lilVE 1 LIBRARY ANNEX 7 -^ A^^ THE JOHN • CRAIG LIBRARY OF agriculture: « NrW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, 0EPARTMENT OF ; rURE, CORNELL L . ""Y ITHACA N. M^^^ giat/' m^ ^f' tv* ' 1 81 y % Cornell University Library SB 367.M39 The olive :its culture in theory and pra 3 1924 000 312 078 Ife THB OIvIVE ITS CULTURE IN THEORY AND PRACTICE BY ARTHUR TAPPAN MARVIN' (of SAN FRANXISCO, CALIFORNIA.) SAN FRANCISCO PAYOT, UPIIAM ct COMPANY, PUBLISHERS AND BOOKSELLERS 18 89 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1888, by PAYOT, UPHAM & CO. In tlie Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Wasliington, D. C. Press of Commercial Publishing Co. 34 California Street. ^ntrocjuctorv Quito Olive axd Vixe Farm, Santa Clara Co., Cal., Jiilv :30, V Ellwood Cqoper, Esq., Santa Barbara. Dear Sir : — Will you kindly permit me to most respectfully dedicate to you, as the acknowledged Father of American Olive Culture in California, this little work ? I do so with no design of covering its defects or inaccuracies (and many such will doubtless be found) with the mantle of your name. It is a contribution to the local literature on the subject, and must stand on its own merits, if any it has, and take its chance of criticism. My attention was first attracted to the olive when my friend Mr. Edward E. Goodrich purchased the Quito Olive Farm in De- cember 1882, and began its reform and development under your kind advice and suggestion. 6 THE OLIVE. During his absence in Europe, covering a period of four years, I took a general direction of the ])hice and my interest in the noble tree has ever increased, as my acquaintance with it grew more in- timate, although I have no investment in orchard or nursery. My only object in issuing this treatise is to add my mite to the general fund of information on this most important subject. After reading your pamphlet and your numerous contribu- tions to the transient agricultural litei^ature of the State, my ac- quaintance Avith the Spanish language fed me to study the writers in that tongue, and besides some short articles in English (Califor- nian and Australian) I have had the advantage, through the kind- ness of my friend in translating, of the valuable information contained in the monograph of Professor Caruso of Pisa, the w^ork of Signor Guilio Cappi, and the Manual of Signor Raffaello Pecori of Florence, the leading olive nurseryman of Italy. This last work is a« yet unpublished, but Signor Pecori has been so kind as to furnish Mr. Goodrich with a copy of his manu- script and accord permission to make use of it in the preparation of this work. Climate and race differences will doubtless lead our culture to vary widely from the European, but the experience of so many centuries w411 hardly fail to be of some value to the American olive farmer. I o-ive below the authors consulted, and should add that I have gained many valuable practical ideas from the late exper- ienced and courteous foreman of the Quito Farm, Signor Ludovico Gaddi, a native of the Province of Lucca and one, as the Italians say, *'born under tlie olive." Let us hope, that this tree may soon fill the important place in THE OLIVE. 7 our California fruit culture Avliicli for so manv centuries it has oc- cupied in that of Asia, Europe and Africa. It seems probable to- day that this result will be attained, and it will be due to none so much as to yourself. I am, dear sir, Yours very respectfully, ARTHUR TAPPAN MARVIN. Monograph on the Olive, 1883, by G. Caruso, Prof, of Agriculture of the Royal Univer- sity of Pisa. Manual of Olive Culture, 1888, by Signor Raffaello Pecori, Nurseryman, Via dei Ser- ragli. No. 64, Florence, Italy. The Cultivation of the Olive, 1875, by Signor Guilio Cappi. Treatise on the Olive in Spain and Mode of Improving it, 1870, by Sr. Don Jose de Hidalgo Tablada, Proprietor. The Art of Cultivating the Olive, 1840, by Sr. Don Celedonio Rojo Payo Vincente. The Olive, its Culture and Products, 1878, by William R. Boothby, Esq. Animal and Vegetable Fats and Oils, Artificial Butter and Lubricants, 1888, by William R. Brannt, Esq. A Treatise on Olive Culture, 1882, by Ell wood Cooper, Esq. Prima Arborum, a Treatise on Oil Making, 1887, by Messrs. Samuel Rae c^ Co. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. The Olive 9 CHAPTER II. Species 20 CHAPTER III. Climate 36 CHAPTER IV. Soil :::;;; 47 CHAPTER V. Fertilization oS CHAPTER VI. Multiplication of the Olive 59 CHAPTER VII. Consociation ; ; ; : 73 CHAPTER VIII. Preparation of Ground 78 CHAPTER IX. Pruning 85 CHAPTER X. Pests 100 CHAPTER XI. Harvest and Product 128 CHAPTER XII. Extraction, Clarification and Storage of the Oii 137 Plate I Page 16 Plate IX Page 80 II " 24 " X " 88 " III " 32 " XI '' 104 " IV " 40 " XII " 112 V " 48 " XIII " 120 VI " 56 " XIV " 128 " VII " 64 " XV " 136 " VIII '' 72 *' XVI " 144 CHAPTEE I. "The trees went fortli on a time to anoint a kino- over tlieni ; and they said nnto the olive tree, Reis^n tiioa over us.'' Judges IX : S. The liistorv of the olive is obseiiro and controverted and is lost in the night of centuries. Its home seems to have been in Southern Central Asia, where it was lirst domesticated and improved by the Semitic races of that countrv. Monuments and historv show that the wild olive existed on the Grecian coasts of Asia Minor, in the Islands and in Greece itself. Probably the Greeks received its cul- ture from the Semitics. But when, who can tell? In Homer's time, the ninth century, B. C, freriuent mention is made of the olive, but always as a foix^ign importation, which was used entirely for anointing; the bodv and not for f)od orli^dit. It seems as if in later parts of Homer we see indications of the beginning of its culture, probably on the Ionic coasts and islands, not on the main land. Samos means '^planted with olives." As for Miletus and Chios we have evidence of olives froni -the time of Talete, 639 to o4() B. C. The Egyptian bas reliefs show us how that peoi^le extracted oil from the olive before the invention of the stone for crushing' the berries. These depict the pressing of sacks of olives to extract the oil and then washing; with water till onlv the clean stones remain. A certain Aristeo is said to have been tlie first to cultivate the tree in Sicilv and to him is attributed the invention of the crushino- stone. Herodotus tells us that Athens was the seat of olive cultivation in Greece. At the beginning of the sixth century B. C, olive culture is mentioned in the laws of Solon. 10 THir OLIVE The olive Avas probably carried by Grecian colonists into Italy, Sardinia, Sicily and Ganl, altliongli it is possible that the Pheni- cians anticipated them. According to Pliny, in the time of Tar- qninins Priscns, 615 B. C, there were no olives in Italy, bnt five hundred years later Italy was able to export oil to the provinces. The Greeks, those ministers to luxury, taught the Romans its use in the gymnasium, and Pliny complains that the directors of those institutions in Rome had sold the scrapings of the citizens exercis- inir there for sixtv thousand sesterces. Ancient medicine was certainly nasty if nothing else. These scrapings of oil and s\Yeat of athletes were supposed to be peculiarly endowed with curative prop- erties and were larwlv used in i^lasters and emollients. Cato thoui>dit that the more bitter the olive the better the oil, but at that time the olive in greatest favor in Italy was the Licinian which Avas the one oliA^e the birds would never touch. This is in all probabilitv the Italian varietv known as the'Leccino to- dav. The names of places in Palestine speak a language from which one learns the extensiveness and Ijcauty .of the Hebrew olive planta- tions. The Mount of Olives situated some three thousand paces from the temple, on the east side of fJerusalem, was among the })laces best cultivated. On its slopes was the plantation called Gethse- mane (that is Gath-Semen which means the ''oil press") because of the olives with which it was covered and those of the mountain above where they pressed out and made oil in great abundance. The Bible oives us vaiious olimpj^es of the mode of treatment in harvesting: and <>:athering the olive in Palestine. When thou beatest thine olive tree tluni shalt not go over tlie houghs again ; it shall he for tiie stranger, for tlie fatherless, and for the widow. Deuteronomy xxiv, 20. Yet gleaning grapes shall he left in it, as the shaking of an olive tree, two or three her- ries in the top of the upj^ermost hough, four or five in the outmost fruitful branches thereof. ISAIAH XVII, 6. Rest in the seventh year. In like manner thou shalt deal with thy vineyard and with thy olive vard. exodus xxiit, 11. THE OLIVE 11 Thou shalt have olive trees thrcmghout all thy coasts, but thou shalt not anoint thyself with the oil; for thine olive shall cast his fruit. Deuteronomy xxviir, 40. And over the olive trees and the sycamore trees that were in the low plains was Baal-hanan the Oederite, and over the cellars of oil was Joash. i CAkonicles xxvir, 28. The Lord called thy name a green olive tree, fair and of goodly fruit'; with the noise of great tumult he hath kindled fire upon it and the branches of it are broken. Jeremiah xi, 1G. And I heard a voice in the midst of the four beasts say, A measure of wheat for a pennv and three measures of barley for a penny, and see thou hurt not the oil and the wine. Kevelation VI, (). Here wliere plagues were sent forth broadcast tliey were first laid under an injunction not to harm the oil and the wine. Does it not then seem that the land of the olive and the wine is an especiallv favored one? These Bil)lical references are interestino- for their antiquity and the view they give us of the management of the olive at that remote ])eriod. The manner of harvesting, of oil making by treading the berries, of planting on fertile phiins where svca- mores grow, of seeking the wild olives on the mountains where the birds had scattered the seeds, of the danger of the olive froih fire, all this is repeated to-day in the European home uf the olive. The oil olive, being essentially a product of civilization, no longer flourishes in Palestine; without man's f)sterino: care it ^irjn reverts to its wild state and ceases to fruit, and finally disa])pears altogether. The ancients regarded the olive with reverence and awe. The ease with which it sprang into renewed life, the vitality it ])ossessed, and the hoary age it attained, all led them to endow it with a divine origin. The Greeks dedicated it to Minerva, and w^itli evero-reen olive leaves bound the brows of l)rave captains and citizens most marked for virtue and wisdom. The Romans held the olive in a nuich o^reater esteem than their shnple appreciation of the oil, and mingled the leaves in the triumphal crowns of the defenders of the countrv. Professor Caruso savs : " The olive, because of the moderate care wdiich it requires and the copiousness and value of its product, may be considered as a 12 THE OLIVE Providential tree." He further savs that but for the olive a oreat part of the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea and its dependencies, European, Asiatic and African, which are now covered Avith its perennial verdure and form the source of the wealth of the people of that region, would be sterile and desert. Few trees can conteud with it for the title of primate, and Columella was well advised in proclaiming it the best of his times. The olive is limited in its possible extension, but still the Italian has alreadv looked forward with dread to its cultivation in Australia, and now California seems likely to prove a formidable rival. But liis fears would seem to be unfounded, as the only effect of a suj^ply of pure olive oil in the United States from California, is likely to be a greatly increased demand for the ^wx^ article, wheth- er it comes from abroad or at home. The olive has advantages, however, over most other oil producing trees, such as the walnut, sesame, peanut, linseed, raj^eseed, castor oil, and poppy, which, as a rule, demand a rich soil and minute cai-e. Consequently, where the olive prospers it is not worth while to cul- tivate other trees or plants which produce oil. The ancients used oil for food, for light, and for anointing the bodv. It o'rew to be a maxim in the latter davs of the Eoman Em- pire that life was prolonged by oil without, and honey within. Modern uses are more numerous; for food, for light, for soa]\ in dyeing, in perfumery, in pharmacies, in manufacture of cloths and for machine oil, especially in cold countries. The economic future of olive culture seems most ])romising, since its uses increase steadilv, while for food alone the demand is ever greater than the supply, as is proved by the enormous amount of adulterated oil openly sold in all the markets of the world. THE WOELD's PKODl CTIOX^ OF OLIA^E OIL. Italy comes first as an oil producing country as her exjiort is the laro'cst. This kin«:dom has vielded in oil as follows, viz: THE OLIVE 13 Gallons. 1880 86,000,000 1881 34,600,000 1882 56,800,000 1883 41,300,000 1884 46,800,000 188o 47,000,000 1886 64,3(X),000 which woukl uveraoe about fittv-four million oallons annually. The ex]:)ort lias been steady for the last ten years at abont twenty mil- lion gallons. The population is twenty-eight millions. The area of the whole kingdom is one hundred and twelve thousand square miles, and that devoted to olives is two million two hundred and fiftv thousand acres. For Spain it is much more difficult to reach the truth. The population of Spain and Portugal is twenty-two millions, the surface ai-ea of the two kingdoms is two hundred and thirtv-three thousand square mile5^^ more than double that of Italy, and five mil- lion acres are given up to olive culture. The very reasonable esti- mate of Senor Tablada would give a product of one hundred and fifty million gallons of oil for the annual yield of Spain. The ex- port is only ten million gallons. The explanation of this is that the consumption of oil and olives is very much greater there than anywhere else in the Avorld, and also that Sj^anish oil is made in such a slovenly Avay that the world will not take it, and it must be consumed at home. Olives are often piled up in a heap and left to rot for six months or a year before being pressed. This suits the national taste; thev like strono- or rancid oil, but it is not a market- able product and has to be consumed at home. France has a population of thirty-eight millions, an area of two hundred and four thousand square miles, of which only three hun- dred and seventy-five thousand acres are given up to the cultiva- tion of the olive. The annual 2)roduct of oil is only nine million gallons. 14 THE OLIVE Some of the other MediterranecUi countries produce oil, but it is entirely consumed at home or exported from one to the other. The total production of oil then is : Gallons. Italy o4,000,0(X) Spain Io0,000,000 France 9,000,000 213,000,000 of which Italy and Spain together furnish thirty million gallons only for export. The population of Europe is three hundred and thirty-nine mil- lions of people, more than enough to consume their own oil. It is plain that France is a large importer. Such is the fact. The entire Spanish surplus and the bulk of that of Italy finds its way into France. Hence tlie impudence of a French export of olive oil ; its own supply 'being a failing one and insufficient for domestic consumption. From these figures it is plain that California has little to fear from foreign competition. In addition to this France has been steadily retrograding as an oil producing country since 1798. In the ten years ])receding 1876, seventy-five thousand acres in the Maritime Alps, abandon.ed olive cultivation for that of cereals, fruits, flowers, the vine and the mulberry, as requiring less care and so yielding a better return. In Africa also, the cultivation has been generally given up, the climate being too humid and the latitude too far south. It is quite natural that with the increase of geographical knowl- edge new and more fiivorable regions should be discovered where the cultivation of this noble tree may flourish on a greater scale than ever. AVith reason ayc flatter ourselves that California is such a spot. Mr. Goodrich, to whose searching observation we are so largely indebted, notices a marked difference in point of size between THE OLIVE 15 the Italian and Californian trees of a o-iven ao-e. A ten year old tree in California is much larger in every way than its Italian counterpart. Hence, as was to be expected, its production is also greater. Our experience with the olive is as yet largely experimental. But we cannot hope to make a high grade of oil unless we first plant in favorable situations olives of superior qualifications as oil producers. It will be the endeavor of the writer to indicate in the following chapter which these varieties are, together with their characteristics. The ao-e of the olive tree is known to be verv oi-eat. It mav be said that well cared for trees will live three hundred vears. From the first to the twelfth is the i^eriod of its infancv, from the thir- teenth to the thirtieth its youth, from the thirty-first to the fiftieth a period of growth^ and from the fifty-first to the three hundredth the possible period of its life. Its vitality is really wonderful, and it seems as though it would actually live forever were it not for the attacks of its numerous and persistent enemies, who bore holes in its bark, eat out its heart, kill its branches and feed on its leaves and fruit; but so great is its hold on life that after all this has occurred, if the dead and dying tree b^ cut down close to the ground, its vigorous root will give birth to still another tree. It varies greatly in size. In Spain, Xijar, Al- meria, one was seen that four feet from the ground measured nine feet nine inches in circumference, and there are well authenticated reports of trees attaining even a larger growth, but of course it is superfluous to say that such a size is abnormal. What return may we expect from an olive j^lantation? This is a question that is often asked and one of vital interest. In Spain olives will average, taking the country over, thirty-two trees to the acre, and in estimating for oil it is customary to reckon every six trees as good for four gallons of oil. Here we may safely calculate on our trees, averaging one year with another, a gallon of 16 THE OLIVE oil per tree, and hope for as much more as we please. Also olive culture in Spain is susceptible of improvement. The yield could be much increased by giving more care and attention to the or- chards. Their methods are very crude and the people very poor. But their large experience has demonstrated the futility of planting too near together. This is the crying sin of the California fruit grower. In tliis way heretofore unheard of pests are evolved, trees are rendered sickly and stunted, and promising orchards become unj^rofitable. The olive is least able to bear the effects of over- crowdino'; suiilio'ht and ventilation are absolute necessities to it. Fiftv o'ood trees to an acre is a better investment than a hundred poor ones. As the olive is so long in maturing, it is customary to utilize the space between the young trees by growing grapes and the short lived fruits, such as prunes and peaches, to give way finallv to the mature tree. On purchasing the Quito Farm the trees were found to be injur- ing each other by their proximity, (sixteen and one half feet) and every other one was taken out, deprived of all its branches and re- planted. This was done in the spring of 1883. Tliose replanted trees Avill this vear bear a cro]) : that is thev have been lost to the orchard for the past five years, owing to the error of their having been planted too near together in the first place. This year the trees, by reason of their increased growth, are still too near together, and the proce.^^ of thinning out will have to be repeated. In this case the economy of planting the trees a reasonable distance apart in the first instance is quite evident. Mr. Ellwood Cooper has told us that the best result he ever ob- tained was one bottle of oil from ten pounds and fifty-six hun- dredths of olives, and the poorest a bottle from twelve and a half pounds. This is twelve and ten per cent, respectively. The best variety among the Mission, the Cornicabra, should give a better result than this. The maximum yield of any olive is twenty per cent, of oil for weiolit of berries. From that down to ten. An THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF THE OLIVE. Pig. 1. A branch of the olive in flower, natural size, a a Blossom. Fig. 2. Inside view of flower, enlarged. Fig. 3. Corolla cut and spread out to show the in- sertion of the stamens. Fig. 4. Flower without the corolla, enlarged. Fig. 5. Front view of stamen, enlarged. Fig. 6. Rear view of stameh, enlarged. Fig. 7. Pistil, enlarged. Fig. 8. Pistil cut vertically. Fig. 9. The lower portion of bud cut horizon- tally, enlarge<1. Fig. 10. The berry, natural size. Fig. 11. The berry cut horizontally .