I9 Cornell Universily Library I INTERIOR T 69.S6 . Higher technical ed;;<-a!l°' ,„,oreig ^TION 924 002 248 387 Nc HIGHER TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES STANDARDS AND SCOPE Prepared by ANNA TOLMAN SMITH SPECIAUST IN FOREIGN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS AND W. S. JE5IEN SPECIAUST IN SLAVONIC LANGUAGES AND HISTORY WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFHCE 1917 CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY NEW YORK STATE SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL AND LABOR RELATIONS THE GIFT OF PROFESSOH C. K. BEACH DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR BUREAU OF EDUCATION BULLETIN. 1917, No. 11 HIGHER TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES STANDARDS AND SCOPE Prepared by ANNA TOLMAN SMITH SPECIALIST IN FOREIGN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS AND W. S. JESIEN SPECIAUST IN SLAVONIC LANGUAGES AND HISTORY PROPERTY OF LIBRARY- NEW YORK STATE SCHOOL INDUSTBIAL AND LABOR RELATIONS CORNELL UNIVERSITY WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFHCE I9I7 P.p. . ADDITIONAL COPIES or THIS PUBLICATION MAT BE PROCUKED FBOH THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOTEENMENT PBINTINO omCE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 20 CENTS PER COPY CONTENTS. Page. Letter of transmittal 5 Introduction 7 Germany: Standards of preparatory training 10 Organization and equipment of higher technical schools 12 The Higher Technical School of Berlin — Charlottenburg 14 School for mining engineering, Freiberg, Saxony 24 Royal Technical School of Saxony 25 France: Distinctive characteristics of technical education 27 Preliminary education, general and mathematical 27 Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers 29 Ecole Centrale des Arts et Manufacttires, Paris 31 Ecole Polytechnique 32 Ecoles Nationales d'Arts et Metiers 35 Recent movemtots 36 Statistics of higher technical schools of France, 1913 37 Great Britain: Introduction 38 Agencies for higher technical education in England 39 Technical departments of the English universities 40 The Imperial College of Science and Technology, London 41 Manchester Municipal School of Technology 46 Technical Colleges of Scotland 51 Ireland 56 Switzerland 57 Italy: Lower stages of technical education 63 Higher technical institutions 64 Auxiliary establishments 69 Examinations 71 Financial support 71 Statistical table 72 Austria: Organization of higher technical education 73 Programs and methods of instruction 74 Statistical table 75 Russia: Introduction 76 Preparatory education 76 Organization of higher technical education 81 Institute of Engineers of Ways of Conununication 83 Technological Institute of Emperor Nicholas I 89 Statistical table 91 PROPERTY OF LIBRARY ^ NEW YORK STATE SCHOOL ^ r-o^^ INDUSTRIAL kW LABOB RELATIONS ^^^^^ 4 CONTENTS. Japan: Page Preparatory education . „ „ 92 The two types of higher technical schools 93 Administration 94 Peculiar features of university departments of engineering 95 Finances 96 Tokyo Imperial University, College of Engineering 97 Statistical tables lOO Canada: Report of the royal commission on technical education 102 Admission requirements for university departments 104 University of Toronto — Faculty of applied science and engineering 104 M'Gill University— Faculty of applied science '. . . 105 Laval University — Polytechnic school 106 Nova Scotia Technical College : 108 South America: Introduction IO9 University of La Plata 109 School of Engineering, Porto Alegre 112 Bibliography II5 Index 119 ILLUSTRATIONS. Plate 1. A, Higher Technical School, Charlottenburg, Germany; B, The Tech- nical University, Dresden 16 2. Higher War School, Paris 32 3. Municipal School of Technology, Manchester, England 48 4. Zurich Polytechnic Institute 60 5. A\ Tokyo Higher Technical School. Practical work in ceramics; B, Tokyo Higher Technical School. Weaving 9Q LEHER OF TRANSMITTAL Depaktment of the Interior, Bureau of Education, Washington, February H, 1917. Sir : To meet, to some extent at least, the demand of school officers and business men of the United States for information in regard to standards and scope of higher technical education in foreign countries, I recommend that the manuscript transmitted herewith be published as a bulletin of the Bureau of Education. This manuscript has been prepared at my request by Anna Tohnan Smith, specialist in foreign educational systems, and W. S. Jesien, speciaUst in Slavonic languages and the history of education in Slavonic countries. . Respectfully submitted. P. P. Claxton, Gommissioner. The Secretary of the Interior. a Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924002248387 HIGHER TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. INTRODUCTION. Interest in technical education of the higher order has been greatly increased by the European war, and as a consequence numerous in- quiries have been recently received at the Bureau of Education with regard to the higher technical schools of foreign countries. These inquiries relate in the main to the organization and conduct of the foreign schools, their courses of instruction, and the relative value of their diplomas. The endeavor has been made in this bulletin to meet such inquiries, whether general or specific, by means of information drawn from official and other authoritative sources. In a broad survey of the subject it is seen that while the term technical is used often in a comprehensive sense, including com- mercial, agricultural, and engineering schools, it is more generally restricted to schools which specialize in engineering and the mechani- cal arts that involve the applications of science. In this limited sense the term is used in the present bulletin; but «ven this restricted province includes schools exclusively professional in their purposes and those that combine with departments of professional engineering a wide range of specialties relating to productive industry. On account of the varying scope of technical institutions and the differences between coimtries in respect to classification, it is impos- sible to employ a uniform scheme of presentation for institutions selected as typical and equally impossible to institute exact compari- sons between their programs and their standards. It may be said, however, that all the institutions here classed as higher technical, with the few exceptions hereafter noted, require the same entrance quali- fications as the universities of their respective countries and confer diplomas that have equal value with the university diplomas. These two conditions afford a basis of classification which has been main- tained in the bulletin. The matter presented includes therefore (1) a survey of the studies preliminary to the higher technical schools, (2) accounts of typical schools, (3) statistical summaries comprising ad- ditional institutions of the same order. 7 8 HIGHER TECHNICAL EDUCATION". So far as possible the information in regard to each country is arranged under the given heads in the order named. The accounts of typical schools referred to under (2) include in a few instances de- tailed programs. These will serve to suggest the contents of the similar courses of instruction in other institutions which are pre- sented in brief outline to avoid wearisome repetition.' The courses of study preliminary to the highfer technical instruc- tion are covered by the programs of secondary schools, which in nearly all foreign countries are fixed by official decrees and are strictly maintained. Great Britain is an exception in this respect, the secondary schools of that country having large independence and individuaUty. At the same time the actual standard of preparation for the higher technical studies differs little from that maintained on the Continent. Hence the programs of the German gymnasia and realschulen and the French lyc6es, which are very fully, presented under the respective countries, fairly represent European standards for admission to the higher orders of education, both general and technical. Marked deviations from these standards are discussed under the different countries considered. It is noticeable that, while the courses of preparatory study differ in scope, stress is invariably placed upon mathematics and the ele- ments of the exact sciences. As a rule, in European coimtries if a candidate for admission to a higher technical school has had mainly a classical education he is required to take such courses in mathe- matics, physics, chemistry, etc., as will make good his deficiencies in these studies. Thus, while the same mental maturity is demanded in candidates for thp higher education, whether general or technical, it is recognized that the latter depends upon the habit of exact ob- servation and close reasoning, which is the product of scientific train- ing; practically, however, the two orders of higher education rest upon the same basis. In a completely organized system of technical education the line of relation between the lower grades and the highest starts with the modeling and weaving exercises of the kindergarten, and is continued by manual training and science studies in elementary and secondary schools. The various orders of technical schools iverge from the main course of general education at successive stages: Continuation schools with a vocational bias follow the elemei^tary grades; schools of arts and trades follow the intermediate or higher grade elementary schools, while technical schools of the secondary order reqiiire for admission two or three years of a secondary school course; the higher technical schools are distinguished from the latter by a standard of admission equivalent to the bachelor's degree or the university > These accounts are derived from prospectuses, reports, and manuscript statements, tor which the office Is indebted to the president, director, or other officials of the respective institutions. INTRODUCTION'. 9 matriculation examination. In all European countries large provi- sion has been made for the lower orders of technical training, and in particular provision for trade and engineering schools intended to provide directors and foremen of large industrial works. This class of institutions, which is not included in the present bulletin, has been qxiite fully considered in previous publications of this office.' As a rule, both in Great Britain and in Germany the highest techni- cal schools have developed from schools of the secondary order, although the latter are not regarded as preparatory to the former. Even in Italy, where .the two orders of technical education are closely correlated, a student from the secondary technical institutions must pass a year either in a preparatory section of the higher technical schools, or in a university faculty of sciences before he can be regis- tered in the advanced technical courses. The close relation between the progress of industry and that of technical education is emphasized anew in every survey of this sub- ject. Schools of military and naval engineering pertain directly to State service, but a much higher conception of technical education led to the estabhshment of the technical schools that now dispute with universities supremacy in the field of higher education. The ficole Polytechnique in Paris, the earliest institution of this order, was created in 1794 by men who at the dawn of the scientific movement foresaw its vast promise for great industrial enterprises. This prophetic outlook also excited efforts for the diffusion of scientific knowledge among artisans of aU orders; hence in the same year there was created at Paris another institution, the Conservatory of Arts and Crafts, in which it was proposed that the history of the development of the arts and their relation to the sciences should be taught along with technical projsesses and methods. These two purposes have determined the subsequent development of technical education in France, and they have both affected in greater or less proportion the organization of that interest in other countries. iSee bibliography, p. 116. GERMANY. STANDARDS OF PREPARATORY TRAINING. In Germany, as in European countries generally, the higher tech- nical institutions draw their students chiefly from the secondary schools for general education. This preparation is also obtained in technical schools of the intermediate order. The secondary schools. — ^The secondary schools of Germany, which prepare students for admission to the university and higher technical schools, comprise three types, as follows: Gymnasium, realgymna- sium, andhigher (ober) real school. These schools all have a nine years' course, organized in three divisions: A lower division comprising Classes VI, V, IV, intended for pupils from. 9 to 12 years of age; an intermediate division comprising also three classes, untertertia (lower third), obertertia (upper third), and untersecunda (lower second), for ages 13 to 15; and an upper division comprising classes obersecimda (upper second), unterprima (lower first), and oberprima (upper first), intended for ages 16 to 18. ■ The work of each year in the secondary schools is tested by an examination which determines the abihty of the student to pass on to the higher class. The leaving, or final examination (abiturienten- examen), which takes place when the pupU has passed through ober- prima, marks the completion of the course in the full or nine-year secondary schools. The leaving examination is conducted by written papers and orally. The written examination comprises for all the schools a German essay and the working of foiu" mathematical questions pertaining to different branches of the subject. In respect to other subjects, the matter of the written examination is determined by the kind of institution, but in every case it is based upon the work of the upper division of the school, comprising upper second and lower and upper prima. The oral examination comprises for all the schools Christian relig- ious teaching, history, mathematics, and special exercises in the remaining subjects determined by the type of school. The time-table of the realgymnasium given below represents a mean between that of the gymnasium and the higher real school. In the realgymnasium Latin is preserved, but has less time than in 10 GEEMANY. 11 the gymnasium; Greek is omitted; English is added as a second modem language; and the time devoted to arithmetic, mathematics, natural science, and drawing is increased. The distinctions will be seen by comparing the columns of totals included in the time-table. Time-table of the realgymnasium, showing, by classes, weekly hours with totals for the three types of institutions. for ',ach S ubject, Hours per week, by classes. Totals. Subjects. VI. V. IV. L-ni. u-ni. L-n. u-n. L-I. U-1. Eeal- gym- nasi- um. Gym- nasi- um. Higher real school. Religion 3 4 2 3 2 3 4 2 3 4 3 5 2 3 4 3 5 2 3 4 3 4 2 3 4 3 4 2 3 4 3 4 2 3 4 3 4 19 28 29 18 49 19 26 20 ""68' 36 17 9 34 18 4 8 19 German and historical tales 34 "PV^npli 47 English... 25 Latin 8 8 7 History 2 2 4 2 2 2 5 2 2 2 6 2 2 1 5 4 3 3 3 17 11 42 29 4 16 18 Geography. 2 4 2 2 2 4 2 2 2 14 AHtninetic and math- 5 S 6 5 5 5 47 Natural science Writing 36 6 Drawing . 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 16 Total 25 26 29 30 30 30 31 31 31 262 269 262 Curricula in those subjects which are generally emphasized in preparation for higher technical studies are given, for the realgym- nasia, in the following outhne. Languages — {a) German. — Complete mastery of the native tongue, both in speech and writing, is insisted upon. A fair acquaintance with the national Uterature, with understanding of the spirit of the sagas and the old Germanic world represented by them, is also a requirement. The instruction in German calls for numerous tasks executed outside the school hours (Haxishche Aufsatze), such as composition, theses, essays, reading of classics, etc. (6) Modern.^French and English are the two modern languages generally taught in German realgymnasia. The study of French is given more time than that of English. The instruction in French aims at imparting to the students an understanding of the important works of French Hterature of the last three centuries, and facility in the practical use of the language, both in speech and writing. The entire course of French extends over seven years, beginning with the quarta. Stress is placed on grammar and translation in the earher period, and later upon reading and conversation. Translation into French is an important exercise in the higher classes. The instruction in Enghsh is carried out in a similar manner, although a year less and fewer hours a week are given to it than to French. English works since the time of Shakespeare are chosen for 12 HIGHER TECHN-ICAL EDUCATZON. the literary study. Special attention is given during the last year of the course to technical and scientific Enghsh terminology. Mathematics. — The program of mathematics in the realgymnasium is identical with that of the oberreaJschule and is broader in scope than that followed in the classical gymnasia. It comprises: (a) Arithmetic up to the proof of the binomial theorem for indefinite exponents; (6) a^ebra through equations of the third degree; (c) plane geometry, including symmetry; and spherical geometry, including principles of descriptive geometry; {d) plane and spherical trigo- nometry; (e) introduction to the theory of maxima and minima; (/) plane analytic geometry. The study of mathematics is connected with extensive work in the solution of problems. Natural sciences.— Under this head are included botany, zoology, mineralogy, physics, and chemistry. Only general notions of biology are taught. Physics, beginning with the upper tertia and pursued to the end of the course, is studied very thoroughly, with considerable laboratory work. Chemistry begins with the lower secunda and is completed in the last year with several more important chapters from organic chemistry. Afineralogy is hmited mainly to crystallography and the knowledge of chemical composition and physical properties of the popularly known minerals. ORGANIZATION AND EQUIPMENT OF HIGHER TECHNICAL SCHOOLS. Introduction. — At the head of the institutions for technical educa- tion in Germany are the technical high schools (Hochschulen), 12 in number, which are named from the cities in which they are respectively located (see table, p. 26). Many of these institutions were originally trade or monotechnical schools intended for practical instruction in architecture, engineering, mechanical technology, etc. As induBtrial necessities multiphed and their scientific bearings were more fuUy recognized, the scope of the schools broadened. Higher mathe- matics, drawing, designing, and the theory or rationale of the subjects claimed consideration. These higher elements gained more and more prominence, and eventually chemistry, chemical technology, physics, and its appHcations in electricity, naval architecture, surveying, forestry, etc., were added and the curriculum broadened by the inclusion of languages, political economy, etc. At the same time the equipment for practical work was lavishly supplied according to the requirements of the different technical departments. During the early period of this movement Germany was a comparatively poor coimtry, but the rulers realized at that time that industrial and economic supremacy would depend upon the application of scientific knowledge to the workshop, the factory, and to industry in general. Under this GERMANY. 13 « idea technical education was developed with a scientific spirit and methods of its- own. Finally, the governments of the different German States authorized the higher schools of this order to grant the degree of doctor in engineering; hence the schools now have equal rank with the universities. Departments. — The technical high schools of Germany all have the four departments of architecture, civil engineering, mechanical engi- neering, and technical chemistry. At the same time they present special features; for example, Breslau comprises five departments organized in three sections, one of which is devoted to general science; Darmstadt and Karlsruhe have each a special department of electro- technics, which in the other schools, excepting only Hannover, is included under mechanical engineering; in Hannover this department is connected with the chemical technical department. Berlin has a special independent division for naval architecture and marine engi- neering, Brunswick a special department for pharmacy, Karlsruhe for forestry, and Munich for agriculture. As a rule, the instruction for the first year is chiefly general in char- acter; later on specialization takes place according to the branch of engineering chosen by the student. Government. — ^The technical high schools are invested with powers of self-government which are exercised by the staff of professors, sub- ject only to general supervision by the ministry of education and ecclesiastical affairs. The organization is similar to that of the academic universities. The head of the technical school is called "chancellor" or "rector." The departments of study are controlled by councils, consisting of the regular professors (ordentUche profes- soren), presided over by a dean or president chosen by themselves. These deans or presidents generally constitute the university senate. The main point to be noted is that the professors have practically full control of the institutions. The teaching staff comprises: 1. FuU professors (ordentliche professoren). 2. Extraordinary professors (ausserordenthche professoren). 3. Lecturers (dozen ten). 4. Private lecturers (privat dozen ten). 5. Assistants, 6. Honorary professors. 7. Instructors. The staff is invariably large, and many of the professors are men of distinction who have made original contributions to science. The statutory salaries are small, being usually less than $500 per annum, but the actual emoluments may amount to more than 10 times this amoimt, exceeding even $20,000 per annum for men of special eminence. 14 HIGHEB' TECHNICAL EDUCATION. Pensions are granted to aU definitely engaged professors and docents, the amounts varying, however, in different German States. Equipments. — ^The equipments of the several departments are ample and generally on a lavish scale. They include technical libraries, laboratories, workshops, and specialized museums. THE HIGHER TECHNICAL SCHOOL OF BERLIN At Charlottenburg. The Technical High School of Berhn (Konighche Technische Hoch- schule zu Berlin) is situated at Charlottenburg, a suburb of that city, and is noted for its magnificent buildings and lavish equipments. The institution was foxmded in 1879 by the union of two existing schools and was raised to its present status by a royal decree of 1882. As stated in its charter, the purpose of the school is to afford higher training for the technical callings in State and public service, as well as in industrial enterprises, and to foster the sciences and arts per- taining to technical instruction. The school comprises the following departments (abteilungen) : Architecture; civil engineering; mechan- ical engineering and electro technics; naval architecture and marine engineering; chemistry and metallurgy; general science, especially mathematics and natural history. Every department has its technical library and ample provision of laboratories, workshops, etc. The annual session extends from October 1 to August 1, and in addition to the long summer vacation there are two intermissions of 14 days each, one at Christmas and the other at Easter. TJie student. — The student is free to choose his lectures, but he is advised to follow all the studies of the department he selects. Stu- dents may be admitted, as in the other technical high schools, who have secured the matm-ity certificate from a German gymnasium, realschule, or oberrealschule, also those who have the certificate from a Bavarian industrial school, or from the Royal Trade Academy at Chemnitz. Germans educated outside of Germany are admitted when their preparation entitles them to attend a school of higher instruction of equal standing. The minister of education decides as to the equivalence of the preparation. A foreign student must have a certificate showing the completion of a nine-year course of prepara- tory education, or its equivalent, which would entitle him to enter a university in his own country. He must also show such knowledge of the German language as will enable him to follow the instruction. There are no further requirements for the admission of foreign GERMANY. 