BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME PROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF Itenrg W. Sage 1891 ..■2./^.;z...e.g^ 3 .a/.J2r://.A. 6896- I Cornell University Library BS1700 .H89 olin 3 1924 029 308 263 The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924029308263 THE ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE THE ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITEEATUEE BY H. MALDWYN HUGHES B.A., D.D. (Lond!) THESIS APPEOVBD FOE THE DEGREE OF DOCTOB OF DIVINITY IN THE UNIVERSITY OP LONDON 'ganiian ROBEKT OULLEY -35 CITY EGAD, AND 26 PATBENOSTEE BOW, B.C. PRIM TED BY HAZJ5LL, WATSON AND VINEY, LD., LONDON AND AYLESBURY. TO MY MOTHER AND TO THE MEMORY OF MY FATHER TO WHOM ANYTHING THAT IS MINE IN THIS BOOK BELONGS PREFACE The following pages treat of a field of study the importance of which is being increasingly realized. It has proved to me one of absorbing interest, and I venture to cherish the hope that this volume may assist, in some small degree, those who desire to read the New Testament in its historical con- nexions. It is needless to state that my obligations are many and varied. I have endeavoured to make due acknowledgement in the proper place, and have not wilfully been guilty of any omission. I am especially indebted to the pioneer work of Dr. R. H. Charles, whose investigations have thrown so much light upon apocalyptic literature. The extent of such indebtedness it is impossible to estimate, but a reference to the Index of Names wiU show that it has been indicated as far as possible. I have further to express my gratitude to Prof. H. T. Andrews, of London, for valuable counsel, and to my wife, who has compiled the Index of Passages, and has helped me in many other ways in preparing the MS. for the press. H. M. H. vu CONTENTS CHAPTER I THE LITERATURE pAaB Introductory — History and Romance — Moral Philo- sophy — Pseudepigraphs and Apocalypses — List of Literature 1 CHAPTER II THE MORAL IDEAL, ITS CONTENT AND DEVELOPMENT Introductory . . . . . . .22 I. THE SECOND CENTURY B.C. A. Palestinian •- Sirach — Ethiopic Enoch i.-xxxvi. — Ethiopic Enoch Ixxxiii.-xc. — Tobit— Baruch i. 15-iii. 8 — Jubilees — Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs 27 B. Alexandrian : Sibylline Oracles iii. 97-829 and Proemium — Prayer of Manasses .... 62 Summary 64 n. THE FIRST CENTURY B.C. A. Palestinian : Additions to Daniel — 1 Maccabees — Ethiopic Enoch xci.-oiv. — Similitudes of Enoch — Psalms of Solomon — Judith 68 B. Alexandrian : 3 Ezra — 2 Maccabees — Wisdom, Pt. I— Wisdom, Pt. II 87 Summary 102 ix CONTENTS in. THE FIRST CENTURY A.D. A. Albxandkian : 3 Maccabees — 4 Maccabees — Slavonic Enoch 107 B. Palbstiotan : Assumption of Moses— Martyrdom of Isaiah — Baruch iii. 9-iv. 4 — Baruch iv. 5-v. 9 — Sibylline Oracles iv. — Apocalypse of Baruch — 4 Ezra — Apocalypse of Abraham .... 117 Summary 139 CHAPTER III MORAL EVIL Introductory . . . . . . .145 I. THE SECOND CENTITRY B.C. A. Palestinian : Sirach — Ethiopic Enoch i.-xxxvi., Ixxxiii.-xc. — Tobit — Baruch i. 15-iii. 8 — Jubilees — Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs . . .147 B. Albxandbian : SibylUne Oracles iii. 97-829 and Proemium 166 Summary 168 n. THE FIRST CENTURY B.C. A. Palestinian : 1 Maccabees — Ethiopic Enoch xci.- civ. — Similitudes of Enoch — Ethiopic Enoch Ixxx. — Psalms of Solomon — Judith 170 B, Alexandrian : 3 Ezra — 2 Maccabees — Wisdom, Pt. I— Wisdom, Pt. II 176 Summary . 187 ni. THE FIRST CENTURY A.D. A. Albxandeian : 3 Maccabees — 4 Maccabees — Slavonic Enoch 190 OONTEKTS XI PAGE B. Palestinian : Assumption of Moses — Martyrdom of Isaiah — Baruch ill. 9-iv. 4 — Sibylliae Oracles iv. — Apocalypse of Baruch — 4 Ezra — Apocalypse of Abraham 202 Summary 212 CHAPTER IV THE WILL Introductory 215 I. THE SECOND CENTURY B.C. A. Palestinian : Siraoh — Ethiopia Enoch i.-xxxvi. — Ethiopic Enoch Ixxxiii.-xo. — Tobit — Baruch i. 15-iii. 8 — Jubilees — Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs . 217 B. Alexandrian : Sibylline Oracles iii. 97-829 and Proemium ........ 223 Summary 224 II. THE FIRST CENTURY B.C. A. Palestinian : 1 Maccabees — Ethiopic Enoch xci.- civ.^ — Similitudes of Enoch — Psalms of Solomon — Judith 225 B. Albxandeian : 2 Maccabees — Wisdom, Pt. I. — Wisdom, Pt. II 228 Summary 231 rn. THE FIRST CENTURY A.D. A. Alexandrian : 3 Maccabees — 4 Maccabees — Sla- vonic Enoch 232 B. Palestinian : Assumption of Moses — Mart3n?dom of Isaiah — Baruch iii. 9-iv. 4 — Sibylline Oracles iv. Apocalypse of Baruch— 4 Ezra — Apocalypse of Abraham 234 Summary 242 XU CONTENTS CHAPTER V MORAL SANCTIONS FAQE Introductory 244 I. THE SECOND CENTURY B.C. A. Palestinian: Sirach — Ethiopic Enoch i.-xxxvi. — Ethiopic Enoch Ixxxiii.-xc. — Tobit — Baruch i.-15-iii.8 — Jubilees — Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs . . • 247 B. Alexandrian : Sibylline Oracles iii. 97-829 and Proemium 262 Summary 266 n. THE FIRST CENTURY B.C. A. Palestinian :' 1 Maccabees — Ethiopic Enoch xci.- civ. — Simihtudes of Enoch. — Psalms of Solomon — Judith 267 B. Alexandrian : 3 Ezra — 2 Maccabees — Wisdom, Pt. I.— Wisdom, Pt. II 277 Summary 289 in. THE FIRST CENTURY A.D. A. Alexandrian : 3 Maccabees — 4 Maccabees — Sla- vonic Enoch 292 B. Palestinian : Assumption of Moses — Martyrdom of Isaiah — Baruch iii. 9-iv. 4 — Baruch iv. 5-v. 9 — Sibylline Oracles iv. — Apocalypse of Baruch — 4 Ezra — Apocalypse of Abraham .... 296 Summary 309 INDEX OF SUBJECTS AND NAMES . . .313 INDEX OF PASSAGES 323 THE ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE CHAPTER I THE LITERATURE The word Apocrypha, as applied to Jewish literature, is used in two senses. In the narrower sense it signifies those books (with 4 Ezra) which are found in the LXX, but not in the Hebrew Bible ; in its wider meaning it includes, in addition to these, other Jewish writings which belong to the same period and are mainly apocalyptic in character. This literature covers (approximately) the period 200 B.C. to A.D. 100. Our present purpose does not demand the treat- ment of the relation of any of these books to the Canon, but the consideration of the light which they throw upon the history and development of moral ideas. Their importance for the study of the N.T. is being increasingly recognized, and is apparent from the fact that they reflect the thought of the two centuries which preceded the coming of Christ, and of the days in which He was manifest upon the earth. Some of them were written contempo- raneously with the N.T., and are thus fraught 1 2 ETHICS OP JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATTTRE with additional interest. The apocryphal litera- ture therefore throws light upon the intellectual and moral world into which Christianity was born. It illumines many aspects of Jewish life ; it reveals the thoughts and ideals upon which the N.T. writers were nurtured, and in the light of which their teach- ing must be interpreted ; and it shows us how, in certain Jewish circles, there was steadily taking place a preparation for Christianity. When it is remembered that there is a distance of about two hundred years between the latest book of the O.T. and the earliest of the N.T., it will be seen that the study of this literature is at least as important as that of the O.T., for an intelligent understanding of the N.T. To neglect the Stoics and Epicureans and pass at one step from Aristotle to the later Stoicism of Cicero and Seneca would hardly be a greater leap than to pass from the O.T. to the N.T. without investigating Jewish literature in the intervening period. In classif jdng these books different methods might be pursued. They might be grouped according as they originated in Palestine and its neighbour- hood, or in the region of Alexandria, where there was a large and influential colony of Jews ; or (within certain limits) according to the schools of thought which they represent ; or according to their literary character. It wiU. be convenient to adopt the last-named method as the basis of our present classification, while at the same time indicating as far as is known the place of origin of the books and the schools of thought which they represent. Critical questions lie outside the scope of our study, THE LITERATURE 3 and, except in one or two instances, where there may be particular reasons, we shall content our- selves with the statement of generally accepted results. I. History and Romance The Jews drew on history in order to inculcate moral lessons, and sometimes used the historical romance for the same purpose, often finding the basis for these stories in actual history, but bringing their imagination freely to bear upon them. ToBiT. — This is one of the most instructive of the O.T. Apocrypha. There is much to be said for Dr. J. H. Moidton's theory that its groundwork is a Persian romance which a Jew resident in Media rewrote in Aramaic, ' accommodating it throughout for the edification of his co-religionists.' ' Whether this be so or not, there can be no doubt that it shows marked traces of Persian influence. Most authorities date it between 150 and 100 b.o. Additions to Daniel. — These additions to the canonical Daniel are found in the LXX and are not regarded as historical. They consist of The Song of the Three Children, Bel and the Dragon, and The History of Susanna. If Ball's theory (stated in the next chapter) as to the origin of Susanna is correct, it must have been written soon after 100 B.C. The other two additions possibly fall in the same century, but nothing can be stated with certainty. 1 Maccabees is the chief source of our know- ledge of the Maccabaean struggle for independence, * Expository Times, March 1900. i ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE and its interest is mainly historical. Geiger thinks that it is a partisan work written by a Sadducee who enthusiastically supported the Hasmonean dynasty, and 2 Mace, that of a Pharisee who was opposed to it. Whether it was a deliberate polemic or not, its Sadducean tendencies are beyond dispute. The author was a Palestinian Jew, and the date to which the weight of opinion leans is 100-80 B.C. 2 Maccabees narrates the history of events from 176 to 161 B.C., and partly covers the same ground as 1 Mace., which treats of the period 175-135 B.C., but it is not historically so trustworthy as its pre- decessor. It is an epitome of a previous work by Jason of Cyrene (ii. 23), to which the epitomizer has prefixed a preface of his own (ii. 19-32). There have also been added, probably by a later hand, two letters which are not regarded as authentic (i. 1-9, i. 10-ii. 18) ; the object of both seems to have been to persuade the Jews of Egypt to keep the Feast of Dedication. This book, though historical in form, differs from 1 Mace, in having a definitely moral and religious purpose. Some critics think it is the partisan work of a Pharisee with a bias against the Hasmonean dynasty, and that it is in a measure a reply to 1 Mace., which was written by a Sadducee with decided leanings to that dynasty. It was written in Greek by a Jew who probably lived at Alexandria. Charles dates it between 60 B.C. and a.d 1. It is impossible to tell how much or how little the epitomizer has coloured his materials with his own views, and it must be remembered that if he simply reproduces the behefs of Jason, they belong to the second THE LITBBATUEB 5 century B.C., and not to the age in which he himself wrote. 3 Maccabees. — This book describes certain per- secutions of the Jews by Ptolemy IV (Philopator) King of Egypt (222-205 B.C.). It is a romance with some historical foundation, and has no connexion with the Maccabees. It is of no great value from the standpoint of history, religion, or ethics. It was probably written in Alexandria, and bears a few traces of the Jewish-Alexandrian philosophy. All that can be said as to the date is that the evidence points to the first century a.d., though the first century B.C. is possible. The Book of Judith was probably written by a Palestinian Pharisee in the first century B.C. It is a historical romance, perhaps based on events which took place three centuries earUer. The Additions to Esther. — These additions to the canonical book of Esther are found in the LXX. Their main purpose seems to have been to give a reUgious tone to a book in which the name of God did not occur, and to emphasize God's special care over Israel. Their author (or authors) was a Hellenist. It is difficult to fix the date, but as will be seen later (page 9), there are certain doctrinal similarities between these Additions and other Alexandrian books, which suggest the possi- bihty that they were written about the beginning of the Christian era. 3 Ezra (1 Esdras). There is some difference of opinion as to the date, origin, and purpose of this book. Lupton (Speaker's Comm.) dates it in the time of Ptolemy Philometor, about the middle of 6 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITBEATUEE the second century B.C. Thackeray (Hastings's D.B. i. 762) places it between the limits 170-100. Others attribute it to the first century B.C. (De Wette, Ewald, Fritsche). Probably it was written at Alexandria. Its purpose was to glorify the law of Israel, and also perhaps to make Greek-speaking Jews acquainted with the favour once shown to their nation by foreign nations (Thackeray) or perhaps to influence in favour of the Jews one of the Ptolemies or some other sovereign (Ewald and Lupton). The book is, except for one section, a composite work whose materials are derived from canonical sources : Ch. i. = 2 Cliron. xxxv., xxxvi. Ch. ii. 1-14 = Ezra i. Ct. ii. 15-25 = Ezra iv. 7-24. Ch. iii.-v. 6 can. be traced to no known source. Ch. v. 7-70 = Ezra ii. 1— iv. 5. Ch. vi.-vii. = Ezra v.-vi. Ch. viii.-ix. 36 = Ezra vii.-x. Ch. ix. 37-55 = Neh. vii. 73— viii. 13. II. MOEAL PhTLOSOPHY One of the developments of post-Exilic activity was the use of the new literary forms exemplified in Ecclesiastes and Proverbs, in which moral precepts are inculcated by a mingling of poetry and aphorism. This form was very different from that of the Greek philosophers, but it was the nearest approach to a deliberate moral philosophy as yet attained by Jewish thought. This new THE LITERATURE 7 departure was carried further in apocryphal litera- ture. The Book of Sirach (or Ecclesiasticvjs) was origin- ally written in Hebrew in Palestine by Jesus Ben Sirach, and was translated into Greek by his grand- son of the same name. The original work is dated between 190-170 B.C., and the Greek translation about 130-120 B.C. Many Hebrew fragments have recently been discovered, and the weight of critical opinion is in favour of their being regarded not as retranslations, but as representing in the main the original Hebrew text. Apart from the Greek the most important version is the Syriac, which is universally agreed to be a translation from the Hebrew. This is one of the most important of the apocryphal books from the standpoint of ethics. It is full of instruction bearing upon all the dififerent relationships of life, and shows those tendencies which ultimately culminated in Sadduceeism. The Book op Wisdom. — This is in many respects the noblest of the apocryphal books. It reaches a lofty level of thought and poetry. It was written in Greek, and shows the influence of Greek philo- sophy, which in the writer's hands is not subversive of Judaism, but establishes it more firmly in the face of disintegrating forces. Most critics accept the integrity of the book, but there is much to be said for the theory of a dual authorship, since it falls into two very distinct parts (i. — ix. 17 and ix. 18 to end). Toy, who defended the unity of the book in the Encyc. Bihlica, has since written in support of the dual authorship.' The latter position is also * Iniernational JcmrruA of the Apocrypha, July 1907. 8 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITBKATUBE defended by Kohler {Jewish Encyc), who thinks that Part II is a haggadistic addition to Part I. The differences between the two parts are very- striking. There is some evidence from which it might be argued that there are passages in Part II which elaborate and even criticize passages in Part I. (1) It is laid down in i. 8, 9, 15 that unrighteous- ness is always punished, and that righteousness is immortal. ' No man that uttereth unrighteous things shall be unseen ; neither shall justice, when it convicteth, pass him by. For in the midst of his counsels the ungodly shall be sought out ; and the sound of his words shall come to the Lord, to bring to conviction his lawless deeds . . . righteous- ness is immortal.' The operation of these principles is illustrated in ix. 18-xi. 20, from the national history of Israel. (2) There is a marked difference between the standpoint of iii.-v., and xi. 21 — xii. 27. In the former passage the purely retributive aspect of punishment is emphasized ; but the latter brings out beautifully its remedial character, both in the case of the Gentiles and of Israel, and shows an appreciation of divine grace not present in the former. (3) Part I exalts understanding (i. 5), and tends to the Platonic identification of knowledge and virtue, but this position is modified in Part II (xiii. 8 f.) as by the Stoics, who taught that the ' error which is of the essence of vice is so far voluntary that it can be avoided if men choose to exercise their reason' (Sidgwick), THE LITERATURE 9 (4) While Part I is concerned with the praise of Wisdom, Part II exalts the Almighty and Fore- seeing God. The transition is made in ch. x. (in which wisdom is simply a divine attribute), after which the theme is no longer Wisdom, but God. The writer seems anxious that the position ascribed to Wisdom be ascribed to God, e.g. : vii. 22. Wisdom is described as the artificer of all things. viii. 17. In kinship unto wisdom is immortality. xi. 17. God's aU-powerful hand is spoken of as having created the world. XV. 3. To know thy (God's) do- minion is the root of im- mortaUty. Probably, too, the Stoic conception of God as the world-soul (vii. 24, viii. 1) is in xii. 1 identified with the O.T. doctrine of the Spirit of God, the principle which animates all living things (Ps. civ. 29 ff.). It is significant that at Alexandria, towards the dawn of the Christian era, great importance was attached to the doctrines of the Divine Sovereignty and Providence, and the special election of Israel, both of which doctrines are present in Part II of Wisdom. Evidence of this fact is found in 2, 3, and 4 Mace. Geiger holds that 2 Mace, was written as a reply to 1 Mace, and it is worth noting that while in 1 Mace, the name of God is never used, it is used very freely in 2 Mace. The Additions to Esther attest the same tendency. It is impossible to fix the date of their composition, but what is of importance for our present purpose is that they 10 ETmOS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITBRATTTRE were written in Alexandria, and with a view to supplying the defects of the canonical Esther, which lacks any mention of the name of God. It is therefore not unlikely that there was a school of thought at Alexandria which was very jealous for the prerogatives of God, and this may explain the anxiety of the writer of Part II of Wisdom to ascribe to God the functions ascribed to Wisdom in Part I. (6) As we shall see when we come to study the book, there are differences of ethical outlook in the two parts, which are best explained by a dual authorship. The main argument in favour of the unity of the book is linguistic. Such words as Tr/swroTrXao-Tos (vii. 1., X. 1), KaKOTexvoi (i. 4, xv. 4), (f)i\dv6pa'iroi (i. 6, xii. 19), and the unusual fx^raXKeveiv (iv. 12, xvi. 25) occur in both parts. But this may be explained on the supposition that the author of Part II had Part I before him when he wrote. And apart from this, as Prof. Toy has written, ' it seems, to judge from extant works, that educated Hellen- istic Jews cultivated the Greek language, and often employed a somewhat artificial academic style, with fondness for compound words, sometimes even making new compounds : this is true of Philo and Josephus, and was true doubtless of not a few other men. No great stress should be laid on general similarity in style and vocabulary as an argument for identity of origin.' ^ Part I is dated by Kohler about the middle of the first century B.C., and Part II must therefore fall somewhat later. 1 t.J.A., July 1907. THE LITERATURE 11 4 Maccabees is attributed to Josephus by Euse- bius, but the evidence of language and style is against the hypothesis. It is based mainly on 2 Mace, with which Josephus shows no acquaint- ance ; indeed it is to a large extent a philosophical version of that book. More deeply than any of the apocryphal books it shows the influence of Greek philosophy, especially of Stoicism. Some have thought it to be a sermon, but although it is horta- tory, it can hardly have been preached in its present form. It is more of the nature of a sermon expanded for the press. It was written by a Hellenist probably of Alexandria, who, like the author of The Assumption of Moses, was a Pharisaic Quietist. All that can be said with certainty as to the date is that it was written somewhere about the commencement of the Christian era, after 2 Mace, and before a.d. 70. III. PSEUDEPIGRAPHS Much of the writing of Exilic and post-Exilic times was anonymous, as in the case of the prophet known as Deutero-Isaiah, many of the Psalms, and oracles embedded in various prophetic books. Later writers, not content with remaining anony- mous, adopted the device of pseudonymity, and sought to give their message weight by putting it in the mouth of some bygone hero, whose words would carry authority. There are instances of this in the O.T., in Job, Ecclesiastes, and Daniel, and one of the apocryphal books which we have already discussed employs the same device, namely The Book of Wisdom, the first part of which (or at any 12 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE rate chs. vi.-ix.) is put into the mouth of Solomon. This is not the place to discuss the morality of the literary practice. Suffice it to say that Jewish Uterary standards were not those of to-day, and that in Judaism the messenger was of little import- ance in comparison with his message. As aU the later developments of the law, and even the com- mentaries upon it, were brought under the name of Moses, so it was a recognized practice to issue new writings under the authority of some great name of the past. Most of those pseudepigraphic writings are apocalyptic in character. The apocalypse is a development of elements latent in prophecy. The apocalyptists had not the originality and inde- pendence of the earlier prophets, nor had they their passion for interpreting the divine will in relation to the needs of their own age, but they carried to greater lengths that side of prophecy which was concerned with predicting the future. The transi- tion may be seen in the prophecy of Ezekiel, in which apocal3rptic elements first appear in a clearly defined form. Similar features may be traced in all the post-ExiUc prophets. The first fully de- veloped apocalypse was either the book of Daniel, or (if Charles's date be accepted) Enoch i.-xxxvi. Most of these apocal5^ses have been translated and edited by Prof. Charles, and, unless otherwise stated, where quotations are given they are from his translations. The Book op Enoch {Ethiopic Enoch) is extant in an Ethiopic version, derived from the original Hebrew through a Greek translation. It was THE LITEEATTJEB 13 written in Palestine. Charles distinguishes several strata in the book : (1) Chs. i.-xxxvi., written from the prophetic standpoint of such chapters as Isa. Ixv., Ixvi., before 170 B.C. (2) Chs. Ixxxiii.-xc, mainly from the standpoint of Daniel, and written between 166-161 B.C. by a Chasid in support of the Maccabaean movement. Porter thinks that this date is too early. (3) Chs. xci.-civ., written between 134-95 B.C. by a Pharisee, or perhaps more probably between 94 and 78 b.c. (4) Chs. xxxvu.-lxx.,ha.owa.a,s the Similitudes, and written between 94^79 B.C. or 70-64 B.C. (5) Chs. Ixxii.-lxxxii., known a,sThe Book of Celestial Physics. The date is uncertain. This book contains no ethical references, except in Ixxx. and Ixxxi., which Charles regards as interpolations probably from the hand of the editor of the complete Enoch. All these sections contain interpolations mainly belonging to a lost book of Noah. The whole was put into its present form by an editor before the commencement of the Christian era. In regard to the above analysis it shotdd be said that Porter is of opinion that Charles's analysis and dates must not be accepted as final.' The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs. — This is a book written originally in Hebrew by a Palestinian Pharisee, who was deeply attached to the Hasmonean house, about 109-106 B.C. A few passages have been interpolated ; some Charles dates 70-40 B.C., others are of doubtful date, and a 1 Messages of the Apocalyptic Writers, p. 300. 14 ETHICS OP JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE few are Christian additions. The book has come down to us in Greek, Armenian, and Slavonic versions. From the standpoint of ethics it is one of the most important of the non-canonical books. There can be little doubt that it was read by Christ, and that the influence of its teaching can be traced in the Gospels. The Book of Jubilees. — This is not a pseu- depigraph, nor is it, strictly speaking, an apocalypse, but it contains many apocalyptic elements, and may be conveniently dealt with here. It is a restate- ment of Genesis from the standpoint of the Priestly Code. There are many conflicting theories as to its origin and purpose. The weight of evidence seems to point to a Pharisaic authorship. This is the view held by Charles and Kohler. It was probably written in Palestine between 135 and 105 b.c. The book is a strong polemic against Hellenism, of the disintegrating effects of which on the life of Israel it warns the nation. It glorifies the law and its ordinances, sets up the patriarchs as examples of piety, and advocates an attitude of rigid exclusive- ness in relation to the Gentile world. The Sibylline Oracles. — This is a composite work of mixed Jewish and Christian elements, whose composition extends from the second century B.C. far into the Christian era. The task of disen- tangling the various parts is very difficult, and critics have not yet come to an agreement. It is, however, generally agreed that the oldest portion consists of iii. 97-829, together with the fragments known as the Proemium. These were written by a Jew of Alexandria in the reign of Ptolemy (vii.) THE LITERATURE 15 Physoon (146-117 B.C.). Bk. iv. is also accepted by many as Jewish (probably Palestinian), and is dated about a.d. 80. The version followed is the metrical translation of Terry, but the numbering of the Greek editions is given in the references. The Assumption op Moses probably consisted originally of two parts — The Testament of Moses, and The Assumption of Moses. That which has come down to us is in reality the Testament. It is only found in one Latin version, which has been translated from a Greek version, which in its turn was translated from the original Hebrew. The date is fixed by Charles between a.d. 7 and 30. There have been many theories as to its authorship. It has been variously contended that it was written by a Sadducee, a Zealot, and an Essene. The weight of evidence is in favour of the hypothesis of Charles, that the author was a Pharisaic Quietist. The Ascension of Isaiah. — This is a composite work, partly Jewish, but put into its present form by a Christian hand not later than 150-200 a.d. Charles distinguishes three component elements : (a) The Martyrdom of Isaiah (i. 1, 2 a, 6 6-13 a, ii. 1-8, 10-iii. 12, v. 1 6-14), a Jewish work written between 1 and 50 a.d. (6) The Testament of Hezekiah (iii. 13 6 — iv. 18), the work of a Christian writer, a.d. 88-100. Possibly based on an earlier Jewish work. (c) The Vision of Isaiah (vi.-xi. 1-40). Possibly from the hand of the same writer as The Testament of Hezekiah. As our present purpose is the study of Jewish ethics, we are concerned only with The Martyrdom of Isaiah. 16 ETHICS OP JEWISH APOCEYPHAL LITEKATITRE Slavonic Enoch (The Booh of the Secrets of Enoch) was only discovered in the last decade of the nineteenth century, and exists only, so far as is known, in Slavonic. In its present form it is regarded as the work of one author or editor. The original language of the greater portion of it was Greek, but parts were in Hebrew. It was written in Egypt, at the beginning of the Christian era. The Apocalypse of Baruch has come down to us in a Syriao version, which is a translation of a Greek version translated from the original Hebrew. Charles foUows Kabisch and de Eaye in an elaborate analysis of the book. He believes it to be a composite work containing various Jewish writings from A.D. 50 to 100, the final redaction being dated about 110-120. It may be weU to indicate the various strata which are said to have been discovered. (1) Writings optimistic in their tendency, in which hope for the future centres in the Messiah and the Messianic kingdom, and in which the law is only mentioned incidentally. They are : (a) A' = xxvii.-xxx. ; A^ = xxxvi.-xl. ; A' = liii.- Ixxiv. These were written before a.d. 70. (6) B^ = i.-ix., xliii.-xliv. 7, xlv.-xlvi. 6, Ixxvii.- Ixxxii. , Ixxxiv. , Ixxxvi.-lxxxvii. These were written after a.d. 70, and, while looking forward to a Mes- sianic kingdom, contain no mention of a Messiah. (2) Writings pessimistic in their tendency, in which the writers despair of the present world, and look for a speedy judgement. The hope of the future centres in the law, and in the law alone. These, which were written after a.d. 70, are : THE LITERATURE 17 B" = ix.-xii. (?), xiii.-xxv., xxx. 2-xxxv., xli.-xlii., xliv. 8-15, xlvii.-lii., Ixxv.-lxxvi., Ixxxiii. B' = Ixxxv. An editor (E) is responsible for the connecting passages and the present form of the work. Critical questions Ue outside the main scope of this essay, but it must be pointed out that there is more agreement among critics ' as to the com- posite nature of Ap. Bar., than e.g. in the case of 4 Ezra. It must be remembered, however, that the critical methods used are highly subjective, and nothing would be gained for our present purpose in treating the strata separately. We may therefore treat the work as a unity, save in so far as it is necessary to take account of divergent teaching in the different strata. 4 Ezra (2 Esdras) must probably be dated between a.d. 81 and 96. The Apocalypse proper consists of chs. iii.-xiv. (chs. i. and ii., xv. and xvi., being later additions), which are probably a unity. Charles ^ accepts a complicated analysis of the book by Kabisch, but Gunkel ' and most authorities defend its unity, though the author probably drew largely from various writers and oral sources. It is argued by some that it shows traces of Christian influence, but on the whole it is more likely that Gunkel's hypothesis is correct, namely, that it emanated from the circles of Judaism in which Paul moved previous to his conversion.* 1 Of. Ryssel in Kautzsoh, Die ApokrypJien, &c. 2 Bdn. of Apoc. of Bariich, p. Ixvii. f. ' In Kautzsoh, op. oit. ii. 351. * KautzBch, op. oit., See, ii. 349. 2 18 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE The Apocalypse of Abraham is only preserved in a Slavonic version. There is no English trans- lation, and the one followed is the German edition of Bonwetsch. The book faUs into two parts : i.-viii., which is haggadistic, and ix.-xxxii., which is apo- calyptic. Ginzberg (Jewish Encyc. i. 93 ff.) dates the first part prior to The Booh of Jubilees (to which he attaches a later date than Charles), as the legends are not so fuUy developed in form as in the latter book. He places the second part between 90 and 100 A.D. Certain Gnostic and Christian influences can be traced in the book. There remain a few pseudepigraphs which are not apocaljrptic. The Book of Baruch is a composite work. Apart from the historical introduction (i. 1-14), it consists of three parts : (1) Chs. i. 15 — ^iii. 8, made up of two penitential prayers, one on behalf of the remnant left in Pales- tine dviring the Exile (i. 15 — ^ii. 10), the other on behalf of the exiles (ii. 11 — ^iii. 8). As i. 15 — ^ii. 12 shows dependence on Dan. ix. 4-19, it could not have been written before 160 B.C., except in the event of both having drawn on the same source. Prob- ably it was written in Maccabaean times, some- where about 150 B.C. It is thought to have been originally written in Hebrew. (2) Chs. iii. 9 — iv. 4. A song in praise of wisdom, written just before, or some years after, a.d. 70, probably originally in Aramaic. (3) Chs. iv. 5 — V. 9. Written for the consolation of the exiles, after a.d. 70, and probably in Greek. THE LITEEATTTEB 19 The Prayer of Manasses is only found in some MSS. of the LXX ; it is also found in The Apostolic Constitutions. Nestle ' argues that it has found its way into some LXX MSS. from The Apostolic Constitutions, and that the prayer is not of Jewish but of Christian origin. In this he is followed by Swete.' Porter ' holds that there is no doubt it is Jewish, but suggests that it is of Hellenistic origin, and that its eschatology indicates an earlier rather than a later date. Ryssel * places it in Maccabaean times. With so much diversity of opinion, it is not possible to place it in its chronological connexion with any confidence. Psalms oe Solomon. — These psalms were written by a Pharisee, or Pharisees, between 70-40 B.C., probably at Jerusalem. They have come down to us in Greek, but it is probable that they were originally written in Hebrew. They throw a vivid light upon the state of Jewish parties half a century before the coming of Christ. The Pharisees are depicted as the faithful repositories of the national ideals, while the Sadducees, who are called sinners, are denounced as being faithless to the Theocracy. The latter are depicted in such black colours that it is impossible to acquit the psalmists of party animus. Great dislike is displayed towards the Hasmonean dynasty. The translation followed is that of Ryle and James. The Epistle of Jeremy was written in Egypt 1 Septuaginta Studien, iii. p. 13. 2 Expository Times, Oct. 1899, p. 39. » Hastings's D.B. iii. p. 233. * KautzBch, Die Apokryphen, &c., i. 167. 20 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITEEATUKB probably before 2 Mace, which is held by some to refer to this epistle (cf. 2 Mace. ii. 4-6). A warning is uttered against idolatry, and its folly is exposed. Very little light is thrown upon our subject. It will perhaps be helpful to state the results in tabular form : Palestinian Sirach, 190-170 B.o. Eth. Enoch (i.-xxxvi.) before 170 B.O. Eth. Enoch (lxxxiii.-xc.) 166- 161 B.C. Tobit, 150-100 B.C. Baruoh (i.l5-iii.8) 150-100 B.C. Jubilees, 135-105 B.C. Tests, of XII. Patriarchs, 109- 106 B.O. Additions to Daniel, c. 100 B.C.(?) 1 Mace, 100-80 B.C. Eth. Enoch (xoi.-civ.) prob. 94-78 B.C. Simihtudes of Enoch, 94-64 B.C. Psahns of Solomon, 70-40 B.C. Judith, c. 50 B.C. Assumption of Moses, a.d. 7-30 Martyrdom of Isaiah, a.d. 1-50 Baruch (iii. 9-iV. 4) just before or some time after a.d. 70 Baruch (iv. 5-v. 9) after a.d. 70 Sib. Oracles (iv.) c. a.d. 80 Apocal5rpse of Baruoh, a.d. 50- 100 4 Ezra, a.d. 81-96 Apoc. of Abraham, a.d. 90-100 Alexandrian Sibylline Oracles (iii. 97-829 and Proem), c. 140 b.o. Prayer of Manasses (?) 3 Ezra (?) Ep. of Jeremy (before 2 Mace.) 2 Mace, 60-1 B.C. Wisdom, pt. i., c. 50 B.C. Wisdom, pt. ii., c. 10-1 B.C. Additions to Esther (?) 3 Mace, A.D. 1-10 (?) 4 Mace, A.D. 1-10 Slav. Enoch, a.d. 1-50 We shall now proceed to trace the development THE LITERATURE 21 of moral ideas through this literature, as far as possible chronologically. First, we naturally deal with the Moral Ideal, its content and development. Then we shall turn to a consideration of the hin- drances to the realization of the Ideal, a study which will involve an investigation of Jewish teaching as to the constitution of man, and as to the origin and nature of moral evil. Next, we shall discuss the teaching as to the Will, the discussion being neces- sarily deferred to this point, as the view held of the constitution of human nature and the origin of moral evil will be seen to have exercised an important influence on the doctrine of the Will. Moral sanc- tions, although so intimately bound up in thought with the pursuit of the Moral Ideal, may be con- veniently discussed last, since in Jewish ethics they raise the whole question of eschatology. The study upon which we are entering does not, of course, involve a complete survey of the whole range of Jewish ethics during this period. Such a task would necessitate the investigation of the Mishna (the depository of the contents of the oral law) which began to be composed before 30 a.d., and also of the writings of the Alexandrian Jew, Philo, who was born about 20 B.C. But the literature before us represents very important tendencies in Jewish thought, and therefore throws much valuable light upon the development of moral ideas. CHAPTER II THE MORAL IDEAL : ITS CONTENT AND DEVELOPMENT The Babylonian Exile was a turning-point in the history of Israel. It constituted the watershed where the streams of pre-Exilic Judaism gathered, and jwhence they were re-distributed, together with the waters which had their source in Babylon. Throughout the centuries that intervened before the birth of Christ these streams were fed by new tributaries. The reformation under Ezra and Nehemiah about 458-400 B.C. influenced the develop- ment of Judaism in two directions. In the first place, the promulgation of the Priestly Code gave to rehgious and ethical thought a ceremonial and legalistic bias — a bias which was strengthened by the gradual growth of the oral law, with its burdensome obligations. In the second place, the rigorous de- mand made by Ezra and Nehemiah for national separatism, however necessary it may have been for the preservation of Israel, narrowed its outlook, and stamped Judaism with a particularism which was further fostered by the regulations of the Priestly Code. It is true that the universaUsm of some of the earher prophets is not absent from the post- 22 THE MORAL IDEAL 23 Exilic prophetic writings (e.g. Zech. ii. 11 and Jonah), but the narrower view of the ultimate destiny of the Gentiles predominates (Joel, Zech. ix.-xiv., Daniel) . Our study will show us how these tendencies developed during the subsequent centuries. Throughout this period foreign influences poured into Palestine, which Israel, despite itself, could not shut out. From the Return, in 536, down to 330 B.C. it was under the domination of the Persian Empire. Zoroastrianism and Judaism had much in common, and if the latter did not directly borrow from the former, there can be httle doubt that Zoroastrianism stimulated the development of the angelology, demonology, and eschatology of Judaism. The Persian Empire was followed by the Greek, and for nearly three centuries Greek ideas and customs insidiously crept into Judaism. Before the rise of the Maccabees there were probably Greek schools in Jerusalem itself. Antiochus Epiphanes made a deliberate attempt to heUenize Palestine, which led to the Maccabaean revolt. Nor must it be supposed that this heUenizing movement was entirely from without. Within the nation there was a strong party which succumbed to the fascination of a cultured paganism, and was unfaithful to the law, and it was strengthened by many of the Jews of the Dispersion who had become more or less hellenized. It was against these tendencies, so subversive of the national religion and morahty, and so fatal even to the national existence, that the Maccabaeans led their heroic revolt, which awakened afresh the national self-consciousness, and sounded 24 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE the call to a renewed zeal for the law. Out of this struggle there emerged, in a new form, the spirit of prophecy, which found expression in the apocalyptic literature. At Alexandria, where there was a large Jewish colony, there grew up a school whose members, while zealous for the law, attained to a wider out- look than their brethren of Palestine, and were influenced by Greek modes of thought ; but instead of allowing Hellenism to become subversive of Judaism, they held tenaciously to their faith, and sought to make Greek philosophy its handmaid, as in The Book of Wisdom and 4 Mace. This was an important step forward, for, whatever the writers intended, it could not but make a gap in the walls of Jewish particularism and prepare the way for a recognition of the unity of all truth. After the Maccabaean kingdom came Rome (63 B.C.), and the subjugation of the nation once more to a Gentile power. In the literature of the period we find reflected the perplexities and dis- appointments, the hopes and aspirations of the pious in face of this latest calamity, until at length there comes the greatest trial of all, when Jerusalem is destroyed in a.d. 70. But although Jerusalem fell by the hands of Rome, it would be more correct to say that it was destroyed as a result of the bitter internal feuds that, from the days of the return from the Exile, rent the nation asunder. From the beginning the wealthier class, and especially the high priestly family, were opposed to the separatist policy of Ezra and Nehemiah and THE MORAL IDEAL 25 the more zealous of the returned exiles. They accepted the law, but not its oral expansions, and were willing to compromise with Gentile customs. Their descendants readily yielded to those Greek in- fluences and habits which, had they been unopposed, would have undermined Judaism. This party came to be known as the Sadducees. On the other side were those pious upholders of the law, called the Chasidim, who stood for loyalty both to the law and its oral expansion, and were opposed to con- formity of any kind with the Gentiles. Behind these were the common people. When the Macca- baean revolt broke out they threw themselves whole- heartedly into the fight on the national side, and for the time being the Sadducees were submerged beneath the wave of popular enthusiasm. Gradu- ally, however, the Chasidim, who now came to be known as Pharisees, grew disaffected towards the Maccabaean house. They were opposed to the setting up of a temporal as against a theocratic kingdom, and were deeply offended by the action of Jonathan in taking to himself the high priestly as well as the kingly power. So restive did they become that about 105 B.C. John Hyrcanus was compelled to break with them and throw in his lot with the Sadducees. The history of Palestine from that date to 63 b.c. is that of the struggle of these two sects for power, and their alternate successes and failures. When one party was in power it persecuted the other, and The Psalms of Solomon show how bitter was their mutual hatred. This bitterness was increased by the f?ict that they were divided by theological as well as poUtical 26 ETHICS or JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATURB differences. Their rivalry continued after the subjugation of the nation to Rome, but gradually the ideals of Pharisaism (although other tendencies stiQ persisted) became more and more secular until at length their extreme wing, known as the Zealots, in their endeavour to cast off the Roman yoke, compassed the destruction of Jerusalem, and with it the annihilation of the national hopes. It wiU be seen, therefore, that the period before us was a time of intense activity, and of the impact of many conflicting forces, all of which played their part in shaping the moral history of Israel. We are now in a position to trace the development of the Moral Ideal through the hterature before us. But first it is necessary to point out that the Jewish mind was not of the same metaphysical cast as the Greek. Neither in the O.T. nor in apocryphal hterature do we find those elaborate discussions as to the nature of the moral end, and as to the relation, e.g., of virtue and pleasure, which aboimd in Greek philo- sophy. For the Jew, the Moral Ideal was embodied in the law, which was the expression of the divine will. That was the basis of his ethics, and he did not inquire as to why the divine will had expressed itself in certain precepts and not in others. It foUows, then, that the ethical interest of the Jew centred in the content of the Moral Ideal which was ready to hand in the law, not in the quest for the Moral Ideal itself. THE MORAL IDEAL 27 I. THE SECOND CENTURY B.C. A. PALESTINIAIf Sirach, 190-170 B.C. Ett. Enoch (i.-xxxvi.) before 170 B.a Eth. Enoch (Ixxxiii.-xo.) 166-161 b.o. Tobit, 150-100 B.O. Barach (i. 15— iii. 8), 150-100 b.o. Jubilees, 135-105 b.o. Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, 109-106 b.o. B. ALBXA^DErAN Sibylline Oracles (iii. 97-829 and Proem.), c. 140 B.O. Prayer of Manasses ? A. Palestinlajst SIBAOH The Moral Ideal is wisdom, which is both ob- jectively and subjectively conceived. The objective becomes immanent, and thus manifests itself sub- jectively in varying forms. The source of wisdom is in God, who created it before aU things, and with whom it exists eternally (i. 1-9). It is immanent in differing degrees in nature (xxiv. 4-6) and in wisdom. man, especially in those who love God (i. 10, xvii. 7). It exalts its children, and to love it is life ; it brings gladness, glory, and blessing ; its service is one with the service of God, and is the way to the discerimient of truth,^ and to security (iv. 11-15). The personi- fication of Wisdom is most marked in ch. xxiv. It 1 The Syriao, which is admitted to be a trajislation of the Heb. original, reads in iv. 15 a, ' shall judge truth,' not ' shall judge nations,' as in the LXX. 28 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITEEATTTRB Sirachf Proverbs, and The Book of WUckm. Bxtent of Ghreek influence. ' came forth from the mouth of the Most High, and covered the earth as a mist ' (3) ; it became immanent in creation and in all peoples (5-7) ; then it ' took root ' in Israel (8 f .) and was embodied in the Mosaic law (23 f.). Sirach has points of contact with Proverbs (i.-ix.). Very possibly they belong nearly to the same period and express similar tendencies. Both conceive of wisdom as being specially concerned with men, and not as an agent in creation (Prov. viii., Sir. xxiv.), and in this they differ from the Book of Wisdom, where it is represented as in some measure an active agent in the creation of the world {Wisd. viii. 46.). Both Proverbs and Sirach conceive of wisdom as having its source in God, and yet as existing eternally side by side with God, (Sir. i. 4 ; Prov. viii. 22 f .). How far these ideas are due to the influence of Greek thought is difficult to determine. Siegfried says : ' The notion of the Divine Hokmah as a separ- ate existence outside of and over against Jahveh, is as un-IsraeUtish as possible, and absolutely opposed to the monotheism that had become firmlyestabhshed since the time of Deuteronomy. It can be explained only as due to the influence of Greek philosophy, according to which the archetjrpes of things, or the powers of the Divine Essence diffused throughout the world (the Koivai evvotai of the Stoics), are regarded as having a separate existence of their own, although in their relation to the world they are otherwise conceived of than in Proverbs ' [D.B. iv. 925 a). Nowack, on the other hand, writes concerning Prov. i. 9 : 'It has been sought to discover the influence of the Greek doctrine of ideas, but this THE MOEAL IDBAi 29 notion is rightly rejected by Kuenen, Bandissin, and others. The contrast with the personified Folly shows that we have to do merely with a poetical personification' (D.B. iv. 142 6). With such divergence of view dogmatism is out of the question, but whether dependence can be proved or not, it is clear that the Greek and Hebrew conceptions have points of kinship. Parallels with Greek thought do not necessarily imply dependence, but may only illustrate the fact that the same ideas often appear independently at different places. Sirach teaches that wisdom is only realized sub- initiation ,-11,1 1 .1 -... . into wlsdpm. jectively by those who trust it by submitting to its discipline, which fits for initiation into its secrets (iv. 11-19). Such initiation is not for the unlearned, to whom she is ' exceeding harsh ' ^ (vi. 20-22). A more universal note characteristic of Greek thought is struck in xxiv. (cf. xxxvi. 1-5). Wisdom, it is true, finds its highest embodiment in Israel and the Mosaic law, but she is also made to say ' in every people and nation I got a possession ' (xxiv. 6). A distinction is drawn between the wisdom of the Degrees ot scribe who meditates in the law of the Most High, ^™ °" and seeks out the wisdom of the ancients, and that of the artificer.* The former is of a much higher order, though the latter is not despised. ' They will maintain the fabric of the world ; and in the * Swete reads raxela in place of rpaxela (B" {i( A C) in verse 20 a, but the latter seems to accord better with 20 6-22. " Cf. Plato, Phaedrus 248, where it is laid down that the soul that has seen truth in the seventh lowest degree becomes incarnate in an artificer or husbandman. 30 ETHICS OP JEWISH APOCEYPHAL LITERATURE Virtae and knowledge. Distinctions of meaning between the Greek words used. handiwork of their craft is their prayer ' (xxxviii. 24-xxxix. 11). Since wisdom is the Moral Ideal, it foUows that virtue and knowledge are one. The virtuous man is the wise man, and the sinner is the fool. A poor man who is wise should not be dis- honoured, and there is nothing unseemly in free men ministering to a wise servant (x. 23-25). Wisdom glorifies a poor man far more than riches a rich man (x. 30), and makes him sit in the midst of great men (xi. 1). ' A man oi understanding knoweth when he slippeth ' (xxi. 7). There must be a certain natural capacity for wisdom, otherwise it is un- attainable. ' He that is not clever (Travovpyo'i) will not be instructed ' (xxi. 12) ; ' The inward parts of a fool are like a broken vessel, and he wiU hold no knowledge ' (xxi. 14). Uninstructed children are a shame to their father (xxii. 3). The fool and the ungodly are placed in the same category, and their lot is worse than death (xxii. 11, 12). Sin and ignorance are spoken of as though they are identical ' (xxiii. 3). To treat a man of understanding as refuse is a grievous sin (xxvi. 28). Different words are used to express wisdom as manifested in the ethical hfe : Sop6v7)aK (xix. 23, 24, xx. 27 et passim). So^ia was defined by Aristotle as ' the union of science and intuitive apprehensions.' It was speculative wisdom as opposed to practical wisdom. In Plato's view speculative and practical * Ch : xix. 22 in the S3friac reads, ' He is not wise who is wicked,' &o. That summarizes the standpoint of Siiach. Cf. Plato, Prolog. 357, 358. THE MORAL IDEAL 31 wisdom are one, and in the Republic, at any rate, the two terms are used interchangeably .' It is impossible to distinguish clearly a different sense for the two words as used in Sirach, Xoi^ia is sometimes practical wisdom (e.g. vii. 19, ix. 14 f.). ^povqa-Ks is probably best translated prudence (xix. 22, 24, XX. 27 et passim). Svveai^ is understanding (iii. 13, V. 12, vi. 35 et passim). Lightfoot says ' a-vvea-if is critical, apprehending the bearing of things ; ^p6v7]a-iia. 'Eirta-Trifiri (xvii. 7 e^ passim) is knowledge gained from experience. Ilavovpyla (vi. 32, xxi. 12) is cleverness or shrewdness. This identification of virtue and knowledge can be traced, in tendency at any rate, in older Jewish literature (e.g. Deut. iv. 5, 6 ; Job xxviii. 28 ; Ps. cxix. 34). It was' developed in Sirach (and perhaps in Proverbs) under the influence of Greek philosophy, but under a characteristically Jewish form. The wisdom to be striven after is not merely intellectual, wisdom has 11 T" 1 1. 11* reUgioua but has a religious origin and motive, being grounded tasia ^ the in ' the fear of the Lord.' The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom (i. 14) ; the fullness of wisdom (i. 16) ; the crown of wisdom (i.l8) ; the root of wisdom (i. 20) ; wisdom and instruction (i. 27) ; in it all honour and glory consist (x. 19-24) ; children who lack it can be no delight (xvi. 2) ; it is the sum of all wisdom (xix. 20) ; it leads to repentance (xxi, 6) ; ^ Sidgwiok, Hist, of Ethics, p. 44 n. Jowett holds that Plato uses a-otjjia in the wider sense, i.e. ' the highest combination of virtue and intelligence,' and ^pomja-is in the sense of prudence, or forethought. 32 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITEEATXJEE its end is wisdom (xxi. 11) ; it is a path of discipline which leads to the kindling of righteous acts (xxxii. 14-16) ; it is a safeguard against evil, and a mode of deliverance from temptation (xxxiii. 1) ; it delivers from cowardice (xxxiv. 14) ; it is greater than riches and strength, is all that a man needs, and covers him with glory (xl. 26). The conception of wisdom is thus saved from an arid intellectuahsm, and is made to include the ideas of faith and meekness (i. 27, iii. 17, X. 28), godliness (xii. 2, et passim), goodness (xii. 7 et passim), and righteousness (xxvii. 8). opndMona The moral life has its basis in reason (X670?, xxxvii. OfJtS \ / 7 development 16). Wisdom is uot gained except by cultivation and a. Inquiiy. o r m/ *-^^p- experience. The conditions of its development are fcFeuow- an inquiring and receptive spirit, fellowship with the wise and aged (iv. 16 f., vi. 23-36, viii. 8 f., ix. 14 f., xiv. 20-xv. 10) and discipline (iv. 16). Again and d. Difloipiine. again the word iraibeia (instruction, or discipline) occurs (i. 27, iv. 24, vi. 18, viii. 8). It is defined by Plato as 'the constraining and directing of youth towards that right reason, which the law affirms and which the experience of the eldest and best has agreed to be truly right. ' ' It was defined by Basil in a sense which represents its usage in the LXX, as ' a training beneficial to the soul, often painfully cleansing it from the stains of evil.' * So in Sirach, this discipline is at first painful, but it is a testing process which fits for advance in wisdom (iv. 16 f.). Experience, too, is an important factor in the cultivation of wisdom. ' He that hath no experience knoweth few things.' Experience includes a wide knowledge 1 Legg. ii. 659. 2 In Prov. i., quoted by Trench, Synonyms, p. 112. THE MORAL IDBAIj 33 of men and things (xxxiv. 9-12). Thus the wise man is called ' a man of experience ' {iroKvireipo'; , xxi. 22). There is no finality in the great quest. ' They that eat me shall yet be hungry, and they that drink me shall yet be thirsty ' (xxiv. 21). The influence of Greek thought is seen in the emphasis laid on leisure as a condition of wisdom. ,. Leisure. ' The wisdom of the scribe cometh by opportunity of leisure ' (xxxviii. 24 ff.).^ The highest wisdom in the moral life is to obey wisdom ana the ordinances of the law, in which wisdom is immanent (xxiv. 23). 'If thou desire wisdom, keep the commandments ' (i. 26). The desire of wisdom is granted to him who ' meditates on the ordinances and the commandments ' (vi. 37). A man's discourse should be in the law of the Most High (ix. 15). ' In all wisdom is the doing of the law ' (xix. 20). A wise man will not hate the law, but will put his trust in it (xxxiii. 2, 3 ; cf. xxxii. 24). When he proceeds to apply the law to the practical nx^n^ affairs of life Sirach's view of morality (as that of lam. Eoclesiastes) is seen to be decidedly prudential. The book abounds in counsels of worldly wisdom, the general standpoint of which is indicated by the following : Do no evil, so shall no evil overtake thee. Depart from wrong, and it stall turn aside from thee. My son, sow not upon the furrows of unrighteousness, 1 Cf. Plato, Theaet. 172 E. But, as illustrating Jewish thought, of. Pirq. Ah. ii. 4 : ' Say not. When I have leisure I will study ; perchance thou mayest not have leisure ' (HiUel). Pirq. Ah. iv. 14 : ' Have little business, and be busied in the Thorah ' (R. Meir). 3 34 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE Doctrine of the Mean* Indications of a more inward view. And thou shalt not reap ttem sevenfold (vii. 1-3). If thou doest good, know to whom thou doest it, And thy good deeds shall have thanks, &c. (xii. 1 f .). (Cf.also vi. 5-13, viii. 10-19, xx. 27-31, xxii. 23, xxxiii. 1 9-23.) This spirit of prudent calculation is carried to the extent of meanness and hypocrisy in xxxviii. 17 f ., where a pretence of mourning for the dead is recom- mended ' lest thou be evil spoken of.' Where pru- dence is the chief concern it is quite natural to attach the same importance to the rules of etiquette as to the laws of morality, and it is therefore not surprising to find Sirach including a condemnation of leaning the elbow on the table at meals in the same category as that of serious moral offences (xli. 17-24). No- where does he strike the note of passionate yearning for the attainment of a high ideal. He is content with moderate success. ' Seek not things that are too hard for thee, and search not out things that are above thy strength. ... Be not overbusy in thy superfluous works ' (iii. 21-4). This caimot fail to suggest the Greek doctrine of the Mean {fitjSev There are, however, a few indications of a more inward view of morahty : ' Who will set scourges over my thought and a discipline of wisdom over mine heart ? ' (xxiii«2). ' The trial of a man is in his reasoning. The fruit of a tree declareth the husbandry thereof ; so is the utterance of the thought of the heart of a man. Praise no man before thou hearest him reason : for this is the trial of men ' ' Cf. Aristotle, Nic. Ethics, bk. ii. oh. v. : ' Both the excess and defect belong to vice, and the mean state to virtue.' Plato, Hipparch. 228 E. THE MORAL IDEAL 35 (xxvii. 5-7). These extracts imply some recognition of the fact that the essential moral life is inward, and has to do with a man's inmost thoughts and motives (cf. also xix. 16 a, 26 6). Sirach's view of human nature is somewhat oynicbm. cynical. He has little faith in disinterested action, and is always on his guard against selfish motives in others. The aphorism, ' He that is hasty to trust is light-minded ' (xix. 4), is typical of his standpoint (vi. 7 &., viii. 12 f., xi. 29 £E., xii. 8-18, xiii. 1-13, xiii. 21-3, XX. 27-31, xxvii. 22-4, xxix. 3-7, xxxiii. 19-22, xxxvii. 1-12). His view of life, too, is somewhat pessimistic ; there is nothing but ' great travail,' and a ' heavy yoke ' and ' trouble,' and ' fear of death ' for all the sons of men, from the king clad in purple to the peasant in his smock (xl. 1-11). Yet he inculcates cheerfulness ; his motto, like that of the Epicurean, is carpe diem, npicurein. ism, defraud not thyself of a good day ; and let not the portion of a good desire pass thee by. . . . For there is no seeking of luxury in Hades ' (xiv. 14-16 ; cf. XXX. 21-5). But pleasure must not be purchased at the price of independence ; better a simple life than the loss of self-respect. ' The chief thing for Poverty ana independ- hfe is water and bread, and a garment and a house ««». to cover shame. Better is tha life of a poor man under a shelter of logs than sumptuous fare in another man's house ' ' (xxix. 21-8). Despite his cynicism, Sirach has a noble view of ' Cf. th& Epicurean maxim, ' Cheerful poverty is an honourable thing ' (Seneca, Ep. ii. 5). Cf. also Pirq. Ab. iv. 3 : ' Who isrich? He that is contented with his lot.' 36 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATTJEB Oomparison vrit^ Greek viewB, Th8 aiguity the dignity of man and the essential independence " "*"■ of the soul. Man is the lord of nature (xvii. 1-14), and let no one say, ' What is my soul in a boundless creation ? ' (xvi. 17). Counsel must be taken with the godly, but in the ultimate issue a man must bear his own burden, and trust the counsel of his own soul (xxxvii. 12-15). The soul must be guarded from aU shame, and none must be reverenced to its dishonour, neither must violence be done to its convictions. ' Strive for the truth unto death, and the Lord God shaU fight for thee ' (iv. 25 &.). The description cannot fail to suggest Aristotle's High- Minded Man (Nic. Ethics, bk. iv. ch. iv.) and the Stoic Wise Man {Diog. L. vii. 117-19). But Sirach introduces modifications into his description which strike a note not characteristic of Greek philosophy. His independent man will be abashed at his own ignorance,' and will not be ashamed to make con- fession of his sins (iv. 25 f.). He wiU not be un- bearable and full of whims at home, nor wiU he arrogantly walk in the desires of his own heart (iv. 30, V. 2 f.). In a word, his self-sufficiency and independence will be tempered with meekness.' In harmony with his view of the dignity of man, is the emphasis which he places upon the virtue of self- control. The section commencing xviii. 33 is headed ir/Kpareia '^uxv'} in the LXX ; the word generally used by the Greeks was a-m^pocrvvq. According to Aristotle, in the man of self-control {i'YKpaTi] illustrated by their refusal of the co-operation oi the Samaritans in the rebuilding of the Temple {v. 68-73), and also by the crusade against mixed marriages (viii. 69-ix.). It is impossible to suppose that he viewed these events of the sixth and fifth centuries with an3rthing but approval. Despite his manifest appreciation of the part played by the Persian kings in the deliverance of his people, and notwithstanding his (probable) Greek en- vironment, which might have been expected to enlarge his outlook, he clings to the exclusive nationalism of Ezra and Nehemiah. He does not suggest that there was any unfitness in the whole- sale repudiation of foreign wives and the children whom they had borne (viii. 93, ix. 36). 11. MACCABEES The moral interest of this book is centred in the The law, law and its observances, which are regarded as ordinances ' the holy laws of God's ordaining ' (vi. 23 ; cf . ii. and , , . , -^ oeremomai 22, ui. 1 et posstvi). On scvcral occasions miracu- lous interventions are said to have taken place on behalf of Israel and its religion (iii. 24^30, x. 29 f., xi. 6-8). In harmony with this is the importance attached to the observance of Jewish feasts (vi. 6, X. 8 et passim), sacrifices (x. 3), circumcision (vi. 10), and laws of diet (vi. 18, xi. 31). Great sanctity is attached to the Temple, which is world-renowned. THE MORAL IDEAL 89 ' great and holy ' (ii. 22), and which kings deHght to honour (iii. 2). Unlike 1 Mace, a very rigid view is taken of the -n-e Sabbath (vi. 6, viii. 26 ff., xii. 38). ^"'"'''^• A narrow national exolusiveness is advocated, Paiaouiar- and mingling with the Gentiles is discountenanced (xiv. 3, 38). Israel is God's people and portion (xiv. 15). Gentile nations are sometimes the in- struments of God in chastening Israel (v. 17 f., vii. 18 f., 32), but He governs them on different principles from those with which He rules Israel (vi. 12 fl.). The introduction of Greek customs is severely reprobated, especially the establishment of a gymnasium ^ in Jerusalem itself (iv. 7 ff., xi. 24). It is a matter for surprise that this writer, who presumably lived in Alexandria, is so unbending in his attitude to Greek influences and customs. The speech of Eleazer, one of the principal Scribes,^ contains a fine statement of the ethics of martyrdom. Bttdcs of martyrdom. Ordered to eat swine's flesh, the friendly officials of Antiochus ' privately besought him to bring flesh of his own providing, ... to make as if he did eat of the flesh of the sacrifice.' ' But he strenuously refused to compromise his convictions. To do so would be to set a bad example to the young, to pollute his own soul, and to bring upon himself a divine chastisement which neither in life nor death could he escape (vi. 18-31). As the epitomizer 1 Cf. Jub. iii. 31, vii. 20. 2 It is interesting to contrast this presentation of the Scribes with that of the Gospels. 3 Cf. the practice of the Ubdlaiici in the early Church under the Decian persecution. 90 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCEYPHAIi LITEKATTJRE puts it, he welcomed ' death with renown, rather than Hfe with pollution ' (vi. 19). The Moral Ideal as conceived in this book is very narrow, but abso- lute devotion is instilled. Men must learn ' to die willingly and nobly a glorious death for the reverend and holy laws ' (vi. 28). inflaence on In ouc respcct, howcver, this book influenced the Church jr ' ' ethics. development of Christian ethics. It teaches, or rather assumes, the efficacy of prayers for the dead (xii. 44), and lends support to the doctrine of the intercession of the saints (xv. 12-14).' The same atoning value is also ascribed to the martyrdom of the righteous (vii. 38).' WISDOM (Part I, i. — ix. 17) wiBdom. The Moral Ideal is wisdom. It is conceived of both as transcendent and as immanent, pro- gressively realizing itself in nature and in man. The writer comes very near to the hypostasis of wisdom. We must beware of interpreting poetical images too literally, but it is difficult to interpret the conception of wisdom as something in which a spirit dwells as being other than an approximation to hypostasis. Wisdom is the artificer of creation (vii. 22, viii. 4), and shares God's throne with Him (ix. 4). For there is in her a spirit quick of uaderatanding, holy. Only-begotten, manifold, Subtle, freely-moving, * The doctrine of the intercession of the saints is held by Philo (de Exsecrat. 9), and Josephus {Ant. i. xiii. 3). 2 Cf. 4 Mace. xvii. 22. THE MOEAL IDEAL 91 Clear in utterance, unpolluted, Distinct, unharmed, Loving what is good, keen, unhindered, Beneficent, loving towards man, Stedfasfc, sure, free from care, All-powerful, all-surveying. And penetrating through all spirits, That are quick of understanding, pure, most subtle : For wisdom is more mobile than any motion ; Yea, she pervadeth and penetrateth all things by reason of her pureness, For she is a breath of the power of God, And a clear efiulgence of the glory of the Almighty ; Therefore can nothing defiled find entrance into her. For she is an efEulgence from everlasting light, And an unspotted mirror of the working of God, And an image of His goodness. And she, being one, hath power to do all things ; And from generation to generation passing into holy souls. She maketh men friends of God and prophets. For nothing doth God love save him that dwelleth with wisdom. For she is fairer than the sun, And above all the constellations of the stars ; Being compared with light, she is found to be before it ; For to the light of the day succeedeth night. But against wisdom evil doth not prevail ; But she reacheth from one end of the world to the other with full strength. And ordereth all things graciously vii. 22 — viii. 1 ; cf. i. 4-6, viii., ix.). This conception has points of contact with Proverbs and SiracJi, upon which a distinct advance Advance on is made in the teaching that wisdom was an active andsfrocA. 92 ETI-nCS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITEBATTJEE agent in creation (vii. 22, viii. 4). Perhaps there is no real progress in the direction of hypostasis and the Philonic identification of wisdom and the Logos, but at any rate the idea is less vague, and is more clearly defined. Plato. The influence can also be traced of the Platonic doctrine of the Nov<; and the Stoic conception of the World-soul. The starting-point of Plato's philosophy is the maxim of Anaxagoras — Ilavra •X^pi^/MiTa rjv ofJLOv' elra Nov • Covenant was made for Israel (i. 12). But it is noteworthy and'ta that the Moral Ideal is defined not so much in aupposiaons. terms of the law as in those of the Covenant. The moral life demands the fulfilment, on Israel's side, pf the conditions of the Covenant made between God and it. The Covenant presupposes, on the divine side, love and grace, and the expression of the demands of the moral fife in terms of such a covenant saves the writer from the narrowness and arid legaHsm characteristic of the majority of his fellow-Pharisees. This covenant-relationship demands the pursuit of ' the truth of God ' (v. 4), ' the fulfilment of the commandments ' (xii. 10), and the living of a life ' blameless unto God ' 1 2 Mace. XV. 12-14. 118 ETHICS OP JEWISH APOCRYPHAIi LITERATUEE (i. 10). To compromise with hellenistio customs, and to seek to hellenize Judaism, as did the Sad- ducean Jason and Menelaus, was seriously to violate the Covenant (v. 3 ff.). ^Mnaeot It is in harmony with the non-legalistic spirit of the writer that he does not teach the doctrine of the merit of works. He does not always seem to be consistent, for there is one passage that implies the absence of the sense of demerit. The trans- gressions of Israel are frankly confessed (ii. 7 ff.), and yet Taxo (Eleazar) is made to say, ' For observe and know that neither did [our] fathers nor their forefathers tempt God, so as to transgress His commandments. And ye know that this is our strength ' ' (ix. 4 f.). It may be that the reference is only to Judah, since its adversities are attributed not to its own sins but to those of the ten tribes (iii.) ; or it may be, as Charles suggests, that the writer is thinking of the faithful remnant. But the nation's election is not due to any righteousness of its own. Moses is made to say, ' For not for any virtue or strength of mine, but in His compassion and long-suffering was He pleased to call me. For I say unto you, Joshua : it is not on account of the godliness of this people that thou shalt root out the nations ' (xii. 8 f.). The covenant relation is based on divine grace, not on huma n merit ; but there is no countenance of the antinomian spirit : ' Those, therefore, who do and fulfil the command- ments of God will increase and be prospered ; but those who sin and set at nought the commandments will be without the blessings before mentioned, 1 Cf. Pas. vji., xviji,, ci. THE MORAIi IDEAL 119 and they will be punished with many torments by the nations ' (xii. 10 f.). The writer has a quiet confidence in the sufficiency Qaieosm. of the spiritual ideals of Judaism, and he is strongly opposed to their secularization by identification with political hopes and aspirations. The hope of a Messianic Warrior-Prince, who should deliver his people, is absent, and the ideal society to come is to be a Theocratic, not a Messianic, kingdom (x.). He makes no reference to the patriotic rising of the Maccabees, and that in spite of the fact that he was well acquainted with 1 and 2 Mace. ; and it is evident from ch. vi. that he has a distinct prejudice against the Hasmonean dynasty. He relates with approval the story of the non-resistance practised by certain of the Chasids (1 Mace. ii. 29-38) and by Eleazar (2 Mace. vi. 18-vii.) during the persecution of Antiochus : ' Let us die rather than transgress the commands of the Lord of lords, the God of our fathers. For if we do this and die, our blood will be avenged before the Lord' (ix.). The writer evidently intends to indicate the policy to be pursued by his nation in the face of the persecutions of Rome. As against the Zealots, who preached armed rebellion, he inculcates the practice of a quiet piety and trust in God, leaving to Him the avenging. The book is thus a protest against the secularization of the religious ideals of the nation, and the growing tendency to look for redemption through political agencies. The writer stands for the old Chasidism, or Pharisaism, which had held aloof from the political aspirations of the people, against the newer Ethics. 120 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATTJEE Pharisaism, which blended the traditional belief in the law with a more or less political form of the Messianic hope. sadduoean An interesting light is thrown on the Sadducean Ethics, if, as Charles suggests, the people referred to in ch. vii. are identified with the Sadducees between A.D. 15 and 70 : ' Scornful and impious men will rule, sajring that they are just. And these will conceal the wrath of their minds, being treacherous men, self-pleasers, dissemblers in all their own affairs, and lovers of banquets at every hour of the day, gluttons, gourmands. . . . Devourers of the goods of the poor, saying that they do so on the ground of their justice, but [in reality] to destroy them ; complainers, deceitful, concealing themselves lest they should be recognized, impious, filled with lawlessness and iniquity from sunrise to sunset ; saying, " We shall have f eastings and luxury, eating and drinking, yea, we shall drink our fill, we shall be as princes." And though their hands and their minds touch unclean things, yet their mouth will speak great things, and they will say furthermore, " Do not touch me lest thou shouldst pollute me in the place where I stand " ' ^ (vii.). If this picture ^ This description of the Sadducees has little ia common with that given by Christ. He accuses them of ignorance of the Scriptures, and of the power of God (Matt. xxii. 29). They are mentioned once or twice in aUianoe with the Pharisees, and Christ rebukes both parties because they read the signs of the weather better than the signs of the times — i.e. because they lack moral insight (Matt. xvi. 1-4). He bids the disciples beware of the leaven of the Pharisees and Sadducees, His in- tention being to warn them against the corrupting influence of their teaching (Matt,, xvi. 6-12). The parallel passage (Mark THE MOEAIi IDEAL 121 of unadulterated Epicureanism be true, it is a significant illustration of the effect of the Sadducean theology, which dispensed with the sanctions of a future life, upon its ethics. Moral value is attached to the intercessory intercession prayers of the saints (xii. 6). This doctrine is saintl and denied in SI. En. (liii. 1), but is supported by S^t.°™ 2 Mace, and Philo. The eificacy for sinners of the merits of the righteous is also taught ' (iii. 9, iv. 2-5). Note. — As illustrating the value of the study of apocalyptic literature for N.T. Ethics, it may be suggested that this book throws light upon the difficult words /irj avTia-rrjvai Ta> irovrjpS (' Resist not him that is evil,' R.V. Matt. v. 39). In the passage Matt. v. 39-42 there are two clauses which do not occur in the parallel Luke vi. 29-31 : (a) ' Resist not him that is evil ' (v. 39). (b) ' Whosoever shall compel thee to go one mile,' &c. (v. 41). It is suggested by some commentators that (6) refers to the exactions of the Roman power. Is it not possible that (a) also refers to Rome ? 1. The Assumption of Moses inculcates, as we have seen (against the Zealots), non-resistance to Rome, and a quiet waiting on God for deliverance (ix.). Thus the old Chasid view had not died out in the viii. 16) reads : ' Beware of the leaven of the Pharisees and the leaven of Herod.' 1 Porter points out (Hastings's D.B. iii. 233) that this doctrine is implied in Exod. xxxii. 11-14 ; Deut. ix. 25-9 ; Ps. ov. ; and other O.T. passages. It is combated in Jer. xv. 1 ; Bzek. xiv. 14, 20. 122 ETHICS OP JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITBEATURE time of Christ, but was affirmed, and given fresh currency by the writer of The Assumption of Moses (and also, as we have seen, 4 Mace.). Is it not possible that Christ, who had a Zealot among His disciples, and who foresaw that the tendency of events was making the destruction of Jerusalem inevitable, was inculcating the same view ? 2. Is o TTovrjpo's ever used to designate the Roman power ? ' The following usages are significant : — The Romans are called drjpia ■Kovqpd (evil beasts) in Pss. Sol. xiii. 3. Pompey (according to Ryle and James) is called o d/iapTtoXo'i (the sinner) in Pss. Sol. ii. 1. The difficulty is removed by this interpretation, for fi^ dvTtarrjvai rS irovrjpm is then simply an exhortation to the Jews to endure patiently the Roman oppression, and not to look for a temporal Messianic deliverer — an exhortation which was in harmony with Christ's declaration that His kingdom was not of this world. This would explain the inclusion of the passage by Matthew, who wrote for Jews, and its exclusion by Luke, who wrote for Gentiles. The teaching of non-retaliation remains in a more intelligible form in Matt. v. 39 6, 40, 43, 44 = Luke vi. 27-9. ^ There is an instance of a similar usage in the O.T. in Hab. iii. 13, where yB*T (wicked, LXX acdjawt) is used to denote the enemies of Israel. ' Evil is here spoken of as if concentrated in a single personality, the wicked one — an expression which seems to include both the Chaldean and every other God-denying power to the end of time ' (Ottley, The Hebrew Propheta, p. 51). This, of course, applies only to the Hebrew, the plural form being used in the LXX. THE MORAL IDEAL 123 THE MARTYRDOM OF ISAIAH The Moral Ideal is not unfolded in this writing. It is summed up in the phrase ' the service of the God of his [i.e. Manasseh's] father,' but its content is not made clear, except that its opposite is ' the service of Satan and his angels and his powers ' (ii. 2). BARUCH (iii. 9 — iv. 4) This passage is of the school of Sirach ; it is wMom. a song in praise of wisdom. Figurative language is used. Wisdom is not so much an attribute of God as something independently co-existent with Him. ' He that knoweth all things knoweth her ; He found her out with His understanding ' (iii. 32). ' Afterward did she appear upon earth, and was conversant with men ' (iii. 37). But though this language is so akin to the Johannine, there is no real hypostasis, for the conception of incarnation is foreign to Baruch, as indeed to all the wisdom writers. ' The personification is thinner and more pallid than in Sirach. . . . The language is little more than a metaphorical expression of the idea that God has the wisdom which is above human reach.' ' The moral life consists in the pursuit of wisdom : wisdom . y-^ . , 1 I 1 • 1 T immanent In Give ear to understand wisdom. . . . Learn the law. where is wisdom, where is strength, where is under- standing ' (iii. 9, 14). What wisdom is has been revealed in the law, which endures for ever, and 1 Adeney in Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels, i. 97. 124 ETHICS OB" JEWISH APOCRYPHAIi LITERATTJRB which has been given to Israel, the beloved of God. The Moral Ideal is realized by obedience to its commandments. Israel is exhorted to ' take hold of it : walk towards her, shining in the presence of the light thereof.' ' The nation must beware of giving its glory to another, and of letting the things that are ' profitable ' ^ to it pass away to a strange nation, by which, it has been suggested,' the Gentile Christians are intended (iii. 36-iv. 4). Particular- Unlike The Book of Wisdom, this writer sounds 13m. ' a particularistic note. Wisdom is not universally or easily accessible, but only to Israel (iii. 15-36). BARUCH (iv. 5 — V. 9) This section was written for the encouragement of the Jews scattered by the destruction of Jeru- salem. It displays an unabated faith in the law. The Moral Ideal is realized in obedience to the law of God, and His statutes and commandments, and in treading ' the paths of disciphne in His righteousness ' (iv. 12 f.). Israel is exhorted to endure patiently its afflictions, for deliverance is nigh at hand (iv. 25). THE SIBYLLINE ORACLES (bk. iv.) Israel is called ' the nation of the pious,' and the eruption of Vesuvius is described as a divine ^ Of. Rom. ii. 19 : ' And art confident that thou thyself art a guide of the bUnd, a Ught of them that are in darkness.' 2 Cf. Rom. iii. 1 : ' What advantage then hath the Jew ? or what is the profit of circumcision ? Much every way.' ' Kneuoken, quoted by Marshal], Hastings's D.B. i. 253. THE MOEAL IDEAL 125 punishment of Rome for its destruction of the Temple and slaughter of the Jews (iv. 130-36). The Moral Ideal is realized by — Eighteona- ness one with tJie As many as shall love the mighty God, jS^^^d Offering Him praise before they drink and eat ; oi ^I*^'^ Trusting in piety. ordinances ■*• "^ of Judaism, And they will look To the great glory of one God (iv. 24-30). Their life wiU be such that evil men will not imitate it, but rather will mock at them, and charge to their account the evil deeds which they do them- selves (iv. 35-40). The Sibyl has a great horror of idolatry (iv. 5 ff.), and of sacrifices ofifered to pagan deities (iv. 2 ff.), and this, together with the exhortation to proselyte baptism as a condition and token of repentance (iv. 165),^ indicates clearly that the righteousness inculcated is Judaistic. THE APOCALYPSE OF BAEXJCH This writing is strongly Pharisaic in tone, as Pharisaic may be seen from the emphasis placed on the Law nis an^ (iii. 6 et •passim), fasting (v. 7 e< passim), sacrifices ^^"* (xxxv. 4, Ixiv. 2), holy vessels (Ixvi. 2), festivals and Sabbaths (Ixi. 5, Ixvi. 4, Ixxxiv. 8), and circum- cision (Ixvi. 5). Israel is a chosen nation : ' For this is the nation whom Thou hast chosen, and these are the people to whom Thou findest not ^ ' Wash your whole body in perennial streams.' Terry (in loo.) says this is a reference to CJhristian baptism, but it would seem more probable that it refers to proselyte baptism. 126 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOOEYPHAL LITEBATUEB equal ' (xlviii. 20). From of old God loved Israel, and never hated it, but above all educated it (Ixxviii. 3). As for the Gentiles, ' it were tedious to tell how they always wrought impiety and wickedness, and never wrought righteousness ' (Ixii. 7), and the rigid separatism of the legalistic Israel is counted to it for righteousness. There is a suggestion of Pharisaic self-righteousness in the confident assumption of pseudo-Baruch through- out as to the security of his own spiritual destiny (xiii. 3, XXV. 1, xliii. 1) — a disposition which is in marked contrast to that of ps.-Ezra. Proverbs, " This book has points of contact with Proverbs, ifMitoiif" Sirach, and Wisdom in its teaching of the moral value of the fear of God, of wisdom, and of understanding. The fear of God is rooted in understanding (xv. 5). ' Thy wisdom is right guidance ' (xxxviii. 2). The righteous ' have acquired for themselves treasures of wisdom, and with them are found stores of understanding ' (xliv. 14 ; cf. xlvi. 5, xlviii. 24, h. 3 f., li. 7). israors The problem of the book is similar to that of 4 Ezra. ' If Thou destroyest Thy city, and de- li verest up Thy land to those that hate us, how shall the name of Israel be again remembered ? ' (iii. 5; cf. v. 1). 'What have they profited who confessed before Thee, and have not walked in vanity as the rest of the nations ; and have not said to the dead " Give us life," but always feared Thee, and have not left Thy ways ? And lo ! they have been carried off, nor on that account hast Thou had mercy on Zion ' (xiv. 5 f .). The world was made for man (xiv. 18) and more particularly problem. THE MOEAL IDEAL 127 for Israel, but ' it abides, but we, on account of whom it was made, depart ' (xiv. 19). In seeking to find an answer to the problem it is treated this writer does not display the same depth as ps.-Ezra. His answer is that of the orthodox Pharisaism of his day, and there is no suggestion that he feels its insufficiency. He does not take as serious a view of the power of moral evil as ps.-Ezra. If the latter goes to one extreme in his doctrine of the cor malignum, ps.-Bar. moves to the opposite extreme in his teaching that every man is ' the Adam of his own soul.' Consequently there is here no appreciation of the inadequacy of the law, or of the impotence of the will in the face of its demands. One of the problems that perplexes ps.-Ezra most of all, that of the small number of the ultimately saved, is non-existent for ps.-Baruch. ' And if in time many have sinned, yet others not a few have been righteous ' (xxi. 11). He finds the answer to the problem that he soiaHon. raises in three directions. First, Israel is scattered among the Gentiles ' that they may do good to the Gentiles ' (i. i). Second, Israel's adversities have come upon it for its sin, and will last only for a time (i. 5, iv. 1, xiii. 9, Ixxviii. 6). Third, the times are coming when God will vindicate Israel. In regard to the third point, there is a divergence Divergent of view in the different strata of the book. Certain to^aie ^ ....... 11' . Messianic passages are optimistic m tone, and depict a coming hope in reign of righteousness upon earth under the rule sections. of the Messiah, when Israel shall be triumphantly vindicated, and its oppressors punished. After- wards wiU follow the final judgement (xxvii.-xxxi., 128 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAl LITERATURE xxxvi.-xL, liii.-lxxiv.). But there are other pas- sages which are absolutely pessimistic, so far as the future of the present world is concerned. ' Ye husbandmen, sow not again, and thou earth, wherefore givest thou the sweets of thy sustenance ? keep within thee the fruits of thy produce. And thou vine, why further dost thou give thy wine ? for an offering wiU not again be made therefrom in Zion, nor wiU first-fruits again be offered,' &c. (x. 9 ff.). The world is hastening to judgement : ' For, behold, the days come, and the books wiU be opened in which are written the sins of aU those who have sinned, and again also the treasuries in which the righteousness of all those who have been righteous in creation is gathered ' (xxiv. 1 ff. ; of. XXV., XXX. 2-5, xlii., xliv. 8-15, xlviii. 27-41, M., hi., Ixxxiii., Ixxxv.). Interest It is significant that those passages which lack fc^S" the Messianic hope lay most stress upon the law ho^bac* and its ultimate vindication. These passages were alter A.D. 70. written after the overthrow of Jerusalem, and, with the destruction of the Messianic hope, these Pharisaic writers fall back upon the ancient trust in the law. In the Messianic passages (written before a.d. 70) there are but few references to the law, e.g. ' Thy law in life ' (xxxviii. 2). The unwritten law was observed by Abraham and his sons (Ivii. 2). In the days of Moses ' the lamp of the eternal law shone on all those who sat in darkness ' (hx. 2). Those who do not love the law justly perish (Uv. 14). Righteousness is by the law (Ixvii. 6). In those passages written after a.d. 70, which ' THE MORAL IDEAL [129 cherish the hope of a Messianic kingdom, but do not mention the Messiah, the following references occur. To Israel God gave ' a law beyond aU peoples ' (Ixxvii. 3), for disobedience to which He sent the nation into captivity (Ixxvii. 4). If Israel wiU not forget God's law, it wiU see the consola- tion of Zion (xliv. 7 ; cf. 3). There wiU never be wanting ' a son of the law to the race of Jacob ' (xlvi. 4). ' Shepherds, and lamps, and fountains came [to us] from the law : and though we depart, yet the law abideth. If therefore ye have respect to the law, and are inteiit upon wisdom, a lamp will not be wanting, and a shepherd will not fail, and a fountain will not dry up ' (Ixxvii. 15 f.). But it is the non-Messianic passages which speak with most reverence for the law and most confidence as to its ultimate vindication. The acceptance of the law is necessary for an understanding of the principles of divine judgement (xv. 5). The law is a 'lamp ' for Israel (xvii. 4), and a ' yoke ' * (xli. 3). The law will protect in the last day those who have brought forth its fruits (xxxii. 1). The observers of the law wiU be vindicated in the final judgement (xliv. 14). Israel cannot fall so long as it is faithftd to the law (xlvii. 22, 24). The law ' exacts its rights ' (xlviii. 27), and requites the imrighteous in the day of judgement (xlviii. 47). The law is the hope of the righteous (li. 7), and by it are men justified (H. 3). In its distress Israel has nothing ' save the Mighty One and His law ' (Ixxxv. 3). ' There is one law by one, one age, and an end of aU who are in it ' (Ixxxv. 14). * Ci Pss. Sol. viL 9 130 ETHICS OF JEW ISH APOCBYPHAL LITEEATUEE Salvation by works. Vicarious merit. The book represents the standpoint of orthodox Pharisaism. In harmony with this view of the law is the belief that men are justified by the works of the law. The righteous face death without fear, ' because they have with Thee a store of works preserved in treasuries ' (xiv. 12). Justification is in the law (h. 3), and salvation is by works (li. 7). When Hezekiah prayed for deliverance from Sen- nacherib, he ' trusted in his works, and had hope in his righteousness ' (Ixiii. 3-5). There are also indications of the Pharisaic doctrine of vicarious righteousness. The Pharisees found it difficult to conceive of a free forgiveness, and thought of God as demanding an equivalent from some one else when forgiving the sinner. The works of the righteous are a protection to those among whom they dwell (ii. 2). Ps.-Baruch complains that it was due to Zion that the works of those who were righteous should have been eificacious to save it in spite of the transgressions of its members (xiv. 7). Forgiveness must be sought, not on the simple ground of personal penitence, but on the plea of ' the rectitude of your fathers ' (Ixxxiv. 10) ; and intercessory prayers are efficacious in so far as those who offer them are able to plead the merit of their own works (Ixxxv. 2). This book therefore represents the orthodox Pharisaic standpoint. The Moral Ideal is realized in obedience to the law. There is no suggestion of the insufficiency of the law to meet the deepest moral needs. Faith is a conception foreign to the book. The will is quite able to fulfil the demands made upon it. A doctrine of merit, personal and vicarious, is held and taught. THE MORAL IDEAL 131 IV. EZRA (2 Esdras) There are many indications that this book eman- PiiMiaaio ated from the circles of Pharisaism. It displays a great reverence for the Temple and its services (x. 19 f.), for oblations (iii. 24), and for fasting (vi. 31, ix. 24). Israel has been chosen from ' among all the multitudes of peoples ' (v. 27), and God has made a covenant with it (iii. 14 f.). It was for Israel's sake that the world was made (vi. 55), and God has ' brought it up ' and ' nurtured it ' and ' corrected it.' As for the other nations, they are ' nothing ' (vi. 56). The law is a divine gift to Israel (iii. 19 f., ix. 31 f .), and ps.