—» Epicarp. b Afeaocarp. c Endocarp. d Seed, Fig. 12. The nut stripped of fleshy part, natural size. Fig. 13. Seed, natural size. Fig. 14. Seed stripped of its external skin, natural size. Fig. 15. Seed stripped of skin cut horizontally, natural size. — Fig. 16. Germ or embryo split open, natural size. THE OLIVE 17 olive that will not return ten pei^ cent, of its weio;lit in oil had better be abandoned for one that will. A large and fully developed tree has been known to vield as much as sixteen <>:allons of oil. In Florence, Italy, Mr. Goodrich has found it a matter of in- creasing difficulty each year to get pure oil. In fact the manager of a large olive grove in the vicinity had the hardihood to tell him that he did not believe it possil)le to procure any there. The out- put of cotton seed oil in tlie United States is half a million tons, or seventeen million five hundred thousand gallons. In the late Congressional investigation into the Cotton Seed Oil Trust, it was develoj^ed that twentv-seven per cent, is exported to be used as an adulterant of olive oil. In Italy it is poured over the olives in the crusher to thoroughly mix the tAVO oils. Originally cotton-seed oil was used to merely adulterate, which was bad enough, but of late it is pressed on the public with greater boldness. The British Consul at Leghorn, in his report for 188G, states that the Florentine flasks in which pure olive oil was formerly shipped to the British market are now sent direct to London empty and there filled with cotton seed oil, and he warns the public accordingly. The following is from a late work in the interest of cotton seed oil : ''It is hoped that in time the prejudice now existing against cotton seed oil in this country will be overcome and our people, like those of Europe, take to cooking their food in oil instead of using lard. That there is a groAving demand for cot- ton seed oil for table use and culinary purposes is evidenced by the increased business of merchants Avho make a specialty of filling fancy bottles with cotton seed oil." We are all familiar with the fancy bottles and the blatant claim that they contain pure olive oil. These so called merchants are engaged in deceiving the public, in endeavoring to palm off cotton seed oil for olive oil. Cotton seed oil is refined by treatment with alkaline carbonates and caustic al- kalies, and this fact is sufficient to condemn it a.s a food oil. 18 THE OLIVE Crude cotton seed oil is a thick fluid of a reddish or dirtv vellow color, and if left standing ^yill deposit a slimy sediment. For years the cotton seed oil refiners encountered verv o'reat difficulty in dis- ty CD » posing of tliis coloring matter, but this impediment is now overcome in the followino; manner. To an iron tank charo-ed with ten tons of crude cotton seed oil, is added thirtv hundred weio'ht of caustic soda lye. Saponification ensues, and the coloring matter is precipitated. No argument can convince the impartial mind that an article so prepared is fit food for the human stomach. There are many other adulterants which are used in unison with cotton seed oil, such as sesame, ])alni nuts, hemp, cupra or sunflower, and a host of others of strange origin. It is not safe to say that these supposititious co- mestibles are alwavs innocuous. Manv an oil retains the subtle qualities of the ])lant which j^roduced it, and it may be that obscure maladies which puzzle the doctor are not unfrequently caused by the detestable practice of sup])lying for the genuine article some- thing which looks sufficiently like it to mislead, and, it may be, poi- son the hapless public. A simple and homely test for the detection of adulteration is the heating of oil until it smokes, in some small vessel. The smell of olive oil while su^'o'estive of the kitchen and cookerv is not at all disa^i-eeable, while anv counterfeit oil, and es- pecially cotton seed oil, is exceedingly offensive to the nostrils. If placed in a refrigerator, pure olive oil will remain unchanged, or at most throw down a little palmatin, while adulterated oil will thicken and congeal. The persistent adulteration of olive oil will bear its legit- imate fruit ; the markets where the world has sought its supply here- tofore will become discredited, their wares will no longer meet with ready sale in the face of free supplies of the pure article from Cali- fornia and Australia. Gasparin makes some interesting calculations as to the consump- tion of oil in France. In Provence a laborer consumes an average of nine pounds per annum, and the same ratio holds good in Paris. THE OLIVE 19 The olive grower of Galifoniia has sixty-five millions of country- men among Avhom to market his product. Now if we assume that the consumption may reach only one pound per head annually, it would require ten million gallons to satisfy the demand for the United States alone, or, with an acreao;e of fiftv trees, olive o'roves covering two hundred thousand acres. Our people have yet to learn to appreciate the olive. It needs no pushing, it will make its way on its merits. It is sufficient to say that the public were wil- ling to pay during all last season fifteen dollars a gallon for an oil they knew to be pure. But increased production will loAver the price, and a lower price will stinuilate the consumption. Olive oil has alwavs been 2:reatlv esteemed for the beneficial effects derived from its use b\' the human body. This reputation is sustained by the experience of mankind from the beginning of historv. Of late vears it has been discovered that it contains chol- esterin, which was onlv known to exist in the animal bodv, where it forms an important constituent of the gall, the blood corpuscles, and the nerve substance. ' CHAPTEE II. " The domestic olive represents the artificial type obtained by means of art." Cariso. The species of tlie olive known to exist and the localities where fonnd are as follows : OCEANICA. America. Africa. Asia. r Olea apetala, Xew Zealand. < " paniculata, Australia. ( " Euro])ea, " f Olea floribunda, South America. ! '' Americana; Fla., Ga., Carolina, Va. ] '' Europea; Chili, Peru, Mexico, Cal., La., Miss., 1^ ' Fla., Arizona, New Mexico. Olea crysophvlla, Abyssinia, laurifolia, " verrucosa. Cape of Good Hope, verr. (brachybotris) c>a])ensis, foveolata^ concolor, exasperata humilis, obtusifolia, Madagascar, lancea, ]\Iauritius. Europea; Egypt, Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers, Moroc- co, Canaries. Olea, 2:^aucifiora, Penang. maritima, Islands, Strait of Malacca. microcarpa,Cochin, China, attenuata, Burmah. dentata, " Lindleyi, Bengal, fi^agrans, China and Japan. a a a u u u a a THE OLIVE 21 Asia. Olea, salicifolia, Inffia. dioiea, '' euspidata, Afghanistan, compacta, India, acuminata, longifolia, India, roxbiirohiana, India, eastern, lieyneana, " glandulifera, Xepaul, India, acuminata, " Europea ; North Asia Minor, Syria, Kurdistan, Transcaucasia, Xorth Persia, southern coast of Caspian sea, the southeast of Arabian penin- suhi. u a a u u u u Europe. ^ Olea Europea ; the Mediterranean coast and PortugaL The Olea Americana is known to the himhermen of the Carolinas and Florida as devil- wood, the grain of the wood being so hard as to resist ordinary tools. The berrv of the Olea Fra(irans of China is candied and used among the Chinese as a sweet, and the flowers to flavor and adulter- ate the finer kinds of teas. The above enumeration is given cliiefly as a curiositv. The spe- cies of interest to us is tlu^ Olea Europea, this being the onlv vari- ety that has as vet re])aid man's care bv the increased size and A Tveight of its berry. (See Plate I). The olive (Olea Etiropca of Linneus), according to De Candolle, belongs to oi'der CXXVII of the Oicaceae, to the tribe III of the Oleineae, to the genus VI, Olea,. to the species X. 2, Euro])ea, and was so called bv Linneus to indicate that its home is there, that there it is cultivated by choice and has l)(n,Mi held in honor from remotest antiquity. Some considei' the name inap[)ropriate on the ground that the olive was brouglit from Asia, but Caruso holds it to be correct because he ]3e!iev(\s it to l)e a native of Europe and the culture, only, brouglit from Asia. We pro])Ose now to endeavor to classify the varieties of the Olea Europea in a brief and compiehensive manner. It is evident that great confusion exists in the nomenclature of 22 THE OLIVE the olive. The ancient Italian authors enumerated comparatively few, from twelve to sixteen, but a modern writer on the subject in that country has summed up to over three hundred. Each locality where olives have been grown has added a name suggested by chance appearance or local prejudice, until a perfect chaos exists, utttrlv meanini>;less to anvone outside of the narrow section where it may be familiar. Take some of the Spanish names for instance, such as the '' Rabbit's eve,'' the '' Pillow-case '\ the '^Little round" — these are al)surd and convev no sii>-niticance to anyone not living in the pi'ovince in Sjxiin where they may be grown. They are evidently given to imjmrt the idea of the shape of different berries and iii ignorance of the fact that olives should not be classiiied bv the ai)])earance of the fruit, but bv the character- istics of the tree, for the verv sufficient reason that trees of entirelv different a])pearance and habits, produce berries very similar in iorni. In this State we are likely, as olive culture progresses, to find great difficulty in recoo;nizing what an oUve is from its name. AVe were launched with some Sj)anisli varieties which to us have become Mis- sion, then a number of French plants became known, and lastlv the Italian are coming in. The Spanish have never shown the world anv iiood oil, although it could undoubtedlv l)e made there. The quality is prol)ably somewhat affected bv the latitude. The French for years have drawn the bulk of their sup])ly of oil from Italv and to-dav' the oil in-ovinces of Northern Italv are overrun with French oil buyers, and bad oil cannot l)e made good, although the French are adepts at anything of this kind. If their oil has merit it is because it was i)ro])erlv made. Italv is the foiui- tain head. Italv has lono; been the source of all the 2:ood oil we have ever known. Italy has carried the cultivation of this tree to greater i^erfection than anv other countrv on the ulobe. How can we then do better than follow the classification of Professor Caruso, Professor of Agriculture of the National Univer- sity of Pisa, who at the instance of the Italian Government has THE OLIVE 23 given to the world a monogi*apli on the olive Avhicli is perliaps tlie most profound and exhaustive work on the subject that has yet been written. He separates the olive under three lieads as: The domesticated olive, tlie wild olive, the seedling of the cultivated olive ; althouo-h two onlv. tluit of the domesticated olive and wild olive, would answer all })ractical purposes. The domesti- cated olive he assumes to have come from the Fast. The wild olive he believes to l)e the tree indiwnous ' to all the coasts of the Mediterranean. The seedling of the cultivated tree is virtu- (dlv a wild olive, as in onlv one case of a thousand will the seed ever reproduce the variety from which it came, but constantly re- turns to the wild type. The following table will show the olives of Italy, France and Spain, grouped in their relative order of merit as oil olives, and it is interesting to note the ])()sition assumed by our own Mission in this comparison with the olives of the world. Italy. Razzo (1 Frantojano Grossajo Correggiolo (2) Tai>:i>:iasc() OCT Eacemi or Kaci- Fkaxce. (■)livier de Grasse Pleureui' ' Pendouliei* I Pendulina nop])e -J ; Morinello r-^ i ! ^lorajolo o^^ ^ Pio-nolo '^^ i Mii>:nolo Gremii>:n()lo Leccino I' rdouraou (o) I C ayon de Marseille . I Picholine 4 Spain. ) Cornical)ra or ) Mission Royal or Gordal Racimal Xevadillo Blanco Varal Xeiiro Lechin Manzanillo If. -[ Leccio X r 5 ! Columbaro Puntarolo Trillo Oleastro [^) 1 1 Vei-dale Fmpeltre A^erdcjo x\cel)uche 24 THE OLIVE Group I represents'^tlie olive of the oil pre^s, tlie mo^t developed, cultured and domesticated of all olives. The fruit is of various sizes, very fleshy and oily. Sometimes, however, the olive is not very oily and then is only good for pickling. It is a large tree and above all others produces the best olives for oil. Group II consists of middle-class olives, the tree is more rustic, the branches more robust and erect, the fruit more fleshy. Tree of middle stature. Group III covers olives oljtained from the seeds of domesticated olives ; the most rustic of cultivated trees. Its branches are robust and erect, its fruit of various sizes but not verv flesh v. A tree nen- erally not growing very Inrge but sometimes of rather good appear- ance. Group lY represents the savage ty])e which is not worth culti- vating; because the fruit is small and the stone is larw, with little or no pulp. It grows to a bush or small tree of from ten to sixteen feet in height. DESCRIPTION OF OLIVES. GROUP I. The Bazxo or Frantojano, This is the variety mainly cultivated in the provinces of Lucca and Pisa, regions that have a world-wide reputation for their oil and where, also, are found in less numbers the Mignolo, Morajolo, Pun- tarolo and some Grossajo. The twigs of the Razzo are short, light, numerous and rather reflexed. (See Plate III.) It is cultivated in groves on the Pisan mountains where, however, the trees are too near t02:ether and as a result tliev ^vow too liisfh. It will not bear mucli pruning ; all tliat is necessary is to keep it freed from the dead twigs, from shoots that are too high and from branches THE WILD OLIVE PLATE IL— THE WILD OLIVE. Fig. 17. diiced.) Fio-. 18. Fig. 19. niesocarp. Fi^. 20. A bran ell of wild olive showing its appearanee, (re- A braneli of wild olive wdtli berry, (natural size.) Longitudinal seetion of berry, (natural size,) showing Form of the nut of the wild olive. THE OLIVE 25 that disturb the uniform distribution of the fronds. Its leaves are narrower at the insertion than at the aj^ex, of a beautiful green on the U2:>per side and a strong white on the louver. In deep and rich soils it acipires great stature. Fogs, cold and variations of temperature do it harm, so much so that it loves pro- tected sites, and the half hill, and in districts most exposed to frosts prefers the west and northwest exposures to defend itself against the dan«:er of sudden thaws. It is immoderatelv fecund, to the deo-ree that it buds even in the midst of blossoming. It retains its fruit badly, especially in wind or prolonged heat. The berries are roundish, fiesliv and richer in oil, than anv other variety, on which account in the country about Calci, at the foot of the Pisan mountains, the people call them " frantojani " or, oil press olives. They commence to mature from Xovember and December and turn to black and w^iney black. Grossajo, Frantojo or Cor.reggiolo. This variety is most cultiyated in the districts outside of Lucca and Pisa in the best exposures and sheltered spots where the soil is rich. It is as delicate as the Razzo but less fecund and the berry «/ less oily. It is distinguished from the preceding (see Plate lY) by its nu- merous long, subtle and flexible twigs, so that its toj) is rather spread out and makes the appearance of a willowy. It becomes a large tree and like the Razzo needs little -pruning. The berries are larger than those of the Razzo, blown up at the extremity, curved like a bow on one side, and for oleosity stand next to the preceding. In comparison with the weight of the nut the flesh is less developed than the Morajolo. It matures at the same time as the Razzo, taking first a lilac color then a wdne red and even black. The Taggiasco, This olive prevails in Liguria. It is sensitive to cold and fogs, so it prefers the low hills w^ith a sunny exposure and mild temperature 26 THE OLIVE aiul defended from the north wind. It sends out a o;reat number of twigs subtle, long and bent back Avhieli makes the top look sparse and willow like. It needs little prnning. It is a large tree espec- ially in the spread of its branches. It buds and holds much fruit and carries it easily to maturity if not injured by excessive heat or harsh winds. Tlie l)errics ai'c fleshy, abundant in oil, middle-sized, pointed and bowed at one side. This olive in appearance seems like the Grossajo or Frantojo. The Eaccmi or Racinoppe. This olive is of middle stature and is fond of sheltered spots with rich and deep soils. Fogs do not harm it. It is very prolific, pro- duces manv blossoms and ^ives fruit in abundance. The l)erries form in bunches of five, six, ^Qx^m and even nine in a chister, and bend the branches to tlic ground with their weii^ht. The berries are l()m>; and Indited at the lower end, Heshv, Imt do not give as nuich oiFin j)roportion as some of the foregoing. This olive has the 2)eculiarity of fruiting on the wood of the year and \> therefore an annual. It .lias been introduced into California as the Olea Ohlonya^ in allusion t<) its sria])e, but this is a confusion of terms as the real OIe:e tree, with its branches all well set on and o'rowino* rei>ularlv, and not strai»ulino: out in the eccentric manner of the wild olive. Without discussing this point farther and granting that the olive wnerallv known in C alifornia as the Picholine is all its advocates claim it to be, and that it is not the wild olive, it seems so near akin to it that it is utterly useless to cultivate it for the pro- ductio)i of oil for it will not repay one for the care and space in the orchard given to it. The same (juantity of oil is pressed from one Mission olive that is contained in five Picholines, one dried Mission olive wei^Iiina; 2i«' urams and five dried Picholines, weiii'hino* -i'^" irrams, showiuii; plainlv the difference of twentv per cent, in favor of the Mission olive and exactly the same quanti- ty of oil l)eing produced from each. Hence, the accepted Picholine olive will give only eight per cent, of oil, and that of an inferior quality, being largely made uj) from the essential oil contained in the stones. But this olive 'throuii'h its extreme rusticitv and close relationship to the wild olive is, without doubt, the very best possi- ble stock upon which to graft, aiul so, although the introduction of this plant \\v^liigii. So it requires energetic pruning to keep it down to a convenient height. The tree is not so large as the Morajolo. The leaves are whiter on the lower side, broadened from the middle u]:>wards and very pointed. It flowers generally on the twigs that have filled out a vear and are enterins: into a second war; quite contrary to the Morajolo and other varieties, which bud on wood which is two years old and is entering on a third. For this reason it flowers so abundantlv, that it is a matter of doubt whether its name comes from this rich buddino- or the smallness of the fruit. From its facilitv in buddins; and retainino- its fruit, it p]^oduces olives everv year. Thev are round, and rather lacking in flesh and oil, and for size take a position between the Razzo and wild olive. It begins to mature in December, turning a wine red color. This olive best resists salt wind, dampness and fog. The Leccino or Leccio, [See Plate VII,) In appearance this variety most resembles the Avild olive. The Leccino is mentioned bv all the ancient Latin authors on the sub- ject of the olive, and is the oldest variety that we are able to recog- nize. Its twigs are very, robust, rigid and very long, and not at all ramified. The angle of insei'tion being about eighty degrees, hence the top is little united, and bends over much like a willow tree; therefore its name Leccio {Quercus Ilex). It is strong to resist wind and cold and the alternations of freezino; and thawins:. This was proved in the winter of 1871-72, when many Razzo, Grossajo, Marajolo, and even Mignolo, perished, while the Leccino resisted even a temperature of twelve degrees F. The Leccino leaves are very much broadened in the middle, and are obtuse and sharp pointed, the lower side being pale, as in the Mignolo. It flowers richly, and because of its rusticity holds firmly on to its fruit, and carries it to maturity in bunches of two, three, four and even five berries. It is very persistent to the peduncle, which is sometimes leaved as in the wild olive. THE RAZZO. PlateDI Tig. 23 7.g.24 PLATE III.— THE RAZZO. Fig. 21. Branch of tlie Kazzo showing its appearance, (reduced.) Fig. 22. A tAvig with olives, (natural size.) Fig. 23. Longitudinal section of berry, (natural size.) Fig. 24. Form of nut, (natural size.) THE OLIVE 33 The berries are as large aiicf fleshy as the Grossajo, but not so rich in oil. It matures toward the end of November, turning black in color. This is decidedly the olive to be cultivated Avhere frost is most frequent and dangerous. The Puntavolo. {See Plate VIII) This olive has erect twigs, but shorter, less robust and more sub- divided than the Leccino ; wherefore it forms its top less open, and has a tendency to grow more upward. It is a middle-sized tree, with leaves like those of the Leccino in form. It flowers rather fully and holds on tenaciously to its fruit, carrying to ripeness a goodly number of berries, which are in clusters of two, three and four, on peduncles leaved as are the Leccino. The berries, how- ever, do not cling to the stem as tightly as the Leccino. These are ovate, and so pointed as to give the name of Puntarolo. They have less flesh than the Leccino and contain less oil, mature as late as the Gremignolo, and change as they do. The Trillo olive has twigs, as rigid and robust as the Puntarolo, rather long and little ramified, so as to appear like the Leccino and also a little like the wild tree. It is a middle-sized tree, its leaves broad, sharp and spinated in form, darker on the upper side and lighter on the lower than the Puntarolo, fecund in flower and fruit, which latter comes to maturity in bunches of three and four at very nearly the same time as the preceding variety. The berries hold on better than the Puntarolo, but not so well as the Leccino, and are ovate and pointed like the latter. The Trillo and others called Jlorehiaeci, and sometimes simply seedlings, are quite like one another in rusticity. Sometimes they endure cold as the Morchiacci, and sometimes the sea wind and cold as the Puntarolo and Trillo. The Empeltre. The Empeltre is a tree of small size, with erect and thinly popu- lated branches, smooth bark, and shows o;reat vio^or in closino- 34 THE OLIVE wounds made by the pruning knife. It both ripens early and resists cokl. TJie tree bears fruit at an early ao^e and in oreat quantity, and gives a good quality of oil, but it needs water fertil- izers and a loose, rich soil in oiiler to o;et the best result from it. The Verdaller or Vcrdava, Verdal of Bezier, Verdava of Jlont- pellier, Olca verdala of Gouan, L'olea media rotunda verdior of Tounifort, Verdajo of Tahlada; Si)tnlnr to Leeeino. Tablada says of this olive that in Spain it is generally used for pickling, but that it also gives a good oil and ripens early. It will resist even more cold than the Cornicabra, but is found in all parts of the country. It requires a fertile soil and good cultivation, la- tliough it Avill accommodate itself to less favorable circumstances, but remember, in return it will only produce accordingly. It will bear vigorous pruning. The' Wild 0/iv^\ (See Plate 11.) The Avild olive has twi^s verv robust, verv lono\ contorted, rio-id. little ramified and with anole at insertion of about eiirhtv deu'rees. The leaves are obovate and very Avide in proportion to length, are l^ointed, extending in a spine shape. The lower side is not as white as in the cultivated varieties. Even on wood that is scarcelv a vear old, it buds abundantly. ' It retains an enormous quantity of fruit, which hangs in bunches of three, four and five berries and which cling with tenacity to the stem. The berries mature late, and when fully ripe are black, and winey black. They are small (about .oL"> of a gramme), rather round and sharp at free end. The fleshy part is so thin as to be more like a. thin skin than real meat. On the other hand the stone is very large, the seed well developed and often double. It grows slowly and as regards the appearance of its branches, it has a spiney look and is wonderfully strong against vicissitudes of climate,, and in size it onlv reaches the heiolit of a THE OLIVE ;)0 shrub or small tree. It carries to completion a great number of ber- ries. It is well worth using for grafting and counts various varie- ties dependent on chmate and soil. COMPARISOXS. First — Form — (putting aside height). The Razzo and Grossajo are most similar to each other. The Leccino most like the wild tree. Second — Foi'm, size, fleshiness of berrv. The Razzo resembles the Morajolo. The Grossnjo '' " Leccino. The Mignolo " " Wild Olive. Third — Shape of olive and its appearance. The Trillo resembles the Puntarolo. coxcLisroxs. Olives are better described l)y the characteristics of the tree than by tlie form or size of the fruit. Xotc how very much alike in this respect are the Grossajo and the Leccino. Pendoulier and Yerdak\ Cornicabra and Yerdejo and how far ai^art tliev rank in rusticitv. Stature and oiliness. Looking at the f)rm of tlie nut we find that it follows invariably that of the olive. Whence it a])pears not to be true as has been heretofore believed, that the berries which are roundish and enlaroed at the exti'cniitv varv in form from the nut and are therefore more fleshy and oily than the pointed ones. Greater fleshiness only can increase the oiliness of the fruit and this is entirely independent of the shape it may assume. In truth the richest in oil are the olives of Group I, or the oil i)ress olives, which resemble in form the Morajolo, the Mignolo and even the very wild olive, that is to say are joointed and not round. Hence we are led to believe, First — That the greater the rusticity of the tree, the less the ram- ification of the branches and the greater the persistency of the berries. 