15 students. Wonlen are admitted under the same conditions as men. At the end of the year, or upon leaving the university, every student may obtain a certificate of the courses attended, exercises followed, and examinations passed. Special students. — ^Persons who have not siifficient preparation to enter as regular students may be admitted as special students to any one of the departments. They receive credit for lectures and labora- tory work, but other academic certificates are not conferred upon them. The admission of women as special students in all cases requires the consent of the minister. Degrees. — ^The school confers the diplomas of engineering and doctor of engineering (see p. 24). Fees. — The entrance fee required of all students is 30 marks ($7.50). The fee for regular courses is estimated according to the number of hours per week for each half year or semester. Lectures for regular students, 4 marks; practical work for regular students, 3 marks; lectures for special students, 5 marks; practical work for special students, 4 marks. For practical work in inorganic, organic technical chemistry, metallurgical, electrochemistry and photochemi- cal laboratories, the charge is 85 marks per half year. The total fees for the whole year would range from 300 to 350 marks ($75 to $87.50). The fee for the examination for diploma of engineer is 60 m.arks ($15) for Germans and 120 marks ($30) for foreigners. The fee for examination for the diploma of doctor of engineer is 120 marks ($30) for Germans and 240 marks ($60) for foreigners. DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. The program of the department of mechanical engineering has been selected for close analysis with the view of establishing the distinctive characteristics of the system in operation at the institution. It must be noted that the program, as reviewed in this chapter, is by no means rigid or obligatory in all its extent. The students are giveii a liberal measure of free choice in the selection of time in which to study a particular subject, and are expressly warned not to over- tax their powers by taking a great number of subjects. They are, however, required to submit their individual plans of study to the deans of their respective departments and to follow their advice in the matter. The department of mechanical engineering offers five options, as follows: (A) General machine construction, (B) transportation engi- neering, (C) electrical engineering, (D) research and operation of machines, and (E) engineering administration. The first two years are devoted to the principles of technical science common to all 16 HIGHER TECHNICAL EDUCATION. mechanical branches. Specialization begins in the third year, when the courses of instruction are arranged in the following combinations: (1) A-B; (2) C-D; (3) E. The fourth year shows further differentiation, the options A, B, and E being followed separately, and only the options C and D remain- ing combined. Finally, the institution offers to all students of mechanical engineering a great number of optional courses consisting of lectures and practical occupations to be followed during the four years as a means of enlarging the students' special or general education. Subjects included in the program of the first year. Subjects. Hours per ^^■eek. First semester. Second semester. Introduction to machine construction Mechanical technology and iron smelting Experimental physics Work in physical laboratory (physical measurements) . Mechanics Higher mathematics Descriptive geometry Study of commercial esta blishraent? History of mechanotechnics (for A-B-E group only) . . . Total Group A-B-E . Total Group C-D.... 40 38 ■ Can be taken in either semester. In the second year the course is still common to all the options. Subjects included in the program of the second year. Subjects. Hours per week. First semester. Second semester. Elements of machines Mechanical technology (second part) and theory of materials Thermodynamics Exercises in mechanical laboratory Mechanics, II Graphical statics Liftmg machines Workmg machines (pumps, blasting machines, and compressors— piston and cen- trifugal) .". Principles of eloctrotechnics Electrotechnical measurements Exercises in electrotechnical laboratory Selected topics in chemistry Introduction to experimental chemistry Principles of social economy Differential equations (group C-D only) ; Total Group A-B-E . Total Group C-D ' For erouD A-B-E only, ' For group C-D only. 4 32 2 12 2 2 4 4 M 2 4 39 35 BUREAU OF EDUCATION. BULLETIN, 1917, NO. 11 PLATE 1. If if A. HIGHER TECHNICAL SCHOOL, CH ARLOTTEN BU RG, GERMANY. sss* 1 ^^....^ ■i nf^^Si Ifu m^i8^^^t&'.^?lBWMiBBMfea[?liiBBB^i^ J>^ i^9 5. THE TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, DRESDEN. GERMANY. 17 It will be noted from the foregoing table that speciahzation is introduced as early as the second year, in the form of additional study in electroteohnics for students following options C and D. These two options, it may be recalled, represent, respectively, electrical engineering and research and operation of machines. The specialized work for students of the remaining group, A-B-E, occupies eight hours of study in the elements of machines during the summer semester. The specialization becomes still more marked in the third year. The following subjects are studied jointly in classes combining sev- eral groups of options: Subjects of the third year. Subjects. Hours per weet. A-B. mas- ter. Sec- ond mes- ter. C-D. First mes- ter. Sec- ond First mes- ter. Sec- ond mes- ter. Steam-engine construction (including steam turbines in all options butE) Internal-combustion engines and power vehicles (gas engines, gas-engine operation, oil engines, motor cars, flying macmnes) . . Designing of internal-combustion machines (in group A-B com- bined "With design of working machinery) Steam boilers ThermodjTiamics, n, including applications of heat power Exercises in mechanical laboratory, II Construction of electrical machines (in abridged scope in options A, B, andE) .' Exercises in eiectrotechnical laboratory Elements of surface and undergroimd construction Technology of heating and ventilation Methods of measurement in heating and ventilation Banking and stock exchange operation Political economy Studied by A-B group only: Design of lifting machines Studied 07 C-D group only: Illumination technology Definite integrals Sdected topics in technical mechanics Exercises in eiectrotechnical experimental field Studied in option E only: Government Administration Business procedure Exercises in banking smd commerce Total. 48 60 52 66 49 In the fourth year marked specialization takes place, particularly in options B and E. The time devoted to practical exercises is in- creased, and in the class lectures minutest details of appUed mechanics are treated. 81797°— 17- 18 HIGHER TECHNICAL EDUCATIOlir. Subjects of the fourth year. Subjects. Hours per week. First mes- ter. Sec- ond mes- ter. First mes- ter. Seo- ond se- mes- ter. C-D First mes- ter. Sec- ond mes- ter. First mes- ter. ond mes- ter. STUDIES COMMON TO SEVERAL OPTIONAL GROUPS. Machine tools Factory management Exercises in experimental fleld Water-power engines Design of water-power engines combined with re- search in a research institute for water engines. Water-power machines (including centrifugal pumps) . Exercises in electrotechnical experimental field, combined with designing of sketches of electrical machines Buildings necessary for industrial engineering works. . Buildings necessary for communal engineering works . Technology of heating and ventilation Methods of measurement in heating and ventilation. . Design of heating and ventilating installations Design of more difficult lifting machines and of ma- chines used in State, communal, and industrial transportation Desl^ of working machines and internal combustion engines Advanced experimentation in mechanical laboratory. Selected chapters from technical mechanics Statics of building construction Applications of electric power and electric railways. . . Commutator motors for alternating current Commutator motors for direct current Exercises in the institute of economics Eevlew of construction of railway engines, carriages, and machinery Design of water-power engines and steam boilers Selected topics in higher technical mechanics 4 1 (') (■) (•) STUnlED EXCLUSIVELY IN OPTION A. Testing of materials, with exercises. . Technique of refrigeration STUDIED EXCLUSIVELY IN OPTION B. Locomotives and self-propelling cars Railway operation, buildings, and signaling Training college work Construction of railway cars and brakes Iron bridge work and complicated engineering con- struction The iron constructions of the civil engineer Essential features of railway-station design Larger depots, safety systems, railway operation STUDIED EXCLUSIVELY IN GROUP C-D. Exercises in the electrotechnical experimental field. Long distance electric transmission, including wire- less telegraphy Exercisesin laboratory lor long distance electric trans- mission Construction of instruments and apparatus of meas- urement and long distance transimssion STUDtED EXCLUSIVELY IN OPTION E. Besign of machines for elevating and transportation. History of technical science Political economy Patent and trade-mark laws Building laws (') (') (■) (') Total. 73 I 78 I 65 38 1 May be studied in either semester. ' Optional. GERMANY. 19 The program of detached optional subjects for additional study during the four years, with the view of further speciahzation or of enlarging the student's general education, comprises a hat of 85 subjects. The part for specialization offers a great variety of studies which make it possible for the students to go into the deepest details of their chosen branch. Those interested in aeroplanes may take advantage of a series of courses such as: Aerodynamics and me- chanics of flying machines; motor airships; flying machines; exer- cises in construction of flying machines, etc. Those whose predilec- tion is toward railroad engineering may further speciahze in this line by taking a number of optional subjects such as: Railroad superstructure; electric interurban lines; city railways, etc. The full number of optional courses for specialization is 57; of general education, 28. Foreign languages are included in the specialization group. Three foreign languages are offered : French, English, and Russian. There are language courses for beginners and for advanced students. The group for general education includes mostly physico-mathe- matical subjects, though it contains also subjects hke law, pohtical economy, history of German industry, workmen's accident insurance laws, etc. The examination of the program shows the following characteris- tics to be the most distinctive: 1. A great number of subjects, all taught by specialists. — ^The depart- ment of mechanical engineering offers 164 subjects, including the supplementary courses mentioned above. A professor is seldom charged with teaching a large group of subjects; three or four closely connected subjects, or rather divisions of one subject, are considered the limit of one man's capacity. This system presents great advan- tages, since it leads to the employment of experts in every specialty offered by the engineering science. Many professors of the division of mechanical engineering, as well as those of other divisions, actually are experts or inventors who had gained wide recognition prior to their engagement to teach in the institution. Among the prominent professors in this department may be mentioned Kammerer, Staven- hagen, and Von Parseval, builder of one of the first dirigibles. ^. A great amount of time devoted to study. — The average daily time devoted to lectures and practical occupations is 8 hours, from 8 a. m. to 6 p. m., with 2 hours' interval taken usually between'12 and 2 p. m. On Saturdays the institution closes at noon, although in the higher courses practical exercises are occasionally arranged for Saturday afternoon hours. The average weekly number of periods is especially high in the fourth year, when it reaches 70, or even 80, hours, or about 12 hours a day. The additional time is 20 HIGHER TECHNICAL EDUCATIOlir. taken early in the morning, from 7 a. m., or in the evening, until 7 or 8 p. m. 3. The large proportion of time devoted to practical work. — There is a distinct division made in this respect between the first two and the last two years. The relation of practical work to the entire time of study during the first and the second years is from 38 to 44 per cent, while in the third and fourth years it keeps on the level of 65 per cent, with only a drop to 61 per cent in the second semester of the third year. The actual proportion of time given to practical occupations is the following : Percentage of time given to practical exercises. Years. First semester. Second First year. . . Second year. Third year.. Fourth year Percent. 43 38 65 65 Percent. 44 43 61 65 This relation is further illustrated by diagrams 1 and 2 : % 1-st year 2,-ndyear 3-rd year 4-th yeat ■^ r- 70 -^ /- LX! >r- -itsem.Z-ndsem l-stsem-thfls. DUQBAM 1,— I'ercentage of time given to practical exercises at Ctiarlottenbrn-g. GERMANY. 21 i 1-st year 2.-nd year 3-rd year 4-th year 3 1-st sem. 2-nd seal. Htsem. 2-ndsem. 1-st sent. 2.-na3em. 1-st sem. 2-nd s. M 70 RO j!» li^ 'iO 3 111 40 fifi Ijw ^jfD If i iff 11 i h 1 |l jl 1 1 IliiilliililililH 30 20 10 IKiHlliHm ] 1 1 1 1 IB ■ 1 ■ ■ 1 ■ DlAQBAM 2.- -Curves showing total time and time devoted to practical worlc at Charlotteuburg. Most of the practical work is done ia the laboratories of the insti- tution, which are numerous and exceptionally well equipped. The school has no arrangement for employment of students in private plants for practice during the school time. The practical work is arranged intermittently with lectures. The remaining departments are developed with equal completeness as regards detail and grouping. It will suffice to indicate their scQpe by outlines of the entire course, or that for selected years DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING. First year. — Experimental physics; higher mathematics; descriptive geometry; mechanics; elementary geodesy; geodetic practicum; exercises in surveying; experi- mental chemistry; construetiona in wood and stone; study of machines; elements of political economy. Second year. — Definite integrals and differential equations; mechanics; graphical statics; plan drawing; geodetic practicum; higher geodesy; general mineralogy; general geology; mechanical technology; theory of examination of materials with practical exercises; building construction in wood and stone; construction of roads; machines; machine construction and motive powers; theory of architectonic form; metallurgy of iron; general theory of political and social economy; introduction to jurisprudence and political science; commercial enterprise. Third year. — Statics of building construction and exercises; stone and wooden bridges; railway construction; main requirements for railway stations; railway build- ings and other constructions for rolling stock, etc.; foundations; practical hydraulics; 22 HIGHER TECHNICAL EDUCATION. floodgates, canal construction, and locks; construction of banks and weirs; ircm con- struction in connection with civil engineering; reinforced concrete and its structural uses; railway engines (locomotives, carriages, and mechanical arrangements); theory of potential; calculus of variations. Fourth year. — The constructive works in railways (including tunneling and the establishment of large railway stations); iron bridges and difficult iron constructions; movable bridges; sea and harbor works; canalization, etc., including agricultural technology; water supply of cities; drainage of cities; electric railways; sketch per- taining to naval architecture; seminar for municipal buildings; examination and test- ing of water traffic in large cities; theory of functions. DEPARTMENT OF ABCHTTECTUBE. LECTURES AND PRACTICAIj EXERCISES.' First year. — Descriptive geometry ■= (I and II); experimental physics (I and II); introduction to experimental chemistry; elementary geodesy; statics of building construction (general); statics of building construction (theory of strains and stresses); theory of building construction; ornament drawing; ancient architecture; ancient art; pldstic art and painting in connection with middle-age architecture; plastic art and painting of the early renaissance in Italy; plastic art and painting of the high renaissance in Italy; scientific principles of architecture and art; ornamental model- ing; figure modeling; principles of political economy; exercises in architectural sketchmg in Berlin museum; sketching from middle-age profiles and ornamental parts of all kinds; figure drawing from copy; landscape drawing and painting from examples and from nature in every technique, pencil, pen, color; history of mechan- ical arts of the Romance peoples; exercises in decorative plastic of the Italian renaissance; history of civilization in the Italian renaissance; history of mechanical arts of the Germanic peoples; development of museums and museum technique. Fourth year. — ^The program of the fourth year comprises 42 courses, including, however, the duplication of several subjects, which affords the student the advantage of a choice of professors treating the same, or presentations from different points of view. The program in- cludes the following topics which ia 1913-14 were in charge of 18 different professors : Mechanisms (I and II); history of ancient architecture, Egyptian, Oriental, and Grecian; history of Roman architecture and medieval church architecture; scientific principles of building and art, practical exercises; history of architecture, Etruscan, Roman, and modern Persian; history of civilization, Italian renaissance; mujucipal architecture; colored decorations; designing details of architectural construction and interior decoration; seminar pertaining to municipal buildings; foundation construc- tion for municipal buildings; elements of railway, road, bridge, hydraulic, and machine constructions; landscape sketching and painting from models and from nature, with pencil, pen and ink, brush, etc.; principles of ornamentation; designs for church furniture, utensils, etc.; designing ornamental details; medieval archi- tecture and designs in stone, brick, and wood; Gotliic architecture; designing figures according to given elements; brick construction in all styles; most important kinds of public and private constructions and city buildings; architecture of the renais- sance; designs of buildings according to instructions; practice in architectural sketch- ing; ancient art; modeling and drawing from nature; designing figures according to given instructions; drawing from life; baroque and rococo (general history of style, 1 Announced tor the year 1913-14. a The Roman numerals In parentheses show that tlio course is given in both terms of the year. GERMANY. 23 decoration, industrial art); philosophy of architecture; interior designs, rooms, wall decorations, etc.; lighting and heating; rural architecture; adaptations of architecture to landscape. COURSES IN TECHNICAL CHEMISTRY. The program of the first year in technical chemistry, it will be noticed, is intended to give the students training in basic elements of mechanics and chemistry, as weU as in methods of scientific study and experiment, such as chemical analysis, microscopy, spectral analysis, crystallography, etc. The first year includes also differ- ential and integral calculus and analytical and descriptive geometry, which constitute a mathematical preparation indispensable for higher technical studies in all bran^es. As a large part of industrial chem- istry deals with vegetable matter (chemistry of food products, chem- istry of fats and oils, chemistry of dyestuffs, etc.), the program of the first year includes a coxu^e in systematic botany, in mycology, and in morphology and physiology of plants. The second year extends and deepens the training in scientific methods and elements of science to which the first year was primarily devoted. It also is designed to impart to students a fundamental knowledge of organic chemistry and chemical technology. The third year deals with the industrial and agricultural applica- tions of chemical science. The subject is divided, therefore, into special branches corresponding to these apphcations, viz, chemistry of food products, photochemistry, electrochemistry, ceramics, etc. At the same time the study of general chemistry is continued; organic chemistry, chemical technology, and history of chemistry receive ample consideration. Exercise in analytical experimentation is con- tinued, but with increasing relation to practical purposes. The fourth year covers practical occupations in manufacturing processes based on chemical changes. It includes the technology of tar dyes, manufacture of oils and fats, carbohydrogen oils, thermo- chenaistry, technology of sanitation, sugar industry, etc. Practical laboratory work has a prominent place in the course. There is also such instruction in architecture and mechanical engineering as may be useful to a chemist in a responsible position. The development is indicated by the outline of the courses in technical chemistry for the first and the fourth year, as given below: First year. — Elements of differential and integral calculus and analytical geometry; elements of mechanics; elements of descriptive geometry; experimental physics; experimental chemistry (metalloids, metals); crystallography and mineralogy; prac- tical work in the inorganic laboratory; mechanical technology; general botany; mar chines with exercises in machine drawing (I and II); special botany; microscopy; exercises in the physical laboratory (physical measurements). Fourth year. — Technology of coal-tar products and their uses in dyeing, printing, etc.; practical work in the technico-chemical laboratory; the spectrum and spectral analysis; investigation of sugars; precautions against accidenta (industrial hygiene, technical part); physico and electro chemistry with laboratory work; thermochem- 24 HIGHEB TECHNICAL EDUCATION. istry; physico-cliemical exercises; examination of vegetable and animal fats, oils, and wax; examination of mineral oils and other naptha products; organization of chemical laboratories and plants; principles of construction of use to industrial managers. DIPLOMAS AND DEGBEES. In accordance with a royal decree issued on the occasion of its jubUee celebration (Oct. 11, 1899), the Charlottenburg school is authorized to confer the diploma of engineer (Diplom-Ingenieur) and that of doctor of engineering (Doktor-Ingenieur) ; subsequently the right was extended to all the other German technical high schools. The diploma of certificated engineer is conferred in virtue of an exam- ination which tests the preparation of the candidate by academic and scientific studies for independent professional activity in his chosen subject. This is inscribed in each case upon the diploma. The can- didate for the diploma of doctor of engineering miist have secured the lower diploma, and must present a thesis on a scientific subject per- taining to his specialty. When the thesis has been approved, the appHcant for the doctor's degree must submit to an oral examination covering the subject matter of his specialty. SCHOOL FOR MINING ENGINEERING, FREIBERG, SAXONY. The technical high school at Aachen is the only one that makes provision for mining engineering. This branch is the province of special schools or academies of which the mining school at Freiberg, Saxony, founded in 1765, is the most renowned. The school com- prises three sections, for mining engineers, for mine siirveyors, and for engineers in iron works, respectively. Each section offers a four years' course of instruction. The entrance requirements are similar to those of the other technical high schools. Candidates must be at least 18 years of age, and must offer the maturity certificate of one of the nine-year secondary schools of Germany, or give proof of equivalent preparation. Foreigners must not only show certificates of equivalent value, but must be sufficiently f amiUar with the Ger- man language to follow the instruction with profit; their papers must be officially translated and legalized by the consul, minister, or ambassador. Special students include adults who have already had a technical or scientific training, or young men who desire to advance themselves in some special branch of science. The entrance fee for German students is 12 marks, for foreigners 24 marks; in addition 3 marks are required for insurance against accident or sickness. The fees for lectures are 6 marks for weekly lectures for the whole school year; the weekly fee for practical exer- cises is reckoned at the rate charged for a course of weekly lectures. The degrees conferred are mining engineer, mine surveyor, and engineer in iron works. The examination fees for the degrees are 50 marks for German citizens and 100 marks for foreigners. GEBMANY. 