieved frequently 
 during the night. They must be cautioned against standing still 
 and yielding to drowsiness. Forty-eight hours should be the limit 
 of service in the trenches. Alcohol is strictly forbidden in the 
 Italian service except small quantities of light wine. Medical 
 officers establish aid stations near the advanced posts, in order to 
 treat without delay soldiers who show evidences of succumbing to 
 cold, i.e., by drowsiness. Hot bouillon and coffee are served to 
 sentries on coming off duty and if necessary the patient is sent to 
 the rear. In extreme cases he must be treated at the aid station 
 by artificial respiration, massage and cardiac stimulation. Hot 
 applications are to be avoided in every case of frost bite. No 
 alcohol is given. Blisters are emptied and great care is exercised 
 to avoid infection and subsequent gangrene. In every case of 
 frost bite with skin lesions, anti-tetanus serum is injected. 
 
 Gas Poisoning. — Information on this subject is of a confidential 
 character and can not now be noted here. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 ILLUSTRATIVE REGULATIONS CONCERNING FIELD 
 HYGIENE AND CAMP SANITATION 
 
 The following regulations cover some essential measures for 
 moving commands, for camp for a few days, and for permanent 
 camps. They are taken chiefly from the Field Service Regulations; 
 General Orders 13, Headquarters Southern Department, dated 
 July 10, 1916; and Bulletin 22, Headquarters Southern Department, 
 dated August 5, 1916. 
 
 FOR MOVING COMMANDS 
 
 1. Camps. — Camp sites wiU be selected and established in con- 
 formity with paragraphs 238 to 242, F. S.R. 1914. 
 
 2. A guard wiU be placed over the water supply, if the latter is of 
 doubtful purity, and will allow none but authorized persons to 
 have access to it. 
 
 3. Water of doubtful purity wiU be purified before use. 
 
 4. Men will fill their canteens before leaving camp, and wUl not 
 refill them except from authorized sources. 
 
 5. Men will be allowed to drink water on the march only when 
 authorized to do so and then in limited quantities. Company 
 Officers will be held strictly responsible for the enforcement of such 
 orders. 
 
 6. On long marches and in arid regions when the supply of water 
 can not be renewed as required, a reserve supply wUl be carried on 
 the wagons. 
 
 7. Trench latrines, 2 feet deep, of the straddle type will be dug 
 immediately upon arrival in camp. 
 
 8. Men will cover their deposits. A permanent detail will fill in 
 latrines and police camp immediately before the march is resumed. 
 
j.i,i,uoTKAXlVJt JiJiljirLATIONS 193 
 
 9. The camp site will be kept well policed, and soiling of the same 
 by refuse, remnants of food, or dirty water, is prohibited. Any pol- 
 lution of the camp site is forbidden. 
 
 10. Food. — (a) Fresh meat, bread and vegetables will be inspected 
 by a Medical Ofl&cer as to quality, when issued. 
 
 (b) Food will be prepared and served in a cleanly manner. It 
 will habitually be protected against sun, dust and flies. 
 
 (c). Company cooks, mess equipment and kitchen areas will be 
 kept clean and neat at all times. The kitchen police will be a per- 
 manent detail. Suspected carriers of disease will be relieved from 
 duty in the kitchens untU recovered. 
 
 id) Individual mess kits will be cleaned at the cook-tent imme- 
 diately after use. Cooks will provide a supply of boiling water for 
 this purpose. 
 
 (e) Kitchen utensils will be cleaned thoroughly with soap and 
 boiling water, immediately after each time of using. 
 
 (J) The keeping in tents of uneaten portions of food and rations 
 is strictly prohibited. 
 
 (g) Men will not patronize fly infested or dirty places in which 
 food, ice cream or drinks are sold. 
 
 (A) No hucksters will be allowed in camp, except for the delivery 
 of supplies to general messes. 
 
 (*) The bringing of melons into camp is prohibited. 
 
 (,j) Itinerant vendors will be allowed to sell to troops in the 
 vicinity of the camp, only such articles as are in original packages. 
 The sale of aU beverages is prohibited. 
 
 {k) To enforce this order a guard will be posted, if necessary, 
 near the vendor, to prevent men from making unauthorized 
 purchases. 
 
 1 1 . Kitchen refuse wiU be burned: That which is incombustible 
 will be passed through the fire and buried in pits dug for that 
 purpose. 
 
 12. Greasy water will be evaporated in kitchen pits. Such wastes 
 will be reduced to a minimum. 
 
 13. Tents will be ditched if the weather is inclement or unsettled. 
 
 14. Personal Hygiene. — Men will preserve cleanliness in tents, 
 clothing and persons. Bathing after the march will be encouraged. 
 
 15. Company Officers will exercise personal care in providing their 
 
 13 
 
194 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 commands with properly fitting clothing, especially shoes and socks. 
 The internal measure of shoes will be at least f inch longer than the 
 foot. 
 
 i6. A Medical Officer will inspect the feet of infantry soldiers at 
 frequent intervals until, in his opinion, the men have learned to 
 care for them. 
 
 17. Semi-monthly inspections of the command will be -made by 
 a Medical Officer to determine its cleanliness and freedom from 
 disease. These will be made before the isth and 30th of each 
 month and wiU be attended by an Officer from the respective 
 company. 
 
 18. Men will be instructed concerning the dangers attending illi- 
 cit intercourse, the facilities for prophylactic treatment which the 
 regimental infirmary wiU provide, and the penalties for failing to 
 take this treatment as ordered. 
 
 19. The command will be protected from small pox, typhoid and 
 paratyphoid fever. 
 
 20. Minor cases will be treated at the regimental infirmaries. 
 
 21. Patients with a temperature of 101° or over, wiU be trans- 
 ferred without delay to the hospital. 
 
 FOR CAMPS OF A FEW DAYS 
 
 In camps of a few days occupancy, the following additional regu- 
 lations are recommended. 
 
 1. Manure and refuse wiU be hauled one and a half or two miles 
 from camp, and to a point distant from through roads leading into 
 camp, lest insects be brought in by passing animals. 
 
 2. Trench latrines wiU be dug eight feet deep, two feet wide, and 
 eight feet long and provided with log seats. They wUl be burned out 
 daily or treated with oil and lampblack if facilities afford. Other- 
 wise each man wiU cover his deposit. Contents will be covered 
 daily with ashes from the kitchen pits. The latrines will be cared 
 for by a permanent detail, which will fill them in before the command 
 moves. 
 
 3. Kitchen floors will be wet down daily, and covered with a thin 
 layer of ashes. 
 
li^iUSXRATIVE REGULATIONS 195 
 
 4. Areas on which flies cluster will be burned over at once. 
 Fly paper will be hung from the ridge poles of kitchen tents. 
 Tent flies will be burned out nightly by torches, made of burlap 
 
 wired to sticks and dipped in oil, by torches of dried brush or other 
 similar devices. 
 
 5. Tent sites, bedding and equipment will be sunned and aired at 
 least twice each week. 
 
 6. Roads through camp will be established and men and animals 
 win travel on them exclusively, as far as circumstances wiQ permit. 
 
 7. There will be a general police for the parts of the camp not 
 occupied by organizations. 
 
 FOR MORE PERMANENT CAMPS 
 
 The regulations recommended for more permanent camps are 
 appropriate modifications of those given above, as circumstances 
 indicate, or additional regulations as follows, e.g.: 
 
 1. Each company wiU provide three fly traps for use in its kitchen 
 and maintain the same in operation by daily renewal of bait, and 
 emptying as needed. If the facilities permit, kitchens will be 
 screened. 
 
 2. No water will be wasted from kitchen faucets. Soakage pits 
 fiUed with rock wiU not be constructed around faucets. Dripping 
 water will be arrested by a stone and led away in a ditch. 
 
 3. All proper economy will be exercised in the use of water for 
 bathing purposes. Men will bathe, as far as possible, at least twice 
 weekly at specified hours and in regular shifts. Officers will see 
 that no unused faucet is left open. Bathing places will be drained, 
 or the bathing water will be removed in containers. 
 
 4. Facilities wfll be provided if possible where men will wash their 
 hands before meals and after using the latrines. 
 
 5. AU pools within one thousand yards of the camp will be oiled 
 once weekly. 
 
 6. Picket lines will be burned over weekly, using one gallon of oil 
 and fifteen pounds of straw or hay for each animal. 
 
 7. Latrines will be dug eight feet deep, two feet wide, and twelve 
 feet long. They will be kept fly proof. If the covers warp, cracks 
 
196 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 will be covered and the seat covers edged with burlap. Lids will be 
 kept closed when not in use. 
 
 A closely fitting fly trap will be placed on an unused seat, over 
 each latrine pit that has become infected with flies. Urine troughs 
 will be flushed out and swabbed with crude oil daily. Covers will 
 be lifted off the pits and the latter burned out with fifteen pounds of 
 straw or hay and one gallon of crude oil before nine A. M. daily by a 
 permanent detail. Latrine boxes will be removed when pits are 
 being burned out. Or, if facilities exist, latrines wiU be treated pref- 
 erably with lampblack and crude oil daily. 
 
 8. In the absence of oil or other means, the ashes from the com- 
 pany kitchens will be sprinkled in each company latrine daily. 
 
 9. Latrines will be established near communal places used by sol- 
 diers of different units, and cared for by permanent details. ' 
 
 10. Urine tubs will be placed in company streets at taps, removed, 
 emptied and biuned out with hay and oil at reveille, and sunned 
 during the day. 
 
 11. Laundry facilities will be provided if possible. If water is 
 piped into camp these will be established in sunny places and well 
 drained. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Bach, C. A.. The Messing of Troops. 
 
 Balfour, A.: J. R. A. M. C, 1916, Vol. XXVH, No. i. 
 
 Craig, C. F.: Prophylaxis of Malaria. 
 
 Field Service Regulations, U. S. Army. 
 
 GooDE, H. N.: J. R. A. M. C, 1916, Vol. XXVII, No. 3. 
 
 Havard, v.: Military Hygiene. 
 
 Lelean, p. S.: Sanitation in War. 
 
 Legroux, R.: Bull. See. Path. Exot., 8, No. 7. 
 