36 THE OLIYE Second — That the form of the nut alwavs follows that of the berry. Third — That the form and size of the berry and nut has no in- flnence on the quantity of oil. Fourth — That the least fallacious indication of oiliness resides in the thickness and weight of the mesocarp. The oliyes discussed are yaluable for seed in the followins: order: Wild, Group lY, Wild oliye. Trillo, 1 Puntarolo, ! r^ jtt c^ it T . > (jrroup iii, beedhno's. JLeccnio, | ^ Mignolo, J Morajolo, Group IT, Middle class. -p " J ' ^^ Group I, Oil press olives. Jtvazzo, I The berries most abundant in oil are as follows in order of merit: Eazzo, Grossajo, Morajolo, Mignolo, Leccino and others of the seedlings. The California Mission olive is known to contain some inferior varieties, but the writer, at this period, is unable to specify tliem. On the Quito Farm the Cornicabra largely predominates over all others. CLIMATE. "Alii praefervldum ant geJidum stattun coeli patitur,^'''^ Columella The olive requires a moderate climate, it cannot flourish in or en- dure extreme heat or oreat cold. Its zone of cultivation lies be- tween forty-five and eio'hteen deo^rees north latitude, and a corres- ponding belt in the Southern Hemisphere, outside of either of these extremes the tree may possibly live, but will refuse to give any fruit. Indeed, south of eighteen degrees in north Africa it attains a luxurious growth, but only fruits where it enjoys the caressing * " Xor burning heat nor icy cold endures the olive." TH.R OLIYE 37 breeze from the Mediterranean Sea. For successful cultivation the yearly mean temperatures should not be less than 57 degrees Fah- renheit. As to locality where olive culture is possible and practic- able. Five hundred and eighty-eight feet of elevation represent one deo'ree of latitude, so Colfax with an elevation of 2421 feet above the level of the sea and standing; nearlv on the thirty-ninth paral- lei of latitude must be debited with a little more than four degrees, which Avould bring it uj) to between forty three and forty four de- grees, showing that Colfax and places of similar elevation and latitude nearly touch the northern limit of the olive in California. To cultivate it successfully further north a lower situation must be sought. Hence the further south the 2)oint of cultivation the great- er may be the elevation. In the Sierra Nevada mountains, in Gre- nada, Spain, in latitude thirty-seven degrees, the olive flourishes at a height of three thousand feet. In Algiers, North Africa, in about latitude thirty-five in the Atlas range, it is found at a height of fortv-eio'lit hundred feet.* In Catania, Italv, it is successfullv orown at an elevation of thi-ee thousand one huudred feet. The olive dearlv loves a breeze, not simply air and ventilation but a veritable soft wind. This is there- fore necessary to its well d()ini>:, esi^eciallv at the flowerino; season. A still, intense heat may be fatal to the promise of a crop by burn- ing off the blossoms; for this reason and also to escape humidity it forsakes the plain and seeks the middle hills. The olive avoids the arid tops of wind swept heights but its home is the half hilL Follow a line of olive trees up a steep and it will be noticeable that those nearest the top are found to be stunted and lacking soil about the roots, the earth having been carried down the slope by rains and the trees are visibly affected by their situation. Within the olive zone there undoubtedly are many points where the tree will not thrive because it is exposed to too great cold which must be fatal to it — say anything below fourieeu degrees — or, if the heat be too great it evaporates the sap and thus prevents nutrition. 8 THE OLIVE To temper too warm a climate water seems to be resorted to. In the Island of Candia in the Mediterranean on the thirty-fonrth ])arallel the olives frnit regnhirly when watered, if they receive no water it is qnite donbtfnl if the iiowers set or not. In Athens, Greece, if thev are not irrigated their vield is verv uncertain. In Africa — both in Morocco and Algiei's — in order to secure a crop it becomes absolutelv necessarv to i^ive them water. In Valencia and Murcia, Spain, it is the usual practice to water the olive, and indeed Avith a loose soil and dry climate the irrigated trees respond with the surest crop. But the soil, the climate and the exposure nuist be the guide and indicate the necessitv. Owins; to the extreme drvness of the California summer, it is ])ossible it may become needful in certain localities to irrigate the orchard in order to insure a crop. I'o deal with sections where there are apt to be cold snaps, tlie only remedy is to chose those varieties more nearly resembling the wild type which are hardier and better able to resist low temperature. The smaller the tree and the closer to the ground it grows naturally, the more likelv it is to be damaged bv a frost. On the Quito farm the late cold weather''' did absolutely no harm although there were trees on the i)lace of not more than three vears of a^v, and the mercurv touched sixteen degrees al)ove zero. Even a higher temperature than this has been fatal to olive trees, but that has l)een the result of a sudden thawino; after a cold niirlit. Anvthinii; lower than four- teen degrees of cold is. too chilling for the olive to endure; such weather not only will kill the leaves and branches, but even the wood itself will succumb. Tlu^ olive is not so hardy as the gra})e- vine, the latter requiring only ten thousand eight hundred degrees Fahrenheit to ripen its fruit, whereas the olive needs twelve thous- and seven hundred degrees, although some varieties will ri})en with ten thousand eight hundred degrees, from blossoming time to ma- turitv, amono; which is the Snanish Manzanillo. To ascertain whether anv particular locality in California is suitable for olive =^=Jaiiuarv, 1888. THE olivp: 39 growing, first consult the tliermometer. A mean temperature of sixtv-one deii'rees Falirenlieit, from the firsi: of March to the end of December inchisive, will be sufficient guarantee; or this same mean, from the beoinnino- of the fioweiini>: period — sav ]\Iav twentieth to the end of Decend)er — will ripen the 1)erries. Where the summer heat is greater the fruit will ripen earlier. The olive begins to move in ^larch at a temperature of tifty-two dei>Tees, it buds at fiftv-nine decrees and Howers at sixtv-seven de- grees. The l)lossoms set at a temperature of seventy-one degrees of heat, and to ri])en the fruit a mininuun of eighteen thousand five hundred de^Tces of heat is necessarv, datini^; from the iieriod in March when it first bei>:an to move. A i>:ood o:eneral rule to relv upon would be, that where one can obtain a mean temperatur(^ for spring of fifty-six degrees; for summer, of seventy degrees; for autumn, of fifty-eight degrees and in winter a mininuun of twentv deo'rees the olive can alwavs l)e successfullv cultivated; bearino- in mind, however, that some vari(^ties re(piire more heat than others and that [)eculiarities in theatnios])here or tliesoil may make it im])ossible to grow the olive even with this temperature. To ol)tain the mean temperature witli the necessary exactitude recpures cai'eful observa- tion at least three times a dav, and a minhnum thermometer to show the lowest temperatures during the niglit and early morning is im- perative. A recent invention, liowever, has simplified this laboi* verv much; it is known as J)rapers' Kecording Thermometer, and con- sists of a dial, driven Ijy clock work, which makes a eompk'te revo- lution in one wTck and as it revolves uiuler a pen attaclied to the thermometer pro})er a curved line in ]'ed ink is drawn on the face of the dial, which sliows ])y lines thereon the exact temperature of the air at every hour during tlie day and night. The only attention this machine requires is to change^ the dial once a week, to Avind the clock at the same time, and to feed the pen with a few droi)s of j)re- pared ink. The weekly record dial is then filed awav, and thus 40 THE OLIVE with very little trouble the most exact data is obtained for the guid- ance of the orchardist. The following tables are intended to show^ the latitude and de- grees of heat required for ripening the olive. In Spain it will be noticed that the temperature averages very high, with die usual result of producing rather too gross an oil. Elevation. Latitude. Tempemmre. Seville 300 37.20 GS Jaen 37.45 64 Valencia Seaport 39.20 Go Granada 37.15 61 Murcia 37.55 66 Alicante 66 38.20 67 Badajoz 38.40 63 Barcelona Seaport 41. 1 5 63 Cuidad Real 39.00 62 Saragossa : 613 41.40 60 Palma 39.30 67 Cadiz Seaport 36.30 66 Madrid 1916 40.30 oS The data from Italv is much more exact, as seen in the followino; tables on pages 41 and 42. These may be constructed for any locality in Californiar by first ascertaining the mean temperature each month and multiplying it by the number of days in said month. It will be noticed that the temperature of San Jose very nearly aj^proaches that of Florence. THE GROSSAJO OR FRANTOJO PLATE IV.— THf: GROSS A JO OR FRANTOJO. Fig. 25. Branch of the Grossajo or Frantojo showing its ap- pearance, (reduced.) Fig. 26. Twig with olives, (natural size.) Fig. 27. Longitudinal section showing mesocarp^ (natural size.) Fig. 28. Form of nut, (natural size.) THE OLIVE 41 ;?; © V CO o T-H i-O h- '* CO "^ "^ L.-^ lr^ _i :^-^ x; Ci o-i CO cr; Tti CO i-O ic ^o t^ 1,^ t^ t^ :r: uo '^ Tfi Tti 1-H ' 'O © mm mm V O LTD O CO 010COO»0^0010C5COO --H — ' >0 l^ 01 C:i 'X Ci 1— ' CO --O^t- Ci_ O^CO^Ol ^^C:^iO^ »-0^'=^^^^ — T ^^ ^ ^4" of of of ^"^ r-T r-T ^" ^"^ 1 CO of oi8jn;i]j9diu8x Ol t^ cc Cr:: >0 -ti O' Ol CO Ci X O lO k-0 :r: -^ I— l^ L~- <:C LO Tf rfi LO 01 CO Pisa V CO O CO 01 »0 W >0 Ol rt^ Ol — c; ^H CO X 01 :o X CC lO ^D i^ "-0 X '— 1 CO f^O T— 1 'CTi lO >aO CO CO »o 01 -^ — Ol Ti 01 01 O^l — 1 — ■ ^ — T^'^ 01 00 , 9JlHb\I9dui9X 01 lO — 1 I^ 10 01 01 01 -f Ci lO :r: vr i^ i^ L- L^ CO lO LO ^ '^ 01 »o V 01 01 »o t-- lO ^ cr: X -^ I-^O^O^CO^CO ^ C: iC lO '^^■^ 1^0 of CO J '^f^ 9aiULM9(llU9J^ 01 X >0 ^. t^ >0 01 -+^ CO Ci X O' lO 'O to *>r; L^ L-- 1- 'O lO -rf rfi lO 01 CO to* V cc V PnOX UU9I\: 1 t^ c: I- c 01 -0 01 X lO -r I- 01 X X CO Ol CO 01 X Lo 1- 01 -* 01 — 0: 10 -r^co 01^ ^■^ — ' -m" of of of of — "~ — >" '-^ ^ -f 01 X CO -t* CO 9.rn;i^.i9dui9x c: X :-- -*" o t - Ol 01 01 "o: 01 -o ».0 »0 -O L^ X t^ L^ CO LO '^ -^ '^ 01 01 10 TinoT iiuoTr !->o ::: o 01 ^ CO Ol ^ X >~o X »o X '■ '■-'-' ^ *^ I *o X -— 01 -r cc 01 O CO LO rt' ^r" "^ »o .~ — — 01 01 Ol 01 Ol 01 -^ — r-H r-H 'O 9.UHUJ9dui9J^ -fOX — XX-f^COCOOXOl lO CO CO I- 1^ L^ t^ CO lO LO "^ kO 01 © %m PUOX UU9K o X cc i*-^- X o -^ -r T 01 c^ X CO 'O '-f — ." — " of of of of o r ^f ^'^^'"^''^'^ ^1 9Jnn]J0dui9X |.^ g '-i ?J {^Z L^ it ':^ § ;a ,^ ,^^ OJ oi X X V V ^ 1 CO O' ^ ;iM 1 I^ 01 ^ cc ,— 1 ''x^' Iinoxin]9K 1^2 g 3^] r lO cc o t- -^ X r^oj — X -o "O -t^ — T cm' of of o r of o r — r ^"^ — r ^" 9JlUl}.l9dllI9X 01 'O -o S I- f- i^ I- ^ 3 LO "O LO »o ly v^ ^ p-i^^x "i:^K I e -o ^^ ^ ^ ;^ s g ;-€ [a 11 cc o r-r^-Tofofof of ofof ^'^— T— r^' o o X -:'. cc 01 9JiuiM9din9x :t .-:^ :i ;^: 55 ^ '- =g 2 ;t ,9 :■;} X Ol X 01 r-oox~— ^oioxcT'^oc ^ pnox nuojr cc o o X r ^ ^ ^^ ■ o ' O '"^'■^-^-'^l' v' v""^ -^ X CO 10 - \^ — 01 01 01 01 Ol 01 ^ — ^"^J 9Jinua9dru9T ';- rz: ?S r ':;^ ?^M" ^ 9 "^ ^ ""• ^ Ji < < ^ ^ l^ X X l^ cc CO 10 LO 10 lO X oi >o 05 -^ X ^ ^^ ^ ^i^ ■^ v^ s-' ^ >— ! '— ^ .^ -^ ^ 42 THE OLIVE O -T Ci CC' '3C t^ CC 3C r^ O rH — re w T-t CC CC "M CC O GC OO C't' »o i^ w r- oc O' O c:' c^ 'c; «o LC "^ LO — T— rofr-H"^rroff-r^"^'',J"r-<"r-'~ r-' o -, ! -M CX:' O C: O ^^ Ol 'O CC^ OC .-^ 'O c: a.in;\]joduiaj^ i x -r o oi t- -^^ ^r uo co o X cc aiimuoduiax j^r^^P^Sr^^S^^S^? Perugia cr. r: 01 ^ ~ 1-- X c: X r^ c; c:^ 1 T^ c:^ 0^ 01^ r-^ ^:.^^^ '^ V ^ i '^l ^l 'O 01 Ol X -t ^0 lO "O T— Ci CO T?^ iO '^0 CO t- L- CO i-O rf< ^ CT rr^ o" ^^ajinujadiuax Ol CO i^-O lO -*— >■ S _ pnoxiiuaj^: X c: O' 01 0: CO -t" oj 01 i X 1 -o -r cc CO X CO -Tf CO ct :— ^r_^x c: 01 r- c: 1- ^ cc co oi ■— — r-i 01 01 01 . r^'"^'^^'^^'" o Ol Oi 'O 'O ' |_Z a.iini3J-aduiax ; X >r- CO X Ol O^ -^ CO X -f Ol r+^ -r »o CO tr t^ CO CO »o -r -r -T -f V 01 ^ Iinox.uu^aK jt^ 01 C: >0 01 C: X 01 r-^ Ol 1 O ^-1 Ol t- Ol CC x.o: -T^ O I- c- i -*;, *^^ c^^ o^ :c^ oj___ o--^ 1 - ^rt<^ CO o i_ tM 0^ >o 'O X 7^ ajiiiLMaduiax 1- ^ Ol O: >0 Ol CO X X 71 , r -r >o -or :o t- r- ^ LO -f Tf -tf ~r Florence CO ^ puox uuaK ;^ ^ ^ ^ X ^ c: o o -^ — X ~ th of oTof f Pr— '~— r^'r-^""^" ^o i^ aju;«.iadiuax O t - lO Ol X '^ O: O O' -* — ^~ lO 'O CO J- 1- i^ CO CO io -t- -^ ^ 01 X X* 'O © © V CO ^ lujox uuaiv -- CO -r cr CO TT o Ol o CO c^ -r '3 ^i aaujLModiuax — '~ ';: 1 ^ — ~f " ^1 71 CO cc X 'O lO -O CO I- i^ t^ — .o Tj. ^ i^ Ol lO 5, ^ Fiox "«.m |p:|||2 III i 1 1 g CO ^ a.iu;ujadLuax i"? ^^ ^ f-^ i i^^ T: ^' .o 5 ^^ ^ Ol .* ■ ^ * 2^ S , >j ^ < ■t < X c ;^ ^ 1-5 -^ THE OLIVE 43 Wherever eighteen thousand five hundred degrees can be ae- €umuhited before frost the olive will ripen, so that if this num- ber of degrees is shown by October in any certain locality, then the olive will ripen there in that month; but in others, where frost in- tervenes, the olives must be left hani>:ino; on the trees for a lonoer period. This, however, should not extend beyond the end of Feb- ruary, as a later date than this is prejudicial to the welfare of the trees. The lesson derived from these tables seems to be that where the sum total of de2:rees for the vear does not reach twentv-one thousand degrees Fahrenheit^ the olive fails to ripen; this we see in the following table, is the case in Sienna, Benevento, Perugia, Bologna, Milan and Turin, ajul also that this is tlie fact where the temperature falls below fifty in November. Whether this will ])rove to be as true in California as in Italy experience alone can determine. The following table on page 44 is presented in centigrade degrees, as in Fahrenheit it would fail to indicate the object intended, which is the exact period when the oliye ripens. The reason of this is, that in Fahrenheit thirtv-tAVO de«:rees of cold are alwavs included which are unnecessary and confusing in deciding the jieriod when tlie olive ripens, as only degrees of heat are needed. This period is reckoned beginning from the first of June up to such a date as shall give three thousand nine hundred and eighty-two degrees of heat, which is the amount necessary to ripen the olive. As soon as this number of deorees is reached, even thou2:h it be the fii'st of October, there the olive will ripen at that time. To change a daily or average temperature Fahrenheit to Centigrade subtract o2° and divide by 1.8, the result will be Centigrade degrees; thus 52° Fahrenheit — ■^-'J;f°=ii.ii° Centigrade. To change Centigrade to Fahrenheit multi^^ly degrees of Centi- grade by 1.8 add 32'' and the result will be degrees Fahrenheit. Thus 20^ Centigrade 20xl.8t32=C)8^ Fahrenheit. 44 THE OLIVE H > M k1 o K w H ;^ H Pm HH ^ o H o hH < P^ m H U2 P^ o S w > ^ hH H c/^ <1 H H Ph S P C H H Ph H C/J 1— 1 P^ w 0' H ;^ M S « O P <1 a Ph W > < pH k1 1— 1 < G :^ O i^ «^ P ^ K G U uunx C) 5^ 1- OO ct. M T— ' ~ ■^ CO 1-- C) o^ o ^^ /I' \ iiuiiK o 5 T?uSOlOa O T -r ac uiSiuiej o OIUOAOUOa uuois o'x" x" eaiioao[j o'rf ^- i X I o ouaoAiT[ isai :::-. _^ -— -=^ t) *-^ ~4 T *^ () X ■^ 1 — ' g X ! 9I110H omoa "i?S o — as soi : O"^ o o C3 1- S'S c :^ o ri O X >- cj G -— C c-i -5 c^ :?; P ^ ^ oj oanf JO ^sx raojj ojnjBjadinax THE OLIYE 45 The following incomplete list of cities and towns in California and vicinity shows by their temperatnre that with few exceptions the olive w^ill flourish throughout the length and breadth of the TABLE OF MAXIMUM, MINIMUM AND MEAN ANNUAL TEMPER- ATURE, WITH LATITUDE AND ALTITUDE OF POINTS OF INTEREST IN CALIFORNIA. Location, Lat. Alt. Anaheim Auburn Caliente Calistoga Cliico Colton Colfax Dixon Fresno Gait Geysers Gilroy Indio Keene Livermore Los Angeles. . . . Martinez Marysville Merced Mojave Monterey Napa Oakland. Paso Robles . . . . Kedding Red Bluff Reno . Salinas Sacramento .... San Diego Santa Barbara . . San Mateo San Luis Obispo. San Francisco . . , San Jose Santa Cruz . Santa Rosa Stockton Sumner Summit Tehachapi Truckee Tulare Woodland Yosemite Valley Yuma 33.51 38.57 35.17 38.38 39.44 34.02 39.08 36.00 3t).4o 38.18 38.49 36.59 33.46 35.12 37.42 34.03 38.02 39.10 37.20 35.02 36.37 38.21 37.49 35.38 40.37 39.08 39.31 36.41 38.36 32.45 34.26 37.34 35.18 37.48 37.21 36.58 37.00 37.58 35.24 39.20 35.06 39.20 36.13 38.41 37.4-7 32.44 loo 1,360 1,290 363 193 965 2,422 ^' 25 292 50 193 20 2,705 485 293 10 66 171 2,751 5 20 Aver. Max. 557 308 4,497 44 30 30 22 91 18 20 23 415 7,017 3,964 5,819 282 63 140 92. 83. 83. 86. 88.42 89.42 85.42 81. 90.12 88, Aver. Mix. 87. lOu. 81. 88. 89,67 76. 88.17 89. 87, 78.50 87.58 69.33 86.33 90,50 72, 75. 80,58 82,83 81. 78, 76.25: 83.08i 82.67| 85, i 79.50 89. 58,17 78, 68.83 87, 86. 50, 39. 45, 36. 46.08 41.66 41.50 44.92 45. 43. 93. 38. 50. 32. 39. 51. 42. 42.75 41. 47, 42.83 37.50 42.58 Mean, 67. 58, 64. 59. 65. 62.08 56.91 60. 64.34 62. 43.16 45.67 32, 42. 44.92 47.50 46.18 44. 42.33 39.83 42.42 30. 41.50 43. 21, 32, 21.25 43. 49. 58. 58, 73, 54, 58, 64.75 56, 63.58 63, 63, 57.40 59.19 54.75 o6. 61.58 64. 49, d6. 60.33 61. 60, 54, 56.96 55.25 56.75 58.08 57. 58. 64, 40,66 52, 43. 64, 61, 74, 46 THE OLIVE EXPOSURE. The situation suitable for the olive in one locality, will not always answer in another. A southerly ex^^^osure, where there is a good, free circulation of air, is generally the most desirable, especially as one goes nortlnvard. In any latitude, a southern exjiosure, is best calculated to receive the sunshine from early sunrise to sunset. It receives all there is to give. A northerly exposure receives the sun's ravs obliquelv, and then onlv after it has risen hio'li in the heavens; and so, as the sum total of heat is less, the fruit ripens late, and in some cases not at all. An easterly exposure has the full force of the sun all the mornino; but after noon, there is either no sunshine, or feeble, slanting rays, so that at the very time when the sunlight is strongest, an easterly position is deprived of its warmth altogether. (3f course a westerly exposure is just there- verse of this, and after a morning passed in the shade, the tree is suddenly overwhelmed with sunlight at a time of day when the temperature is the highest. . In summer, the variations of tempera- ture in half an hour's time, mav be from sixtv to ninetv-eio-ht de- grees. This sudden change is as harjnful to ])lants as to animals. The more perpendicular the sun's rays are, naturally, the more heat they give; so also the farther north one goes, the more oblique they become and lessen in warmth. Therefore the hio;her the latitude, the greater the necessity of a hillside to receive the sun perpendic- ularly. A well-protected situation, Avitli a southern exposure, may be considered equal to a point one degree farther south. The in- fluence of a protection, be it a mountain ranw, a fence, or a heda'e, is felt for a distance equal to eleven times its height, but at the point where the protecting influence is lost, the wind has greater power than if the shelter did not exist. Strong and impetuous winds injure the olive, especially sea winds, on account of their vapor and saline jiroperties. if CFIAPTER IV. Cet arbre vient sur tons les terrain^." GASrARIX. " And first for lieatli and barren hilly ground, Where meagre clay and tiinty stones abound ; Where tlie poor soil all succor seems to "svant, Yet this suffices the Palladian plant. Undoubted signs of such a. soil are found, For here wild olive shoots o'erspread the ground And heaps of berries strew the fields around." VIRGIL GEORGICS II. 249. The olive will live in almost any soil except a dry and compact, or a humid one. An analysis of the ashes of the wood, leaves, and fruit of this tree give the followino- result : WOOD. LEAVES. FKUIT. Potash ' 20.60 24.81 | 53.03 Lime ! 63.02 56.18 i 15.72 Magnesia : ! 2.31 Sulphuric Acid ; | 3.09 Silicate i 3.82 Phosphoric Acid l 4.77 Phosphate of Iron | 1.39 Chloride of Potassum i 1.00 0.18 4.38 3.01 1.19 o ■- - o./o 5.58 3.24 7.30 1.07 2.24 2.76 9.56 100.00 ;1 00.00 1100.00 The berry, and especially the meaty part, contains a very large proportion of potash, wliile the wood and the leaves abound in lime. This is an important fact. The deduction from it is that a soil, rich in these ingredients, possesses all the conditions necessary for 48 THE OLIVE the complete development of the plant, and the abundant produc- tion of the best quality of fruit. Hence, it is safe to assume, that the olive prefers a soft, friable, moderately cool soil, and one rich in lime and potash; a permeable soil, such as a limey clay of medium consistency, not inclined to either dryness or humidity. The roots would then encounter no obstacle in extending themselves, and the air and moisture could circulate sufficently. Lime, abounding phos- phates, magnesia, with an abundance of silicates of alum and mer- cury, and a sufficiency of potash and soda, are the chemical and physical requisites which this tree will find most advantageous to its development, and cause it to produce abundantly, and, provided other circumstances are equal, give the very best oiL It is seen that the olive will flourish wherever its roots will penetrate easily, and there is no deficiencv of lime and alkali, such as a loose soil of rocky clay, or sand of volcanic or granite formation. But, while the olive will subsist on many different soils, and prosper in several, it is not to be concluded that it may be condemned to bare, sterile, im- poverished ground, where not even a forest tree would be nourished. The latitude must largely guide one in selecting the kind of soil for an olive orchard. In Andalucia and Valencia, in southern Spain, the mean sum- mer temperature is as high as eighty-two degrees. There, they hold red soils in very low estimation, and prefer the light colored or white; considering that the red attracts too much heat, and requires too much fertilization and irrigation, without which the tree gives no fruit in that latitude. There, a very porous soil, giving free pas- sage to moisture, and evaporating freely, requires repeated fertilizing and watering. Going north in central Spain, the light red soil with a porous tendency to carry off the frequent rains, is preferred, and the white is altogether condemned. Still further north, the dark red and very porous soils are exclusively used. The cal- careous soils, through their action on the natural and artificial fer- tilizers, quickly put into, circulation the elements of nutrition of the THE MORAJOLO OR MORINELLO. Plate ^ PLATE v.