-Ezra rejoices that, even though the great mass of men perish because of their sins, yet the law is vindi- cated : ' The law perisheth not, but remaineth in its honour ' (ix. 37). So far the outlook is tjrpically Pharisaic, but a closer examination reveals the Deviation fact that the writer is dissatisfied with and deviates Pharisaio from the orthodox tenets of his sect. At several and" °^' points he approaches the Pauline position, and Pauima it would seem that there was a leaven at work among the devout Pharisees making them dis- satisfied with a rigid legalism, and preparing the way for Christianity. If this be true it is probable that Christianity found Paul not altogether un- prepared for it. It had been customary to account for the mis^ israei-s fortunes of Israel by its unfaithfulness to the law, but this writer raises the question why it is that the Gentiles- lord it over Israel, when the iniquities of the former are even worse than those of the problem. 132 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCEYPHAL LITERATURE Inadequacj ot the law. latter. ' Are the deeds of Babylon better than those of Sion ? ' (iii. 28 f.). Why is it that ' they which did gainsay Thy promises have trodden them down that believed Thy covenants ' (v, 29). Thus at the outset he realizes that he cannot find a solution of moral problems in the law alone. He finds the law to be in a sense burdensome, for to it is to be attributed the recognition of sin, ' for we that have received the law shall perish by sin ' ' (ix, 36) ; it has failed to deliver men from con- demnation, for even of Israel few will be saved (viii. 41, ix. 15). He expresses dissatisfaction with the usual answer of legalism, that the issues of right and wrong have been clearly set forth in the law, and that therefore destruction is the just consequence of sin, for he sees that thus very few will be saved (vii. 127-40). He boldly appeals to the mercy of God against the condemnation of the law : ' Lord, Thy righteousness and Thy goodness shall be declared, if Thou be merciful unto them that have no store of good works ' (viii. 32-6), Ps .-Ezra's doctrine of the divine forgiveness shows a marked advance on Pharisaism in the direction of Christianity. Although good works are ' stored up ' (vii. 77, viii. 33), the doctrine of merit ia not taught, neither is that of the vicarious merits jnstiflcatton and intercession of the saints (vii. 102). Man ia justified (i.e. pronounced just) not, it is true, on the mere ground of faith, but neither on the ground of works, but of works and faith (ix. 7, xiii. 23). Another point to be noted is the absence of the Pharisaic spirit of self-righteousness. In The Apoc. » Cf. Rom. iii. 20 6. Appeal to the divine grace. Toy taith and works. Sense of demerit. THE MORAI, IDBAI, 133 of Baruch, Baruch complacently assumes throughout that he will be among the redeemed, but ps.-Ezra is told that he has brought himself very near unto the unrighteous, ' yet in this shalt thou be admirable before the Most High/; in that thou hast humbled thyself, as it becometh thee, and hast not judged thyself worthy to be among the righteous, so as to be much glorified ' ' (viii. 47 fE.) It is in this spirit, and in this attitude to the law, that '^the writer sets himself to consider the problems with which the book is concerned. These problems, though they are of deep religious intetest, are essentially moral in their character. More correctly, perhaps, the problem is one, viewed under a twofold aspect — that of the sin and suffering of Israel, and of the world. 1. The Problem of Israel. — Ps.-Ezra thus wiiydoea righteous- expresses the difficulty that perplexes him : ' And I ^«ij said in mine heart, Are their deeds any better that inhabit Babylon ? and hath she therefore dominion over Sion ? . . . Are the deeds of Babylon better than those of Sion ? Or is there any nation that knoweth Thee beside Israel ? Or what tribes have so believed Thy covenants as these tribes of Jacob ? And yet their reward appeareth not, and their labour hath no finish. . . . Weigh thou therefore our iniquities now in the balance, and theirs also that dwell in the world ; and so shall it be found which way the scale inclineth. Or when was it that they which dwell upon the earth have not sinned in Thy sight ? or what nation hath so kept ^ Cf. Paul's description of himself as the chief of sinners (1 Tim. i. 15.). Buffer? 134 ETHICS OP JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATXTEB Thy commandments ? Thou shalt find that men who may be reckoned by name have kept Thy precepts ; but nations Thou shalt not find ' (iii. 28-36 ; cf. v. 20-30, vi. 57-9). The problem cannot fail to recall that of the book of Job, but there the writer is concerned with the individual, not with the nation. The difficulty lies very heavily upon ps .-Ezra's spirit ; so much so that he thinks it were better never to have been born than to ' live in the midst of ungodliness, and suffer, and not know wherefore' (iv. 12; cf. v. 35). The answers to which he is able to fight his way are given in the form of visions, vouchsafed him by an angel. He does not formally develop his argument, but it is clear that he finds refuge in the following thoughts : (a) God's (a) The Unsearchdbility of the Ways of God. — Man our ways, caroiot solve all the problems of even the material universe ; how, then, can he hope to understand the mysteries of the world of incorruptible things ? (iv. 7-11; cf. V. 35 f.). f5)Hninan (6) The Limitations of Human Intelligence. — The i8 finite. Angel tells ps.-Ezra that the intellect must keep to its own sphere. He replies that he does not wish to solve heavenly problems, but earthly, and is told that there are other and deeper issues which can only be interpreted in the light of the end (iv. 13-25). MBvUmust (c) It is the Predestined Order of the World that Evil ran Ita , ' oonrse. must run its Course. — Evil must run its course and come to full fruition, and then wiU come ' the threshing time of the righteous'^ ( iv. 27 — v. 13). ^ See parable of Wheat and Tares (Matt, xiii, 24 ff.). THE MOBAL IDEAL 135 The process cannot be hastened any more than can that of human gestation (v. 45-9) ; but the opinion is expressed that it is nearing its end. The writer's outlook is intensely pessimistic. The world is getting old, for moral deterioration has set in, and the moral stature of each succeeding generation is less than that of its predecessor (v. 51-5). (d) The Vision is seen of Divine Judgement followed (*) Jmfee- by a New World. — ^After various signs and tokens there wiU come a time of ' inquisition,' in which the power of Rome will be overthrown, and the supremacy of Israel established in righteousness (vi. 7-10, xi., xii.), bringing in a new age. ' Evil shall be blotted out, and deceit shall be quenched, and faith shall flourish, and corruption shall be overcome, and the truth which hath been so long without fruit shall be declared ' (vi. 27 f.). (e) The Messianic Hope. — The agent in this divine («) The inquisition, and the Creator of the new age, will •»<>?«■ be the Messiah, God's Son (xi. 36-46, xii. 31-3, xiii.). 2. The Problem oe Humanity. — Section vi. 35- ^^lemot ix. 25 raises the larger problem of the moral future *** '*°*- of the race in view of moral evil. Ps.-Ezra asks the old question, ' If the world now be made for our sakes, why do we not possess for an inheritance our world ? ' But the answer of the Angel takes wider issues into account. The world to come is wide and spacious, but the entrance to it is narrow,' and is set between fire and water (vii. 1-13). Ps.-Ezra should therefore turn his attention to the future, rather than to the present (vii. 15 f.). But he answers that the law teaches that the inheritance * Of. Matt, vii, 13 ; Luke xiii, 24. 136 ETHICS OP JEWISH APOCRYPHAIi LITBRATTJEB of the world to come is only for the righteous, and when he looks out on the world he finds that all are unrighteous, because of the evil heart. The Angel's answer is that moral issues have been set clearly before all born into the world, but that nevertheless they have been disobedient and therefore merit punishment, but comforts ps.-Ezra with the vision of the Messianic age when ' judgement shall remain, truth shall stand, and faith shall wax strong ; and the work shall follow, and the reward shall be shared, and good deeds shall awake, and wicked deeds shall not sleep ' (vii. 17-44). Eetnmto Ps.-Ezra gives up the problem of the race, and of Israel. reverts to that of Israel (vii. 46). How is it that ' the world to come shaU bring delights to few, but torments to many ? ' (vii. 47). The Angel replies that the few are precious, and the many worthless (vii. 49-61) ; but ps.-Ezra's answer is that surely then it were better that men had never been created (vii. 62-9), or, at any rate, that Adam had been restrained from siiming (vii. 116-26). 'For what profit is it unto us, if there be promised us an immor- tal time, whereas we have done the deeds that bring death ? ' He is dissatisfied with the reiterated reply of the Angel, that man has known from the beginning the conditions of the battle, that good and evil have been plainly set before him, that God has been long-suffering, and that therefore the inexorable doom of the unrighteous is just (vii. 70-74, 127-31 ; cf. viii. 56-63). From this answer of legalism he appeals confidently to the mercy of God, who ' multiplieth more and more means to them that are present, and that are past, and also to them THE MORAI, IDEAL 137 which are to come.' He appeals to Him to judge Israel, not according to the wickedness of those who have been unfaithful to the law, but according to those ' that have always put their trust in Thy glory ' (vii. 132-40, viii. 20-36). The Angel still maintains that few will be saved, but reminds ps.- Ezra of his human limitations, and that, great as his love for his fellow men may be, he cannot love them more than God. He admits that God's pur- pose in creation has partially failed. ' The Most High willed not that men should come to nought ; but they which He created have themselves defiled the name of Him that made them, and were un- thankful unto Him that prepared life for them ' (viii. 37-63). Thus, to sum up, ps.-Ezra conceives that the Moral smnmaiy Ideal is realized in obedience to the law. His argument. loyalty to the law never wavers. He will face even the iiltimate destruction of the many, if the law be but ultimately vindicated. But be is per- plexed by two difficulties. In the first place, with the facts of Israel's national history before him, he cannot believe that obedience to the law brings present reward. In the second place, he cannot see how the law is to be the instrument of the redemp- tion of even Israel, without taking into account the Gentile nations. For, owing to man's evil heart, the law has been transgressed, and, if they are to be judged by the standard of the law, very few men will be saved. In the face of these perplexities he cultivates a spirit of resignation, bearing in mind the limitations of human intelligence, and the unsearchability of the predestined ways of God. He 138 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE refuses to surrender his faith in the law, but believes that the just shall Hve by faith no less than by- works, and that judgement will be with mercy. Meanwhile he is comforted by the Messianic hope and the vision of a new world. P8.-ect» It wiU be seen that this teaching approaches very nearly to that of Paul, and that it would tend to create the attitude of mind which would make the acceptance of Christianity easy. Once the weakness of the law has been recognized, it is but one step forward to the Pauline position : ' For what the law could not do, in that it was weak through the flesh, God sending His own Son in the likeness of sinful flesh, and as an offering for sin, condemned sin in the flesh : that the ordinance of the law might be fulfilled in us, who walk not after the flesh, but after the spirit ' (Rom. viii. 3 f.). THE APOCALYPSE OP ABRAHAM The first part (i.-viii.) describes Abraham's dis- covery of the emptiness of idolatry,' and his conse- quent devotion to the service of Jahveh. The second part (ix.-end), describes how Abraham saw in a vision the course of world-history, and more par- ticularly the destiny of Israel, which was to be God's chosen nation (xx., xxii.). Like The Apoc. of Baruch and 4 Ezra, this book raises questions Problem oj as to the moral government of the world. Abraham ^ennnent asks why God permits moral evil, and is told that world. the answer is found in man's free will (xxiii.). He asks when the redemption of Israel will come, and 1 Cf. Jvh. xii. THE MORAL IDEAL 139 is told that history is moving through a predeter- mined course to the Messianic age (xxviii., xxix.). Importance is attached to fasting (ix.) and to ' sacrifices and gifts of righteousness and truth ' (xxix.). Summary The literature of this period is of special interest spedai as being contemporary with the life of Christ, and this period, the writing of the N.T. It must be said that it reveals the presence of nobler currents of thought in Judaism than the study of the Gospels would lead us to suspect. It further shows how the ground was being prepared for Christianity, and enables us to understand the lines along which Paul's thought must have travelled until he was constrained to accept the gospel. The quarrel of the sects is not obtruded so promin- ently upon our notice in this century. A picture of the Sadducees is given in The Assumption of Moses, which harmonizes with those in Eth. En. xci.-civ. and The Psalms of Solomon. As to Pharisaism, we can trace three different schools, or tendencies : 1. Pharisaic Quietism. — This school is represented Dinerent by 4 Mace, and The Assumption of Moses. There da S". are marked difierences between the two books. The »™°"™' former uses the forms and expressions of Greek philosophy, the latter is purely Palestinian, and there is present in it a depth of spirituality and a moral inwardness which the other lacks. But both agree in their opposition to the politico-legalism which had led so many to centre their hopes in the coming of a kingdom of a temporal rather than a 140 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATUKE spiritual character. Both inculcate the doctrine of a quiet endurance of affliction, as against resist- ance by physical force. The writer of 4 Mace. pins his faith to the law and its power to vindicate the righteous, that of the Assumption is , quietly confident that the spiritual ideals of the law and the Covenant are sufficient for the moral demands of Israel. There was, therefore, at the beginning of the first century, both in Palestine and Alexandria, a school of thought which harked back to the early and more spiritual ideals of the Chasids, whose ideals were theocratic rather than Messianic, and who were strenuously opposed to the secularization of the moral and religious hopes of the people. The Quietists were not deeply concerned with the moral problem of Israel's adversities : it was enough for them to endure in patient trust. But the other two schools of Pharisaism were not able to dispose of the problem so easily. 2. Orthodox Pharisaism. — The chief representa- tive of this class is The Apoc. of Baruch, although The Sibylline Oracles (iv.) and The Apoc. of Abra- ham represent substantially the same position. Ps. -Baruch, as we have seen, raises the problem of Israel's adversities, but his treatment of the question ' is superficial. His standpoint is that of orthodox Pharisaism. Israel is being afflicted for its sins, but redemption lies ready to hand in the law and the works of the law, and in due course deliverance will come from without in the inauguration of the Messianic kingdom. There is no suggestion of the inadequacy of the law, because of the impotence of the will in the face of its demands. As we have THE MORAL IDEAL 141 seen, in the sections written after the destruction of Jerusalem the Messianic hope grows less pronounced, and a return is made with unabated confidence to the law as the instrument of redemption. 3. The Type represented by 4 Ezra. — Ps.-Ezra feels very deeply the problem of the adversities of the righteous, and refuses to be satisfied with the orthodox solutions of his day. He reverences the law, but fails to see how it can be the instrument of moral redemption, since very few are able to keep it. His position is precisely that of Paul. ' The things I would I do not, the things I would not those I do.' Although, at the end of his discussion, he protests anew his reverence for the law and his hope of deliverance in the coming of a Messiah and the establishment of a Messianic kingdom, it is not thus in reality that he finds his way out of the impasse, but by invoking his faith and casting himself upon the mercy of God. The Pharisaism which had reached this point was ' not far from the kingdom.' Ps.-Ezra must have been typical of many others in Judaism whose thoughts were travelling along the same path. No one can fail to observe the contrast between contrast the Pharisaism of this apocalyptic literature (espe- PhariaaiBm ^ cially Ass. of Moses and 4 Ezra) and that which is uterature •' ' ' and that of piUoried in the Gospels. Must we conclude that the&ospeis. there is a fundamental inconsistency between them ? Not by any means. Christ's denunciations were directed against the mechanical system of Pharisaism which exalted ritual, legalism, and external au- thority, and against the men in whom this system had crushed out the essential elements of moral and Fartlcnlar- 142 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCEYPHAL LITERATtTEB spiritual life. History affords many illustrations of those who have risen above the system of which they formed a part, and have kept the sacred fire burning, even in days of deepest degradation. The fifteenth century was a degenerate period in the history of the Church. Near its beginning John Hus thus described the Church : ' All ye that pass by, stop and see if any sorrow is like My sorrow, I cry aloud in rags ; my priests are clothed in scarlet. I agonize with bloody sweat ; they delight in luxurious baths. I pass the night, spit upon and mocked ; they in feasts and drunkenness.' ' A darker picture could hardly be drawn, and yet a few years later the immortal Imitation of Christ was given to the world. Thomas a Kempis was a child of his own age, and accepted impHcitly the mediaeval system of religion. Indulgences, adoration of the saints, transubstantiation, masses for the dead, auricular confession, penance, and unquestioning obedience to authority — aU were part of his faith. Nevertheless, while loyal to this mechanical system, he rose above it, and wrote a book of transcendent spirituality. It was so with these Pharisaic writers. While they were steadfastly loyal to the ordinances of Judaism, and practised the separatism of Pharisaism, they were raised above the narrow bigots of the Temple and the market-place by their moral depth and earnestness. Although loyal to the Pharisaic system, their spirituaHty enabled them to rise superior to it. This century shows no mitigation in the particu- larism of Judaism. As may be seen from 3 and 4 * Quoted by Workman : The Age of Bus, p. 131. THE MORAL IDEAL 143 Mace, there was still a school at Alexandria which inculcated, a narrow nationalism. The writer of 4 Mace., although he uses Greek philosophical forms, is in reality anti-hellenist, his purpose being to show that the Greek ideal of virtue can only be realized in Judaism. He has not the universal outlook of The Book of Wisdom ; his interest is solely in Israel. Of the Palestinian literature, The Apoc. of Baruch teaches that Israel is scattered for the good of the Gentiles, and 4 Ezra takes a passing glance at the moral problem of the race ; but the main trend of thought is particularistic throughout. A distinct advance is registered in the conceptions I'm"!, grace, and worka. of faith and grace. The doctrine of salvation by works is still taught. The rationality of the cere- monial system of Judaism is defended in 4 Mace., which also teaches the atoning efficacy of the death of the righteous. The belief in the value of the intercession of the saints present in 2 Mace, is not held in 4 Mace, and is condemned by SI. Enoch, The Alexandrian writing which displays the truest moral inwardness is 81. Enoch, which teaches that the observance of ordinances must be accompanied by purity of heart, but does not rise to the conception of grace and forgiveness. The Palestinian literature, with two exceptions, teaches the orthodox doctrine of works, but these exceptions are very notable. The Assumption of Moses breaks away from the conception of a coven- ant relation based on the merits of the patriarchs, and regards it as being grounded in the divine grace. Ps.-Ezra, although he never wavers in his loyalty to the works of the law, and persists in 144 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITEEATTTEB regarding them as a factor in salvation, is neverthe- less unable to find in this belief a complete solution of his diificulties. He is driven to the conclusion that the just shall live by faith, no less than by- works, and casts himself upon the divine grace. Thus in the most ethical and spiritual circles of Judaism, the inadequacy of the external method of salvation was being reaUzed, and the need of a gospel of faith and grace was being felt. CHAPTER III MOEAL EVIL To Israel moral evil always consisted in dis- speculation obedience to the will of Jahveh, as expressed in the origin of Covenant and the law. As has already been in- dicated, the interest of the Jew was practical rather than metaphysical, but, in the case of this particular problem, he pursued his inquiries not only into the nature but into the origin of moral evil. As a result there was in Judaism, by the time the N.T. was written, a well-developed theory of the con- stitution of human nature, and a doctrine of a fall and original sin, explanatory of universal sinfulness. But these doctrines, although they had their starting- point in the O.T., were not fully developed until the period of apocryphal and apocalyptic literature. The starting-point of speculation as to the origin of moral evil was the Jahvist narrative in Gen. iii., <3en.m. which describes the physical evils which came upon the race as a result of the transgression of its first parents. This is not the place to draw out the implications of the narrative, but, in view of our study, it is important to notice what it does not teach. It is not said in Genesis itself that the race fell in Adam, or that as a consequence of his sin his descendants inherited corruption and guilt ; and 145 10 146 ETHICS OP JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE the serpent who appears as tempter is not connected with Satan or with any demonic agency. The same writer (J) gives expression to the thought out of which was afterwards developed the rabbinic doctrine of the yezers (to be discussed below), that in man's nature are implanted evil impulses (Gen. Gen. Ti. vi. 5, viii. 21), but nowhere does he connect their presence with the transgression of Adam. The legend referred to in Gen. vi. 2 of the spread of depravity through sexual union between the ' sons of God ' (later known as ' The Watchers ') and the ' daughters of men ' before the Flood played an important part in later Jewish thought, but its influence cannot be traced in any of the O.T. writings. That which was stated in Gen. vi. 5 as to the universal inheritance of sin found fuller expression Later O.T. in the later writings of the O.T., where both the universality and the inherence of moral evil in the heart are affirmed (e.g. Job iv. 17, Prov. xx. 9, Ps. li. 5, Jer. xvii. 9). Doubtless at first moral evil was regarded chiefly from the legal and ceremonial standpoint, but in the prophets of the eighth century we find its distinctly ethical aspects being empha- sized, and thence onwards they were never whoUy lost sight of. At first it was viewed more from the stand- point of the nation than of the individual, as was to be expected from the prevailing idea of the solidarity of Israel ; but later, in Jeremiah and Ezekiel, the The individual emeraes and the sense of individual as Individual and the well as of national sin is confessed. The older view nation. was not at once superseded, nor indeed did it ever wholly give way to the newer ; but gradually the later conception gathered force, until it took its MOEAL EVIL 147 place in the national consciousness side by side with the earlier. But what strikes the student of the O.T, as most o.t. remarkable is that the O.T. conception of sin is rf^ai™ never brought into relation with Gen. iii. by the O.T, brought into .11 , , 1 T^ 1 ..• ,«, relation with writers themselves (except perhaps iLzek. xxviu. 13). Gen-iii. This narrative does not seem to have exercised any influence at all over Jewish thought until after the Exile. The great developments in the doctrine of the origin of moral evil took place in post-Exilic Poat-Eiiuo days, perhaps partly under the influence of Persian menta. ' demonology. These are reflected partly in the apocryphal, but especially in the apocalyptic htera- ture, in some of which moral evil finds its explanation in transgressions and conflicts in a spiritual sphere, whence the spirits of truth and deceit contend for the hearts of men. The adoption of the Priestly Code gave a new inflaeno«oi impetus to the legislative and ceremonial view of oodo. moral evil, but the more ethical outlook of the pro- phets was never lost, and found noble expression in such books as The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs and Wisdom, I. THE SECOND CENTURY B.C. ' A. Palestinian SIRACH The writer is under no delusions as to the serious- Moral eH\ and folly. ness of moral evil. It bites and slays the souls of men. ' AH iniquity is as a two-edged sword ; its stroke hath no heaUng ' (xxi. 1-3). It waits for 148 ETHtCS OP JEWISH APOCEYPHAL LITBEATUBB the workers of iniqtiity as a lion lies in wait for its prey (xxvii. 10). As in Proverbs, wickedness is iden- tified with foUy, and the wicked man with the fool. The subtilty of the wicked man is in reality folly, and must be distinguished from the wisdom of the godly (xix. 22-5, xx. 13-23, xxi. 14r-26, xxii. 7-15, xxvii. 11-13). ThePauthe This book is of great importance because of the Btarting- hght which it throws upon the Jewish view of the moral eru. problem of cvil in the second century B.C. There is a referience to the Genesis story of the Fall in xxv. 24, where the LXX reads ' From a woman was the beginning (apxv) of sin ; because of her we aU die ' (xxv. 24). But apxv may mean either beginning or cause, and the statement might therefore be inter- preted in either an historical or a causal sense. In the Hebrew, however, the word Used signifies ' beginning,' so that it is not to be inferred that a woman was the cause of sin, but only that the historical starting-point of moral evil was in her transgression. ThePaUand The teaching seems to be divergent as to the death. relation of death to moral evil. Some passages rather imply that man was not created immortal. ' The Lord created man of the earth, and turned him back unto it again. He gave them days by number, and a set time ' (xvii. 1 f.). ' All things that are of the earth, turn to the the earth again ' (xl. 11). But these references are ambiguous, and must not be built upon with too great certainty. There are other verses which connect death with the entry of moral evil into the world. Probably xivi 17 6 {' For the covenant from the beginning is, the yezers. MOEAIi EVIL 149 thou shalt die the death ') does not refer to the pre-ordination of man to death, but to Gen. ii. 17, with its threat of death for the disobedience of our first parents. A causal connexion is unambiguously established in xxv. 24, ' Because of her we all die.' In xl. 9 f . death and all other evils are said to have been created, not indeed for Adam and Eve in parti- cular, but for the wicked generally. The teaching of Sirach marks the first appearance in literature of the theory which connects the subjection of the whole race to the law of death with the moral evil of the first parents.' His position seems to be that the ' Fall was the cause of death, but only the beginning of sin.' ' This conclusion is borne out by his teaching on Dootrinsot the yezer.' This doctrine occupied a prominent place in the systems of the Rabbis. In the O.T. the word yezer had come to mean man's nature or disposition. This was looked upon by the Rabbis as mainly evil on the basis of Gen. vi. 5, ' Every yezer of the thoughts of his heart was only evil every day,' and Gen. viii. 21, ' The yezer of the 1 It is assumed here that the true interpretation of Gen. ii., iii. is that man was created subject to death, and that, at the most, moral evil only hastened it. ' This seems to be the view under- lying Gen. ii., iii., though many take it to be conditional im- mortahty. But such an interpretation is difficult in the face of Gen. iii. 19 ' (Charles, Apoc. of Baruch, p. 44 a. So Tennant, The Fall and Original Sin, pp. 117-121). 2 Tennant, op. cit. p. 121. * See discussion, with copious quotations from rabbinic literature, by Porter (in Biblical and Semitic Studies, pp. 93-156), and Taylor {Sayings of the Jewish Fathers, pp. 37, 64, 128-30, 147-52). .; 150 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE heart of man is evil from his youth.' The word is therefore generally used in rabbinic literature to signify man's evil impulses {yezer Tiara) ; but references sometimes occur to the good impulses [yezer hatoh). This conception must not be con- Must not be fused with Greek dualism, which places the seat of with Greek moral cvil in the body, and that of good in the soul. Neither the yezer hara nor the yezer hatdb finds its seat either in the body or soul as such, but in the heart, which in Jewish psychology stands for the whole ego as a moral being. The Rabbis resolved the dualism of the two natures by making God the Creator of the evil impulses as well as of the The year good. The cvil yezer is, therefore, not caused by the planted siu of Adam, but rather the reverse is the case, isfina sense. There is a sense in which even the evil nature the^'moraa is good, for apart from it ' a man would never build a house, nor marry, nor beget, nor trade ' (Bereshith Rdbbah, ix.). ' The evil nature is called yezer absolutely from its existing originally and for a long time alone, for ' the imagination of man's heart is evil from his youth ' (Gen. viii. 21), whereas yezer hatoh, which is presided over by vov<;, is added later, and then only co-exists with the evil which is thirteen years older [Midrash Qoheleth, ix. 14). The strong and the great man is he in whom the evil nature is strong ; and ' therefore our wise men, of blessed memory, have said. In the place where penitents stand, the faultlessly righteous stand not ' ' [Berakoih, 34 6). The evil yezer can be overcome because man is free, and the chief aids for vanquishing it are the law and prayer. 1 Taylor, Sayings of the Jevnsh Fathers, p. 64. MORAL EVIL 151 Much of this teaching is found in Sirach : For God created man from the beginning And put him into the hand of him that would spoil him, And gave him into the hand of his incliQation (yezer) (xv, 14, Heb.). The second line does not occur in the Greek, and it has been suggested that lines 2 and 3 are doublets, but Porter thinks it possible that line 2 'was omitted by the translator or by later Christian scribes as suggesting too much intention on the part of God that man should fall into sin.' ' In any case the meaning of the passage in con- nexion with its context seems to be that God is not to be held accountable for evil, because although He implanted in man evil impulses. He gave him The yezer power to overcome them. Moral evil is thus ex- imptanted^ plained by the existence of an evil yezer in man from dn be the beginning. Other passages point the same way. Ch. xxi. 11 reads in the Greek, 'He that keepeth The law the law becometh master of the intent thereof,' but laer. the Syriac, which represents the original, reads, ' He that keepeth the law gets the mastery over his yezer.' The meaning is clear, especially when it is compared with Pirq. Ah. iv. 2 (Taylor) : ' Who is mighty ? ' he that subdues his yezer, and ' I created the evil yezer ; I created for it the law as a remedy. If ye are occupied with the law, ye shall not be delivered into its hand.' * The Hebrew text of xxvii. 5, 6 is difficult. It The value of moral reads : ' A potter's vessel is for the furnace to conflict. ^ Biblical and Semitic Studies, p. 138. 2 KiddusMn, 30, quoted by Porter, op. cit. p. 141. 152 ETHICS OP JEWISH APOCEYPHAL LITBRATTTEE bake (?) ; and like unto it a man is according to his thought. Y^°''^'^' ^'if T, T. ^ lof a tree Will ° According to the husbandryj be its fruit ; so the thought is according to the yezer of a man.' The meaning is either that the evil yezer tests a man, so that his thought is perfected by struggle ; or that a man's disposition, good or bad, lies behind and sustains his thought, as a bough sustains the fruit. Porter is of opinion that the reference to the potter makes the former the more likely meaning. The problem Aocordiug to the Greek text of xxxvii. 3, Sirach raises the problem of evil in the acute form in which it was raised later in Ezra iv., ' O wicked imagination, whence comest thou roUing in to cover the dry land with deceitfulness ? ' By the ' wicked imagination ' {"irovripov evdvfirjfj,a) is evidently meant the evil yezer. The Hebrew text is partially obhterated, but the Syriac reads, ' Hatred and evil, why were they created,' &c., which, although it raises the problem of evil, does not approach it from the standpoint of the yezer. Under the circumstances it would not be safe to draw any deductions from this passage, ^a^ionauzing ^^® othcr passagc must be noted in this con- of Satan. ncxion : ' When the ungodly curseth Satan, he curseth his own soul ' (xxi. 27). On this, Edersheim ^ comments : ' This certainly accords with an exceptional rabbinic view which identifies Satan with the yezer hara, the evil inclination.' ' This 1 Speakers' Comm. in loc. ^ Of. E. Chisda's sajdng, ' Satan, evil yezer and the Angel of Death are one ' (quoted by Porter, op. cit. p. 122). MOKAL EVIL 153 rationalizing of Satan harmonizes with the writer's tendencies to Sadduceeism, with its denial of spiritual agencies. The general consensus of these passages points Moral evii to the behef that moral evil is due to evil impulses implanted implanted in man from the beginning, which were not to the' not caused by the Fall, but rather themselves explain it. These impulses can be overcome mainly by means of the law. Possibly, too, it is taught (xxvii. 5 f.) that the evil yeztr can be bent to serve moral ends, because the discipline of struggle has moral worth. As might be expected from the universal existence Moral evu of the evil yez&r, moral evil is universal. No one """'*'• can plead ' Not guilty ' in the face of its indictment. ' We are all worthy of punishment ' (viii. 5). The vices most strongly condemned by Sirach are anger (i. 22, x. 6), hypocrisy (i. 28 f.), pride (i. 30 et passim), covetousness (xiv. 3 f.), adultery (xxiii. 18-27), commercial dishonesty (xxvii. 1-3). BTHioPic ENOCH (i.-xxxvi., Ixxxiii.-xc.) Moral evil is regarded as consisting in transgression Moral evu rii -r-'' -IT 11 p traced to the or the law. Its origin is ascribed to the lust oi lustotthe ° Watchers the angels, called Watchers, who, originally spiri- and the tual and holy, entered into sexual union with the '^^^'i, ,. ^ ' revelations daughters of men (vi., vii., xv.). In xix. 2, which ot^zazei. Charles treats as an interpolation, the initiative is attributed to the women.' These illicit unions between the Watchers and women are regarded as the source of the corruption of the world (vii.). 1 Cf. Testa, of Twdve Patriarchs (T. Reub. v.). -, Demonic incitement. Uoralevll not brought Into connexion viih the FaU. 154 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITBRATtTEE As in The Apocalypse of Abraham, Azazel, one of the Watchers, is represented as revealing ' the secret things of the world which were wrought in the heavens,' and also as having taught all un- righteousness on earth (ix. 6). ' And the whole earth has been defiled through the teaching of the works of Azazel : to him ascribe all sin ' (x. 8). The activity of the Watchers ceased at the Deluge (x.), but the evil spirits, which proceeded from the giants who were the offspring of the illicit unions of the Watchers with women, remained as sources of corruption. The moral evil of the race is not brought into connexion with the transgression of Adam. The tree of hfe is referred to at length in chs. xxiv. and XXV., and it is stated that Adam and Eve ate of the tree of wisdom and were driven out of the garden (xxxii.). But no connexion is established between this and the deeds of the Watchers which corrupted the antediluvian world. We have here, evidently, a cycle of thought as to the origin of evil based, not on Gen. iii., but on Gen. vi. 1-3. The same theory obtains in part in the section Ixxxiii.-xc. The Watchers corrupt men until the Deluge (Ixxxiv. 4), but there is no reference to continued demonic incitement. Their descent to earth is described as the fall of a star from heaven, followed by the fall of many stars (Ixxxvi.). Evil seems to have its source entirely in the angelic world. TOBIT Tobit has little light to throw upon the question of moral evil. It is conceived of as disobedience MORAL EVIL 155 to the divine commandments (iii. 2ff., iv. 5). The principle of solidarity is recognized ; Tobit con- fesses and bears the burden of the sins of his fathers, as well as his own (iii. 3-5). THE BOOK OF BABTICH (i. 15 — ^iii. 8) Moral evil consists in violation of the commands AbsenMoi and ordinances of God as revealed in the Mosaic d^^t. law (i. 17 ff., ii. 12). The writing is marked by an absence of the sense of personal demerit. It is true that sin is confessed with contrition, but the term ' we ' (ii. 10, iii. 2) is used in a national, not a personal sense. National evils are attributed, not to the sins of the writer's own generation, but to those of their fathers. ' Lord, hear the prayer souaatity o« of the children of them that were sinners before Thee' (iii. 8). It is not clear from ii. 8 whether the writer means that men are by nature possessed of a ' wicked heart,' and so have an implanted bias to evil, or whether he simply means that the hearts of the Israelites were wicked, because of their many transgressions. JTJBILEES This book follows the Genesis story of the Fall, The Fail, through the agency of the serpent, with the addition that it makes Adam and Eve dwell in the garden seven years before the sin which drove them out (iii. 17 ff.), and also connects the dumbness of the animal creation with the Fall (iii. 28). The fact that Adam did not immediately die on eating the 156 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITBRATTTEB It Is not brought Into caoaad conneslon mth moral evil, neither is i^ere any doctrine at the jfezer. The Watchers. Demonic incitement. Legalistic view of moral eTil. fruit is thus explained : When Adam died ' he lacked sevepity years of one thousand years ; for one thousand years are as one day ' in the testimony of the heavens, and therefore was it written con- cerning the tree of knowledge, On the day that ye eat thereof ye will die ' (iv. 30). There is no hint of any connexion between the Fall and subsequent moral evil ; neither is there any doctrine of the yezer. The development of corruption and law- lessness is connected with the seductions of the daughters of men by the Watchers (v. 1-4), who were originally sent to ' instruct the children of men, that they should do judgement and upright- ness on the earth' (iv. 15) ; and by the continued importunity of evil spirits (vii. 27), chief of whom are Mastema (identified with Satan, x. 8, 11), and Beliar (i. 20). The consequences of the sin of the Watchers are represented as being utterly done away with in the days of Noah (v. 12), but demonic incitement to sin stiU continued (vii. 27, x. 1-15, xi. 4f., xii. 20). The writer's view of the nature of sin, as might be expected of a Pharisee, is that primarily it con- sists in violation of the ordinances and command- ments of the law (i. 10, xxxiii. 16), and also in disregard, even though unconscious, of the unwritten traditions^ (xxii. 14). But, like Paul, he teaches, though he does not elaborate the theory, that with the law comes the knowledge of sin, and that sin is not imputed where there is no law. He condones the sin of Reuben on the ground that ' until that time there had not been revealed the ordinances and 1 Cf. 2 Pet. iii. «. 2 cf. T. Levi iii. 15 ; Pss. Sol. iii. 9. MORAL EVIL 157 judgement and law in its completeness for all, but in thy days it has been revealed as a law of seasons and of days, and an everlasting law for the ever- lasting generations ' ' (xxxiii. 16). There are some evidences of a more inward view Traoaofa more inward of moral evil. It is more than the external viola- ^ew. tion of an ordinance, for fornication ' after the eyes and the heart ' is condemned ^ (xx. 4). It is error of the heart (i^ 11, ii. 29), a ' path of destruction ' (vii. 26), a surrendering of the soul (xxxix. 6), and ' every imagination and desire of men,' imagining vanity and evil continually (vii. 24). Moral evil, thus interpreted, is universal : ' I see, my son, that all the works of the children of men are sin and wickedness, and all their deeds are uncleanness and an abomination and a pollution, and there is no righteousness with them ' (xxi. 21). Deliverance from sin involves a process of inward cleansing (xxii. 14). The writer even speaks of a ' sin unto death' ' (xxi. 22, xxvi. 34, xxxiii. 18), but by this he probably does not refer to any particular sin, but to that habit of sin which makes for moral death. Confession of sin is necessary to moral restora- confession tion, and that not only of individual but of national penitence. sin. ' They will not be obedient till they confess their own sin, and the sin of their fathers ' (i. 22 ; cf. Lev. xxvi. 40). There is even sin in heaven, and the angels confess ' all the sin which is com- mitted in heaven and on earth ' (iv. 6). Confession ^ Cf. bom. iv. 15, ' For where there is not law neither ia there transgression.' 2 Cf. T. Iss. vii. 2 ; T. Jos. is. 2 ; Matt. v. 28. » Cf. 1 John V. 16. 158 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITER ATTTEB must be accompanied by true repentance, whereof an outward token must be given once a year, on the Day of Atonement (v. 17, 18). various Certain sins are specially condemned : (a) Idolatry (i. 9-11, xii. et passim), (b) Fornication and un- cleanness (vii. 20, ix. 15 et passim). Fornication with the father's wife is strongly reprobated, the case of Reuben not being allowed as a precedent, as the law had not then been completely revealed (xxxiii. 10-20). In the case of the fornication of a man with his mother-in-law or daughter-in-law, the penalty enacted is death by burning for both (xli. 26 f. ; of. Lev. xx. 12, Gen. xxxviii. .24). This is the punishment enacted for all adultery and fornication on the part of the woman (xx. 4), but according to the law the penalty for such offences was death by stoning (Deut. xxii. 23 f . ; cf . Ezek. xvi. 40), the only exception being in the case of a priest's daughter, where fire was substituted (Lev. xxi. 9). (c) The eating (vi. 4r-10 et passim ; cf. Lev. vii. 26), and shedding of blood (vi. 8 et passim). But it must be noted that the condemnation of blood-shedding is not carried to the extent of forbidding animal sacrifices, as in the case of the Essenes. On the contrary, they are definitely enjoined (vi. 14, xxi. 7). Protest (d) Exposure of the person (iii. 31, vii. 20). The toueniza- author's references to this practice are probably intended as a protest against the custom, which had become popular, of Jewish youths stripping themselves and joining in Greek games (cf, 2 Mace. iv. 12 f., 1 Mace. i. 14 f., Jos., Ant. xn. v. 1). MORAL EVIL 159 THE TESTAMENTS OF THE TWELVE PATRIARCHS There is nothing in this book which definitely Hviinot connects moral evil with the fall of Adam, unless ^^^e Fall, it be the passage : And he [the Messiah] shall open the gates of Paradise, And shall remove the threatening sword against Adam (T. Levi xviii. 