 Lewis and Miller: Recent Developments in Camp Sanitation, The 
 
 Military Surgeon, Vol. XL, No. 5. 
 Manual (or Army Cooks, U. S. Army. 
 Manual for the Quartermaster Corps, U. S. Army. 
 McNee, J. W. ANn Renshaw, A.: J. R. A. M. C, Vol. 26, p. 490. 
 Peacock, A. D.: J. R. A. M. C, 1916, Vol. XXVH, No. i. 
 Pike, E. B.: J. R. A. M. C, 1916, VoL 14, No. i. 
 Rosenau: Preventive Medicine. 
 Shaw: Transmissible Diseases. 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE REGULATIONS 1 97 
 
 Solano: Camps, Billets and Cooking. 
 SoLTAU, B.: J. R. A. M. C, 1916, Vol. XXVI, No. i. 
 SouuMA, A. AND EiBEKT, B.: C. R. Soc. Biol. Paris, LXXVIII, No. 14. 
 Tmnca, a. J.: J. R. A. M. C, 1916, Vol. 26. No. i. 
 ToDKNADE, A. : La Pratique de I'Hygiene en Campagne. 
 Teotjssaint: Direction et Service de Sante. 
 
 U. S. Dept. Agriculture, Important Insects Which May Affect the Health 
 of Men and Animals Engaged in Military Operations, Circular No. 61. 
 
198 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
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ILLUSTRATIVE REGULATIONS 
 
 199 
 
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200 
 
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 D 
 
 D 
 
 p 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 D 
 
 P 
 
 D 
 
 p 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 □ 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 a 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 a 
 
 
 1 «o(j>i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 ii^j,] 
 
 1 Cttanrf 
 1 Detxh 
 
 1st. Battalion 
 
 
 Zd. Battalion 
 
 
 3d Battalion 
 
 Md lO 
 
 /IterA/zwlS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Latrines 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 C=i 
 
 r-i 
 
 P-i 
 
 .fe" 
 
 fa 
 
 r-i 
 
 C=i 
 
 _C=i_ 
 
 -^-. 
 
 __t3 
 
 _fa ti 
 
 i 
 
 ■^ 1 
 
 
 store 
 Tents 
 
 ....DC 
 
 Guard 
 
 nao 
 
 Ueits 
 
 □ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ( 1 
 J 1 
 
 1 L 
 
 
 1 
 •1 
 
 L 
 
 Train Park 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 I - 
 
 , 
 
 
 Animah 
 
 
 
 
 : ntj.j: 
 
 Fig. 121. — Semipermanent camps. Camp of a regiment of infantry, 
 war strength. 19.8 Acres. (F. 5. R.) Area modified by strength of 
 organization prescribed from time to time in tables of organization. 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE REGULATIONS 
 
 20I 
 
 ialh J 
 
 (24/taresl 270 Ms. £ 
 
 'cers' 
 
 Bath 
 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 O 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 
 n 
 
 D 
 D 
 
 i(-30— J 
 
 Mqrs 
 OetBch. 
 .Band and 
 
 ' Oetoeh. 
 •r-,C=l 
 
 in««/.s 
 
 Si 
 
 nil 
 
 sli 
 
 \ "t; 
 
 Si i« 
 ill I 
 
 IL.J 
 
 Messesmdi Offices 
 
 AdLoauSupa oDoa 
 
 Batterji Officer^, 
 
 □a aaa □□□ ' 
 
 , 'D 
 
 .ten 
 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 
 n 
 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 
 Tents D 
 
 "D 
 
 D D 
 
 D D 
 
 D D 
 
 D □ 
 D 
 D 
 
 n 
 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 
 n 
 n 
 a 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 n 
 a 
 a 
 
 D 
 
 a 
 
 D 
 
 a 
 
 D 
 D 
 
 a 
 n 
 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 
 a 
 
 D 
 
 -120- 
 
 Ist. Battalion 
 
 t3 
 
 C=a 
 
 iatrines 
 
 D=3 
 
 f" 
 
 Field Officers' Line 
 aoD ^ aaa 
 Line 
 
 aaa aaa odd 
 
 •D 
 
 D 
 
 n 
 a 
 
 •D 
 n 
 
 D 
 
 D D 
 
 n 
 
 a 
 _ _ _ D 
 a D a n 
 
 a D D D 
 
 nana 
 
 D D a D 
 anna 
 n D D D 
 n p n D 
 
 U-20J 
 
 /so 
 
 2d. Battalion 
 
 •D 
 
 D D D 
 
 Dan 
 
 n D 
 
 n a 
 
 a D 
 
 a D 
 
 □ n 
 
 D n 
 
 n a 
 
 D D 
 
 ^ 
 
 C=i 
 
 ri r^ V 
 
 I I 
 
 ! I 
 
 I, 
 
 -H-*'-H 
 « « 
 
 -a « 
 
 l.j l.J I..J I..J 
 
 4S -H 
 I «ii Stable Guards Mil BlacismiHt Sliops^ S;^„ "^ 
 
 b..[!]I.n..D..D..D..D..Dl.a.D..D..D.T..Dj 
 
 T/}eeamps(i/aFieldBBHaii(mSigialTnoiis,80X3IOYils.(S.IAcres)dndofaPioneer 
 Baltalionli^insers,l20*ZlS1di.(5.IAaes)areiameitmdilbitofa Battalion of 
 Artillery. 
 
 Fig. 122. — Semipermanent camps. Camp of a regiment of artillery, 
 war strength. {F. S. R.) Area modified to conform to strength pre- 
 scribed from time to time in tables of organization. 
 
202 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 f 
 
 4- Ambulance compduies 
 
 I, CDiS/A" 
 \latrine 
 
 Maj. 
 
 u—zo-^f 
 
 Officer's^ 
 
 Line 
 
 Otnr^ Talis 
 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 
 a 
 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 
 n 
 
 D 
 Q 
 D 
 
 •D 
 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 □ 
 D 
 
 a 
 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 
 \Men's, 
 Baih 
 
 D 
 
 C=3 C= 
 
 Latrinos 
 
 X 
 
 Picket 
 
 lines 
 
 iStaifet Guards 
 
 1- 
 
 3 Field Hospitals 
 
 (&'5Jlcre3)_ 
 
 tatnne 
 
 IflOipital 
 established 
 
 -J2^- 
 
 BHasptals 
 
 twteatBblilhed 
 DitBctor 
 
 Offi'ceri °li/iB 
 
 iDDDODDDD 
 
 iSterea 
 
 nl 
 □1 
 n< 
 
 D 
 D 
 
 .Bath 
 
 D' 
 
 i 
 
 P 
 
 .1 
 
 QhSbbQ 
 
 D D 
 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 
 a 
 
 n 
 n 
 
 Stable , 
 Guard^ | 
 
 -■aa-T 
 
 TT .. rr'''' 
 
 H ofAmmmitim Trainjnf Dl\i., 
 or %ojJupply Train.ln/. Div. 
 
 4 
 
 MessW 
 D 
 
 a 
 
 D 
 D 
 
 p 
 
 n 
 
 D 
 D 
 D 
 
 &^i^ 
 
 i: 
 
 -35- 
 
 Picket 
 
 Lines 
 
 Blacksmith'^ Shops h 
 and r\italileV^ntl[ 
 
 I... 
 Tralr. 
 
 -'S 
 
 p 10 
 
 100 
 
 Camp for 3 Hoipitats Established 
 
 'iei>XZMrards(9.2Acres)Ward,or „ , „ , ,.„ , - 
 Mespital, Tents ere pitched only as lJ^=J".f?.'-!!'i'V?0!".i''^Ji.J 
 
 required (FS.R. 367) camp of Am. Tn., i7o xioo yds. (lOAAcre^ 
 
 Camp of Sup. Tn. including £ngr In, 
 isoX3ooyds.(9.z Acres) The vehicles 
 may be placed on same lips as ammalsi. 
 reducing width of camp Soydsflnd 
 increasing length loo yds. 
 
 Fig. 123. — Semipermanetit camps. Camps of trains. War strength. 
 (F. S. R.) Area modified from time to time to conform to strength pre- 
 scribed by tables of organization. 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE REGULATIONS 
 
 203 
 
 Fig. 124. — Field hospital camp. (F. S. R.) 
 
204 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 Fig. 125. — Temporary camp. Ambulance Co. 
 IF. S. R.) 
 
 30 X 18s yds. 
 
iL,l.USTRATIVE REGULATIONS 
 
 205 
 
 U Officers 
 
 
 □ CooKs 
 
 fy 
 
 
 Q Cooks 
 
 D 
 
 
 "o 
 
 
 
 tv 
 
 
 °1 
 
 
 
 g S3ts. 
 
 a 1 
 
 
 □J 
 
 § 
 
 
 °1 
 
 n \Bearers 
 
 □ 
 
 .k: 
 
 
 ^ wnvers 
 
 S 
 
 
 Rl ^''^^ 
 
 •k, 
 
 
 D^ 
 
 ►^ 
 
 
 D I ^''■ 
 
 .(J 
 
 
 S2\Amh 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 □ Platoon 
 
 
 
 
 
 D' 
 
 3^d. 
 
 
 
 D 
 n 
 
 Amh. 
 
 
 
 1— 1 
 
 Platoon 
 
 Q Wagoners 
 D IrFarrier 
 
 □ Guard 
 
 Fig. ia6. — Semipermanent camps. 45 X 140 yds. Ambulance Co. 
 
 (F. 5. R.) 
 
2o6 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 Bill of Materials (Fig. 127) 
 
 Four showers for Twelve showers for 
 
 of&cers enlisted men 
 
 Posts 10— i2'o" 18 — 12'0" 
 
 Sais 6Pcs. 2"X6"Xio'o" 14 Pes. s"X6"io' 0" 
 
 Joists S Pes. 3"X4"Xi6'o" is Pes. 2"X4"Xi4'o" 
 
 Girts a Pes. 2"X4"Xi8'o" 2 Pes. 2"X4"Xi8' o" 
 
 Girts S Pes. 2"X4"Xi6'o" 2 Pes. 2"X4"Xi6' 0" 
 
 Girts 2 Pes. 2"X4"Xi2'o" 2 Pes. 2"X4"Xi2' 0" 
 
 Girts 2 Pes. 2"X4"Xio'o" 19 Pes. 2"X4"XI4' 0" 
 
 Girts r Pc. 2"X4"Xi6'o" 3 Pes. 2"X6"Xi4' 0" 
 
 Seat I Pc. 2"X8"Xi6'o" 3 Pes. 2"X8"Xi6' 0" 
 
 Flooring T. and G 190 Ft. B. M. 325 Ft. B. M. 
 