25 The courses of instruction are highly speciaMzed and in the section for mining engineers include, besides the technical branches, the followuig: Political and state science, general law, mining law, colonial mining law, social insurance, designs for mining and metal- lurgic buildings, mine and metaUurgic statistics. The elaboration of the course of instruction in national and state economics is significant. The syllabus includes : P^mdamental conceptions. Necessities of life. Goods value. Intercourse. Wealth. Economics. National economy. Production. Nature. Work and capital as factors in production. Productive cooperation. Circulation of goods. Commerce, traffic, commercial policy. Money, credit, and price. Distribution of goods. Income, wages, interest, contracting profits. Ground rent. National income. Consumption. Manner of consumption. Economical and extravagant luxury Equilibrium between production and consumption. Economic institutions. Insurance. Development of national economy. Antiquity and middle ages. Mercantile system. Physiocratic system. Adam Smith. Free trade and protection. Com- munism, socialism, and anarchism. Social reform. Financial science. State expenditure. Productivity of same. State revenues. Private revenues. Fees and taxes. State economy. State credit and debt. Volun- tary and forced loans. Amortization. Organs of financial administration. The course in mining and metallurgical statistics includes: Definition and aims of statistical science, methods of investigation, aids thereto. Importance of statistics for economy and practice. Statistics of the mines, metal- lurgical, and salt works of the various countries, having special reference to any variations, and their causes. Statistics of imports, export, consumption, and prices in mining and metallurgical industries. Wages and workmen. ROYAL TECHNICAL SCHOOL OF SAXONY. This school, founded at Dresden in 1828, is intended to afford the complete scientific and artistic development required for technical professions and for the preparation of teachers for technical scientific branches, including pure mathematics, physics, and chemistry. The school is divided into the following departments : Architectu- ral engineering, mechanical, chemical, and general. The scholastic year begins at Easter, but the student can enter at the commencement of either the winter or summer semester. The requirements for entrance are similar to those of other tech- nical schools, i. e., the maturity certificate of a German gymnasium, realgymnasium or oberrealschule, the trade academy at Chemnitz, or a Bavarian industrial school. The equivalence of a foreign cer- tificate to the German maturity certificate is decided by the rector. Hearers and visitors are admitted as in other technical schools. Women are admitted under the same conditions as men. Lectures begin in October and end in March. Fees for lectures, exercises in groups, and seminar exercises are 4 marks for one hour 26 HIGHER TECHNICAL EDUCATION. each week per semester; for other exercises 3 marks. Foreigners, in addition^ to the regular fees, pay 50 marks for the winter semester. The fees for the diploma examination are as follows: Fifty marks for the preliminary examination, 75 marks for the principal examination, and 4 marks for business expenses, total 129 marks. For foreigners the fees are doubled. Statistics of the technical high schools ofOermany. \ Students.! Expenditure, 1912-13. Locations. Marks. United States currency. Aachen 714 2,417 209 298 821 999 1,328 1,309 1,096 729 904 422 811,421 2,125,864 278,583 2,185,246 680,265 771.300 l,67i;534 817,446 505.232 928,654 575,021 442,500 $193, 118 Berlin 505,956 86,304 Breslau 615,328 T>fn^7ig 161,903 Darmstadt ' - 183,569 Dresden . 397,825 194,552 120,245 •221.020 136, 855 105,315 » Winter semester 1914-15, FRANCE. DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION. The general scheme of technical education in France differs from that of other European countries as a consequence of the influences imder which it originated. French savants were the first to foresee the significance of science in the realm of art and industry, and the early period of the Revolution was marked by the creation of national institutions for utilizing the forces and furthering the conquests of science. Chief among the institutions created at that time were the Museum of Natural History (1793), attached to the Jardin des Plantes and intended to serve as a center of demonstration and research; the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers (conservatory of arts and crafts), created by a decree of 1794, and intended to foster the higher technical training of artisans; and the Elcole Polytechnique, also created by decree of 1794, a school of engineering intended to prepare artillerists and engineers for the army and navy and technical experts for various public services. The three institutions named are still flourishing, and while they differ greatly in spirit and methods they are alike in the emphasis they place upon pure science and the unity of the sciences as factors in the higher technical education. Provision for the lower order of technical education arose from time to time as industrial conditions demanded, and measures were even- tually adopted looking to the classification of the various agencies engaged in this work. The congress on technical education held at Paris in connection with the Universal Exposition of 1889 recognized three orders of technical education, primary, secondary, and higher. These, how- ever, do not form stages in an ascending series; each order has its distinct purposes and agencies. In the higher technical institutions the arts and sciences are pursued with reference to their application to technical professions required in the State service, either directly or indirectly, through the promotion of great enterprises. PRELIMINARY EDUCATION— GENERAL AND MATHEMATICAL. For admission to the higher technical institutions applicants must have completed the fuU course of secondary education comprised in the lyc6e program. This course is organized in two cycles : The lower cycle covers four years and leads to a certificate which has value for 27 28 HIGHEK TECHNICAL EDUCATION'. students entering at once upon business or industrial pursuits. The higher cycle, covering three years, completes the full course leading to the bachelor's diploma which is required for admission to the universities and higher technical schools. In the lower cycle the studies are arranged in two courses, classical and modem, between which the student has choice. The second cycle comprises three years, of which the first two offer four options as follows: 1. Latin- Greek; 2. Latin-modem languages; 3. Latin-science; 4. Science- modem languages. In the last year the lyc6e program is divided into two parts, philosophy and mathematics. It will be seen that provision has been made in the lyc^es for all the orders of secondary education, from the purely classical to the strictly modem. It does not follow, however, that the pupUs who contemplate higher technical studies must select the extreme realistic course. The classical studies are stUl so much in vogue in France that Latin is generally demanded even in preparation for technical careers. Absolutely essential, however, for those intending to enter the ficole Poly technique is the "classe de math6matiques " of the last year of the lyc6e course. Courses im maihematics. — The program of mathematics studied in this class deserves special attention in view of its relation to higher technical studies. It is universally recognized that higher technical education calls for special mathematical preparation. The French system goes further than any other toward the solution of this ques- tion. The "classe de math^matiques " represents a distinct attempt to improve the mathematical preparation of graduates in view of the requirements of higher studies. The mathematics is given eight hours a week and consists of review study with special emphasis on the theoretical and philosophical side of mathematics. The mathematical subjects that have been studied earlier in the lyc6e course are now reviewed with reference to the theoretical basis of mathematical science. The training thus secured is further systematized and unified by the course of scientific philos- ophy pertaining to the classification and hierarchy of science and the methods by which it operates. Viewed in the light of its relation to higher mathematical or technical studies, this course reflects the spirit that places the de- velopment of the student's intellect above that of his specific aptness in appHcation of formulas to the solution of mathematical problems. The entire course of the "classe de math^matiques " has the obvious aim of developing mathematical habits of mind in the wider sense the ability of the student to attack successfully new problems, and to pursue intelligently the study of new subjects. FEANCE. 29 CONSERVATOIRE DES ARTS ET METIERS. The ministry of commerce, industry, posts, and telegraphs is charged with the general direction of the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers; its administration is intrusted to a director and council. The council is a highly representative body which includes, besides the director of the institution, the director of technical eduction in the department of commerce, the president of the municipal council of Paris, the president of the educational commission of that council, the president of the Paris Chamber of Commerce, the president of the Society of Civil Engineers, a senator.appointed for four years by the President of the Republic, and members selected from various learned bodies and pubhc services. The membership of this council illustrates the comprehensive character that was impressed upon the institution at its foundation and which has been steadily main- tained. Committees are also appointed by the minister of commerce for the direction of the various departments of the institution. Courses and methods of instruction. — The courses of instruction in the conservatory include mathematics, especially geometry, the sciences related to the industrial arts — mechanics, chemistry, elec- tricity, and physics, together with industrial processes and the appli- cation of motive powers. The theoretical instruction is imparted by eminent speciaMsts in the respective subjects, who demonstrate principles and processes by means of the illustrative material com- prised in the elaborate museums of the institution. It was intended from the first that the lecture courses of the con- servatory should bear the same relation to the sciences considered in their industrial relations as those at the CoUege of France bear to the entire realm of knowledge. The professors attached to the conservatory keep watch of all the latest industrial changes and ex- plain the most recent improvements. The courses of lectures run from two to three years according to the subject dealt with. The instruc- tion thus imparted is of a scientific and advanced character, but none the less practical and adapted to the various classes of students, who represent different occupations, i. e., constructors of bridges and road- ways who intend to become engineers, foremen or workmen who attend in the interests of their employers, heads of factories, and also engineers. The subjects are presented with clearness and lucidity, and the hearers profit according to their needs and attainments. As the lectures are maintained for persons engaged in business or industrial pursuits during the day, they are given in evenings from November till April. The lecture courses in technical subjects are held twice a week; those in commercial law, industrial and com- mercial geography, and social economy and hygiene are held only once a week. All the lectures are free to the pubhc. 30 HIGHER TECHNICAL EDUCATION. The students supplement the lectures by exercises and manipu- lations carried on at the institution by visits of observation to fac- tories and workshops, and by practical work. All students are expected to execute plans, accompanied by explanatory memoranda, of the following objects: Metalhc bridges, steam engines, civil con- structions, and machine tools for the second year; manufacture of chemical products, workshops for machine construction, locomotives, blowing machines, hydraulic estabhshments, etc., for the third year. The idea governing the instruction is that industrial science is a unit, and every industrial worker must know it in its entirety. Hence each student follows the same course until the end of the sec- ond year, when specialization is allowed in the following branches, according to the chosen career, i. e., machinists, constructors, metal- lurgical miners, and chemists. Extensions of the curricula. — Great attention is paid to subjects that promote the interest of artisans in the history of their respective arts, and more particularly their interest in the relations between the industrial arts and the general social welfare. A chair of the "history of industry" is maintained at the charge of the city of Paris, which makes an annual appropriation for its support. ' ' The chair of insurance and social providence" was established by mutual agreement of the State and the Paris Chamber of Commerce, each contributing $1,000 a year toward its maintenance. The eqmpment of the conservatory comprises eight important laboratories, which serve for original research on the part of the pro- fessors, as well as for practical exercises by the students. The labo- ratories are also centers of experiment and research carried on by scientific men and industrial experts. Certificates. — ^At the end of the year certificates are conferred, the standing of candidates being ascertained by estimating the marks given for the drawings and designs executed and work done in the professor's laboratory. At least a total of 14 marks on a scale of 20 is required for the certificate. Candidates for the annual certificates relating to the fuU period of at least two courses which are complementary and have the same industrial or professional aim in view may obtain the diploma of studies of the conservatory by passing another general examination. In 1912-13 the courses were attended by 2,127 persons. Of this number 237 asked permission to take the examination. Some of them already held as many as five certificates. Financial support. — Complaint has recently been made by French leaders that the conservatory has not been adequately supplied with funds or equipment to meet the rkpidly increasing scope and com- plexity of modern industry. It occupies, however, a unique place in the group of institutions which have made Paris a notable center of technical education. FEANCE. 31 fiCOLE CENTRALE DES ARTS ET MANUFACTURES, PARIS. The Central School of Arts and Manufactures is intended to train engineers for all branches of industry and for public works and serv- ices which are not necessarily under State control. Admission requirements. — Admission to the school is by examina- tion, which is held annually in Paris during the first 15 days of June. The fee for examination is 60 francs ($12) which is required of every apphcant. Candidates must be 17 years of age on the first of Janu- ary of the year of examination. Foreigners are admitted under the same conditions as Frenchmen. No diploma is required. The exam- ination is both written and oral, and includes the following subjects the ratings for which are given: Oral examination. Analytical and mechanical geometry. 5 Arithmetic, algebra and analysis, trigonemetry 5 Elementary and descriptive geom- etry 5 Physics 5 Chemistry 5 Written examination. Mathematics and mechanics 5 Composition in French or other lan- guage 4 Descriptive geometry 3 Trigonometry and numerical calcu- lus 3 Physics 2 Chemistry 2 Architectural drawing 4 Machine drawing 2 Machine sketching 2 Candidates having the bachelor's diploma or the certificate showing completion of the first part of the baccalaureate examination, receive 15 marks to their credit in the ratings. Candidates who request the privilege are admitted to an oral exam- ination in one or two languages, namely, English, German, Spanish, Russian, French. The language used in the examination itself must be different from that for which the special examination is requested. Those who obtain a rating above 10 receive for one language from 2 to 25 marks in addition to those granted for the general examination; for a second language, 1 to 15 marks. The written examination includes a thesis which is marked in respect to orthography, language, and style. The thesis may be written in French or any official language. Candidates should be accustomed to machine and architectural drawing and aquatint, and they are advised when preparing for the examination to give special attention to rapidity of execution, exact- ness of outline, and delicacy in touch. At the time of the examination the candidate must present col- lections of drafts, machine and architectural drawings, and free-hand sketches. Examinations and diplomas. — The school is limited to day stu- dents, and exercises no supervision of them outside of school hours. 32 HIGHEE TECHNICAL EDUCATION. Periodical examinations are held to detennine the progress of stu- dents, and those who do not profit by the instruction are eliminated. The marks obtained at the ordinary examinations as well as those for designs, vacation work, and final competitive examination serve to make up the student's graduating standing. The final examina- tion consists in the execution of a general plan and the composition of a memorandum to support it. Thirty days are allowed for com- posing the plan, and the student must be present personally and dis- cuss his work before the examining jury. The diploma of engineer of arts and manufactures is given to those who obtaia a total average of 14 credits on a scale of 20. Students who fail, but who show sufficient knowledge, receive a certificate of capacity (the average required being 13 credits). Such students may try a second time for a diploma within the five following years. The diploma fee is 100 francs ($20) ; if a student fails to pass, half the fee is returned to him. Expenses. — ^The course of instruction covers three years. Tuition fees, including cost of experiments, are 900 francs ($180) for the first year and 1,000 francs ($200) for each of the two following years. The cost of supphes and drawing material must be borne by the students. The minimum cost of tuition and maintenance is esti- mated at 3,000 francs ($600) a year. ECOLE POLYTECHNIQUE. The ficole Polytechnique pertains to the ministry of war and may be regarded as the center of a system of schools preparing for the Government service. The course of instruction in the school covers two years, but the students almost without exception are intending to complete their specialized training in some one of the related schools of application. Several services of the State, viz, those requiring mining engineers, hydrographic engineers, directors of powder plants, etc., are open only to graduates from the ficole Polytechnique. Admission requirements. — Candidates for admission to the ficole Polytechnique must be native or naturalized Frenchmen and must be at least 18 years of age and not above 21 years on the 1st of January preceding the examination. Tliis examination is severe and competitive, the purpose being to limit admission to students of exceptional promise. Only those who have secured the diploma of bachelor are eligible for the examination. Students who have successfully completed any division of the lyc6e course may be admitted to the examination, but those who have studied Latin are accorded an advantage of 15 points in estimating the exanaination, and the same advantage is also accorded to bachelors whose diplomas carry mention of philosophy. The stress of the admission exami- BUREAU OF EDUCATION. BULLETIN. 1917. NO. 11 PLATE 2. HIGHER WAR SCHOOL, PARIS. FEANCE. 33 nation is placed upon mathematics, which in both the oral and written parts is accorded more than half the whole number of pos- sible points. The severity of this test precludes its passage by stu- dents who have not passed through the special class of mathematics in the lycfie or received equivalent instruction elsewhere. From the relation of the school to the State service it follows that foreigners are only admitted by special arrangements. Candidates for admission to the entrance examination for the Elcole Polytechnique are not necessarily graduates from the lyc^e, but may have received their preparation elsewhere, as is the case with candidates for other competitive examinations. Since, however, their scope and standards are determined by the lyc6e program, those prepared elsewhere are at a great disadvantage. Program. — ^The program of studies for the polytechnique consists almost entirely of mathematics and applied science, as indicated by the following conspectus : Calculus. — Differential and integral — two years. Descriptive geometry. — Different methods for the representation of bodies; a study of the principal geometrical surfaces; the construction of models — one year. Stereotomy. — Carpentry and stonecutting — one year. Mechanics and machinery. — Theoretical study completed by the construction of models, thedes^ing of new machines, etc. — two years. Physics. — ^Thermodynamics, electricity, and magnetism — two years; acoustics and optics — one year; laboratory practice — two years. Chemistry. — Organic and inorganic, accompanied by experiments — two years. Astronomy and geodesy. — Practical work — one year. Architecture. — Theory and the drawing of designs and plans — one year. Military art. — ^Two years. History, geography, and literature. — The military, political, and moral history of the principal nations of Europe during modem and contemporaneous times; composi- tions on historical topics — two years. German language, drawing from objects, coloring. — Two years. English language. — Optional. Practical exercises. — ^Laboratory and workshop practice, the de- signiag and construction of models, are required whenever possible. The instruction in drawing and designing is very elaborate and the work executed by the students is subjected to rigid examination. In addition to the school instruction, students are also taken on visits of observation to the observatory and to manufacturing estabhsh- ments in and around Paris. The regime of the school is mihtary. All the students are exercised in mihtary tactics, in horseback riding, fencing, and general gymnastics. The military training and conduct while at the school, however, is less severe than that at the special military schools. Fees and scholarships. — ^The students board at the school and wear a imiform. The cost to the students is about $200 (1,000 francs) for tuition and board per year. The outfit and incidentals cost 817970—17 ^3 34 HIGHEB TECHNICAL EDUCATION. each year form $140 to |150 more (700 to 750 francs). The Govern- ment, however, makes hberal provision of scholarships available for students of great promise who otherwise might not be able to bear the expense of the training. These scholarships are of four grades as follows: (1) FuU scholarships; (2) half scholarships; (3) scholar- ships carrying relief from outfit and incidental expenses; (4) scholarships carrying haK rehef from outfit and incidental expenses. Services. — ^As already stated, the polytechnique does not prepare directly for the Government service, but for certain schools of appli- cation, each giving instruction preparatory to some special service. The choice of the service to be entered upon is not made by the stu- dents until their graduation from the polytechnique, and is deter- mined finally according to respective ranks at graduation. As a rule, all the graduates are sure of admission to the Govenmient service. The several services open to the graduates of the Ecole Polytech- nique are as f oUows : 1. Land artillery, colonial artillery, or engineering corps, in which they are accepted as "subUeutenant students of artiUery," or of engineering, and are immediately placed in either the artiUery school at Fontainebleau or the miUtary engineering 'school at Ver- sailles. Both these schools have a one-year specialized course in their respective subjects. The VersaiU'es school also gives supple- mentary military and horsemanship training. 2. Mines; Iridges and roads; or naval engineering. — On enterino' either of these services the polytechnic graduates assume the title of student engineers of mines, of bridges and roads, or of naval constructions, and pass, in this capacity, through a speciahzed course in one of the three schools of apphcation maintained for this pur- pose. The course in the school of mines covei-s three years; in the school of bridges and roads, also three years; in the school of nav;d engineering, two years. After the completion of this couree the stu- dents acquu-e the degrees of ordmary engineer of bridges and roads, or of mines, or subengineers of naval constructions. Those in the last category have to serve a practice term on the sehoolship Jeanne d'Arc. 3. Nwvy.— On entering the naval service directly from the Ecole Polytechnique the students receive the title of ship ensigns of the second class and are sent on board Jeanne d'Arc, where "they com- plete their practice together with graduates ("aspirants") 'of the school of naval engineermg. 4. Manufacturing estaUishments conducted ly the State —In this service the graduates of the Ecole Polytechnique are placed directly m the tobacco plants or match factories with the degree of student engineers. FEANCE. 35 5. The commissariat of the navy accepts the graduates as com- missaries of the third class; in order to become commissaries of the second class they must pass through a two-year course in the school of commissariat. 