10). But this does not clearly establish the connexion, and Charles is of opinion that for ' Adam ' we should read ' man,' though there can be no doubt that the writer has Gen. iii. in mind. Reference is made to the legend of the Watchers ' ^« ^ ° Watchers. who entered into illicit unions with the daughters of men (T. Reub. v. 6 f.), and brought about that iniquity which resulted in the Flood (T. Naph. iii. 5) ; but the writer represents the women, not the Watchers, as being the seducers (T. Reub. v. 6). Moral evil is largely explained by the continual indtement incitement of evil spirits, at whose head is BeHar apirit». (T. Ben. iii. 3 ; cf. T. Reub. iv. 7, vi. 3 ; T. Sim. v. 3 ; T. Jud. XXV. 3), who is the ' Prince of deceit ' (T. Sim. ii. 7) and whose wiU is the embodiment of evil, as opposed to the will of God (T. Naph. iii. 1). The sinner is therefore the devil's ' own peculiar instrument ' (T. Naph. viii. 6). If the soul yields to its evil inclination it comes under the dominion of Beliar (T. Ash. i, 8). Many evil spirits are mentioned in the book as tempting men to sin. T. Reub. (ii. 1 f., iii. 3-6) speaks of the ' seven spirits of deceit ' ' which are the special foes of youth — the » Cf. Jub, iv. 15, V. 1. » Cf. Matt. xii. 43. 160 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITEKATUEB spirits of fornication, of insatiableness, of obsequious- ness and chicanery, of pride, of lying, and of in- justice (cf. T. Sim. vl. 6). Mention is also made of the spirit of envy (T. Sim. iii. 1), the spirit of jealousy and vainglory (T. Dan i. 6), the spirit of anger (T. Dan ii. 4), and the spirits of lust, hot desire, profligacy, and filthy lucre (T. Jud. xvi. 1). There are also spirits of Beliar which incite to murder (T. Dan i. 7), idolatry (T. Naph. iii. 3), and to fleshly sins (T. Jos. vii. 4). As to the constitution of man's nature, he is created in God's image (T. Naph. ii. 5), but there The Two are implanted in him good and evil inclinations — W^avs And ___ theyaer the Tabbinic yezer Jiatob and yezer Tiara. This is hara and ^ *^ theyffler the first appearance in Jewish literature of the ' good inclination.' * ' Two ways hath God given to the sons of men, and two inclinations ' (T. Ash. i. 3). If the soul take pleasure in the good inclination all the man's acts are righteous, and if he sin he im- mediately repents ; but if his sotd take pleasure in the evil inclination all his acts are wickedness, the good is expelled, and he becomes subject to Beliar. ' For whenever it beginneth to do good, he forces the issue of the action into evil for him, seeing that the treasure ^ of inclination is filled with an evil spirit ' (T. Ash. i. 6-9). Fornication and covetousness ' blind the inclination of the soul ' (T. Jud. xviii. 3) and the impulses of youth blind the mind (T. Jud. xi. 1). God looks on men's * For the evil yezer see Sirach ; for creation in God's image Bee Sir. srvii. 3. ^ Cf. Matt. xii. 35 : ' The evil man out of his evil treasure bringeth forth evil things.' MORAL EVIL 161 inclinations (T. Gad v. 3), and knows them all (T. Naph. ii. 5), and sometimes tempts men to try their inclinations (T. Jos. ii. 6). A good man's inclinations cannot be contaminated by evil spirits, and men can neither add to nor take away from their glory (T. Ben. vi. 1, 4). God delights in the good inchnation of the heart that takes pleasure in love (T. Jos. xvii. 3). The evil inclinations originate no more in the returham body than in the spirit, but are their ioint originate in ■' X- J J the body any product. 'For as the potter knoweth the vessel, more than in I ^ ' the spirit. how much it is to contain, and bringeth clay accordingly, so also doth the Lord make the body after the likeness of the spirit, and according to the capacity of the body doth He implant the spirit. And the one does not fall short of the other by a third part of a hair ; for by weight and measure and rule was aU the creation made. And as the potter knoweth the use of each vessel, what it is meet for, so also doth the Lord know the body, how far it wiU persist in goodness, and when it beginneth in evil. For there is no inclination or thought which the Lord knoweth not, for He created every man after His own image ' (T. Naph. ii. 1-5). The evil yezer can be destroyed by good works ETiii/e«a- (T. Ash. iii. 2), ' If ye do well, even the unclean spirits wiU flee from you. . . , For where there is reverence for good works, and light in the mind, even darkness fleeth away from him ' (T. Ben. v. 2f.). The evil yezer is not traced to the Fall, but BTii»ear it is implanted in every man, and all have yielded theFau. to it. Sin is universal ; corruption is everywhere, 11 162 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE Moral evil universal. Becognltlon of the inward as well as the outward nature of eyU. Fornication, Its moral eSeclB, and unrighteousness and lawlessness are strongly entrenched ; the whole race of men is in need of salvation (T. Levi ii. 3f.). Sin is a violation of the commandments and ordinances of the law, as a result of the incitements of evil spirits upon the evil yezer. Doubtless commandments and ordinances include all the regulations wherewith the scribes had hedged the law, for reference is made to the angels of the presence ' who minister and make propitiation to the Lord for all the sins of ignorance of the righteous ' (T. Levi iii. 5), by which are probably intended unconscious violation or neglect of any of the complex rules of the scribal law, to which the Pharisees attributed so great importance.' But the writer's outlook is by no means Hmited by a narrow literalism and forma- lism. He recognizes that sin may be committed in thought as well as in act (T. Zeb. i. 4), and shows a remarkable power of analysing the various Adces and tracing their effects in character. (a) Fornication. — It is the mother of all evils, which separates from God and brings near to Beliar (T. Sim. v. 3). It is a pit to the soul, and leads to idolatry ; it has brought upon many the reproach of men and the derision of Beliar, and has led them to premature death (T. Reub. iv. 6 f.). It involves the mastering of reason by passion, and the desire of it is the root of jealousy (T. Reub. vi. 4). He who commits fornication becomes impervious to shame and moral loss, for even if a man be a king, ' he is stripped of his kingship by becoming the slave of fornication ' (T. Jud. xv.). ^ Cf. Pss. Sol. iii. 9, xiii. 6, xviii. 5. . MORAL EVIL 163 In a word, fornication alienates a man from the divine law, blinds the inclination of his soul, teaches him arrogance, destroys his compassion, robs his soul of all goodness, oppresses him with restlessness and sleeplessness, hinders his worship, and makes him resent the truth. ' For he is a slave to two contrary passions, and cannot obey God, because they have blinded his soul, and he walketh in the day as in the night ' (T. Jud. xviii.). (6) Warnings are uttered against envy, ' for envy Envy. ruleth over the whole mind of a man.' It takes away the appetite, injures health, disturbs sleep. It makes the soul savage, causes anger, war, and frenzy in the mind, incites to murder, and is a poisonous spirit (T, Sim. iii. 2 f ., iv. 5 £E.), Jealousy is forbidden, even as against rich men who prosper unrighteously, ' for the poor man, if, free from envy, he pleaseth the Lord in all things, is blessed beyond all men, because he hath not the travail of vain men. Put away, therefore, jealousy from your souls, and love one another with uprightness of heart ' (T. Gad vii.). ' For if a man flee to the Lord, the evil spirit runneth away from him, and his mind is Ughtened. And hence- forward he sympathizeth with him whom he envied and agreeth with those who love him, and so ceaseth from his envy ' (T. Sim. iii. 5 f.). (c) Anger teaches a man aU wickedness (T. Dan Anger. i. 3). It is blindness, and gives him a perverted vision of his kinsmen, friends, and teachers : ' For the spirit of anger encompasseth him with the net of deceit, and blindeth his eyes, and through lying darkeneth his mind and giveth him its own 164 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE peculiar vision. And wherewith encompasseth it his eyes ? With hatred of heart, so as to be envious of his brother. For anger is an evil thing, my children, for it becomes a soial to the soul itself. And the body of the angry man it maketh its own, and it bestoweth upon the body power that it may work all iniquity. And when the body does all these things, the soul justifieth what is done, since it seeth not aright. . . . And though the wrathful man be weak, yet hath he a power two- fold of that which is by nature ; for wrath ever aideth such in lawlessness. This spirit goeth always with lying at the right hand of Satan, that with cruelty and lying his works may be wrought. Understand ye, therefore, the power of wrath that Btagesinthe it is vain. For it, first of aU, gives provocation by mentot word, then by deeds it strengtheneth him who is angry, and so stirreth up with great wrath hia soul. Therefore when any one speaketh against you, be not ye moved to anger ; . . . for first it pleaseth the hearing, and so maketh the mind keen to perceive the grounds of provocation ; and then, being enraged, he thinketh that he is justly angry. And if ye faU into any loss or ruin, my children, be not angry ; for this very spirit maketh a man desire that which is perishable, in order that he may be enraged through the aflSiction ' (T. Dan iii. 4- iv. 5). It has been necessary to quote at length, for no passage could better illustrate the writer's acuteness of discernment and subtlety of analysis. Hatted: its (d) Hatred blinds the soid. It makes a man •fEeotfl. misjudge all the actions of him whom he hates, it causes him to put a low estimate on truth, to MOEAIi EVIL 165 become envious, to welcome evil speaking, and to love arrogance. It makes him deaf to the com- mands of God and causes him to delight in proclaim- ing the lapses of others, and even in enticing them to sin, that they may suffer punishment. ' Hatred, therefore, is evil, for it constantly mateth with lying, speaking against the truth ; and it maketh small things to be great, and oauseth the light to be darkness, and calleth the sweet bitter, and teacheth slander, and kindleth wrath, and stirreth up war, and violence, and all covetousness ; it filleth the heart with evils and deviHsh poison ' (T. Gad iii.-v.). (e) Covetousness. — Like fornication, the love of ooTetoua- ILGSS * its money alienates from the law, blinds the inclina- morni eSectB. tion of the soul, teaches arrogance, and destroys compassion ; it robs the soul of all goodness, and oppresses a man with restlessness and sleeplessness ; it hinders worship and receptivity to the truth. ' For he is a slave to two contrary passions, and cannot obey God.' ' ' The love of money leadeth to idolatry ; ' because, when led astray through money, men name as gods those who are not gods, and it causeth him who hath it to fall into madness ' (T. Jud. xvii.-xix.). (/) Intemperance. — There are in wine four evil intempet- spirits — of lust, of hot desire, of profligacy,' of ™™" filthy lucre (T. Jud. xvi. 1). ^ Cf. Matt. vi. 24 s ' Ye cannot serve God and Mammon.' * Cf. CoL iii. 5 : ' Covetousness, the which is idolatry ' (cf. Eph. V. 6). 2 'Ao-<»Tia. Cf. Eph. V. 18 : ' And be not drunk with wine, wherein is da-ana-' 166 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE Oiher vices. Need for watchful- (g) Deceit (T. Sim. iii. 1) ; lying (T. Dani. 3, ii. 1) ; double-facedness (T. Ash. vi. 2) ; playing the busy- body (T. Iss. V. 1). There is need for continual watchfubiess. That which is innocent may easily glide into that which is guilty. ' For in wealth is hidden covetousness, in conviviality drunkenness ... in wedlock pro- fligacy ' (T. Ash. V. 1). Hostility to God and lawlessness. Idolatrjr. B. Alexandrian siBYLUNE OKACLES (bk. iii. 97-829 and Proem.) Moral evil arises from hostility to God (iii. 499, 549, Proem, i. 20, 28 f .) and violation of the law (iii. 275 f.). The evil life is described as a ' lawless life, impure ' (iii. 496). It is a deviation from ' the path of the Immortal ' (iii. 721). And ye in self-conceit and madness walk, And, kaving left the true, straightforward path, Ye went away and roamed about through thorns And thistles. ye foolish mortals, cease Roving in darkness, and black night obscure, And leave the darkness of night, and lay hold Upon the Light. Lo, He is clear to all And cannot err ; come, do not always choose Darkness and gloom (Proem, i. 23-8). With such a view of man's true relationship to the one God and His law, it is not surprising that the writer utters strong denunciation of idolatry (iii. 276 f., 548, 586 £E.) and exposes its emptiness. Be ashamed to deify Polecats and monsters. Is it not a craze And frenzy, taking sense of mind away, MOBAL EVTL 167 If gods steal plates, and carry off earthen pots ? Instead of dwelling in tte golden heaven In plenty, see them eaten by the moth And woven over with thick spider-webs ! fools, that bow to serpents, dogs, and cats, And reverence birds and creeping beasts of earth, Stone images and statues made with hands, And stone-heaps by the roads — these ye revere, And also many other idle things Which it would even be a shame to tell ; These are the baneful gods of senseless men. And from their mouth is deadly poison poured. (Proem, iii. 22-33.) This writer does not enter into the question of The origin of the origin of moral evil, neither is there any refer- dealt with, ence to an inborn tendency to evil ; but its seat is placed in '' the heart, is placed in the heart (iii. 548), and before there can anditanaes be moral reformation, the thoughts of the heart tooushness. must be entirely changed (iii. 762). There is a trace of the teaching of the Wisdom writers (Prov., Sir., Wisd.) that unrighteousness is foolishness. The sinner has ' a senseless soul ' (iii. 687, 722), and it is ' foolish mortals ' who rove in darkness (Proem, i. 25). Man, because of his mortal and fleshly nature, cannot behold the unseen God, and yet, so far as is necessary for the purposes of the moral life, ' He is clear to all ' (Proem, i.). So far as the teaching of this writer can be gathered, the senselessness and foolishness of the unrighteous are due, not to an inborn taint,' or to an incapacity for perceiving the truth, but to a defect of will, which results in a corruption of the heart. "• It must be borne in mind that possibly a fragment of bk. iii., dealing with the Fall, is missing. 168 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITEEATTTEB variona Certain vices are explicitly condemned by this writer : sodomy (iii. 185), paederasty (iii. 596), adultery (iii. 764), ingratitude (iii. 765), astrology and soothsaying (iii. 221-8), envy (iii. 662) and greed (' which breeds unnumbered ills to mortal men, war and unending famine ' (iii. 235 ; cf. 189). Summary Bxtemai The view of moral evil during this century is SOTai^evii, chiefly external, but it is possible to trace the trace a 'J process of internalization. In Sirach, it is viewed process of-"- _ ^t. ■, , tatemaiiaa. morc from the human than the divme standpomt, and is condemned as folly. The Sib. Or. (iii.) also regard it as senseless, but a higher level is reached in its description of it as a deviation from the pathway of the Immortal. In the Enoch sections and in Jvbilees it is a violation of the ordinances of the law, in the latter both written and oral. But with all its emphasis upon the eternal vahdity of legal ordinances. Jubilees is not lacking in some measure of appreciation of the fact that these ordinances may be violated inwardly as well as out- wardly. The internalizing process, however, reaches its highest point of development in The Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs, which traces moral evil to the pleasure of the soul in the evil inclination, and which attains a level upon which no advance was made in Judaism until the coming of the Divine Prophet out of Galilee. unes of As to the origin of moral evil, we can trace three taougat as \^ / to to origin lines of thought : (1) It is brought into relation with the narrative MORAL EVIL 169 of Gen. ii., iii., not causally, but historically, both in Sirach and in Jubilees. In none of the literature of this century is the Fall regarded as the cause of the moral corruption of the race, but only as its starting-point. It is, however, taught that the subjugation of the race to the law of death is the direct result of the transgression of Adam and Eve. (2) It is brought into relation with the narrative of Gen. vi. 1-4. Moral evil is held to have had its source and origin in transgressions and conflicts in the angelic sphere. Fallen angels admitted men into the knowledge of forbidden secrets, and cor- rupted the world with their lust, and continued demonic incitement to evil has been the result. This is the teaching of the Enoch sections, Jubilees, and the Testaments. The field of moral conflict is not merely the world, but the angelic sphere. This idea ia especially prominent in the Testaments, which teach that two spirits wait upon man — ^the spirit of truth and the spirit of deceit. (3) It is brought into relation with the doctrine of the yezer, namely, that man was created at the beginning with evil impulses innate within him. This is the teaching of Sirach and the Testa- ments, the latter, too, recognizing the presence of good impulses which are also innate. The evil yezer may be overcome by the law, and by good works. These theories are not mutually exclusive, and Those T.i - theories not some of them exist side by side m the same writers nmtaauy without being brought into relation with each other. Sirach holds the doctrine of the yezer, and traces the 170 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCBYPHAL LITBRATTTBB beginning of sin to the Fall, but does not say that the evil yezer was due to the Fall. The writer of the Testaments holds the theory of the yezer, and also that of the corruption of the world through demonic agency, but he does not bring the two theories into relation with each other. The Enoch section (i.-xxxvi.) refers both to the Fall and to the legend of the Watchers, but attributes both the beginning and the development of the corruption of the world to the latter and not to the former, and does not bring the two stories into any connexion with each other. Other writers seem to choose one of these two accotmts, to the exclusion of the other. Evidently they represent different cycles of legend or tradition. IT. THE FIRST CENTURY B.C. A. Palestinian I. MACCABEES LBgaUsuo Moral evU consists in transgression of the law mocai'evi]. (i. 11, 34, &c.). Alliance with Gentiles (especially Syria) is denounced as a transgression of the law (i. 11-15), but the Maccabaean alliances with Rome (viii. 17-32, xii. 1-4, xiv. 24-7) and Sparta (xii. 6-18, xiv. 20-23) are viewed with entire approval.' 1 If 1 Mace, was -written by a Sadducee, as Geiger supposes, it shows that the Sadduoees were not such out-and-out hellenizers as their Pharisaic opponents represented them to be. Evidently they were ready to modify the Judaistio attitude to Gentile nations, in deference to considerations of expediency. MORAL EVIL 171 It is even stated that the Spartans are remembered in the Maccabaean sacrifices and prayers (xii. 11). The introduction of Greek customs, as illustrated by the erection of a gymnasium in Jerusalem, is viewed as fraught with disastrous moral consequences to the nation (i. 14 f.). The persons who move in the pages of the book Abscnoaoi 86I1S6 of are not characterized by a sense of sin. The note demerit. of penitence is altogether absent from the speeches and prayers put into the mouth of Judas (iv. 8-11, 30, 33). ETHIOPIO ENOCH (xci.-civ.) Moral evil is viewed from the standpoint of Pharisaic Judaism, and consists in a violation of the law and subservience to hellenistic influences. ' Woe unto them who pervert the words of upright- Apostasy. ness, and transgress the eternal law, and transform themselves into what they were not ' (xcix. 2). The origin of evil is attributed to the Watchers. The This view is more fully developed in chap, cvi., an addition to this section from the lost Apocalypse of Noah. A protest is entered against some form of the impiantea doctrine of original sin which led to the denial of moral 1-1 reaponsl- moral responsibility. What precise doctrine the wuty. writer has in mind it is difficult to say. The cor- ruption of the race is not causally connected with the transgression of Adam, in literature, until the beginning of the first century a.d., in Slavonic Enoch; but it may be that this view existed in popular thought long before. Possibly his 172 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCBYPHAL LITERATURE protest is directed against the belief that, as sin originated in the angelic world, no responsibility- attaches to man. In any case, he declares human responsibility in unequivocal terms : ' I have sworn unto you, ye sinners, as a mountain does not become a slave and will not, nor a hill the handmaid of a woman, even so sin has not been sent upon the earth, but man of himself has created it, and into great condemnation will those fall who commit it ' (xoviii. 4). THE SIMILITUDES OB' ENOCH (xXXVii.-lxX.) Moral evil , The f orm under which the writer of the Similitudes aa the denial . a ■■ 'I'-i iii •i-i ofthereautj conceivcs 01 morai evil IS largely determined by spiritual his Opposition to Sadduceeism. The unrighteous retribntion. are thosc who deny the reality of the spiritual (xxxviii. 2, xli. 2, xlv. 1, Ixvii. 10). In chap. Ix., which according to Charles is a Noachic fragment, they are those who violate the law, and deny the principles of retribution (Ix. 6). The satans : In dealing with the origin of evil, the Similitudes view of 6711. trace it a step further back than the other sections of Enoch, and attribute it to the Satans, who made subject the Watchers, and these in their turn corrupted the race of men (xl. 7, liv. 6, Ixiv.) This involves some form of dualism, for the Satans are evidently conceived of as constituting a kingdom of evil opposed to that of the ' Lord of Spirits.' maFau In the Noachic fragments (Ixv.-lxix.) there is a seSotira reference to the Fall story. The third angel, revei'attonof ^radreel, is said to have ' led astray Eve ' (Ixix. 6). forbidden Becrets. The fourth angel, named Penemue, taught men MOEAIi EVIL 173 all the secrets of wisdom, e.g. writing, and * thereby many sinned from eternity to eternity, and until this day ' (Ixix. 8 f .). ' For man was created exactly like the angels, to the intent that he shotdd continue righteous and pure ; and death, which- destroys everything, could not have taken hold of him, but through this their knowledge they are perishing, and through this power [of knowledge] it [death] is consuming me ' (Ixix. 11). These passages seem to imply that Eve was led astray by demonic agency, her sin being perhaps sexual in character ' ; and that man was originally created immortal, but that he came under the law of death through the sinful acquirement of the secrets of wisdom. But there is no attempt to formulate a doctrine of original sin based on the Fall story. ETHIOPIO ENOCH (IxXX.) The Book of Celestial Physics (Ixxii.-lxxxii.) is DiBtuibing not concerned with ethical questions, but chapters moral erii Ixxx, and Ixxxi. were added to give it a moral significance. Chapters Ixxii.-lxxix. set forth and illustrate the fixity of the order of nature, but this is contradicted in Ixxx., where it is asserted that moral evil has disturbed the stability of nature's laws, and has therefore cast a blight upon the physical universe. THE PSALMS OF SOLOMON These psalms throw no light upon the origin of NoUgw " moral evil, neither do they hint at the existence on the origin ' *' of evil. * Of . 4 Mace, xviii. 7 f. ; Apoc. Abraham, xxiii. 174 ETHICS OP JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITEKATTTBE Legalistic and ceremonial view of evil. Various Ticea. of an evil bias in human nature. It would be going too far, however, to assume from this silence that the existence of such a bias is denied. Moral evil is viewed from the Pharisaic stand- point, and consists of a disregard of God and a transgression of the commandments of the law (xiv. 1, cf. 4). The psalmist views with abhorrence the violation of the laws of ceremonial purity (i. 7-9, ii. 3, viii. 12 f.), and disloyalty to theocratic ideals (xvii. 7). This standpoint is further illus- trated by mention of the sins of the righteous, committed through ignorance (iii. 9, xiii. 6, xviii. 5), where the reference is to the numberless regulations wherewith the Pharisees had fenced the law, so that it was difficult for the most devout to avoid unwitting transgression. But there are indications of a more distinctively moral view of evil. Sinners are described as those who shut their eyes to eternal issues, and give themselves up to the short-lived enjoyment of their lust (xiv. 4 f.). Hypocrisy (iv. 7) and the sins of the flesh (iv. 4 f., viii. 10 f.) are condemned, and, as in Sirach, a warning is uttered against the misuse of the tongue : ' Lord, save my soul from the tongue that is wicked and lying, and that speaketh false and deceitful words. The words of the tongue of the evil man are for the accomplishment of frowardness : even as fire ' in a threshing-floor, that burneth up 1 Cf. Jas. iii. 6 f . : ' Behold, how much wood is kindled by so small a fire ! And the tongue is a fire : the world of iniquity among our members is the tongue, which defileth the whole body, and setteth on fire the wheel of nature, and is set on fire by hell ' (cf. Piov. xvi. 27 ; Sir, xxviii. 11), MORAL EVIL 175 the straw thereof, so is his sojourning among men : that he may set fire to houses with his lying tongue, and cut down the trees of gladness with the flame of his wicked tongue, and put to confusion the houses of the wicked by kindling strife with slander- ous lips ' (xii. 1-4). Moral restoration is possible to the sinner. ' To oonieasion whom will He forgive sins, save unto them that penitence. have committed sin ? ' The conditions are confes- sion and repentance ' (ix. 11-15). JUDITH This book throws but little light on the question Legaiisao of moral evil. It is described as sin against God (v. 20, xi. 10), but this consists in violation of the ordinances of Judaism, even in matters of ritual (xi. 11 ff.), and of enmity against the chosen nation (xvi. 17). Idolatry, too, is regarded as a serious offence (viii. 18-20). ' Pirq. Ah. iv. 70 : ' Repentance and good works are aa a shield against punishment.' Taylor {Sayings of the Jewish Fathers, p. 70 n.) quotes : ' It was a conuuonplace in the mouth of Raba that, " The perfection of wisdom is repentance " (Berdkoth, 17 a). " When a man has been whoUy wicked all his days, and has repented at the last, the Holy One, blessed is He, receives him." This follows from Ezek. xxxiii. 19 : " But if the wicked turn from his wickedness, and do that which is lawful and light, he shall Uve thereby." Said Rabbi Joohanan, " Nay, more, all the transgressions which he has committed are imputed to him as merits, as is proved by Ps. xlv. 9 (8) : ' Myrrh and aloes and cassia are all thy garments ' : aU thy transgressions, which thou hast committed against me, are as aloes, and myrrh, and cassia " (T. J. Peak. i. 1).' 176 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITEEATtTKE B. Alexandrian rn. EZRA (1 Esdraa) i«gaiisHc Various words are used in this book to characterize "*"■ moral evil, e.g. uncleanness (i. 42), ungodliness (i. 42, 52), unrighteousness and wickedness (iv. 39), iniquity (viii. 72), and sin (viii. 75). When analysed they simply mean the violation of the law. Great guUt is attached to the practice of mixed marriages (viii. 68-ix). The view of evil is therefore purely legalistic. n. MACCABEES Moral BTiiM This book throws little or no light upon the ^^"^ ^' subject. Everything that is contrary to Judaism and its precepts more particularly as they are em- bodied in the Priestly Code, is evil (iv. 17 et pass.). To mingle with Gentiles, to adopt any of their customs, or to succumb to their influence in any direction, is wickedness (xi. 24, xiv. 3). WISDOM (Part I, i.-ix. 17) Moral evil As in Prov. and Sir., moral evil is the antithesis of understanding and wisdom, and is described as folly (i. 3), which manifests itself in lawlessness (i. 9, vi. 7, 23), unrighteousness (i. 8), uncleanness (ii. 16), and ungodliness (i. 16). Moral evil has enticements which obscure the vision of the good. ' For the bewitching of naughtiness ((jyavXoTrjTo-i) bedimmeth the things which are good, and the giddy wheel of desire perverteth an innocent mind' (iv. 12). as folly. MOEAL EVIL 177 The view to be taken of pseudo-Solomoti's teach- Are the ing as to the origin of moral evil, and the moral dootrineaof bearings of heredity, must depend upon our inter- e^tenoe, pretation of passages which have been generally auausmoi taken to teach the pre-existence of the soul, and the tody Lew? inherence of evil in the body as such. Until re- cently it has been assumed that, following Plato, he teaches that the seat of evil is in the flesh, and that the soul, being pre-existent, enters the body with a heritage of good or evil from its previous state of existence, and that the quality of the body it obtains depends upon its own moral condition. Both these views have been challenged by Dr. Porter,* who contends that the extent of the Greek influences in the book has been exaggerated, and that the teaching on these points is Jewish, not Greek. In the first place, a distinction must be drawn Pre- between the Jewish and Greek doctrines of pre- Greet ana Jewish. existence. Plato thought of the soul as constituting the real man, of which the body was but the tomb, or prison-house ; the Jew thought of man as con- sisting inseparably of the body and the neshamah, or rvMch, or divine breath. By the pre-existence of the soul the Greek meant that of the thinking self, but the Jew meant only that divine breath, which ultimately went to the making of the complete man. The Jew conceived of the pre-existence of the body in the same sense. Man in his totality consists of two elements, the dust of the ground and the breath of God, both of which, pre-existing, are brought 1 ' The Pre-existence of the Soul in The Book of Wisdom and in the Rabbinical Writings " {American Journal of Theology, Jan. 1908, pp. 63-115). 12 178 ETHICS OB' JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATtTEE together to form the man (Gen. ii. 7). The difficulty which the Jew found in conceiving of the real ego as existing apart from the body, is illustrated by the doctrine of the resurrection of the body. Which of these views is held by the author of Part I of The Booh of Wisdom ? The answer depends upon the interpretation of viii. 19, 20, where Solomon is made to say : Now I was a child of parts, and a goodly soul fell to my lot. Nay rather (/AaAAov Se), being good, I came into a body undefiled. It is usually supposed that the second clause of the verse destroys the force of the first, and is indeed a correction of it ; and the Greek doctrine of pre- existence is deduced. Porter contends that fiaXKov Se does not destroy the force of what has gone before it, but that the writer feels that his meaning is best expressed by leaving the two clauses side by side, and indicating a preference for the second. In support of his contention he quotes such passages as ' It is Christ Jesus that died, nay rather, that was raised from the dead ' (Rom. viii. 34) ; ' Those who were formerly despised and near to Hades, or rather, had entered it ' (3 Mace. vi. 31) ; ' Pharaoh appointed Joseph successor of his kingdom, or rather, a king ' (Philo, De Josepho, 21). Account must therefore be taken of both clauses, which together mean that Solomon was happily endowed with a healthy body and a soul disposed to goodness. ' When he wishes to explain that this child, Solomon, was eiKpvrj'i in both parts of his being, the first way that occurs to him of expanding the bare statement MORAL EVIL 179 is to say that he got by divine allotment a good soul. He is thinking of the body formed in the womb, as if it were the person, and of the soul as chosen by God from His treasury of souls and breathed into the growing embryo, or into the child at birth. Then it occurs to him that it would be better to connect the personality with the soul, and to say that the body was happily matched to the soul, rather than that the soul was matched to the body.' ' Does not this imply the pre-exist- ence of the soul ? Yes, but only in the sense in which a?ha Jewish that of the body is implied. God prepares a soul ^^^ ""^ for the body, and a body for the soul. ' It is not the man himself that pre-exists, but only the two parts that make the man.' There is a passage (to which attention has already been drawn) in The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, which Dr. Porter does not quote, but which yields very strong support to this view : ' For as the potter knoweth the vessel, how much it is to contain, and bringeth clay accordingly, so also doth the Lord make the body after the Ukeness of the spirit, and according to the capacity of the body doth He implant the spirit. And the one doth not fall short of the other by a third part of a hair ; for by weight and measure and rule was all the creation made. And as the potter knoweth the use of each vessel, what it is meet for, so also doth the Lord know the body, how far it will persist in goodness, and when it beginneth in evil. For there is no inclination or thought which the Lord knoweth not, for He created every man after His own image ' (T. Naph. ii. 2-5). It is * Loc. oit. p. 68. 180 ETHICS OP JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITBEATUEB clear that, according to this conception, both body and soul pre-exist, and are adapted to one another by God ; and if the line of argument which we have pursued is sound this is exactly the teaching of Wisd. viii. 19, 20, and we are forced to conclude that pre-existence, in the Greek sense, is not taught. Is the body There remains the question whether, as has been regarded as '- ^^source oi Bupposed, it is taught that the body is the source of evil. No such idea is implied in the author's general view of creation. For He created all things that they might have being : And the generative powers of the world are healthsome, And there is no poison of destruction in them, Nor hath Hades royal dominion upon earth (i. 14). These words are in the present tense, and cannot be taken as referring to a state of things before ' ungodly men called death into them ' (i. 16). The Their evidence is emphatically against the view agaimrthia that evil inheres in matter, tmless it be supposed (as is unlikely) that the writer is describing the world as it is ideally,' not as it is actually. Another passage which bears upon our discussion is i. 4 : Wisdom will not enter into a soul that deviseth evil, Nor dwelleth in a body that is held in pledge by sin. But there is here no suggestion that the body is necessarily pledged to sin. The two clauses supple- ment each other, and mean, according to the Jewish view of the constitution of man, that wisdom will not enter into a sinful man. As Porter points out," 1 Cf. Tennant, op. oit. p. 127. " Loo. oit. p. 65. view. MORAL EVIL 181 the passage ' implies that the divine wisdom can dwell in the body as well as the soul, and that the soul is not good by nature and the body evil, but that body and soul alike may be either good or evil.' This teaching is more in harmony with Paul than Plato (cf. 1 Cor. vi. 19 ; 1 Thess. v. 23). But the passage which is generally taken as teaching unambiguously that the body is the seat of evil is ix. 15 : For a corruptible body weigheth down the soul. And the earthly frame lieth heavy on a mind that is fuU of cares. The Greek has many points of likeness with The *^£*ii. 11 i».T corruptible Phaedo, 81 C. : And this corporeal element of sight body is not 111 11 ?o °™ ™ which by which a soul is depressed and dragged down, &o, evii inheres. But Porter ' has shown that the similarity is one of ^^^^^^ language, not of thought. Plato is speaking, not ^^^tjoj^ of the present hindrance of the body, but of the ^^^1?^ souls which after death are dragged back to the ™°^ visible region, because of the corporeal elements which they have absorbed into themselves during the time of their union with the body. But this is not the point which our author is enforcing. He is speaking, not of the lot of the soul after death, but of the present pursuit of wisdom, which is hmited and hampered by a ' corruptible body ' and ' earthly frame.' But the dapTbv a&fia does not mean a body in which evil inheres, but one that is subject to the law of death. The pursuit of wisdom is impeded by man's mortal and finite limitations. The ' corruptible body ' is the explanation, not of 1 Loo. cit. pp. 72 £E. 182 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE There is no suggestion of or of matter as a hindrance to the creative Wisdom. Is the Palestinian dualism held? moral evil, but of ignorance of the divine wisdom. If the body be free from every defilement it is still true that its mortal limitations impede it in its pursuit of truth. But this is very different teaching from that of Plato, who not only taught that the body is a ' distracting element ' in the pursuit of wisdom, but regarded it as the seat of evil.* So far we have found no support in the book for the view that the body is the seat of evil. This conclusion is borne out by the general tenor of its teaching. There is no hint of the need for asceticism,^ neither is it suggested that Wisdom, the ' artificer of all things,' found any hindrance in matter. That which hinders the designs of Wisdom, and limits its power, is moral evil. The antithesis which the writer elaborates is not that between body and soul, but that between evil and righteous- ness. Of himself, because of his mortal limitations, man cannot attain to that wisdom which wiU enable him to live righteously, except he be endued with the wisdom that comes from God (ix. 6), and the ' holy spirit from on high ' (ix. 17). This is Judaism, not Platonism. The conclusion to which we are led is, therefore, that the book yields no support either to the doctrine that moral evil has its seat in the body or to that of the body as the prison-house of the soul owing to pre-temporal sin. But if the Platonic dualism is rejected, what of the Palestinian dualism, which traced moral evil to demonic incitement ? It may not have bulked * ' Whence come wars and fightings and factions ? Whence but from the body and the lusts of the body ' {Phaedo, 66). a Cf. Phaedo. 64. MORAL EVIL 183 large in his thought, and it may not be consistent with his general outlook, but that it was part of his philosophy it is difficult to disbelieve in the face of ii. 23, 24 : God created man for incorruption, And made him an image of His own proper being ; But by envy of the devil death entered the world, And they that are of his portion make trial thereof. This is generally taken to refer to Gen. iii. and is the The serpent first instance in literature of the identification of identifieii' the serpent with the devil.' The death ^ referred aevu. to is not physical, but moral. Moral death is, there- fore, said to have first entered the world through demonic agency. This is an advance in the direction of dualism. Dr. Porter is hardly convincing in his attempt to discount the force of this passage. He says the author ' has, in strict consistency, no room in his world for any divine being except God, or for any spirit except God's one omnipresent and omnipotent spirit of Wisdom.' ' But surely the same objection might be brought against Christianity. It is difficult to harmonize the conception of a devil with any purely monistic system. Again, ' Our writer's mode 1 Philo does not personalize the serpent, but takes it to be a symbol of lust, ' because, first, it is without feet, and is prone upon its belly ; second, because it uses clods of earth for food ; and third, because it carries poison in its teeth, with which it slays those who are bitten ' (De Op»/. Mundi, 66). In another passage, however, he refers to evil spirits as iaoiting men to sin (De Gig. 4). 2 See under chap. " Moral Sanctions.'' ' Loo. oit. p. 81. 184: ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCEYPHAL LITERATTTRE Personality ascribed to the devil. We must conclude that the Palestinian dualism is held. Inherited depravity not taught. Moral evil due to man'f Iree choice. of thinking made it quite possible for him to accept the reality of the devil of current thought, and yet give him practically the value of a mere symbol of temptation and death.' ' But the ascription of such a personal quality as envy to the devil would seem to place his personahty beyond doubt. It is true, as Dr. Porter points out, that nowhere else does he refer to demons as inciting men to sin ; but this only proves that he did not hold a highly developed demonology, not that he did not accept the dualism prevalent among his Jewish contemporaries. If, as Tennant " thinks, ' the ascription of envy to him (the devil) as his motive for ruining man suggests that we have here a fusion of the legend of the fallen angels, who corrupted the world in the age of the Deluge, with the story of the loss of Paradise,' the author's demonology is more developed than is at first sight apparent. But nothing more is implied in ii. 24 than that the incident there recorded was the historic starting- point of moral evil in the world. Certainly the doctrine of inherited depravity is not taught, for it cannot be intended that moral death became the heritage of aU men, for it is stated that it is restricted to those who are of the devil's portion. Despite the part played by the devil, moral evil is traced to man's free choice. It must be laid at the door of the will. Ungodly men made a deliberate covenant with death (i. 16). 1 Loo. cit. p. 82. a Op. cit. p. 128. MOBAL EVIL 185 WISDOM (Part II, ix. 18-end) The word ' folly ' is used to indicate moral evil Moral e^a as on two or three occasions (x. 8, xix. 3), but it is not S^f aristog characteristic of the author. The prevailing term faiiareto " recognize is unrighteousness (x. 3, xi. 15 et passim), which is the being described as ' folly of life ' (xii. 23). Unrighteous- '°™'^8n^ ness consists in a failure to recognize the being and power of the one sovereign Lord (xii. 17, xiii. 9), and manifests itself especially in idolatry (xiv.), and, in the case of Israel, in the violation of the law (xvi. 6). There is, it is true, an element of ignorance in moral evil (xiii. 6), but it is not such as to preclude all possibility of knowledge (xiii. 6). The most fruitful source of unrighteousness is woiatry. idolatry, the invention of which is regarded as having led to the ' corruption of life ' : For tte devising of idols was tie beginning of fornication. And tte invention of ttem the corruption of life (xiv. 12). The natural history of idolatry is traced in xiv. 1 2-31, The natural and its terrible moral consequences are delineated : idoia^? For, either slaughtering children in solemn rites or cele- brating secret mysteries, Or holding frantic revels of strange ordinances, No longer do they guard either life or purity of marriage ; But one brings upon another either death by treachery or anguish by adulterate ofispring. And all things confusedly are filled with blood and murder, and theft and deceit, Corruption, faithlessness, tumult, perjury, turmoil. Ingratitude for benefits received. Defiling of souls, confusion of sex, 186 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCKYPHAL LITERATTJKE No support for O-reek doctrines of pre- existence, and dualism of soul and body.i Movement towards doctrine of inherited depravity on a limited scale, but not connected Tvith the PaU. Disorder in marriage, adultery, and wantonness. For tte worship of these nameless idols Is a beginning and cause and end of every evil (xiv. 23-7.) ^ What is the teaching as to the origin of evil and the constitution of man's nature ? In the first place, there is no support for the contention that the Greek doctrines of the pre-existence of the soul, and of the body as the seat of evil, are present. The former doctrine has been deduced from xv. 8, 11, 16, but the reference to God's having inspired into man * an active soul, and breathed into him a vital spirit ' (xv. 11) is obviously based on Gen. ii. 7, and the passage, ' He who, having but a little before been made of earth, after a short space goeth his way to the earth out of which he was taken, when he is required to render back the soul that was lent him ' (xv. 8), is simply an echo of Eccles. xii. 7. Neither is there any basis for the doctrine that the body is the seat of evil. The whole creation is good (xi. 24, xii. la), and all the cosmic forces are on the side of righteousness (xvi. 17, 24). Moral evil is not connected with the transgression of Adam, which is only referred to in x. 1, where it is said he was restored through the operation of the Divine Wisdom. At the same time, there is a dis- tinct movement towards the doctrine of an inherited tendency to evil in human nature. All men are by nature vain (fiaraioi, xiii. 1). Of the old inhabitants of Palestine it is said that God was not ignorant ' that their nature by birth was evil and their wicked- ness inborn, and that their manner of thought 1 Cf. verses 25 and 26 with Rom. i. 29-31. MORAL EVIL 187 would in no wise ever be changed, for they were a seed accursed from the beginning ' (xii. 10 f.). Taken by itself, the passage implies that these particular people inherited a moral taint that was irremediable ; but it must be taken in the light of its context, which speaks of ' a place of repentance ' (xii. 10 a.). Vigorous language is used, but the writer does not mean more than ttat these nations had a strong inherited tendency to evil, but not so strong, how- ever, as to make moral recovery impossible, though, as a matter of fact, God foresaw that such recovery would not take place. The passage which has just been discussed refers only to the inhabitants of Palestine, in whom it recognizes the presence of an inborn evil taint (e/i^uTo? KUKia). It would not be fair to argue from this that the writer believed such a taint to be universal ; but his teaching is significant, as showing a belief in original sin on a limited scale, although it is not connected with the faU of Adam. The oc- currence of the phrase o-viii^uTo? Ka/cojj^eta in 3 Mace. iii. 22, and the expression crv/in 1 ^°^ human With Wisdom and of vice with folly characteristic of ignorance destroys the book does not involve a denial of moral responsi- freedom. bility. An intuitive knowledge of the reality of moral distinctions was implanted in man at his crea,tion (xvii. 7 ff.). Neither is man's moral freedom destroyed by Neither does the existence of the evil yezer within him, or jk^Z""' 218 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE by the fact that this yezer has been implanted by God : Say not, My transgression was of God,^ For that whicli He hatett He made not. Lest thou say, He it was that made me stumble ; For there is no need of men of violence. Wickedness and an abomination the Lord hateth ; And will not let it befall them that fear Him. For God created man from the beginning ; And put him in the hands of him that would spoil him. And gave him into the hand of his inclination. If thou choose, thou mayest keep the commandments. And it is understanding to do His will. If thou trust in Him thou shalt even live. Fire and water are poured out before thee : Upon which soever thou choosest stretch forth thy hands. Death and life are before a man : That which he shall choose shall be given him (XV. 11-17 Heb.). A stronger affirmation of moral freedom could not be desired. The Two Ways are clearly set before man, and, despite his yezer, he is absolute master of his destiny. The wiu But the will needs guidance and reinforcement. needs re- ^ inforoement. The yezev is|not mastered by the sheer force of an uninstructed will, but by obedience to the com- mands of the law (xxi. 11). The will must be strengthened by spiritual communion and fellowship : ' If thou choose, thou mayest keep the command- ments. . . . If thou trust in Him thou shalt even live ' (xv. 15 Heb.). ' Put thy trust in Him, and He will help thee ' (ii. 6). The Lord is the deliverer 1 Cf. Jas. i. 13. THE WILL 219 in temptation ' {ireipaafiot;, xxxiii. 