 Boarding 52 Pes. i"X i2"Xs' 6" 106 Pes. i"X I2"XS' 6" 
 
 Paper or cloth if used 320 Sq. ft. 6oa Sq. ft. 
 
 Shower heads, pipe, hold- 
 ers, eoeks, etc 4-S" 12-5" 
 
 Nails 5 lb. i6d. 14 lb. i6d. 
 
 Nails if board is used 8 lb. 8d. 21 lb. 8d. 
 
 Nails if paper or cloth is 
 
 used 4 lb. 8d. 10 lb. 8d. 
 
 Labor, carpenter 15 hours. 36 hours. 
 
ii.i.usXKAlIVJE REGULATIONS 
 
 Inches Scale 
 
 O I 2^ 3-' 4. 
 
 Feet 
 
 ■s"Shower 
 hear' 
 
 ^pipehomrsmok 
 
 %'cj.pipe 
 Stop cock 
 
 pipe holders 
 (hooks) y 
 Posts-^ 
 
 IZ.ZHSESL 
 
 )iU-A4'' ^i^i^^^ 
 
 Height of posts if~ 
 roof: covering is 
 
 J esire. \^ Height of posts, 
 U if roof , 
 ■Vf covering IS 
 not desired 
 
 2-Z"Xg" 
 
 — T" 
 
 TSTt^G FlOlftl 
 
 ::i*2x+' 
 
 Section A-A 
 
 I Tobecovere\/\ 
 \withpaper,aoth 
 \orbodrdiri^\- — . 
 
 If 
 
 End Elevation J/c/e Elevation 
 
 Feet Scale 
 
 01 z 3 4- a 
 
 IS 
 
 -*z-4Forsix bents ortmlw shomsforenui&fmti^^^^^^^^^^ 
 
 Plan 
 
 Bath House 
 
 Fig. 127. — Bathhouse. (Q. M. D.) 
 
2o8 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 Bill of Materials (Fig. 128) 
 (Wood.) 
 28 Pes. i" X 12" X 18' 0"= roofing 
 12 Pes. i" X 8" X 18' o" = shiplap sides 
 
 11 Pes. 2" X 4" X 12' o" = rafters and braces 
 
 1 Pes. 2" X 6" X 16' o" = ridge 
 
 2 Pes. 4" X 4" X 14' o" = corner posts 
 
 7 Pes. 2" X 4" X 14' o" = studs 
 
 2 Pes. 2" X 4" X 10' o" = studs in gables 
 
 12 Pes. 2" X 4" X 16' o" = plates and sills 
 4 Pes. i" X 4" X 12' o" = barge board 
 
 11 Pes. i" X 4" X 10' o" = braces 
 10 Pkgs. 6d. nails 
 
 15 Pkgs, 8d. nails 
 20 Pkgs. i6d. nails 
 
 12 Pes. i" X 8" X 14' o" = shiplap ends 
 
 8 Pes. i" X 8" X 18' o" = shiplap gables 
 
 3 Pes. i" X 4" X 18' o" = rafter ends and ridge 
 2 Pes. 2' 6" X 6' 6" = screen doors complete 
 2 Pes. i" X 10" X 16' o" = frieze board 
 
 20 yd. screening 36" 
 
 4 Packs tacks. 
 
 Labor, carpenter, 40 hours. 
 
LATIONS 
 
 209 
 
 Dining Table 
 10 Men 
 
 feet Scale 
 
 End Elevation 
 
 b«H 
 
 11! 
 
 I'i 
 
 Plan 
 
 ^■i 
 
 \Company Kitchen 
 
 Feet Scale 
 
 Cross Section. Side View 
 
 Fig. 128. — Company kitchen. (Q. M. D.) 
 
 14 
 
210 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 Bill of Materials (Fig. 129) 
 25 Bbls. cement 
 
 8 Cy. sand 
 
 8 Cy. stone 
 24 Post piers 
 12 Pes. 4" X 4" X 14' = siUs 
 
 3 Pes. 4" X 4" X 16' = studs and girts 
 30 Pes. 2" X 4" X 16' = studs-and girts 
 12 Pes. 2" X 4" X 16' = plates 
 
 6s Pes. 2" X 4" X 14' = roof 
 
 40 Pes. 2" X 4" X 16' = roof 
 5 Pes. 2" X 6" X 12' = roof 
 S Pes. 2" X 6" X 16' = window sills 
 8 Pes. i" X 12" X 16' = shelves 
 
 4 Pes. i" X 12" X 12' = shelves 
 2 Pes. 1" X 12" X 10' = shelves 
 8 Pes. i" X 12" X 18' = tables 
 7 Pes. 2" X 8" X r8' = tables 
 
 21 Pes. 2" X 4" X 16' = tables 
 18 Pr. Hinges 
 18 Hooks or fasteners 
 10 Lb. 6d. nails 
 75 Lb. 8d. nails 
 60 Lb. i6d. nails 
 10 Lb. roofing nails 
 I Lb. taeks 
 20 Pes. J^" X 4" X 16' = louvers and comer boards 
 4000 Ft. B. M. 8" shiplap 16' — waU and roof 
 4 Doors 2' 6" X 7' o" complete 
 18 Sqs. rubberoid roofing 
 23 Yd. 36" screening 
 10 Gal. cold-water paint. 
 Labor — Carpenter, 26 hours. 
 
 Concrete labor, 50 hours. 
 Painter, 24 hours. 
 
LATIONS 
 
 211 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 1" 
 
 
 II 
 
 1 » 
 
 m 
 
 ;_ 
 
 
 c 
 
 zin 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 1 I 
 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 % 
 
 
 Cross Section 
 
 No Sides 
 
 Open Poreh 
 
 Ice 
 
 2 Cooks 
 
 or 
 Stores 
 
 r'cf'xao" 
 
 Mot Water 
 
 Jiange \ 
 
 I KitQhen 
 ^^M^^P I 
 
 Tablee(6lil^ 
 
 [for lit Men 
 
 Ice Water 
 
 -20'0'- 
 
 a 
 
 
 I 
 
 Plan 
 
 Fig. 129. — Flan for kitchen and dining room — 73 men. (Manual for the 
 Quartermaster Corps, U. S, A.) 
 
212 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 Bill or Matebials (Fig. 
 
 One box and enclosure 
 
 Top of box »Pcs. i"Xi3"X8'o" 
 
 Front of box a Pes. i"X 8"X 8' o" 
 
 Rear of box 2 Pes. i"Xio"X8' o" 
 
 Ends of box i Pe. i"X8"X8'o" 
 
 Seat covers i Pc. i"Xia"X7'o" 
 
 Seat covers i Pc. l"X 2"X 7' o" 
 
 Battens and strips (if T. 
 and G. material is used, 
 
 battens can be omitted) 8 Pes. i"X 2"X8' o" 
 
 Frame for box I Pc. 2"X 2"X4' 6" 
 
 Frame for box 2 Pes. 2"X 4"X9' o". 
 
 Front plank under box. .. i Pc. 2"Xio"X8'o" 
 
 Rear pUnk under box i Pc. 2"X 6"X 8' o" 
 
 End plank i Pc. 2"X 6"X3' o" 
 
 End plank ' i Pc. 2"X I2"X3' 6" 
 
 End strip i Pc. i"X6"X2'9" 
 
 Posts 10 Pes. lo' o" 
 
 Boarding (i" boards or 
 
 equivalent in other widths 
 
 if boarding is used) 48 Pes. i"X I2"X6' o" 
 
 Battens 48 Pes. i"X 2"X6' 0" 
 
 Paper 2 Rolls. 
 
 Stringer if roof Is used. .. . i Pc. 2" X 6" X 14' o" 
 
 Stringer if roof is used. ... 2 Pes. 2" X 4" X 14' 0" 
 
 RaUs 8 Pes. 2"X 4"X 12' o" 
 
 Nails 3 Lb. 20d. 
 
 Nails 8Lb. lod. 
 
 NaUs 4Lb. 8d. 
 
 Strap binges.. . < 4 Pairs — 4" 
 
 Flat head screws 4 Doz. No. 8. 
 
 Galvanized iron urinal 
 
 trough I 6"X 6"X3'o" 1 
 
 Wrought iron pipe i l"XiH"Xi'4" i 
 
 Wrought iron pipe bent as 
 
 shown I i"XiM"X4'o" 
 
 I. C. tin I Sheet 20"X28" 
 
 Labor, carpenter 30 Hours 
 
 130) 
 
 Two boxes and enclosures 
 
 4 Pes. i"Xi2"X8'o" 
 
 4 Pes. i"X 8"X8'o"| 
 
 4 Pes. i"Xio'X 8'o" 
 
 2 Pes. I"X 8"X8'o" 
 
 3 Pes. i"Xi2"X7'o" 
 2 Pes. i"X 2"X7'o" 
 
 16 Pes. i"X a"X8'o" 
 2 Pes. 2"X 2"X4'6" 
 4 Pes. 2"X 4"Xs>'o" 
 2 Pes. 2"Xio"X8'o" 
 2 Pes. 3"X 6"X8'o" 
 2 Pes. 3"X 6"X3'o" 
 
 2Pcs. 2"XI2"X3'6" 
 
 2 Pes. i"X6"X2'9" 
 12 Pes. 12' 0" 
 
 66 Pes. i"Xi2"X6'o" 
 66 Pes. I"XI2"X6'0" 
 3 Rolls. 
 
 1 Pe. 2"X6"Xi2'o" 
 
 2 Pea. 2"X4"X 8' 6" 
 2Pca. 2"X4"X 8' 6" 
 
 4 Lb. 2od. 
 12 Lb. lod. 
 9 Lb. 8d. 
 8 Pairs — 4" 
 8 Ooz. No. 8. 
 
 6"X6"X3'o" 
 i"XiH"Xl'4" 
 
 1 l"XiH"X4'0" 
 
 2 Sheets 30"X28" 
 32 Hours. 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE REGULATIONS 
 
 213 
 
 Inches Scale 
 O 6 IS 
 
 /'kZ-Strip to Check ^t< 
 Wat-ping of Cove7^~^ 
 
 Position of Cover wtien 
 Seat is in Use 
 
 ; yZ'^4'Y.6"stop Block 
 
 I xc Batten over Joint 
 
 7X2 Batten , 
 or IJseT&G Boards 
 /'ks'strip 
 2'k6"Planti 
 
 2'M 
 
 2"xl0"Plank^ 
 
 Height of Posts if ^ ^T"^*. JfPHZ-d'Wide.ie'Long 
 
 Roof Coveringis | SeCt/Otl f S-0"Deep iJPracticlUe 
 .Deal red \ ^' M ^ 
 
 
 2xtfH 
 
 ^ 
 
 HeigMof 
 
 • , neigntK 
 
 % Roo/ 
 •^ Covering . 
 'y isDesireii\ 
 
 To BeCovered. \ 
 'ytlHi Paper "H--*- 
 \CMh or Boarding 
 
 Section A A 
 
 FCET 
 
 Elevation 
 
 Scale 
 
 o I Z3*S 
 
 Plan 
 
 . .. -14.0 ForOne Latrine Box- 
 - 22-6 For Two Latrine Boxes - 
 
 Latrine Box and Enclosure 
 
 Fig. 130. — Latrine box and enclosure. (Q. M, D.) 
 