6. The service of powders and saltpeters and the hydrographic service are open to graduates of the polytechnique, admitting them at first for practice and later giving them permanent positions ; for telegraph service a higher course of trainmg in postal and telegraph subjects is provided. Finally, graduates desiring to enter other civil services than the above enumerated have the advantage of the reputation attached to the institution. Although St. Cyr, the great military school of France, is in no sense an adjunct of the ficole Polytechnique, many of the most distin- guished officers of the French service have resorted to it for their mathematical training before entering the military school. Fraternal societies. — An interesting and traditional characteristic of the Elcole Polytechnique is, the solidarity maintained among the graduates. This is manifested not only as a sentiment, but by the practical assistance and protection offered the younger or less for- tunate graduates by those holding influential positions. For this purpose a fraternal society of graduates of the school is maintained, which assists members who meet with reverses, aids their destitute widows, and provides education for their children. Modern methods of demonstration. — The higher technical schools of France have developed a system of demonstration by means of wall tables, charts, and luminous projections, that is in many respects the most advanced in the world. The ficole des Fonts et Chauss6es possesses a unique collection of constructional plans, designs, etc., used to illustrate the instruction in the school; this collection is the joint work of prpfessors of the various subjects and an eminent specialist, M. CoquiUard, who has devoted to this task his exclusive activity for a long period of time. For the last 20 years this school has also made extensive use of stereopticon projections, and has a rich collection of slides, especially those pertaining to reinforced concrete constructions. The use of cinematograph with specially prepared films of scientific subjects also received early recognition in this institution.' fiCOLES NATIONALES D'ARTS ET METIERS. The ficoles Nationales d'Arts et Metiers, situated, respectively, at Aix, Angers, and Chalons,, are included in the class of secondary technical schools. These institutions were originally intended to provide the army of industry with directors, that is, managers and 1 See article by Oh. Rabut in Revue G&i6ral6 des Sciences, Mar., 1916, p. 137. 36 HIGHEE TECHNICAL EDUCATION. foremen of works, but they have developed beyond this stage, and it is claimed that they should be transferred to the class of higher technical schools. Admission to these institutions is determined by a competitive examination for which only those appHcants are eligible who already possess the certificate showing the completion of the first cycle of the lycee course or its equivalent. The three schools are noted for their elaborate equipment, the great competency of their teachers and directors, all of whom are selected by competitive examination, and the very rigorous character of the training throughout the three years' course. Graduates receive a special diploma, the brevet d'ing^nieur des ^coles nationales d'arts et metiers, which was created by a decree of 1907. Although these institutions do not give the same high degree of mathematical training as the Ecole Centrale, the technical training is regarded as superior. RECENT MOVEMENTS. The higher technical schools of France have provided the State with trained experts for the public service, but on account of their special- ized character and their location with few exceptions at Paris, they have not exercised a poweriiil influence in the industrial development of the coimtry. Complaint is also made that in their isolation from the imiversities, the technical schools lose the stimulating effects of scientific researches, for which only the imiversities have adequate equipment. A movement for correcting these defects was begun soon after the transformation of the former isolated faculties into organic universities in accordance with the law of July 10, 1896. An important result of the new university regime was the multi- pHcation of chairs for scientific studies and the equipment of labora- tories and institutes in the provincial universities. At the University of Marseille a chair of industrial physics was established and another of industrial chemistry; at the University of Bordeaux a laboratory of chemistry instituted for the promotion of the resin industry; at Lyon chairs in chemistry equipped with laboratories for research in regard to local industries and agriculture. These are notable illus- trations of a movement which spread to every university center of France, giving new direction to scientific research. Through this extension of university activities, extreme specializa- tion in the province of higher technical education in France has given place to the principle of coordination and philosophic unity. For the purpose of increasing this provision, a bill was introduced into the Senate during the present year, providing for the creation of separate faculties of applied science in aU the universities. The motive for the bill was expressed in a ministerial circular which defined the new purposes which the imiversities must fulfill as follows: They must insure the renaissance of the national economic activity by means of the sciences, and take the direction of the vast movement for the revival of the chem- ical and physical industries which will of necessity follow peace. PEANOE. 37 It is interesting to note in this connection that the author of the bUl, Dr. Goy, criticized severely the system of competitive examina- tion by which admission is secured to the higher technical schools of France at the present time. For this system he recommended that candidates for admission to the proposed faculties of applied science should be required simply to present the bachelor's diploma and also one of the other special diplomas conferred by the university faculties of pure science. He said: In this way a student body would be formed having a high degree of scientific culture, in full sympathy with modern progress, and possessed of the force and energy necessary for directing industrial enterprises. In addition to the institutions enumerated above should be men- tioned engineering schools attached to universities. In most instances these form part of the faculties of science of the respective imiver- sities; the professors of the branches of science common to both the scientific and technical departments lecture in both. The technical students are matriculated as students of the faculty of science. The methods and contents of the technical instruction, however, are identical with those of independent technical schools. The degree conferred is that of engineer of the respective branches. The following universities have engineering departments : University of Grenoble, whose technical department is called Institut Poly technique and is subdivided into several sections. University of Toulouse has an electrical engineering school attached under the name of Institut Electrotechnique. University of Marseille: ficole d'Electricit6 IndustrieUe de Marseille and ficole d'lng^nieurs de Marseille. University of Nancy: Institut Electrotechnique et de Mechanique Appliqu^e de Nancy. University of Lille: Institut Electrotechnique de Lille, and Ecole de Hautes Etudes Indus trieUes et Commerciales. University of Lyon: ficole Franpaise de Tannerie, and Ecole de Chimie IndustrieUe de Lyon. Statistics of higher technical schools of France, 1913. Institution. Location. Profes- sors. Stu- dents. Budget, in francs. icole Polytechnique Ecole Centrale des Arts et Manufactures t Conservatoire Nationale des Arts et Metiers . Ecole des Fonts et Chaussfies EcoIe Speciale des Travaux Publics Kcole Coloniale Woole Supfirieure d'Electrlcitfi cole Speciale d' Architecture cole Nationale Supgrieure des Mines jlcole Centrale Lyonnaise Ijistitat Industriel du Nord de la France Eoole Nationale des Mines Paris do do ...do ...do ...do ....do ...do ...do Lyon Lille St. Etienne. 27 47 21 29 150 37 18 31 37 440 700 150 1,000 125 125 95 150 220 = 20 120 599,600 1,000,000 242,320 140,000 '300,000 140,000 164,000 1 State subvention. Exclusive of hearers. GREAT BRITAIN. INTRODUCTION. The movement for teclmical education in Great Britain received its first impulse from the industrial changes that marked the opening of the eighteenth century, the result in great measure of the inven- • tions of Watt and Whitney. In 1795 John Anderson, professor of natural philosophy in the University of Glasgow, bequeathed his estate to found Anderson University. The purpose mtended was not immediately reahzed, but m 1800 Dr. George Bhkbeck, professor of natural philosophy and chemistry in the new mstitution, started a system of popular lectures for mechanics. The lectures led to the formation of mechanics' institutes that have served as nuclei for technical institutions in several great centers of the Kingdom. The spread of this idea hi Great Britam was much slower than the same movement in contmental countries, and on account of the local mdependence m respect to the control of education and the large part which is left to private enterprise and initiative, attention was first directed to provision for the special traming of artisans and the establishment of technical schools relatmg to local industries. The present century, however, has been marked by great progress m the development of higher technical institutions and in the estabhshment of relations between them and the existing agencies for scientific research. At the present tune the importance of this relation overshadows all other problems of higher education in the Kingdom. Durmg the past year parhamentary provision was made for the formation of an advisory council in the board of education, charged with the interests of industrial and scientific research. In presenting the project to Parhament tlie president of the board explained the general attitude on this question, as follows: We must endeavor to secure that industry is closely associated with our scientific workers and promote a proper system of encouragement of reseai'ch workers, espe- cially in our universities. The fault in the past, no doubt, has been partly due to the remissness on the part of the Government in failing to create careers for scientific men. It has also, I think, been due partly 1o the universities, wliich have not real- ized how important it is that pure science ought to be utilized with applied science and brought into close contact with manufacturing interests. I tliink it was also partly due to the fact that the manufactiu'ers themselves undervalued the importance of science in connection with their particular industries. It was partly due, too, to the fact that the ratepayers have been too niggardly in making provision in connection with their technical institutions and colleges.' While the original efforts for the promotion of technical education were similar in the two divisions of the Kingdom, the development 1 Parliamentary Debates, Vol. LXXI, No. 52. 38 GREAT BRITAIN. 39 of the work lias been d(^l.erm.med in each by different industrial ?,".d institutional conditioi; «, and they should therefore be separately comidcred. AGENCIES FOR fflGHER TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. In England provision for the higher orders of technical education hiis been made in the ancient imiversities and in technical schools or colleges that have developed up to the university standard. In the okler imivorsities the technical side is an outcome of provision for scicniific research. The University of Cambridge was specially equipped in this respect by the estabhshment of the Cavendish laboratory of experimental physics, which was erected in 1872-1874 at ah origini.] cost of about $50,000. A few years after, the chemical laboratory of Cam':>ridge was erected, at an original cost of $155,000. The resources o^ the two laboratories have been greatly extended, the latest additic i having been supplied as recently as 1907= The Cambridge laboratories were provided in the interests of medical science, ange, to which students are now admitted by coiupetitiA'c examination. Tliis does not preclude varied degn-es of previous attainment, but it insures the choice of the most promising in each particular hue of study, a measure neces- sitated by the exc(>ss of applicants for aihnission. Fees. — A fee of £1 (.|5) is required of all candidates for admission to associateship courses and must be forwarded with the form of appUcation. The fees for fidl-time associateship c(nuses, payable in advance, are as follows: Imperial College, Royal College of Science, £36 10s. per session. Imperial College, Royal School of Mines, £45 JO.s. per session. Imperial College, City and Guilds (Engineering) College, £38 10s. per se.'ision. GREAT BRITAIN. 43 The fees for research work and special advanced study vary accord- ing to the nature of the course selected. Examinations are held at the end of each course of instruction and at such other periods as may be deemed necessary. Diplomas. — The following diplomas are awarded to students who satisfactorily complete the appropriate organized course of study and pass the necessary examinations: (a) The Diploma of Membership of the Imperial College of Science and Technology (D. I. C). (5) The Diploma of Associateship of the Royal College of Science (A. R. C. S.). (c) The Diploma of Associateship of the Royal School of Mines (A. R. S. M.). (d) The Diploma of Associateship of the City and Guilds of London Institute (A. C. G. I.). Courses of instruction. — The courses of instruction fall mainly under the following heads: (1) Diploma Courses. Organized courses of instruction extending over three or four years leading to the diplomas of associateship of the Royal College of Science, the Royal School of Mines, and the City and Guilds of London Institute. (2) Speiial or Partial Courses. Short courses of lectures, with or without labora- tory work, of an advanced character deaUng with special branches of pure and applied science suitable for those who have graduated or are already engaged in some scientific indxistrial occupation. (3) Advanced SpeciaUzed Courses. Research work and specially arranged courses of study in advanced science or technology extending over one or more complete years leading to the diploma of the Imperial College. The scope of each one of the federated colleges is outlined in the calendar as follows: Royal College of Science affords complete coui'ses of training, extending over three years, in mathematics, mechanics, physics, cheinisiry, botany (including the first portions of the Imperial College diploma courses in plant physiology and pathology, and the technology of woods and fibers), zoology, and geology, which may be regarded as complete in themselves or as preliminary to more advanced work in the applications of the subjects in question to industrial problems. The Imperial College — Royal School of Mines affords complete speciahzed courses of training, extending over four years, designed adequately to equip a student who desires to follow the profession of a mining, a metallurgical, or an oil engineer. The Imperial College — City and Guilds (Engineering) College affords complete courses of training, extending over thi-ee years, in engineering, arranged to suit the requirements of those preparing for engineering as a profession, or who desire to acquaint themselves with the scientific principles underlying any particular branch of engineering. In addition, the Imperial College offers special facilities for work of a more advanced character in all the branches of science previously referred to. The advanced student may engage in research work, or attend full-time organized courses of a more advanced character than those forming the normal courses of the tlu-ee institutions which are integral parts of the Imperial College, or he may attend the college as a part-time student for the pui'pose of taking up one of the special lecture com'ses, with or without laboratory work, or a specially arranged course of study whether in pure science or in the application of science to industry. Such courses include (a) Railway engineering, (6) Structural engineering, (c) Hy- draulic engineering, (d) Surveying and geology, («) Electrical machinery and trans- formers, (/) Design and erection of chemical plant, ( Pertains also to the pharmaceutical section; the remaining subjects of the latter section are strictly specialized. BUREAU OF EDUCATION. BULLETIN, 1917, NO. 11 PLATE 4. ZURICH POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE. SWITZERLAND. 61 II year.— Third and fourth semesters. Hours per week. Inorgfanic chemical technology 4 Review 1 Heating, etc 2 Organic chemistry, Part II.' Benzene derivatives 2 Review " 1 Practicum for technisal chemistry 16 Physics 4 Review 1 Practicum for physics for beginners , 4 Engineering 2 Review 1 Exercises in design 4 in year. — Fifth land sixth semesters. Bleaching, dyeing, and dyes 4 Review 1 Metallurgy 2 Review 1 Practicum for analytical chemistry or 24 Practicum for technical chemistry 24 General botany, with reviews 4 General geology, with reviews 5 Analysis of gas, with exercises 1 Analysis of foods, with exercises 2 General electrochemistry 2 Practicum for electrochemistry for advanced students 15 Physical chemistry 2 Industrial fittings and buildings 2 Exercises in design 2 Industrial hygiene 2 Bacteriological exercises for beginners 5 Bacteriological exercises for advanced students Daily. IV year.— Seventh semester. Practicum for analytical chemistry or 24 Practicum for technical chemistry 24 Practicum for electrochemistry for beginners 4 Practicum for electrochemistry for advanced students 15 Exercises in microscopic work 2 Technological botany, I. (Fibers and their strength) 2 Electrotechnics 2 Elements of national economy 3 Political economy 3 The school for special teachers of mathematical and natural science subjects has an extensive program equivalent to a four-years' course, but the branches are so arranged that students follow selected lectures in the other courses according to their needs. Participation in the seminarial exercises takes place, as a rule, in the third and fourth years. In addition to the courses of instruction in the specialized schools, provision is made for general scientific studies comprised in the divi- 1 Feitains also to the pharmaceutical section. 62 HIGHER TECHNICAL EDUCATION. sion of general philosophy and State economy. This is intended to prevent the narrowing effects of technical training by emphasizing the cultural bearing of the scientific elements and the importance of technics in the national economy. This section offers opportmiity for the highest order of study and research in the mathematical and physical sciences, and also for the pursuit of purely cultural branches, viz, literature, modern languages, history, history of art, political econ- omy, with which are combined subjects bearing upon the national life and history, in particular the constitution of Switzerland, and adminis- trative and commercial law. Courses in cultural subjects are open to all students, and attendance upon at least one such course is obligatory. The division of military science comprises a section intended for general auditors or students desiring a limited course of instruction in this specialty, and a section of a more thorough and professional character intended for military officers. By virtue of a special ordinance issued in 1911 the attendance of officers and teachers of military science upon the professional section of this division has been greatly increased. ITAIiT.* LOWER STAGES OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION. The system of education in Italy provides for specialization at an early age; hence pupils looking forward to industrial and technical pursuits generally enter upon courses of instruction having that end in view as soon as they have seciu-ed the certificate of primary studies (maturity,), which is generally obtained at about 11 years of age. The courses of technical instruction are provided in schools of two grades, which are, however, correlated with each other. The lowest of these is termed simply technical school (scuola tecnica), and the second, technical institute (istituto tecnico). The lower school has a three-years' course corresponding to that of the higher primary schools of France having vocational sections, or to the lower classes of modem secondary schools in Europe. The higher school (istituto tecnico), which a pupil enters at about 14 years of age, has a four years' coiu^e corresponding to that of the upper classes of the modern secondary schools of Europe. The two schools represent, therefore, two grades of technical instruction, each of which has a distinctive purpose. The courses of study, however, are so coordinated that a pupil may pass from a technical school to a technical institute and thereby complete a course of seven years having the same relation to the highest order of technical institutions that the classical sec- ondary schools (ginnasi and licei) bear to the universities. The courses of instruction in the preparatory schools are adapted to pupils looking forward to any one of the three great industrial pursuits, i. e., agriculture, commerce, and technical industries. For the present purpose it wiU suffice to consider the preparatory course having a technical orientation. Curricula for the technical school and technical institute — Hours per week Subjects. Technical school. Technical institute (physico-mathemat- ical section). Class 1. Class 2. Class 3. Class 1. Class 2. Class 3. Class 4. Italian ... . 6 3 6 4 5 3 6 3 5 3 3 3 3 5 3 4 2 5 2 Englisli or German 5 History 2 2 4 2 2 4 2 2 2 3 2 3 3 6 3 Mftt:hRTnR.tif>fi 5 5 Natural history . Physics 6 3 44 3 4 Drawing f f 3 2 6 6 4 6 2 1 ' Total 24i 26J 27J 30 33 30 29 1 Contributed by W. W. Snlffln, specialist in the Romance languages. 63 64 HIGHER TECHNICAL EDUCATION. Students wlio complete the covtrse of the technical school and pass the final exammation which entitles one to the "licenza," may enter the technical iastitute. The latter course leads directly to the preparatory department of a higher technical institute. HIGHER TECHNICAL EVSTmiTIONS. Higher technical education ia Italy is the province of independent schools and technical institutes annexed to the universities. These institutions have their distinctive aims and characteristics, but are practically imiform as regards their standards of admission and graduation. The higher technical institute of Milan is here selected as representative. R. ISTrrUTO TECNICO SUPERIORE DI MILANO. Official character and. scope. — The Instituto Tecnico Superiore of Milan was estabhshed by royal decree in 1862, and in common with the royal universities and remaining special schools of the same order, pertains to the ministry of pubHc instruction. It derives its support from the State and the Province and commune of Milan and has been the subject of special consideration on the part of the Gov- ernment, as indicated by successive decrees extending or perfecting its operations. Of these the latest bears date 1897. The purpose of the institute, as officially stated, is to provide the highest order of instruction for candidates for the professions of civil engineering, industrial engineering, and civil architecture, and for teachers of the exact sciences in the technical institutes. The institute comprises two preparatory sections, one for the course in engineering, the other for the course in architecture. The main department consists of three technical divisions (scuole di apphca- zione) as follows: Civil engineering, industrial engineering, and civil architecture. Each of these divisions offers a three years' course of speciahzed instruction. A normal section, having a four years' course, prepares teachers of physics, chemistry, and natural sciences for the technical institutes (secondary). There are also associated with the institute important auxiliary estabhshments which will be considered separately. Entrance requirements. — Students who have successfully com- pleted the course of instruction in a technical institute may be admitted to the preparatory section of the superior technical school of Milan, which completes the training in mathematics and physics required for entrance upon the specialized departments. Candidates may be admitted directly into these departments provided they have ITALY. 