— THE MORAJOLO OR MORINELLO. Fig. 29. Branch of the Morajolo or Morinello showing its ap- pearance, (reduced.) Fig. 30. Twig witli olives, (natural size.) Fig. 31. Longitudinal section of berry showing mesocarp, (nat ural size.) Fig» 32. Form of nut, (natural size.) THE OLIYE 49 olive, and so promote its groAvtli; but for this very reason require that the trees should be frequently manured in order to obtain an annual product. It is the want of nourishment in the ground, that causes the olive to fruit only every otliei year, or every third year. An irrigated soil loses its fertility quicker than one that is not watered ; so, where irrigation is practiced, it is necessary to fre- quently manure. In general, it may be said that the olive requires the same kind of soil as the vine, and in proof of that we often see them grown together. Excessive moisture is prejudicial, and also in a dry, hard soil the tree contracts, S2:)lits, and leaves the roots gorged with sap. The most favorable soil is an open, loose and fairly fertile one, and should be of at least a yard in depth to give the roots opportunity to extend themselves. The olive is fond of a chalky soil, that is, one largely made up of lime carbonates. The carbonate of lime is indispensable to vegeta- ble life; and it is noticed, that the oil from olives grown on a calcare- ous soil, is better than .that from a soil lacking in this element. Chalky soils are cold, because they do not easily absorb the heat of the sun. For the same reason red soils are warm, absorbing and retaining a great degree of heat. The best soil for the olive is that in which lime predominates; and where silica exists, and there is no lack of clay. Such a soil would give passage to moisture, and offers no obstacle to the extension of the roots, and at the same time has consistency enough to sustain the tree and preserve the elements of nutrition. The oxide of iron exists in all soils, but Avhere it abounds, the red color declares it. It is favorable to the growth of the olive, particularly in cold regions. Suppose two adjacent pieces of ground in such a locality; on the red soil the olives will ripen, whereas on a light colored one they will not. Liebig says, that when at the time of flowering of any vegetable, the soil abounds in phosphates, the fruit sets well, and is started on its road with every advantage; and on the contrary, if these are lack- 50 THE OLIVE ing, the flowers foil off and the tree gives its strength to wood. The hygroscopicity of a soil, or the property of retaining moist- ure, is of 2:reat vahie in a hot and drv countrv. It is well known that the more a soil is manured and cultivated, the more moisture it retains. The following table ^vill show the percentage of water contained in different soils. Water contained in 100 parts of earth Silicious sand 25 Gy^^sum 27 Calcareous sand 29 Drv chalk 40 Chalk, soniewhut more fertile 50 Clav soil 60 Clay, pure 70 Calcareous soil 85 Manure 1.90 Garden soil 89 Arable land ; 52 The capacity to absorb humidity from the atmosphere varies with different soils. The following are the results of experiments. Absorbs in 24 hours. Silicious sand of water a Calcareous sand 1.5 '' Gypsum : 0.5 '' Drv chalk 13.0 ' Clialkv earth 15.0 Clavev earth 18.0 " Clav 21.0 Fine calcareuos earth 15.5 "' " Magnesia 38.0 " " Manure 48.5 " " Garden earth 22.5 " " Ordinarv earth 11.0 " " ,i a a a a THE OLIVE 51 Absorbtioii is o^reater by iiioht than bv dav. and recently cultiva- ted ground is the most receptive, as it exposes the greater number of particles to the action of the air. As the earth grows dry. its caj^acity to absorb moisture diminish- es. So we observe that ground frequently and thoroughly cultiva- ted retains moisture the lonsfest. THE DRYIXG QUALITY OF SOILS. Of 100 parts of water. Silicious sand in four hours evaporates 88.4 Calcareous '' " " " " 75.9 Gypsum " " " " 71.7 Drv chalk " " " " 52.0 Earthv " " " " " 45.7 Clavev soil " " " " 34.6 Clay " " " '' 31.9 Carbonate of lime in four hours evaporates 28.9 Manure " " '' " 20.5 Magnesia '' " ' " " 10.8 Garden earth " " '' " 24.3 Arable hand " " "■■ '' 32.0 These figures indicate what we see in practice, that the more sandv the soil, the sooner it dries. Some soils when thev drv, actu- ally diminish in volume, and through splits and cracks expose the roots of the tree. Sandy, limey and gypsum soils do not have this drawback ; the others vary in the following degrees. Of 1000 parts. Carbonate of lime soils loses 50 Drv chalk " " 60 Earthy " " " 89 Clayey soil " " 114 Clay " " 183 Magnesia u u ^-^ Manure " " 200 Garden earth " " 149 Arable land " " ' " 95 ■52 THE OLIVE Different soils retaiii lieat in proportion to their weight ; a pebbly soil retains heat longer than one of fine sand. Chalky and clay soils quickly lose heat ; and, on this account, the former is called an early soil, and the latter a late one. The color of the soil has much to do with the absorbtion of heat. In any given earth there is a difference of fourteen degrees, Fahrenheit, between the extremes of color. The ancients thought that the olive would not grow unless it had the sea air, and laid down the rule, that it should not be planted more than ninety miles inland. The Arabic and Latin authors fol- low the same recommendation ; but it has been w^ell established, that the olive can be grown at any distance inland, provided the soil and climate are agreeable to it. Pliny remarks, the olive of the low land is more liable to disease, than that grown on high ground. iJertiPization CHAPTER V, " Quite opposite to these are olives found, No dressing tiiey require and dread no Avound ; No rakes nor liarrows need, but tixed belo\v, Kejoice in open air, and unconcern'dly grow. The soil itself due nourishment supplies ; Plough but the furrows and the fruits arise, Content with small endeavors, till they spring, Soft peace they figure and sweet plenty bring. Men olives plant, and hymns to Pallas sing.'' Virgil, Georgics IT, r)S6. So j?aYS Virgil, seeiniiio'lv iiidieatino; that the soil of Italy at that time was richer and stronger than at present., for later experience has overwhelmingly demonstrated that fertilization is indisj^ensable to the olive. The analysis of the wood, leaves, and fruit of the olive, given in the preceding chapter, is equally applicable when considering the pro])er methods of fertilization. Lime for wood and leaves, and potasli for the berry, seems to be the lesson it teaches. It is no more possible in olive cultivation, than in the growing of anv other ve2;etal)le, to vear after vear draw certain ino'redients from the soil, withont ever returning them again, and expect the trees to keep on giving fruit without receiving the nutriment they crave. Fertilization is indispensable to maintain the olive in a prosper- ous and fruitful condition. In rich soils it mav for a certain time be omitted, but a continued neglect will diminish the productiveness; and fructification will become infrequent and nnremunei'ative, in places where the tree is seldom or never fertilized. The lack of 54 THE OLIVE manure, is one of the causes of the plant becoming weak and sickly, and bearino' heavily onlv at Ions; intervals. To fertilize an olive tree well, it is sufficient to restore to the ground the refuse from the oil making and the ashes of the branches from pruning. The most valuable fertilizer, is the water pressed from the olive. It is heavily charired with veo^etable matter, black in color, and should be col- lected in a vat at the time of oil making. To this should be added the pomace, after all the oil is extracted. To increase the quan- tity, and at the same time add to the richness of this manure, grind into the mass marine plants for their potash, or in the absence of these, ferns, rushes, cornstalks, wheat and bark^y, straw, dregs of i^ressed grapes, vine twigs, or bruom corn. Good, but in a lesser de- ^^-ree, because poorer in mineral properties, are husks of decayed olives, scrapings from threshing floors and refuse of whatever na- ture. These ingredients are very advantageously mixed during fer- mentation. As each, or any of these materials are thrown in, add a laver of earth. Keep this receptacle covered till the rains are well over, and then let the'suinmer sun have access to it and the fermen- tation be thorough. The Avater will now have precipitated all val- uable matter, and if it exists in too great quantities, let some run off: but enouoh should alwavs l)e left in the vat, to allow the mass to take up moisture in place of that which is given off in fermentation. Care should be taken to locate this ])utrif\ang mass at a distance to leeward of the dwellings, or sickness might easily result from it. Bv September it can be cut out with a si)ade, like peat, and will make the verv best of fertilizers for the olive orchard. But this is a j^ow- erful aoent and should never be ai)i)lied to the trees until thor- ouo'hlv fermented in the manner described. If used as manure with- out fermentation, or mixing with other ingredients, the result would be the roots would be burned and the trees killed. The writer has seen the branches on young trees wither and die from coming in contact Avith pieces of sacking saturated with olive water and oil. THE OLIVE OO and which had been used to in^oteet the tree from riibbiuo: a^rainst the stake to which it was tied. The proper season to dress tlie olive, varies according to tlie cli- mate, the soil, and yiekl of the plant. In a mild climate, however, the dressing may be ap})Iied in antnmn and winter, whilst in more northern regions, it would be best oiveu after all danwr of freezino- was past. The ohve may be dressed in two ways — If the compost be plentiful, and the trees near together, it shoukl be applied by scattering it about the orchard, and afterwards turnino; it under with a spade, a hoe, or plough; or, it should be done bv dio-oino- holes about the tree, in a radius of from two and a half, to four and a half or six feet, according to the age and size of the tree. These holes should be from twelve, to sixteen inches deep, and should be dug some weeks before the dressing is applied, in order that the soil about the roots mav be fullv aired. In localities where compost is scarce, it is well to alternate fertiliz- ation by })lowing under hipins, beans or other vegetable ]natter of easy growth. If the dressino- of the soil is done bienniallv, one half of the ground could be plowed under as stated. If triennial- ly, the plowing under could follow, and a third of the ])lantation be l)lainly worked. If quadrennially, the surface should 1)e divided in four sections, of which the first should be inanured, the second worked, the third plowed undc]-, and the fourth worked. The nature of the fertilization that is necessarv, cannot be exactlv determined by the ashes of the wood alone, as the pi-oportions of these may vary from a multiplicity of circumstances. The surest test for the fertilization, is the knoAvledge of the loss to which the tree has been subjected in fruit, leaves, and wood ; and the object should be to restore to the soil that which has been taken from it in producing these. No manure should be ai)i)lied till it is thoroudilv fermented. To throw unfei'mented, or indeed any manure, close u]) against the trunk of the tree, is to do harm instead of good. With the rain fermentation starts again, and the heat generated is preju- 56 THE OLIVE dicial to the tree as well %s being a centre for the propagation of harmful insects. The suckers about the root are nourished to the detriment of the tree. The roots of the olive lie remarkably near the surface and these are the parts of the tree needing fertilization which should never be attempted nearer than a yard from the trunk. In cold regions, that is on the northern limit, sheep and goat dung is found to be an excellent manure; in temperate parts, stable ordure is good, and in hot regions cow dung is the best. It has been calculated that two hundred and twenty pounds of manure are equivalent to one gallon of oil. The foliage which falls natu- rally and decays under the trees every year, is eleven pounds per tree. The weight of these leaves is to the weight of the fruit as 71 is to 100. The leaves taken off with the branches in pruning, supposing that operation is performed frugally and regularly, amount annually to a little more than a pound per tree. This foliage which is not re- stored to the soil, represents a weight of 5.50 per 100 and this is the 18th part of that whiclr clothed the whole plant. The wood lost to the olive by meteorological accidents, and by pruning, may be esti- mated at seven pounds to the tree. The wood and leaves obtained by pruning are to each other as the number 78 and 22 are to 100. That is to say, in one hundred pounds of prunings there would be 22 pounds of leaves to 78 pounds of wood. With these data for a l)asis, the actual annual loss, of the olive mav be estimated as follows : The olive consumes in fruit j^er tree, 15 ft)s. " leaves " " li 7 Manure is the dressing; most commonlv used for the cultivation of the olive, and is best administered when mixed with other fertil- izers. Each year the amount of compost necessary to restore to the soil the principles essential to fertility, would be thirty-six pounds ])er tree, and that, a tree of medium size and one moderately pruned. " -leaves " " li " " " " wood " THE MIGNOLO OR GREMIGNOLO. P LATERE %4 Fig .36 PLATE VL— THK MIGNOLO OR (IREMKiNOLO. Ei^'. 3o. RraiU'li of the Mioviioloor (ireini^iiolo, showiiio- its ap- pearance, (reduced.) Fig. o4. Twi;;- with olives, (natural size.) Fig. oo. Longitudinal section of herry, showing inesocarp, (nat- ural size.) Fiii". 30. Eorin of nut, (natural size.) THE OLIVE 57 To restore the same fertilizing principles with the foliage of the tree, alone, it would be necessary to yearly use at least fifty-two pounds. Without manure the olive gives but a small crop of berries. Anything that can be used to enrich the soil is valuable; decayed vegetable matter, night soil, old rags, shoes, bones, hoofs, guano, fowl dung, are excellent manures. Green manure, in the drv sum- mers of California, can be employed to great advantage. During the early autumn rains, plants of rapid winter growth, such as beans, lupins, vetches, are sown in the orchard and turned under in the spring, thus giying a cheap manure without anv cost for carriage. Whatever may be the nature of the manure, it is im- portant not to place it at the foot of the trees, but to bury it at a slight depth from one to two vards distant from the trunk, diooinc a shallow trench for the pur2)ose. It is a matter of absolute neces- sity to manure the oliye, under penalty of losing all produce if abandoned to itself, and remembering also, that the produce will al- ways be in proportion to the manure applied. In fact some writ- ers say, that if the olive is not largely manured it had much better be pulled up altogether. M. Riondet says: The ex])ense of cultivating the olive varies greatly. If they are never manured, or pruned, the cost will not amount to more than eight dollars per annum, per acre, or sixteen dol- lars for two years, for this is the period that always enters into these calculations, since the tree ordinarily only giyes a crop every second year. If it is desired to have regular and abundant crops, we should not fear to spend eighty dollars per acre every two years. In the winter, after an abundant crop, it is necessary to manure the orchard heavily, at an expense of twenty-four dollars per aci-e, pruning, will cost sixteen dollars per acre, ploughing, sixteen more to which add for the expense of gathering and taking the crop to mill, another twenty-four dollars, and so we reach the sum of eighty dollars per acre for a period of two years. There will be a product of one thousand one hundred and thirty-two gallons of olives, per 58 THE OLIVE acre, every two years, which should be the equivalent of one hun- dred and fifty-four gallons of oil, per acre, for each period of two years. This will not come far from an annual average of one gal- lon per tree, and if the olive grower could assure himself of such a vield, he misiht well be satisfied. Muftipfi cation of ffie ®?he CHAPTER VI. ■^' Quin et condicibus sectis mirabile dictu Triiditur e sicco radix oleagina ligno." Virgil, Geokgics it, 30. "^ The olive is propagated in many different ways, by seed, by ent- tings, bv truncheons, bv o'rafts, bv suckers, bv knots, bv laverins;, and by ])ieces of the root. SEED. The best method, in spite of all that may be urged against it, be- cause the natural one, is the planting of the seed. All others are mere continuations of a life alreadv existino; but with each seed is produced, in the manner intended by nature, a new tree. The non- success that has attended many efforts to raise the olive from seed in California, undoubtedlv arose from faultv handlino;. ^ome o'o so far as to claim that the Mission olive contains no ii-erm. This is absurd. The Mission olive contains well developed seeds in the same proportion that all others do, viz., the poorest olive for oil or pickling is the best for seed. The olive nearest approaching the wild type, the olive that contains the largest seed in proportion to the berry, is the best for planting. One tenth of the stones of the wild olive have a double germ and this is the best of all olives for seed, second the Mignolo, third the Kazzo, Leccino, Puntarolo and Trillo, fourth the Grossajo and fifth the Morajolo. *Some cloven stakes, and (wond'rous to behold) their sharpened ends in earth their footing place and the dry poles produce a living race. 60 THE OLIVE A tree grown from seed, has a long tap root, and a very straight smooth stem, which sliows the vigor of the plant; while a tree raised in anv other wav has not these advantages. Its pivot root gives it a force that other trees do not possess. It is more productive, will resist diseases better, and is a hardier tree than one raised from a cutting;. When the o;round is loosened bv rain, and the tree is loaded with fruit, a heavy wind sometimes overturns the olive, this could not happen to a tree from seed, its tap root takes too firm a hold. This accident occurred on the Quito Farm in the winter of 1886, and the trees which were so unfortunate had to be replanted and cut back to the crotcli being lost to the place as fruit bearers for the next four vears. Again the time lost in raising from seed is more apparent than real, for, after the early years of its life, the advantages are wholly in favor of the tree raised from seed. The weight of opinion, derived from an experience of penturies, favors this method. In 1882, the Congress of the Italian Agriculturists, meeting at Bari, arrived at the following conclusion : — That persons be recom- mended to raise their olive trees from seed, in preference to any other method. If proof were needed that the olive will grow from seed in Cali- fornia, we have it in the fact that various parties have successfully raised the ]\Iission olive in this wav. Whatever seed mav be sown, the resulting plant will be the wild type, and should be grafted, in the nursery, when from two to three years old. By actual count on the Quito Farm, one hundred Mission olive pits gave fifty well developed germs. To hasten germination the seeds should be stripped and soaked in lye for two or three days, then dried and placed in a dry spot, or disposed in layers in a box Avith dry sand, being well covered with earth to keep out w^ater. When the time comes for sowing, sow the seeds without detaching the sand that clings to them. THE OLTYE 61 Some writers suggest that tliev should be fed to domestic fowls as the best way to strip them; aud passiug them through a goat is said to be the best mode of all. Olive seeds uustripped never germi- nate in less than eight, nine and twelve months, and when the ber- ries are under ripe even in two years, and sometimes not at all. Care should be takeii in selecting berries for seed, to choose onlv such as are thoroughly ri])e. To save loss of time, and assure oneself of there beino- a seed in the olive, break it with a hammer, strike a single light blow so as not to injure the seed, or a still better but slower wav is to use a vice. So treated the buds will come out in thirtv to forty da vs. For bed, dig a foot deep, manure it richly, plant the cracked seeds at a depth of two inches and about four or five inches apart. Where there is no danger of winter frosts, the planting may be done in October and November, but where this drawback is feared, Febru- ary and March would be the better months. Careful cultivation is necessarv. When the trees are six to eight inches hidi, that is, when about a year old, they should be transferred into a nurserv. In transplanting, the roots injured in the process should be trimmed down, and the lower one-third of the tap root cut off' at the point where it begins to grow noticeably small. Also the lateral branches should be cut off, leaving only a leaf on the main stem where the branch intersected. This increases the growth of the young plant and makes a straighter and finer trunk. If the laterals are left on, they receive the nourishment first from the roots to the detriment of the plant. If cut off* later, as inust be done, the wounds to the tree are larger, aud so the tree is harmed. The leaves must be left on, as tliey fill the necessary office of absorbing the carbonic acid, so necessary to the life of the plant. With the young tree raised from a cutting, on the other hand, it is unnecessary to take off' the lateral branches, the aim being to stimulate root making, the cutting hav- ing none. In transplanting to permanent position from the nurserv, there 62 THE OLIYE are two methods of treatment each having its advocates. One is to cut off all branches in order that the strensfth of the tree mav ^o entirelv to root makino, and the other to leave the five six or seven branches forming the head. In the first instance the new branches are apt to put out half way up the stem, when the plant has to be cut down to them, and the result is that the head is formed too low. On the other hand in transplanting with the head formed, these branches are apt to suffer at first from lack of nourishment, and so check the growth. The good of the tree would be consulted by taking off all branches, but if the head can be left on, fruiting will be anticijDated by about tw^o vears. In truth the o'ood features of each method mav be adopted by leaving the head on, but clipping the branches very short. The tree may also be compelled to branch at the desired height by bending down tlie little branches forming the head, and tying them to the trunk during the two years preceeding its re- moval from the nursery. This will cause the sap to accumulate there, and when the tree is deprived of all its branches at the time of transplanting to a permanent position, the new branches will come out there in preference to any -other part of the tree. But the tree is the more vigorous as the trunk is kept short. In set- ting out in permanent position in orchard if on level land plant, from two to four inches deeper than in nursery, and if on a hillside from four to eight inches. A layer of chaff or cut straw placed about the tree just before filling up tlie hole, will serve to retain the moisture in the soil. In removino; trees from the nurserv to final locality, mark the south side so that they may be replanted in the same position. If this is not done the tree often remains stationary for a long time. Some writers have advocated reversing the former position with the idea of equalizing the growth, but this appears to simply stop the onward march of the tree where it might be gaining all the time; or were any equalization of growth necessary it could be accomplished in the pruning. The young THE OLIYE 63 trees should be topped with an inclination of south to north and the cut always covered with grafting wax. A grove of oUve trees slioukl be planted so that at the spring equinox no tree will cast a shadow on its nearest nei^'hbor from south to north. CUTTIXGS. This mode of propagating the oKve is popular in Sj^ain and in certain parts of Italv and Sicilv. It was also known to the ancients. But in many localities it has been abandoned as being too uncertain. For cuttino's take clean and well sized branches of from one to four inches in diameter, and cut in one foot lengths. These should be prepared in winter, l)efore vegetation commences and the buds move, but if they are not immediately planted, they should be kept covered in a moist, cool place. The essential conditions for rooting are, moderate moisture in the soil, a subterranean temperature of about forty-one degrees F., with an atmospheric average of from fifty to fifty-two, thus giving time for the roots to form, extend and strengthen in advance of the first dryness of spring and early sum- mer. Cuttings put in in April or May, root quicker but demand more frequent irrigation. Those will - do best, which before being cut off from the mother branch, have been either ringed, or l^urned, or skinned, below a bud, so as to form a knot above the wound. There are many different ways of putting out cuttings. They may be planted in a trench well manured, each two making a triangle, the bottom of the trench beino; the base, and the two cuttino-s meet- ing at a point and being covered Avith from three to four inches of earth ; when the young shoots have attained sufficient size to trans- plant, they may be torn away with a quick jerk, generally bringing with them a strip of bark which will suffice as a root, and leaving the parent cutting in place, where it will immediately produce more shoots which may be treated in the same Avay. Very good results have been attained by planting a cutting hori- zontally, and covering it with four inches of earth ; by some this 64 THE OLIVE method is preferred to any other. It is desirable that the cuttina' shoiikl be entirely covered Ayith earth, as otherwise the sun will check and burn it, so as to make any o'ood result impossible. For California orchards, where as speedy an issue as possible is desired, if two cuttings are planted together in the spot where the future tree is intended to grow, the outcome will probably proye sat- isfactory. The two cuttings should give birth to at least one tree, and this neyer being disturbed by transplanting, will make an ex- traordinary growth. Should more than one tree make its appear- ance, the extra ones may be used to supply those that fail altogether. The smaller the cutting the greater is the necessity for planting it horizontally. TRUXCHEOXS. The question is often asked, how long before the olive will bear fruit ? In answer to this, it may be said, that it depends very much upon the size of the wood planted. A truncheon sometimes bears in the following year from that in which it was put into the ground, and generally in the third year. But it must be well understood that it is at the expense of the tree. Cuttings, insomuch as they are so near the surface of the ground, demand greater care than truncheons, being exposed to danger from animals and frost. But if they surviye these early perils, the yigorous shoots of the cut- .g soon equal the truncheon in size, and at the end of fifteen years pass it in the race. The tree grown from a cutting is lustier, bet- ter shaped, and more productiye than that from a truncheon. The latter solely has the advantage of bearing more fruit in its youth, but it is at the exj^ense of its growth. An oliye truncheon, is a limb of the thickness of a mans arm, and from seven to ten feet in length, of new smooth wood, free from warts or scratches, the most yigorous and healthy scion of the tree it is projiosed to reproduce. From this, it will be eyident how difficult and costly it is, to ob- PLATE VIL— THE LECCINO. Fig. o7. Branch of the Lecciiio, showing its appearance, (re- (hiced.) Fig. 38. Twig with olives, (natnral size.) Fig. 39. Longitn(Unal section of heny, showing the niesocarp, (natnral size.) Fio'. 