214 FIEUD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 Bnx 07 Materials (Fig. 131) 
 (Size of paulin 17' X 39O 
 2 Pes. 2" X 6" X 18' o" = ridge 
 
 10 Pes. 2" X 4" X 10' o" = rafters 
 
 11 Pes. 2" X 4" X 12' o" = braces, roof 
 2 Pes. 2" X 4" X 16' o" ■= plates, ends 
 
 4 Pes. 2" X 4" X 18' o" = plates, sides 
 
 5 Pes. 2" X 4" X 18' o" = studs 
 
 2 Pes. 4" X 4" X 18' o" = eomer posts 
 4 Pes. 2" X 4" X 20' o" = braees, eomer 
 
 1 Pc. i" X 12" X 20' o" = gables 
 
 12 Pes. i" X 12" X 16' o" = base boards, sides 
 
 2 Pes. i" X 12" X 16' o" = base boards, ends 
 iPc. i" X 12" X 14' o" = footing 
 
 4 Pes. i" X 6" X 16' o" = frieze boards, sides 
 2 Pes. i" X 6" X 16' o" = frieze boards, ends 
 
 10 Pes. J^" X 2" 'X 14' o" = weather strips, paulin 
 
 6 Pes. }i" X 2" X 18' o" = weather strips, paulin 
 2-2' 6" X 6' 8" screen doors, complete 
 
 24 Yd. screen, fine mesh, 36" wide 
 2 Pkgs. carpet tacks 
 
 5 Lb. i6d. wire nails 
 10 Lb. lod. wire nails 
 
 2 Lb. 4d. wire nails. 
 
 Labor, carpenter, 24 hours. 
 
t 
 
 ILLUSTRATIVE REGULATIONS 
 
 ^Covered with 
 
 215 
 l'Jez"Boards 
 
 ''i.iij'l'idzyrtz" Footing 
 Cross Section 
 
 End View 
 
 Feet Scate 
 
 tZX'*" Rafters 
 2>4"P/af'e- 
 
 O I ,Z 5 <■ S 10 
 
 fZ"/e 6" Ridge 
 
 Is 
 
 'Z"x4"Studs 
 
 f Dirt Floor 
 
 Longitudinat ■Section 
 
 -6-5- 
 
 -8-5" 
 
 -J3-6^ 
 
 +- 
 
 -0-5" 
 
 -8'5" 
 
 !P 
 
 '^fLineofRafter^i 
 
 II -Line of 
 II 2!'x6"Ridlge 
 
 ;i 
 
 AJf4"Posts at Corners 
 
 in ^ — — 
 
 le£j(4"Studs 
 
 ■i 
 
 Plan 
 
 Fig. I3I> — ^A two paulin kitchen and mess hall combined. (Q. M. D.) 
 
2l6 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 Bill oy Materials (Fig. 132) 
 (Size of paulin 17' X 23') 
 
 1 Pc. 2" X 6" X,i8'o" = ridge 
 
 6 Pes. 2" X 4" X 10' o" = rafters 
 
 7 Pes. 2" X 4" X 12' o" = braces, roof 
 
 2 Pes. 2" X 4" X 16' o" = plates 
 
 2 Pes. 2" X 4" X 18' o" = sides 
 
 3 Pes. 2" X 4" X 18' o" = studs 
 
 I Pc. 4" X 4" X 16' o" = corner posts 
 
 4 Pes. 2" X 4" X 20' o" = braces, corner 
 
 1 Pc. i" X 12" X 20' o" = gables 
 
 6 Pes. i" X 12" X 16' o" = base boards, sides ' 
 
 2 Pes. i" X 12" X 12' o" = base boards, ends 
 
 1 Pc. i" X 12" X 14' o" = footing 
 
 2 Pes. 1" X 6" X 16' o" = frieze boards, sides 
 
 1 Pc. i" X 6" X 16' o" = frieze boards, ends' 
 
 7 Pes. J^" X 2" X 14' o" = weather strips, paulin 
 6 Pes. J^" X 2" X 18' o" = weather strips, paulin 
 2-2' 6" X 6' 8" screen doors, complete 
 
 24 Yd. screen, fine niesh 36" wide 
 
 5 Fkgs. carpet tacks 
 4 Lb. i6d. wire nails 
 
 8 Lb. lod. wire nails 
 
 2 Lb. 4d. wire nails. 
 
 Labor, carpenter, 16 hours. 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE REGULATIONS 
 
 ,1 f^.P^'^S Ridge 
 
 ^ •^-'^^ ^^^^i^vered with 
 
 SiJc4 Pfate iriJ(& 
 
 4'kl2"Boards- 
 
 ^Dirt Floor I fxW'.Botu'M 
 
 ^^xlZ"xlZ"-Footing 
 Cross Section 
 
 Feet Scale 
 
 ^=3 cSa 
 
 JEnd View 
 
 O I Z 3 ■* S 
 
 Long/ tad fnal Section 
 
 ^ -16-10" 
 
 -d-5- 
 
 1X4 Studs 
 
 Hine of Raftens 
 
 
 ^ii 
 
 ^LineWZx'e"""'^^ 
 Ridge 
 
 "Post at Corners 
 
 o 
 
 Plan 
 
 Fig. 132. — A one paulin kitchen and mess faaU oombined. (Q. M. D.) 
 
2l8 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 Bill op Mateeials (Fig. 133) 
 Labor, carpenter, 8 hours ^ 
 32 Pes. i" X 12" X 12' o" = sides 
 
 I Pc. i" X 4" >^ 20' o" = braces 
 II Pes. 2" X 4" X 12' o" = plates and siUs 
 
 I Pc. 4" X 4" X 12' o" = posts 
 
 5 Lb. lod. wire nails. 
 
ItlUSTEATIVE REGULATIONS 
 
 219 
 
 6ect/on 
 
 Rock Pile Crematory 
 
 tnt^es Scale ^^ 
 
 I 
 I 
 
 *f""' . £ J * S ff 
 
 '^ 
 
 'x\t(o}^rt?r 
 
 Brae; 
 
 £4 
 
 nis.di\ 
 
 viii 
 
 api 
 
 <i n 's 
 
 \Sracc 
 
 ^'Vlll-' Longitudinal Section .,, , 
 
 f^Brace 
 
 o I as* s 
 
 \ 
 
 ^^Tie\ ^x4'Tiii 
 I 
 
 ^S"n4'Plati 
 
 4x4^Post 
 
 10 IS 
 
 Section Through Picket Line 
 
 
 FaW 
 
 Before Rol I ig 
 
 jDaah qf Ditches not Greater than c d» .* = >■'» «? is'n " 
 
 Conneted to Drainage System 
 
 
 AfterRoUing 
 
 Fig. 133. — Latrine enclosure. (Q. M. D.) 
 
220 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 Bill of Materials (Fig. 134) 
 
 3 Pes. 2" X 12" X 16' o" = sides and bottom — sized and dressed 
 I Pc. 2" X 12" X 3' 6" = ends and center partition 
 
 6 Bolts J4" X 16" 
 
 4 Lb. 2qd. nails 
 
 Labor, carpenter, 4 hours 
 
J. j^^ Vk3XA.il. J. xVJif -K.il*\:»Ul-ATIONS 
 
 221 
 
 ■r 
 
 i 
 
 o 
 
 •0 
 
 CD 
 
 I 
 
 a » 
 
 ^ 
 
 I 
 
 
222 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 Bill of Materials (Fig. 13 s) 
 PvEAMiDAL, 16' X 16' Wall (Small) 
 
 8' iiH" X 9' a" 
 Floor 
 
 Floor 
 
 9 Pes. 2" X 4" X i6' o" 
 16 Pes. i"X 12" X 16' o" 
 5 Lb. 8d. nails. 
 
 Framing 
 
 I Pe. 2" X 4" X 14' o" 
 SPcs. 2"X 4"Xi6'o" 
 iPe. i"Xi2"Xi4'o" 
 3 Pes. i" X 12" X 16' o" 
 3 Lb. i6d. nails. 
 
 V 
 
 3 Pes. 2"X 4"X 18' o" 
 4i^Pcs. i"Xi2"Xi8'o" 
 2 Lb. 8d. nails. 
 
 Framing 
 
 1 Pc. 2" X 4" X 1 8' o" 
 
 2 Pes. 2" X 4" X 12' o"j 
 2 Pes. 2" X 4" X 10' o" 
 
 1 Pc. i"X i2"Xi8'o' 
 
 2 Lb. i6d. nails. 
 
 Wall (Large) 
 
 14' 6" X 14' 3" 
 
 Floor. 
 