65 spent at least two years in a university faculty of physical, mathe- matical, and natural sciences, or in the preparatory course of higher technical institutions corresponding to that of Milan. The mention in the catalogue of the institutions referred to indicates the regional influence possessed by the higher school of Milan. Among those mentioned are the school of Padua, the Polytechnic of Turin, and the higher naval school of Genoa. The attractions of the institute of Milan are increased by the associated laboratories and special insti- tutes of private foundation. For instance, the electrochemical school not only admits students of the royal school of Milan, but offers inducements to other students, in particular to Armenians who have completed the secondary studies in the Armenian Liceo Tecnico "Moorat Raphael" of Venice, or the technical courses of the Istituto Forestale VaUombrosa. The cases of students from foreign schools who apply for admission to the technical institute of Milan are decided by the coxmcil of pro- fessors uponconsideration of the foreign diplomas which candidates must present at least a month before the opening of the school. The school year begins November 3 and ends June 30. No registrations are permitted after the beginning of lessons. In order that diplomas and other documents issued abroad may be recognized in the Kingdom of Italy they must be visgd by the royal Itahan consul in the respective foreign States. The signature of the royal consul must then be authenticated by the minister of foreign affairs in Rome. In the scholastic year 1913-14 there were 949 students, represent- ing nearly all the Provinces of Italy and including 52 foreign students. The faculty for the same^year numbered 96, divided as follows : Ordi- nary professors, 13; permanent and extraordinary professors, 2; extraordinary professors, 4; instructors (incaricati), 21; free docents, 26; and assistants, 30. Fees, examinations, etc. — The total fees for each student in the pre- paratory schools vary from 193.10 lire ' to 283.10 lire; in the Scuole di Applicazione, from 213 to 473 hre, and in the normal school from 148.10 to 378 lire. These figures include small laboratory fees. *As prescribed by law and approved by the royal decree of August 9, 1910, the tuition fees to be paid by each student are as follows: Matricula- 'tion fee, 75 lire; annual tuition fee — ^preparatory school and schools of application, 165 lire; normal school, 125 hre; diploma fee, 100 hre; Carlo Erba Electro-Technical Institute, annual tuition fee 133.10 hre; School of Electro-Chemistry, annual tuition fee, 143.10 lire. 1 The exchange value of the lira is 19]^ cents. 81797°— 17 5 66 HIGHER TECHNICAL EDUCATION. The tuition fees for foreign auditors amount to 20 lire for each course. • v * The annual supertax for special examinations is 20 lire; lor exami- nations for the laurea or final diploma, 50 hre; for the repetition of a special examination, 10 hre, and for the repetition of an exammation for the laurea, 50 hre. . Provision is made by which students of unusual promise but of hmited resources, including foreign students under certain conditions may be reheved of a portion of the tuition fees. Courses of instruction.— The preparatory sections have a two years' course; the subjects of instruction and the distribution of time among them are shown in the following table: Courses of the preparatory sections. Hours I per week in- Subject. Analytical geometry Mathematical analysis: Fifst-year preparatory engineermg — Second-year preparatory engineermg . . Mathematical analysis: First-year preparatory architecture — Second year, preparatory architecture . Projective and descrfotive geometry Rational mechanics (for engineers) Rational mechanics (tor architects) Experimental physics: First year Second year Inorganic chemistry Art of designing and figure: First-year preparatory architecture — Second-year preparatory architecture . . First-year section of architecture Architecture: First-year preparatory architecture — Second-year preparatory architecture. First-year section of architecture Second-year section of architecture Third-year section of architecture Italian literature: First year Second year German language: First year Second year English language: First year Second year Lessons. 4 »4 3 3 and quizzes. 3 2 1 n 6 1 1 1 >ii 7 «6 >9 10 >9 •13 '19 ■21 > The hours are the same for both years. > First semester. ' Second semester. The courses of instruction in the specialized departments (scuole di applicazione) of the institute cover three years, divided each into two semesters. The subjects and the number of semester hours a week given to each are shown in the following table : ITALY. Courses of the specialized departments — Hours per week. 67 Civil engi- neering. Industrial engineering. Civil archi- tecture. Subjects of instruction. ■1° 11 o © °» FIRST TEAR. Rational mechanics Hrs. 4 3 10 6 2 5 3 6 2 Hrs. 4 3 9 6 6 6 3 6 2 Hrs. 4 3 10 6 2 6 3 Hn. 4 3 9 6 6 6 3 Hrs. ...... 10 Hrs. Thermodynamics and technical physics Scjence of constructions (mechanics applied to constructions) General theory ol machines (mechanics applied to machines) 9 Agricultural chemistry, I ...... Applied mineralogy and materials of construction 5 General and applied geology Architectural design History of architecture 2 2 Analytical chemistry 8 1 8 8 Mechanical technology , I Machine design 8 OnWnent and figure 8 7 10 8 Perspectiye 7 Architecture 10 Total 41 44 60 62 45 47 SECOHD TEAR. General eleetrotechnics, I ; 2 7 10 4 2 6 9 3 14 3 10 6 3 3 A 2 5 9 3 14 1 Hydraulics (water supply and hydraulic constructions). . Scienc* of constructions (mechanics applied to constructions) Industrial mechanics (theory of thermal and hydraulic machines). . 10 9 14 3 8 2 3 3 2 2 2 6 Agricultural science Law and political and industrial economy . . . ... 2 16 2 15 1 3 2 ■ 11 1 2 Construction of thermal and'hydraulic motots 1 1 - •• 2' 111 2 Metauui/y... . ^.' . :":":::::::::":";:";::::::;::::::::; OmftTnnTit anrl fifrnrfl 6 7 9 2 2 4 , 7 Arcmtecture . . . .■. 13 Hygiene applied to engineering . . 2 2 42 68 68 75 40 63 2 2 10 3 3 6 2 2 10 9 7 10 »3 3 ; 2 2 10 2 2 2 2 7 1 6 2 2 10 4 10 4 1 9 14 2 2 1 4 11 1 1 9 14 2 2 1 4 11. Machinery of technological chemistry J i ' Including 8 hours of exercises obligatory only to those students who specialize in electrical engineering. ' Ten entire davs are taken for practical work in topography. For the sake of uniformity an approxi- mate equivalent in semester hours is given above. 68 HIGHER rECHNICAL EDUCATION. Courses of the specMized departments — Hours per weefc— Continued. Civil engi- neering. Industrial engineering. Civil arcbi- tecture. Subjects of instruction. li CQ \i 03 THIRD YEAR— continued. Mining Bn. Hts. Brs. 1 1 Hrt. 2 1 Hts. Hm. 9 9 19 11 S 21 Total 28 46 78 81 37 39 Practical work. — ^The number of semester hours assigned for prac- tical work is not given separately, but is included in the total time as stated in the foregoing tables. The proportion of practical exer- cises to the total time is expressed by the following percentages, which are averages for the three departments treated: For the first year, 60 per cent for both semesters; for the second year, 57 and 65 per cent for the first and second semesters, respectively; for the third year, 69 per cent for both semesters. The following diagram gives a graphic presentation of the same proportions. 0/ l-8t year 2-nd year 3-rd year /»/ * s . ^ ... ■ 75 Htsem. 2-nd sem. 1-st sem. 2-nd»em. l-stsetn. 2-nJt. 70 V 65 60 / 55 / 50 45 40 :^5 30 25 DiAGBAM 4.— Proportion of practical work to total time, Higher Tech- nical Institute of Uilan. Optional studies. — In all departments a number of additional courses are offered as optional. These courses, while not absolutely ITALY, 69 indispensable to the professional education of the students, are nevertheless recommended as helpful for general or special develop- ment. The optional studies which are offered only in the second and third years, are distributed by departments and semesters as follows: Optional studies — Hours per week. Subjects. Second year. First semester. Second semester. Third year. First semester. Second Department of civil engineering: Hygiene ^plied to engineering . . . History of architecture Higher analysis Department of industrial engineering: Hygiene applied to engineering Bl^er analysis Technology of refrigeration Electric services for mines Department of civil architecture: Medieval archeology Institute of electrotechnics: Electrochemistry Physical chemistry Electric services for mines .: Specialized courses for electrical engineers. — Students desiring to speciaHze in electrical engineering are offered a number of courses in the separate institute of electrotechnics (Istituzione elettro- tecnica), but closely related with the department of industrial engineering which corresponds to that of mechanical engineering in other coimtries. The electrotechnical courses cover one year and are arranged as follows: MlectrotecJinical courses — Hours per week. Subjects. General electrotechnics Electric plants and electric measurements. Electricsu technology - • Electric machines (construction and tests) Electric plants (applications) Semester hours. First semester. Second semester. 2 14 3 AUXILURY ESTABLISHMENTS. The auxiliary estabhshments, to which reference has already been made, not only afford opportunity for the students of the technical school to pursue intensively certain specialties and to extend their general researches, but they are also open to other classes of students who meet the entrance requirements, and they serve in various ways 70^ HIGHER TECHNICAL EDTTCATION. the interests of experts and manufacturers concerned in their re- spective specialties. These associated institutes are as follows: Carlo Erba Electro-Technical Institute. School' of Electro-Chemistry. R. Stazione Sperimentale per I'lndustria della Carta e lo Studio delle Fibre Tessili in Milano. Scuola Laboratorio e Stazione Sperimentale per I'lndustria degli Olt e dei Grassi. The purpose of the first two associate institutes is sufficiently indicated by their titles. The piu-pose of the R. Stazione Sperimentale per I'lndustria della Carta e lo Studio deUe Fibre Tessili in Milano is to promote experi- mental researches in respectto problems relating to the paper industry and products employed as textile fibers, and to pubhsh the results of these researches; to publish the results of similar investigations and the appUcation of new methods and processes which are proposed for the paper industry when they are recognized as really useful; to study the use of new materials, indicating their utilization and their value; to make chemical and microscopic analyses of the principal materials and the products of the paper industry, and the industry of textile fibers; to furnish advice and theoretical and practical instruc- tion to manufacturers and operatives; to supply statistical reports regarding the commerce and economy of the paper industry, the use of textile fibers, etc. In furtherance of its broad purposes, manu- f actm-ers and operators are encouraged to make free use of the equip- ments of the station. Courses of instruction adapted to operatives are maintained, and public lectures on the progress of the paper industry and of the studies of textUe fibers. The station also conducts analyses and gives valuations in reference to its specialties for the use of Government officials and private individuals. The Scuola Laboratorio e Stazione Sperimentale per I'lndustria degli Oil e dei Grassi, as its name indicates, affords special facilities for studies and practical investigations regarding the industry of oils, fats, ether oUs, perfumes, colors, and varnishes. The laboratory also pubhshes the results of aU recent discoveries and inventions relating to its specialty and makes analyses and estimates for those interested in the industries of oils and fats. The Scuola Laboratorio e Stazione Sperimentale per I'lndustria degli Oil e dei Grassi is divided into two sections: The section of opera- tives and the section for those seeking the position of chemical director. Each section has a two years' course — one of preparatory work and one of apphcation. Admission to the first section is free and open to all operatives who have passed the examination of the third elementary year, who have worked at least one year in an establishment, and who have reached the age of 17. To be admitted to the second section, the applicant must be 17 years old and have the licensa technica or ITALY. 71 ginnasiale, or some other equivalent title, and give proof of having worked for one year in an establishment. Those having the Icmrea in chemistry and industrial engineers may be admitted immediately in the second year. EXAMINATIONS. Examinations hold an important place in the general scheme of higher technical education. They comprise both oral and written exercises, and include graphic work and structural plans according to materials designated. The ability of students to continue in the course is tested by annual examinations, and students who fail to receive a mark of at least 60 per cent are obUged to repeat the course in the subjects in which they are weak, although they may be regis- tered as regular students in the following year's course. As a rule a student can not repeat a year's course in any subject more than once and must pay the fee for special examination in every subject in which he was deficient. At the end of the third year, students who have successfully passed aU the prescribed annual examinations are eUgible for the examination for the laurea (doctor's diploma). Students rejected at this examination have the privilege of repeating it in the December session of the same year by paying the supertax of 50 lire. Those who fail in that session can not present themselves again untU the close of the following scholastic session, when they must again pay the supertax. No one is permitted to attempt the examination for the laurea more than three times. The laurea is conferred for the following courses: Engineering, architecture, physics, chemistry, and natural sciences. Stiidents of the normal section who have passed the required exami- nations receive the certificate of pedagogic ability, carrying mention of physical, chemical, or natural sciences, according to the course followed. Special diplomas are also conferred by the associated institutes. FINANCIAL SUPPORT. During the year 1911-12 (the latest year for which figures are available) the State contributed the sum of 277,600 lire ($53,576.80) for the maintenance of the main institution and 75,000 lire ($14,475) for the purchase of materials. The Carlo Erba Electro-Technical Institute is supported by an endowment fimd of 400,000 fire ($77,200), bequeathed by the famous engineer. Carlo Erba. The School of Electro-Chemistry is endowed by the Cassa di Eisparmio (savings bank) deUe Provincie Lombardi with a capital of 300,000 hre ($57,900) of which 60,000 hre ($9,650) was set aside to be used in establishing the plant and institute, and the remaining 250,000 lire ($48,250) was destined to support the institution. ■72 HIGHER TECHNICAL EDUCATION. The R. Stazione Sperimentale per I'lndustria della Carta is under the control of the minister of agriculture, industry, and commerce. The following are its sources of income: The minister of agriculture, industry, and commerce, 8,000 hre ($1,544) annually; Commune of Milan, 4,000 hre (S772) annually; Societa Umanitaria di Milano, 1,000 Hre ($193) annually; Chamber of Commerce of Milan, 21,000 lire ($4,053) annually; Province of Milan, 1,000 lire ($193) annually. The R. Istituto Tecnico Superiore contributes the ground on which the factory stands, and provides for the maintenance of the rooms, illumination, heating, and supply of water. Faculty, student), and finances of the technical institutions. Institutions. Date of estab- lish- ment. Number of main depart- ments. Members of fac- ulty. Students - in 1912-13. Financial support, 1912-13 (lire). 1862 1877 1863 1873 1906 4 2 3 '96 •29 41 44 77 915 198 <881 '463 1,519 42 / '352,600 \ $68,051.80 Scuola di appllcazione per gli ingegneri, Bologna Scuola superiore politocnica, Naples / 265,000 \ $51,145.00 Scuola di applicazione per gli ingegneri, Kome " Politecnico, Turin - . . t 2 / 758,963 \S146,479.86 > Including 30 assistants. ' 1911-12. ' Including 12 assistants. « 1914-15. s 1913-14. • This institution pertains to the Univerity ol Rome. AUSTRIA. ORGANIZATION OF HIGHER TECHNICAL EDUCATION. Higher technical education in Aiistria is provided by seven higher technical schools (Technische Hochschulen), which are remarkably uniform in regard to administration, programs of instruction, and internal regulations. The main facts and figures relating to these schools are comprised in the table on page 75. Administration. — Higher technical schools pertain to the ministry of education. The State contributes liberally to the maintenance of these institutions, but does not interfere with their administra- tion, which is exercised by the "college of professors" under the presidency of the rector. The college consists of all the ordinary and extraordinary professors of the school and several delegates repre- senting the private docents. The rector is elected by the college from the number of ordinary professors for one school year. The retiring rector, called "prorector," retains certain vestiges of authority; for example, he fills the oflice of rector in the absence of the latter. Similar administration is provided for each department of the school; the professors of the department form a " departaaental college of professors" and elect a dean as their president for one school year. Besides the ordinary and extraordinary professors, the schools employ private and honorary docents and lectors, the latter title being usually apphed to instructors of foreign languages. There are also assistants to aid the regular professors in their work and adjxmcts to assist in experiments and demonstrations. The pro- fessors are appointed by the Emperor, upon the recommendation of the minister of education. The private docents and adjuncts are appointed by the minister himself. Admission requirements. — The certificate of maturity, showing the completion of the course of a gymnasium, a real school, a real gymnasium, or a reformed real gymnasium, is necessary for admis- sion to higher technical schools. Graduates of classical gymnasia are required to give proof of adequate training in drawing, both geometrical and freehand. No matriculation examinations are held in the higher institutions, but secondary schools admit externs to the matiu-ity examinations, and if they pass give them certificates identical with those awarded to their own pupils. Auditors and guests may be admitted to single lectures or a course of lectures without proof of secondary education. Foreigners are admitted as students or auditors upon the authoriza- tion of the dean of the respective department jor_of. a special com-^ ^?3. 74 HIGHER TECHNICAL EDUCATION. mittee of admission; questions arising as to the value of foreign certificates presented by candidates are decided by the minister of education. PROGRAMS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. Instruction. — ^The courses of instruction in most of the depart- ments are of four years' duration. In architecture, however, they cover generally five years. There are also short courses for sur- veyors and insurance experts. Programs and methods of instruction are very similar in aU the schools here considered. All have departments of mechanical and structural engineering; with one exception all have departments of chemical engineering, and all but two are provided with depart- ments of architectural engineering. A general department is also a common feature. Electrical engineering, agriculture, "kultur" engineering, hydrauHc engineering, and geodetical engineering are each offered in one school. The general system of instruction closely approaches the German system, as analyzed in the case of the Charlottenburg school. All the Austrian schools have ample facilities for practical work; all employ specialists teaching highly differentiated subjects; and all assign considerable time to practical instruction. At the end of the second year the students are required to submit to the first State examination. The second State examination is held at the end of the last year. Frequent examinations in single subjects are held during the coxirse. Language of instruction. — The language of instruction in four out of the seven higher technical schools in Austria is German; in the Lemberg school the instruction is in Polish; Briinn and Prague have each two higher technical schools, the language of instruction being Bohemian in one of the schools and German in the other. Degree. — The degree conferred in all the technical departments is that of doctor of technical sciences (Dr. techn.). It is awarded to those who, after the completion of the full prescribed course, in one selected department, present a thesis on a scientific subject and pass the final examination (rigorosum). Instead of a scientific thesis, a construction design may be accepted, if accompanied by technical description and a scientific motivation, showing the author's ability for independent work. Len^h of the school year. — The school year begins the first of October aiid closes at the end of July. The vacations amount to 99 days, or a little over 14 weeks. The school year comprises, therefore, approximately 38 weeks.' This time is divided into two semesters, winter and summer, the former ending and the later beginning on March 1. > From tbl9 number sevaral more daye must be deducted tor national and loeal holidays. AXTSTBIA. 75 -I l|4a III ill. 3 » • ■assp SI m ■§§B 05 * 5 3 =* S t-4 c> d Si2'2 ® 9.2 CO -* « ec o c5 S S s s t* S * c5 s T-l CO l-l 00 C4 CO CO tH O CO «■ t-4 O i-H 00 OO IfJ >-( -'f o t~ « CO eo CO Oi M N CO O eo 5 S s s A s A Oa Oi ^ CO m r- fH s S RTTSSIA. INTKODUCnON. General features. — ^Higher technical education m Russia is provided in polytechnic institutes offering instruction in all recognized branches of engineering science, and special institutions devoted to the teach- ing of one selected branch with a view of preparing highly specialized engineers for positions in Government service or industries. There are also three schools of intermediate type, termed technological institutes, which offer two departments, mechanical and chemical, and are in their essential features but incomplete polytechnic insti- tutes. The organization of the Russian polytechnic institutes presents few distinctive traits, while that of special technical schools requires more particular consideration. Technical education in Russia is vmder several different ministries, each having absolute control of its own province. The ministry of public instruction controls many technical schools, but those under other ministries are by no means unimportant. The department of agriculture alone disburses for its agricultural schools a larger sum than that expended by the ministry of public instruction for all technical schools under its control. The ministry of commerce and industry controls a number of polytechnic institutes and schools of commerce. The grouping of these several classes according to the respective ministries responsible for their supervision and mainte- nance is shown in the table appended to this section, page 91. PREPARATORY EDUCATION. Standard of preparation. — Notwithstanding the divei^ency of administrative systems and programs, all Russian technical schools of the higher order have certain common features. Among these are the admission requirements, which are essentially the same whether for polytechnic institutes or special institutions for any branch. The standard of these requirements is the full course of a gymnasium with eight classes. Diplomas of other secondaiy schools are honored if they represent an amoimt of work equal to the gymnasium course. 76 BUSSIA. 77 Gymjuisiums and real schools. — ^The section on Germany gives a detailed account of the three representative types of secondary edu- cation in that country: The gymnasium, the realgymnasium, and the "ober" real school. The Russian secondary schools present, mutatis mutandis, a fair copy of the corresponding German institutions. All Russian real schools are "ober," since they are all equipped with the seventh class. The Grerman realgymnasium finds a parallel in the Russian reformed gymnasium established by the decree of 1902. Intermediate between the ultraclassical and the reformed gymnasi- ums is the type of 1905, which limits the time given to Latin and Greek and introduces intensified modem language study and natural science. The amount of knowledge represented by diplomas of the secondary schools enumerated is a well-known educational quantum, and Rus- sian graduates hold their own in any test or comparison with western European graduates of similar institutions. Gymnasiums and real schools are all controlled by the ministry of pubHc instruction.