1) and He fights for the man who strives for the truth (iv. 28). Thus Sirach, despite his Sadduceeism, rises above the Sadducean view that ' God is not concerned in our doing or not doing what is evil,' and enforces the need of the dynamic derived through dependence on God. It is an illustration of the presence in one and the same writer of collateral streams of thought. At the same time we must not read too deep a spiritual meaning into these words ; pro- bably this dependence on God was conceived of as an external more than an internal relationship. ETHIOPIC ENOCH (i.-XXXvi.) Underlying this section is a firm belief in the Human freedom of the will. It is expressly stated that, Mtp?t*" 1 .t . p 11 • I 1.1 determined while nature follows its preordained course un- m the course deviatingly, man has not continued steadfast, but has transgressed the law of God (v. 1-4). That moral responsibility is attached to such deviation is evident from the retribution which it is said will follow it (v. 5 ; cf. xxvii. 2). At the same time, whatever theory may have influence been held, for practical purposes the belief in the thatCTif reality of moral freedom must have been to some theangeuo" extent undermined by the doctrine that evil had its origin in a lapse in the angel world, which brought consequent corruption upon the race, and left men the victims of demonic incitement to evil (vi., xv., xvi.). This view was not necessarily incompatible with that of the freedom of the will, but it could I Cf. Matt. vi. 13. 220 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOOEYPHAIi LITBEATURB not fail to encourage a sense of moral impotence, even while the doctrine of freedom was strenuously maintained. Belief in retribution attests belief in freedom. ETHIOPIC ENOCH (IxXXiii.-XC.) As in Enoch i.-xxxvi., the origin of evil is traced to the angel world (Ixxxvi.-lxxxviii.), but there is no reference to the continuance of demonic incite- ment after the Flood, so that here this theory of evil has no vital bearing upon the will. The teaching as to retribution (xc. 26) attests the writer's belief in moral freedom and responsibility. The fact that he represents the Seventy Shepherds (Ixxxix. 59) as to some extent hindering the designs of God (Ixxxix. 61) is sufficient evidence that he did not hold a determinist view of the world. It is true that these shepherds are held to have deter- mined in some measure Israel's history in its relation to Gtentile nations, but it is not said that they limited its freedom of moral action. Freedom through submission to the divine sovereignty. TOBIT Sin is traced to its source in the will : ' Let not thy will be set to sin, and to transgress His com- mandments ' (iv. 5). But it is recognized in some degree that the will best realizes its freedom by submitting to the divine sovereignty : ' And bless the Lord thy God at all times, and ask of Him that thy ways may be made straight; . . . but the Lord Himself giveth all good things, and He humbleth whom He will ' (iv. 19). THE WILL 221 THE BOOK OF BARUCH (i. 15 — iii. 8) Moral responsibility is assumed throughout. Dis- obedience to the divine commandments is an act of will (ii. 29, 30 ; cf. ii. 10). Yet there is a recog- nition that divine aid is necessary to achieve reformation : ' Yet have we not intreated the favour of the Lord, in turning every one from the thoughts of his wicked heart ' (ii. 8). JUBILEES This book exemplifies the Pharisaic combination Pharisaio of determinism and freedom. The judgement of tion of all IS ordamed and written on the heavenly tables, and ireedom. and the path in which man should walk is ordained for him. ' And the judgement of all is ordained and written on the heavenly tables in righteousness — even the judgement of all who depart from the path which is ordained for them to walk in ' (v. 13). Nevertheless, men are held morally responsible for their actions, ' and if they walk not therein, judge- ment is written down for every creature and for every kind ' (v. 13). The recognition of the pos- sibility of repentance (xli. 25) is a tacit admission of the freedom of the will. But moral accounta- bility varies according to knowledge and opportunity (xxxiii. 16). The will needs to be reinforced by Moral divine power ; ' May the Most High God ... ^ strengthen thee to do His will ' (xxi. 25, xxii. 10). THE, TESTAMENTS OF THE TWELVE PATRIARCHS God's relation to man is that of the potter to ThePottet the clay. Body and spirit are closely fitted to one oiky. ' 222 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE another, so that ' the one does not fall short of the other by a third part of a hair ; for by weight and measure and rule was all creation made.' God knows the body and also every inclination and thought of man (T. Naph. ii. 1-5). Nevertheless man's freedom is strongly insisted upon. Every moral act is the outcome of a free personal choice between light and darkness, the law of God and the works of Beliar (T. Levi xix. 1). Man is beset by two spirits — the spirit of truth and the spirit of deceit, NerertheieBs, " and in the midst is the spirit of understanding of the will . ^ ° has power to the mind, to which it belongeth to turn whithersoever make a free ^ aSart"" ^^ (^' "^^^" ■^■'^•)' "^^^ meaning evidently is reason. that man's wiU has power to act on a choice made at the dictates of reason. Every such choice is registered in character (T. Jud. xx. 3), and though the writer does not say so, the inference is clear that it influences every subsequent choice. To this extent the man's freedom is limited. Apart altogether from the suggestion of divine predeter- to^uon. ^i'l^tion, it cannot be said that a man's power of choice at a given moment is absolutely unfettered, so long as it is true that aU his past works have been written on his heart (T. Jud. xx. 4), and so give a bias to his understanding, which guides his wiU. mm^ There is manifested a deep sense of the need of the will to be reinforced by spiritual aid. The fact that the writer enjoins the commandments of love to God and love to man (T. Dan v. 3) seems to indicate that he understood, in some measure at any rate, that the latter must be grounded in the former. He regards the fear of God as being THE WILL 223 both a moral dynamic and a cleansing influence. He that feareth God ... is helped by the Lord ' (T. Ben. iii. 4, 5), and ' deliverance from envy cometh by the fear of God. For if a man flee to the Lord, the evil spirit runneth away from him ' and his mind is lightened ' (T. Sim. iii. 4 f.). The same idea of spiritual aid is implied in the conception of the ' spirit of truth ' which waits upon man (T. Jud. xx. 1) as ni,ay be gathered from its subsequent development in John's Gospel. B. AliJxandeian THE SIBYLLINE ORACLES (iii. 97-829 and Proem.) Although this writer affirms the sovereignty of aoain God in history, he declares unmistakably his '^' belief in the freedom of the wiU. Certain afflictions overtake men because of definite acts or failures of wiU (iii. 601-606). The confident appeal is made to the will : ' Change entirely the thoughts The wiii has in thy heart ' (iii. 762). Men have sufficient know- change tha ledge of God to make them morally responsible : the heart. ' He is clear to all ' (Proem, i. 28). The ' reward of evil counselling ' is therefore ' merited ' (Proem. i. 19). The penalty of unrighteousness is repre- sented as being deliberately courted, and un- righteousness itself as a drunken sleep from which the unrighteous perversely refuses to awake to sober reason. With folly ye did all drain ofE the cup Of judgement that was filled full, very pure ; » Cf. Jas. iv 7. 224 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITEEATUEB Closely pressed, weighed down, and withal unmixed. And ye will not wake from your drunken sleep And come to sober reason (Proem, iii. 38-41.). Summary Thus the freedom of the will is strongly affirmed by all the writers of this century. In those writings in which elements of determinism are most pro- nounced emphasis is placed upon the moral dynamic which is accessible, and freedom is saved. This, however, does not apply to Sib. Oracles (iii.), which, while teaching the divine sovereignty, regards the will as sufficient for its task, without any reference to a moral dynamic. The will can be reinforced by dependence on the law, and upon divine aid, and by submitting itself to the divine sovereignty. Probably in most of the writings dependence on God is conceived of more as an external act than as an inward relationship, but such is not the case in the Testaments, which reveal a deep insight into the truth that the will is strength- ened by spiritual fellowship. The most noteworthy development is the adum- bration by the writer of the Testaments of what is called to-day the theory of self-determination. He does not elaborate his idea, but the germs of the theory must be held to be present in the teaching that every choice is registered in character. THE WILL 225 II, THE FIEST CENTURY B.C. A. Palestinian I. MACCABEES This book contains no direct teaching on this Tiiewiiiia subject, but underlying it is the Sadducean view that suffloTen/ior man is master of his own destiny. The victories of the Maccabeans are not attributed to supernatural intervention, or even to an ever-present Providence, but to skill and endurance, though reliance is placed upon strength derived from prayer. But such prayer is addressed, not to a God who is near, but to a distant 'heaven ' (iii. 19, 50, iv. 10, xii. 15). ETHIOPIC ENOCH (xci.-civ.) Throughout this section moral freedom is assumed, protest The two ways of righteousness and violence (xci. 18), Srfne*"'^ of holiness and death (xciv. 3 f.) are set before men, moral eva to and they are exhorted to choose righteousness. The source than law of retribution is vehemently affirmed as against choice of the ■^ ° indiTidual those who deny its reahty (xcviii.), and in a moral win- universe retribution is inconceivable apart from the presupposition of moral freedom. The writer pro- tests against the tracing of moral evil to any other source than the will : ' Sin has not been sent upon the earth, but man of himself has created it, and into general condemnation wiU those fall who commit it ' (xcviii. 4). THE SIMILITUDES OF ENOCH (xxxvii.-lxxi.) The Similitudes assume throughout the reahty of freedom, as is evidenced by the insistence on the cer- 15 226 ETHICS OP JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE BeUeiin tainty of the retribution (xxxviii. 2f., xl. 1 f., Ix. 6) deduced which will Overtake those who deny the Lord of urfta*' Spirits, and serve not the righteous law and deny and the the rightsous judgement — all of which implies free repentance, moral choice. The same deduction must be drawn from the recognition of the possibility of repentance (1. 4 ; cf. xl. 9). It is true that the writer continually speaks of the righteous as ' the elect ' (xxxviii. 2, xxxix. 6, xlviii. 9 et 'passim), but this term does not seem to carry with it any idea of determinism. It is not intended even to set forth the divine election of Israel, for the Sadducees are evidently excluded from the number of the elect (xxxviii. 2). The meaning seems to be that those who keep the law are elect because they are righteous, and not righteous because they are elect. Moral But wMe assumiug the reality of moral freedom, the Similitudes recognize the need of spiritual aid as a moral dynamic. The works of the righteous ' are wrought in dependence on the Lord of Spirits ' (xxxviii. 2). There is here some recognition, at any rate, of the truth that the will is strengthened by spiritual fellowship. THE PSALMS OP SOLOMON ' Everything Unfortunately in the passage (ix. 7) which deals and free-wui with the wHl, the tcxt is uncertain and the meaning Is given.' _ ° is not clear.' Ryle and James read, 'O 0eoy ''''>' "^ _ ignorance. ledge which a man can increase by the exercise of his own wiU (xiii. 8, 9), and so win for himself a larger freedom. The reconciliation of the two ideas of determinism Moral and freedom is found in that of the moral dynamic. Moral victory is only achieved in so far as men recognize the might of the divine foreknowledge and power and cast themselves upon it. ' Thy strength is the beginning of righteousness ' (xii. 16). Summary. There is no striking development to note during this century, except the deeply spiritual and inward conception of the moral dynamic set forth in the two parts of The Booh of Wisdom. The Sadducaic view of the absolute self-sufficiency of the will is well illustrated by 1 Mace. Attention has already been drawn to the emphasis laid on the sovereignty of God by Alexandrian writers at the close of this century and the beginning of the next, but the freedom of the will is always safeguarded. 232 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE III. THE FIRST CENTURY A.D. A. Alexandrian ni. MACCABEES Di-rine The view underljring in this book is very similar to not destroy that of 2 Mocc. Ptolemv is held accountable for his freedom. e ^ .,.,.. . - j acts, for the possibihty of repentance is recognized, (ii. 24) ; so are the Jews, who are punished because of their sins, and in the punishment of whom Ptolemy is a divine instrument (ii. 13) ; and so are the apostate Jews, who are said to have willingly transgressed (vii. 10). As in 2 Mace, the effects of the operation of human forces are sometimes modified by divine interventions on behalf of Israel, due to the working of the invincible Providence [Trpovoia, iv. 21). rV. MACCABEES The wiu is Like the Stoics and the writers of Wisdom (Part II) sufficient for and 3 Macc.,^ this writer believes in an over- ite task if t. -r^ • -i , i • c\ •*• -x n aided by the ruuns divme Providencc {trpovoia, ix. 24, xui. 18, dynamic of ° \ r > > > Judaism. xvii. 22). As m 2 Mace., it intervenes miraculously on behalf of Israel (iv. 9 ff.), and uses the Gentiles as the instruments of Israel's chastening (iv. 21). But this belief in the divine sovereignty does not diminish in any degree his belief in the absolute freedom of the human will. As the Stoics believed that every action may ' be said to be free, and to be due to our own impulses and decision, although it may be brought about by the co-operation of causes 1 Wisd. xiv. 3, xvii. 2 ; 3 Manx. iv. 21. THE WILL 233 depending on the connexion of the universe and the character of the agent,' ' so this writer behaves that while the divine Providence co-operates in human affairs, man has free control over his actions, if he foUows the way of religious reason. ' The law acting through reasoning ' (ii. 9) is all-powerful, and a man who regulates his course according to it ' straightway puts force upon his own disposition ' (ii. 9). Not for a moment does he admit that there is anything to prevent a man mastering his pas- sions. The wiU, directed by religious reasoning, has absolute authority not only over fleshly lusts (i. 35 — ii. 3), but, as we have seen, in the iimer realm of thought and motive (ii. 4-16). The need of divine grace and renewal is at most but dimly reahzed. It is true that the man who lacks ' wise reasoning ' is recommended to reinforce his wiU by meditation on rehgion and believing in God (vii. 17), but it is more as an external act of submission and obedience than as an inward spiritual process. SLAVONIC ENOCH There is an element of determinism in this book, Element ot for the number of souls is fixed, and a place eternally ism. predetermined for each in the hereafter ' (Iviii. 5). ' I swear to you, yea, yea, that there has not been even a man in his mother's womb, for whom a place hath not been prepared for every soul ; and a measure is fixed, how long a man shall be tried in this world. ! my children, be not deceived, there 1 Zeller, op. cit. p. 170. ^ Cf. Apoc. Bwr. xxiii. 4 f. 234 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCEYPHAL LITEEATTTRE But the will is free to choose between the two ways. Freedom limited but not destroyed by ignorance of the yezer^ Moral dynamic. is a place prepared there for every soul of man ' (xlix. 2, xxiii. 4). Nevertheless, the reality of moral freedom and responsibility is assumed throughout. Eden is said to have been set ' between corruptibility and incorruptibility ' (viii. 6), that is to say, it was a place of probation, life in which resulted in either corruptibility or incorruptibility. God is represented as endowing Adam with will, and as showing him the two ways — the ways of good and of evil, of light and of darkness (xxx. 15). The latter is ' the unstable path of this vain world,' the former ' the righteous path which leads to eternal life ' (xlii. 10). It is true that man's freedom is limited by his ignorance of his own nature (xxx. 16), but such limitation is not sufficient to destroy moral responsibility, for each soul is held accountable for its hfe in the body, and ' there is no repentance after death' (Ixii. 2). There is probably some kind of recognition of the need for a moral dynamic in the teaching that the moral life can only be lived in the fear of God (xliii. 2) and in the expression ' may God make confident your hearts in the fear of Him ' (ii. 3). But there is no sign of a deep realization of the need for spiritual fellowship. B. Palestinian THE ASSUMPTION OF MOSES Emphasis is The emphasis in this book is on the divine fore- §i^e ™ knowledge and predetermination rather than on the mination freedom of the will. Moses was devised to be the THE WILL 235 mediator of God's covenant, before the foundation ana the of the world (i. 14). 'All the nations which are in m-v^ the earth God hath created as He hath us, He hath SSaimta foreseen them and us from the beginning of the crea- none the tion of the earth unto the end of the age, and nothing has been neglected by Him even to the least thing, but all things He hath foreseen, and caused all to come forth. Yea, all things which are to be in this earth the Lord hath foreseen, and lo ! they are brought forward into the light ' (xii. 4 f.). The phrase ' and caused all to come forth ' shows that the writer has in mind predetermination as well as foreknowledge. Moses and Israel were ' caUed,' not as a result of their virtue, or strength, or godliness, but because of a gracious determination on the part of God (xii. 7 f.). But this divine determinism does not involve a denial of the freedom of the will. The writer looks forward to a ' day of repentance ' (i. 18), and there can be no repentance where the will is not free. Moral responsibility is clearly affirmed in xii. 10. ' Those, therefore, who do or fulfil the commandments of God wiU increase and be prospered, but those who sin and set at nought the commandments will be without the blessings before mentioned,' &c. THE MARTYRDOM OP ISAIAH Little is said, but freedom of choice is clearly implied in ii. 4, ' And Manasseh turned aside his heart to serve Beliar,' which can mean nothing else than a deliberate act of will. 236 ETHICS OP JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITEKATUBE lYeedom held as regards Israel, but practically denied as regards the Q-en tiles. Divine BOTCreignty real, but if man will turn his will to righteous- ness, he can ward off even that which has been divinely ordained. BARTTCH (iii. 9 — iv. 4) This writer recognizes moral responsibility so far as Israel is concerned. He appeals to his fellow countrymen to make a definite choice of wisdom (iv. 2), and condemns them for having forsaken it (iii. 12 f.) ; but so far as the great mass of men is concerned his outlook is purely determinist. Wisdom is inaccessible to them ; God has not chosen them, or given them the way of knowledge. They there- fore perish through foolishness arising from lack of that wisdom which they have no opportunity of gaining (iii. 27 f.). THE SIBYLLINE ORACLES (iv.) The Sibyl enforces the divine sovereignty over the nations. It is God who causes the rise and the fall of nations, ' for He Himself, by bringing them to pass, wiU prove all things ' (iv. 21 f.). The race is hurrying on to destruction by conflagration (iv. 161, 171-8). But man is not the mere child of destiny ; his fate is in his own hands. The disasters which the Sibyl foresees as divinely ordained may be warded off, if man wiU but repent. His will has the power to change. At ! miserable mortals, change these things, Nor lead the mighty God to wrath extreme ; Wash yonr whole body in perennial streams And, lifting up your hands to heaven, seek pardon For former deeds and expiate with praise Bitter impurity ; and God will give Eepentance if in your hearts Ye all will practise honoured piety (iv. 162-70). THE WILL 237 THE APOCALYPSE OF BARUCH This book teaches, with no uncertain note, the freedom of the will. Unlike ps.-Ezra, ps.-Baruch has no deep sense of human corruption, and con- sequently he does not feel the impotence of the will. The element of determinism in Jewish thought is here pushed into the background, and aU the component parts of the book alike proclaim that man's choice is unfettered. The sovereignty of God is recognized, and is seen to be manifested in foreknowledge and in the predetermination of the number of souls that should be born into the world (xxi. 6 ff., xxiii. 4). But man is the captain of Mante 1 ■ 1 1 1. • 1 1 oaptttin of his own destmy ; the issues of right and wrong ^^ have been clearly set before him, ' wherefore at that time he appointed for them a covenant and said : Behold I have placed before you life and death, and he called heaven and earth to witness against them. . . . For after his death these sinned and , transgressed [the covenant], though they knew that they had the law reproving [them], and the Hght in which nothing could err, also the spheres which testify, and Me ' (xix. 1-3). ' He transgressed though he knew ' (xv. 6). ' The lamp of the eternal law shone in aU those who sat in darkness ' (lix. 2). The choice of unrighteous- ness is deliberate, ' for then they chose [not] for themselves that time, which, beyond the reach of anguish, could not pass away, and they chose for themselves that time whose issues are full of lamentation and evils, and they denied the world which ages not those who come to it, and they 238 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCBYPHAL LITERATURE have rejected the time and the glory, so that they shall not come to the honour of which I told thee before' (11. 16). Thisistruo This moral responsibility arising from moral Gentiles as light attaches to the Gentiles as well as to Israel, well a8 of Israel. ' becausB each of the inhabitants of the earth knew when he was committing iniquity,' and they have not known My law by reason of their pride ' (xlviii. 40). These words indicate, beyond doubt, the belief of the writer in an innate and universal moral sense. Adam's fau. The sin of Adam, though fraught with conse- freedom. quences to the race, does not limit human freedom. It brought ' untimely ' physical death, and initiated the conflict between flesh and spirit (Ivi.), which in many has wrought spiritual death, but it left man's moral freedom unimpaired. ' For though Adam first sinned, and brought untimely death upon aU, yet of those who were born from him, each one of them has prepared for his own soul torment to come, and again, each one of them has chosen for himself glories to come. . . . Adam is therefore not the cause, save only of his own soul, but each one of us has been the Adam of his own soul ' (liv. 15-19). Though there is an inherited conflict between flesh and spirit, the wiU is fettered neither by hereditary depravity nor by hereditary guilt. Every man shapes his own destiny ; every soul bears its own burden. Ps.-Baruch shows no appreciation of the anti- thesis between the divine sovereignty and human freedom which is so sharply marked in the epistle to the Romans. 1 Cf. Rom. ii. 14, 16. THE WILL 239 IV. EZEA (2 Esd/ras) There is a strong element of determinism in this Not only is book. Everything is predestined according to aeS^i^t balance, number, and weight. ' He hath weighed tu?book? the world in the balance ; and by measure hath freedom is __. ^ , taught, the He measured the times, and by number hath He emphasis *' placed on numbered the seasons ; and He shall not move nor the innate corruption stir them, until the said measure be fulfilled ' °' ^'^^ ?«"' amounts (iv. 36 f.).' God's purpose is predetermined, and J^'^i*. it is beyond the power of the human mind to find it out (v. 34-40 ; of. vi. 6, vii. 11, vii. 70). It is true that the freedom of the will is explicitly taught, and the justice of a man's ultimate condemnation is based on the contention that he freely chose evil when the issues of right and wrong were set before him. ' This is the condition of the battle, which man that is born upon the earth shall fight ; that if he be overcome he shall suffer as thou hast said ; but if he get the victory, he shall receive the thing that I say. For this is the way whereof Moses spake to the people while he lived, saying, Choose thee life that thou mayest live. Nevertheless, they believed not on him, nor yet the prophets after him, nor me which have spoken unto them ' (vii. 127-30 ; cf. vii. 21, 72, 79, viii. 56-62, ix. 10 f.). Even the divine determinism is conditioned by human freedom : ' The Most High wiUeth not that men should come to nought : but they which be created have themselves defiled the name of Him that made them ' (viii. 59 f.), and consequently the present moral course of the world was predetermined not from 1 Cf. Wisd. xi. 20. 240 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE eternity, but from the time of Adam's transgression (vii. 11). Men were given understanding, and also the law, but ' they dealt unfaithfully with that which they received ' (vii. 72), and so fell into just condemnation. But the teaching as to freedom is discounted by the fact that it is held that but few will be saved. Man was created with a cm malignum, and, in some way that is not explained, the sin of Adam has added to the bxirden of the sin of the race (vii. 11) ; how, then, can man keep the law ? The writer despairs, and looks only for the salvation of a few (vii. 51-61, viii. 1-3, 41, ix. 14 f.). Such freedom is evidently theoretical, not actual, and seems to be introduced into the book rather to vindicate the justice of man's ultimate condemnation than the reahty of the freedom of the will. Ps.-Ezra despairs of a life of absolute obedience to the law, even by Israel, not to speak of the world. The unconscious and unexpressed cry of the book is for a moral djmamic, which legalism could not supply, mdiS. T^^^s position is not far removed from Paul's view of the impotence of the will apart from Christ. Ps.-Ezra realizes the inadequacy of the law as other Jewish writers do not ; he goes beyond them in his teaching of total depravity, and consequently in his view the freedom of the will is more limited than in theirs. But while Paul saw no less clearly the impotence of the will in the face of the law, he certainly did not teach the doctrine of inherited corruption in the extreme form in which it was held by ps.-Ezra. S&ty, There could be no better illustration of the need THE WILL 241 for the Christian revelation than ps.-Ezra's doctrine of the will. He grasped the truth, not comprehended by many of his Jewish contemporaries, that the law of itself left the wiU almost powerless for righteousness. The next step was the realization of the moral dynamic in the life of faith. For this his light was insufficient, though he was groping in the right direction when he conceived of justification by faith as well as works. But faith is only dimly thought of as a condition of justification, not as a dynamic power. The step which ps.-Ezra was unable to take was taken by Paul when he surrendered to Jesus Christ, and this momentous advance repre- sents the gulf between the moral outlook of the two. THE APOCALYPSE OB' ABBAHAM As the writer of Ap. Bar. declares that 'every iveedomis man is the Adam of his own soul,' so this writer, n'^her by while fully recognizing the dire consequences of »aranorby the Fall, asserts the freedom of the will. To begin with, Azazel sinned by deliberate choice (xiii.), and the same is true of Adam and Eve and their descendants : ' Listen, Abraham ; those that will evil, and as many as I hated among them that practise it, over them gave I him (i.e. Azazel) power, and to be loved of them ' (xxiii.). It was by a definite act of will that Abraham's father refused to give up his idols, and the same power is recognized as residing in Abraham himself. At the same time the divine will carries out its predetermined purposes. Divine sovereignty and human freedom are not mutually exclusive (xxvi.). 16 the PaU. 242 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOORYPHAL LITERATTJEE Summary With the exception of Bar. iii. 9 — iv. 4, which practically denies the moral freedom of the Gentiles, all the writers of this century held, in theory at any rate, the freedom of the will. They differ from one another in the extent to which they conceive of human liberty as being limited. The thought of divine grace as a moral dynamic is almost entirely lacking. (1) In The Apoc. of Baruch and Apoc. of Abraham, although the conception of the divine sovereignty is present, it is pushed into the background, and man's choice is regarded as being unfettered, either by the divine predetermination or by inherited depravity. In The Assumption of Moses the emphasis is placed on the divine sovereignty, but not so far as to lead to a denial of free-wiU. (2) The ordinary Pharisaic teaching, which places the two ideas side by side without attempting to reconcile them, is present in 2 and 4 Mace, and Sib. Oracles (iv). It is not denied that there are large elements of determinism in life, but the reality of freedom is none the less stoutly affirmed. (3) We find a new idea, probably introduced from Greek sources, and given a Jewish form, in the teaching of Slavonic Enoch that man's freedom (or at any rate such was the case with Adam) is limited by his ignorance of the yezers. But here moral responsibility is safeguarded, this ignorance not being regarded as sufficient to destroy it. (4) The whole trend of 4 Ezra, in spite of its affirmation of freedom, is tantamount to a denial THE WILL 243 of it, because of the depth of the inbred corruption of the heart. As we have seen, the book is an agonized confession of moral impotence. The writer, despite himself, is constrained to recognize the inadequacy and failure of Judaism as an ethical instrument. And although he does not himself see the way of deliverance, he reaches the point at which it became apparent to Paul that the will could only fulfil its task by inward fellowship with God and dependence upon the divine indwelling energy revealed by and in Jesus Christ. In this • fellowship, as Paul saw, the corruption of the heart is overcome, and the antithesis between the divine sovereignty and human freedom is trans- cended. The human will realizes its freedom in so far as it becomes obedient to the divine will. CHAPTER V MORAL SANCTIONS Wliatia meant by moral By moral sanctions are meant those considera- tions which give force and authority to moral laws. They may be either external or internal ; they may refer to rewards or punishments imposed from without, either by some external authority in the present, or by the Divine Being in the hereafter ; or they may refer to consequences of conduct, which arise spontaneously from within, as what Bradley calls ' the feehng of self-realizedness ' follows on a good, and remorse on a bad, deed. Such ethical schools as Stoicism and modern Idealism teach that ethics has little to do with sanctions, but that virtue is its own reward, and that the good must be pursued for itself alone ; but it may be doubted whether this is not in reality an appeal to an internal sanction. The very fact that virtue is its own reward (that righteous action produces a righteous character) is itself a motive which induces even the most ethicized men to fulfil their obUga- tions. It would seem that moral law must always derive its authority from some sanction, even though that sanction be implicit within it. But, however that may be, Jewish ethics makes its appeal to both internal and external sanctions, Jeirish etbdcs appeals to external and becausc it is linked inseparably to the Jewish 244 MORAL SATSrCTIONS 245 religion. Judaism did not arrive at its conception mteraai of the Moral Ideal by the processes of philosophic reasoning, but by revelation. Its ethics was based upon the conception of a divine law revealed only to Israel, and, consequently, it was inevitable that the rewards and punishments believed to be attached to the observance or violation of that law should loom large in the sphere of ethical interest. The apocalyptic literature shows how important was the part played by these sanctions in the moral history of Israel. Despairing of the present world, baffled by the continued oppression of the nation, which had at any rate been more faithful to the law than its Oentile oppressors, the apocalyptic writers still exhorted their countrymen to be loyal to the law, enforcing their precepts by appealing to the sanction of a coming new world, and the future life. Our study would, therefore, be incom- plete did we not trace the development of Judaistic teaching as to the Messianic hope, retribution, and the future life. In the O.T., up to the time of Jeremiah, moral intheo.T. responsibility is attached to the nation, and not IrenaHonai to the individual, and consequently the sanctions jwemiah to which appeal is made are national rather than whenmcUTi- individual. Solidarity, not individuaUsm, was the emerges. governing principle of pre-Exilic thought. The nation suffered because of its sins, and each genera- tion bore, not only the burden of its own sins, but that of its predecessors. Even when individuahsm emerged in Jeremiah and Ezekiel, the latter taught that virtue brought prosperity and wickedness adversity to the individual in the present life, so as 246 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAIi LITEEATUUE to make the outward lot exactly proportional to Future life desert. For long there was no clear vision of a in the O.T. life beyond the grave. Sheol was a place of sub- sistence rather than existence, and from it there was no redemption. At length the hope of individual immortality found utterance in Job (xix. 25-7), and more confident expression in Psalms xhx. and Ixxiii. S*®, , But side by side with this a national hope was Messianic '^ ■*- hope in the being developed, that of the Messianic kingdom. The figure of the Messiah does not come very fuUy to Hght in the O.T. Amos, Hosea, and Jeremiah look for the coming of a time when the glories of the Davidic djmasty will be renewed, but in Isaiah (vii., ix., and xi.) and Micah (iv.-v.) there are passages in which the rise of a pre-eminent individual King of the house of David is anticipated. These great prophets all conceive of the Gentiles as having some share in the Messianic kingdom, but the trend of post-Exilic thought was particularistic. Ulti- mately the conception was reached that Israel's righteous dead would rise to share in this kingdom on earth (Isa. xxiv.-xxvii., a post-Exilic fragment). Daniel (xii. 2) goes further, and looks for the re- surrection of both good and evil ; but as he speaks of ' many,' it is evident that he did not hope for a universal resurrection. We must now trace the development of these conceptions, which constituted the sanctions to which most of the apocryphal writers appealed. At the same time we must not overlook those internal sanctions which, operating from within, and being implicit in the moral law, are of equal if not greater MORAL SANCTIONS 247 importance to morality. We shall see how, in the loftiest thought, the external and the internal blend, so that immortality is not regarded as the reward of virtue, but as its natural out-growth. I. THE SECOND CENTURY B.C. A. Palestinian SIBACH The sanctions of Sirach are drawn from the Sanctions _, drawn, from present life. Side by side he lays down a doctrine ao present both of individual and of corporate retribution. In the individual, virtue is rewarded with long life (i. 12, ii. 3 et 'passim), posthumous influence (xxx. 4f., xxxix. 9), and material prosperity (i. 12). ' Who did ever put his trust in the Lord, and was ashamed ? ' (ii. 10). The penalty of evil is ' wrath and indig- nation ' (v. 6 f .). History shows how transgression has been punished : ' Even if there be one stiff-necked individual person, it is a marvel if he shall be unpunished ' (xvi. 7-14). Wickedness brings its nemesis of adversity : ' There shall no good come to him that continueth to do evil ' (xii. 3). But the punishment is not without discrimination ; each man is judged according to his works (xvi. 12 f., xxxv. 19). The retribution is not simply external, but internal. The processes of degeneration set in, in the evil soul. ' The sinner shall heap sin upon sin,' for a plant of wickedness has taken root within him (iii. 27 f .). Evil exercises a reflex influence upon the man who cherishes it. ' One that casteth a 248 ETHICS OB" JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE Corporate retribution. No outlook beyond death. stone on high casteth it on his own head. ... He that diggeth a pit shall fall into it. . . . He that doeth evil things, they shall roll upon him,' &c. (xxvii. 25-9). But this theory of individual retribution was bound to be felt to be inadequate, because it was disproved by so many instances. Sirach, therefore, develops along with it his conception of corporate retribution : ' The branch of violence shall not be unpunished, for the root of the godless is on the point of a crag ' (xl. 15, Heb.). ' Prom an imrighteous son cometh a rule of evil, and with his seed abideth want ' (xli. 6, Heb. ; cf. xxiii. 24^6). But as for the righteous, ' with their seed shall remain continually a good inheritance ; their children are within the covenants. . . . Their seed shall remain for ever, and their glory shall not be blotted out ' (xliv. 11-13). The same principle operates among nations : ' Sovereignty is transferred from nation to nation, because of iniquities, and deeds of violence, and greed of money ' (x. 8 ; cf. X. 14 ff., XXXV. 18). Sirach has no hope beyond death. Death is the end of aU things. ' Be not afraid of death, which is thy sentence ; remember that they which went before, and they which come after, will be with thee. This is the portion of aU flesh from God, and why dost thou refuse the law of the Most High ? Whether it be for a thousand years, or an hundred, or ten, there are no corrections in Sheol ' (xli. 3 f., Heb.). When a man dies there is nothing before him but decay (x. 11, xix. 3) ; light fails him, and he enters into rest (xxii. 11) — the rest of eternal sleep (xlvi. 19). MORAL SANCTIOSTS 249 The dwellers of Sheol have neither physical nor sheoi. spiritual yearnings (xvii. 27 f.). The reference to Gehenna in vii. 17 is, in the opinion of Charles, ' undoubtedly corrupt ; for belief in an abode of a penal character is contrary to the whole outlook of the book as to the future ; moreover, it is without the support of the Hebrew, of the Syriac version, and of the best MSS. of the Ethiopic version.' ^ The book contains expressions of the Messianic tim hope, but it is difficult to harmonize them with the hope. general outlook. Schmidt ' thinks that the psalm xxxvi. 1-17, which is Messianic, ' is manifestly an interpolation. It voices the feelings of a people sorely oppressed by a foreign enemy, longing for deliverance and vengeance, encouraged by prophecies concerning the " end," and anxious to see the fulfilment of their predictions. The unmistakable allusion to Dan. ii. 27-35 seems to indicate that it was written after 165 b.c' He is of opinion that chaps, xliv.-l. are a separate work written in Mac- cabaean times by Simeon, the son of the original author. This section contains Messianic teaching. The throne of David is to abide for ever (xlvii. 11). According to xlviii. 10, 11, the Messianic age is to be ushered in by Elijah, but Schmidt thinks these two verses have the appearance of being an inter- polation of an earlier date than Ben Sirach the younger.' Chap. 1., which describes the glories of the rule of Simon, has a Messianic ring. Schmidt suggests that the Simon referred to is the Hasmonean ^ Eechatalogy, p. 165. 2 Eodesiasticus ia the Temple Bible, p. xxvi. » Op. oit. p, 174. 250 ETHICS OP JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITEEATTTRB high priest of that name,' called ' the Jewel ' (143-35 B.C.), and takes xlv. 24-6 to refer to the union of the civil and priestly authority in him. In that case it is possible that the writer of xliv.-l. sees the dawn of the Messianic kingdom at hand in the reign of Simon, as did the authors of Jvbilees and The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs in John Hyrcanus (135-105) and that of Ethiopia Enoch (Ixxxiii.-xc.) in either Judas or John Hyrcanus. It is significant, too, that it has been suggested that the writer of 1 Mace, looking back, seems to be in doubt whether Simon was not the Messiah (1 Mace. xiv. 15). If this analysis is correct, iSirach proper has no Messianic teaching, but an addition belonging to the latter half of the second century bears witness to the expectation, otherwise attested, of the dawn of the Messianic age in Maccabaean times. Betribution l8 placed in the future. Sheol : The Intermedi- ate State. BTHIOPIC ENOCH (i.