 8 Pes. 2" X 4"Xi4'o" 
 14 Pes. i" X 12" X 16' o" 
 4 Lb. 8d. nails. 
 
 Framing 
 4 Pes. 2" X 4" X 20' o" 
 
 2 Pes. 2" X 4" X 18' o" 
 
 3 Pes. 2" X 4" X 16' o" 
 
 4 Pes. 2" X 4" X 14' o" 
 2Pcs. i"X 12" X 16' o" 
 2 Pes. i" X 6" X 16' o" 
 4 Lb. i6d. nails. 
 
^yjaxjsAiivj!, iiiiiiui^ATIONS 
 
 223 
 
224 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 Bill of Materials (Fig. 136) 
 
 , Hospital Tropical 
 
 is' 7" X 14' 3" 
 
 Floor 
 
 9 Pes. 2" X 4" X 14' o" 
 14 Pes. 1" X 12" X 16' o" 
 4 Lb. 8d. nails. 
 
 Framing 
 
 4 Pes. 2" X 4" X 14' "" 
 4 Pes. 2" X 4" X 10' o" 
 2 Pes. 2" X 4" X 16' o" 
 
 2 Pes. 1" X 12" X 16' o" 
 
 3 Lb. I fid. nails. 
 
 Storage 
 
 20' s" X 17' 10" 
 
 Floor 
 
 II Pes. 2" X 4" X 18' o" 
 
 18 Pes. i" X 12" X 20' o" 
 
 7 Lb. 8d. nails. 
 
 Framing 
 
 3 Pes. 2" X 4" X 22' o' 
 
 4 Pes. 2" X 4" X 14' o' 
 18 Pes. 2" X 4" X 12' o' 
 
 2 Pes. i" X 12" X 12' o' 
 2Pcs. i"X 12" X 10' o 
 9 Pes. 1" X 6" X 14' o 
 6 Lb. i6d. nails. 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE REGULATIONS 
 
 22S 
 
226 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 <>-o 
 "o \t 
 
 C4 H 
 
 13 
 
 H 
 
 XXX 
 
 
 - W 
 
 XXX 
 
 *«»„ 
 
 *M 
 
 s 6 6 
 
 h PL| h 
 
 ••3 
 
 ■* 00 « fl 
 
 o o 
 XX 
 
 XX 
 
 .a 
 o •* 
 
 00 
 
 H 
 
 X 
 "V 
 
 X 
 
 n CO 
 
 1^ Oh 
 
 t ^ "O 
 
 
 o "to o 
 
 
 
 
 VO « ■* 
 
 
 H M H 
 
 
 XXX 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •* « M ,i 
 
 g 
 5 
 
 H M ^ 
 
 xxxl 
 
 I^ 
 
 *« "h 'U 'd 
 
 
 . . . M 
 
 
 FA (/] 03 ■ 
 
 
 u u u ,2 
 
 
 h Ph Ph hJ 
 
 
 « 00 O lo 
 
 
 « «t M M 
 
IXLUSTSATIVE REGULATIONS 
 
 227 
 
 Fig. 138. — ^A set of improvised barracks. 
 Scale He" = I'. (Lake.) 
 Dimensions op Building 
 Length outside — 59' 9" 
 Width outside— 17' 6'' 
 Height in front — 7' 
 Height in rear — 6' 
 Dimensions op Section 
 Length inside — 16' 
 Width inside — 14' 
 Height same as outside. 
 Doges— s' 6" X 2' 
 Windows— 2' X i' 6" 
 
 Ground plan. 
 
 Housing Capacity 
 Four men per section 
 Sixteen men per building. 
 
228 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 I 
 
 A. 
 
 m 
 
 ^ 
 
 T~~r 
 
 i 
 
 L 
 
 Fig. 139. — Section of improvised barracks. Front elevation. A, 
 Bunks; B, table; C. stove; D, chimney; £, door;F, windows. Scale J^" 
 = I'. (Loft».) 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE REGU^-ATIONS 
 
 229 
 
 Fig. 140.— Dugout with shelter tent roof. A, Bunks; B, trench; C, 
 stove: D. ehimnev. (Lake.) 
 
23° 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 Pig. 141. — Section of officers' house (Fig. 143). {Designed by Ceo. B. 
 Lake, M. C.) 
 
 Dimensions 
 
 Windows 
 Inside 9X9' Two 18 X 24" 
 
 Height, front, 7' clear Two 14 X 18" 
 
 Height, rear, 6' clear 
 
 Scale yi" = i' 
 
xajoji^tj J. j\.rLJLxv lit j\Lj:j\r 
 
 XJLATIONS 
 
 231 
 
 
 H. 
 
 
 W^^A-V^WMM//^/M^/Mi,-V/^yy'/Ai!^^}}^ 
 
 Pig. 142. — Combined kitchen and mess hall No. 2. Scale Jfe" " '^'• 
 A. Cook fire; B, incinerator; C, chimney; D, oven; B, serving table; P, 
 shelves for supplies; G, rack for utensils; fl, mess tables. (Doors and 
 mndows indicated.) 
 
 Dimensions 
 Length, over all — 47' (Designed by Sgt. Hagan, troop 
 
 Kitchen— 14 X 18' "D," iitk Cavalry.) 
 
 Mess hall — 16 X 33' 
 Side walls — 6' high 
 End walls — 2' pitch to ridge-pole 
 Doors — 3 X 6' 
 Windows — 2 X 2' 
 The kitchen is roofed with a large tent-fly, and the mess hall with an 
 18 X 36' paulin. 
 
232 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 {ysei. in nth Ca.va.iry) 
 
 Fig 143. — Officers' bath house. A, Window; B, door; C, chimney; D, 
 posts. Scale M" = !'• {Lake.) 
 
iJ-i^UbTKATIVE REGULATIONS 
 
 233 
 
 ii||l^^^s<ii||i 
 
 Fig. 144. — An effective cook fire and incinerator designed by Sgt. 
 Margulas, troop "E" nth Cavalry. A, Cook fire; B, chimney; C, in- 
 cinerator; D, rock pit; B, sheet iron cover; P, damper. Scale J^" =1'. 
 (iofee.) 
 
234 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 Fig. 145. — Combined oven, cook fire, and incinerator used in "E" 
 Troop nth Cavalry. A, Cook fire and incinerator; B, baking chamber 
 of oven; C, heat flues; D, chimney; E, slop chute; F, rock pit. Scale 
 M" - I'. {Lake.) 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE REGULATIONS 
 
 23s 
 
 HiyZ- 
 
 rig. 3. 
 
 Fig. 146. — Improvised field oven materials: Adobe brick, discarded 
 wagon tires and tin from gasoline cans, i, Section on 2 and 3 at ¥Z; 2, 
 section on 1 at WX. A, Fire box; B, oven; C, heat Sues; D, chimney; E, 
 ovendoor. Scale J^" - l'. (Lake.) 
 
236 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 Fig. 147. — Oven and cook fire. {Lake.) A, Cook fire; B, interior of 
 oven; C, heavy sheet-iron plate; D, sections of pipe supporting oven; E, 
 chimney. Scale Ji" = !'■ 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE REGTTLATIONS 
 
 237 
 
 Pig. 148. — Common form of mess table. (Lake.) 
 
 Fig. 149. — Subterranean ice box. (Manual for Army Cooks.) In liot 
 climates this device is not advisable since the temperature of the earth is 
 higher than that of the air. Another drawback is the difficulty of keeping 
 it clean. 
 
238 
 
 FIELD HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
 
 14: 
 
 
 ■w 
 
 Pig. ISO. — Incineration pit in hill side. If its top be covered with 
 sheets of tin except at its chimney draught is increased. (Tournade.) 
 
 lO PT. 
 
 Fig. isi. — Manure incinerator. 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE REGULATIONS 
 
 239 
 
 Fig. 152. — Improvised lanterns. {Totrnade.) 
 
INDEX 
 
 Black type refers to figures 
 
 Abattoir, 59, 74 
 Ablution trenches, 71, 87 
 
 water, disposal of, 86 
 Acquired immunity, how obtained, 166 
 Ado^e incinerator, 41, 42, 59, 60 
 Ailments of troops in campaign, 4 
 Air as ail agent in the transmission of 
 germs, 163 
 
 fresh, at night, 6 
 Alamo attachment, 2Z, 4s 
 Alcohol regarded as a poison, 10 
 Alum as a means to purity water, 136 
 Ambulance company camp, 12S, 126, 
 
 204, 205 
 Animals, care of backs on marches, 26 
 
 selection of, for food, iss 
 
 watering of, on the mardi, 28 
 Antibodies, action of, 165 
 Antitetanus serum, 191 
 Anthrax bacilli, 163 
 Armies, causes affecting morbidity of, 3 
 Army Field Range, 21, 43, 44 
 Artillery, manner of marching, 23 
 
 regiment, camp of, 122, 201 
 Athletic sports, participation in, 7 
 Attitude in marching, 23 < 
 Austrian field cooking kettles, 32, 33, si 
 
 B 
 
 Bacteria as a cause of disease, 159 
 ^cussion of, 159 
 nitrifying, 126 
 
 pathogenic, destruction of, 160 
 in water, 129 
 Bap, water, sterilizing, 138 
 Bait for rat traps, 182 
 Baits for fly traps, 71 
 Barracks, improvised, plan of, 138, 139, 
 
 227, 228 
 Barrel!, Serbian, 4, 18 
 Bath house, plan for, 127, 207 
 
 (Capt. Goode, R. A. M. C), de- 
 scription of, 79, 81 
 o£Scers, improvised, plan for, 143, 
 232 
 tank, 60, 7S 
 
 trains in the Austrian service, 16, 79 
 water, heating of, in the trenches, 
 79 
 Major SaviUe's apparatus for 
 
 heating, 78 
 manner of heating, 7S 
 of reusing, 85 
 
 Bathing, beneficial effects of, 7 
 car (Austrian service), 64, 78 
 plant, plan of (Capt. Goode), 67, 68, 
 80, 81 
 (Capt. Goode) water supply, 69, 
 83 
 in the trenches, 79 
 Baths, cold, effects of, 7 
 in camp, 7.';, 19s 
 for a division, 90 
 shower, improvised, 7S 
 warm, effects of, 7 
 Beard, care of, 8 
 Bedbug, as an agent in the transmission 
 
 of disease, 173 
 Bedbugs, destruction of, 122 
 Bedding, to be aired twice weekly, 195 
 
 care of, 7 
 Beef, care of in warm weather, IS7 
 
 characteristics of, 155 
 Benzine for destruction of lice, 13 
 Bibliography, 196, 197 
 Bill of materials for showers, 206 
 Billeting, houses, etc., to be inspected, 
 
 122 
 Bi^ets, considerations concerning, 122 
 Bivouacs, considerations concermng, 121 
 Blankets, paper, extemporized, 7 
 Blisters on feet, different shoes causing, 
 II 
 -treatment of , 9 
 Body, care of, when bathing facilities are 
 inadequate. 8 
 temperature influenced by march- 
 ing, 26 - ' 
 Boiling as a means of purifying water, 
 
 130 . 
 