40. Form of^iuit, (natural size.) THE OLIVE 65 tain any nnmber of trnnclie(3ns that should unite all these qualities; especially as the tree has to be pruned, Avith this object in view, for three or four years beforehand. As may be imagined, a tree that has been robbed of three or four truncheons, is not improved in appear- ance, and it takes much time to cover up the space left bare. The limbs once cut off, should be placed in the holes prepared for them as soon as possible; so mucli so, that both acts should be performed simultaneously, but if tlirouo'h an uuavoidable delay, owino- to dis- tance of transportation, or some similar cause, the truncheon should have dried somewhat, soak it in water for a day or two, and then put it in wet earth to a depth of two, or two and a half feet. But after all said and done, do not fail to plant it as soon as possi- ble. Supposing everything to be ready, first throw a shovel full of well fermented manure into the bottom of the hole already pre- pared; this being the more necessarv the less fertile the soil, over this an inch and a half of some of the best top soil, then place the truncheon uprigiit in the center and cover with good top soil taken from another spot, press down with the feet, and leave a slight depression about the plant, if there is a prospect of rain, or if it is pro- posed to give it water. After watering, or a rain, the ground which has settled should be replaced, and then heaped as high on the plant as possible. The warmer the climate, the more necessarv this will be found. In the south of Spain, and Portugal, where this method is prac- ticed, it is customary to build up on the plant, a cover of mud to a height of five feet leaving only one foot of it exposed, where it buds. The advantage of covering a plant in this way, is plain, as we know it evaporates its moisture, and having no roots to absorb with, the more sun and air it receives, the faster it loses the elements that are to help its growth. So truncheons are often seen with the upper part dead, and dry from the heat of the sun; then, they bud from below. When covered, this rarely happens. Half way 66 THE OLIVE up the mud cover, a little hole is made, through which to give them water during the first year. Where irrigation is practiced, they do not need to be covered; but otherwise even a layer of grass and weeds, to prevent the direct action of the sun and air on the bark of the truncheons, is of great use. The height whicli the truncheon should show above ground, should be forty to eighty inches, the greater, in the warmer climate, and the less, in the colder place. The growth of the truncheon is such, that it gives a crop in the third year ; whereas the cutting does not bear until from the sixth to the eighth, and then not so plentifully as the truncheon. But the olive tree from a truncheon does not root as well, and is never as vigorous, as that groAvn from a cut- ting. To grow truncheons, instead of despoiling and deforming the trees, is the much wiser course. For this purpose make a trench twenty inches deep. Select branches that will average more than two inches in the narrowest part, and cut them into lengths of twenty inches. Place these upright in the trench, one yard apart, and cover with earth. If on watering^ or after a rain, the upper ends are uncovered, carefully cover them again, to protect them from the sun. Towards the end of spring, the truncheons will sprout, and the thicker, cleaner, and newer the}^ are, the more vigorous will be the shoot. As soon as the young" sprouts are seen, the ground should be spaded over, the earth carefully scraped away from the plants, and fresh earth added. In the beoinnins; of Julv, the o^round should be Avorked over, and again in the early part of August. In parts of the country where irrio-ation is necessarv, thev mav be irrio-ated, but generally frequent cultivation, and freedom from weeds, is sufficient to insure a favorable growth. In the sj^ring of the second year, open the trench, uncovering the mother cutting. Sever at the neck of the plant all superfluous shoots. The aim should be, to leave one, two, or three, vigorous ones so distributed around the parent cutting, THE OLIVE 67 as not to interfere with each other. In the spring of the third year, again open the trench, and cut off any sprouts that may have started on the mother cutting. Also, if the lower branches of the two or three shoots of the year before, interfere with cultivation, or are o-row- ing out of proportion to the tree, prune them as may be necessary. In the month of March of the fourth year, the plants will be suf- ficiently advanced to serve as truncheons. Again the trench is un- covered, until the union of the truncheon with the wood orioinallv planted, is visible. Seizing this, with a steady pull, tear it from the mother, and with it, will come awa}^ some roots, and part of the orig- inal bark and wood. . These are most necesary to its perfect root- ing. We now have a truncheon, and it must be planted in the man- ner heretofore described. The original wood, from which there has been torn one, two, or three young trees, will put out fresh shoots immediately, and go on producing other trees, and the treatment must be the same as that alreadv described. Fig. 1. Crown Grafting. A. — The stock. C. — g. The graft. e. e'. e". — The scions inserted. B B. — Tlie incision in tlie bark of tlie stock.to admit tlie graft. GRAFTS. The olive can be grafted in several wavs ; two methods are the most appropriate — crown and sliield grafting. In crown grafting the operation is performed wlien the buds are grown a third of an inch long. Cut horizontally the head of the stock, or the branches only of the second or third order, according to the age of the tree. 68 THE OLIVE at about eighteen inches from their spring. Then, cut through the bark to the wood, in a vertical line, about two and three-quarter inches long. Cut the lower part of the graft in a pointed form, with a notch on the upper part. Raise the bark of the stock, and introduce the graft, between the bark and the wood ; surround with a bandage, and cov- er with mastic. This sort of a^raftino^ is nsed for old olive trees. If more tlian one is used, a clear space of three inches should be left between each. Fig. 2. Fig. 3 f f. The bud selected. ' f. g. g. g. f. Side view of hud. H. The hud. A. The Cut. B. The bud inserted. C. The bindiuc: and securino: of the bud. BUDDIXG OR SHIELD GRAFTING. The piece cut from the bark to form the gi*aft is most frequently in the form of a shield. This piece of bark must have upon it, near its center, an eye or bud. These grafts, are especially used for young stocks, or branches from one to four years old, having thin, smooth, and tender bark. Shield grafting, with a dormant bud, is practiced towards the end of the summer, according to the vegetation of the subject. The head of the stock must not be cut off until the following spring, when it will be seen whether the graft bud has been successful. The following are the principal points to be attended to. 1st — Cut from the olive tree a branch havins; some leaves, or eves .at its base, or buds well develoj^ed. Take off the leaves, leaving T^HE OLIVE 69 only, a small piece of the stem of one of tliem, to hold the shield bv, between the fingers. Keep the grafts, or buds, when thus prepared, in a dark, cold, and damp place, until the time that they are requir- ed for placing upon the stock. 2d — Make an incision in the form of the letter T, penetrating to the wood, and separate with the spatula, the two lips of the bark towards the top. 3d — Separate the shield from its branch, in such a manner, as to take off with the bark, the smallest portion of the wood, preserving in every case, the green tissue behind the bud. Unless this be at- tended to, the success of the graft is impossible. 4tli — Slip this shield into the incision, between the bark and the wood; then bring the edges of the bark together by means of a ligature, in such a manner, that the base of the bud presses closely to the wood of the stock. This is an essential point. 5th — Sometime after budding, look at the buds, and slacken the bandao'es if they become too tio'ht. 6th — On the arrival of sj)ring, if the buds have taken effect, cut off the stem or branches of the stock about three inches above the bud. This is done to stimulate thedevelopment of the bud. 7th — Cut the head of the subject grafted the following winter. The first or crown grafting, is employed on the large trees from the Esterel to Genes. In Provence, Avignon, and Gard, shield grafting is preferred. At Grasse, thev oraft the vouna: trees at the aw of five or six years, in spring time, when the sap mounts, and when the bark is easily detached. Thev choose the o;raft from the o-Qurmand shoots of two years old, the wood well grown and bark smooth ; se- lecting those in which the eyes are well marked. Accordino- to the size of the branch, or of the trunk of the tree, they place two scions judiciously. The scions having been placed, the whole is enveloped with clay, and confined with a bandage. The best time is the spring, when the trees are always large and full of branches ;, some branches are left ungrafted as ducts for the sap, the accu- 70 THE OLIVE mulation of which, at the shoots placed in the crown wouki be harm- ful. At Grasse, these branches are called des respiralls, and are cut off or 2:rafted the foUowins: year. In Bouche-du-Rhone, shield grafting is the most common ; it is now as in the time of Columella, greffe a rempaire. Grafting on very yonng trees, is rarely profitable, not from any difficulty in the process, but because, as the roots require a long time to take hold of the soil, an abnormal disturbance of the sap occurs, and the tree sometimes makes a stunted growth. The Abbe Jamet savs : — *^I never o'raft before the sixth vear. At "^ the time of gathering, I accompany the man in charge. I examine ^'the trees, and mark those, of which the shape, the barrenness, or " the variety does not suit me. The vear foUowino- fifteen or twenty '' days after flowering, I place two shields upon each of the branches " forming the head of the tree. Above the graft, I girdle the '^ branch, and* take off the bark. The object of this gird- ''ling is to stop the ascending sap, and to bring it to the shoot aud facilitate its startiuo-. The branch above the uraft mav be left one or two vears. accord- ing to the vigor of the subject. Its leaves aud shade will be bene- ficial to the o'raft. The best time for winter pruning is that which follows frosty weather, and which precedes the first movement of vegetation. By early pruning, the sap is made to act upon the buds unfavorably sit- uated upon the tree, it Ijrings them out, and also devtlopes latent buds upon the old wood. Thus, by early pruning, it is possible to prevent the tree being covered with naked stems. It may be ad- vantageous to wait even to the period when the shoots begin to lengthen upon trees that jiossess too much vigor, and which would not otherwise be easily luit into a fruit bearino; condition. Graftino; in wet weather is to be avoided, as the tree is likelv to run, a fine day in spring is the best. The new shoots are not gen- erally touched until the year following the lopping of the branch THE OLIVE 71 after the graft has taken. Manured and phiced in good earth, the olive requires only three years to form after having been grafted. The grafts should be taken from that part of the tree which is opposite the mid -day sun. They are chosen from the shoot that would bear fruit the followino; year. Those who graft the young tree upon the trunk and not upon the mother branches, take the scions from the shoots which are about to flower. SUCKEES, KXOTS, LAYEES AND EOOTS. The knots, or knobs seen on the trunks of olives that have attain- ed any age, are caused by brushing off the suckers that ])ut out on the trunk. The bark forms over the wound made, and a slio^ht ex- crescence is raised, wliich persistently sends out further shoots, and the same process being repeated a multitude of times, the final re- sult is a knob, or egg, of varying size. These, cut from the tree and planted at a depth of from f )ur to six inches, give birth to an innu- merable quantity of young plants, and is the favorite mode of prop- agating in certain mvts of Italy, having superseded that by cuttings altoo'ether. The sucker is a developed egg or knob, having germinated while on the tree. These knobs shoukl be cut from the tree with a shar]> instrument and the wound carefuUv smoothed over and covered with clav or grafting wax. A mixture of cow-dung and clay make a cheap sub- stitute for tlie latter. But the weight of opinion is against this mode of pro] agation. The wounds caused the tree are grievous and hard to be borne. They give an opening to the ''Lupa" or rot which is ready to attack the olive on the slio-litest provocation. Onlv a doom- ed tree should be dismembered in this way. The suckers about tlie root of an olive mav be laid down and cov- ered with earth and will give further plants. The underground portion -of the olive tree is composed of two 72 THE OLIVE parts, quite distinct, tlie roots ])roperly so called and which do not shoot of themselves, and the foundations formed of a lio'ueous mass of tubercles, from which spring the roots in one direction, and the stem in another. Pieces split from this woodv mass of the size ot the palm of the hand, and an inch and a half thick, planted four inches deej) with the back uppermost, will give a great number of young plants. But so will the parent root if left in place. Wlien from any cause whatever, a tree has been marked for destruction, if it is cut off below ground and covered with earth, it will send up quantities of new shoots which may be pulled off as young rooted trees, and their places will be many times suj^plied with others. PLATE VIII.— THEPUNTAKOLO. Fig. 41. Braneli of tlie Puiitarolo, showing its a])])earance, (re- duced.) Fig. 42. Twig witli olives, (natural size.) Fig. 43. Longitudinal section of berry, showing the mesocarj), (natural size.) Fig. 44. Form of the init, (natural size.) ®on/l)oeiation CHAPTER VII. " Marry the olive and the vine."' The soil which suits the vine is also good for the olive. This Is what is seen throughout the greater part of Italy; there they sav the olive does not j^rosper in celibacy. The deep soils can well support both. Consociation offers the o-reat advantaa^e of o-ettino^ some return from the soil during; the lenolhened vouth of this tree which when it has grown to a sufficient size, the vine plot com- mences to age, and, disappearing by degrees, leaves the olive sole occupant of the soil. When the olives grow to a large size, and are planted near to each other, or in places where the ground is poor, other crops are not usually grown. With these two exceptions, the ground under the trees is generally utilized. At Grasse and Xice, they associate together the olive and the fig, and other fruit trees; as also the vine. In Such cases the trees are planted in rows, about twenty feet apart, and the intervening space is sown one year in beans, or maize, and the next year in corn. The Inspector General of the Government Plantations of France savs: This svstem can- not be sufficiently applauded, both because, in many years of failure, all the interest of the capital in the ground would not be lost, and because the olive trees would benefit from the earth given to the other plants; and even, because the more distant the trees are planted in the rows, the more are they loaded with fruit, and pav better. Signor Cappi also says: This culture may very well exist, and has been used in various provinces of Italy, especially in vast plains, with excellent results. On plains they should be planted twentv- five feet apart, and not less than fifty feet between the rows if vines are cultivated. Experience, some say, has shown that the olive cul- tivated alone, in rich soil grows vigorously; makes each year a num- ber of new shoots, but gives little fruit, as the sap being too active to 6 74 THE OLIVE fix the blossom, is carried to the extremities, and the flower fells. To obtain good trees qnickly, one should never sow underneath them at first, but however afterwards, to 2:et o;ood fruit it is advan- tageous to do so; but only then tlie year of the crop. Thus one should prune, manure, and cultivate to force shoots or young wood to bear fruit. The season following, sow under the trees to moderate the flow of the sap, stay the growth of wood, and cause the blossom to set. In an indifferent soil this would be hurtful, as there is never an excess of vegetation. However, in similar conditions, in place of sowing an exhausting cereal, they sow vegetables, beans, lupins or peas. Green crops, as manure, are often dug in, and thus the olive dur- ing summer, finds sufficient subsistence to help it to bring a crop to maturitv. In growing other crops with the olive, it derives benefit from the frequent labor that the ground receives in their cultivation, as it loves to vegetate in a soil often stirred and largely manured. Few trees to the acre will produce a much better result than manv. The olive crop is a precarious one and therefore he will be wise who associates his olives with other fruits, that he may have a harvest. For level oround an acre can easilv carrv fortv seven olives, forty seven fruit trees, such as figs, peaches, prunes, mulber- ries or whatever mav be suitable to the neidiborhood and three liun- dred and two vines,. thus : 11 22 83 44 ■ O X o X O X G X G X o X G G— OJive Tree. o — Fruit Tree. x — Vine. THE OLIVE /O Trees to be set out on the quincunx the olives to be forty-four feet apart one way and thirty the other. This will give a far better result than crowdins: an acre with over a hundred olives trees. The olive under favorable conditions is a prolific bearer but too much crowding stunts the trees and exhausts the soil. The result is seen in w^eak and puny trees that bear no fruit. The olive must have sunshine and ventilation and it cannot o'et it in an orchard where there are one hundred trees to the acre. For a few vears all will go well, and then about the time that the trees should give a good return it wall be found that the branches interlock and that the orchard forms so dense a mass of foliage that the sun cannot penetrate it, and half the trees will have to be taken out, and re- planted some where else, and there will be the loss of about five vear's time resultino; from cutting,' back well «:rown trees : this would be in consequence of crowding on level ground, but on hilly land, where the olives rise in tiers, one above the other, an acre will readilv carrv ei^htv trees. The consociation of the olive with other fruits will prove benefi- cial from every point of view. The olive crop is an inconstant one, the natural tendencv of the tree is toonlv bear heavilv everv other vear, it has manv enemies, and until the fruit has formed, nothirjo- is assured. Too great heat at the critical ])eriod of blossoming may be fatal to the hopes of an abundant yield and varying seasons will give difier- ent results. The Italians have an expressive proverb which says : " If tlie olive buds in April, You will gather by the barrel ; If in May appear the buds, You ^vi^l gatl'er by measnreful. But if it lingers until June, The harvest will be but a listfull:' Again, '' Gloiden is the olive of the early budding. Silver that which comes after, The late one is worth nothiniif." 76 THE OLIVE The earlier the olive buds, the earlier it flowers, the quicker the olives grow fat, the better they encounter the inclemencies of the season and the better secured is the product. Consociation pays because as the olive comes to full fruiting slowly, it offers a new mode of lessening the unproductiveness of the early years and of reducing the expenses of the olive orchard. It may endure only until the olive comes into bearing or may be per- manent. The question of consociation or not, depends u})on climate, soil and exposure. In very steep, stony, shallow ground, with a rocky subsoil, sandy or in any way arid soil, it is advisable to undertake only the cultivation of the olive, because the other j)lants would suc- ceed badly and would not pay for the necessary attention. On the other hand fertile and rather level lands permit the fruit- ful presence of other plants, while the olive enjoys greater space and light, both being indispensable elements to its j^i'osperous life and copious production. Since the olive is more secure as to its crop^ south of its region as against climatic dangers, and to the north, runs greater risks of loss of crop because it matures late and the tree itself may suffer or even be killed by frosts, it follows that consociation in such countries (giving to the olive all the light) contributes to the more secure rijDcning of the fruit and to its greater 2^roduction. In the case of loss of croj) or trees, there is something left to the hus- band-man. Reasons therefore for the consociation of the vine are : 1st — Vines come to fruit in the third year and to maturity in the fifth. This is an advantage from the side of expense and return on capital. 2d — The vine can be planted with the same pre2:>aratory labor as the olive. 3d — Cultivating the vine at least three times during the year, is an indirect benefit to the olive, the more so as the epochs of these labors occur at seasons opportune for both plants. THE OLIVE // 4tli — The heavy work of 2)runing and harvest can be done at dif- ferent times so that thev do not interfere with one another. In feet the prnnino' of the vine may precede that of the olive and the vin- tage comes when the olive begins to turn. Thus the consociate cul- tivation of the olive and vine will enable one to keep the same lab- orins: force rio-ht tlirou2:h the vear and avoid the constant shifting of hands which is so great a drawback. 