* As regards the other secondary schools whose diplomas are recognized for admission to higher technical institutions, they require, owing to their multiplicity and differences of scope and organization, a more detailed presentation. Secondary technical schools. — ^The secondary schools above con- sidered pertain to general education. AH other secondary schools are termed technical and fall imder the control of different ministries, according to their special character. This presentation will be limited to those that serve as feeders for places of higher technical education. The secondary technical schools of the ministry of public instruction have a four-year course which was originally designed to give a com- plete technical education of a lower degree than that of higher tech- nical schools. The original regulations required for admission to secondary technical schools the completion of five classes of a real school. Since, however, very few realists took advantage of this opportunity, preferring to complete the real school course and then enter the higher technical schools, the secondary teciinical schools were compelled to disregard the rule and to lower their admission requirements so as to admit pupils from two-class elementary schools and even persons without any school education, but having practical experience in factory work. There are five types of secondary tech- nical schools under the control of the ministry of public instruction, respectively: (l)Mechanico-technical, (2) chemico-technical, (3) tech- nical school of architecture, (4) technical school of rural economy (agriculture), and (5) technical school of mines. » With the exception of some gymnasia for girls controlled by the board of institutions of Empress Mary. 78 HIGHER TECHNICAL EDUCATION. Curricula oi the tecJmical schools. — The following tables give the respective curricula of the five divisions. Before passing over to the tabular form of their presentation, it must be mentioned that the secondary technical schools, as here treated, are now regarded as a transient type, and a very strong movement is on foot to develop a new kind of technical school combining the features of the existing lower and secondary technical schools and equaling in scope the real or the commercial schools. This movement is an outcome of the precarious position in which the existing secondary technical schools have been placed by the want of definite admission rules already referred to. Curriculum of the secondary teehnical schools — Hours per week. Hechanico- technical school. Chemlco- technical school. School of architecture. Subjects of instruction. Classes. Classes. Classes. 1 2 3 ■ 4 Total. 1 2 3 4 Total. 1 2 3 4 Total. 1 3 1 3 1 1 4 6 I 2 3 3 S 1 1 1 4 3 6 6 10 7 4 3 14 3 1 3 1 3 1 1 Mathematics 5 Natural history 2 3 3 2 2 2 Physics 3 3 5 3 2 i 2 2 8 S 7 10 11 3 3 3 3 4 2 3 3 5 3 2 2 2 6 4 s Macliine construction 8 3 3 2 ■'3' 8 2 4 Mechanical productions 6 i 2 7 "6 3 3 3 '4 Surveying and leveling Commercial geogrf^hy and 3 3 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 3 4 2 Bookkeeping and commer- 2 2 3 Total 18 6 18 6 16 17 69 12 18 3 6 17 4 18 4 18 16 69 8 8 18 6 17 4 14 12 61 10 Drawing subjects: Geometrical drawing Technical drawing 6 3 12 4 4 6 10 6 '26" 4 Q 2 10 3 8 35 28 3 3 4 2 6 Total 9 9 9 9 2 9 9 12 9 39 8 6 4 4 22 9 28 28 18 6 15 10 22 6 24 79 Practical work in the— Mechanical workshops.. . 36 2 9 6 Chemical laboratory 18 10 8 20 Techno-chemical work- shops Total 9 11 9 34 9 38 38 146 9 34 18 18 lo" 20 40 65 156 6 42 10 6 6 42" 28 36 38 42 42 168 RUSSIA. 79 Curriculum of (he secondary technical schools— Hours per wecit— Continued. Technical School oj Rural Economy. Technical School of Mining. Subjects of instmction. Classes. Subjects of instruction. Classes. 1 2 3 4 Total. 1 2 3 4 Total. Religion 1 4 6 4 1 2 3 3 4 1 1 4 6 11 11 9 4 12 4 5 2 2 2 1 3 3 2 3 6 1 3 3 3 2 2 1 1 4 Physics and meteorology. . Mathematics Natural history and ento- 2 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 Physios mology 5 9 General and agricultural rhpTpjptry,., , 4 chemistry Technology of agriculture. 2 2 3 4 2 2 5 4 Architecture as applied to Metallurgy and the tech- 2 Agneulturo, general and 3 3 2 special Management of cattle 2 Implements and machines ot'husbandry 1 Bookkeeping and corre- 2 2 2 Agricultural economy and ■ Dookkfeeping. Law 2 Total Surveying and leveling Law Total 18 IS 18 18 72 17 18 18 18 71 Drawing subjects: Instrumental drawing Freehand drawing. . . Total Drawing subjects: Instrumental drawing . Freehand drawing "i 2 \2 4 4 10 6 2 4 4 2 ' 6 6 18 Total 4 4 4 4 16 8 6 6 8 10 6 8 10 Practical work in the— Chemical laboratory. . Techno-chemical workshops or fac- Practical work in the — 8 12 8 12 8 12 24 56 18 8 ID Techno-ohemical workshops or facto- 20 48 Total.. . Total 20 20 20 20 80 18 18 18 18 72 Grand total of hours Grand total of hours 42 42 42 42 168 41 42 42 42 167 Aside from the technical schools of the above type, characterized by a strongly practical bias, there are other secondary technical schools combioing special education with general. Of the latter type, two schools have gained special recognition as exceptionally efficient and well organized. They are: L6d^ Technical School and Komissarov Technical School at Moscow. Gommercial schools. — ^Admission to higher technical institutions is also open to graduates of numerous other schools of secondary order, such as agricidttu*al schools, commercial schools, cadet corps, theological seminaries, teachers' institutes, etc. Among these of most importance are commercial schools controlled by the ministry of finance. These schools have either seven classes, giving a complete secondary education of general and commercial character, or they have only the three upper classes, with a strictly special course of instruction. While many of the graduates of the commercial schools engage directly in business, or enter higher schools of commerce, there is always a considerable percentage of those who choose the 80 HIGHER TECHNICAL EDUCATION. engineering career and seek admission to technical colleges and polytechnics. Entrance examinations. — ^Almost aU higher technical schools in Russia require, in addition to certificates of secondary education, proof of intellectual attainment in the form of entrance examination. In some of the schools it is simply an examination in special subjects, such as physics, mathematics, and drawing. In other schools there are elaborate examinations, and admission can hardly be secured by any but the ablest and best educated young men. Recently university graduates, especially those of the physico-mathematical faculty, have been attracted in large numbers to the best technological institutes, where they are accepted without examination. The cause of this movement is seen in the prospects of important careers offered by some technological institutes, such as the Institute of Engineers of Ways of Communication, the Mining Institute, etc. The appear- ance of university graduates as competitors for admission to higher technical schools has further reduced the chances of graduates of secondary schools. It also tends to make the entrance examinations more difficult. On the whole, the tendency on the part of Russian higher technical schools is rather to obstruct the entrance of yoimg men seeking admission than to sohcit for students, as is the case in countries where private institutions prevail. Two underlying facts explain this pecuhar situation of Russian higher technical schools. The first is the inadequacy of the number of schools to the demand of Russian industries, with the result that more 'young men seek higher technical education than the schools can accommodate; taking advantage of this fact the schools accord admission to the choicest groups of students, preferably to university graduates, in this way raising the intellectual level of their student body. The other cause of ri«nd admission requirements lies in the specific purposes of Russian higher technical schools. A majority of these schools were estabUshed by the Government to meet suddenly created demands for engineers in this or that branch of industry, commerce, or transportation. They are all State supported or State aided, and the Government does not hesitate at heavy expenditures connected with the main- tenance of old schools and estabUshment of new ones. But on the other hand, it takes careful measures to obtain from the graduates a fair return to the country by work in native industries. This consideration explains the fact that many Russian higher technical schools refuse admission to foreigners; many have clauses binding the students to serve in Government positions a certain minim nTT) period after the graduation; in all the schools academical degrees convey also high civil ranks. There is also an evident purpose to insure that the student body shall be recruited chiefly from the Russian RUSSIA. 32 population. Most of the schools Hmit the percentage of Jewish, and one school even the percentage of Pohsh, students, while all require that candidates for admission shaU give proof of loyalty to the Government.' ORGANIZATION OF fflGHER TECHNICAL EDUCATION. Administration.~Al\ educational institutions in Kussia are under close control of the Central Government, which dictates their statutes, curricula, niles, and regulations of disciphne. Tliis control is exer- cised by the Government through the channels of several ministries. As a rule, general education converges in the ministry of pubhc instruction, whUe the different branches of technical education are under the control of other ministries. AH higher educational insti- tutions in Russia are State supported; in some cases, however,they are aided by local contributions. The internal administration of higher technical schools is in the main features uniform, irrespective of ministry alBhations. It is exercised by a council of professors under the presidency of a chief officer whose official title is "rector" in some schools and "director" in others. He is elected by the faculty of professors and must be a professor himself. His election is subject to the approval of the Emperor. A vice director supervises the instruction. Business management of the institution is intrusted to a business committee presided over ex officio by the rector. The business committee is also elected. Slight deviations from this system are allowed in some of the schools, to meet certain local or special needs and conditions. For instance, in the administration of the Ekaterinoslav Higher School of Mines, local manufacturers are given voice as members of the school council; to this end, the statute of the institution provides for the participation in the council of four representatives of the Association of South Russian Mine and Smelter Industries and of the chief of mining administration for South Russia. Instruction. — In the highest special technological institutes the coirrse of instruction covers from five to seven years. In polytechnic insti- tutes it is generally four years, and in one case, namely, that of the Riga Polytechnic Institute, a commercial course of three years' dura- tion is offered. The instruction is partly theoretical, partly practical. The latter side of the trainijig is given marked emphasis in Russia. In most of the schools regular programs include excursions to and practical work in factories, railroads, and mines, whUe some others are lavishly equipped with cabinets, laboratories, and experimental shops. Special interest attaches in this connection to the Imperial 1 According to recent press advices, the revolutionary Eussian Government has rescinded all limita- tions, pertaining to nationality, for admission to educational institutions of every class. 81797°— 17 6 82 HIGHEE TECHNICAL EDUCATION. Technical School of Moscow, which maintains great machine shops conducted on a commercial basis, in which students receive their practical training. The allotment of time between the theoretical and the practical instruction is not regulated by any \miform system. It seems that in Russia this question is in its experimental stage, just as it is ia other countries. There are schools embodying either one or the other extreme view in the matter; in some the practical and the theoretical instructions are closely interwoven throughout the coiuse, while in others whole semesters, are given to practical work entirely. An example of the latter type is the Moscow High School of Engineering (different from the Moscow school mentioned above), in which two years are devoted to practical work exclusively. Degrees. — By the successful passage of the leaving examination the student generally qualifies for a degree. The degrees in engi- neering conveyed by the Russian institutions are the following: Engineer-technologist, electrical engineer, engineer-architect, engi- neer of metallurgy, engineer of ways of communication, construction engineer, and agronomist. Postgraduate study and presentation of some original work lead to the degree of "learned engineer-tech- nologist." Number of schools. — There are now in Russia 16 higher technical schools, as follows: Five polytechnic institutes under the ministry of public instruc- tion, located, respectively, in Petrograd, Moscow, Kharkof , Riga, and Tomsk. Three polytechnic institutes under the ministry of finance, in Kief, Warsaw, and Petrograd. Two mining institutes under the ministry of finance, in Petrograd and Ekaterinoslav. Two engiueering institutes under the ministry of ways of communi- cation, in Petrograd and Moscow. One institute of electrical engineering pertaining to the ministry of the interior, in Petrograd. One institute of civU engineering under the ministry of the inte- rior, in Petrograd. Two higher technical schools have been estabhshed recently but are not included in this presentation. They are: Polytechnic Insti- tute of the Don, located in Novotcherkassk, established in 1907, and Polytechnic Courses for Women at Petrograd, opened in Januai-y, 1906. No official account of these two institutions is yet available. All particulars pertaining to the 14 institutions enumerated above are presented in tabular form in the appendix to this section. RUSSIA. 83 INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERS OF WAYS OF COMMUNICATION. (Institut Intenierov Putiej Soobseeflja.) History and object of the institution. — The Institute of Engineers of Ways of Communication was established in 1809, originally as a school of military engineers, organized along the hnes of the famous French institution, "ficole des ponts et chauss^es." The first pro- fessors of the institute were French engineers, former professors or graduates of the French school; the instruction was in French, and the miUtary organization remained in force until 1864. The original purpose of the institute was to prepare engineers for the army service, and the students were promoted during the course through successive mihtary grades, until finally they were graduated as second Ueuten- ants and passed from the school directly into service in the engi- neering branch of the army. The reform of 1864 abolished the military organization of the institute and made its distinct purpose the training of civil engineers specializing in roads and waterways. The present statute regulating the school has been in force since 1890. Administration. — The administration of the institute is vested in the council of the institute under the presidency of the director. An inspector is charged with the enforcement of discipline. The council decides in matters of lesser importance, pertaining to temporary measures and regulations, program of studies, conduct of practical work, etc. ; in questions of greater consequence the council submits its opinion to the minister of ways of coromunication who is ultimate authority in the administration of the institute. The financial affairs of the institute are in charge of a special committee of finance, which also consists of professors. Sources of maintenance, and tuition. — The institute is maintained entirely by the Government, but owing to comparatively high tuition fees (50 rubles per semester) nearly one-half of the expenditure is cov- ered from the latter source. In 1912 the State provision for the insti- tute was 168,240 rubles; the students' fees amounted to 126,000 rubles. The number of students at that time was 1,267. There is a provision for free scholarships and board for 50 students ; the funds for this purpose are furnished by railroads and private citizens. The total amount of scholarship funds is 250,000 rubles. The students who are granted free scholarships must sign a pledge to serve in Gov- ernment positions one and a half years for each year of scholarship. Degree. — The leaving examination leads to the degree of "engineer of ways of communication." By virtue of this degree the graduate acquires the civil rank of tenth or twelfth class, according to his suc- cess in the examination. The best graduates may, after two years of 84 HIGHER TECHNICAL EDUCATION. practice, become attached to the institute in the capacity of aspirants for the position of instructor. As such they receive free board and means of study. In each individual case, however, the sanction of the minister of ways of communication is necessary. The examina- tion for the position of adjunct may take place in two years after graduation, and includes a report on practical work in which the graduate has been engaged since he left the institute, an oral exami- nation, a thesis, and two trial lessons. Admission requirements. — ^The candidates for admission mxist pre- sent a certificate of maturity and submit to a competitive exami- nation in algebra, arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, physics, drawing, Russian language, and one foreign language. University graduates are accepted without examination and have precedence of all other candidates. University graduates of the physico-mathe- matical faculty may be admitted to the second or the third year after passing an appropriate examination. How these admission rules operate to sift the enormous numbers of candidates, with the view of selecting the most promising, may be inferred from the fact that often fully half the candidates fail to pass the tests and that only a part of the remaining half is accepted; among those refused admission often are students of great abiUty, as is shown by average ratings received by them in the examination, often reaching 4.5 and over, or 90 and over by the centenary system. As a rule, foreigners are not admitted to the institute, but excep- tions are made upon the recommendation of the minister of ways of communication. Curriculum. — ^The program of studies covers five years and includes class study and practical work in laboratories, shops, etc. The sub- jects of class instruction are the following: FIRST YEAR. 1. Religion. 2. Higher mathematics. 3. Elements of mechanics. 4. Descriptive geometry. 5. Physics. 6. Chemistry. 7. Geodesy. 8. Architecture. 9. Foreign languages: French, German, and English. SECOND YEAR. 1. Religion. 2. Higher mathematics. 3. Theoretical mechanics. 4. Constructional mechanics. 5. Graphical statics. SECOND YEAH — Continued. 6. Architecture. 7. Construction. 8. Higher geodesy. 9. Descriptive geometry. 10. Geology and physical geography. 11. Physics. 12. Foreign languages: French, German, and English (optional). THIRD YEAR. 1. Railroads. 2. Roads. 3. Steam engines. 4. General principles of machine con- struction. 5. Architecture (including heating and ventilation). RUSSIA. 85 THIRD YEAR — Continued. 6. Electrotechnics. 7. Hydraulics. 8. Constructional mechanics. 9. Theoretical mechanics. 10. Technology of building materials. 11. Manufacture of metals. 12. Political economy and statistics. FOURTH TEAR. 1. Railroads. 2. Waterways. 3. Bridges. 4. Constructional mechanics. FonETH TEAR — Continued. 5. Harbor constructions. 6. Locomotives. 7. Lifting machines. 8. Drainage and irrigation. 9. Hydraiilic motors. 10. Water supply and sewerage. 11. Electrotechnics and power transmis- sion for distance. FIFTH YEAR. 1. Operation of railroads. 2. Geology of Russia. Practical Work op Students. Showing number of tasks to be performed by each student. first year. Drawing: Geometrical and technical 8 Topographical 3 Plain 7 SECOND YEAH. Exercises relating to — Constructional mechanics 2 Graphical statics 1 Constructional arts 2 Projectional drawing 1 Architectural drawing 2 Plain drawing 3 THIRD TEAR. Exercises relating to — Civil architecture 2 Preparation of estimates 1 Constructional mechanics 2 FOURTH YEAR. Architectural projects: Civil or rail- road construction with complex metal coverings 1 Exercises relating to — Bridges 1 Waterways 1 Hydraulics 1 Locomotives 1 Water supply and sewerage, or electrotechnics 1 FIFTH YEAR. Preparation of projects in: 1. Bridges 1 2. Railroads, or water supply and sewerage 1 3. Waterways and harbor con- structions 1 4. Practical mechanics 1 Repetitions. FIRST year. Repetitions. Higher mathematics 6 Theoretical mechanics 4 Geodesy 3 Descriptive geometry 3 second year. Higher mathematics 4 Theoretical mechanics 3 Constructional mechanics 2 Graphical statics 2 SECOND YEAR — Continued. Repetitions. 1 1 Petrography Constructional arts THIRD YEAR. Theoretical mechanics 2 Steam engines 1 Constructional mechanics 1 Hydraulics 1 Electrotechnics 1 Bridges. FOURTH YEAR. 86 HIGHER TECHNICAL EDUCATION. Laboratory worlc. — The laboratories attached to the institute are: Mechanical, chemical, and physical. The mechanical laboratory is used mainly for testing structural materials: Cement, iron, wood, and stone. The work done in this laboratory, besides being of educational importance to the students of the institute, serves the interests of the native industries and transportation, since tests are made here of samples of constructional materials suppHed from aU parts of Kussia. This part of the labora- tory's activity is described more fuUy under a separate heading. The chemical laboratory is utilized for practical occupations in general chemistry, especially by students of the first year; it is also used for chemical tests of constructional materials. The students of the advanced classes do optional work in the laboratory in quali- tative analysis and technical quantitative analysis of constructional materials. The physical laboratory furnishes the means of practical instruc- tion in physics to the students of the second year, in connection with their theoretical study of physics; special emphasis is placed on heat, light, and electricity. Summer occupations of students. — AU students of the fourth and the fifth years, and part of the students of the fiirst three years, are sent after the close of the spring examinations to different construc- tional works for practice. The following work is included in the program of summer occu- pations: (1) Railroads: Research work, construction, and opera- tion; (2) roads; (3) waterways; (4) harbor construction; (5) machine plants and shops; (6) different kinds of governmental road-building works conducted imder the ministry of ways of communication. The students of the lower classes who do not take part in the above summer occupations are engaged during a part of the summer vacation in topographical exercises, astronomical and hydrometrical observations, and boring of artesian weDs. Tests of constructional materials. — The mechanical laboratory of the institute, established in 1856, was destined to play an important part in the development of Russian transportation and industries. For a long time it was the only place in Russia where constructional materials, both imported and produced by home industries, could be tested with any degree of reliability. Some of the finest laridges ia Russia are made of materials tested in the institute laboratory. The wider activity of the laboratory in this field dates from 1877, when, owing to large importation into Russia of foreign building materials, especially of English cement, it was found necessary to enlarge the facilities of the laboratory by the purchase of modem machinery. During the following years a series of appropriations helped to bring the laboratory equipment to a highly satisfactory condition RUSSIA. 87 The laboratory has participated in several international con- gresses on methods of testing building materials. It arranges public tests with the view of impressing upon those interested facts bear- ing upon the relative value of building materials. A series of such tests conducted in 1891-1898 promoted the introduction and spread of reinforced concrete constructions in Russia. Other laboratories and equipment. — ^The institute possesses a well- equipped museiun, a library of 70,000 volumes, and a photographic laboratory, outside of the laboratories described above. The Im- perial Duma recently voted 901,000 rubles for additional labora- tories and the enlargement of the old ones. At the present time the following laboratories are either in construction or recently completed: Electrotechnical, physical, aerodynamical, mechanical, and for locomotive construction. The laboratory for the testing of building materials is to be located in a separate building. Publication. — ^The institute publishes a monthly report, issued since 1884 tmder the name "Sbomik Instituta Inzeuierow Putiej Soob6ce6ja." TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF EMPEROR NICHOLAS I, AT PETROGRAD. TechnologiCeskij Institut Imperatora Nikolaja I. The institute was established in 1828 by Count Kankrin, then minister of finance, and put into operation in 1831. It was organ- ized originally as a "practical" technical school with two depart- ments, mechanical and chemical, and was connected with a number of well-e.quipped mechanical shops and chemical laboratories. It admitted pupils at the ages of 13 to 15 years, and offered a six-year course. In 1862 it was reorganized as an institution of university grade. Another reform in 1877 gave the institute the organization which it has preserved to this date. At the same time the buildings and laboratpries were greatly improved and enlarged. In 1898 the institute was agaia extended and reequipped. Administration. — ^The Petrograd Technological Institute is con- trolled by the ministry of public instruction. Its statute is iden- tical with that of the Kharkof Technological Institute (see statistical table), and is similar in its essential features to the statutes govern- ing the operation of Russian universities. At the head of the insti- tute stands the council of professors, consisting of 15 members, with a director, his aid, and a secretary, all elected for two years. The director's election must be approved by the Emperor; the vice director and the secretary are elected subject to the approva,l by the minister of public instruction. Business affairs of the institute are confided to the care of the finance committee of three members, presided over by the director. 