 Bone black and oil in treatment of lat- 
 rines, 98 
 Braziers, use of prohibited, 6, 42 
 Breakfast on the march, 22 
 Breeding of flies. 67 
 
 Brick box cooled by evaporation, S3. 68 
 Brushy shelter for kitchen, 20, 43 
 Brushing as a means of ridding clothing 
 
 of lice, 17 
 Bunches, treatment of, on horses backs, 
 
 26 
 Burning over of picket lines, 195 
 
 Calcium hypochlorite, germicidal value 
 of, 136 
 permanganate as a water purifying 
 agent, 139 
 
 241 
 
242 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Calories dissipated by evaporation dur- 
 ing a march* 26» 27 
 Camp of an Ambulance Company, i25i 
 126, 204, 205 
 diseases disseminated by dirty 
 
 hands, 7 
 of a division, 1x9, 19S 
 of a Fidd Hospital, 124* 203 
 of a raiment of cavalry, 120, 199 
 of artillery, 122, 201 
 of infantry, I2Z» 200 
 police manner of performing, 120 
 
 of, on marches, 22, 192 
 of trains, 123, 202 
 Regulations, 192 
 
 sites, prevalence of local diseases in 
 proximity of, 32 
 selection of, 30 
 unfavorable, 31 
 Camps in malarial countries, 31 
 overcrowding to be avoided, 32 
 position of organizations to be 
 located, 32 
 Canteens to be filled before a march, 22, 
 
 192 
 Cantonments, description of buildings 
 in, 36 
 'heating of buildings, 38 
 screenmg of buildm^s, 37 
 ventilation of buildmgs, 37 
 Canvas as shelter for troops, 33 
 Car for disinfecting clothing (Austrian), 
 
 66, 79 
 Carbohydrates, food value of, 152 
 Care of person, instructions concerning, 
 
 4, 20 
 Carriers, cerebro-spinal meningitis, 185 
 influenza, 186 
 malaria. 177 
 of disease, 161, 167 
 scarlet fever. 186 
 Causes of death, former wars, 4 
 Cavalry, manner of marching, 23 
 raiment, camp of, 120, 199 
 Chest cooled by porous water jar, 
 
 52, 67 
 Cerebro-spmal memngitis, cause of, 185 
 Chemical sterilization of water, 136 
 Chemicals for the reduction of fly 
 
 breeding, 1x9 
 Cholera in armies of Europe, 4 
 carriers, X70. 171 
 spread of, X70, 171 
 transmitted by vegetables, x63 
 Civil sanitary organization, zone of 
 I ^ active operations, 30 
 
 Civilian employees immunized against 
 I typhoid fever, 169 
 
 Cleanliness, i 
 
 necessary in camps and canton- 
 ments, 8 
 Clothing, care of, in the trenches, 2X 
 disinfectOT. 3( X7 
 fit and comfort of, xx, 193 
 lending of to be avoided, 11 
 scanty, how augmented, X2 
 Cockroaches, destruction of, 73 
 Coffee, weak better than water for 
 
 slaking thirst, 27 
 Cold, exposure to, in the trenches, X90 
 
 Combined stove, oven and incinerator, 
 
 29, ^9 
 Communicating trench (Toumade), 84, 
 
 lOI 
 
 (Eltinge), 8s, lox 
 Com{)any kitchen, plan of, 128, 209 
 Condiments, culinary value of, 152 
 Contact, personal in spread of disease, 
 
 X83, Z84 
 Contamination of water supply, manner 
 
 of determining, 120^ 
 Cook fire and incinerator improvised, 
 
 plan for, I44» 233 
 Cooking of food, X46 
 
 facilities^ evolution of, a4i 28, 47, 48 
 Punitive Expedition, 46 
 Copper sulphate as a water purifying 
 
 agent, 139 
 Crematory, rock pile, plan of, 219 
 Cresol for the destruction of lice, is 
 Cresyl, solution of, to kill lice, 15 
 Cyllin, solution of, in the destruction of 
 
 lice, X4 , 
 
 Damall filter, description of, 134 
 Dead animals, disposal of, 121 
 Death, common causes of in former 
 wars, 4 
 rate according to age. 5 
 in the tropics. 5 
 "Delousing" plants. 19, 20 
 Dengue, prevention of, 178 
 
 how transmitted. 178 
 Destructor, field, description of. 108, 109 
 Detail drawing for incinerator, 39, 56 
 Diagram of fiy trap, 57* 71 
 Diarrhea, causes 01. 180 
 Dining table, ^71 , 
 
 plan for. 128. 209 
 Diphtheria, preventive measures, i8s 
 Discipline, affecting health, 2 
 Disease carriers, 161 
 
 germs, manner of leaving body. 166 
 Diseases commonest among troops. 4' 
 in the Civil war. 4 
 in present war in Europe, 5 
 * in Spanish American War, 4 
 
 in war with Mexico. 4 
 contracted through the nose and 
 
 mouth. 183. 
 most prevalent in U. S. Army, 4 
 spread through discharges from the 
 
 nose and mouth. 183 
 transmissible, how caused, 158 
 transmitted by insects, 172 
 
 by milk, 152 
 
 water borne, i6x 
 
 Disinfector. clothing. 3» 17 
 
 rolling steam or formalin, i, z, 16 
 Division, camp of, 119* 198 
 Drinking of water on a march, 192 
 Dugout with shelter tent roof, plan of, 
 
 Z40, 229 
 Dump, rubbish, zo6, 120 
 Dumps for refuse, care of, X20 
 Dysentery, dissemination of, 17Z, 172 
 organisms causing, X62 
 prevention of, 172 
 
INDEX 
 
 243 
 
 E 
 
 Ears, cleansing of, 8 
 Education in sanitary matters, 3 
 EfBuent, disposal of, 90 
 Elephantiasis, how transmitted, 163 
 Emissions, an evidence of vigor, zo 
 Energy, physical and mental, effects of 
 
 air supply on, 6 
 Equi;paient "A 23, 46 
 
 issued for the field, 44, 45 
 Examination of water, 128, 129 
 Excavator wagon and pump, 45, 61 
 Excrement, disposal of, in the trenches, 
 
 lOI 
 
 incineration of, 102 
 Exercise, essential to health, 6 
 Evolution of cooking facilities, 24, 28, 
 47, 48 
 
 Fats, food function of, 151 
 
 separation of, from water, 62 
 Feces, disinfection of, 106 
 
 disposal of, in the trenches, lOi 
 incineration of, 107, loS 
 separation of, from urine, 106 
 Feet, care of, general, 9 
 on the march, 9 
 in the trenches, 9 
 medical officer to inspect, 194 
 method of hardening. 9 
 trench, causes of, 189 
 Field destructor, 93, 108, 109 
 hospital, camp of, 124, 203 
 
 ward tent, 19, 42 
 ice box, 54> 69 
 laundry (Austrian), 6s, 78 
 oven, American, 34, 52 
 range, army, 21, 44 
 manner of using, 43 
 Fighting efficiency, aim of the medical 
 
 service, 3 
 Filter, Damall, description of, 134 
 Japanese, 134 
 
 sand and alum, improvised, 136 
 Filters for water pimfication, 132 
 Filth diseases, 166 
 Filtration of sullage water, 90 
 
 of water, 132 
 Fireless cooker adapted for use of troops 
 in the field, 54. SS 
 furnished in Austrian service, SS 
 Fleas, as agents in the transmission of 
 disease, 164 
 destruction of. iSa 
 in the transmission of plague, 164 
 Flies, breeding of, 67, 179 
 destruction of, 68 
 where found, 179 
 Flooring for tents, 35 
 Floors, kitchen, care of, 67, 194 
 Fly, the, as an agent in the transmission 
 of disease, 164, 179, 180 
 breeding, use of chemicals to con- 
 trol, 119 
 paper, use of, I95 , 
 
 formula for making, 68 
 proof latrine seat, 87> 103 
 
 Fly traps, 68, 19s 
 
 baits for, 71 
 Food as an agent in the transmission of 
 disease, 162 
 
 chief uses of, 150 
 
 effects of cooking, 146 
 
 ingredients of; 150 
 
 inspection of, 147. 193 
 
 manner of eating. 9 
 
 stuffs, care of, 64 
 sale of, in camp, 74 
 
 in tents prohibited, 193 
 
 use of left over, 154 
 
 value of. 146 
 
 waste of, 148 
 Foot gear for officers, 11 
 
 powder issued by tl^e Medical 
 Department, 9 
 Forced marches, 25 
 Formalin disinfector, 1, 2, x6 
 Frames for tents on adobe walls, 34 
 
 tents, plans of, 135, 136, 137, 223, 
 225, 226 
 French water wagons, 140, 141 
 Fresh air, supply necessary, 6 
 Frost bite, antitetanus serum injected 
 in cases of. Z91 
 
 causes and prevention of. 190 
 
 treatment of, 191 - 
 Fumigation by hydrocyanic acid gas, 19 
 
 by formalin, 19 
 
 by sulphur, 18 
 
 Games, value of, 7 
 
 Garbage cans to be inspected for food, 
 
 IS4 
 Garcia's latrine cover, 80, 96 
 
 meat safe, 51, 66 
 Gas gangrene influenced by dirty cloth- 
 ing, 7 
 
 poisomng, 191 
 Gasoline for destruction of lice, 13 
 German army, prevention of spread of 
 
 lice in, 19 
 Gloves, method of preventing loss of, 12 
 Goode'8 bath house, 79, 81 
 Grass, value of, in a camp site, 31 
 Grease trap, 46, 62 
 
 description of, 62 
 
 for sullage water, 47, 63 
 
 (Pike). 73.. 89 , , 
 Greasy water, disposal of, 193 
 Guards for water supply in camp, 32, 192 
 Guthrie incinerator, description of, 55, 
 
 58 
 Guthrie's incinerator, 40, 57 
 
 Hair on body when lice are present, 15 
 Halazbne as a water purifying agent, 140 
 Halts, allowed on marches, 25 
 Hands, care of, 8, 195 
 Havard box, description of, 93 
 Health of command, responsibility for, 
 2 
 
 of marching troops, 6 
 
 of troops on marches, 23 
 
244 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Heart, irritable, following severe march- 
 ing, 29 
 Heat exhaustion, manner of preventing, 
 