-XXXvi.) This writer derives his moral sanctions from the life which follows immediately on death, and from the hope of the Messianic or theocratic age. The soul, on death, passes to Sheol, which is divided into four compartments. In the first are the spirits of those who have been martyred for righteousness ; in the second the spirits of the righteous who have died a natural death ; in the third the spirits of those who lived unrighteous lives, but received no punishment in their life-time : ' Here their souls are ^ ' Son of Onias ' does not occur in all the versions, and Schmidt thinks it was not in the originaL is individual. MORAL SANCTIONS 251 placed apart in this great pain, till the great day of judgement and punishment and torture of the revilers for ever, and vengeance for their souls, there will they be bound for ever ' ; in the fourth the spirits of the wicked who were punished in their life-time : ' They will be with criminals like them- selves, but their souls will not be slain on the great day of judgement, nor will they be raised from thence ' (xxii.). As the writer is only concerned with the problem Betribntion of Israel, it is probable that his discussion only relates to the lot of the souls of his own countrymen after death. But his interest centres not in the nation, but in the individual. Retribution overtakes the individual, and he can no longer merge himself in the solidarity of the nation. It is noteworthy that Sheol has now become a place where moral Moral 1- . . .11 .1. distincUona distinctions exist," but there is no passing from msheoi. one moral grade to another. The divisions are hard and fast ; neither growth nor degeneration is possible. Ultimately there is to be a resurrection for judge- Eeaurreo- ment of aU except those in the fourth class, who judgement ^ ' by Otoi. will remain where they are. God will appear with His hosts on Mount Sinai, there will be a convulsion of nature, all will be filled with fear, and the Great Assize will begin (i. 4^^). The Watchers will be led to Gehenna and confined there, together with ^ There are two views of Sheol as the abode of all the dead in the O.T. ' The older represents it as the scene of considerable light, movement, and knowledge, the latter as the practical negation of all existence, and all but a synonym for annihilation ' (Charles, Eschatology, p. 155). 252 ETHICS OP JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITBRATTJRB Destdny of the wicked. The Measlanic] Ungdom, the apostate Jews, who will suffer in the sight of the righteous (xxvii.). Hither also, apparently, will be transferred the wicked ones, honoured in their earthly life, who are confined in the third division of Sheol. All these will pass into eternal execration, and will find no mercy (v. 5). The risen righteous will then enjoy the blessings of the Messianic kingdom to be established in Jerusalem (xxv. 5) ; but there will be no Messiah, for 'the Holy and Great One, the Lord of Glory, the Eternal King,' will set up His throne upon earth (xxv. 3). Physically and morally an ideal age will set in. There will be no disease or affliction (v. 9), labour will prove a blessing (x. 16), the whole earth will be fertile and fruitful (x. 18 f.), and men will grow old in peace, and live till they beget a thousand children (v. 9, x. 17). Light, joy, and peace shall be their possession (v. 7), they shall be filled with grace (i. 8), and wisdom (v. 8), and they shall be free from all sin, whether of ignorance or arrogance (v. 8). The earth will be cleansed from all oppression and unrighteousness (x. 16, 20), and ' righteousness and uprightness will be established in joy for evermore ' (x. 16). God's kingdom will be universal, even the Gentiles will become right- eous, ' and all nations shall offer Me adoration and praise, and all will worship Me ' (x. 22). The store-chambers of blessing will be opened ' over the work and labour of the children of men. Peace and justice will be wedded throughout all the days of the world, and throughout all the generations of the world ' (xi.). The apocaljrptist's vision does not penetrate MORAIi SANCTIONS 253 beyond, this Messianic age. Apparently it is to be eternal, but yet men are still to be subject to death. No light is thrown upon the destiny of the righteous after their second death. ETHIOPIO ENOCH (IxXxiii.-XC.) In these Dream- Visions moral sanctions are Eetribntion derived from the hope of the Messianic age. It is to the° in this hope of a time when recompense wiU be given age. to the righteous, and retribution wiU overtake the unrighteous, that he finds the solution of the problem of Israel's afflictions, and the encouragement which was so sorely needed. Writing in the days of the Maccabees, the dreamer foreshadows a time when a great Warrior-Prince (probably either Judas or Appearance John Hyrcanus) will enter into a final struggle with Prmoe. all the nations of the earth (xc. 13-17). In the midst of the struggle God Himself will come down judgement to earth, and all Israel's enemies will be destroyed ^ (xc. 18 f.), God's throne will be erected on the earth, and the great Judgement will begin (xc. 20). The Watchers, the seventy unfaithful shepherds Desimy of •' ^ the wicked. who oppressed Israel, and the apostate Jews, will be cast into Gehenna (xc. 21-7). The old Jerusalem will be removed, and the new Jerusalem established, and God will dweU within it (xc. 29). The Gentiles who survive the destructive judgement of God will fall down and do homage to Israel (xc. 30). The Jews of the Dispersion will return, The and the righteous dead will rise to share the glories hSui! of the kingdom (xc. 33). Then the Messiah wiU ^SmrTOtion appear (xc. 37), and the members of the community righteooB. will be transformed into his likeness (xc. 38). 254 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITBRATTTKE Eetribnbion It will be noticed that this section, like i.-xxxvi., national and while concemed with the vindication of the whole mdiTiduai. jjg^^-Qj^ Qf Israel against its foes, teaches also the doctrine of individual retribution. The two The teaching as to the Messiah is not altogether ^™ ' clear. The Warrior-Prince whose warfare against Israel's enemies is to precede the Great Judgement has more Messianic features than the apparently functionless Messiah introduced in xc. 37. Charles thinks that the latter must be accounted for through literary reminiscence, and that the Messianic hope must be regarded as practically dead at this period. Porter is of opinion that perhaps the writer expected two Messiahs, and that the warrior is to him the more interesting figure. Possibly we should not be far from the truth if we said that the writer introduced the second Messiah to supply the de- ficiencies of the first. His ethical sense was dissatisfied with a mere Warrior-Messiah, and he introduces the second Messiah in order to moralize his description of the Messianic kingdom. A Messiah who conforms aU men to his own Hkeness is hardly as functionless as at first appears. TOBIT Eetribntion The sanctions appealed to in Tobit belong to present. the present life. Israel's sins are punished by its adversities (iii. 1-5). The individual cannot separate himself from the nation. Tobit says : ' Many are Thy judgements, true are they ; that Thou shouldest deal with me according to my sins and the sins of my fathers ' (iii. 5). So far as the question is viewed from the standpoint of the MORAL SANCTIONS 255 individual, the teaching is that goodness makes for material prosperity, and wickedness for adversity. ' If thou doest the truth, thy doings shall prosper- ously succeed to thee ' (iv. 6). 'If thou serve God, recompense shall be made unto thee ' (iv. 14). ' Naughtiness is the mother of famine ' (iv. 13). But the suggestion that individual suffering is necessarily caused by individual sin is repudiated (ii. 14, iii. 6). • There is no reference to a Messiah, but xiii. 10-18 Messianic and xiv. 5, 6 are probably prophetic of the Messianic **°' kingdom. Jerusalem and the Temple are to be rebuilt, and the tribes of the Dispersion shall return. The writer sounds the universal note ; the Gentiles are to partake of the blessings of that age. ' And all the nations shall turn to fear the Lord God truly, and shall bury their idols.' The eschatology is slight. As in the later O.T. NoUgM writings, Sheol is a place of inactivity, where exist- death. ence, if not at an end, is void. It is called ' the eternal place ' (iii. 6). THE BOOK OF BAEFCH (i. 15 — iii. 8) Moral sanctions are derived only from the present Eetribution life, for the inhabitants of Sheol ' give to God p^nt.* °* neither glory nor righteousness (ii. 17). The passage ' hear the prayers of the dead Israelites ' should probably be read ' hear the prayers of the men of Israel.' The Greek translators seem to have mis- taken 'HP ' men of,' for 'DP ' dead of.' The writer's view is that sin is always followed The basis i3 national. ^ Sheol is used in the later O.T. sense. 256 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITEEATUEE by suffering, and righteousness by prosperity (i. 19 — ii. 10), and be does not hesitate to ascribe disaster and calamity to the direct act of God (ii. 9). There is no trace of the individualism which we find in Jeremiah and Ezekiel. Evil is viewed from the standpoint of the nation, not of the individual (i. 19 — ^ii. 10, iii. 5). The nation's calamities are the result of the nation's sins. The Babylonian Captivity was not a mere accident or incident in the nation's history. The Babylonian kings were the divine instruments for the moral regeneration of Israel, and therefore obedience to them became a moral obligation (ii. 21 ff.). JUBILEES EetribuUon The moral sanctions to which the writer appeals national and are both national and individual, and operate both both present in the present world and in the hereafter. The and futore. - p t i • • i prosperity or Israel as a nation is bound up with its faithfulness to the law, disobedience to which brings terrible adversities in its train. Because of its idolatry and unfaithfulness Israel passes through much calamity (i. 7 ff.). But judgement is also present and immediate. ' Thou hast broken thy oath, and on the moment that thou didst swear to thy father wast thou condemned ' (xxxvii. 17). ' But if they transgress and work unoleanness in every way, they will be recorded on the heavenly tables as adversaries, and they will be destroyed out of the book of life, and they will be recorded in the book of those who wiU be destroyed, and with those who will be rooted out of the earth ' (xxx. 22). MORAI, SANCTIONS 257 The terrible nature of the moral consequences of Moral consfi* sin are expressed in the pregnant phrase, ' He will queno«s o« give thee back into the hands of thy transgression ' (xxi. 22). As to the external punishment of sin, it is adapted to the nature of the transgression ' (iv. 32). The writer's hope is centred in the coming of the Messianic age. The Messiah himself is only me Messiah. dimly foreshadowed as a Prince who shall arise from Judah, and prove the salvation of Israel (xxxi. 13 ff.). The interest centres in the kingdom, not in the person of the Messiah. It is to come, not catastrophically, but gradually, the physical The renewal of the earth and the ethical renewal of man wngdom to come proceeding synchronously (i. 29, iv. 26).* Those who graanaUy. dwell in it will live to the age of a thousand years, the powers of evil will be restrained, the adversaries of Israel will be overthrown, the law will be studied with renewed zeal, and Israel will return to the paths of righteousness (xxiii. 26-30). Al- though it is said that all nations on earth are to be blessed in Israel (xviii. 16, xx. 10, xxvii. 23), there is no hint that they are to enjoy the blessings of the Messianic age. There can be no doubt that this author (like Ana is those of Eth. Enoch Ixxxiii.-xc. and The Tests, setang in. of the Twelve Patriarchs) believed that the Messianic age was already setting in (xxiii. 12-31). He sees in Hyrcanus the forerunner who is inaugurating the kingdom over which the Prince from Judah is to rule. At the close of the Messianic age the final judge- judgement. 1 Cf. 2 Mace. iv. 16 ; Wisd. xi. 15 f. 2 According to Charles this view, which is based on Isa.lsv. 17» Irvi. 22, was probably adopted from Mazdeism. 17 258 ETHICS OP JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATtTRB ment will take place, and judgement will be 'executed on all those who- have corrupted their ways and their works before the Lord ' (iv. 19, v. 10, ix. 15, X. 17, xxiii. 11). It is described as a ' day of wrath and indignation ' (xxiv. 28), a ' day of the wrath of judgement ' (xxiv. 30). It is a ' day of turbulence and execution and indignation and anger,' on which he who devises evil against his brother Deatiny of ' will be blottcd out of the book of the discipline of the children of men, and not be recorded in the book of life, but in that which is appointed to destruction, and he will depart into eternal execra- tion, and in wrath and in torment and in indignation, and in plagues, and in disease for ever ' (xxxvi. 10). Principles of The principles of judgement are laid down in v. 1 5-1 8 : judgement. ., 5,, , ^ j- i. ' UV4. J it Will be according to men s abiuty and oppor- tunity (' the great according to his greatness, and the small according to his smaUness '), and absolutely without respect of person. The resurrection of the body is not taught, tauty. but the immortality of the spirit.' And tbeir bones will rest in tte earth. And their spirits will have much joy. And they will know that it is the Lord who executes judgement. And shows mercy to hundreds and thousands and to aU those who love Him (xxiii. 31). 1 It is not necessary to suppose that the conception of im- mortality, apart from the resurrection of the body, was derived from Greek thought. The idea of the survival of the soul without the body is present in Job xix. 26, which Charles trans- lates ' without my body shall I see God.' At the same time this idea may have been developed under Greek influence. MORAL SANCTIONS 259 Where does the spirit await the final judgement ? The inter- Not in Sheol, for that is the ' place of condemnation ' s'tate!'** reserved for those who shed blood, for idolaters and profane persons, and for Phihstines (vii. 29, xxii. 22, xxiv. 31). The words of Isaac, ' I am going the way of my fathers, to the eternal house where my fathers are ' (xxxvi. 1), are too ambiguous to enable us to decide whether it is taught that the spirits of the righteous go straight to heaven or await the final judgement in an intermediate state. Possibly the writer's thoughts were inchoate and inconsistent, as is the case of popular thought on the subject to-day. THE TESTAMENTS OK THE TWELVE PATRIARCHS This writer lays great emphasis upon the moral Emphasis ia consequences of righteousness and unrighteousness, 'ntemai For instance, as already shown, he traces out the ^™''*'°™- moral effects of fornication, anger, and hatred. He who sows good things in his soul finds them in his life, but he who sows evil things reaps trouble and affliction (T. Levi xiii. 6). ' The sinner is burnt up by his own heart, and cannot raise his face to the judge ' (T. Jud. xx. 5). Righteousness wrought on earth is stored up in heaven (T. Levi xiii. 5), and ' for a good work there is a good remembrance before God ' (T. Naph. viii. 5). There is a judgement which is present, and the punishment of sin is adapted to the nature of the offence : ' By what things a man transgresseth, by the same also is he punished ' (T. Gad V. 10 f.).' As Charles points out, mechani- Adambra- cally interpreted, this statement is without founda- w^^mo^'' ^ Cf. 2 MaCO. V. 10. self-acting. Messiah., 260 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATTTRB tion, but, spiritually interpreted, it adumbrates the N.T. principles : ' He that doeth wrong shall receive again the wrong that he hath done ' (Col. iii. 25) ; ' Whatsoever a man soweth that shall he also reap ' (Gal. vi. 7). In the same way is foreshadowed the appUcation of the same principle in the hereafter. ' For when the soul departs troubled, it is tormented by the evil spirit which also it served in lusts and evil works ' (T. Ash. vi. 5). The The writer's hope for the future is centred in Messianic , ,._ ageandthe the comiug of the Messiauic age. Its advent will be preceded by certain woes (T. Sim. vi. 4), The Messiah is to be of the tribe of Levi (T. Eeub. vi. 7-12), though there are passages which indicate that the sovereignty is to be shared with Judah (T. Levi ii. 11), but the primacy is with Levi. It is a significant development of thought that, during the years of the Maccabaean ascendency immediately preceding John Hyrcanus's break with the Pharisees, the advent of the Messiah was looked for from Levi, not Judah. The Messiah will be like the sun of righteousness ; he will be meek and righteous, and without sin ; the heavens will be opened unto him (T. Jud. xxiv, 1-3), and the ' spirit of under- standing and sanctification shall rest upon him' (T. Levi xviii. 7). He is to establish a new priest- hood (T. Levi viii. 14), to be a prophet of the Most High (T. Levi viii. 15) and a king over all the nation (T. Reub. vi. 11). He will bring war to an end (T. Sim. vi. 4) : ' Then shall all the spirits of deceit be given to be trodden under foot, and men shall rule over wicked spirits ' ' (T. Sim. vi. 6 ; ^ Cf. Luke z. 19, 20 : ' Behold, I have given you authority to MORAL SANCTIONS 261 of. T. Levi xviii. 12). He will banish sin from off the earth (T. Levi xviii. 9). He will open the gates of Paradise, and give the saints to eat of the tree of hfe, and will bind Beliar (T. Levi xviii. 10-12) and deliver the souls held captive by him (T. Dan v. 11). He will execute vengeance on Israel's enemies (T. Dan v. 10). He will pour out the spirit of grace upon men, ' and ye shall be unto him sons in truth, and ye shall walk in his com- mandments first and last ' (T. Jud. xxiv. 3). This kingdom will be estabUshed upon the earth in the new Jerusalem (T. Dan v. 12), and will be an ' everlasting kingdom ' (T. Jos. xix. 12). It will be a universal kingdom, embracing the Gentiles (T. Levi ii. 11), who shall be multiplied in know- ledge upon the earth (T. Levi xviii. 9 ; cf. T. Naph. viii. 3 ; T, Ben. ix. 2). Probably the writer con- ceives it as already begim.' To this kingdom there will be a resurrection, Ecenrreotion first, of the O.T. saints and patriarchs ' on the ^itb^aa right hand,' • then of all men, ' some unto glory, and some unto shame ' (T. Ben. x. 6-8). Judgement wiU follow, the Messiah acting as judge (T. Levi xviii. 2). He will judge Israel first, and then the Gentiles, the standard of judgement being deter- standard oi mined, as far as Israel is concerned, by the level forisraei. attained by the choicest spirits among the Gentiles tread . . . over all the power of the enemy. . . . Howbeit, in this rejoice not that the spirits are subject unto you.' * Charles is of opinion that the writer already seemed to see the advent of the Messiah in John Hyrcanus (T. Levi xviii. 2-14 ; T. Jud. xxiv. 1-3 ; T. Dan v. 10-13). " Cf. Matt. XXV. 33. mdiYiduala. 262 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCEYPHAL LITERATURE (T. Ben. x. 8-10). The instruments of punishment of the wicked are stored up in the first heaven, and in the second heaven ' are the hosts of the armies which are ordained for the day of judgement to work vengeance on the spirits of deceit and of thf^Lel Behar ' (T. Levi iii. 1-3). The ungodly shall go into eternal fire (T. Zeb. x. 3), and the unrepentant to eternal punishment (T. Gad vii. 5). Principles of The principles of iudgement are thus expressed : judgement , ^^ ^ ^ ^ \ ^ , ., , ^ oppijfd^^^ Have yourselves also, my children, compassion towards every man with mercy, that the Lord also may have compassion and mercy upon you. Because also in the last days God will send His compassion on the earth, and wheresoever He findeth bowels of mercy He dwelleth in him. For in the degree in which a man hath compassion upon his neighbours, in the same degree hath the Lord also upon him ' ' (T. Zeb. viii. 1-3). ' Have therefore compassion in your hearts, my children, because even as a man doeth to his neighbour, even so also will the Lord do to him again ' (T. Zeb. v. 3). B. Alexandrian THE SIBYLLINE ORACLES (iii. 97-829 and Proem.) Eetribntion This Writer teaches that no nation can sin with national and impunity. Both in the case of Israel (iii. 265-79) and of the Gentile nations (iii. 174, 493 ff., 601 ff.) national adversity follows on national transgression. 1 Cf. Matt. vii. 2 : ' With what measure ye mete, it shall be measured to you again.' MOBAL SANCTIONS 263 Kings, like Cyrus,' are made the instruments of divine judgement (iii. 286 ff., 652 £E.). The penalty of transgression can in no wise be escaped ; And if perchance One give no heed, he must unto the law Make satisfaction, either at men's hands, Or, if men's notice he escape, he shaU Sj ample satisfaction be destroyed (iii. 258-60). Judgement is present as well as future. God rules preaent aa all things, ' dealing out unto all mortals in a common l^w light the judgement ' (Proem, i. 15-18). The eternal Maker brings to the good, good recompense, but awakens wrath for the evil (Proem, iii. 18-20). The course of history moves on to the Messianic age, or, perhaps better, theocratic, since there is no mention of a Messiah. Its coming will be heralded by strange natural phenomena (iii. 796-808). The writer evidently considered it was beginning to Messianio dawn in the reign of Ptolemy VII (Physcon), the ^'ady , ^-n • ^ i. beginmng to seventh king of the Graeco-Egyptian dynasty da™, (iii. 318). O happy upon earth shall that man be, Or woman ; what a home unspeakable Of happy ones ! For from the starry heaven Shall all good order come upon mankind, And justice, and the prudent unity Which of all things is excellent for men, And kindness, confidence, and love of guests ; 1 The passages iii. 286 fi. and iii. 652 ff. are best taken aa referring to Cyras, not to the Messiah. The passage iii. 663 ff., will then refer, not to the Messianio age, or the events leading up to it, but to the post-Exilic wars, and the defilement of the Temple by Antiochus Epiphanes (of. Terry's note, in loo.). 264 ETHIOS OF JEWISH APOCEYPHAL LITEEATTTEE But far from ttem shall lawlessness depart, Blame, envy, wrath, and folly ; poverty, And murder, baneful strifes, and bitter feuds, And thefts, and every evil in those days (iii. 371-80). It will be a time of fruitfulness and peace (iii. 744 ff.). Israel's kingdom will be universal ; the glory of the Temple will be restored and all nations will bring gifts to it ; there will be peaceful com- merce between nation and nation ; prophets will rule as kings and judges ; and there will be a righteous social order (iii. 787-95). ' The nation of the mighty God, shall be again strong, and they shall be guides of hfe to all men ' (iii. 194 f.). In bk. iii. the sanctions are mainly national, and there is no vision of a future life ; but in the Proemium the writer has a glimpse of rewards and punishments in the hereafter. immor- But of Him is life and eternal light Imperishable (Proem, iii. 34). But they who fear the true eternal God Inherit life, and they for ever dwell Alike in fertile field of Paradise, Feasting on sweet bread from the starry heaven (Proem, iii. 46-9). This is the Alexandrian teaching of blessed im- mortality ; there is no hint of the doctrine of resurrection. Destiny oi As to the unrighteous — tie wioled. Therefore on you the flash of gleaming fire Is coming, ye shall be with torches burned The livelong day through an eternal age At your false useless idols feeling shame (Proem, iii. 43-5). MOEAIi SANCTIONS (.', ' 265 Future punisliment will, therefore, not be merely external, but internal, inasmuch as the wicked will experience a remorseful shame. Summary We can trace a great development in the doctrine Deveiop- of retribution during this period. Sirach teaches Sineoi individual retribution, chiefly external, but in part 0^%°" internal, in the present life only. This position is esohatoiogy. modified by the extension of the principle in a corporate direction, but the outlook never extends beyond the present life. In Tobit and Baruch (i. 15 — iii. 8) retribution is national, and here again the horizon is bounded by death. But with the widening of eschatology, as might be expected, retribution is made to extend to the future life and individualism becomes more pronounced. While the corporate results of Israel's sins are not lost sight of, it is realized more and more that the individual must bear his own burden, both in regard to sin's present moral consequences and its eternal punishment. There can also be seen an advance in the com- Advance to a more prehension of the essentially moral and inward ^wara character of the consequences of moral evil. The retribntaon. prudential externalism of Sirach, which practically exhorts men to refrain from evil on the ground of expediency, is a whole world removed from The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, which unfold with such subtlety of analysis the immediate moral and spiritual consequences of transgression. The belief in a future life emerges very clearly to view in this century, and is taught by all the writers, 266 ETHICS OP JEWISH APOCRYPHAIi LITBBATITBB The future of the righteous and the unrighteous. Messianic kingdom. The Messiah. except Sirach, Tobit, and Baruch. There is general agreement that the eternal destiny of the soul is determined by the character of its life in the present world. As to the nature of the future life there is diversity of teaching. Some of the writers conceive of the righteous as dwelling for ever in the Messianic kingdom upon a renovated earth ; others fix a time-duration to that kingdom, and postulate a blessed life beyond. All who have any vision of a hereafter agree in relegating the wicked to eternal fire and torment. The teaching as to the Messianic kingdom is not uniform. Some look for its coming catastrophic- ally ; The Book of Jubilees looks for its gradual appearance. Most admit, at any rate, some of the Gentiles to participation in its blessings, but ap- parently The Book of Jubilees does not do so. Some place the final judgement at the begiiming of the Messianic age, others at its close. Some fore- shadow a resurrection only of the righteous, others look for a universal resurrection. It will have been noted that the conception of the Messianic kingdom is far more prominent during this century than the figure of the personal Messiah. We have observed, in every instance where the Messiah appears, a tendency to identify him with some contemporary prince, and to regard the Messianic age as beginning with contemporary events. This is, too, the teaching of the book of Daniel (which belongs to this century) according to its interpretation by most modern critics. In one or two instances [Eth. Enoch Ixxxiii.-xc., Jvb.) the figure of another and future Messiah flits before MORAL SANCTIOKS 267 our eyes, but the conception is not clearly defined. If our interpretation of the Sib. Oracles (iii.) is cor- rect, the hope of a Messiah is entirely absent from Alexandrian literature. No line of demarcation can be drawn between Palestinian and Alexandrian teaching as to the resurrection. The doctrine is absent from The Book of Jubilees, no less than the Sib. Oracles, and in both it is taught that the righteous enjoy a blessed immortality. II. THE EIEST CENTURY B.C. A. Palestinian I. MACCABEES Such sanctions as are referred to in this book are Betribntion derived from the present life. All the rewards of '^^''^° righteousness mentioned in ii. 52-61 relate to the present world, except that of Elijah, whose case was regarded as exceptional. Moral evil is some- times punished with disease (vi. 12 ; cf. ix. 54^6). There is no hint of resurrection or immortaUty. Nought The only reference to eschatology is the statement hereafter. that after death ' the wicked is returned unto his dust, and his thought is perished ' (ii. 63). It is possible that the Messianic hope is fore- The shadowed, but, if so, it is but vaguely. It is said hope, that David ' inherited the throne of a kingdom for ever and ever ' (ii. 57) ; but the reference is evidently to the permanence of the Davidic dynasty, not to a personal Messiah. There are two passages which look to the coming of a ' faithful prophet ' (iv. 46, inexorable. 268 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITBRATtTEE xiv. 41), which may have a Messianic reference, but, if so, it is very indefinite. It is noteworthy that the description of the rule of Simon (xiv. 4r-15) bears many of the marks of the O.T. conception of the Messianic age. It has been suggested that the writer was in doubt whether Simon was the Messiah or whether the latter was yet to arise.' As we have seen, there are traces of the same idea in Sirach, another work of Sadducean tendency. BTHIOPIO ENOCH (xci.-civ.) The laws oi The Outstanding feature of this section is its P* J"!?" ^^^ belief in the reality of retribution. Un- righteousness may go unpunished in the present life, but it is not unobserved, and retribution will surely overtake it. 'I have sworn unto you, ye sinners, by the Holy and Great One, that all your evil deeds are revealed in the heavens, and that none of your deeds of oppression are covered or hidden. And do not think in your spirit, nor say in your heart, that you do not know and that you do not see that every sin is, every day, recorded in the presence of the Most High. From henceforth ye know that all your oppression wherewith ye oppressed is written down every day tiU the day of your judgement ' (xcviii, 6 ff. ; of. xcvii. 6). The writer boldly disowns Ezekiel's view that retribution, operating in the present, makes outward circumstances exactly correspond with moral desert, and says to the persecuted righteous, ' Grieve not if your soul descends in grief into Sheol, and that 1 Oesterley, in I.J.A., April 1907. MORAL SANCTIONS 269 in your life your body has not fared as your goodness deserved ; but truly as on a day on which ye became like the sinners, and on a day of cursing and chastise- ment ' (cii. 5). He admits that the unrighteous seem to get the best out of the present life (cii. Eetribution 6-11), but he is not cast down, for although he does ietemnn not rise to the thought that the blessed life of mt^b^wm communion with God lifts a man above all outward mm m the hereafter. circumstances, he is confident of a future life in which the balance will be redressed. ' Now I swear to you the righteous . . . that all goodness and joy and glory are prepared for them, and are written down for the spirits of those who have died in righteousness, and that manifold good will be given to you in recompense for your labours, and that your lot is abundantly beyond the lot of the living. And your spirits [the spirits] of you who die in righteousness will live and rejoice and be glad, and their spirits will not perish, but their memorial will be before the face of the Great One unto all the generations of the world ; wherefore then fear not thou contumely. ... I swear unto you that in heaven the angels are mindful of you for good before the glory of the Great One ' (ciii., civ.). The righteous at their death fall into a long sleep, inter- during which they are watched by guardian angels Site." (c. 5), but the wicked descend to Sheol, the place of punishment, where they are recompensed accord- ing to their deserts, and from which they never escape (xcviii, 3, xcix. 11, ciii. 7f.). The writer conceives of the course of world- oovma oi history as passing through ten periods. In the history. eighth, unrighteousness will be destroyed with the 270 ETHICS OP JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITEBATTTKE New JeruBalem. sword and righteousness established (xci. 12), and ' at its close they [i.e. the righteous] will acquire houses through their righteousness, and the house of the Great King will be built in glory for ever ' (xci. 13) ; that is, the new Jerusalem will be estab- lished. In the ninth period the coming judgement will be proclaimed to all mankind, and the whole world will turn to righteousness (xci. 14). In the tenth period wiU take place ' the great eternal Judgement, judgement ' and the destruction of the world. A new heaven (there is no mention of a new earth) wiU then be created, and after that there will be an endless period in which righteousness shall reign and sin shall be no more (xci. 15-17). Resmeotion The spirits (ciii. 3 f .) of the righteous dead wiU righteous, rise to share this blessed life (xci. 10, xcii. 3). Anew heaven. Betribntiou to operate in the Messianic kingdom. The Messiah, THE SIMILITUDES OF ENOCH (xxxvil.-lxxi.) The writer of the Similitudes, like those of the other sections of Enoch, enforces the moral com- mand by reference to the doctrine of retribution. Men are to be judged according to their deeds, for ' the actions of men are weighed upon the balance ' (xli. 1). His hope centres in the Messianic kingdom to be established in a new heaven and a new earth ,(xlv. 4 f.), in the establishment of which, through the agency of the Messiah, retribution will be so complete as to vindicate both the righteous community of Israel and the righteous individual. The oppression of the righteous is to be suddenly ended by the appearance of God and the Messiah (xlvi. 2 &..). The Messiah is not a man, but is a MORAL SANCTIONS 271 supernatural, pre-existent Being (xlviii. 3-6). He is called the Son^of Man (xlvi. 2 et passim), an ex- pression which is found in the indefinite form in Daniel, but does not occur in the definite form until the Similitudes ; the Anointed, or the Christ (xlviii. 10, hi. 4) ; the Righteous One (liii. 6) ; the Elect One (liii. 6). He possesses inherently the moral attributes of righteousness and wisdom : ' This is the Son of Man who hath righteousness, with whom dwelleth righteousness, and who reveals aU the treasures of that which is hidden, because the Lord of Spirits hath chosen him, and his lot before the Lord of Spirits hath surpassed everything in uprightness for ever ' (xlvi. 3). ' In Him dwells the spirit of wisdom and the spirit of Him who gives knowledge, and the spirit of understanding and of might ' (xlix. 3). All judgement has been judgement committed to him, and at his appearance there will eiah, and ■*- ^ resurrection be a resurrection apparently of all Israel (u. 1 f.), oinsraei. though in Ixi. 5 the reference is only to the resurrec- tion of the righteous. The latter wiU be clothed with garments of glory and of Hfe (Ixii. 15 f.), a conception which implies a spiritualized view of physical resurrection. The ' books of the living ' wiU be opened (xlvii. 3), and judgement pronounced upon the holy (Ixi. 8) and fallen (Iv. 4) angels, the righteous and the unrighteous upon earth (Ixii. 2 f .), and upon the proud and the wealthy who have oppressed the righteous (liii. 1-3). The fallen Destiny of rsr o \ the wicked. angels are cast into a burnmg furnace (hv. 6) ; the oppressors of the righteous are put to eternal torture in Gtehenna (xlviii. 9 f. ; liii. 3-5, Hv. 1 f.). As to other sinners, their fate is only stated in the 272 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITEKATTIRB general terms that they will be destroyed from off the face of the earth, by the word of the mouth of the Son of Man (xlv. 6, Ixii. 2; of. xxxviii. 3, xli. 2). The The Son of Man will possess universal dominion kingdom (Ixii. 2), and ' he wiU be the light of the Grentiles. Biid Btem&l uie. All who dwell on earth wiU. fall and bow the knee before him, and wiU bless and laud and celebrate with song the Lord of Spirits ' (xlviii. 4 f .).' Heaven and earth wiU be renewed (xlv. 4 f .), and ' un- righteousness wiU disappear as a shadow ' (xlix. 2). In this glorified community the righteous will enjoy eternal life (Iviii. 3) with the angels (xxxix, 5), in the presence of the Messiah (xlv. 4), and in the light of the presence of God (xxxviii. 4). This life wiU be one of moral growth, ' and they will seek the light and find righteousness with the Lord of Spirits : there will be peace to the righteous in the name of the Lord of the world. And after that it wiU be said to the holy that they should seek in heaven the secrets of righteousness, the heritage of faith ' (Iviii. 4 f.). THE PSALMS OF SOLOMON As is usual in Jewish thought, these psalms connect the adversity of Israel with its sins. The sudden invasion of Pompey is explained in the light of the secret sins of the Sadducees (ii.). The Babylonian Captivity is also explained as being due to the nation's transgressions (ix.). The ad- versities of Israel are not for its destruction, but > Cf. PhiL ii. 10. MORAL SANCTIONS 273 its chastening (vii. 3, 8, viii. 32, 35) ; it is the disciplining of a beloved son (xiii. 8), a process that works cleansing where there is penitence (ix. 12, 15). Disciplinary For this purpose God uses the Gentiles as His n^taiai instrtiments (ii. 24-8, viii. 16), but does not suffer "'"''"*'°°' lust or overweening pride in them (ii. 27-35). Although the psalmist looks to the restoration of Israel when its chastening is accomplished (xi.), yet he hesitates to include the Sadducees within the sphere of the true Israel. For they ' live in hypocrisy in the company of the saints,' and he prays God to destroy them (iv. 7). Even Psalm xvii., which describes the Messianic kingdom, is full of anger against them (xvii. 6 &.). And yet they are not entirely cut off. ' He wiU cleanse the soul that sinned, if it make confession and acknowledgement ' (ix. 12). ' According to their works God had compassion on them ; He sought out their seed diUgently and forsook them not ' (xvii. 11). As against the Sadducees, the doctrine of retribu- judgement tion is taught. God is Judge of all the earth (viii. aa weu aa 29, ix. 4), and judgement is not only future, but present (ii. 7, 17, xiii. 5). The hope of the psalmist is set on the coming of the Messiah and the Messianic kingdom. The The Messiah. Messiah is to be of the seed of David ' (xvii. 23). As in The Similitvdes of Enoch, he is called xP''°"''o^ (xvii. 36, xviii. 6, 8). He is not supernatural, but * T. Jud. xxiv. 5 f., according to Charles a Jewish addition, 70-40 B.C., teaches that the Messiah will spring from Judah. It will be remembered that the expectation of the Testaments is of a Messiah sprung from Levi. 18 274 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITEEATtTEE he is pure from sin (xvii. 41). He reigns as God's vassal, for God is the only ruler of Israel (xvii. 38, 51). ' He shall not faint all his days, because he leaneth upon his God ; for God shall cause him to be mighty through the spirit of holiness, and wise through the counsel of understanding with might and righteousness ' (xvii. 42). He will purge Jerusalem' of the heathen (xvii. 25), overthrow the Sadducean aristocracy (xvii. 26) and vanquish the Gentile nations (xvii. 27). Nevertheless, he will not use force, ' for he shall not put his trust in horse and rider and bow, nor shall he multiply unto himself gold and silver for war, nor by ships shall he gather confidence for the day of battle ' (xvii. 37). He will overcome the wicked ' by the word of his mouth ' (xvii. 27, 39), and the potent instrument of his rule will be wisdom, righteous- ness, holiness, and faith (xvii. 25, 42, 45). His moral influence will be such that ' he shall convict the siimers in the thoughts of their hearts ' (xvii. The 27). His reign wiU be a ' day of gladness of Israel ' kmgdom. (x. 7). The Children of the Dispersion wiU return to Jerusalem (xi.). The Messiah will ' gather together a holy people, whom he wiU lead in righteousness ' ^ (xvii. 28), ' and there shall be no iniquity in his days in their midst, for all shall be holy ' (xvii. 36). ' In holiness shall he lead them 1 Cf. ' And the Lord shall scatter them upon the face of all the earth, until the compassion of the Lord shall come ' (T. Naph. iv. 5). ' But the Lord will gather you together in faith through His tender mercy ' (T. Ash. vii. 7). Both passages are described by Charles as Jewish additions, 70-40 B.C., and therefore contemporary with these psalms. MORAL SANCTIONS 275 all, and there shall no pride be among them, that any should be oppressed ' (xvii. 46). He shall bring the nations beneath his yoke (xvii. 32), and shall judge them with righteousness and mercy ' (xvii. 31, 38). ' And he shall purge Jerusalem, and make it holy, even as it was in the days of old. So that the nations may come from the ends of the earth to see his glory, bringing as gifts her sons that had fainted, and may see the glory of the Lord, wherewith God hath glorified her ' (xvii. 33-5). Apparently the Messianic age wiU last only for TheMesaiaiu the life-time of the Messiah. There is no hint of a resurrection of the righteous dead to partake in its glories. Although the psalmist's conception of the Messiah influence of is so distinctly spiritual, so far removed from that Messianic of a Warrior-Prince, there can be no doubt that, in on the process of connectmg the Messianic hope with the political secuiariza- aspirations of the people, he aided that secularization of the Pharisaic ideal which later emptied it so largely of its spiritual content and made it a rigid politico-legalistic system. It is not stated whether resurrection and judge- judgement. ment follow immediately on the Messianic age. The psalmist undoubtedly looks to a Day of Judge- ment (iii. 14, XV. 14), a day of mercy for the righteous, but of destruction and darkness for the wicked (xiv. 6). Judgement wiU be without respect '^ Cf . ' A man working righteousness and worldng mercy unto all them that are afar off, and them that are near ' (T. Naph. iv. 5 ; of. T. Jud. xxiv. 6, 6, aooording to Charles Jewish additions, 70-iO B.O.). 276 ETHICS OP JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE Bflsnrrectioii of tha righteoos to eternal life. Destin; of tlie wicked« of persons (ix. 9), according to works, and on an individual basis, ' according to each man and his house ' (ix. 10). The righteous will rise to an eternal life of gladness, and will inherit the promises of God (xii. 8). ' They that fear the Lord shall rise again unto life eternal, and their life shall be in the light of the Lord, and it shall fail no more ' (iii. 16 ; cf. ix. 9). ' The saints of the Lord shall inherit life in gladness ' (xiv. 7), It is not said whether this is a physical resurrection. As for the wicked, ' eternal destruction in dis- honour ' awaits them (ii. 35 ; cf. iii. 13, xii, 8, XV, 14) ; and ' the memorial of them shall no more be found ' (xiii, 10). The wicked man ' is guilty of his own soul to destroy it ' (ix, 9). His inherit- ance is ' hell, darkness, and destruction ' (xiv. 6), and his iniquities will pursue him ' as far as hell beneath ' (xv. 11). The word 'Hades' is probably used in these passages to signify the place of punishment of the wicked, as is the case in xvi. 2, where the psalmist says that because he had been far from God he had been ' hard unto the gates of hell in the company of the sinner.' It is therefore un- likely that he teaches the total annihilation of the wicked after or in death. His meaning is probably that they persist in Hades, but have no moral future, being guilty of the death of their own souls. Eetribution IB natioaal. JUDITH The sanctions set forth in this book are national, and there is no clearly defined individuahsm. MOEAL SANCTIONS 277 Faithfulness to God on the part of Israel is followed by prosperity, unfaithfulness by adversity. As long as Israel is faithful it is invincible, but un- faithfulness makes it vulnerable (v. 17-21, viii. 19, xi. 11). Punishment is not apportioned according to individual transgression, but God punishes Israel ' according to our sins, and the sins of our fathers ' (vii. 28). There is a punishment even EemecUai of the righteous, but it is remedial in character : of the righteouSa ' The Lord doth scourge them that come near unto Him, to admonish them ' (viii, 27).' There is no reference to the Messianic hope, and but scant light is thrown on the hereafter. Neither resurrection nor immortality is mentioned. There is to be a ' day of judgement,' when the judgement, nations opposed to Israel wiU be sent to torment of ' fire and worms ' and ' shall weep and feel their pain for ever ' (xvi. 17). The reference is to Gehenna, which is no longer the place of abode of Gehenna. apostate Jews,' but apparently the eternal abode of the Gentiles. B. Alexandrian ni. EZRA (1 Esdras) There is no reference to the hereafter in this book. The Babylonian Captivity is regarded as the outcome of the wickedness of Israel (i. 49 ff., vi. 15 ff., viii. 77). 1 Of. Heb. xii. 6. 2 Cf. Isa. 1. 11, Ixvi. 24 ; Dan. xii. 2 ; and Eth. Enoch, passim. 