88 HIGHEB TECHNICAL EDUCATION. Admission requirements. — Candidates for admission must present a certificate of maturity from a Russian gymnasium or other sec- ondary school of gymnasium grade. When the number of appli- cants exceeds the number of vacancies, a competitive examination is resorted to as a means of selection of the best-prepared candi- dates. Since, however, the number of applicants is usually very high (about 2,000) and there are only 300 vacancies provided, the competitive examination is a chronic occurrence. The examination takes place in the middle of August and consists of mathematics, physics, and the Russian languag^i It is very rigorous, but in spite of this the number of candidates who have passed it successfully is always greater than the number of available places. The tuition fee is 50 rubles per annum. There is a provision for free scholarships for 100 students. Instruction and degree. — ^The course of instruction covers five years. The first two years are common, and during the last three years the instruction follows two specialized courses, mechanical and chemical. Practical instruction accompanies the theoretical' throughout the first four years, and the fifth year is devoted en- tirely to practical occupations. After the completion of the full course of studies the final exami- nation is taken, which leads directly to the degree of engineer- technologist, entitling to the conduct of constructional work in the Empire. According to the ratings in the leaving examination, the graduates are divided into two classes; graduates of the first class receive the civil rank of the tenth degree and those of the second class the rank of the twelfth degree. Curriculum. — The program of studies, both theoretical and prac- tical, is as follows: Program op Studies. SECOND YEAR — Continued. FIRST YEAR. Hours per wk. Religion 2 Analytic geometry, advanced algebra, differential calculus, elementary integral calculus 5 Descriptive geometry 2 Physics (apparatus, measurement, molecular physics) 3 Mineralogical chemistry 5 Theoretical mechanics 3 Geodesy 2 Total ~2i SECOND YEAR. General mechanics 2 Physics (heat, electricity) 3 1 For mechanicians only. ' For mechanicians only, and during one semester only . » For chemists only. Hours per wfe. General chemistry (metals) 3 Resistance of materials, organs of machines 4 Applied mechanics 3 Architecture 2 Construction 3 Integral calculus ' 2 Analytical mechanics ^ 2 Mineralogy and geodesy " 2 Total 22 or 24 The program of the first two years also includes architectiual and technical drawing. RUSSIA. 89 Program of Studies — OontiBued. THIRD YEAR. Common part: ^rwk. Mechanical theory of heat 4 Boilers 2 Technology of metals and alloys. 2 Electrical measurements 3 Heating and ventilation 2 Total, common studies 13 MechaniciaTis. Applied thermodynamics (one semes- ter) 4 Lifting machinery (one semester) 3 Graphical statics 2 Hydraulics and hydraulic motors 2 Construction of steam engines 2 Metallurgy or iron (one semester) 2 Theory of probability (optional) 2 Obligatory total 13 Grand total 26 Chemists. Organic chemistry ^ Analytical chemistry 2 Technology of mineral substances. . . 4 Anatomy and physiology of plants (one semester) 3 Total 12 Grand total 25 Besides the above studies there is architectural and mechanical drawing, practical work in the shops and exercises in microscopy and analysis. The time given to practical occupations during the fourth year is considerably increased. The practical work consists of machine design, laboratory exercises, etc. The mechanicians must design a boiler, a steam engine, and a hydraulic motor. The chemists design a boiler, a factory of chemical products relating to mineral industry. The mechanicians may select for examinations: Electro- technics, locomotives, or technology of textile machinery. The fifth year is devoted to the execution of designs, work at material testing in the mechanical laboratory, etc. Students spend during this year at least one month in a factory studying the branch of industry in which they are interested. FOURTH YEAR. Mechanicians. Hours per wk. Electrotechnical theory (optional). . . 2 Construction and calculations of dynamos (optional) 3 Technology of textiles 4 Hydrotechnical construction 2 Theory of elasticity of solids (op- tional) 2 Statics of construction 3 Technology of metals 4 Construction of metallurgieal works . . 2 Woodwork 2 Theory of locomotive construction. . 3 Obligatory total 20 Chemists. Electrotechnical theory (optional) . . 2 Construction and calculations of dynamos (optional) 3 Technology of textiles 4 Hydrotechnical construction 2 Theoretical chemistry 4 Technological chemistry (naphtha, fats, oils, leather, paper, gas, dis- tillation of wood) 5 Technology of coloring matters 6 Obligatory total 21 90 HIGHER TECHNICAL EDUCATIOST. Equipment of the institute. — The lilrary of the institute contains 12,400 works in 35,000 volumes, among them 4,579 works in the Russian language, and 837 periodical publications, among them 396 in Russian. Xhe value of the library is estimated at 126,060 rubles. The museum of machines, apparatus, models, commercial and other products, and scientific collections. Total of 1,640 exhibits. Value about 78,650 rubles. Physical laboratory. Chemical laboratory. Technical laboratories. — For chemistry of food products, inorganic chemistry, industries based on fermentation, .tannin industries, and manufacture of dyes. Bacteriological laboratory. Laboratory for metallurgy. Electrotecfinical laboratory. Mechanical laboratory, with two divisions: (1) Steam engines, and (2) internal-combustion motors. Laboratory for testing materials. Shops, foundries, forges, pattern-making shop, metal-working shop, etc. Publication. — The institute pubhshes "Technological Institute News (Izwiestja Technologiceskago Instituta). EXJSSIA. 91 ■sajqai uf 9jtn -[pneoxa i^nunv IBjni(ino!j3v -a^aoJ^o^I5[ CO ^-fl I^onnonooa •3ni -Pimq a;qg X :x ^ o t-T to ■ITOtniioo} S s R iB0l3 •IBiojammoo •3ain!H XXX X X •iwnjorujg •iropnaiio XXX XXX X •IK)niCTl09J( XXX XXX X 'IBjenao ,g.ai. 8 CO 00 I- r-co "o -* us lO CO"* s ►- g (N O w {NMi-( M -H Wr-f ■N-H —1 .-H S Oi OJ SS2 o> Ol OSOJ OSO Oi s I I III fl OOO 00 CO CC500 00 r- S.£ OS ag >■■» O 2J^ JAPAN. Technical education in Japan is of recent development. Its ex- istence dates from 1871-1875, when three schools were estabhshed, rep- resenting the three main divisions of technical education, respectively: Engineering, agriculture, and commerce. The movement, however, did not attain real importance untU 1894, following the issue of an ordinance regarding the Government subsidies to technical schools. Two epochal events of Japanese national Hfe, the Chinese war in 1894- 95 and the Russo-Japanese war in 1904-5, produced two consecutive waves of national uplift which gave rise to enthusiastic educational ' activities. In the measures that were carried out in this movement technical education was given special attention. In 1899 the Gov- ernment issued an ordinance fixing the types and determining the standards of technical education. In 1903 another ordinance was issued, by which all technical and professional schools of higher grade were given a common organization. PREPARATORY EDUCATION. The education that must precede the higher technical studies may be of general or technical character. It begins with the elementary school having a six-year course that covers the period 6 to 12 years of age. The elementary school may be followed by a two-year higher-elementary school or a middle school having a course of five years' duration. The latter school is generally taken by those in- tending later to enter a higher institution. The completion of the first 'two years of a middle school, or of the full course of a higher- elementary school, admits to middle technical schools, where special courses are provided in several branches enabUng the pupil to begin his speciahzation as early as 14 years of age, with the view of following' the same branch in the higher technical school, or of obtaining the necessary skill and knowledge for a skilled worker, an artisan, a foreman, etc. There are technical schools of even lower grade than the above, to which boys are admitted aiter finishing the elementary school. The completion of the ordinary middle school, or of the technical school of middle grade, closes the secondary education. The graduate may then proceed to one of the imperial universities or one of the higher technical schools. 92 JAPAN. 93 THE TWO TYPES OF HIGHER TECHNICAL SCHOOLS. Higher technical education in Japan is provided by engineering colleges forming departments of universities, and by special technical schools. The term "special" in this relation is officially appUed to the type of school higher than the secondary and not quite up to the university grade. In view, however, of the unique position occupied by these schools in the educational classification, it is desirable, perhaps, to show their relation to both secondary and higher education by actual comparison. In regard to admission requirements, the special technical schools stand lower than the corresponding univei-sity colleges. To be ad- mitted to a special technical school, the secondary school certificate and a rather exacting examination are all that is required. But a student can not be admitted directly from a secondary school to a university college; he must first pass through a three-year prepara- tory course corresponding to the first two years of a standard univer- sity. The university course following this is of three years' duration, with the exception of the departments of medicine and law, which have a four-year course. The university coiu'se corresponds to the last two years of the American college course, with some extensions which, however, do not raise it to the plane of American graduate courses. Special provision is made for the graduate studies in the Japanese universities by the maintenance of Daigakuin, or University Halls, equipped with aU facilities for research work and postgraduate studies. These postgraduate studies often are extended over five years. It may be observed that the whole period of primary, secondary, and higher education, of which the filial sanction is a imiversity degree, is considerably longer in the Japanese than in any other educational system. This is explained by the difficulties encoun- tered by the Japanese students in their language study; in order to follow the higher studies they must master at least one Eiu-opean language, which is necessarily the medium of modem scientific. in- struction. It is evident that the acqusition of foreign languages is much more difficult to a Japanese boy than to an American boy, the principles of etymology and syntax of European languages beitig utterly strange to the Japanese mind. In relation to the university course in engineering, the course of the special technical schools may be regarded as abbreviated. The object of the latter, as stated officially, is to "give those iatending to engage in agricultural, technical, and commercial pursuits a more advanced knowledge of arts and sciences." In accordance with this purpose, the instruction has more practical character, with emphasis on manual training. The departments are nmnerous and corre- 94 HIGHER TECHNICAL EDUCATION. spond to as many different practical careers. Aside from the agri- cultiiral and commercial schools, which do not enter into this con- sideration, the technical schools have the following departments: Dying, weaving, ceramics, applied chemistry, mechanics, electrical mechanics, electrical chemistry, electricity, marine engineering, naval architecture, naval engineering, architecture, civil engineering, min- ing, metallm-gy, designing, and brewing. There is a growing tendency to raise the level of the special techni- cal schools to the mxiversity rank. The establishment of the Port Arthur Technical School, with four-year courses in all departments, may be regarded as a step in that direction. ADMINISTRATION. Both the universities and the special technical schools are imder the direct control of the department of education; attached to the department is the higher educational coxmcU, in which, among other high of&cials, are heads of all higher educational institutions, and officers in charge of primary and secondary education. The council is an advisory body, but its opinions often have decisive impor- tance. Locally educational matters are controlled by prefects, or governors, of 47 administrative districts called prefectmes. Universities. — The internal administration of the imperial univer- sities is based on the imperial ordinance of 1886. At the head of the university stands the director, who controls all affairs of his univer- sity and is responsible for the enforcement of discipline. He pre- sides over the university councU, composed of directors of all the coUeges and one professor from each college. The council's juris- diction affects the following matters: Courses of study, questions concerning the chairs in the imiversity, granting of degrees, giving opinion on questions submitted by the minister of education or by the president of the university. Directors of the individual colleges exercise general supervision over everything connected with the instruction in their respective colleges. Each college holds facility meetings attended by all the professors of the college. The faculty meetings deliberate upon curricula of studies, examinations of students, qualifications of candidates for degrees, and questions presented by the miiuster of education or by the president of the university. Special technical schools. — The organization of the special, or higher, technical schools, resembles that of secondary schools. The professors take no part in the administration of the school. The director, who is the head of the school, is appointed by the Emperor and is intrusted with the entire internal administration, including supervision of the work of professors and instructors. He is respon- sible directly to the minister of education. JAPAK. 95 There is also an advisory body at the head of each higher technical school, called board of councilors. The board of councilors consists of the following members: Higher officials of the department of education 2 Higher officials of the department of agriculture and commerce 2 Persons of wide experience in commercial and industrial pursuits 3 to 7 The board of coimcilors discusses the questions connected with subjects of study, the courses of instruction, the regulations, and such other important matters as the director may deem it necessary to submit to its consideration. The decisions of the board on special questions submitted to it are reported by the director to the minister of education. PECULIAR FEATURES OF UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENTS OF ENGINEERING. Preparatory courses. — Admission to university colleges is condi- tioned by the completion of a preparatory course of three years. These courses are provided by the higher schools (Koto Gakko), usually connected with universities. They are divided into three sections, corresponding to the rough division of higher university coiu^es, and the students on entering the preparatory school must at once decide about their future college studies. There is a course provided for those intending later to enter the college of law or the college of literature; another course is offered for those who intend to study engineering, science, agriculture, or pharmacy in the uni- versity course; and the third division is provided for aspirants to the medical college. The division preparatory to the college of engineering has the fol- lowing courses of instruction : Courses preparatory to the college of engineering. Subjects of instruction. Hours per week. First year. Second year. Third year. Morals Japanese language English language German or French Mathematics Physics Chemistry Geology and mineralogy. Drawmg Gymnastics Total. Theoretically, the completion of the preparatory course admits to the university course, but owing to great numbers of candidates, there has been estabUshed a rather complex system of selection based on competitive examination and numerous other considerations. 96 HIGHER TECHNICAL EDUCATION. For admission to special technical schools the following conditions are required (besides the usual proof of secondary education) : 1. The candidate must possess good character and sound consti- tution. 2. He must have a firm resolve to pursue in future an industrial career. 3. He must pass the prescribed entrance examination or fulfill the conditions upon which admission is granted without examination. The examination is based on the last year's work of the middle school and includes English, mathematics, physics and chemistry, and drawing, both free-hand and instrumental. Graduates of middle schools who have achieved eminent success in studies are admitted without examination. Postgraduate stvdy and degrees. — University graduates who wish to obtain a degree must pass through a course of postgraduate studies in the university hall. Graduation itself conveys the right to the name gakusTii and carries with it certain privileges relating to civil service, but does not impart a real academic degree. The degree equivalent to doctor or master is called hakuslii and is used with different prefixes, according to the branch of science to which it refers. Thus, igalcu hakusM means doctor of medicine; Twgaku halcusM, doctor of laws; Tcogaku JiaTcusTii, doctor of engineering, etc. Postgraduate studies ai-e open not only to university graduates, but also to graduates of other higher institutions, who pass special examinations arranged separately for each individual case. Post- graduate work consists of scientific research whose subject is selected by the student and approved by the faculty of the respective depart- ment. A graduate student may also follow a series of lectures in one or several of the university colleges,, according to the requirements of his special aim. If his research involves travel with scientific pur- poses, the administration of the university may supply him with necessary funds. At the end of each year the students must report on the progress of their work. After two years a thesis must be submitted. In addition to this the faculty may find it desirable to examine the student in certain subjects before he is granted a degree. The period of postgraduate study may be prolonged to five years. A number of research scholarships are provided for graduates recog- nized as deserving by the university council. FINANCES. All the imperial universities, as well as all the special technical schools, are State-maintained. The Government appropriations for universities are regulated by the law of 1907. This law fixes the annual appropriation for the Univei-sity of Tokyo at yen 1,380,000, for the University of Kyoto at yon 840,000; the other two universities receive varied annual grants, according to their budgets. No figures BUREAU OF EDUCATION. BULLETIN, 1917. NO. 11 PLATE 5. A. TOKYO HIGHER TECHNICAL SCHOOL. PR ACTICAL WORK I N CERAM ICS. S. TOKYO HIGHER TECHNICAL SCHOOL. WEAVING. JAPAN. 97 are available to show the share of the engineering colleges in the budgets of the universities of which they are parts. As to the special technical schools, they draw their support partly from a fund called "Encouragement Fund for Technical Education, " which amounted, in 1912-13, to yen 390,173. The figures relating to income and expenditure of all the institu- tions that are the subject of this presentation are included in the statistical table for Japan (see p. 101). TOKYO IMPERIAL UNIVERSITY, COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING. The college of engineering attached to the University of Tokyo may be regarded as typical of engineering departments of Japanese universities. It offers 10 divisions as follows: 1. Civil engineering. 2. Mechanical engineering. 3. Naval architecture. 4. Technology of ordnance. 5. Electrical engineering. 6. Architecture. 7. Apphed chemistry. 8. Technology of explosives. 9. Mining. 10. Metallurgy. In view< of the thorough training in elements of technical science that the students have received in the preparatory higher school, there are no common programs in the university course. Each division follows from the begiiming of the first year its own course of speciaHzed studies. It is deemed unnecessary to present here pro- grams of all the above-enumerated divisions ; the two inclosed typical programs, of the divisions of mechanical engineering and architecture, give a fair example of the arrangement of studies in all other divisions. The same two divisions in the Special Technical School of Tokyo are presented immediately following these, so that the two systems may be readily compared. In reference to the division of the academic year into three terms, appearing ii^ the following tables, it must be explained that the academic year at the University of Tokyo begins on the Uth of September and ends on the 10th of Jidy. The first term, comprising 105 days, extends from September 11 to December 24; the second term of 86 days covers the period from January 8 to March 31; and the third term of 94 days extends from April 8 to July 10. Tohyo Imperial University, College of Engineering. A. PROGRAM OF THE DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. Subjects. Hours per week. First term. Second term. Third term. FIRST TEAR. Matliematics Dynamics Applied mechanics Heat engines Mechanism Hydraulics Workshop appliances Building construction Drawing and exercises in applied mechanics. Design, drawing, and practice 81797°— 17 7 2 25 98 HIGHER TECHNICAL EDUCATIOIST. Tokyo Imperial University, College of Engineering — Continued. A. PROGRAM OF THE DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING— Continued. Subjects. Hours per week. First term. Second term. Third term. SECOND YEAR. Heat engines and thermodynamics Kinematics and dynamics 0/ machinery . . Marine engines Spinning and weaving Locomotives Hydraulic machinery Outlines of electrical engineering Mecham'cal and metallurgical technology. Industrial economy Experimental engmeering Engineering laboratory Design, drawing, and practice Electrical engineering laboratory Practical exercises - THIED YEAR. Special extra lectures Meclianical engineering laboratory 2 Practical exercises ^.... Graduation design and essay 2 1 22 3 1 2, 1 1 1 2 3 n 1 13 18 B. PROGRAM OF THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE. FIRST YEAR. Mathematics Outlines of heat engine Api)lied mechanics Perspective Stereotomy Calculation , Building materials Building construction Architectural designing History of architecture Drawing and exercises in applied mechanics , Freehand drawing Design and drawmg SECOND YEAR. Sanitary engineering .Esthetics Seismology , Building construction. . Execution of works , Decoration , Architectural designing- . History of architecture. . Freehand drawing , Decorative drawing , Design and drawing Practical exercises " , THmD YEAR. "Mechanical and metallurgical technology., Outlines of electrical engmeering Building laws Freehand drawing Decorative drawing Design and drawing Practical exercises ^ Graduation design » 2 3 14 3 3 15 U 3 3 1 3 1 1 1 ' Every other wSBl. ' No definite time assigned. jAPAir. 99 The Higher Technological Sehooi of Tokyo. A. PKOGRAil OF THE DEPARTMENT OF MECHAXICAL ENOINEERIXG. Hours per week. Subjects. First term. Second term. Third term. Ethics.: Mathematics . PhTsics. rmsT YEAK. Shop appliances AppUed ine<4iaiiics Geometrical and machine drawing. . WorkdM^ practice English MiUtarr drill Ethics Difierential and integral calculus . Shop appliances Applied mechanics Hydraulics ^ Steam and steam engines "Water wheels, etc Electrical engineering Machine drawing Workshop practice Physical experiments English Military drill SECOXI> YEAK. THIKD TEAK. Ethics Design of prime movers Pumps and hydraulic motors Spiiming Iron and steel .* Paper machinery Oil and flour machinery Locomotives Shop practice and laboratory work Industrial economics Factory hygiene Industrial bookkeeping Factory construction English MiUtarv drill 15 . ■1 11 I 3 4 ! 