 28 
 Heating of cantonment buildings, 3S 
 
 of water in the trenches, 79 
 Hopper for pit for liquM. garbage, 44i 61 
 Horses, care of, on marches, 26, 28 
 Hospital hut, portable, X4j 38 
 
 wards, 12, 37 
 Hucksters, not allowed in camps, 193 
 Hut, adobe, IS» 39 
 Huts, adobe* 40 ' 
 
 fresh air in, 6 
 
 log, description of, 35 
 
 portable, description of, 38. 39 
 Hygiene, definition of, i 
 
 military, i 
 
 personal, 6, 20, 193 
 
 Ice as an agent for transmission of dis- 
 ease, 16S 
 box, subterranean, plan of, 149, 237 
 Immunization against typhoid fever, 169 
 Immunity, acquired, 166 
 
 general discussion of, 165 
 Incineration pit in hill side, 150, 23S 
 Incinerator (after Lelean), 93, xoS 
 cake tin, io7i 121 
 and cook fire, improvised, plan of, 
 
 144, 233 . . 
 Guthne, description of, 55 
 inclined plane, 103, 117 
 manure, zsif 23S 
 
 for smaU commands, zi6 
 (McMunn), 94, 109 
 portable, inclined plane, 104, txS 
 rock pit, description of, 55> 57 
 Trincas, 1x4 
 turf, 96, 97> no. III 
 underground, 98 a-fr, xx2 
 Incinerators developed in Punitive 
 Expedition, s^f 60 
 improvised, 113 ' 
 in use in the English service, xoS 
 Incubation period of infectious diseases, 
 
 x88 
 Infantry, manner of marching, I5> 23 
 
 regiment, camp of, I2X, 200 
 Indirect infections, 161 
 Infections, manner of contracting, 160 
 most prevalent among troops, 4 
 on line of communications, 4 
 through the nose and mouth, 183 
 transmitted through an alternative 
 host, 163 
 through toilet and smoking 
 articles, S 
 Infectious diseases, causes of. 158 
 incubation neriod, x88 
 transmitted by meat, 151 
 by water, x6x 
 Influenza highly contagious, 186 
 Injuries to feet on the march, 28 
 insect borne diseases, 172, 173 
 
 carriers of disease, 173 
 InspectionSf physical, twice monthly, 
 xo, X94 
 
 Instructions concerning care of person, 6 
 Iodine as a water purifying agent, X39 
 Irritable heart following severe march- 
 ing. 29 
 
 K 
 
 Kitchen attendants to be free from dis- 
 ease, 149 
 
 brush shelter for, 20, 43 
 
 cleanliness, 149* X93 
 
 company, plan of, X28, 209 
 
 and dimng room, plan of, 129, 131, 
 132, 2X1, 2x5. 2x7 
 screened, X3, 38 ' 
 
 facilities for camp use, 42 
 
 improvised in the Punitive Expe- 
 dition, 42, 43 
 
 floors, care of, 67. I94. 
 
 and mess hall, improvised, plan for, 
 I42» 231 
 
 refuse, disposal of, 55, X93 
 
 service, 7^ 
 
 soakage pit, 43f 60 
 
 tables, manner of making, 66 
 Kitchens, rolling, description of, S3 
 
 suspected carriers of disease re- 
 lieved from duty in, 193 
 
 Laboratories, portable, for examination 
 
 of water. X29 
 Lake water, character of, X26 
 Lamp black and oil, in latrines, 97 
 Lanterns, improvised, 1S2, 239 
 Larvacide, how made, X76 
 Larvas, fly, destruction of, with conser- 
 vation of manure, 119 
 Latrine box and enclosure, plan of, 130, 
 213 
 extemporized, 78, 95 
 Hopwood, 79, 95 
 lid raised, 77> 94 
 movable (Havard), 75, 93 
 usual type, 76» 94 
 cover (Garcia), So, 96 
 pits, care of, 95 
 
 in El Paso District, 97 
 description of, gi 
 portable, fly proof, 89, xos 
 seat, fly proof, 87, 103 
 separating (McPherson), 19, 107 
 
 (Pike), 90, X06 
 shelter, adobe brick, 83, xoo 
 
 galvanized iron, 83» xoo 
 shelters, xoo 
 for trenches, 88, 104 
 Latrines to be kept fly proof, X95 
 location of, 90 
 
 phenol solutions provided for, 8 
 temporary, description of, 9x 
 trench, care of, ^194 
 in the trenches,' 102 
 Launderies in European services, X2 
 Laundering in the field, X2 
 Laundry, manner of handling, British 
 service, 84 
 use of tents for, 90 
 water, bacteria content of, 13 
 
xiy un^A. 
 
 245 
 
 Laundry water, disposal of, 90 
 Leather goods, sterilization of, 17, ig 
 Lice as an agent in the transmission of 
 disease, 1S3 
 control of, 13 
 destruction of, 13, 17 
 development of, 182 " 
 infesting men in trenches, 183 
 prevention of spread of, in German 
 Army, 19 
 ^ in typhus fever, 182 
 Lines of communication,' sanitary con- 
 dition of, affected by troops 
 _ using same, 3, 4 
 sanitation on, 3 
 Log hut, II, 37 
 
 Lucas' staddle trench cover, 74, 91, 92 
 Lyster water bags, 13S 
 
 M 
 
 Maggots, trap for, 105, 119 
 Malaria carriers, 177 
 
 how transmitted, 163, 174 
 Manure, disposal of, in dry climates, 114 
 during rains, 115 
 by Panama incinerator, 102, 116 
 in temporary camps, 194 
 
 incinerator, 151, 23S 
 
 windrow method of burning, 101, 
 IIS 
 March, body temperature during, 26 
 
 care of, feet on, 9 
 
 rate of, influenced by conditions, 24 
 in mixed commands, 24 
 Marches, by Artillery, 25 
 
 by cavalry, 24 
 
 in cold weather, 28 
 
 forced, effects on troops, 24 
 
 health of troops on, 23 
 
 hour of commencing, 22, 23 
 
 in humid atmosphere, 27 
 
 by infantry, 24 ^ ^ 
 
 manner of conducting, 2 2 
 
 men falling out in, 25 
 
 night, to be avoided, 23 
 Marching, attitude in, 23 
 
 shoe, II 
 McMunn incinerator, 94, 109 
 McPherson[s system for separation of 
 
 urine and feces, 106 
 Meals, inspection of, 147 
 
 on the march. 22 
 Measles, preventive measures. 186 
 Meat, care of. in warm weather, 157 
 
 distribution of , 157 
 
 house, adobe, 49, 65 
 
 safe, adobe, 50, 65 
 
 Garcia's burlap, 5i» 66 
 manner of building, 66 
 
 wagon, 48, 64 
 Meats, care of, in camp, 65 
 
 as a cause of disease, 151 
 
 infected, 151 
 
 preservation of, 151 
 
 selection of, 156 
 Mechanical transmission of disease by 
 
 insects, 163 
 Medical Department, prime duty of, 1 
 
 Officers to inspect feet, 194 
 
 Melons not brought into camp, 193 
 Mess, advantages of a satisfactory, 147 
 
 management, 148 
 
 sergeant, supervision of, 148 
 
 table, extemporized, 66 
 plan of, 148, 237 
 
 utensils, how cleaned, 73 
 Military exigencies, relation to sanitary 
 measures. 3 
 
 failures caused by sickness, 3 
 
 hygiene, i ■ 
 
 sanitation, i 
 Milk as a cause of disease. 152 
 Morbidity rates of armies, causes 
 
 affecting, 3 
 Mosquitoes; extermination of, 174 
 
 transmission of disease by, 173 
 Mouth, care of, 8 
 Mumps, dissemination of. x86 
 Munson shoe, advantages of, 11 
 
 N 
 
 Naphtha soap for destruction of lice, is 
 N. C. I. for control of lice, 13 
 Night marches to be avoided, 23 
 Nitrifying bacteria, ia6 
 Nostrils, care of, 8 
 
 Ober's fly trap, 58, 72 
 Officer's bath house, improvised, plan 
 for, I43» 232 
 house, plan of, 141, 230 
 line, duty regarding hygiene and 
 
 sanitation, 2 
 education of in hygiene and sani- 
 tation, 3 
 Oil anil lamp or bone black for treat- 
 ment of, latrines, 97 
 use of in mosquito extermination, 
 174. 175 
 Oiling of pools about camp, 195 
 Oven, combined range and oven, 30, 50 
 Ovens, combined stove, oven and incin- 
 erator, 29, 49 
 improvised in Punitive Expedition, 
 46, 47, 48. 49, S3 
 planrfor, 145, 146, I47» 234, 235, 
 236 
 
 Pail system used in the British service, 
 
 X02 
 used on the Western Front, 102 
 Panama incinerator for disposal of 
 
 manure, 102, 116 
 Paper blankets, extemporized, 7 
 
 fly. how made, 68 
 Patients treated at regimental inflrm- 
 
 aries, 194 
 Paulin kitchen and dining room, plan 
 
 for, 131* 132, 2iSt 217 
 Personal hygiene, 6, 20, 193 
 Picket line, section plan of, I33s 2x9 
 
 lines, care of, 19s 
 Pike's soap or grease trap, 88, 89 
 Fit incinerator , 150, 23S 
 
246 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Pits, grease. 62, 64 
 
 latrine, deecription of, 91 
 Plague, the, measures for control of, iSi 
 
 protective inoculation against, 182 
 
 transmitted by the flea, 181 
 Flan of bath house. 1 27, 207 
 
 of company kitchen, 128, 209 
 
 of dining table. 128, 209 
 
 for kitchen and dining room, 129, 
 211 
 
 for latrine box and enclosure, 130 
 213 
 
 for paulin kitchen and dining room, 
 131. 215 
 Pneumonia, 6 
 
 occurrence of, 161 
 
 prevention of, 185 
 Poisoned fly-baits. 73 
 Pools about permanent camps to be 
 
 oiled, 195 
 Pork as a source of disease, 162 
 Portable hospital hut. 14, 38 
 
 incinerator, inclined plane, X04, 118 
 
 laboratories for the examination of 
 water, 129 
 
 latrine, 89f 105 
 Potassium jiermanganate as a water pur- 
 ifying agent. 139 
 Prophylactic treatment, venereal, 10 
 Prostitutes infected with venereal dis"- 
 
 ease, 10 
 Protein in foods, ifii 
 Protozoa, general discussion of, 160 
 Ptomaine poisoning, 162 
 
 causes of, 74 
 Pump, spray. 81, 98 
 Punitive Expedition, kitchen facilities 
 evolved, 42 
 
 vermin among camp followers, 20 
 Pyorrhea, importance of treatment of, 8 
 
 Quarters, semisubterranean. 9, 35 
 Quinine, use of in malaria, X76 
 
 R 
 
 Range, improvised adobe, 31, so 
 
 Rat traps, use of. 182 
 
 Rats, agency of, in the transmission of 
 
 plague, 181 
 Rates for mdrbidity and mortality ac- 
 cording to service, 5 
 Ration, kinds of. 149 
 
 savings on. 154 
 
 substitutes for, I53 
 Rations, how issued, 150 
 Records of typhoid prophylactic, 169 
 Refuse, disposal of, in camp, 194 
 
 kitchen, disposal, 55* i93 
 Regulations for moving commands, 192 
 Rest, importance of. 7 
 River water, purification of, 125 
 Road spaces assumed in infantry, 24 
 
 for mounted men, 24 
 Roads in camp, 195 
 Rock pile crematory, plan of, 133, 219 
 
 pit incinerator, 3S> 55 
 description of, 55-57 
 
 Rocky Mountain fl|>otted fever, how 
 
 transmitted, 163 
 Rolling kitchen in Punitive Expedition, 
 36, 53 
 kitchens, advantages of, 54 
 description of, 53 
 Rubbish dump, 106, 120 
 Rules to limit the spread of disease. 184 
 