5th — The olive and vine being so different in size, the tree only affects unfavorablv the nearest vines. 6th — Being both potash plants they prosper in the same land and are benefitted by the same manure. 7tli — If the consociation is temporary, the vines will gradually pass away by the time the olive, at thirty years, has reached its nor- mal development, but will have in the meantime contributed largely to pay the expenses of the place if they have not entirely done so, and if the consociation is permanent a certain number of vines are up-rooted and a broad belt left to olives. Preparation of t^e ©vround CHAPTER VIII. "O, dig a liole, and dig it deep." — Old Play. The selection of the spot for aii olive orchard having been made, the surface should be cleared of all woody plants and roots, and then plowed as deeply as possible. If the plowing can be done with the first rains, say in November, and the ground left exixised to the elements till planting time comes, which should be after all danger from frost has past, it will receive an atmospheric fertiliza- tion which will be so much gained. But let the plowing be deep, twenty inches if possible, remember that centuries may pass before it can be done again. Any expense incurred in this direction is money Avell laid out, and will pay for itself many times in opening the way for the perfect rooting of the future olive. On the other hand, shallow plowing and a dry season might well result in young olives casting their leaves and fruit, from the inijx^s- possibility of the young rootlets penetrating the hard unbroken Si^il. The plowing finished, the holes for the trees are next in order, these may be of various shapes, square, rectangular, and lastly the trench. Of the holes, the square is the best, and to obtain the very best result should be three feet deep, and three feet wide at the surface. If the ground in question has not at least a yard of soil, the olive will not flourish there, as when the tap root encounters an obstruct- ion it bends up and the lateral roots develope in its place, and as the growth of the tree is always equally proportioned between its I'oot system and its branches, the obstacle encountered by the pivot roots becomes immediately apparent in the appearance of the tree. The stem, which corresponds to this root, ceases to grow with its pre- vious vigor and force. The trunk loses its smooth, ash colored bark, and its base is covered with a variety of protuberances, which THE OLIVE '9 bulge out and indicate the disproportioned circulation of the sap. So the appearance of a tree alone indicates whether the soil is a congenial one or not. But the straight stem, smooth, ash colored bark on the trunk^ green bark on the branches, a round and ex- actly proportioned top is only to be expected from a tree raised from seed. Fig. 4. PLANTING OF THE YOUNG TRI:E. ONE MI:TRE IN DEPTH. d. Layer of stones and sticks. e. Strata of earth upon which the roots rest. /. Strata surrounding the root system. c. Central part underlying the root, which shouUl consist of well worked earth. g. The plant itself interred as it stood in the nursery. 80 THE OLIVE 111 tlie bottom o( the hole put a layer of stones and branches mix- ed, in order that the drainage and ventilation may be perfect. In many dry soils, of course this would be entirely unnecessary, and in setting out an orchard on a large scale, would add very greatly to the expense, and is only indicated here in order to show to what perfection the transplantation may be carried. At the same time, we do not think that any money expended on these preparatory labors will be thrown away, but believe that the future will largely recompense them. Let then the layer of stones and branches fill the bottom of the hole to a depth of six inches, and on top of this, a layer of well aired good soil. If the soil is sticky? it is well to mix it with such mineral ingredients as ashes, sand, or lime. In loose soil clayey material should be used instead. In both cases it is advantageous to place under each plant a few shov- elfulls of old, well fermented manure, then the plant itself, and if water is to be conveniently had, five or six gallons can be used to advantage in settling the roots. The ground immediately below the roots should be composed of soft, loose earth mixed with manure, for this is the part first to embrace the young and tender fibers, and from which, they will radiate into the more compact earth, as they gather strength. When the planting of the tree is complete, a stake is driven by its side and secured to it by a cord, but to guard against injury to the delicate bark, a wisp of straw should be placed under the cord. Except where the soil is sandy and loose, or subject to persistent dryness, the plants should not be set deeper than sixteen inches. It is shown by observation that the volume of a piece of ground worked over decreases one twelfth in a year, by the progressive di- minution of the porosity. Thus a hole dug to a depth of one yard wdth sewerage of eight inches, and covered evenly, would at the end of a year have sunk three inches, and the plant placed in the hole would have sunk proportionately. It follows then, that a plant placed in its accompanying sod, in THE PHLOEOTRIBUS OLEAE, Fiol 7lq.8. M^ a i.' Fig. 11 PlateIX: \ Fig. 12 -■■J PLATE IX.— THE PHLOEOTRIBUS OLEAE. Eig. 1. Portion of dry branch of olive A, B. r/, excrescences formed by excrement and borino'sfrom wood of the vear hanoino; from tlie o])enings of the galleries wliich the Phloeotribns dig ont, at />, hh lioles made going in. B to V bark stripped off, c, d, e^ show galleries made by the Phloeotribns; r, gallery commenced showing niche enclosing eggs; d, two galleries dng by two females going in at same entrance flanked by laterals dug out by the larvie; c, two similar galleries of Avhich some complete laterals show the chrysalides. because formed by the larva^ which were the first to open it. Fig. 2. The galleries c, of previous figure enlarged; a, ingress: r, gallery in wliich female stays while excavating and dei)Ositing eggs; d, d, d, niches with larvavenclosed who have commenced to dig out the lateral galleries; c, e, Avhicli contain the eggs; b, remains short and without laterals because duo* out bv a male. Fig. 8. Branch of olive in crotch of which is seen a Phloeotri- bns at work digging a, tunnel; on pulling him out, the hole is seen filled with borings and excrement. Fig. 4. Branch similar to ])receeding showing Phloeotril)ns (enlarged,) in a nest cindered with borings and excrement. Fig. 5. The egg. (enlarged.) Fig. 6. The larva side view (enlarged.) Fig. 7. Head of larva, seen from above, (nuich enlarged) Fig, 8. Same head, side view. Fig. 9. Chrysalis with strip of wood from tree a, adhering. Fig. 10. Insect (enlarged.) Fig. 11. Antenna, (very nuich enlarged.) Fig. 12. Tibia and tarsi of hind feet, (enlarged.) THE OLIVE 81 level ground, will at the end of a year be three inches deeper than when put out. Planting at more than the ordinary depth will be injurious to the plant, and Avill often cause its death. For the per- fect development of the olive, the soil must be pervious to the air^ which is indispensable to the respiration of its whole organism. Experiments have shown how the development of the same plant can be retarded or advanced, by planting it alternately deep and shallow. From these experiences it is conclusive that to condemn the olive to too great a depth in the ground is a grave error. The rectangular hole of two feet long, and two feet deep, and a foot wide, will probably be the one commonly used in California, as it is much the cheapest. Instead of holes a continuous trench may be dug, not less than three feet in depth^ and the trees set out in it at the proper dis- tance apart. Here the tender roots encounter no obstacle, the trench giving them free play each way and the result is, an aston- ishing development of the young tree. These trenches have proved particularly good on side hills. When we reflect that the life of this tree that we are starting on its road, will cover centur- ies, any expense incurred in promoting its growth at the begin- ning seems slight in comparison. The wild seedling olive is unknown in California, but as the seed of the cultivated type almost invariably produces that of the wild, not many years will 'pass before these will begin to spring up on the hills about our valleys. The birds will be the dissem- inators. The writer has noticed the robin in particular. On cold winter days in the Santa Clara valley, this bird leaves the hills and appears on the Quito Olive Farm in great numbers, eating any fruit that offers itself, olives among others. The Spaniards are led to claim that the olive is indigenous to Spain because it is found growing wild on all their mountains, perhaps some future Californian will make the same claim for us, for the seed of the olive will certainly be spread fiir and wide in this way. 82 THE OLIVE The olive orchard should be plowed or cultivated at least four times during the year, but not to a greater depth than five inches, or the surface roots may be injured. As soon as the berries are ])icked which may be in December, January or February, the tree rests. Its labors have not been light in sustainino; and nourishino; its burden of fruit so long. As soon as it is relieved of its heavv load it begins to recuperate and pre- pare for the following May when it will blossom again. The or- chard should first be pruned and cleaned, and then plowed in order to give the trees the greatest possible assistance. To keep down the Aveeds, it will be necessary to plow again be- fore flowering time arrives, but on no account should any cultiva- tion be attempted while the olives are in flower, as the exhalations from the ground, caused by turning over the soil, are very prejudi- cial to the tree when in this condition. Until the flower has withered and fallen off^ and the new berry has formed, nothing should be done that would cause any emanations from the soil. The olive buds first, then flowers, fecundation becomes complete when the pollen comes in contact with the flower eggs, to which it communicates the power of freeing the embryo and transforming itself into seed. To judge whether this has successfully taken place or not, an inspection of the withered blossoms under a tree will dem- onstrate. If the corolla only has fallen, making a flat, star-shaped flower with a well defined hole in the center, all is well ; but if the pistil is attached to it, tlien fecundation has not taken place and the crop has aborted. This may happen from a variety of causes, and it is the critical period to the olive grower. Too great heat, a late frost, excess of rain, heavy winds, a lack of certain necessary ele- ments in the soil, or an excess of these, may singly or in com- bination, bring about this untoward result. The first, or too great heat at the time of blossoming, will probably be the source of greatest danger to the California grower. The ohve in flower is said to be able to endure a temoerature of one hundred and seven THE OLIVE 83 degrees Fahrenheit, without receiving any damage. One hun- dred and ten degrees Fahrenheit proved injurious to the prospect of a crop on the Quito Farm in May, 1887, cutting down bv two-thirds what promised to be an unusuallv Laroe viekl. It is the still, burning heat that does the harm. For this reason, rising ground or the middle hills are sought for the olive, where it may get the benefit of every passing breeze. It is a sign of good fructification when the tree covers itself with blossoms to its very summit, as it proves its capacity to nourish flowers so far from the trunk. The flowers having fallen and the new berries formed, the olive orchard should be cultivated for the third time, and still again in the early part of Se23tember. The ground immediately about the trees should be dug over with the split spade or earth fork, taking care not to injure the lateral roots which lie near the surface. TRAXSPLANTATIOX. Care should be taken in transplanting young trees to convey with them as much of their native earth as possible, some laceration of the delicate capillaries is unavoidable. A spade is the proper tool to use. If the tree is then kept for twenty, thirty, and even forty days in a dark place, it will be found to be exceedingly beneficial to it. The activity of the functions of the plant having been greatly di- minished in the leaves, the root system is correspondingly stimu- lated, and will produce new shoots, which by their absorbing power, will contribute greatly to the vigor of the young plant. The break- ing of the extreme ends of the roots, occasions no harm since the absorbent surface of the roots is confined to the parts ^^rovided with hairs, which are found in the middle of the young fibers. The ex- posure of the extreme ends or even cutting them, will not affect the freshness or vigor of the plant, but if the middle part be wounded, the injured fibers should be cut off immediately, in order that the sound part may not suffer by contact. 84 THE OLIVE From the cut, new and numerous roots will spring, and for this reason the top of the plant should be thinned out, in order to main- tain the equilibrium between the parts above and below ground. The pruning should be from the year old branches or two years old at most. The topping of the trees is proper in two cases only. First : When the root system, not having been properly protected, has been robbed in great part of the capillaries, which are in- tended for its nourishment from the soil. Second: When the jDlants have been crowded in the nursery, and have long slender trunks, and are likely to be exposed to high winds. In transporting the tree without sod about the roots, which is the custom where any distance is involved, it is necessary to top the tree to offset the loss suffered by the roots. ^'X tree topped, Is a tree insured." p runin CHAPTER IX. "Quien quiere aceite, labra; qiiien quiere mas, estercola; y qiiien quiere riiucho mas, corta y poda a sii tiempo." Vicente Payo.* The olive should be pruned every two years, but the process will have to be varied with the species cultivated. Some varieties need the knife, others require it but little. Still it is necessary to 2)rune the olive, but skill, knowledge, and attention to the Avants of the tree, are needful to secure the best results. Some of the old World saws embody this truth and in few words gives us the experience of centuries. "He who plows, hopes; he who manures, begs; but he who "prunes the olive, obliges it to produce." "For the olive and the oak, the spade below, and the hatchet "above." "Strip me and I will dress you, make me j^oor and I will make "you rich." No one would think of adopting these maxims literally in their treatment of the tree but their tendency is evident. TO SHAPE THE YOUNG TREE. When the young tree has attained a height of from four to five feet, and has a sufficient number of lateral branches, present- *He who wishes oil, cultiv.ates; he who wishes much oil manures; He who wishes au abundance of oil prunes at the right time. 86 THE OLIVE ing the appearance of Fig. 5, cut off the top at A in the early spring, leaving the three topmost branches on each side, and shorten the lower ones. Each branch is developed during the year as shown in Fig. 6, and is hen cut again at A, and Fig. 5. Fig. 6. the shoots and 1) are shortened. The upper shoot B is started out by this process, and it appears the following year as in Fig. 7, and it is agai. cut at A. This causes the two upper shoots BB to develop ; and at the end of the year they api>ear as shown at AA in Fig. 8. This is their position at the fourth years pruning, and each of them is cut at B; and D is shortened, and C is allowed to ^develop. By this time the tree has a spherical or vase form, and THE OLIVE 87 Fig. 7. Fig. 8. 88 THE OLIVE exposes much surface to the sun, which is the object desired. The olive produces fruit on two years wood only. This point the pruner should always bear in mind, and direct his efforts to multi- ply these shoots in order to increase production. The aim should be to distribute the sap equally throughout; keep the extension of branches w^ithin proper limits, and give air to the interior. Take out the dead wood and fruitless branches, called ''gluttons" because they take to themselves the best forces of the tree. Cut out those parts that are not sound or are subject to can- ker. Do not allow the branches to cross each other ; favor new shoots by lateral pruning when there are vacant places to fill. In Provence, contrary to the custom elsewhere, they prune their trees each year, keeping them near the ground. This practice besides rendering the fruit more abundant and fine, permits a more careful gathering by hand. The trees thus treated will not last so long it is true, but this inconvenience is largely compensated by the other advantages attending this mode of pruning. The olive has p'recisely the same mode of vegetation as the peach, with this difference onlv, that new shoots are easilv formed from old wood. The branches and roots of a tree are proportional, contribu- ting mutually to the growth of each other, and therefore the *one suffers if the other, is cut. If the strons: branches of a vio'orous tree are pruned very long, the roots are strengthened, the said branches increased in size, the tree runs to wood and does not fructify. If on the contrary they are pruned very short, and the lesser branches taken off also, the tree is weakened and the roots with it. It is nec- essary to take off the lesser branches of a vigorous olive tree, and also the strong branches to a reasonable length, always with the idea of preserving the proportion between the roots and branches. The tree is nourished by its sap ; this commences to move with the increase of temperature in Spring, generally in March. Drawn from the soil by the roots, it circulates throughout the tree with increas- ing freedom as it approaches the extremities, where the tender twios THE HYLESINUS OLEIPERDA, Pl AT£Z M; T\q.Z ■^'^VV-'STsW^ , recognized by tlie hok^ through which the insect ])enetrated and by tlie redchsh spots Avliicli show the locality of the galleries. Fig. 2. A small piece of the bark showing the inside work with principal gallery a, and the eggs in place b, (enlarged.) Fig. o. A small j)iece of the wood stripped of bark showing the main oallerv ((, and the secondary naileries h, du^: out by the larva\ (enlarged.) Fig. 4. The egg (enlarged.) Fig. 5, The larva (enlarged.) Fig. 6. The chrysalis (enlarged.) Fig. 7. The insect (enlarged.) THE OLIVE 89 present less opjDOsition to its course than the older wood. Having reached the leaves, the lungs of the tree, it undergoes some change in its properties and then returns to the roots again ; so we have the ascending sap and the descending sap. The descent of the sap can be verified and turned to advantage. It is claimed that the tree can be compelled to bear fruit whether it will or no. Having selected a fruit branch, ring the bark near its base, making a perfect ring whose ends meet. A double-bladed knife with the blades about half an inch apart is the proper instru- ment to use. The descending sap will be forced into fruit and the yield of that particular branch will be in marked contrast to its neighbors. The upper side of the ring will exude sap and it will finall}^ swell into a circle there showing its desire to come down. It is claimed that this rinoins: of the bark of minor branches can be done annually without any detriment to the tree. It will be better to select horizontal branches, as without the bark and with a wei^-ht of fruit, vertical branches are apt to be broken off by the wind. But as much is required from a tree by this process, so, more than usual care must be expended on it in cultivation and manuring. The tendency of a tree is to reach the height of its species, and as only the vertical branches are useful for this purpose, the sap al- ways tends to nourish the upright branches at the expense of the horizontal and lower ones. It is necessary to avoid pruning too long, which would carry the sap to the extremities ot the branches to the detriment and destruc- tion of the center. On the other hand too short pruning would force the sap into a small number of buds that would be found on the young branches and flowing back to the old, would result in false wood, that is, branches out of place and contrary to nature. If one side of a tree grows with too much vigor the strong branches should be pruned short but the feeble ones left long in order to en- courage the sap to flow into them, and on the otucr hand the re- verse should be done with the feeble side, the weaker branches 90 THE OLIYE should be cut off, leaving only enough for appearance sake, and the stronger ones pruned long. The action of the sap on the buds of a vertical branch is in pro- portion to their distance from the base of that branch. So the new shoots produced by the buds of a pruned branch will be stronger the nearer thev are to its base. But if a branch is bent over, or arched, the bud in the highest |)Osition Avill produce the strongest germ, and the rest will be weaker the nearer they approacli the ex- tremitv. In horizontal branches tlie case is different. The buds on the up2^er side are generally stronger than those nearest the ground. So, if the last bud on a branch is on the lower sidt, and the next to the last on the upper, the latter will be the stronger. All branches that grow strong where they should be weak, and vice versa, are cont]*arv to nature and should be cut off. The leaves have a powerful influence over the quantity and movement of the sap. This is augmented or diminished in proportion to their num- ber. If an olive is robbed of its leaves, the flow of the sap is check- ed and the fruit falls. . So where a tree has an excess of vi^or. it mav be contained within more reasonable bounds bv thinnino; out the leaves. The wild olive tree, or the tree from seed, if never transplanted, its taj) root undipped, is perfectly proportioned, its stem is straight, its bark smooth, its branches arch in beautiful equality, making a perfectly formed crown.