15 i 1 '1 5 4 n .... s 14 3 3 2 U 3 1 23 1 1 1 2 B. PROGRAM OF THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE. FIKST YEAR. Ethics Mathematics Physics Building materials History of architecture Building construction Designing and drawing Free-hand and geometrical drawing English Military drill SECOND TEAB. Ethifcs Differential and integral calculus Strength of materials and structure Graphic statics Special designing Building construction Designing and drawing Physical experiments English Military drill THIRD YEAR. Ethics Building construction. . Designing and drawing. Building practice Surveying Factory economics Industrial hygiene. . :. . . Bookkeeping English Military drill 11 1 14 14 1 1 U 1 2 2 5 4 1 3 3 U 5 4 2 1 1 2 26 U 1 15 14 1 U 1 2 2 1 Every other week. 100 HIGHER TECHNICAL EDUCATION. -s CIS J 1 1 1 ft •Snpaatiiana anptJH ', .1/3 •SajAiaja . . eoStf S ■ajn^oatmiDJV s :S :S •Snuaaa -tSna iBainoaia g S 2 ^gg ■sniJB JO ^iSoxonqoax o •ajn^oeimajB ^bab^ i ;' •Smiaan -jSaa iBomBnoajt M .-t eo wscqc- ^ to O NOs-fl :K g 1 •Srawing, n Total In the third year speciahzation takes place in the professional branch; three courses are offered, surveying, electrical engineering, and hydrauUc engineering. The course for surveyors ends with the third year, while the two other courses continue for two or three years longer. The following are the subjects studied in the spetial course for surveyors: Third-year course for surveyors. Hours a week. Theo- retical. Practi- ced. Total. Law 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 4 4 4 3 6 6 6 2 Topography, II Geodesy Roads and materials of construction Geology "; S Total 12 13 SOUTH AMERICA. Ill At the close of the year the students prepare their theses for the diploma of agrimensor (surveyor) . The foUowing program shows the speciahzed studies pursued by the students of electrical and hydraulic engineering and the number of hours a week given to theoretic and practical exercises for the succeeding years: Courses m electrical and hydraulic engineering. ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING. Hours a week. Subjects. Hours a week. Subjects. Theo- retical. Prac- tical. Total. Theo- retical. Prac- tical. Total. THIRD YEAR. Practical work in physics , I . 3 3 4 4 1 4 2 3 3 6 6 3 6 3 FOURTH YEAR — COntd. Machines, first group Building construction 2 2 2 4 4 4 6 Practical work in physics, II 6 6 2 2 1 1 Total 8 22 30 FIFTH YEAR. Factories and workshops - Machines , second group . . . Industrial technology Machines, third group Total Eesistance of materials, I. . . Materials of construction . . . 2 2 2 2 4 4 2 6 6 Total 9 21 30 4 6 FOURTH YEAR. 2 4 6 6 6 Electrical machines Practical work in electro- 8 14 22 HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING. THIRD YEAR. 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 1 4 4 4 6 3 6 6 6 2 2 FIFTH YEAR. Machines , second group. . . Construction of wood and masonry 2 2 2 2 4 4 4 4 6 6 Resistance of materials . . . Roads and materials of con- Constructions of iron and reinforced concrete Machines, third group Total 6 6 8 16 Agricultural botany 24 SIXTH YEAR. Agricultural hydraulics . . City and rural drainage . . Interior navigation Sea and river harbors Total 14 17 81 2 2 2 2 4 4 4 FOtJT.TH YEAR. Electrical machines Machines, first group 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 4 4 4 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 Resistance of materials, sec- 8 16 24 Building construction Total 10 20 30 The students of electrical engineering at the conclusion of the .fifth year, and the students of hydrauhc engineering at the conclusion of the sixth year, present a thesis for the diploma in their respective specialties. The diploma of hydrauhc engineer also entitles to the exercise of the profession of surveyor. In order to obtain the degree of civil engineer, the electrical and hydrauhc engineers must pursue additional studies. The degree of civil engineer entitles to the conduct of work in general engineering, 112 HIGHER TECHNICAL EDUCATION. surveying, and architecture, and is therefore highly desirable for graduates. Electrical engineers, in order to qualify for the degree of civil engineers, must study, in addition to their ordinary curriculum, road building and geodesy, constructions of wood and masonry, con- structions of iron and reinforced concrete. Moreover, they must complete the sixth year of special studies by the following program: Agricidtural hydraulics; city and rural drainage; interior navigation; tramways, and architecture (second part). The hydraulic engineers, aspiring to the degree of civil engineer, must pursue the following additional studies: Geodesy and archi- tecture, first course; architecture, second coTirse; and tramways. Facilities for pm<^tical work. — Opportunities for practical instruc- tion aflForded by the engineering sections of the university are limited to physical and chemical laboratories and such other facUities as are provided by the Museum of La Plata, connected with the institution. The obvious difficulties incidental to the establishment of costly plants are increased by the dominant views favoring pure science and by the aversion to all forms of manual training, especially in higher studies. The tmiversity has an arrangement with the General Electric Co., of New York, for the employment of practicing students of electrical engineering. A thermo-electrical plant and a hydraulic experi- mental station will be soon erected. The plans for these two adjuncts were approved in 1912. SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, PORTO ALEGRE. The School of Engineering at Porto Alegre, Brazil, combines all the stages of complete technical education, beginning with an elemen- tary school and ending with speciahzed courses in several branches of engineering. The programs of these courses compare favorably with those of the higher technical schools in Europe or the United States. The institution also comprises industrial courses of elementary and secondary order, organized in several divisions, and a semiclassical gymnasium. All these schools form a closely centrahzed group, under common management and serving the same purpose which, as defined by the statute, is that of "preparing citizens capable of being usefvd to society and their native country through their work and training." This system appears to have some unquestionable advantages; the control possessed by the institution over the education preceding the proper engineering courses offers a guaranty that the preparation of the students entering the latter is fuUy in accord with the require- ments of higher technical studies. The industrial courses affihated SOUTH AMEEICA. 113 with the institution derive invaluable benefit from the accessibility of its laboratories, collections, and institutes, as well as selected teaching forces. The group of schools designated as Porto Alegre School of Engi- neering, offer the following courses : Gymnasium (Instituto Gymnasial Julio de Castilhos) divided into three sections as follows : 1. Elementary course of three years comprising the ordinary elementary subjects: 2. Intermediate course of two years; this comprises the study of five languages (Portuguese, French, Itahan, German, and Enghsh), geography, history, civics, natural sciences, hygiene, mathematics, drawing, manual training, music, gymnastics, and military drill. 3. Secondary course of'four years, comprising the study of the above five modem languages, Latin, elective Greek, history, civics, natural sciences, mathematics, elements of agriculture, accounting and bookkeeping, drawing, gymnastics, manual training, music, fencing, and mihtary drill. Iindustrial school (Instituto Tecnico Profissional) intended to pre- pare foremen and superintendents for industrial plants. It comprises the following courses : 1. Elementary course of four years, similar to the elementary course of the gymnasium, but with a marked emphasis on mathe- matical and practical subjects. 2. Technical course of five years, comprising the following sub- jects: The five modern languages, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigooiometry, mechanics (general and applied), physics, chemistry, machinery, metallurgy, technology, drawing, descriptive geometry, sketching, perspective, shades, music, gymnastics, and work in factories. The technical course is divided into several departments differ- ing in respect to time assigned to the theoretical subjects amd the character of practical exercises. There are eight distinct depart- ments, viz : Metal working, wood working, construction, typography and printing, bookbinding, electrochemistry, lithography, and photo- technics. Engineering institute (Instituto de Engenharia) offers the following courses : 1. Preparatory course of three years, comprising the subjects usually studied in the first two years of higher technical schools. The instruction is mostly theoretical. No specialization is evident in this course; the students perfect themselves in higher mathemat- ics drawing, and become famihar with methods of scientific study and research. 81797°— 17 8 114 HIGHER TECHNICAL EDUCATION. 2. Course of civil engineering, covering three years. It corre- sponds to the specialized part of the course of standard higher schools of civil engineering in the leading countries. Several Hnes of specialization are gradually developed during the course, ending with competitive examination in projects in the following branches : Architecture, interior navigation, mechanical engineering, iron bridges, applied electricity, and maritime construction. 3. Course of electrical engineering, covering four years. It is or- ganized on a different plan from the engineering course in that it comprises a complete electrical engineering curriculmn witlun its four years of instruction, without a separate preparatory course. Specialization begins as early as the second year, and throughout the course considerable time is devoted to practical exercises. In the fourth year, in addition to the special subjects, poUtical econ- omy, finance, and administration are studied. 4. In connection with the school of electrical engineering there is a six-year course for electricians (Curso de Montadores Electricistas Mecanicos), corresponding in scope to the industrial courses consid- ered above. The Institute of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine offers the follow- ing courses : 1. Course for engineers in agronomy, covering five years. 2. Course of veterinary medicine, covering five years. 3. Course in agronomy (agricultural course of high-school grade), covering three years. 4. Course for rural wardens, covering three years, of the same scope as the foregoing, but specially designed to train administrators of scientifically conducted farms and plantations. The institute owns considerable real estate and other valuable property which is inahenable under the laws of the State. It is endowed with weU-equipped laboratories, shops, etc., and is in agree- ment with a niunber of private industrial plants for practical work of students. BIBLIOGRAPHY. CANADA. Ecole Polytechnique de Montreal. Condition^ d'admission, r^glements et programme des cours. Montreal, 1915. 122 p. 8° G6iiie civil, architecture, arts decoratifs et industrials. Extraits du pros- pectus g6n&al. Ecole de preparation. 16 p. 16°. McGill University, Montreal. Calendar for session 1915-16. Montreal, 1915. Iv, 445 p. 8°. Nova Scotia Technical College. Short courses. January 5 to March 6. 16 p. double. 8° Royal Commission on Industrial Training and Technical Education. Report of the Commissioners. Parts I and II. Ottawa, printed by C. H. Parmelee, 1913. xiv, 437 p. 8° [3d. George V. Sessional Paper, No. 191d. A. 1913.] Part IV. XXV, 2354+29 p. 8° School of Mining, Kingston, Ontario. Calendar, 1913-14. Kingston, 1913. 121 p. 8°- L'UniversitS Laval. -Annuaire pour I'ann^e acad^mique, 1915-16. Quebec, 1915. 219+68 p. 8° Ecole Polytechnique. Lois organiques. Quebec, 1913. 12 p. in French, and 12 p. in English. University of Toronto. Calendar, 1913-14. Toronto, 1913. 659+111 p. 8° Calendar, 1915-16. Miscellaneous curricula. Toronto, 1915. 36 p. 8° Curriculum for junior matriculation, 1915-16. Toronto, 1915. 38 p. 8° Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering. Calendar, 1915-16. Toronto, 1915. 175 p. 8° Faculty of Arts. Calendar, 1915-16. Toronto, 1915. 214 p. 8° Faculty of Forestry. Calendar, 1915-16. Toronto, 1915. 24 p. 8°- FRANCE. Astier, Claude Alexandre. L'enseignement technique, industrial et commercial en France et a I'etranger. Paris, 1908. 498 p. 8° Melon Paul. L'enseignement superieur et I'enaeignement technique en France. Groupes universitaires, facultes, ecoles sp^ciales, techniques, etc. Paris, 1893. 342 p. 8° Office National des Universites et Ecoles Frangaises, Paris. Les universites et les ecoles fran?aises; enseignement superieur, enseignements techniques, renseigne- ments generaux. Paris, 1914. 299 p. 8°. S^^nat. Debats paxlementaires. Sess. ord. de 1916. Paris, 1916. p. 760. University de Lille. Programme des conditions d'admission et de l'enseignement k I'institut ^lectrotechnique de Lille. Paris, Librairie Vuibert. 36 p. 8° Similar programs are publislied by other universities having technical departments. Programs of instruction tor individual technical schools are published by the Librairie Vuibert, Paris, 63-Bou- levard Saint Germain, also by Delalain Freres, 56 Rue des Ecoles, Paris. Vuibert H Annuaire de la jeunesse. 25meAnn^e,1914. Paria,1914. 1193 p. 16°. 115 116 HIGHER TECHNICAL EDUCATION. GERMANY. Aix-la-Chapelle. K. Technische Hochechule. Denkschrift verfasst aua AnlasB der Industrie- und Gewerbeausstellung, etc. Aix-la^Cliapelle, 1902. 88 p. 8° Bestimmungen fur die Techniachen Hochschulen in Deutschland, Halle, a. S., 1904, 319 p. 8° Grosalierzogliche Technische Hochschule zu Darmstadt. Programm f iir das Studien- jahr, 191^15. Rektoratsubergabe. Darmstadt, 1914. 126 p. 8°. Herzogliche Technische Hochschule Carolo Wilhelmina zu Braunschweig. Programm fiir das Studianjahr, 1914-15. Braunschweig, 1914. 91 p. 8° Konigliche Technische Hochschule zu Berlin. Programm fur das Studienjahr, 1913-1914. Berlin, 1913. 153 p. 8° Lexis, W. A general view of the history and organization of public education in the German Empire. Trainsl. by G. J. Tamson. Berlin, 1904. 182 p. 8° Riedler, Alois. Die Techniechen Hochschulen und ihre wissenschaftliche Bestre- bungen. Berlin, 1899. 17 p. 8°. GREAT BRITAIN. Board of Education. Preparatory schools for boys: their place in English secondary education. London, 1900. xv, 531 p. 8° (Special reports on educational subjects, vol. 6.) Edinburgh University. Calendar, 1915-16. Edinburgh, 1915. 829 p. 8°. Heriot-Watt College, Edinburgh. Calendar, 1915-16. Edinburgh, 1911. 458 p. 8°. Imperial College of Science and Technology, London. Calendar, 1915-16. London, 1915. 117 p. 8°. Manchester. Municipal School of Technology. Prospectus of part-time courses in mathematics, physics and natural science. Session, 1915-16. Manchester, 1915. 29 p. 8° Prospectus of part-time courses in mechanical and electrical engineer- ing. Session, 1915-16. Manchester, 1915. 54 p. 8°. Prospectus of part-time courses in mining. Session, 1915-16. Man- chester, 1915. 13 p. 8° Prospectus of part-time courses in municipal and sanitary engineering, architecture and building. Session, 1915-16. Manchester, 1915. 70 p. S^ Prospectus of part-time classes in printing and photographic technol- ogy. Session, 1915-16. Manchester, 1915. 31 p. 8° Royal Technical College, Glasgow. Calendar, 1915-16. Glasgow, 1915. 516 p. 8°- University of Manchester. Faculty of Technology.' Prospectus of university courses in the Municipal School of Technology. Session, 1915-16. Manchester, 1915. 91 p, 8". AUSTRIA. Kais. Konigl. Deutsche Franz Joseph Teclinische Hochschule zu Briinn, Pro- gramm fiir das Studienjahr 1914-1915. Brunn, 1914. 292 p. S-" K. K. Technische Hochschule in Graz. Program fiir das Studienjalir 1913/1914.— ITeil, Gesetzliche Bestimmungen, Verzeichnis dor Vorlesungen und Ubuno^n, Studienplane, Personalstand, Staata-Priifungs-Kommissionen und Stuiidenplane. .Graz, 1913. 85 p. 8°. Program Cis. KrAl. Cesk4 Vysoke Skoly Technicke v Praze, na studijni rok 1913-1914, Castprvil: Seznampfodnasek acviSeni. Studijnf a hodiuove rozorhy Stipendi. V Praze, 1913. 128 p. 8°. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 117 JAPAN. Department of Education . Education in Japan. Prepared for the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, at St. Louis, U. S. A. Tokyo, 1914. 26+73+34+53+17+101+13+ 30+33 p. 8° Prepared for the Louisiana Purchase Exposition . Tokyo, 1914. 187 p. 8°. ^ Minister of State for Education. 40th annual report, 1912-13, (abridged.) Tokyo, 1915. 333 p. 8°. Higher Technological School of Tokyo. Handbook. Tokyo, 1909. 55 p. 8° Kikuchi, Baron Dairoku. Japanese education. Lectures delivered in the Uni- versity of London. London, 1909. p. 397. 8°. Port Arthur Technical Institute. Calendar, 1911-12. Port Arthur, 1911 (?). 14 p., 8° Tokyo Higher Commercial School. Yearbook, 1908-9. Tokyo, published by the Tokyo Higher Commercial School, 1908 (?). 44 p. 8°. Tokyo Imperial University Calendar, 1913-14. Tokyo, published by the University, 1913 (?). vi, 296+349 p. 12°. — ■ ■ College of Agriculture. Catalog, 1914-15. (Abridged English edition.) Sapporo, Japan, 1914 (?). 73 p. 8° RUSSIA. Ministerstvo Finansov. Rossija v konce XIX vieka. Pod obshtsheyu redakcyeyu V. I. Kovalevskago. S. Peterburg, 1900. 968 p. 8°. Ministerstvo Putej Soobshtshenja. Zhurnal, 1900. Kniga tshetvertaja. S. Peter- burg, 1900. p. 191. 8°. — Zhurnal, 1900. Kniga tretia. S. Peterburg, 1900. p. 192. 8°. SOUTH AMERICA. Escola de Engenharia de Porto Alegre. Regulamento do Instituto de Electro- Technica. Porto Alegre, 1914. 29 p. 8° ■ Regulamento do Instituto de Engenharia. Porto Alegre, 1913. 23 p. 8°. — Regulamento do Instituto Technico Profissional. Porto Alegre, 1913. 57p. 8°. Estados Unidos do Brazil. Estado do Rio Grande do Sul. Estatutos da Escola de Engenharia de Porto Alegre. Porto Alegre, 1912. 23 p. 8°. INDEX. Admiaeion requirements, 25, 31, 36, 41- 42, 58, 64-65, 73, 80, 84, 88, 93, 96, 104. Anderson University, Scotland, 38. Apprenticeship, 55. Architecture, Laval University, Canada, 107; Technical High School of Berlin, 22-23. Austria, higher technical education, 73-75. Berlin, higher technical school, 14-24. Bibliography, 115-117. Breslau, Germany, technical highschools, 13. Canada, technical education, 102-108. Charlottenburg. See Berlin. Chemistry, Technical High School of Berlin, 23-24. Civil engineering, Technical High School of Berlin, 21-22. College entrance requiremente, techni- cal education, 41-42. Colleges and universities, Scotland, 51-55. Commercial schools, Russia, 79-80. Congress on technical education, Paris, 1889, 27. Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, Paris, courses of study and methods of instruc- tion, 29-30. Courses of study. Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, Paris, 29-30; Ecole Poly- technique, Paris, 33; Heriot-Watt Col- lege, Scotland, 54; higher technical schools, Russia, 84-86; Imperial Col- lege of Science and Technology, Lon- don, 43; Istituto Tecnico Superiore, Milan, Italy, 66-68; Manchester Munic- ipal School of Technology, England, 46-50; Polytechnic School, Zurich, Switzerland, 59-60; preparatory schools, Italy, 63; secondary schools of Germany, 11-12; secondary technical schools, Russia, 78-79; Technical High School of Berlin, 16-18; Technological Institute of Emperor Nicholas I, Petro- grad, Russia, 88-89; Tokyo Imperial University, college of engineering, 97-99' University of La Plata, South America, 110-112; University of To- ronto, Canada, 105. See also Diplomas. Curriculum . See Courses of study. Darmstadt, Germany, electrotechnics, 13; technical high schools, 13. Degrees, higher technical schools, Aus- tria, 73-74; higher technical schools, Russia, 82; M'Gill University, Canada, 106; Manchester School of Technology, England, 47-48; Polytechnic School, Zurich, Switzerland, 59; Technical High School of Berlin, 24; Techno- logical Institute of Emperor Nicholas I, Petrograd, Russia, 88. Diplomas, Ecole Centrale des Arts et Manufactures, Paris, 31-32; Imperial College of Science and Technology, London, 43; Polytechnic School, Zurich, Switzerland, 59; Royal Tech- nical College, Scotland, work, 51-52; Technical High School of Berlin, 24. Ecole Centrale des Arts et Manufactures, Paris, 31-32. Ecole des Fonts et Chauss^es, Paris, 35. Ecole Polytechnique, Paris, 9, 32-35. Ecoles Nationales dArts et Metiers, 35-36. Electrical engineering, Istituto Tecnico Superiore, Milan, Italy, 69. Electricity, instruction, 37. Electrochemical school, Italy, 65. Engineering, arrangement between Uni- versity of Edinburgh and Heriot-Watt College, 53-54; Heriot-Watt College, Scotland, 53-55; higher technical schools, France, 37; Laval University, Canada, 107; National University of La Plata, South America, 109-112; Polytechnic School, Zm-ich, Switzer- land, 59-61; Trinity College, Ireland, 56; university departments, Japan, 94-101; University of Dublin, 56. England, higher technical education, 39-50. English language, German secondary schools, 11. Examinations, Ecole Centrale des Arts et Manufactures, Paris, 31-32; higher tech- nical schools, Italy, 71; Istituto Tec- nico Superiore, Milan, Italy, 65-66; secondary schools, Germany, 10. See also under names of institutions. 119 120 INDEX. Fees, Imperial College of Science and Technology, London, 42-43; Istituto Tecnico Superiore, Milan, Italy, 65-66; School for Mining Engineering, Frei- berg, Germany, 24-25; Technical High School of Berlin, 14. France, technical education, 27-37. Fraternal societies, Ecole Polytechnique, Paris, 35. French language, German secondary schools, 11. German language, secondary schools, Germany, 11. Germany, high schools, 12-26; standards of preparatory training, 10-12. GlasgQ-w and West of Scotland Technical College. See Royal Technical College. Great Britain, technical education, 38-55. Gymnasium. See Secondary schools. Heriot-Watt College, Scotland, work, 52-55. Imperial College of Science and Tech- nology, London, work, 40-45. Industrial physics, 36-37. Industrial schools, Brazil, 112-113. Industry, instruction, 30. Instruction, higher technical schools, 81-82. See also under names of institu- tions. Ireland, engineering schools, 56. Istituto Tecnico Superiore, Milan, Italy, work, 64-69. Italy, financial support of technical schools, 71-72; technical education, 63-72. Japan, preparatory education, 92; higher technical schools, 93-101. Karlsruhe, Germany, electrotechnics, 13; technical high schools, 13. Komissarov Technical School, Russia, 79. Laboratories, experimental, Italy, 70; Russia, 86-87, 90. Languages, modem, G«rman secondary schools, 11-12. Laval University, Canada, polj'technic school, 106-107. Libraries, Russia, 89-90. L6d£ Technical School, Russia, 79. London, plans for making,, a leading cen- ter for liberal and technical education, 45. M'Gill University, Canada, faculty of ap- pUed science, 105-106. Mathematics, French secondary schools, 28; German secondary schools, 12. Manchester Municipal School of Tech- nology, England, 46-50. Mechanical engineering, Technical High School of Berlin, 15-21. Methods of instruction, higher technical schools, Austria, 74. Military training. France, 33-35. Mining engineering, school, Saxony, 24-26. Museum of Natural History, Paris, estab- lishment, 27. National University of La Plata, South America, engineering education, 109- 112. Natiual sciences. German secondary schools, 12. Nova Scotia Technical College, Canada, 108. Oxford University. England, technical education, 39. Polytechnic School. Zurich, Switzerland, 57-62. Postgraduate studies, Japan, 96. Preliminary education, general and math- ematical, France, 27-28. Preparatory training, Germany, stand- ards, 10-12. Realgymnasium. See Secondary schools. Royal Commission on Technical Educa- tion, Canada, report, 102-104. Royal Technical School of Saxony, 25-2fi. Russia, commercial schools, 79-80; higher technical education, 81-91 ; preparatorj- education, 76-81; secondary technical schools, 77-79. Saxony, mining engineering school. 24.^26. Scholarships, Ecole Poh-technique, Paris, 83-34. School of Engineering, Porto Alegre, South America, 112-114. Scotland, technical colleges, 51-55. Secondary schools, Geiinany, 10-11; Rus- sia, 77-78. South America, higher technical educa- tion, 109-114. Students, Germany, 14-15. Survey of technical education, 7-9. Switzerland, technical education. 57-62. Technical chemistry, Technical High School of BerUn, 23. Technical High School of Berlin, 14-24. INDEX. 121 Technological Institute of Emperor Nicholas I, Petrograd, Russia, 87-90. Tokyo Imperial University, college of engineering, 97-99. Trinity College, Ireland, engineering de- partment, 56. Universities, England, technical depart- ments, 40-45. Universities, Japan, engineering depart- ments, 94-101. University of Cambridge, England, tech- nical education, 39. University of Dublin, engineering depart- ment, 56. University of Edinburgh, arrangements with Heriot-Watt College regarding the training of engineers, 53-54. University of Grenoble, France, engineer- ing school, 37. University of Lille, France, engineering school, 37. University of London, coordination of work with Imperial Oollegc, 42. University of Lyon, France, engineering school, 37. University of Marseille, France, engi- neering school, 37. University of Nancy, France, engineering school, 37. University of Toronto, Canada, faculty of applied science and engineering, 104- 105. University of Toulouse, France, engineer- ing school, 37. o Cornell University Library T 69.S6 . Higher technical education in foreig 3 1924 002 248 387