 Safes, meat and fruit, manner of build- 
 ing. 66 
 Sandy soil, manner of securing tent 
 
 ropes in, 33 
 Sanitary condition, tines of communica- 
 tion effected by type of troops 
 usinR same, 4 
 conditions in campaign, 4 
 functions of surgeon. 2 
 measures, non-compliance with, 3 
 relation to military exigencies, 3 
 service of troops, 2 
 Sanitation, general considerations, r 
 lines of communication, 3 
 military, i 
 Saville bath house, 62. 76 
 
 water heater, 63, 77. 78 
 Scalp, care of, 8 
 
 Scarlet fever, preventive measures, x86 
 Screening of cantonment buildings, 176 
 Screened kitchen and dining room, 13, 
 38 
 tent, 5, 33. 
 Semi-monthly inspections of command, 
 
 194 
 Serbian barrell, 4> 18 
 Sexual intercourse not essential to 
 
 health, 10 
 Shell fish as a cause of disease. 168 
 Shelter for horses, 100, 114 
 tents on walls, 33 
 for troops in camp, 33 
 Shelters, improvised. Punitive Expe- 
 dition. 39 
 Shoes, description of, 1 1 
 
 size of, 194 
 Shower bath used in nth Cavalry, 62, 76 
 
 baths, improvised, 75 
 Showers, bill of materials for, 206 
 Sick call on the march in the French 
 service, 28 
 rate according to age, 5 
 report, increased, 2 
 Sickness as a cause of military failures. 3 
 Sites, camp, selection of, 30 
 Skin, afiected by bathing. 7 
 
 the, as a source of infections, 164 
 Sleei), best in the early morning. 23 
 
 importance of, 7 
 Smallpox, vaccination against, zS8 
 Smoking, effects of. 10 
 Soak^e pit for Bullage water. 47^ 63 
 pits, manner of constructing, 87 
 rock filled, not advocated, 90 
 Soap or grease trap, (Pike), 72, 88 
 
 traps, description of, 62 
 Socks to be well fitting and free from 
 holes, Z18 
 
INDEX 
 
 247 
 
 Sodium bisulphite as a water disinfec- 
 tant, 139 
 hypochlorite, 138 
 Sou as an agent in the transmission of 
 disease, 162, x6S 
 type for healthy camp sites, 30 
 Soldier, healthy, value of, 2 
 
 sick, 2 
 Spark arresters, location of, 35 
 Spitting -to be discouraged, 9 
 Spring, output, how measured, 124 
 
 ^ water, purity of, 125 
 Springs, classification of, 124 
 Steam disinfector, i, 3, 16 
 
 under pressure for destruction of 
 lice, IS 
 Stoves, types of, for cantonment build- 
 ings, 3S 
 Strangling, eSects of, 28 
 Strainer for sullage water, 47, 63 
 Streams, purity of, 125 
 Sullage, disposal of, 90 
 
 water, absorption of, 87 
 filtration of, 87 
 
 separation of fats from, 62, 87 
 Sulphur fumigation, 18 
 Sweating, excessive, treatment for, 8 
 Swinging cage, S5, 70 
 Syphilis, record of, n 
 
 Table, dining. s6. 7i 
 plan of, 1 28, 209 
 
 mess, plan of, 148, 237 
 Tables, manner of making kitchen and 
 
 dining tables. 66 
 Tanks, canvas. Lyster. 141 
 Tarsalgia occurring on the march, 28 
 Tea. weak, as a means to slake thirst. 27 
 Teeth, care of. 8 
 
 Temperature of men on the march, 26 
 Teno-synovitis occurring on the march, 
 
 28 
 Tent frames, plans of, 13s, 136, 137, 223, 
 225, 226 
 
 screened, 5, 33 
 
 sites aired twice weekly. 19s 
 Tentage as shelter for troops, 33 
 Tents to be ditched, 193 
 
 flooring for. 35 
 
 frames for, 6, 34 
 
 fresh air in, 6 
 
 manner of heating, 35 
 
 ventilation of. 35, 40 
 
 on walls, 7, 8, 34 
 Tetanus bacilli, where found, 163 
 Tetrachlorethane solution for destruc- 
 tion of Uce, 14 
 Texas fever, how transmitted, 163 
 Thirst, control of, on the march. 26 
 
 weak tea or coSee better than 
 water, 27 
 Throat, care of, 8 
 
 Tonsils, the, as a port of entry for infec- 
 tion, 164 
 Tooth brush, care of, 9 
 Total abstinence, effects of , 10 
 Toxins, 165 
 
 Trains, bathing, description of, 79 
 
 camp of, 123, 202 
 
 daily marches by, 25 
 Transmissible diseases, causes of, 158 
 Trap for maggots, 105, 119 
 Traps, fly, 68, 19S 
 
 baits for, 71 
 
 grease, 62 
 
 rat, 182 
 Trench feet, causes of, 189 
 treatment of, 190 
 
 fever, types of, 187, 188 
 
 latrine, 86, 103 
 
 latrines, care of, 194 ^ 
 
 urinal, 92, 107 
 
 warfare, supply of fresh air, 6 
 Trenches, care of clothing in, 21 
 
 disposal of excrement in, 1 1 
 Trichina due to pork, 162 
 Trichlorethylene, solution of for destruc- 
 tion of lice, Z4 
 Trincas incinerator, z 14 
 Troops, condition in campaign, 4 
 Trough latrine and pit, 99, 113 
 Tube wells, description of, 127, 128 
 Tuberculosis, immunity from, 1S4 
 
 preventive measures. 185 
 
 spread of. [84 
 . transmitted by milk. 162 
 Turf incinerator. 97, r 1 1 
 Turpentine for destrurtion of lice, is 
 Typhoid Fever, due to milk, 162 
 prevention of, 168 
 young soldiers. 5 
 
 prophylactic, administration of, 170 
 
 vaccination of camp followers, 
 Punitive Expedition, 20 
 Typhus fever. 164, 183 
 
 in armies of Europe, 4 
 
 U 
 
 Ultra-violet light to purify water, 140 
 Underground incinerator, 98 a, b, 112 
 Underwear, care of, ti 
 Urine cans, use of, 100-196 
 
 disposal of. 98 
 
 method of separating from feces, 
 106 
 Urinal, trench, 92, 107 
 
 Vaccination of camp followers, 20 
 Vegetables, cooking of, 146 
 
 transmission of disease by, 163, 168 
 Vendors selling in vicinity of camp, 193 
 Venereal cases, record kept of, 11^ 
 
 disease, prevention of infection, 10 
 Ventilation of cantonment buildings, 37 
 
 Punitive Expedition in Mexico, 6 
 
 of pyramidal tents, i<k 36 
 
 of shelter for troops. 6 
 
 of tents. 35. 40 
 Vermijelli, composition of, 14 
 Vermin, control of, 13 
 
 in houses used for billeting, 133 
 
 in Punitive Expedition, 30 
 Vitamines, essential to health, 153 
 
248 
 
 INDEX 
 
 W 
 
 Walls, tents erected on. 6, 7, 8, 34 
 Ward, tent, field hospital, 19, 42 
 Waste of foods, 148 
 
 Water, ablution and suUage, disposal of, 
 86 
 bacteria in, 129 
 bath, manner of reusing, 85 
 borne diseases. 16 z 
 chemical sterilization of, 136 
 disposal of waste in camp, 60 
 drinlcing. purMcation of, 130 
 
 purified the evening before a 
 
 march begins, 32 
 standard for, 129 
 examination of, 128 
 filtration of, 133 
 •for fixed camps, manner of com- 
 puting, 123 
 heater, Major Saville, Q. M. C, 78 
 from kitchen faucets, X95 
 lake, character of, 126 
 manner of drinking, on the march, 27 
 on the march, manner of procuring 
 
 in continental armies, 26 
 means of carrying to troops in the 
 
 field. 140 
 pits, El Paso District, 90 
 purification of, by Halazone, 140 
 quantities needed per man per day, 
 
 123 
 quantity required for horse or mule, 
 123 
 yielded by a stream, 123 
 rain, properties of, 124 
 river, purification of, 125 
 spring, purity of, 124 
 sterilizers, types of, 132 
 sterilizing bag, description of, 13S 
 from streams, composition of, 125 
 
 Water from streams, purity of, 125 
 supply for camp use, 123 
 
 to be guarded in camp, 32. 192 
 manner of determimng contami- 
 nation of, 126 
 pirotection of, 128 
 for troops in trenches, 145 
 tanks, canvas, Lyster, 141 
 wagons (French), 140, 141 
 weight and measure of, 123 
 in a well, estimate of, 124 
 Watering animals on the march, 28 
 
 trough, plan of, 134, 221 
 Well, estimate of quantity yielded by,i 24 
 requirements of , 127 
 water, purity of, 126 
 Wells, pollution of, 126 
 
 purification of, by potassium per- 
 manganate, 139 
 tube, description of, 127, 128 
 West African relapsing fever, 163 
 Wheeled field oven ([Austrian), 35, S 2 
 kitchen. Austrian Army, 37, S4 
 Wind brakes, construction of, 121 
 
 made of brush, 1 6, 40 
 Windrow method of burning manure, 
 loi, 115 
 
 Xylol for the destruction of lice, 15 
 
 Y 
 
 Yellow fever, how transmitted, 163, 177 
 prevention of, 178 
 
 Zone of active operations, civil sanitary 
 organizations in, 4