- But in the cultivated tree, the tree from a cutting, the tree that has already felt the knife, the order of nat- ure has been disarraiii^ed and the tree, far from makino; a reoular growth, if left to itself, will often take a most uncouth and ill- pro- portioned shape, and in apju^arance alone calls for the pruning knife. The first six l)ranclies left on a vouns: tree, three on each side, become the principal or primary In-anches o'' the tree, from these grow others called the secondary which in turn produce those of the thi]-d order. From these spring a multitude of small branches and twio's of one, two ai]d three vears of a^-e. Those of two and three THE OLIVE 91 years are the fruit branches, those of one year will bear the follow- nio' season. The lower and horizontal branches produce the fruit in an olive. So a very general rule for pruning would be to preserve all lateral branches possible, Avith a due regard to the proportion of the crown, and to cut away those that are perpendicular to the trunk. The branches called '\o;luttons " are peculiar to the cultivated tree and need to be cut away, as they merely i*ob the plant of just so much vitality, without any compensation whatever. The glutton is a de- generated fruit branch, or one that appears where a fruit branch should be. They may be recognized by the speed with which they grow, by the broadness of their base, and by the appearance of the bark which, though green, is not smooth and shining, but rough and seamed. In shape also they are not rounded, but flattened on one side or the other. The color of the bark on the lower side is like- wise of a dark brown. These distinctive characteristics are conse- quent to the over abundant flow of the sap, which the glutton draws to itself Though everv two veurs is o;enerallv considered often enough to thoroughly prune an olive, there is abundant work for the knife each year after the crop is gathered, in taking off tlie dead, weak, and sickly branches, to the end that the sap may go to fruit, and not be obliged to keep useless wood iu life The tree so treated will be better able to resist frost, will bloom and vield more heavilv, and its olives will contain more oil than do those of one that does not receive this care. The olive is exceedingly subject to a species of dry rot, and un- skillful pruning may actually cause it. Branches should be cut perpendicularly to the trunk, and from the lower side to the upper, as otherwise, in falling, a strip of bark is apt to be carried awav and a i^rievous wound caused to the tree. The cut should never force the bark out but always press it in. It is better to avoid taking oft' large limbs, as the surface exposed 92 THE OLIVE by the stump of tlie branch is a source of danger to the tree. The larger this surface, the more difficult for the bark to close over it, and like injuries to the human body, unless the wound is thorough- ly healed, it may cause the death of the patient. For this reason, if the cut is made perpendicularly to the tree, it presents less sur- face for the sun and rain to corrode, and for the fatal rot to take hold of, and finally eat out the heart of the tree. The cut should be made as cleanly as possible, and some of the wood scooped out in order to help nature cover it again with the bark. The whole should be covered with grafting wax or a mixture of cow-dung and clay. If the olive is pruned while the sap is rising, or still worse while in flower, each branch lopped oflF is a mortal stab, a wound througli which the tree will loose its life blood. The sap will run heavily for some days, especially if they are damp and rainy, no time being affi)rded nature to close the outlets made with the pruning knite. The tree will have lost, to no purpose, that wdiich might have nourished it, its vigOr will be observed to diminish from that time forth, and little by little it will dry up and die. Thus the very great impoilance of early pruning is inculcated, in order to 2:ive time for the closino; of the cicatrices before the I'isini; of the sap in March. Experience shows that an olive, although it may not have been pruned in many years, and has not strength to put out new shoots, will flower and fructifv everv year. But in the maioritv of instance- the flower does not set, or if the fruit forms it soon fells off*. All this because the sap canals in the branches are obstructed, if not ob- literated, and the tree cannot receive sufficient nourishment to main- tain its produce. On the other hand, if a tree is observed to make wood heavily, and to grow barren and give no berries, it Is a sign that it has been over pruned. Such cases are rare, but wnen they occur the remedy is to make the tree, fast for a while, nrither cultivate, nor fertilize THE OLIVE 93 nor prune it, for several years, when the good effect of this treat- ment will be apparent. The top of an olive, the parts to w^iich the sap flows with most abundance and activity, should be considered as a vigorous tree, wliile the lower part which receives less, as a weak tree. So the pruner should take off the strong upper branches and leave the les- ser ones, and reverse the process with the lower part, lopping off the puny branches and leaving the more vigorous. To prune in winter at a period of frost is dangerous. The limbs are exceedingly brittle at this time, and break off at the slighest provocation. When the tree is provided with sufficient branches to clothe it, the real work of the pruner begins, which is to oblige it to bear fruit. To open a tree to sun and air is not to strip it of all shade. Its leaves are necessary to prevent the scorching of tender bark and young leaves by the sun. The variety should indicate the treat- ment. The Spanish Manzanillo, which has been planted to some extent in California is sparse of leaf and requires the knife only to a limited degree, and then principally in cleaning rather than prun- ing. All pruning that is ill timed or out of season does harm, and may be an actual drawback by obstructing and impeding the natuial flow of sap. Still the olive with the tremendous strides that its vege- tation makes, reallv demands the knife. If left to itself its center becomes a mat of cris cross branches, its growth ceases, and it fells a prey to a variety of diseases. There are two classes of branches that the olive should be deprived of : First, the irregular, the unfruitful, the diseased, the dead or dying. Second, all useless branches, over and above what the tree is able to carry, even though they should be the fruit branches of the fol- lowing year, and all the ''gluttons." An olive tree that is heavily loaded down with branches or with fruit, is in a far from healthy state and by its appearance alone 94 THE OLIVE accuses the i2:norance of its OAvner. If it has more branches than its strength is able to nourish, it becomes weakened, if more fruit, the latter appear poor, weazened, and half ripe. The last is damag- ing to the crop, but the first ruins the tree. THE TIME TO PRUXE. This must vary with the chmate, soil and variety to be deah with. It seems quite clear that no pruning can be done to advan- tage with the crop still on the treas, so it must be put off till the berries are gathered. This would giye a period from October to March in which to carry on this necesssry labor. The year in which an oliye orchard is thoroughly pruned is one of a light crop, the real benefit receiyed from this process, not being manifested until the foUowiniii: year. So in an orchard of any extent it would be better to divide it into halves or even thirds and to prune one of these parts each year. It is greatly to be desired that the clippings should not be allowed to lie about under the trees but should be immediately burnt on the spot. The tendency with us will probably be to save as much available wood as possible for future cuttings ; in that case such wood as is selected for this purpose should be disinfected and the remainder burned. In this way a multitude of noxious insects, adhering to the bark and leaves, are destroyed at once; and if not so treated, live to propagate, and renew their attacks on the trees in increased numbers. Pruning, as Ave have seen, consists in keeping the trees well shaped and in good disposition for bearing the most fruit. But it sometimes happens that more heroic remedies are demanded. When an olive orchard appears to be healthy in every respect but gives no fruit, it is owing to one of three causes. First; That the trees are too near together. Second; That the sap has been cor- ru]^ted and makes only wood, and Third, that there are trees or plants in the vicinity that do them harm. THE.K3LIVE 95 When the trees are too near together, the ground is unable to sustain so many and it is necessar}^ to transphnit a portion of them. When this necessity is apparent every third, or every other tree will have to come out. This is likely to be the experience of many olive growers in this State. Fortunately the tree will bear it. The first step is to cut tlie tree down to the crotch leaving four arms or stumps, the nucleus of the future primary branches of the new tree. It is then dug up with as much earth as possible and transported to the hole already prepared for it. In the spring of 188)^, fifteen hundred olive trees between ten and twenty years of age were thus transplanted on the Quito Farm, with a loss of only six trees. When the sap has become corrupted it is necessary to take off one of the primary or mother branches in order to check the tendencv to make onlv wood. When the trees have been dam- aged by the proximity of others prejudicial to them, such i^s the pine or the cork oak (the latter breeds a worm, about its roots which is fatal to the olive) the weakly parts will have to be severely pruned. When they are attacked by an infinity of little shell like warts which spread up from the trunk to the lower branches, there is no remedy but to cut the tree down to the crotch and allow it to begin over again. But it must not be forgotten that this treatment is an extreme measure, and only to be availed of when all others have failed. The primary, or mother branches of an olive, are its arms, and are not to be lopped oflP without a good and sufficient reason. Al- though the tree may grow and flourish for many years, its new branch- es never will have the strength and exuberence of their predecessors. That one of these branches appears to be ailing, is not cause enough to cut it off. Manuring and cultivating about the tree may give it all that it needs. Watch it till spring, and then if it fails to flower, it had better be condemned. Thus we have seen that in pruning there are three different de- grees, the cleaning, or light pruning ; the pruning itself, and the 96 THE OLIVE more severe measure of cutting back. It is necessary to clean up the trees with the knife after the crop is in, every year, say in Jan- uary or February, and if the operation is carried a little further, and the tree is really pruned every year, it will be found advantageous. If the regular pruning is deferred to periods of two or three years, the wounds given the tree have to be so much the larger, and are so much the more difficult to recover from, or detract so much from the force of the tree. Then also, the season after a full pruning is one of a very light crop, making a very heavy crop the second year. This results in making either a very expensive crop to gather, that is if it is done caretully, or if not, by being done hurriedly, the branches are broken and damaged, and the prospect of the next years fruitage is destroyed. The olive is sometimes called a biennial, but a moments reflection must convince anyone familiar with the tree, that it is an annual. Does it not make a yearly effort to flower and fruit ? Then encour- age it and the result. will be an annual crop. Annual pruning will give a moderate crop every year, will distribute the labor of prun- ing and harvesting more evenly, and will be most advantageous to the trees. Light pruning necessitates heavy manuring in order to success- fully carry the excess of wood and branches. Real scientific prun- ing can be safely said to be almost unknown. There are more hum- bugs in this branch of horticulture, than in any other. Because a certain line of treatment may be desirable in a given locality, it does not follow that it is so in another. Certainly a very undesir- able arrangement would be that the pruner should have the wood, as he then sets to work and makes all he can, utterly regardless of the result to the trees. Successful pruning is founded upon the following propositions : First : That the olive fruits on two years old wood only. Second : That the flowers do not develop except when exposed to the sun for a number of hours of the day. THE OLIVE 9* Third : That the horizontal are the fruitful branches, and the vertical branches are sterile. Fourth : That too many branches in fruit results in a poor crop and over taxes the tree. Fifth : That the pruning should vary according to the variety. Sixth: That the soil, exposure, and altitude, all affect the growth and fructification in a different manner. The richer soil can sup- no. 9. THE PINE OR CONE SHAPE. port more vegetation, and hence, in such soil, the tree will require only light pruning, while on a poorer soil, full pruning is necessary including even the horizontals, which have borne fruit some years back. Trees with a southern and eastern exposure can be allowed to grow higher, than those with a northern and western exposure, as the outlook is warmer. 98 THE OLIVE Trees on the plain can be permitted to grow taller than those on the hills, in order to throw them open to all the air and sun possi- ble. On the other hand, those on the hills are kept lower, so that they may receive the reflected heat and escape the wind and its drying effect. The olive if kept low will have more vigor than if allowed to grow high, but do not oppose the nature of the tree too much. If it is of a variety that attains a great stature, to a certain extent it nuist be allowed to have its own way. FIG. 10. smMM^ THE BASKET OR GOBLET SHAPE. The jDcndant branches which guard it from the heat of the sun, should be preserved as much as possible. When a tree has produc- ed heavily, the horizontal, or fruitful limbs, should be pruned to a certain extent. A good rule for a well-pruned tree is, that one should be able to 23ut the hand into the interior of th<^ tree without holding off the other branches. JHE OLIVE 99^ The olive is given four different shapes: The natural, or uncorrected form. The Pine or Cone shape. The Basket or Goblet shape. The Umbrella shape. T'lie objections to allowing it to grow at will are, that it grows too high, its uj)per branches are mere ''gluttons," or suckers of sap, wdiich rob the lower, or fruitful part of the tree, of what might re- sult in well developed fruit : that the sun and light are kept out, 'die principal agents of fructification, resulting in the fruit being found onlv on the outside of the tree, where the sun and lio'ht have access to it. Neglected in this way, the tree finally, tired of its ef- forts, refuses to give a croj) oftener than every alternate year. The Pine or Cone shape is better, but the be^ form, and almost the only possible one for large trees, is the Basket or Goblet shape. This exposes the largest surface to sun and air. The Umbrella shape is the worst of all; as it can only be achieved by directly ojv posing the habits of the tree. The round well-opened crown will be the most natural way to shape trees of small size. The character of the soil must be taken into account in fixing the height and forming the crown of a young tree. In a poor and arid soil, it will be best not to make the trunk higher than from three to four feet, as in such a soil, the limited nutritous qualities will, with difficulty reach its branches, if placed too high. On the other hand, if the soil is rich, the crown may be placed from five to- six feet from the 2:round. CHAPTER X. Macbeth, "What ! will the line stretch out to the crack of doom I " Macbeth, Act iv,, Scene i. The writer regrets the necessity of introducing any new pests to his readers, but if we are still spared the visitation of some, time in his course mav brino; them to us. The olive is subject to a diversity of maladies, of which some are derived from the action of insects and parasitic plants, others, from meteorological influences, and still others, from improper methods of cultivation, such 'as excessive or defective nutrition. The insects which are most harmful to the olive are the followino-: o COLEOPTER A— Beetles. Apion Vorax ^lecinus circulatus Phloetribus oleae Hylesinus oleiperda Polycaon confertus Tiviff borer HEMIPTERA— Bugs, Lice. Psylla olivina Coccus oleae Black scale Lecanium oleae Black scale Cisticoccus pollinii Trips oleae. Olive louse Aspidiotus Conchiformis Apple scale Aspidiotus Rapax Greedy scale Aspidiotus Peraeae. Hed Bay scale THE OLIVE 101 HYMEXOPTKRA- Saw Flies, Wasps, Bees. Cynips oleae Pteromalus quad rum LEPIDOFTERA— Moths. Prays oleellus Olive motlt DIPTERA— Flies. Daeus olea Olive fly Of these insects, the most dangerous are the Twig borers, the Psilla, the Moth and the Fly; the scale insects and the olive louse come next. APION VORAX. Among the very small insects which damage the olive there arc three curculions, tAvo of the A])ion genus and a third of the Mecinus. The first of the Apion kind, has the antennae, eight-jointed; the first joint is long and conical, the second a trifle shorter, the third still shorter than the second and the remainins: five are verv short,, gradually broadening towards the extremities into a solid pointed club. The rostrum, cyHndrical and arched, jaws short, eyes lateral,, protruding and round. Thorax conical, body curved and convex, compressed anteriorly. Winged, shell very small and pointed, shield wing ovoid, larger at the base than the thorax, jaws elongated and truncated, femora puffed out, tarsi spongy beneath, with the first two joints conical, penultimate expanded, heart-shaped and bifurcated, the last cylin- drical, enlaro-ed at the extremitv and furnished with two hooks. The insect is about half an inch in length, body blackish, thorax gray on upper part, shield wing ridged with blackish green, sparsely sprinkled with dirty white hair, femora deep yellow, tarsi gray. The other Apion differs from the one described, by having the first joint of the antennae somewhat longer, the second shorter than the first, and the other six so short as to be almost globular ; the rostrum less arched, the hind legs having a sort of stinger or tooth,. The last joint of the tarsi rather long and cylindrical, with the feet 102 THE OLIVE very close together. It is entirely black and sparsely sprinkled with whitish hair, and is abont half an inch in lensfth. The third curculion, the Mecinus Circulatus has the antenncT in- serted in the middle of the rostrum or proboscis. The antennae is five-jointed, the first very long and conical^ the others transversal and short, the clnb oval and nearlv solid. Rostrum not verv long, strong, slightly inclined, cylindrical and not dilated at the ex- tremitv. Bodv oblono\ cylindrical and wino:ed. Thorax cvlindri- cal and much compressed in front. Shield triangular, paws or feet, hard and inserted verv near together. The shield wino; elonoated and cylindrical. The tarsi spongy beneath the first two joints, tri- angular, penultimate expanded and the last one elongated and cylindrical. This insect is a trifle more than one-twelfth of an inch in lenoth. Chestnut colored with stripes of a lighter shade along the edges of the shield wings and about the head. The feet are dark, as are also the tarsi. The three above described curculions in their last sta^'e attack the buds of the tender branches, and gnaw the shoots at the forks, digging a nest in which they conceal themselves. Here the female deposits her eggs and the resulting larvae imitate the habits of the Phloetribus whose description follows. PHLCETRIBUS OLE.E. {See Plate IX.) The egg (Fig. 5) of this insect, is oblong in shape and of a yel- lowish white color, and a little over an hundredth of an inch in di- ameter. The larva (Flo;. (>, 7, 8,) at its o'reatest size is an eiodith of an inch in length, is oblong and soft, with callous head ; body composed of fourteen rings, one cephalic, three thoracic, and iew abdominal of a dirty white color, with reddish jaws; the palpi, short and small, the antenna just visible, with a considerable enlargement near the mar- .,;rHE OLIVE 103 gin of the fore part of the head, the eyes scarcely discernible, plac- ed behind the hisertion of the jaws, the thorax fuller than the rest of the body, the upper thorax a little larger than the next two rings taken together, more convex and without the transversal wrinkles of the abdominal rino's. The chrysalis (Fig. 9) ovoid, oblong, with head inclined towards the breast, shield wing fluted and embracing the abdomen at the sides, the feet exposed and drawn up on the ventral part of the bodv. Antennae inserted in the front of the head passing below the eves and the sides of the thorax, foldino- under in such a wav that the end of the proboscis or club reaches to the fore feet. It is a dirtv white in color with reddish eves and iaws. This insect is distinguished from the Hylesinus principally by the antennae of nine joints. The first six are simple, the last three are dilated into a three-bladed club (Fio. H). The bodv is convex and oval, and of a blackish brown coloi", and covered with an ashv vel- low down. Antennae and tarsi deep yellow, uppqr thorax broader than it is long, and unequally speckled; the shield wing is over twice as long as it is wide, rounded at the extremities and covering exact- ly the abdomen with nine lengthwise flutings delicately speckled ; the feet robust and rather short, the femora of a l)rilliant black in color. The Phloetribus count two generations. FIRST GEXEEATIOX. In the autumn and winter each insect hides itself in a nest dug in the forks of the bearing branches (Fio. 3, 4). In the first davs of spring, the insects abandon the nests to mate, after wdiich thev assault the dead branches, where the bark is verv smooth, and dio' a trench in which to deposit their eggs, (Fig. 1, 2,) gnawing oblique- ly first the bark and then the rino- of the wood until thev have a *— I, road from a twelfth to an eiohth of an inch in width, thev then re- trace their steps, following always the ring of the wood. The female now commences to deposit her eggs singly to the right and left. 104 THE OLIVE forming for each a niche which is enclosed by a partition made of bits of wood agglutinated with saliva, and in twenty or thirty days, from thirty to thirty-two eo;gs are deposited. Sometimes two females will enter at the same aperture and after the first part of the gallery is completed will bore in opposite direc- tions, often taking the form of a T (Fig. 1. e.) or a Y (Fig. 1. d.) The working of the insect is manifested by a small tumor or windgall resembling soap foam which issues from the holes made bv them on entering. These excrescences are composed of excrement and fibres of the wood mixed with salivary fluid. The eggs hatch in fifteen days from the time they are deposited. The larvae nourish themselves from the fibre of the wood boring secondary tun- nels, the first perpendicular, with parallel ones between, resembling much the reeds of an organ (Fig. 1. e.) The greatest length of a gallery or tunnel never exceeds three quarters of an inch and is less than one-twelfth of an inch in diameter. The number of the lateral tunnels are not usuallv more than twenty on the same line or thirty on two lines. When the female has finished depositing her eggs she crawls to the external orifice of the gallery and dies. At the end of thirty or forty days the larva having reached the maximum stage of development, bores into the bottom of its own gallery, an oval niche (Fig. 1. e.) in which it remains immovable and without food for eight or ten days. From this stage it passes into that of the chrysalis casting its abdominal appendage. At the end of another ten days (Fig. 10) the chrysalis becomes a perfect insect which proceeds to gnaw the new wood of the tree, and the bark about its cell, emerging according to the season, in April or May. It flutters for a short time about the tree and then settles down, and bores a hole at the fork of a bearins; or blossomino- branch, which being deprived of its necessary nutriment soon languishes and dies. In a few^ days the mating takes place and about the first of June the boring of the tunnels for the depositing THE PSILLA, Plate XT %-6 Ej.8 PLATE XL— THE PSILLA. Fig. 1. An olive twig full of blossoins, a, a, shows the cottony material deposited by the Psilla enclosed therein. Fig. 2. The egg (enlarged.) Fig. o. The larva (enlarged.) Fig. 4. The chrysalis (enhirged.) Fig. 5. The insect, seen from above (enlarged.