278 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCEYPHAL LITEKATUBB n. MACCABEES Eetribution mainly present and external. Punishment is remedial for Israel, but retributive for the G-entUes. This writer views the sanctions of morality as mainly present and external (e.g. ix. 4). The laws of retribution are inexorable, ' for it is not a light thing to do impiously against the laws of God ' (iv. 17). The consequences of evil can by no means be escaped, for retribution follows a man even after death (vi. 26 ; cf. vii. 17, 31). The whole book is pervaded by the idea that righteousness brings prosperity and unrighteousness adversity (vii. 18, 33, 37). This is held to be as true of individuals as of nations, as is evidenced by the cases of Jason (v. 5 ff.) and Menelaus (xiii. 8) among the Jews, and Antiochus (ix.) and Nicanor (xv. 30-35) among the Gentiles. Like the author of the second part of Wisdom, this writer beHeves that punishment is exactly adapted to the nature of the offence (iv. 16, 38, v. 9, xiii. 8).' But the laws of retribution do not operate in the same way for Israel as for the Gentile nations. In the case of Israel, punishment is simply remedial ; it is not] for the destruction, but the chastening of the race. Retribution is, therefore, beneficent in its character. Israel may be sorely chastened, but God will never forsake His own people, and He shall ' again be reconciled with His own ser- vants ' (vi. 12-17, vii. 32 f.) ; but in the case of the Gentiles punishment is not corrective, but purely retributive, and even vindictive. God does not chasten them to wean them from evil, but I Wisd. xi. 15 f., xvi. 1 ; T. Gad v. 10 f. MORAL SANCTIONS 279 forbears until the cup of iniquity has been filled, when He smites them with vengeance (vi. 14 f.). Retribution continues after death. The soul at inter- death passes to Hades (vi. 23), which, in view of the state. references to prayers for the dead (xii. 44), must be conceived [of (for the righteous, at any rate) as an intermediate state, and a place of chastening (vi. 26). Ultimately, at a time which is not stated, there will be a resurrection from the dead (vii. 9, EesurreoHon ^ of Israel. 14, 23, 29, xii. 43 ; xiv. 46) — a resurrection which apparently is to include aU Israelites, irrespective of character (xii. 42-4). For the unrighteous Gentile there is no resurrection (vii. 14), and this probably includes aU Gentiles, for in the mind of the epitomizer righteousness is so bound up with Judaism that it is doubtful whether he could conceive of a righteous Gentile. This resurrection is to be an actual rising of the body, as is shown by the fact that it is expected that severed members and organs will then be restored to it (vii. 11, xiv. 46). It must, however, be noted that, side by side immor- with the Jewish doctrine of resurrection, is the belief in immortality. The resurrection is to be ' unto an eternal {ala>vio<;) renewal of life ' (vii. 9). The short pains of martyrdom are the gateway to everlasting life (ae'i/j/ao? ^w^, vii. 36). Charles thinks there is a trace of the hope of a Measiamo kijigcLom ? Messianic kingdom in vii. 33, 37 ; xiv. 15. He argues from vii. 29 (' Fear not this butcher . . . that in the mercy of God I may raise thee again with thy brethren ') that this resurrection-hfe is to be reahzed in a community of the righteous, and 280 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATTTBE connects the thought with the picture of the eternal Messianic kingdom on earth depicted in Eth. Enoch. He accounts for the similarity of thought by assum- ing that the epitomizer here reproduces fairly closely the work of Jason (who must have written soon after 160 B.C.) from which he derived his materials.' WISDOM (Part I, i.-ix. 17) Inward- Moral evil brings its own nemesis : ' He that retribution, scttcth at nought wisdom and disoiphne is miserable ' (iii. 11). Moral; degeneration sets in: 'A mouth that belieth destroyeth a soul' (i. 11). The cul- mination of this process is moral death. The references to death are in the main to ethical * (ii. 24) not physical death, though the latter idea is undoubtedly present subsidiarily in i, 14 ff. Bodily death is conceived of as the common lot of the descendants of Adam, sprung as they are * Eschaiology, p. 230. * Instances of the use of death in an ethical sense are found in both Plato and Philo — e.g. Plato says : ' No one ever considers that which is declared to be the greatest penalty of evil-doing — namely, to grow into the likeness of bad men,' and goes on to say that the evil man ' perishes ' {Legg. v. 728). Philo writes : ' And verily it saith, " In the day that ye eat thereof ye shall surely die." And, having eaten, they not only did not die, but begat children, and were the causes of life in others. What, then, must be said ? That there is a twofold death, the one belonging to man, but the other to the soul. The death of man is, therefore, the separation of soul and body, but the death of the soul is the decay of virtue, the taking up of evil ' (Legg. AUegor. i. 33). MOEAI, SANCTIONS 281 ' from one born of the earth ' (vii. 1), but nowhere is it connected with Adam's moral failure. The moral consequences of evil work themselves out in succeeding generations (iii. 12-19), and bring posthumous disgrace and oblivion (iv. 17-19). The rewards of the virtuous hfe of wisdom are manifold. The good man enjoys posthumous in- Brfenmi fluence and fame : e^P^^ humous In the memory of virtue is immortality, "°°' Because it is recognized both before God and before man. When it is present men imitate it, And they long after it when it is departed ; And throughout all time it marcheth, crowned in triumph. Victorious in the strife for the prizes that are undefiled (iv. 1 f.). The virtuous man leaves behind an eternal internal memory to those that come after him (viii. 13). ^™°''°'" = Righteousness is the way to fulbiess of life, which (o) juiincss is measured not by the standard of years, but by that of understanding and purity. Thus premature death, so far from being a sign of wickedness,' may be a blessing, as removing the virtuous man to a purer environment. Being made perfect in a little while, he fulfilled long years ; o>) For his soul was pleasing imto the Lord, Therefore hasted he out of wickedness (iv. 7-14; cf. iii. 1-9). The pursuit of wisdom brings that moral wealth fc) Moral ' that faileth not,' and an ever- widening moral growth.™ outlook (viii. 18, b, c). Faithfulness to the Ideal ensures moral growth, ' They that have kept holily 1 Cf. Ps. Iv. 23. of life. 282 ETHICS OP JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITBEATUBB the things that are holy shall themselves be hal- lowed ' (vi. 10). These are they who win ' wages of holiness,' and ' a prize for blameless souls ' (ii. 22) ; that is, immortality. (<2)immor- The Supreme reward of virtue is immortality. m eSemai^ This doctrfne is held in a form that is more Jewish as the crown than Greek. The natural immortality of the soul, process. as such, is not taught, for, as has been seen, the writer did not hold the Greek view that the soul is the real ego, but the Jewish view that the body and the divine neshamah are both essential to the personality. What is taught is that God created men for incorruption, and made them in His own image (ii. 23) ; but men of their own free-wiU made friends with moral evil, and so brought on themselves, not physical death, which Not the is the natural lot of all men, but that moral death doctrine of which is the negation of immortality (i. 16, ii. 24). mortauty. Immortality is therefore not a natural quality of the soul, but is the reward of righteousness. Physical death is, in reality, non-existent to the righteous. ' In the eyes of the foolish, they seemed to have died ' (iii. 2), but ' their life is full of im- mortaUty ' (iii. 4). The righteous win immortality through fellowship with Wisdom, of whose in- dwelling it is the fruit. ' Love of her is observance of her laws ; and to give heed to her laws confirmeth incorruption ; and incorruption bringeth near to God ' (vi. 18 f.). 'In kinship unto wisdom is immortality ' (viii. 17). ' Righteousness is im- mortal ' (i. 15). Immortality is, therefore, not the external reward of wisdom, but its natural and inevitable fulfilment. MORAL SANCTIONS 283 As for the wicked, in reality they have never Uved The wicked at all : ' We, as soon as we were born, ceased to obUvion. be ' (v. 13). They will be requited even as they reasoned ' (iii. 10), and their reasoning was thus : The breath ia our nostrils is smoke, And, while our heart beateth, reason is a spark, "Which, being extinguished, the body shall be turned into ashes. And the spirit shall be dispersed as thin air. And our name shall be forgotten in time, And no man shall remember our works ; And our life shall pass away as the traces of a cloud. And shall be scattered as is a mist When it is chased by the beams of the sun And overcome by the heat thereof (ii. 2-4). Whether the writer accepted any doctrine of u any resurrection it is difficult to say. Certainly he rffiumotion did not accept the resurrection of the actual physical ^ body (ix. 15) any more than did Paul. But it is significant that Paul, in language that is closely akin to ix. 15, develops his own doctrine of resur- rection (2 Cor. V. 1-4). Possibly by the ' tinae of visitation ' of the righteous is meant resurrection (iii. 7), but this is very uncertain. In any case, Teaching is the teaching is more Jewish than Greek, for it is Greek.' practically that of Prov. viii. 35 f. : ' For whoso findeth me flndeth life, and shall obtain favour of the Lord. But he that sinneth against me wrongeth his own soul. All they that hate me love death.' ' In Wisdom vi. 17-21, the successive steps of the process of moral and religious discipline are traced by which man reaches the goal of immortality. 284 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITEEATtTEB Taking the passage in connexion with others which speak of the indwelling of the Spirit of Wisdom in man (i. 1-5, vii. 27), we reach a con- wisdom and ccption not far from that of Paul, that it is the Pan! -t^ ' gift and indwelling of the divine Spirit that becomes in mortal man the power both of righteousness and of immortality (viii. 7, 17).' ' The book contains no reference to a Messiah, but there is language of a Messianic character which seems to indicate that the writer looked forward to a Messianic age, but we cannot deduce an ordered sequence of events such as is fore- shadowed in some of the apocalyptic books. The main thought to which he gives expression is that the righteous are to judge the nations : Paul, Messianic hope. And in the time of this visitation they shall shine forth, And as sparks among stubble they shall run to and fro ; ^ They shall judge nations, and have dominion over peoples ; And the Lord shall reign over them for evermore (iii. 7 f.). Jndgement and ttte destiny of tile wicli;ed. With beautiful imagery the writer describes the judgement to come, which is called ' the day of decision ' (iii. 18). The wicked will be filled with coward fear when their sins are reckoned up, and their lawless deeds will convict them to their face (iv. 20). They will recognize, with pain, that the time for penitence is past (v. 3 ff.) and will be overtaken by a terrible retribution, of which the creation will be made the instrument. ^ Porter, American, Journal of Theology, Jan. 1908, p. 89. See pp. 84-92. 2 The diction is borrowed from Obadiah, 16. MORAL SANCTIONS ^ 285 He [God] shall take His jealousy as complete armour, And shall make the whole creation Hisweapon for vengeance on His enemies : He shall put on righteousness as a breastplate, And shall array Himself with judgement unfeigned as with a helmet; He shall take holiness as an invincible shield. And He shall sharpen stern wrath for a sword : And the world will go forth with Him to fight against His insensate foes. Shafts of lightning shall fly with true aim, And from the clouds, as from a well-drawn bow, shall they leap to the mark. And as from an engine of war shall be hurled hailstones full of wrath ; The water of the sea shall be angered against them, And rivers shall sternly overwhelm them ; A mighty blast shall encounter them, and as a tempest shall it winnow them away (v. 17-23). ' But this destruction of the wicked does not Not total involve total annihilation, for they will endure *™"^'''"'°' pain (iv. 19) ' and will witness the blessedness of the good (v. 1 f .). Judgement will be without respect of person, and Principles of T . J •, indgement according to opportunity. For the man of low estate may be pardoned in mercy. But mighty men shall be searched out mightily. For the sovereign Lord of all will not refrain Himself from any man's person, Neither will He reverence greatness ; Because it is He which made both small and great, > Cf. Wisd. V. 17-20 with 1 Thess. v. 8 and Eph. vi. 13-17. * The reference is probably to Gehenna. 286 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITEEATTJEE And alike He taketh. thouglit for all ; But strict is the scrutiny that cometh upon the powerful. Unto you, therefore, princes, are my words (vi. 6-9).^ vindioation But the iudgement will be a time of vindication oi the J a righteous. for the righteous, for ' then shall the righteous man stand, in great boldness, before the face of them that afflicted him ' (v. 1). The righteous live for ever. And in the Lord is their reward, And the care of them with the Most High ; Therefore shall they receive the crown of royal dignity And the diadem of beauty from the Lord's hand ; Because with His right hand shall He cover them, And with His arm shall He shield them (v. 15 f.). WISDOM (Part II, ix. 18-end) ^rra^^an™ '^^^ consequenccs of evil are mainly external ?^bTuon ^^^ present. The work is a record of historical illustrations of the theory that unrighteousness is punished, and righteousness rewarded, by adversity or prosperity in the present life. There are indica- tions that the writer believed that the punishment inflicted was exactly fitted to the evil done : But in requital of the senseless imaginings of their unrighteousness. Wherein they were led astray to worship irrational reptiles and wretched vermin, 1 The same thought is expressed by Plato in the Gorgias mjrth of the Soars of the Soul — e.g. ' And when they come to the judge ... he places them near him and inspects them quite impartially, not knowing whose the soul is ; perhaps he may lay hands on the soul of the great king, or some other king or potentate,' &c. (Oorgias, 624). MORAL SANCTIONS 287 Thou didst send upon ttem a multitude of irrational creatures for vengeance ; That they might learn that, by what things a man sinneth, by these he is punished (xi. 15 f. ; cf. xvi. 1). Punishment, though, ultimately retributive,' is Pan^ent primarily remedial in its purpose. God loves all J^^^^'^g men, and has mercy on all, and overlooks their ^ntUMtat sins ' to the end that they may repent ' (xi. 23). ^^^^^^ He convicts 'by little and little them that fall ^'*^'- from the right way . . . that, escaping from their wickedness, they may believe on ' Him (xii. 2). ' By judging them by little and little, Thou gavest them a place of repentance ' (xii. 10 ; cf. xii. 18). But a distinction is drawn between the treatment of Israel and of the Gentiles : For these [Jews] as a father admonishing Thou didst prove; But those [Gentiles] as a stern king condemning them. Thou didst search out (xi. 10). ' For if on them that were enemies of Thy servants and due to death, Thou didst take vengeance with so great heedf ulness and indulgence . . . with how great carefulness didst Thou judge Thy sons ' (xii. 20). But although external consequences are chiefly intemai emphasized, such aS are internal are not overlooked. Ch. xiv. contains a vivid and powerful description of the moral consequences of idolatry. Cain is (a) Moral said to have ' perished himself in the rase wherewith quenoes oi sin. 1 There seems to be a trace of the Greek doctrine of Nemesis in the use of dvdyK in xix. 4. (See Fairweather, The Background of the Gospels, p. 340.) 288 ETHICS OP JEWISH APOCEYPHAL LITERATURE lie slew his brother ' (x. 3), which can only refer to the moral consequences of his act. It is a thing alien from God's power ' to condemn one that doth not himself deserve to be punished ' (xii. 15) — a statement that at least adumbrates the view that moral laws are self-acting. Again, the wicked become possessed of a fear which is ' a surrender of the succours which reason offereth ' (xvii. 12). mimmor- As to the hereafter, the teaching is Jewish rather laUtythe /-i , t i .1 Mfliment of than Greek. Immortality is not an inherent rlghteoua- ^ nesa. quality of the soul, but is the reward, or rather the fulfilment and completion, of righteousness, ' To know Thy dominion is the root of immortaUty ' (xv. 3).' There is no hint of resurrection. Hades is a place where all sleep the same sleep (xvii. 14). Of the idolater it is said, in words which recall Si?^oked. Eccles. xii. 7 : 'He who, having but a little before been made of earth, after a short space goeth his way to the earth out of which he was taken, when he is required to render back his soul which was lent him ' (xv. 8). The R.V. reading of xvi. lie is, 'Neither giveth release to the soul that Hades has received.' Porter thinks that God, not Hades, is the correct reading, and, if that be so, it is not taught by this writer that the soul goes to Hades at death.' The teaching which it is intended to convey is, probably, that the reward of righteousness is im- mortality, but that the wicked abide eternally in 1 Of. John xvii. 3. ^ Sheol is spoken of as the abode of the wicked in Ps. xlix. 14, 15, but it is also there described as an iatermediate place for the righteous. MOEAL SANCTIONS 289 Hades, possessed of a quasi-existence described as sleep. Summary In this century retribution is viewed almost entirely from the standpoint of the individual. The quarrels of the sects broke up the sense of national solidarity, and the Pharisees came to regard the Sadducees as being in a sense outside the true Israel. It is true that The Psalms of Solomon trace the adversity of the whole nation to the sins of the Sadducees, but when they turn to future retribution they conceive of it as being on an individualistic basis. Only in The Booh of Judith is the emphasis stiU placed on the solidarity of the nation, and in 2 Mace, side by side with the belief in individual retribution. The conflict of the sects served to force the doctrine of future retribution into prominence during the period, inasmuch as this was one of the bones of contention between the two parties. The Enoch sections and The Psalms of Solomon affirm, almost with passion, against the Sadducees, that retribution is not only present, but wiU overtake the workers of iniquity in a judgement that is yet to come. In regard to present retribution, both 2 Mace. and Part II of Wisdom hold the view that un- righteousness is punished and righteousness rewarded by adversity or prosperity in the present life, but this theory is repudiated in Eth. En. xoi.-eiv. The remedial character of the present punishment of 19 290 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCEYPHAL LITEEATT7RB transgression in the case of Israel is taught in Pss. Sol., Judith, and 2 Macc.,'^ and even in the case of the Gentiles in Wisd., Part II. As to future retribution, it is generally conceived of purely externally, and not as the natural result of the operation of moral processes in the soul. Resurrection and eternal life are the externally given rewards of virtue, and eternal punishment the externally imposed penalty of transgression. It is only in the two parts of The Book of Wisdom, especi- ally in Part I, that the conception is reached of immortality as the crown and culmination of moral development, and moral death as the natural outcome of the process of moral degeneration. At the same time we can discern a groping move- ment towards a comprehension of the fact that moral laws are self-acting. As in The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, at the end of the second century, it was taught, ' By what things a man transgresseth, by the same also is he punished,' so 2 Mace, and Wisd. (Pt. II) teach that the present punishment of sin is exactly adapted to the nature of the offence. As yet, doubtless, the principle was interpreted and appHed literally and mechanically, but it bore within it the germs of the Pauline prin- ciple, ' Whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he also reap.' The Messianic hope is only dimly discernible, if present at all, in "the Alexandrian literature of the period, but it plays an important part in Palestinian thought, as represented in the Enoch sections [Sim. En. and xci.-civ.) and in The Psalms of I This theory was as ol(i as Uosea ; cf. also Bcfruch u. 21 fj. MORAL SANCTIONS 291 Solomon. All three teaoh that the Messianic kingdom is to be universal, but while the Similitudes hold that it is to be everlasting, En. xci.-oiv. and Pss. Sol. fix a limit to its duration. Again, the two last place the resurrection of the righteous at the end of the Messianic age, but the first places at the beginning. The interest, however, centres in the person of the Messiah rather than in the kingdom He is to found. The politicization of the hopes of Judaism has proceeded apace, and the advance has been made from the theocratic to the Messianic con- ception of the ideal state. The hope of the nation, or at any rate its Pharisaic portion, now centres in the Messiah, who is to be the agent of retribution. The most remarkable and revolutionary conception is that of the Similitudes, which foreshadows the coming of a Warrior-Messiah, pre-existent with God, and endowed with supernatural gifts. Very different is the conception of ps. -Solomon, who anticipates the coming of a human Messiah, who shall establish his kingdom by moral, not by physical force. The vision of the Similitudes was the one that left the deepest marks on Jewish thought, but that of the Pss. Sol. was the more truly moral and spiritual, and, had it been uppermost in the hope of the nation, would have taught it a more inward view of retribution, and would have saved it from the extreme politicization which ultimately led to its overthrow. The reward of virtue is eternal life. As to the resurrection there is divergence of teaching. The Book of Wisdom, as we have seen, probably does 292 ETHICS OP JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITEEATURB not teach it, certainly not in a physical form. The Similitudes and 2 Mace, look for the resurrection of aU Israel, but En. xci.-civ. and Pss. Sol. only for that of the righteous Israelites. The Alexandrian 2 Mace, understands it to be physical, but in the Similitudes it is conceived under a more spiritualized form. The wicked are consigned to eternal torment and to irretrievable moral ruin, but there is no evidence that the doctrine of total annihilation was taught. III. THE FIEST CENTURY A.D. A. Alexandrian ni. MACCABEES Eetribution The moral sanctions appealed to by this writer Md ^"^^ are all present and external. He has nothing to national' and Say of the hereafter, save that the soul at death Indivldnal. goes to Hades (iv. 8, v. 42), the nature of which is not defined. It is assumed that moral evil is always punished (vi. 10), and the belief is illustrated by the cases of Ptolemy (ii. 21), the apostate Jews (vii. 10 f .), and the Jewish nation itself. Appeal is made to the national history to show that, both nationally and individually, blessings accompany righteousness and adversities follow unrighteousness (ii. 4 ff., vi. 4fE.). IV. MACCABEES immortauty Although the work is based on 2 Mace., which and eternal ,,«,., . p^-ri ufeforthe looks lor a physical resurrection of the Israelites, MORAL SANCTIONS 293 there is no hint here of a resurrection of the body. Those who are loyal to the law are filled with ' the hope of salvation ' (xi. 7), and the ' rewards of virtue ' (ix. 8) are immortality and eternal life (xvii. 12, ix. 22, xiv. 5, xvi. 13 ; of. xviii. 3). This life wiU be one of purity (v. 37, xviii. 23) and blessed- ness (xvii. 18), lived in the divine presence (xvii, 5, 18), and in a spiritual community of which the patriarchs ' (v. 37, vii. 19, xvi. 25, xviii. 23) and all the saints (xvii. 19) are members. As to the wicked, their punishment is both present Destiny of and future. While yet alive they are punished ^™ (xii. 19), and are ' tortured with threatenings for impiety ' (ix. 32). In the hereafter they are punished with eternal fire and torment (ix. 9, 32, X, 15, xii. 12, 15, xviii. 5, 22). SLAVONIC ENOCH This writer is chiefly concerned with the conse- Moral oonae- qnences ot quences of moral evil in the hereafter, but he does sin. not overlook its disastrous effects on the soul in the present life. ' If he does an injury to the soul - of man he does an injury to his own soul. . . . He who kiUs the soul of a man, kiUs his own soul. . . . If a man acts crookedly, or speaks evil against any soul, he shall have no righteousness for himself for ever ' (Ix. 1 ff., Ixiii. 3). When the world has run its course for 6,000 iuuennium. years a period of 1,000 years of rest is to set in, 1 Charles (Esehatology, p. 268) deduces from this that the phrase ' Abraham's bosom ' was a current one ; ' but whereas in the Gospels it is an intermediate abode, here it is heaven itself.' 294 ETHICS OP JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITEEATTTRE Jadgement : tadiTidaal retcibution. The inter- mediate state. Final Judgement, Destiny of ttie wicked. but there is no hint of a Messiah (xxxiii. 2). Then time will pass into eternity (xxxiii. 1 f,), and the great judgement will take place. Every act of man will have to be accounted for ; the angels who are over the souls of men ' write down all their works and their lives before the face of the Lord ' (xix. 5). The conception of divine forgiveness is foreign to the tone of this book. There is no repentance after death (Ixii. 2 ; cf . Ix. 1 f .). There is more than one intermediate place of abode. The rebellious angels await judgement in a region of the second heaven (vii. 2) ; the lustful Watchers are confined under the earth (xviii. 7) ; Satan's sphere is the air (xxix. 4f.). Men, both good and bad, go to Hades, a place of lamentation, to await ' the immeasurable judgement ' (xl. 12). Adam and Eve, and Enoch's forefathers, are in this place of punishment until the Day of Judgement (xli. 1), for those who ' have only sinned a little in this life, always suffer in the eternal life ' (xlii. 2), At the great judgement (vii. 1, xviii. 6, xxxix. 1, xliv. 5, xlvi. 3, xlviii. 8 f., 1. 4, Ixv. 6 f,, Ixvi. 7), also called the second coming of God (xxxii. 1), the physical universe will be dissolved, and time will come to an end (Ixv. 6 f.). The wicked wiU be sent to the place of torture and impenetrable gloom, where a fire is always burning ' (x. 1 ff., probably the same as the ' mighty hell ' described in xl. 12), to the evil mansions prepared for evil men, in which ' there is no rest, nor any means of return from them^ (Ixi, 2 f.). ^ This is evidently Gehenna, now the abode of all the wicked. MORAL SANCTIONS 295 The righteous will enter into eternal life (ix.. The xlii. 5, 1. 2). The doctrine of physical resurrection inherit fitomal lif 6 is not held, neither is that of the immortality of clothed wik *^ a spiiitaal the soul, in the Platonic form. The souls of the ^"^J- righteous are clothed with a spiritual body, the ' raiment of God's glory ' (xxii. 7-9).' Enoch himself passes into the highest heaven (Iv. 2), but his case is exceptional, and the abode of the righteous is in paradise in the third heaven (ix. 1). The descriptions given of the heavenly state have much in common with N.T. passages. ' For in the world to come, I know all things, how that there are many mansions ' prepared for men, good for the good ; evil for the evil ; many and without number. Blessed are those who shall go to the mansions of the blessed ' (Ixi. 2 f.). ' There shall be one eternity, and all the just who shall escape the great judgement shall be gathered together in eternal life, and for ever and ever the just shall be gathered together and they shall be eternal. Moreover, there shall be no labour,' nor sickness, nor sorrow, nor anxiety, nor need,* nor darkness, but a great light." And there shall be to them a great wall, that cannot be broken down ; and bright and incorruptible paradise shall be their protection, and their eternal habitation. For all corruptible things shall vanish, and there shall be eternal life ' (Ixv. 8-10). 1 Cf. 2 Cor. V. 1-4. « Rev. vii. 16. 2 Cf. John xiv. 2. ^ Rev. xxii. 5. » Rev. xiv. 13. 296 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITEEATUEE B. Palestinian THE ASSUMPTION OF MOSES Eetribution The nation's adversities are on account of its the national sins, morc particularly those of the ten tribes (iii.)' Those Israelites who set at nought the command- ments will be unblest, and will be afflicted by the Gentiles ; those who fulfil the commandments will increase and be prospered (xii. 10 f .), The Gentile kings become the instruments of divine vengeance (v. 1, viii. 1). There is a hint in v. 1 that the punishment of sin is often exactly adapted to the nature of the offence, the Israelites being repre- sented as suffering at the hands of the very people whose manners and customs they had aped to the subversion of their own religion.' woria-wiae The writer looks for the final vindication of Israel Mngdom, in a theocratic kingdom which will ultimately be established by God alone, without the aid of a Messiah (x. 7). The establishment of this kingdom wiU be preceded by a ' day of repentance in the visitation wherewith the Lord shall visit them in the end of the days ' (i. 18).' Then wiU be estab- lished a world-wide kingdom of God. 1 Cf. 2 Mace. iv. 16, 38, v. 9, xiii. 8 ; Wisd. xi. 15 f., xvi. 1. 2 ' It was a commonplace in the mouth of Raba that, The perfection of wisdom is repentance ' (Btrakoth, 17 a, quoted in Taylor, op. cit. p. 70 n.). ' If all Israel together repented for a single day, redemption through the Messiah would follow ' (Pesikta, 163 6, quoted by Charles in loo.). bat no MORAL SANCTIONS 297 And then His kingdom will appear throughout all His creation, And then Satan wiU be no more, And sorrow wiU depart with him. Then the hands of the angel wiU be filled, And he wiU be appointed chief. And he will forthwith avenge them of their enemies (x, 1, 2), Then will follow certain natural portents (x. 3-6). For the Most High will arise, the Eternal God alone, And He will appear to punish the Gentiles, And He will destroy all their idols ; Then thou, Israel, wilt be happy. And thou wilt mount upon the necks and wings of the eagle,* And (the days of thy mourning) will be ended. And God wiU exalt thee, And He will cause thee to approach to the heaven of stars. And He will establish thy habitation among them. And thou wilt look from on high, and wilt see thy enemies in Gehenna ; And thou wilt recognize them and rejoice, And thou wilt give thanks and confess thy Creator (x. 7-10). Charles thinks that verses 1, 2, and 3-10 are from different hands, since (a) verse 1 refers to a new heaven and new earth, while 10 a points to the hereafter. (6) In verse 2, Michael is the avenger of Israel, but in 3-10 it is God. But too great self- consistency and exactitude of chronological sequence must not be looked for in a passage full of poetic imagery, where ideas are apt to leap in advance of their chronological order. The sequence of events, oouim ot as conceived by the writer, would seem to be : the repentance of the people (i. 18) ; the manifesta- > i.e. Borne. 298 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITEEATTJRB tion of the divine wrath in unusual portents (x. 3-6) ; divine activity, both direct and through angelic agency, in the punishment of the Gentiles and the overthrow of idolatry (x. 2, 7) ; the subjugation of Rome by Israel (x. 8) ; the new heaven and new earth (x. 1) ; the final judgement, with the exaltation of Israel to a glorified life, and the casting down of its enemies to Gehenna (x. 9 f.). There is nothing in the book to show whether this writer accepted the Jewish doctrine of resurrection, or the Alexan- drian of blessed immortality. THE MARTYRDOM OF ISAIAH This book gives little, if any, light. We have the popular view that evil is punished in the present life in ii. 14, but the theme of his work must have shown the writer that there were many exceptions. Nothing is said of a future life, but it is difficult to think there is not a hint of a belief in the inde- structibility of the human spirit in the words, ' Thou canst not take [from me] aught save the skin of my body ' » (v. 10). BARUCH (iii, 9 — iv. 4) Wisdom brings length of days and life ; it reveals where is ' the light of the eyes and peace ' (iii. 14). Such as hold it fast are appointed to life, but such as leave it, or who for any reason have not attained to it, perish and die (iv. 2, iii. 28). It is impossible to draw any definite conclusions from such scanty references. » Cf. Matt. X. 28 : ' And be not afraid of them which kill the body, but are not able to kiU the soul.' MORAL SANCTIONS 299 BARTJCH (iv. 5 — V. 9) Israel's afflictions have come upon it because of laraei's its transgressions, but its sufferings are ' not for ^^^i^* destruction ' (iv. 6-13). Its redemption is nigh, when its enemies will be destroyed (iv. 25-33). Those of the Dispersion shall return (iv. 36 f.) to Jerusalem, which shall be restored (iv. 19-35) with great glory. It will be clothed with the robe of the righteousness which comes from God, and crowned with the diadem of the glory of the Everlasting. Its name will be ' the peace of righteousness,' and ' the The glory of godliness ' (v. 2-4). ' Arise, Jerusalem, ungdom. and stand upon the height, and look about thee toward the east, and behold thy children gathered from the going down of the sun unto the rising thereof at the word of the Holy One, rejoicing that God hath remembered them ' ' (v. 5). It will be seen that the writer's concern is with the nation, not the individual. THE SIBYLLINE OEACLES (iv.) Following on the destruction of the world by fire ^jenerai as a result of sin (iv. 171-8), the Sibyl sees a coming '^""' °^ resurrection, followed by the dawn of the Messianic kingdom. But when now all things shall have been reduced To dust and ashes, and God shall have calmed The fire unspeakable which He lit up. The bones and ashes of men God Himself 1 Cf. Bar. iv. 36 — v. 9, with Pss. Sol. xi. 300 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITEEATUEE Jadgement by God. Uesslanio kingdom. Hope of a personal tends to recede after A.D. 70. Again will fashion, and He will again Eaise up mortals as they were before (iv. 179-82). This resurrection will be universal. Then wiU foUow the judgement, when God Himself shaU act as Judge : And then will be the judgement, at which God Himself as Judge shall judge the world again ; And all who sinned with impious heart, even them Shall He again hide under mounds of earth. Dark Tartarus and Stygian Gehenna. But all who shall be pious shall again Live on the earth, and shall inherit there The great immortal God's unwasting bliss, God giving spirit, life, and joy to them. The pious ; and they all shall see themselves Beholding the sun's sweet and cheering light. happy on the earth shall be that man ! ^ (iv. 183-92). Thus the Messianic kingdom is to be everlasting, and its scene is to be a renovated earth. It will be noted that, as in the sections B * of The Apoc. of Baruch,^ there is here no reference to a personal Messiah. With the destruction of the national hope in the overthrow of Jerusalem, there was a growing tendency to fall back upon the law, and to recede from the politico-legalism of an earlier day, which looked to a temporal Messiah for deliver- ance, though that hope stiU appears in 4 Ezra. 1 Zenos {Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels), as against Charles and others, is of opinion that bk. iv. is more probably Christian than Jewish. Terry, while accepting the Jewish authorship, is of opinion that the picture of resurrection and judgement * embodies the substance of familiar Christian doctrine.' The passage is, however, accepted as Jewish by an eminent modem Jew — Israel Abrahams {Short History of Jewish Lit., pp. 16, 17). » See above Ch. I. p. 16. MORAI, SANCTIONS 301 THE APOCALYPSE OF BARUCH This book teaches the ordinary view that Israel's adversities are the consequence of its sins, and are designed for its chastening. But the main moral sanctions to which appeal is made are derived from sanctions the hope of the Messianic kingdom, or the future life, mainiy or both. ' For if there were this life only, which here Mcasianio _ . hope and belongs to aU men, nothing could be more bitter t^e lutme than this ' (xxi. 13).' Such is ps.-Baruch's vision of the future life that, as he contemplates the destiny of the unrighteous, he says : ' For what, then, have men lost their life, and for what have those who were on earth exchanged their soul? * (li. 15). In some strata ' of the book hope is centred in the Messianic kingdom, and, in those written before A.D. 70, in the Messiah. The true Jerusalem ' is not this building which is now built in your midst ; it is that which wiU be revealed with Me ' (iv. 3). ' When the time of the age has ripened, and the seoHons harvest of its evil and good seeds has come,' then before ' sore tribulations and unnatural portents wiU befall the earth, and evil wiU wax more and more. These calamities will affect the whole world, and none shall be protected save those who dwell in the Holy Land (xxvii.-xxix. 2 ; Ixx., Ixxi.). Then the Messiah ' wiU appear (xxix. 3), and wUl overthrow Messiah. Rome (xxxix. 7 — xl.). He will summon aU nations woria- jndgement ^ Cf. 1 Cor. XV. 19. Messiah. 2 Cf. Matt. xvi. 26. ^ See Charles's analysis in ch. i. of this book. * Chs. iv., vi., xliv. (written after a.d. 70) contain references to a Messianic kingdom, but not to a personal Messiah. 302 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE Messianie age. Betnni of Messiah to heaTen, and the judgement. DcsHny of the ^cked and o£ the righteous. before him. Those that have not known Israel or oppressed it shall be spared, but those that have ruled over it or known it shall be given up to the sword (Ixxii.). The principate of the Messiah will then be established until the world of corruption is at an end (xl. 3), The Golden Age wiU set in ; ' joy wiU then be revealed, and rest appear. And then healing wiU descend in dew, and disease wiU withdraw, and anxiety and anguish and lamentation wiU pass from amongst men, and gladness will proceed through the whole earth. And no one shall again die un- timely, nor shall any adversity suddenly befall. And judgements and revilings and contentions and revenge and blood and passions and envy and hatred, and whatsoever things are like those, shall go into condemnation when they are removed. For it is these very things which have filled the world with evils, and on account of these the life of man has been greatly troubled. . . . And it will come to pass in those days that the reapers wiU not grow weary, nor those that build be toil-worn ; for the works will of themselves speedily advance with those who do them in much tranquillity ' (Ixxiii., Ixxiv. ; of. xxix. 5-8 ; xliv. 7). At the end of this reign of righteousness the Mes- siah wiU return to heaven ; ' then all who have fallen asleep in hope of him shall rise again ' (xxx. 1). The judgement which follows is not described in these sections, but is hinted at. The unrighteous will be sent to torment in Gehenna (liv. 14, Iv. 7, lix. 2, 10), and the righteous wiU receive the promise of their reward (lix. 2), and enjoy the glories to come (liv. 15). MORAL SANCTIONS 303 In other sections of the book, written after a.d. 70, seoaona the writers look for a speedy end pf the world, and Td'to.""*' the final judgement. As to a kingdom of righteous- ness on this earth, they have no hope at all. Soon there is to come a time of tribulation in which retri- speedy end butive af33ictions will fall upon the nations (xiii. ; of. woni. XXV., xlviii. 31-7,) yet not whoUy retributive, for they will have in them a remedial power (xiv. 1). This time cannot be long delayed : ' The pitcher is near to the cistern, and the ship to the port, and the course of the journey to the city, and life to consummation ' (Ixxxv. 10). Then will follow the judgement, and the trans- KesnnecHon formation of the corruptible into the incorruptible "dgcment. (xxxii. 6 ; cf. xliv. 8-14). The dead wiU be raised, ' the dust will be called, and there will be said to it : Give back that which is not thine, and raise up all that thou hast kept until this time ' (xlii. 8 ; cf . 1.).' The souls of the righteous will come forth from their abodes in the intermediate state, and the unrighteous will also appear (xxx.). God's judgement wiU then exact its own, and His law its rights (xlviii. 27) ; the books will be opened containing the record of the sins of the unrighteous, and the treasuries in which are stored up the good works of the righteous * The nature of the resurrection body is dealt with in xlix. 2-li. It will be in the same form as when committed to the earth, but will afterwards be transformed to fit it for a spiritual exist- ence. The same doctrine of transformation is found in Dan. xii. 2 f. and in Eth. Enoch ; cf. the whole passage with 1 Cor. XV. 35-50, which, as Charles points out, in the light of these passages, is ' a developed and more spiritual exposition of ideas already current in Judaism,' 304 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATTJEE (xxiv. 1) ; and God will examine men's most secret thoughts, and make them ' manifest in the presence PeaHny of of all with reproof ' (Ixxxiii. 3). To the righteous and of the will be given ' the worid to come, but the dwelling of the rest, who are many, will be in the fire ' (xliv. 15; cf. XV. 7f.). Eadduoaio There is one fragment which, in the opinion of *^™ ■ Charles, is Sadducaic. It is x. 6 — xii. 4. The writer has no hope for the present life. Life is not worth living (x. 6). The dead rest in the sleep of tran- quillity (xi. 4), and have no knowledge of what is going on on earth (xi. 5). There is no hope of a resurrection, or of a blessed immortality, but only of final vengeance on Israel's enemies (xii.). The dead apparently dwell for ever in Sheol, which here can mean no more than the abode of shades (xi. 6 f .).' IV. EZRA (2 Esdras) Moral con- TMs Writer is impressed with the moral conse- B6C[uqi1C68 of «in. quences which foUow on the sins of the individual. To despise the law is to court moral destruction (vii. 20). The sinner must face not only physical but moral death, ' for an evil heart hath grown up in us which . . . hath brought us into corruption and into the ways of death, hath showed us the paths of perdition and removed us far from life ' (vii. 48 ; cf. vii. 119). 1 Elsewhere in the Ap. Bar. Sheol signifies the intermediate state of all the dead prior to the judgement. It has not, however, the same significance for the good and had. The good dwell in the treasiiries of the righteous (xxx. 2), but the wicked ' recUne in anguish and rest in torment ' (xxxvi. 10). MOEAL SANCTIONS 305 Atfirst ps.-Ezra seems to hold to theold philosophy Eevoit of history which saw in the adversities of Israel a ^fl^ent" punishment for its sins (iii. 27), but he finds it im- SfhSyf possible to reconcile this view with the real facts of life (viii. 28-36, et passim). Indeed the whole purpose of the book seems to be to question this view. Ultimately, despite the strong elements of determin- ism in his thought, and his belief in the total de- pravity of the race, he sounds a clear note of indivi- individnai dualism. ' The day of judgement is a day of decision, and displayeth unto all the seal of truth ; ... so never shall any one pray for another in that day, neither shall one lay a burden on another, for then shall all bear every one his own righteousness or un- righteousness ' (vii. 104 f.). The main sanctions of morality are derived by sanctions •' '' drawn from this writer from the hope of future judgement the future: and the future life. The following is a brief summary of his expectation of the course of events. Immediately after death the spirit leaves the intemMii-^ body. The spirits of the wicked shall wander and thewiokea. be in torment forthwith : (a) They will be consumed with remorse ; (b) they will recognize that the past is irrevocable ; (c) they will see the reward of the righteous ; (d) they will catch a glimpse of the torment reserved for them after the last judgement ; (e) ' they shall see the dweUing-places of the others guarded by angels with great quietness ';(/)' they shall see how forthwith some of them shall pass into torment ' ; (g) in the light of the vision of God they will be consumed with agonizing remorse, confusion, and shame (vii. 78-87). 20 306 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATTJRB intsrmedi- The Spirits of the righteous, on the other hand, rfthe*** shall be filled with joy (a) because they have striven to overcome the cogitamentum malum ; (b) because they see the perplexity and punishment of the ungodly; (c) because they see the divine witness to their righteousness ; (d) because they understand the rest and quiet of their intermediate state, and the glory that awaits them in the final judge- ment ; (e) because they realize the painful corruption from which they have been delivered, and cherish the hope of immortality ; (/) because of the incor- ruptible radiance and glory that await them ; (g) ' be- cause they shall rejoice with confidence, and be bold without confusion, and shall be glad without fear, for they hasten to behold the face of Him whom in their life-time they served, and from whom they shall receive their reward in glory ' (vii. 88-98). These experiences last for seven days, at the end of which the spirits are shut up in the ' chambers of the soul ' (vii. 101 ; cf. iv. 41), there to await the development of events leading up to the final judgement of God. But the chambers of the soul of the righteous are unlike those of the unrighteous, for the former shall dwell in quietness, guarded by angels (vii. 85, 95), and their dweUing-places shall be ' habitations of health and safety ' (vii. 121). God, who created the world, will in due time Himself end the present order (vi. 1-6),' but mean- while evil must be allowed to run its course (iv. 26- ''■ It has been contended that this passage is a polemic against Christianity, but while the supposition is possible, it is by no means necessary. MORAL SANCTIONS 307 32). The coming of the last things will be heralded by certain signs, of which the chief will be unusual natural phenomena, unrest of nations, and the waxing of evil more and more (v. 1-13 ; vi. 17-24 ; ix. 1-4). Then a Messiah of the seed of David is The to appear, and overthrow the power of Rome, and re-establish the supremacy of Israel (vii. 28 ; xi. 36 ff.; xii. 32; xiii. ; cf. vi. 7-10). He, with the righteous dead, is to reign upon the earth for Besmreotion four hundred years (vii. 28), and men's hearts nghteons.] wiU be changed, and ' evil shall be blotted out, Messiamo and deceit shall be quenched ; and faith shall ''™" flourish, and corruption shall be overcome, and the truth which hath been so long without fruit shall be declared ' (vi. 26-8). After this the Messiah and aU the citizens of the Messianic kingdom Death of the are to die (vii. 29), and there will be ^ silence for oiauthe living. seven days (vii. 30), to be followed by a renovation of the earth (vii. 31). Then there will be a resur- rection of the dead, and the spirits shall come forth from the ' chambers of the soul,' and aU shall be General , ,.1 .,».-, ,.T resurrection judged (vii. 32 f.), the period of judgement extendmg ?°'i^^^j over seven years (vii. 43). Then ' the reward shall be showed, and good deeds shall awake, and wicked deeds shall not sleep.' For the good there is a place g^^^4°| of delight and rest, but for the wicked the pit of ^^^^^ torment ; for the good the paradise of delight, but for the wicked the furnace of Gehenna (vii. 35-8). But this teaching as to retribution is modified judgement ._ , 1,1.. 1 with mercy, by ps.-Ezra s appeal to the forgiveness and mercy and •^ ■*■ ■*■■*■ , according to of God. He sees that if the law of retribution is faith as weu * v. j-i. ^^ works. to operate remorselessly in accordance with the 308 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITBUATCrRB standard of the law, very few will be saved. He therefore turns from the cast-iron Pharisaic view of retribution, and declares that judgement will be with mercy, according to faith, no less than works (viii. 32-6, ix. 7, xiii. 23). The Messiah. Messianic age and the jadgement. Destiny ol the wicked and of the righteous. THE APOCALYPSE OF ABRAHAM When history has run its course, the Gentiles will suffer certain woes (xxviii., xxix.), and then, with the sound of a trumpet, the Messianic age will set in. The description of the Messiah shows the influence of a Christian hand. Many of the Gentiles wiU hope in him ; ^ of the Jews some wiU revile and beat him, many wiU be offended in him,* but some (including Azazel) will worship him (xxix). The description of the Messianic age and the judgment is Jewish. The tribes of the Dis- persion will be gathered together, and ' they wiU dwell securely through sacrifices and gifts of right- eousness and truth in the age of the righteous, and they shall always be glad in Me, and they shall be destroyed who destroyed them, and they shall be put to shame who put them to shame ' (xxix.). Israel's enemies will be destroyed with fire. Those who have scorned God will be consumed with fire and eaten with worms in the under-world of Hades, and those who have chosen God's will and kept His commandments will look on and rejoice in their destruction (xxxi.). There is no reference either to a resurrection or to a blessed immortality. » Cf. Matt. xii. 21. « Cf. Matt. xi. 6. MORAL SANCTIONS 309 Summary In the literature of this century the main sanctions of morality continue to be derived from the belief in the retribution which overtakes the individual in the hereafter. In one or two instances, however, there is no individualism, emphasis being placed upon the solidarity of the nation. The standpoint of Baruch iv. 5 — v. 9 is national, not individual. The Assumption of Moses teaches that individual retribution operates in regard to the present, but that in the future judgement the nation will be dealt with as a solidarity. But in the majority of these writings, as we have seen, retribution is conceived of as following the individual into the future Ufe. The most notable development is the revolt of ps.-Ezra against mechanical views of retribution. If men are to be judged simply by the standard of conformity to the law, then it can happen that only few will be saved. From this despairing view he appeals to the mercy of God, and, though he is imable to explain or understand how, he expresses his faith that the operation of retributory forces will be tempered by, and in some way give expression to, the divine love. The only writers who show any real appreciation of the inward processes of retribution by the action of moral laws are those of 81. Enoch and 4 Ezra. This is another illustration of the dechne of Judaism in this century. As in the two previous centuries, we have found no expression of the hope of a personal Messiah in the Alexandrian literature of this period. It is significant that it should be lacking in all the 310 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL LITERATTJEB writings emanating from Alexandria,' and is ex- plained by the fact that, removed from the centre of political aspiration and life, and influenced by the more spirituaUzed Judaism represented in The Book of Wisdom, the faith and ideals of the Alex- andrian Jews did not suffer secularization to the same extent as those of their Palestinian brethren. But if the conception of a personal Messiah is absent, that of the Messianic kingdom is not, and in Slavonic Enoch it is represented as being realized in a coming Millennium. In Palestinian circles we can trace diversity and modification of the Messianic belief. The As- sum'ption of Moses is a protest against the hope of a personal Messiah, and a plea for reversion to the older theocratic idea. The Apocalypse of Baruch, in the sections written before a.d. 70, fore- shadows the coming of the Messiah ; but of the sections composed after the destruction of Jerusalem some cherish the hope of a Messianic kingdom without a Messiah, others look for a speedy con- summation and judgement, and one fragment bears witness to the survival of the Sadducaic view of the present and the future. The figure of the Messiah is absent from Bar. iv. 5 — v. 9, Sib. Or. (iv.), and Apoc. Abraham (all written after a.d. 70) although the vision of a Messianic kingdom is present. Evidently the destruction of Jerusalem 1 An exception must be made in the case of Philo, who, although he does not delineate the figure of a personal Messiah, speaks of the coming of the Messianic age being heralded by a man going forth to war and subduing great nations {De Praemiia d de Poenis, 16, quoted by Fairweather, Hastings's D.B., Ex. vol., 301 a). MOKAL SANCTIONS 311 dealt a severe blow to the political hopes of Judaism, but that they were not entirely destroyed is clear from 4 Ezra, where the person of the Messiah is brought into the foreground of the picture of the future. As to the character of the Messianic kingdom, and its relation to judgement, there is diversity of teaching. All (except perhaps Baruch iv. 5 — v. 9) admit the Gentiles, or some of them, to a share in its blessings. Slavonic Enoch expects it to last only a thousand years. Then time will pass into eternity, and the final judgement will take place, the resurrection of the righteous occurring at the end, not at the beginning, of the Messianic era. The Assumption of Moses predicts a judgement of the nations at the beginning of the Messianic age, but the final judgement takes place at the end. The sections of The Apoc. of Baruch written before A.D. 70 teach that the Messiah wiU execute a world- judgement and then establish his kingdom, at the end of which he wiU return to heaven, and there will be a resurrection of the righteous, followed by the final judgement. The sections of this apocalypse written after 70 a.d., which predict a Messianic king- dom Tvithout a Messiah, expect that kingdom to be of indefinite duration. Sib. Oracles (iv.) looks for an everlasting kingdom preceded by a universal resur- rection and judgement. These are the only references in this century to the expectation that the Messianic kingdom will be everlasting. This conception naturally died out with the development of more spiritual views of resurrection and the future life. In 4 Ezra the resurrection of the righteous is placed 312 ETHICS OF JEWISH APOCKYPHAL LITEBATTJEB at the beginning of the Messianic age, which will last for four hundred years ; then the Messiah and the citizens of the Messianic kingdom will die, and this will be followed by a general resurrection and the last judgement. The reward of righteousness is eternal life, the penalty of unrighteousness eternal fire and torment. Some of the writers do not make it clear whether they held the doctrine of blessed immortality or that of resurrection to eternal life. The writer of 4 Mace., for instance, simply speaks of immor- tahty and eternal life, and that of the Assumption in general terms of a glorified life. Even as to the nature of resurrection there was diversity of opinion. Sib. Or. (iv.) holds to the doctrine of a physical resurrection, while a more spiritual view is taught in 81. Enoch and Apoc. Baruch. INDEX OF SUBJECTS AND NAMES Ablutions, Ceremonial, 53, 62, 85 Ahraham,, Apocalypse of, 18, 138, 211, 241, 308 Abraham's bosom, 293 n. Adam, 145 f., 154, 155, 159, 186, 199, 202, 204, 207. 210, 211, 241 Adeney, 123 n. Adultery, 153, 158, 168 Adversity, The disciplinary value of,, 77, 80, 273, 301. See under Suffering of the Righteous Affections, Classification of the, 196 Alexander Jannseus, 24, 71, 83 n. Alexandra, 71, 83 n. Alms, 38, 42, 44 Anaxagoras, 92 Anger, 153, 163 Animals, The lower, 61, 115 Antigonus, 71 Antinomianism, 212 Antiochus Epiphanes, 23, 49, 79, 89, 228, 263 u., 278 Apooalyptists, The, 12, 24, 245 Apostasy, 73, 107, 118, 171, 203, 253, 292 Apostolic Constitutions, 19 Aristobulus I, 2, 71, 84 n. Aristotle, 36, 192, 193 Asceticism, 74, 86, 182 Astrology, 168 Atonement, The Day of, 85 Augustus, 75 n. Avesta, 43 Azazel, 154, 211, 212, 241, 308 Ball, 3, 68 Bandissin, 29 Baptism, 125 Baruch : i. 15-iii. 8, 18, 45, 155, 221, 255 iii. 9-iv. 4, 18, 94, 123, 203, 236, 298 iv. 5-v. 9, 18, 124, 299 — Apocalypse of, 16, 125, 204, 237, 301 Basil, 32 Beatitudes, The, 114 Bel and the Dragon, 3, 69 Belial, 53 n. Beliar, 53, 156, 159, 203, 261 Blood, Eating of, 47, 158 — Shedding of, 158 Boastfulness, 202 Body, the seat of evil, 180-82, 186, 201 — and spirit, 161, 177-80, 201 Bonwetsch, 18, 201, 202 Bousset, 113 Brotherly love, 50, 59 Buddhism, 116 u. Burial, 43 313 314 INDEX OF SUBJECTS AND NAMES Calumny, 1 15, 202 Celestial Physics, The Book of, 13, 173 Ceremonialism, 39, 42, 47, 53, 62, 70, 80, 85, 88, 174, 175 Charles, R. H., 4, 12, 13, 14, 16. 17, 18, 41,44 n., 62 n., 114 n., 115, 149 n., 159, 204, 210 n., 248, 251 n., 258 n., 259, 261 n., 273 n., 274 n., 275 n., 279, 293 n., 297, 300 n., 301 n. Chasids, The, 25, 41, 47, 64, 71, 96, 97, 119, 121, 140 Cicero, 2 Circumcision, 47 f., 88, 125 Cleanthes, 114n., 191 Compassion. See under Phil- anthropy Confession, 155, 157, 175 Conscience, 56, 101 — The natural, 63 Courage, 97, 109 Covenant, The, 70, 101, 117 Covetousnesa, 43, ^ 153, 160, 165 Cross-examination, 68 Cynicism, 35, 83 Cheerfulness, 35, 86 Chrysippus, 93 Daniel, Book of, 11, 64, 68 — Additions to, 3 Dates, Table of, 20 Death, Moral, 163, 189, 206, 280 — Physical, 149, 156, 173, 199, 204, 209, 253 Deceit, Spirit(s) of, 53, 160, 222 f. — The seven spirits of, 159 Dedication, The Feast of, 4 Deism, 71, 188 Demons, Incitement of, 154, 156, 159, 162, 172, 182, 203, 213 Demerit, The sense of, 64, 118, 132 Depravity, Inherited, 171, 186 f., 190, 200, 206, 213 Destiny of the righteous, 252, 253, 258, 261, 264, 270, 272, 276, 283, 288, 293, 295, 298, 302, 307, 312 — wicked, 252, 253, 258, 262, 264, 269, 271, 276, 282, 286, 288, 293, 294, 298, 302, 304, 307, 312 Determinism, 215, 217, 221, 222, 227, 228, 230, 233, 234, 236, 237, 239 Deutero-Isaiah, 11 Deuteronomy, 42, 45, 47 DevU, 159, 183, 202 Diet, Laws of, 42, 85, 88 Discipline, 32, 95 Dishonesty, 153 Domestic Virtues, 38, 43 Driver, 79 Drummond, J., 93 n. Dualism, Greek, 74, 150, 180- 82, 186, 195, 201 Dynamic, Moral, 218, 221, 222, 226, 229, 231, 234, 241 Ecclesiastes, 11 Ecclesiastea and Wisdom, 97 f. Election of Israel, 48, 62, 76, 89, 100 f., 107, 117, 124, 125, 131, 138 JEncyclopcEdia Biblica, 7 Enoch, Ethiopia: i.-xxxvi. 13, 39; 153, 219, 260 INDEX OF SUBJECTS AND NAMES 315 Enoch, (xxxvii.-lxx) tudes, 13, 74, 172, 229, 270 Ixxii.-lxxxii., 13, 173 Ixxxiii.-xc, 13, 40, 153, 220, 253 xci.-oiv., 13, 71, 171, 225, 268 — Slavonic, 16, 113, 198, 233, 293 Envy, 95, 163, 168, 183, 198,202 Epicureanism, 2, 35, 97, 121 Essenes, The, 74, 215 f. Esther, Additions to, 5, 9 Eusebius, 11 Eve, 148 f., 154, 155, 172, 202, 205, 241 — Seduction of, 173, 197, 199, 211 Evil and FoUy, 2, 99, 148, 153, 166, 185, 203 — Origin of, 150, 153, 159 f., 168-70, 171, 172, 173, 188 f., 198 f£., 204 ff., 207 ff., 211, 213 f. — Problem of, 138, 152 — Universality of, 145, 146, 153, 157, 161, 208 Exile, Babylonian, 22, 24, 78, 147, 256, 272, 277 Experience, 32 Expository Times, 3 n., 19 n., 43 n. Exposure of the person, 158 Ezra, 22, 24, 50, 88 3 Ezra, 5, 87, 176, 277 4 Ezra, 17, 131, 207, 239, 304 Faith, 112, 115, 132, 138, 307 Fairweather, 70, 94 n., 287 n., 310 n. FaU, The, 145, 148, 153, 155, 161. 172, 207 f., 210, 211 Fall, The, of the angels, 153 f., 156, 159, 171, 172. 198, 205, 211 and the animal creation, 155 as the beginning of sin, 148, 153, 183, 204 as the cause of sin, 200, 206, 209, 211, 214 Cosmic results of, 173, 208 and the evil heart, 209 and moral death, 183, 189 and physical death, 149, 156, 173, 199, 204, 209 and the wQl, 238 Fasting, 42, 53, 70, 79, 85, 125, 131 Fear of God, The, 31, 42, 45, 52, 54, 76, 113, 223, 234 Fellowship, Spiritual, 94, 101, :n05f., 222, 224, 226, 229 Flood, The, 154, 156, 159, 184, 220 Folly and Moral Evil, 29, 99, 148, 153, 166, 185, 203 Foreknowledge, 228, 230 f„ 234, 237 Forgetfulness, 193-5 Forgiveness, 37, 57 ff. Fornication, 158, 160, 163, 202 Freedom, 138, 172, 212, 215, 217, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 232, 234, 235, 236, 237, 239, 241 — and angehc sin, 171, 219 — and the evil heart, 223, 240 — and ignorance, 217, 223, 231, 234 Friendship, 38 Gadreel, 172 316 INDEX OF SUBJECTS AND NAMES Geiger, 4, 9, 170 Gehenna, 249, 251, 253, 277, 294, 298, 302, 307 Gentiles, The, as instruments of divine chastisement, 89, 127, 228, 232, 256, 263, 272 1, 277, 296 Ginzberg, 18, 212 Gnosticism, 18, 212 n. Golden Rule, The, 42 Grace, Divine, 76, 132, 143 Greed, 168 Greek influences and customs, 14, 23, 25, 64, 89, 96, 105, 108 H., 113, 118, 158, 171 Gunkel, 1? Hades. See under Sheol Harris, Rendel, 226 n. Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, 6, 19 n., 28, 48 n., 79 n., 93 n., 94 n., 121 n., 124 n., 310 n. — Dictionary of Christ and the Ooapela, 48 n., 123 n., 300 n. Hatred, 164 Heart, The evU, 155, 207 fi., 214 Herod the Great, 75 n. Hezekiah, The Testament of, 15 Highmindedness, 36, 109 HUlel, 33 n., 42 n. History of Susanna, The, 3, 68 Humility, 53, 61, 69 Hus, John, 142 Hypocrisy, 153, 174 Hyrcanus I, John, 25, 71, 250, 253, 257, 261 Hyrcanus II, 84 n. Ideas, Greek doctrine of, 28 Idolatry, 69, 99, 100 f., 125, 138, 160, 166, 175, 185, 201, 203 Ignorance and sin, 30, 185, 193-5, 199 Immortality, 246, 258, 264, 279, 282, 288, 293 — Greek doctrine of, 258 n., 282 Imprecation, 82 Indeterminism, 225 Individualism, 65, 146, 245, 262, 305 Ingratitude, 168 Injustice, 160 InteUectualism, 31 f., 95 Intention, 55 Intercession of the saints, 90, 106, 117, 121 Intermediate State, 250, 258, 269, 279, 294, 304 n., 3051 Inwardness, Moral, 34, 38, 47, 53, 81, 86, 101, 157, 162, 201 Isaiah, Ascension of, 15 — Martyrdom of, 15, 123, 203, 235, 298 — Vision of, 15 Israel, the chosen nation, 48, 62, 76, 89, 100 f., 107, 117, 124, 125, 131, 138 — its problem, 40, 45, 77, 103, 126, 131, 133, 136 — its missionary function, 127, 270 Jeremy, Epistle of, 19 Jerusalem, Destruction of, 24, 26, 128, 300 — The new, 253, 261, 270 Jesus Christ, 14, 51, 52, 57, 122, 139, 141, 240, 243 Jewish Encyclopoedia', 8, 18, 212 Job, Book of, 11 ESTDEX OF StTBJECTS AND NAMES 317 Jonathan, 25 Josephus, 11, 74, 215 Jowett, B., 31 n. Jubilees, The Booh of, 14, 46, 65 ff., 155, 221, 256 Jubilees and the Pentateuch, 50 Judas Macoabaeus, 250, 253 Judgement, Present, 247, 254, 255, 256, 263, 267, 273, 277, 278, 286, 292 — Final, 251, 253, 257 f., 261, 270, 271, 276, 277, 284, 294, 298, 300, 303, 307, 308 — Principles of, 247, 257, 261 f., 270, 276, 285, 307 f. Judicial methods, 68, 83 n. Judith, Book of, 5, 84, 175, 227, 276 Justice, 37, 59, 63, 67, 109 Justification by faith, 132, 138, 143 works, 55, 76, 80, 106, 130, 132, 138, 143 Kautzsch, 17 n., 19 n. Kempis, Thomas a, 142 ' Kneucken, 124 n. ' Know thyself,' 200 Knowledge and virtue, 8, 30, 95, 199 Kohler, 8, 10, 14 Kuenen, 29 Labour, Manual, 38, 115 Law, The, 16, 24, 33, 40, 45, 51 f., 61, 62, 66, 70, 72, 75, 88, 90, 95 f., 101, 104, 107, 111, 123, 125, 128 f., 131 ff.. 140, 150, 155, 156, 162, 166, 170, 171, 174, 175, 176, 194, 197, 201, 202, 203, 204, 207, 226, 233, 245, 293, 300 Law, The, and angels, 47 eternal validity of, 46, 72 inadequacy of, 104, 127, 132, 137, 141, 208, 240 f. oral expansions of, 25, 47, 65, 156 and sin, 156, 213 sufficiency of, 130, 198 and yezer hara, 150, 151 -a yoke, 77 Laws, Moral, self-acting, 259, 290 Leisure, 33 Lex taUonia, 50 Libellatici, 89 n. Life, Eternal, 264, 272, 276, 279, 295. See under Im- mortality Lipsius, 94 n. Logos, The, 92 ff., 113 Longsuffering, 37, 61, 115 Love, Brotherly, 50, 59 — to God and man, 54 Lust, 160, 165, 204 Lying, 160, 166, 202 Maccabees, The, 19, 23 f., 49, 75, 119, 170, 249, 253 1 Maccabees, 3, 70, 170, 225, 267 — Sadducean tendencies of, 4, 70 2 Maccabees, 4, 88, 176 — Pharisaic tendencies of, 4 3 MacccAees, 5, 107, 190, 232, 292 i Maccabees, 11, 108, 232, 292 Man, The dignity of, 36 — The twofold nature of, 110 Manasses, Prayer of, 19, 63, 67 Marriage, 38, 50, 63 — with Gentiles, 42, 49, 88, 176 318 INDEX OF SUBJECTS AND NAMES Marriage, with kinsfolk, 42, 86 Marshall, 124 n. Martj^dom, 89 — its propitiatory value, 90, 106, 112 f. Mastema, 156 Mattathias, 48 Mayor, J. B., 196 n. Mazdeism, 257 Mean, The, 34 Means, The, and the end, 85 Meekness, 114 Mercy, Divine, 64, 67, 137, 138, 307 Merit, Vicarious, 64, 112, 121, 130 Messiah, The, 40, 41, 66, 78, 104, 127, 135, 141, 246, 253, 254, 260, 266, 273 £., 275, 291, 301 f., 307, 308, 310 ff. Moral power of, 78, 274 Pre-existence of, 75, 271 Messianic kingdom, The, 40, 41,66,72,104,119, 135, 136, 139, 140 f., 246, 249, 250, 252, 253, 255, 257, 260, 263, 266, 267, 270, 272, 274, 279, 284, 291, 293, 296, 299, 300, 301 f., 307, 308, 310 ff. everlasting, 253, 261, 272, 299, 300, 308 ■ of limited duration, 257, 270, 275, 293, 298, 302, 307 Gradual appearance of, 257 ■ — Particularism of, 257, 299 Universalism of, 40, 75, 252, 253, 255, 261, 264, 272, 275, 297, 299, 302 Millennium, Tlie, 293 Miracles, 88, 108, 228, 232 Mishna, The, 21 Moral nature. The, 1 10, 190 Morfill, 201 Moses, The Assumption of, 15, 117, 202, 234, 296 — The Testament of, 15 Motive, 55, 116, 161 Moulton, J. H., 3, 43 Murder, 185, 202, 203 Nazarite Vow, The, 70 Nehemiah, 22, 24, 50, 88, 202 Nemesis, 287 n. Neshamah, 177, 282 Nestle, 19 Non-resistance, 121 Non-retaliation, 59, 115, 122 NoCs, 92, 108, 150 Nowack, 28 Oaths, 62, 101, 115 Occupation, 61 Offerings, j38, 53, 62, 70, 85, 131 Opus operatum, 35, 44 f., 61, 117 Origen, 202 Ottlej', 122 n. Paederasty, 168, 204 Parsism, 43, 44 n. Particularism, 14, 22, 24, 49 f., 84, 88, 89, 100, 106, 123, 124, 143. See under Messianic Kingdom, Particularism of. Passions, The, 108, 110, 190 eradication of, 110, 192 regulation of, 110, 191 Patience, 61, 76, 114 Paul, 17, 112, 131, 133 n., 138, 139, 156, 198, 206, 209 f., 214, 240, 243, 283 f. Penemue, 172 nSTDBX OF SUBJECTS AND NAMES 319 Penitence, 38, 63, 69, 125, 157, 175, 221, 235, 236, 296 n. Persian influences, 23, 41, 43, 64 Pharisees and Pharisaism, 19, 25, 42, 51, 65, 68, 73 f., 75, 78 ff., 102 f., 117, 130, 131, 139 ff., 162, 170 n., 174 Doctrines of, 74, 215 f. in the Gospels, 81 n., 141 Philanthropy, 37, 43, 60, 63, 114 Philo, 21, 92 f., 113, 115, 187, 280 n., 310 n. Piety, 110 Plato, 8, 31 n., 32, 95, 96, 109, 177 ff., 192, 193, 199, 201, 280 n. Porter, 13, 19, 75 n., 121 n., 149 n., 151, 177 ff., 284 Poverty, 35, 78 f. Prayer, 42, 53, 80, 150 Prayers for the dead, 90, 106 Pre-existence of the Messiah, 75, 271 Soul, 177-80, 186, 201, 202 Pride, 153, 160 Priestly Code, The, 14, 22; 42, 147, 176 Problem, Israel's, 40, 45, 77, 103, 126, 131, 133, 136 — Mankind's, 135 Propitiation, 38, 90, 106, 112 f. Providence, 99, 230, 232 Prudence, 96, 109 Prudentialism, 33, 37, 38 Psalms of Solomon, 19, 25, 76, 173, 227, 272 Pseudonymity, 11 Ptolemy IV, 5, 292 Ptolemy VI, 6 Ptolemy VII, 15, 263 Punishment, adapted to the offence, 259, 278, 286, 296 — Remedial, 8, 277, 278, 287, 299. See under Adversity, Disciplinary value of Quietism, 11, lllf., 119 f., 139 f. Beason, 32, 34, 191 Reasoning, Religious, 108, 110, 191, 233 definition of, 109 Repentance. See under Peni- tence Respect of persons, 275, 285 Resurrection, 251, 253, 261, 267, 270, 271, 275, 279, 283, 291, 299, 302, 307, 312 — Spiritual view of, 271, 295, 303, 312 Retribution, 72, 74, 219, 220, 225, 226, 265, 268, 270, 272, 278 — Corporate, 248, 254, 256, 262, 270, 276, 292, 296, 299 — Individual, 247, 251, 254, 257, 263, 270, 289, 292, 294, 305 — Irrevocability of, 262, 268, 278, 292 . — Remedial character of, 8, 277, 278, 287, 299 Revelations, Forbidden, 154, 173, 211 Reverence for the aged, 37 ancestors, 37 God, 110 parents, 37, 50, 63 Righteousness, 39, 40, 42, 45, 46, 63, 69, 72, 75, 76, 95, 97. 99 320 INDEX OP SUBJECTS AND NAMES Eoman Empire, 75 n., 121, 125, 170, 297, 301 Ruach, 177, 202 Ryle and James, 19, 226 Byssel, 17 n., 19 Sabbath, The, 47, 48 f., 70, 85, 89, 125 Sacrifices, 53, 62, 85, 88, 101. 116, 125 Sadducees and Sadduceeism, 19, 25, 68, 73, 75, 78, 83, 102 £., 120, 170 n., 188, 219, 226, 272 1, 304 — — — Doctrines of, 73, 215 f. Literature of, 73 Sanctions, Moral, definition of, 244 External. See under Judgement, Present Internal, 247, 259, 265, 281, 287 f., 293, 304 Sanday and Headlam, 210 n. Satan, 152, 156, 198, 202 Satans, The, 172 Schmidt, N., 249, 250 n. Scribes, 89 Sohwegler, 92 n. Sects, Quarrels of, 25, 71, 72 ff., 79, 102 f., 289 Secularization of Judaism, 26, 104, 119, 275, 291, 300 Self-control, 36, 96, 109 Self-determination, 222 Self-examination, 200 Seneca, 2 Separatism, 49, 74, 88, 89, 106, 108, 126, 176 Seven spirits of deceit. The, 159 Sheol, 72, 246, 248, 250, 251 n., 255, 259, 269, 276, 279, 288, 292, 294, 304, 308 — Moral distinctions in, 251 Shepherds, The Seventy, 40, 253 StbyUine Oracles, 14 ■ iii. and Proemium, 62, 166, 223, 262 ■ iv. 124, 204, 236, 299 Sidgwick, 8, 31 n., 100 n. Siegfried, 28 Sin and ignorance, 30, 185, 193-5, 199 Sins of ignorance, 79, 162, 173 Sin unto death, 157 Sirach, 7, 27, 65, 147, 217, 247 — Greek influence in, 28, 33 — Proverbs and Wisdom, 28, 91, 126 Sovereignty, Divine, 185, 220, 223, 230, 232, 236, 237, 241 Sparta, 170 Speaker's Gormnentary, The, 5, 68, 152 Spirit(s) of deceit, 55, 160, 222 f. Spirit, The, of truth, 53, 56 Spirits, The Lord of, 75, 172, 271 Spiritual, Denial of the, 172, 185, 226 Spiritual, Dependence on the, 75, 222, 226, 229 Stoics, 2, 8, 11, 28, 36, 92, 96, 100, 108 ff., 191 a., 196, 230, 232, 244 Struggle, Moral value of, 150, 151 f. Suffering of the righteous, 72, 75, 80, 133 Swete, 19, 29 n., 101 n. Tabernacles, The Feast of, 47 Talmud, The, 76, 210 Taylor, C, 149 n., 150 n., 175 Temperance, 61 INDEX OF STTBJECTS AND NAMES 321 Temple, The, 62, 85, 88, 107, 131, 263 n. Temptation, 152, 161 Tennant, 149 n., 184, 202, 205, 210 n., 211 n. Terry, 15, 125, 263 n., 300 n. Testaments of the Twelve Pa- triarchs, 13, 37, 51, 65, 159, 221, 259 Tithes, 47, 53 ToUt, Book of, 3, 41, 65, 154, 254 Tongue, The, 37, 114, 174 Toy, C, 7, 10 Traditions, Unwritten, 25, 47, 65, 156 Treasuries of works, 55, 80, 116, 128, 130, 132, 303 Trench, 32 n. Truth, 42, 54, 69, 87, 114, 115 — as judge, 87 Truthfulness, 59 Two Ways, The, 62, 160, 218, 225, 234 Understanding, 31, 76, 87, 96, 126, 176 Universalism, 40, 54, 61 f., 64, 94, 100 f., 105, 252, 255, 261, 264, 272, 275, 296 Vendidad, The, 44 n. Vengeance, 50, 114 Virtue its own reward, 114 — and knowledge, 8, 30, 95, 99, 199 — Unity of, 196 Virtues, The cardinal, 96, 109 Wages, 43 Watchers, The, 146, 153 f., 156, 159, 171, 172, 184, 199, 205, 251, 253, 271 Watchfulness, 166 Weber, 210 Weeks, Feast of, 47 Wm, The, and the Fall, 238 Freedom of. See under Freedom and the law, 127, 233 and the sects, 215 f. Winer, 195 n. Wisdom, 9, 27 fi., 54, 63, 87, 90, 94, 99, 109, 123, 126, 176, 203 Wisdom, The Book of, dual authorship of, 7 fi. Part I, 90, 176, 229, 280 Part II, 99, 185, 230, 286 Wisdom, Definitions of, 109 — Degrees of, 29 — Development of, 32, 95 — a divine attribute, 99 — and God, 27, 90 — Immanence of, 27, 90, 94, 113 — Initiation into, 29 — and the law, 33, 95, 113, 123 — and the Logos, 92 ff. — Personification of, 27, 90 113, 123 — Transcendence of, 90 Wise Man, The Stoic, 36 Witchcraft, 202, 203 Woman, 37 Workman, H. B., 142 n. World, Antagonism to the, 75 World-history, 40, 138, 269 World-soul, The, 9, 92, 94, 99 Worship; 53, 1 14 21 322 INDEX OF SUBJECTS AND NAMES Yezer, Doctrine of the, 146, 149 f., 197, 210 Yezer hara, 150 ff., 160, 161, 197, 199, 201, 207 1, 211, 214 and the law, 150, 151 the wiU, 2171 Yezer hatob, 150, 160, 197, 199, 201 Zealots, The, 26, 119, 121 Zeller, 192 Zenos, 300 n. Zoroastrianism, 23 INDEX OF PASSAGES A. Old Testament Genesis 1 PAGE PAGE PAQH vii. 26 . . . 158 ii. 1-iv. 5 . 6 a. . . . . 149, 169 xvi. 29 . . . 85 iv. 7-24 . . 6 ii. 7 . . . 178, 186 xvi. 31 . . . 85 v.-vi. . . 6 ii. 17 . . . . 149 xviii. 6-18 . 42 vii.-x. . . 6 ii. 34 . . . . 50 xix. 18 . . . 54 iii. 145, 149, 154, XX. 2 . . . 50 Nehemiah 169, 183 XX. Uf. . . . 42 ui. 19. . . . 149 XX. 12 . . . 158 vii. 73-viii. 13 . 6 vi. 1-3 . . . 154 xxi. 9 . . 50, 158 X. 31 . . . 49 vi. 1-4 . . . 169 xxvi. 40 . . . 157 xiii. 16 . . 49 vi. 2 . . . . 146 xiii. 19 . . 49 vi. 5 . . . 146, 149 Numb ers viii. 21 146, 149, xix. 11 ff. . . 85 n. Job xii. 11-20 XX. 2 f. . XX vi. 7-10 xxix. 26 . • • 150 51 51 51 50 Deuteroi iv. 5 . . iv. 6 . . lomy . 31 . 31 iv. 17 . . . Tix. 25-7 . xix. 26 . . xxviii. 28 . . 146 . 246 258 n. . 31 XXX. . ' 51 vi. 5 . . . 54 xxxi. . . 51 viii. 3 . 101 n. Psalms xxxviii. 24 ." 50, 158 ix. 25-9 . . 121 n. vii. . . . 118 n. X. 16 . . . . 47 xvii. 15 . . . 45 Exodus xxii. 23 f. . . 158 xviii. . . . 118 n. XXV. 5 . . . 42 xxxvii. 10 ff . 99 iv. 24 . . Oi XXX. 6 . . . 47 xly. 9(8) . . 175 n. xii. 29 51 XXX. 15 . . . 52 xlix. . . 246 xii. 43-45 85 n. xxxii. 35 . 115 n. xlix. 14 . . 288 n. xii. 48 . 85 n. xlix. 15 . . 288 n. xii. 49 . 85 n. 2 Ki nga Ii. 5 . . . 146 xiv. 8 . 51 . 49 ix. 10 . . 44n. Iv. 23 . . 281 n. xvi. 23 . Ixix. 33 . . 78 xvi. 29 . xix. 6 . 49 48 n. 2 Ohroi licles Ixxiii. ci. . . 246 . 118n. xxxii. 11- 14 121 n. XXXV. . . 6 civ. 29 f. . . 99 xxxv. 2 f. . . 49 xxxvi. . . 6 civ. 29 if. cv. . . . . 9 . 121 n. Leviticus Ezr a cix. 16 . . . 78 V. 2 f . . . . 85 n. i. . . . . . 6 oxix. 34 . . . 31 323 324 INDEX OP PASSAGES Proverbs i.-ix. i. 9 , viii. viii. 22 f . vui. 35 f. X. 2 . xi. 4 . xiv. 26 xvi. 6 xvi. 27 XX. 9 . XXV. 21 f, PAOE . 28 . 28 . 28 . 28 . 283 . 45 . 45 113 n. . 45 174 n. . 146 . 57 Eccleaiastea i. 11 . ii. 16 . ii. 23 . iL 24 . iii. 19. iii. 20. V. 8 . vi. 12 ix. 5 . ix. 11 xii. 7 . 98 98 97 98 97 97 98 98 98 98 186, 288 laaidh PAGE vli 246 ix 246 xi 246 xiv. 30 . . . 78 xxiv.-xxvii. . 246 1. U . . . 277 n. Iviu. 13 . . . 49 Ixi. 1 . . . . 78 Ixv 13 Ixv. 17 . . . 257 Ixvi 13 Ixvi. 22 . . . 257 Ixvi. 24 . . 277 n. Jer&miah XV. 1 . . . 121 n. xvii. 9 ... 146 xvii. 21 f. . . 49 xxi. 8 . . . 52 XXV. 33 . . . 44 n Ezekiel xiv. 14 . . 121 n. xiv. 20 . . 121 n. xvi. 40 . . . 168 xxviii. 13 . . 147 xxxiii. 19 . . 175 Daniel 1. ii. 27- 35 ." ." Ul 23 24 . IV 27 , IX 4- 19 . . xii. 2 . xii. 2 f . PAGE 23, 68 . 249 . 69 . 45 . 18 , 246, 277 n. . 303 n. Micah 246 Habahkuh iii. 13 . . . 122 n. Ohadiah 16 . . . . 284 n. Zechariah ii. 11 . . . . 23 viii. 16 . . . 59 n. viii. 19 . . . 85 ix.-xiv. ... 23 B. Apocryphal and Apocalyptio Literattire Apocalypse of Abraham IX. xiii. xiv. XX. ... 139 ... 241 ... 211 . 138, 212 xxii 138 xxiii. 138, 173, 211, 241 xxiv 211 xxvi. . . . 212, 241 xxviii. . .139, 308 xxix. . 139, 212, 308 xxxi 308 Ascension of Isaiah i. 1 . . . . 15 i. 2a . . . . 15 i. 6b.-13a . . ii. 1-8 .. . ii. lO-iii. 12 . . iii. 13b.-iv. 18 . V. lb.-14 . . vi.-xi. 1-40 15 15 15 15 15 15 Assumption of Moses i. 10 . . . . 118 i. 12 . . . . 117 i. 14 . . . 202, 235 i. 18 . 235, 296, 297 ii. 7 . . . . 202 ii. 7ff. . . . 118 iii. ... 118, 296 iii. 9 . . . . 121 iii. 12. . . . 202 iv. 2 . . . . 117 iv. 2-5 V. 1 . V. 3ii. V. 4 . V. 6 . vi. vii. viii. 1 . ix. ix. 4 f . X. . . X. 1 . X. 2 . X. 3-6 X. 7 . X. 7-10 X. 8 . X. 9f. X. 10a 202 112, 121 . 296 . 118 . 117 . 202 . 119 83 n, 120 . 296 119, 121 . 118 . 119 297, 298 297, 298 297, 298 296, 298 . 297 . 298 . 298 . 296 INDEX OF PASSAGES 325 PAHE xii. 4 f. . . . 235 xii. 6 .... 121 xu. 7 f. . . . 235 xii. 8f. . . . 118 xii. 10 . .117,235 xii. 10 f.. . 119, 296 xii. 11 . . . 202 Apocalypse of Bamch 4 5 ii. 2 111. 5 iii. 6 iv. iv. 1 iv. 3 V. 1 V. 7 vi. ix. X. 6-xii. X. 9ff. xi. 4 xi. 6 xi. 6 xii. xiii. xiii. 3 xiii. 9 xiv. 1 xiv. 5 f . xiv. 7 xiv. 12 xiv. 18 xiv. 19 XV. 5 XV. 5 f . XV. 6 . XV. 7 f . xvii. 3 xvii. 4 xviii. . xix. 1-3 xix. 1-4 xix. 8 xxi. 6 £E. xxi. 11 xxi. 13 . 127 . 127 . 130 . 126 . 125 301 n. . 127 . 301 . 126 . 125 301 n. . 204 . 304 . 304 . 128 . 304 . 304 . 304 . 304 . 303 . 126 . 127 . 303 . 126 . 130 . 130 . 126 . 127 126, 129 . 204 . 237 . 304 . 205 129, 204 . 204 . 237 . 204 . 205 . 237 . 127 . 301 PAGE PAGE xxiii. 4 . . 205, 237 li. 7 . 126 129, 130 xxiri 4 f . . 233 n. li. 15 . . . 301 xxiv. 1 . . . 304 Ii. 16 . . . 238 xxiv. 1 G. . . 128 Iii. . . . 128 XXV. . . 128, 303 liu.-lxxiv. . 128 XXV. 1 . . 126 liv. 14 . 128, 302 xxvii.-xxix. 2 . 301 liv. 15 . 205, 302 xxvii.-xxxi . 127 liv. 15-19 . 238 xxix. 3 . . . 301 liv. 19 . . 207 xxix. 6-8 . . 302 Iv. 7 . . . 302 XXX. . . . . 303 Ivi. . . . 238 XXX. 1 . . 302 Ivi. 6 . . . 205 XXX. 2 . 304 n. Ivi. 6 £f. . . 205 XXX. 2-5 . . 128 Ivi. 10 . . 206 xxxii. 1 . . . 129 Ivii. 2 . 128 xxxii. 6 . . . 303 lix. 2 . 128, 237, 302 XXXV. 4 . . . 125 lix. 10 . . 302 xxxvi.-xl. . . 128 Ixi. 5 . . . 125 xxxvi. 10 . 304 n. Ixii. 7 . 126 xxxviii. 2 126, 128 Ixiii. 3-5 . 130 xxxix. 7-xl. . 301 Ixiv. 2 . . 125 xl. 3 . . . . 302 Ixvi. 2 . . 125 xii. 3 . . . . 129 Ixvi. 4 . . 125 xiii. . . . . 128 Ixvi. 5 . . 125 xiii. 8 . . . 303 Ixvii. 6 . . 128 xliii. 1 . . . 125 Ixx. . . . 301 xliv. . . . 301 n. Ixxi. . . . 301 xliv. 3 . . . 129 Ixxii. . . . 302 xliv. 7 . 129, 302 Ixxiii. . 302 xliv. 8-14 . . 303 Ixxiv. . 302 xliv. 8-15 . 128 Ixxvii. 3 . . 129 xliv. 14 . 126, 129 Ixxvii. 4 . . 129 xliv. 15 . . . 304 Ixxvii. 15 f. . 129 xlvi. 4 . . . 129 Ixxviii. 3 . 126 xlvi. 6 . . . 126 Ixxviii. 6 . 127 xlvii. 22 . . 129 Ixxxiii. . . . 128 xlvii. 24 . . . 129 Ixxxiii. 3 . . 304 xlviii. 20 . . 126 Ixxxiv. 8 . . 125 xlviii. 24 . . 126 Ixxxiv. 10 . 130 xlviii. 27 129, 303 Ixxxv. . . 128 xlviii. 27-41 . 128 Ixxxv. 2 . . 130 xlviii. 31-7 . . 303 Ixxxv. 3 . . 129 xlviii. 40 . . 238 Ixxxv. 10 . 303 xlviii. 42 . 205 Ixxxv. 14 . 129 xlviii. 42 f. . 206 xlviii. 47 xlix. 2-li. . 129 . 303 n. Baruch, 1 3ook of 1. . . . . 303 i. 1-14 . . 18 li. . . . . . 128 i. 15 . . . 45 li. 3 . . . 129, 130 i. 15-ii. 10 . 18, 45 li. 3 f. . . 126 i. 15-ii. 12 . . 18 326 rNDBX OF PASSAGES Baruch, Book of PAGE PAGE (cant.) PAGE V. 1-4 . . 219 xlvi. . . 75 V. 4 . . . 39 xlvi. 2 . . 271 i. 17 ff. . . . 155 V. 5 . 219, 252 xlvi. 2 ff. . 270 i. 18 . . . . 45 V. 7 . 252 xlvi. 3 . . 75, 271 i. 19-ii. 10 . . 256 V. 8 . 252 xlvii. 1 f. . 75 ii. 2 . . . . 45 V. 9 . 252 xlvii. 3 . . 271 ii. 8 . . . 155, 221 vi. 153, 219 xlviii. 1 ff. . 75 ii. 9 . . . . 256 vii. . 153 xlviii. 3-6 . 271 ii. 10 . . . 155, 221 ix. 6 . 154 xlviii. 4 f . . 272 ii. 11-ui. 8 . 18, 45 X. . 154 xlviii. 7 . . 75 ii. 12 . . . 45, 155 X. 8 . 154 xlviii. 9 . . 226 ii. 15 f. . . . 45 X. 16 . 252 xlviii. 9 f. . 271 ii. 17 . . . . 255 X. 17 . 252 xlviii. 10 . 271 ii. 21 ff. . 256, 290 n. X. 18 i . . 252 xlix. 2 . . 272 ii. 29 . . . . 221 X. 20 . 252 xlix. 3 . . 271 ii. 30 . . . . 221 X. 21 . 40 1. 4 . . . 226 iii. 2 . . . . 155 X. 22 . 252 Ii. 1 f. . 271 iii. 3 ... . 46 xi. . 252 Iii. 4 . . 271 iii. 5 . . . . 256 XV. 153, 219 liii. 1-3 . . 271 iii. 7 . . . . 45 xvi. . 219 liii. 3-5 . 271 iii. 8 .... 155 xix. 2 . 153 liii. 6 . . . 271 iii. 9 . . . . 123 xxii. . 251 liv. 1 f. . . 271 iii. 9-iv. 4 . . 94 xxiv. . 154 liv. 6 75 172, 271 iii. 12 . . . 203 XXV. . 154 Iv. 4 . . . 271 iii. 12 f. . . . 236 XXV. 3 . 40, 252 Iviii. 3 . . 272 iii. 14 . . 123, 298 XXV. 5 . . . 252 Iviii. 4 f. . . . 272 iii. 15-36 . . 124 xxvii. . 252 Ix. . . . . 172 iii. 27 f. . . 236 xxvii. 2 . . . 219 Ix. 6 75 172, 226 iii. 28 . . 203, 298 xxxii. . . 154 Ixi. 5 . . . . 271 iii. 32 . . . 123 Ixi. 8 . . . . 271 iii. 36-iv. 4 . . 124 Ixii. 2 . . . 272 iii. 37 . . . 123 Ethiopia Enoch Ixii. 2 f. . . . 271 iv. 1 . . . . 203 (Similit udes) Ixii. 9-11 . . 75 iv. 2 . . . 236, 298 xxxvii. -Ixx. Ixii. 15 f. . . 271 iv. 6-13 ... 299 Ixiv. . . . . 172 iv. 12 f. . . . 124 xxxviii. 2 75, 172, Ixv.-lxix. . . 172 iv. 19-35 . . 299 226 Ixvii. 10 . . . 172 iv. 25 . . . 124 xxxviii. 2f. . . 226 Ixix. 6 . . . 172 iv. 25-33 . . 299 xxxviii. 3 . . 272 Ixix. 8 f . . . 173 iv. 36 f. . . . 299 xxxviii. 4 . . 272 Ixix. 11 . . . 173 iv. 36-v. 9 . 299 n. xxxix. 5 . . . 272 V. 2-4 ... 299 V. 5 . . . . 299 xxxix. 6 . xl. 1 f. . xl. 7 . . 75, 226 . . 226 75, 172 Ethiopia lxxii.-h Enoch Exxii. Ethiopia Enoch xl. 9 . . xli. 1 . . . . 226 76, 270 Ixxx. . . Ixxxi. . 13, 173 . 13, 173 i.-xxxvi. xli. 2 . . 172, 272 i. 1 ... 39, 40 xlv. 1 . . . 172 Ethiopia Enoch i. 4-7. . . . 251 xlv. 4 . . 272 Ixxxiii -xc. i. 8 . . .39, 252 xlv. 4 f . . 270, 272 Ixxxiv. 4 . . 154 ii. 1-v. 4 . . 40 xlv. 6 . 75, 272 Ixxxiv. 6 . . 40 INDEX 0¥ PASSAGES 327 PAGE PAGE PAGE Ixxxvi. . . . 154 xcviii. . 225 xxiii. 4 . . . 234 Ixxxvi.-lxxxvii i. 220 xcviii. 2 . . 73 xxiii. 5 . . . 20] Ixxxix. 59 . . 220 xcviii. 3 . . 269 xxix. 4 . . 198, 294 Ixxxix. 60 . . 40 xcviii. 4 . . 172, 225 xxix. 4 f. 198, 294 Ixxxix. 61 . . 220 xcviii. 6 f. . 73 XXX. 8 . . . 113 Ixxxix. 65 . 40 xcviii. 6 ff. . 268 XXX. 11 . . . 199 xc. 6 f. . . 41 xcix. 2 . 7i 2, 73, 171 XXX. 12 . . . 113 xc. 9 ff. . . 41 xcix. 7-9 . 73 XXX. 15 . { )3n., 234 xc. 13-17 . 253 xcix. 11 . . 269 XXX. 15 f. . 199 xc. 18 f. . . 253 xcix. 12 . . 73 XXX. 16 . . . 234 xc. 20 . . 253 xcix. 14 . . 73 XXX. 16-18 . . 199 xc. 21-7 . . 253 u. 2 . . . 71 xxxi. 1-3 . . 198 xc. 26 . . 220 c. 5 . . . 269 xxxi. 2 . . . 199 xc. 29 . . 253 c. 6 . . . 73 xxxi. 6 . . 199 xc. 30 . . 253 ci. 1 . . . 73 xxxii. 1 . . 294 xc. 33 . . 253 cii. 3 . . . 73 xxxiii 1 f. . 294 xo. 37 . . 2£ )3, 254 cii. 5 . . . 269 xxxiii. 2 . . 294 xc. 38 . . . 253 cii. 6-11. . 269 xxxiii. 3 . . 113 ciii. . . 7 1, 74, 269 xxxiii. 4 . . 113 Ethiopia En och ciii. 1-3 . . 72 xxxiv. 2 . . 202 ciii. 3 f . . . 270 XXXV. 1 . . 113 xci.-civ. ciii. 7 . 72 xxxvi. 1 . . 113 xci. 4 . . . 72,74 ciii. 7 f . . . 269 xxxix. 1 . . 294 xci. 10 . . 270 ciii. 9-15 . 73 xl. 12 . . . . 294 xci. 12 . 72, ■; !S, 270 ciii. 14 f. . . 71 xli. 1 . . . 200, 294 xci. 13 . . . 270 civ. . . . 269 xli. 2 . . . 201 xci. 14 . . 270 civ. 1 . . . . 74 xlii. 2 . . 294 xci. 15-17 . 270 civ. 1 ff. . . . 72 xlii. 5 . . 295 xci. 18 . . 225 civ. 6 . . . 74 xlii. 6 . . 113, 116 xci. 18 f. . 72 civ. 7 . . . . 73 xlii. 6-14 . 114 n. xcii. 1 . . 72 civ. 10 . . 73 xlii. 7 . . 114 xcii. 2 . . 72 xlii. 8 £. . . 114 xcii. 3 270 xlii. 10 . 115, 234 xciii. 1 . . 72 Slavonic Enoch xlu. 12 f. . 114 xciii. 4 . . 72 ii. 2 . . . . 201 xlii. 14 . . 115 xciii. 10 . . . 72 ii. 2 f. . . . 113 xliii. 2 . . 234 xciv. 1 . . 72 ii. 3 . . . . 234 xliii. 2 ff. . 113 xciv. 2 f . . . 72 vii. 1 . . . . 294 xliv. 1 . . . 199 xciv. 3 f . 225 vii. 2 . . . . 294 xliv. 1 ff. . . 202 _L • . 72 vii. 3 . . . . 198 xliv. 4 . . . 114 xciv. 5 . . . 73 viii. 6 . . 234 xliv. 5 . . . 294 xciv. 6 . . . 73 ix. . . 113 , 114,295 xlv. 1 f. . . . 116 XCV. 4r-6 . 73 ix. 1 . . . . 295 xlv. 3 . . . 116 xcv. 7 . . . 73 X. 1 ff. . . . 294 xlv. 4 . . . 116 xcvi. 1 . . . 72 X. 4 . . 201, 202 xlvi. 1 f . . . . 116 xovi. 4 . . . 73 X. 6 . . . . 201 xlvi. 3 . . . 294 xcvi. 5 f . . 73 xviii. 3 ff. . . 199 xlvi. 5 . . . 201 xcvi. 7 . . . 73 xviii. 6 . . . 294 xlviii. 4 . . . 113 xcvi. 8 . . . 73 xviii. 7 . . . 294 xlviii. 7 . . . 114 xcvii. 6 . . . 268 xix. 5 . . 294 xlviii. 8 f . . . 294 xcvii. 8-10 . . 73 xxii. 7-9 . . 295 xlix. 1 f. . . . 115 328 INDEX OF PASSAGES Slavonic Enoch (cont. ) PAQB xlix. 2 1.2 . 1. 3f. 1.4 . 1.5 . li. 1 f. li. 2 . li. 4 . lii. . lii. 1-6 Jii. 2 f. m. 7 f. lii. II. lii. 13 f. liii. 1 . liii. 3 . Iv. 2 . Iviii. 3 Iviii. 5 Iviii. 6 lix. 1-4 lix. 5 . Ix. 1 f. Ix. 1 fE. Ix. 6 . Ixi. 1 . Ixi. 2 f. Ixi. 4 f . IxU. 1 Ixii. 2 Ixiii. 3 Ixv. 2 Ixv. 4 Ixv. 5. Ixv. 6 f. Ixv. 8-10 Ixvi. 1 Ixvi. 5 Ixvi. 6 Ixvi. 7 . 234 114,295 115 294 114 114 114 114 114 n. 114 202 115 114 114 117, 121 201 295 199 233 116 116 116 294 293 114 113, 294 294, 295 . 117 . 117 234, 294 121, 293 . 199 . 200 . 201 . 294 . 295 113, 201 . 201 . 115 . 294 3 Ezra (1 Esdraa) I. . . 6 1.42 . 176 i. 49ff. 277 i. 52 . . 176 ii. 1-14 6 ii. 15-25 6 iii.-v. 6 6,87 iv. 39 . . iv. 39-41 iv. 59 . v. 6 . . v. 7-70 . V. 47-53 . v. 68-73 . vi.-vii. . vi. 15 n. . viii.-ix. 36 viii. 7 viii. 24 . viii. 44 . viii. 47 . viii. 68-ix. viii. 69-ix. viii. 72 viii. 76 . viii. 77 . viii. 93 . ix. 36 . ix. 39 fi. . PAGE 176 87 87 87 6 277 6 88 88 87 87 176 88 176 176 277 88 88 4 Ezra (2 Esdras) 17 17 17 209 131 131 208 , 208 208 131 305 132 134 208 134 134 134 306 208 134 ,208 239 306 307 134 i. . . . ii. . . iii.-xiv. . ui. 7 . . iii. 14 f. . iii. 19 f. . iii. 20 f. . iu. 21 . . 20' iii. 22 . iii. 24 . . iii. 27 . . iii. 28 f. . iii. 28-36 iv. 4 . . iv. 7-11 . iv. 12. . iv. 13-25 iv. 26-32 iv. 27 . iv. 27-v. 13 iv. 30 . . 20' iv. 36 f. . iv. 41 . . V. 1-13 . V. 20-30. , V. 27 . V. 29 . V. 34^40 V. 35 . V. 35 f. V. 45-9 V. 51-5 vi. 1-6 vi. 6 . vi. 7-10 vi. 17-24 vi. 26-8 vi. 27 f. vi. 31 vi. 35-ix. vi. 55 . vi. 56 vi. 57-9 vii. 1-13 vii. 11 vii. 12 vii. 15 f. vii. 17-44 vii. 20 vii. 21 vii. 28 vii. 29 vii. 30 vii. 31 vii. 32 f. vii. 35-8 vii. 43 vii. 45-8 vii. 46 vii. 47 vii. 48 vii. 49-61 vu. 51-61 vii. 62-9 . vii. 68 . vii. 70 . vii. 70-74 vii. 72 . vii. 77 . vii. 78-87 vii. 79 . vii. 85 . vii. 92 . vu. 95 . vii. 101 . vii. 102 . 25 PAGE . 131 . 132 . 239 . 134 . 134 . 135 . 135 . 306 . 239 135, 307 . 307 . 307 . 135 . 131 . 135 . 131 . 131 . 134 . 135 239, 240 . 208 . 135 . 136 . 304 . 239 . 307 . 307 . 307 . 307 . 307 . 307 . 307 . 208 . 136 . 136 208, 304 . 136 . 240 . 136 . 208 . 239 . 136 239, 240 . 132 . 305 . 239 . 306 207, 208 . 306 . 306 . 132 ESTDEX OF PASSAGES 329 PACE PAQB PAQE vii. 104 f. . . 305 i. 14 . . . 46 xii. . . 138 n., 168 vii. 116-126 . 136 i. 15-25 . ' . 48 xii. 20 . . 156 vii. 118 . . . 209 i. 17 . . . 46 xiii. 26 . . 47 vii. 119 . . 209, 304 i. 20 46 , 156, 203 n. xiv. 6 . . 46 vii. 121 . . . 306 i. 22 . . . 157 XV. 1 . . . . 47 vii. 127-130 . 239 i. 27 . . . 47 XV. 3 . . . 203 n. vu. 127-31 . . 136 i. 29 . . . 257 XV. 13 . . 47 vii. 127-40 . . 132 ii. 2 . . . 49 XV. 26 . 48 vii. 132-40 . 137 ii. 18 . . . 47 XV. 27 . 47,48 vu. 139 . . . 208 ii. 18 f. . . 49 XV. 30 ff. . 48 viii. 1-3 . . . 240 ii. 27 . . . 49 XV. 34 . . 48 viii. 20-36 . . 137 ii. 29 . . 49, 157 xvi. 14 . . 48 viii. 28-36 . 305 u. 31 f. . . 49 xvi. 18 . . 48 viii. 32-6 . 132, 308 ii. 33 . . . 47 xvi. 29 . . 47 viii. 33 . . 132 iii. 6 . . . 50 xvii. 16 . . 51 viii. 35 . . . 208 iii. 7 . . . 50 xviii. 16 . . 257 viii. 37-63 . 137 iu. 17 ff. . . 155 XX. 2 . . . 46 viii. 41 . . 132, 240 iu. 28 . . 155 XX. 4 49, 157, 158 viii. 47 ff. . 133 iii. 31 4 7, 89n., 158 XX. 7-9 . . 46 viii. 53 . . . 208 iv. . . 42 XX. 10 . . . 257 viii. 56 f. . . 207 iv. 6 . . . 157 xxi. 2-5 . . 46 viii. 66-62 . 239 iv. 15 . . 156, 169 n. xxi. 3 . 46 viii. 56-63 . 137 iv. 19. . . . 258 xxi. 4 . . . 46 viii. 69 f. . . 239 iv. 26 . . 267 irxi. 7 . 158 ix. 1-4 . . . 307 iv. 30 . . 166 xxi. 16 . . 47 ix. 7 . . . 132, 308 iv. 32 . . 257 xxi. 19 . . . 50 ix. 10 f. . . . 239 v. 1 . . . 159 n. xxi. 21 . . . 157 ix. 14 f. . . . 240 v. 1-4 . . 166 xxi. 22 . . 157, 257 ix. 15. . . 132 v. 10 . . . 268 xxi. 26 . . 46, 221 ix. 24. . . 131 v. 12 . . . 166 xxii. 9 . . . 48 ix. 31 f. . . . 131 V. 13 . . . 221 xxii. 10 . . . 221 ix. 36 . . 132, 207 V. 15-18 . . 258 xxii. 14 . . 156, 167 ix. 37 . . . 131 v. 17 . . . 158 xxii. 16 . . 42 n., 49 X. 19 f. . . . 131 V. 18 . . . 158 xxii. 20 . . . 49 xi. . . . . 135 vi. 4-10 . . 168 xxii. 22 . . . 259 xi. 36 ff. . . . 307 vi. 8 . . . 60, 158 xxiii. 11 . . . 258 xi. 36-46 . . 136 vi. 14 . . 47, 168 xxiii. 12-31 . 257 xii. . . . . 136 vi. 17. . . 47 xxiii. 16 . . 46,47 xii. 31-3. . . 135 vii. 3f. . . 47 xxiii. 26-30 . 257 xii. 32 . . . 307 vii. 20 5 0, 89 n., 158 xxiii. 31 . . . 258 xiii. . . 135, 307 vii. 24 . . . 167 xxiv. 11 . . . 46 xiii, 23 . . 132, 308 vii. 26 . . . 167 xxiv. 28 . . . 258 vii. 27 . . . 166 xxiv. 30 . . . 258 vii. 29 . . . 269 xxiv. 31 . . . 259 Jvhile ea vu. 36 . . . 47 XXV. 1-10 . . 49 1. 1 . . . . 46 ix. 15 . . 158, 268 xxvi. 34 . . . 157 i. 6 . . . . 46 X. 1-1^ . . . 166 xxvii. 23 . . 257 i. 7 H. . . . 256 X. 8 . . . . 156 xxviii. 6 . . . 50 i. 9-11 . . . 158 X. 11 . . . . 166 XXX. 7 . . . 47 i. 10 . . . . 156 X. 17 . . . . 258 XXX. 7-17 . . 50 i. U . . . . 157 xi. 4f. . . . 156 XXX. 16 . . . 60 330 INDEX OF PASSAGES Jubilees (cont.) PAGE ix. 8 . . . . PAGE 85 iv. 8-U . PAGE . 171 XXX. 22 . . . 256 ix. 10 . . . 85 iv. 10 . . 71, 225 xxxi. 13 fit. . . 257 1 ix. 1 1 . . . 87 iv. 30 . . 171 xxxii. 10 . . 47 ix. 13 . . . 84,85 iv. 33 . . 171 xxxiii. 10 -20 . 158 ix. 14. . . 84,85 iv. 42 . . 70,71 xxxiii. 16 156, 157, X. 2 . . . . 85 iv. 46 . . 70, 267 221 X. 5 . . . . 85 vi. 12 . . 267 xxxiii. 18 . . 157 xi. 5 . . . . 86 vi. 49 . 70 xxxiii. 20 . . 48 xi. 10 . . . 175 vi. 53 . . 70 xxxvi. 1 . . . 259 xi. 11 . . 277 vii. 13 1 71 xxxvi. 4 . . . 50 xi. llff. . . 175 viii. 17-32 . 170 xxxvi. IC . . 258 xi. 13 . . . . 85 ix. 43 f. . . 70 xxxvii. 1' 7 . . 256 xii. 1-4 . . 85 ix. 54-6 . . 267 xxxix. 6 . . . 157 xii. 2 . . . 85 xii. 1-4 . . 170 xli. 25 . . . 221 xii. 7 . . . 85 xii. 6-18 . . 170 xli. 26 f. . . . 158 xii. 8 . . . 228 xii. 11 . 171 xlviii. 1-; J . . 51 xii. 19 . . 85 xii. 15 . . 225 xlviii. 17 . . 51 xiii. 4 £. . . 228 xiii. 41 f. . 70 xlix. 2 . . . 51 xiv. 10 85 xiv. 4-15 . 268 1. 6-13 . . . 49 xvi. 6 . . 228 xiv. 15 . . 250 1. 8 . . . . 49 xvi. 8 . 85 xiv. 20-23 . 170 1. 13 . . . . 49 xvi. 16 . . 86 xiv. 24-7 . 170 Iviii. 13 . . . 49 xvi. 17 84, 17 5,277 xiv. 41 . . 70, 268 xvi. 18 . . 85 xvi. 3 . . 71 Ji idith xvi. 22 . . xvi. 23 . . 86 87 iv. 3 . . iv. 6 . . 85 . 85 xvi. 24 . . xxiii. 18 . . 87 228 2 Maccabees iv. 11 f. . . . 228 i.1-9 . . 4 iv. 13 . . . 85 i. 10-ii. 18 4 iv. 14 . . . 85 1 Maccdbe B« ii. 4-6 . . 20 v. 17 e. . . . 84 i. 11 . . . 170 ii. 19-32. . . 4 V. 17-21 . . 277 i. 11-15 . . 170 ii. 22 . . 88,89 V. 19 . . . 85 i. 14f. . . 1£ .8, 171 ii. 23 . . . . 4 V. 20 . . . 175 i. 34 . . . 170 iii. 1 . . . . 88 vi. 19 . . 228 i. 52-61 . . 267 iii. 2 . . . . 89 vii. 19 . . 228 ii. 21 . . . 70,71 iii. 22 ff. . . . 229 vii. 28 . . 277 u. 29-38 . . . 119 iii. 24-30 . . 88 viii. 2 . . 86 ii. 32-40. . . 70 iv. 7 ff. . . . 89 vui. 6 . . 85 ii. 33-41 . . . 49 iv. 12 f. . . . 158 viii. 15 . . 227 ii. 42 . . . . 71 iv. 16 . 257, 278, viii. 18-2 . . 175 ii. 46 . . . . 70 296 n. viii. 19 . . 277 ii. 60 . . . . 70 iv. 16 f. . . . 228 viii. 24 . . 85 ii. 57 . . . . 267 iv. 17 . . 176, 278 viii. 27 . . . 277 ii. 61 . . . . 70 iv. 38 . 2 78, 296 n. viii. 29 . . . 86 ii. 63 . . . . 267 V. 5 ff. . . . 278 viii. 31 . . . 228 iii. 18 . . . 70 V. 9 . .2 78, 296 n. viii. 32-4 . . 228 iii. 19 . . . 225 V. 10 . . . . 259 ix. . . . 228 iii. 21 . . . 70 V. 17 . . . . 228 ix. 4 . . . . 86 iii. 49 . . . 70 V. 17 f. . . . 89 ix. 5 f . . . . 238 iu. SO . . ' n,225 vi. 6 . 88, 89 INDEX OF PASSAGES 331 PAGE 1 3 Maccabees PAGE vi. 10 . . 88 1 PAGE i. 35 . . . . 191 vi. 12 ff. 89 i. 7 190 i. 35-ii. 3 . . 233 vi. 12-17 . 278 i. 9 . . . 107 ii. 2 64, 112 vi. 14 f. . . 279 i. 22 . . . 107 ii. 4 . . . . 193 vi. 18 . . 88 ii. 3 . . . 190 ii. 4-6 . . . 198 vi. 18-31 . 89 ii. 4 ff. . . 292 ii.