^ Fig. 6. The insect, side view (enlarged.) Fig. 7. The head, front view (enlarged.) Fig. 8. The antenna (enlaroxnl.) TH-^ OLIVE 105 of the ego;s and rearing the young, follows, as has been heretofore described. THE SECOND GEXERATION. The offspring of this second generation appear about the last of August and first of September, and prej)are a nest as did their predecessors, in the bearing boughs of the tree, where they pass the autumn and winter preparing for reproduction in the coming spring. The damage from the Phloetribus is considerable. Those of the first generation destroy the blossoms; and those of the second destroy the fruit, as they always attack bearing branches. The drying u]) of the leaves and fruit on the tree may usually be traced to these insects. Since they are reproduced only in the dry branches or those which are perishing, the best method to impede or diminish their propagation consists in keeping the trees j)erfectly free from decayed limbs. As soon as a limb shows signs of languor it should be removed and burned. HYLESINUS OLEIPERDA. {See Bate X,) This injurious insect is designated by various names in as many localities. In organization and habits it bears a close resemblance to the Phloetribus. Indeed the egg, larva, chrysalis and insect are nearly identical in form and size. (Fig. 4, 5, 6, 7.) The larva in this case being a trifle larger and the antennae of the insect having eleven joints instead of nine. The fundamental color of the insect is lio;hter than that of its thorax. The bodv is a twelfth of an inch in length. Before the middle of July the Hylesinus has reached its perfect development, and from this time on, its methods are precisely those of the Phloetribus, and its treat- ment should be the same. THE POLYCAOX CONFERTUS. This insect is the common twig borer of California^ and similar to that found on the oak tree. It attacks the olive early in April, 106 THE OLIVE borina' in the forks of the vouiio; wood. If discovered in time it can, to a great extent, be gotten rid of by shaking the trees both night and morning. The Polycaon is not a very dangerons pest, altliouoli it causes more or less iniurv to the tree, which mav resuh in the loss of several of the minor branches. PSYLLA OLE.E. {See Plate AT.) The egg of the i)sylla is spheroidal in shape, and of a diaphan- ous Avhite color, a little over a hundredth of an inch in diameter. (Fig. 2.) The larva (Fig. 3) is a de])ressed ovoid, oblong, the head bi-fes- tooned in front, the last abdominal ring is very much larger than the others. It is rather soft and of a greenish white color, the eyes red, the extremities of the antenna? and tarsi, black. It is com- l)letely covered with a cottony substance Avhich is thick and long on the abdomen, and falls behind in a fringe. The chrysalis (Fig. 4) resembles the larva in its general appear- ance, differino' from it in the shield wino;, which is oval and rido'ed, covering the sides of the abdomen, gi'eenish in color, with last ab- dominal ring brown or nearly black, the shield wing of a yellow brown color. The insect (Fig. 5, 6) has a wide head, triangular in sha])e, the upper part curved in, and square at the corners, with a deep scallop nearly bi-secting the lower part, the eyes oval, placed at upper corners of the head, the antennae (Fig. 8) six jointed ; the last one terminating in two short bristles, the upper thorax very short, the lower thorax large, convex, twice as long as it is wide, and nearly hexagonal. Upi^er wings or shield wing, oval, rhom- boidal, much longer than the abdomen and meeting in a sort of i-oof at the upper margin of the skull ; a sinew, starting from the point of the shoulder, is visible, which bi-sects it. The lower wings are shorter than the ui)per ones. Abdomen small terminat- ing in a blunt point,.and in the female provided with a distinct THE OLIVE 107 borer. The feet are short and robust, and the head is of a liolit o'reen color. The Psylla counts two o-enerations which succeed each other in the spring, during the evohition of the blossoms. At the com- mencement of the warm season some of the insects die, while others of both sexes remain tlirou2:h the summer. Durins: the autumn and winter they seek shelter on the under part of the leaves, or stalks of the tender shoots, and shield themselves there as best thev may from the storms. As soon as the olive blossoms in the spring, the mating of the Psylla takes place, and the female deposits her eggs on the flowering branches, enveloping them with a cottony material. The larvae soon appear, separating themselves at once from the cottony cover- ing, and attacking the blossoms from which they draw their aliment. In twenty days from hatching, they transform themselves into perfect insects. In the warmer localities the Psylhi appears about the middle of A|)ril,^ but in very forward seasons it frequently happens that the second generation is at work by the last of that month. The Psylla of the first generation commence the work of propagation at once by attacking fresh branches, and continuing without stoppage, till the first of July. A part of the insects then die, whilst others survive until the succeeding spring. The larva and the chrysalis prefer remaining in the same place; when molested thev move with difiicultv, and even the insect when dis- turbed will neither hop nor fly with much agility. This insect nourishes itself bv suckino- the honev of the blossoms. The blossoms attacked bv it either wither avvav, or are slow of development, and produce few olives, and these few of a poor quality. The early spring rains, if followed by high winds, have a ten- dencv to dislods-e the cottonv substance containino- the e2:2:s or larvae, and many of them perish in this way, but the radical remedy for their distruction is to cut away the infected branches, althouodi this method is both difficult and costlv. All branches O t/ 108 THE OLIVE pruned away should be burned at once. Another way is to spray the tree, of course before it is in blossom, either with a solution of whale oil soap, and lye, or still better, use high fire test kerosene, mixed with ten times its volume of water.* coccus OLEAE. {See Plate XIL) The characteristics of this insect are the following : The egg is orange color, oblong-ovoid in shape (Fig 4). Larva, (Fig. 5, 6,) which hatches in fifteen days from deposit of egg, is very agile in movement, body a depressed ovoid-oblong, composed of eleven rings; one, cephalic, three thoracic which are the largest, and seven abdominal short ones. The antennae silky and nine jointed, (Fig. 12), the first of which is short and thick, the second verv small and the third is the largest of all. After the last ab- dominal ring there is a wedge shaped appendage nnd from the pos- terior anrfes of this rins: start two bristles as Ions; as the abdomen. The tarsi which forms almost a continuation of the tibia have two joints, the last of which has two small claws and two filaments, end- ing in buttons. The outlines. of the body are fringed with short hair, general color pale yellow, the eyes brown. When the first shedding takes place the chrysalis becomes fixed and adherent. The bodv o^aduallv extends iself and the caudal fil- •J CT' %J aments drop away. ' The figure and transformation varying accord- ins: to the sex. The male chrvsalis after the first moultini^ has the form of an ellipse, with a ridge running lengthwise the centre of the back, with two other ridges crossing it at right angles. This length- wise ridge is cut off square near the head and from it spring two other smaller rido'es which terminate in eves. The ring's of the bodv are indistinct, the margins are spread out like a plate, they are rounded at the bottom and lightly fastened together. The antenna? ♦Kerosene is given the preference as a wash for olive trees, but care should be taken that the quality is first-class. It should be carefully experimented with before being used, in order to see if it will hold ibe water in solution, for if it does not, it may result in killing- the trees. See Mr. Ell wood Cooper's relation of his experience, before the Fruit Growers' Convention, held in Santa Barbara, April 12, 188S. THE OLIVE 109 and feet are not visible from a back view. Elevated portions of the body are reddish colored, the expanded portions yellow, and the eyes black. After some days the second shedding takes place. When the chrysalis has reached its full development it is a little more than a twelfth of an inch in length. Then comes the last transformation, the shell bursts and the perfect winged creature appears. (Fig. 8.) The female chrysalis differs from the male by having a wider body, and the lateral posterior lobes undivided. It is agile and ac- tive. The antennae and feet extend bevond the marmn of the bodv but in repose are drawn in and cannot be seen from a back view. The segmentary divisions are the same as in the larv«. When suf- ficiently developed to reach a twelfth of an inch in length, it as- sumes an elongated octangular figure. AVhen in motion the feet are not visible beyond the body, the antennae alone over-reaching it. The back has a ridge running lengthwise, with tw^o other ridges crossing it as has been described in the male. In this stage it is torpid. The last moulting now takes place and it passes to the stage of the perfect insect. (Fig. 9, 10, 11.) The male insect (Fig. 8) has a slender, elongated body, eyes very distinct, antennae delicate, thorax well defined, abdomen long, and ending in two filaments twice as long as the body, and furnished wath a stiletto shaped appendage. The wings are colorless and trans- parent and have two thick sinews running lengthwise through them. The body is of a reddish yellow in color and the eyes are black. The female insect has an ovoid-oblong body with skull and seg- mentary division outlines evenly fringed. There is a notch at each eve and one at the caudal extremitv. The antennae and feet are concealed by the expansion of the sides of the body. Between the posterior lobes and the anus there is a space triangular in shape, in wdiich by the aid of a microscope, two symmetrical lobes can be seen, and in the center a caudal a])pendage. The back is of a greenish 110 IHE OLIVE color marbled with black, the ridge down the center being of a light- er shade. From a ventral view the rings of the body can be plainly seen^ and also the feet, antennae and borer; all of which are of a pale yel- lowish green color; the eyes are black. The length is from a fifth to a sixth of an inch. As soon as the female is perfectly developed, it becomes seden- tary, attaching itself to a leaf or the wood of a branch and depos- its its eggs, first covering itself completely with a cottony snbstance, which exudes from its body. In this hiding place it empties itself of from four hundred and fiftv to five hundred eo;o;s. The larv^^, as soon as hatched, break through this covering and scatter broad- cast, the mother remaining for some time longer, the substance sur- roundino' her hardens and forms a shell which she breaks throuoli and abandons. The time of the metamorphosis is not constant ; from May to September, insects, larv?e and eggs can be found at the same time. This insect draws its nourishment from the sap of the tree, and the branches attacked w^ill whither away. It frequently occurs, that on branches selected by this parasite, the black smut or Eust is generated. Its destruction is not difficult, it only being necessary to spray the tree, at different seasons of the year, wdth kerosene mixed with water, or some preparation of whale oil soap. Should these remedies be ineffectual, the diseased limbs should be cut away and burned. The presence of ants on a tree are an indication that these insects are about. The ants are very fond of them and are a valuable aux- iliary in rheir destruction. LECAXIL3I OLEAE. {See Plate XII Fig, 17, 18.) The larvse resemble greatly those of the Coccus oleae just described, w^ith this difference in the female ; in the adult stao-e it THE OLIVE 111 has the aspect of a tortoise shell, and is of a dark chestnut color, very convex, with the ridge in the middle of the back and the two lateral ones very distinct. As soon as the larva hatches, it leaves its coverino' and the mother dies. The habits of this insect and the methods for its destruction are the same as given for the Coccus oleae. CISTICOCCl 8 POLLINII. On the branches that are somewhat languid where dried berries and leaves are adherent, can be found in the forks, and at the stem of the leaves, small excrescences, like a grain of corn, the color of the dry wood. On opening one, an outside shell is seen, and in this is a soft heart shaped body or sack which is orange color and enveloping as many as thirty eggs. In April the egg has the germ well developed, and in May the larva appears. It is oblong-ovoid, and has the antennae and feet shorter and more robust than the Coccus oleae just described. The antennae are six jointed and terminating in a group of bristly hair. The femora are very large and on the last abdominal ring there are three short appendages, each terminating in a short bristle. The ultimate transformation of this insect has never been ascertained. The damage done by it ho^vever is identical with that of the Coccus oleae, and the proper method of destroying it is to cut off and burn the infected branches. TRIPS OLEAE. This insect is also called the olive louse. The damage caused by it is very similar to that previously described. The larva is soft, oblong, and narrow behind, orange colored, antennae whitish, feet black. The head is square in front, curving in at the top, the eyes protruding, and placed midway the length of the head; antennae short and thick, rings of the thorax large. The abdomen has eiofht rino;s which are frino'ed on the sides with stiff hair. Feet and femora robust, tibia as long as the femora, tarsi short and thick, and like, the libia, terminating in short fine bristles. 112 THE OLIYE The perfect insect has a slender elongated body, head cyhndrical, longer than wide, j^i'otrnding eyes, antennae nine jointed, upper thorax almost hexagonal, wider than it is long^ abdomen wider in the middle than at the base, and composed of segments posteriorly rounded, and in the female ending in the ovary, w^iicli is nearly horn shaped. Upper wings nearly reaching to abdominal extremi- ties, fringed with long hair, reaching about two-fifths the way round the body, under wings plain and shorter, the feet robust, the femora swollen, the tibia small at the base and enlarged at the extremities, the tarsi short and thick, double jointed and finished with two deli- cate claws. General color a splendid black, the antennae yellow, the upper wings a dirty white. The length of body nine hun- dredths of an inch. The Trips exist in the clefts of the branches and among the buds; and if there are manv of them, they will extend themselves to the under-part of the leaves. They are agile and fly well. The female dej^osits her eggs wherever she happens to be, and the larvae remain in the same place. About a month is necessary for the different changes to take place. In the spring and autumn they produce several broods. At the beginning of winter, those that survive, conceal themselves under the bark, or in its crevices and rest quietly till the following spring. When the Trips are in great numbers and invade many branches, the trees infested should be shaken, first spreading a cloth beneath, to gather up the larvae, chrysalides^ and winged specimens that may foil. If the branches have been long infected it will be better to take them off* outright and burn them. Spraying with kerosene in the autumn before these lice have thoroughly secreted themselves under the bark, will probably answer every purpose. The Apple, Greedy, and Red Bay Scale insects have all been noticed on the olive in California, but so far as known do not seem to have inflicted much iniurv on the trees, and are easily extermi- nated by the application of the usual remedies. BLACK SCALE OR COCCUS OLEA AND LECANIUM OLEA. P1.ATEXII yl. Q PLATE XIL— COCCI S OLEAE AND LECANIUM OLEAE. DLAC K S( ALE. Fio\ J. — Small branch attacked bv scale, a, small woodv excres- cence which sometimes appears on olives attacked by this insect : b. h, leaves which show on lower side some young scales covered with cottony substance ; c, c, the shells of dark brown which cover the females and their eggs as yet unopened ; d, d, d, other old shells, in which are eggs, the larvae haying gone out; e, e, ants searching for scale of whom thev are very fond, (natural size.) Fio'. 2. Leaf showino; on lower side two scales {a) male [h] fe- male, (natural size.) Twio' showino; at ia) shell of dead female scale. The egg (increased.) The larva just closed in, seen from above (enlarged.) The same seen from below (enlarged.) The male in chrysalis sta2;e (enlaro-ed.) The same as insect (enlarged.) The young female (enlarged.) g. 10. The adult female, seen from above (enlarged.) The same seen from below (enlarged.) Antenna, (enlarged.) Foot, (enlarged.) View of anus, from above, (enlarged.) Same from below, (enlarged.) Female at point of hatching, seen from below. Female laying eggs, seen from above, (enlarged.) Adult female, >^e(^\\ froi:i above, (enlarged.) Fi<^' o O. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 6. Fig. 7. Fio-. 8. Fig. 9. Fig. 10. Fig. 11. Fig. 12. Fig. 13. Fig. 14. Fio- X i^. 15. Fig. 16. Fig. 17. Fig. 18. THE OLIVE llo CYXIPS OLE.E. This insect has long antennae which are enlarged slightly near the ends with fourteen or fifteen joints according to sex. The upper wings have three small cubical cells at the base. The borer at base of abdomen is placed between two blade shaped appendages. The female bores into the branches and deposits her eggs. The result- ing larvae gnaws the bark, wood, and even the pith, digging little winding tunnels. The buds on the branches attacked soon wither away. This insect reaches its perfect develoj^ment about the beginning of summer. The methods for its destruction should be the same as for the Hylesinus oleiperda. PTEKOMALUS QUADRUM. This insect has antennae like an elbow, having nine joints, the first long and the last oval. The head is large and broad, the abdomen of the female p.rolonged into a conical point. Wings without radiating cells. Tarsi with first joint the longest. Borer scarcely visible. Head a splendid bronze green. Upper wings transparent, without sinews, and with two black spots in each near the outer edge. The Antennae and feet black. Tarsi deep yellow. Its habits are about the same as the insect just described. PRAYS OLEELLUS. {See Plate XIIL) This formidable enemy of the olive is known as the olive moth. The egg is globular in form (Fig. 7), and its surface is composed of minute tubercles. In color it is milky white, and is about a hundredth of an inch in diameter. The larva (Fig. 8, 8a, 8b) has a long, soft body, with fourteen rings, one cephalic, three thoracic, and ten abdominal. It has three pairs of true feet in the thoracic rings, and five false pairs in the third, fourth, fifth, sixth.;, and tenth abdominal rings. 114 THE OLIVE The head is horn shaped, broader than it is long, with a convex bulb on each side. Two indented lines, starting from the base, cross in the middle of the back of the head, and form a V in front. There are five or six little dots on either side of the head. The antennae are very small, with three joints. The first thoracic ring is flat and smooth. The second and third have a transversal crease, on each side of which are two minute tubercles, each containing a bristly hair. The first eiodit abdominal ring's are uniform ; tliev are broader than long, with three tubercles on each side, each holding a bristle. The ninth ring has six hairy tubercles equidistant from each other. The last ring is rounded and shield-shaped in the back, and has two false feet, which are larger than the others, and which project on either side. When the larva is first hatched, its color is an ashv oTcen, witli the head light red. The first thoracic ring contains two brown spots, and the feet are black. As the larva increases in size, these colors become more decided ; the head changes to a bright red, the back of the first ring inclines to a pale yellow, and the spots on it become black and nearly square. 'The last abdominal ring in some larvae becomes brown, in others not. Subsequently a darker line appears each side of the center of the back, extending from the second thoracic to the ninth abdominal ring. These lines continue to darken, and between, them Avill appear a pale yellow streak. The backs of the first thoracic and last abdominal rings become a straw color. Some larvae do not chano^e color till after their transforma- tion into the pupa stage. Tlieir greatest length is one-third of an inch. The pupa is elongated, (Fig. 9, 9 a, 9 b,) and gradually tapers dow^nward in a conical shape, rounded in front ; the wings, antenn[e, and eves are visible. In its first davs, the color is a lio-ht o;reen, but grows darker as did the larva. Its length is about a quarter of an THE OLIVE 115 inch. The coeoon which envelops the pupa is composed of silky filaments so finely woven as to be transparent. The moth (Fig. 10, 10-1, 10 a, 10 b,) has a rounded head cover- ed with narrow scales. Antennae wiry, with globular joints. Upper edge of upper wings fringed Avith soft hair, lower edge bare. Low- er wings shorter than upper, and fringed all around with hair which is longer on the upper than on the lower edge. Half way the length of the posterior tibia, are two long spurs. Body, antennae and feet, cov- ered w^ith ashy gray scales. Upper wings a whitish ash color, with a silvery gloss, with a disk-shaped black spot midway the wing, near the lower edge, and another less marked near lower outside corner. The remainder of the Aving is dotted Avith very minute black specks, irregularly placed. The loAver wings of a uniform dark ash color. Length, a quarter of an inch, with the wings folded, nearly half an inch with the wings spread. The foregoing is a description of the moth in its tpyical condition and in a state of perfect preservation. The upper wings sometimes vary in the number and size of the spots. There are three generations of the moth. First: The winter generation, Avliich draw their nourishment from the leaves and tender buds. Second : The spring generation, which devours the germ of the blossom even before it opens. Third: The summer generation, Avhich attacks only the kernel of the seed. In February the eggs of the first generation are seen on the under part of the leaf (Fig. 1 a a,). In the last days of that month the larva hatches and commences to consume the foliage (Fig. 1 b,) mak- ing galleries under the epidermis of the leaf which takes the color of the dry leaf and becomes transparent. Later on, this gallery is burst by the young grub, which continues to prey upon the leaves, (Fig. 1 c,) enveloping itself in silken threads, as a screen against external a2:ents. Some larvae consume the entire web of the leaf 116 THE OLIVE (Fig. 1 cL) and all sliiiii the direct action of the sun. At the end of twenty-five or thirty days (about the last of March) the larva commences its transformation into the pupa, weaving on the same leaf (Fig. 1 <^), a cocoon which takes about twenty-four hours. In another twenty-four hours the last change takes place, and they acquire the semblance of the pupa (Fig. 9, 9 a, 9 b.) They remain in a lethargic state for twelve or fourteen days, when the moth ap- pears, which is about the first of April. The moths live a month or more, and from the middle to the last of April they flutter about the olive in the evening when the sun is gone. During the day they remain qniet among the leaves and there the female deposits her eggs. The larvse of the second oeneration hatch in the first half of Mav and assault the floral cluster, penetrating within the blossom and consuming the pistil and gemmules (Fig. 2 a a). One larva can in this Wciv destrov twentv or more blossoms. In the first half of June *j \j %j they change into pupoe and in seven or eight days after into moths. These live a little more than a month and towards the beo'innino; of July the female deposits her eggs one by one, piercing the calix of the berry. It is seldom that two eggs are deposited in one berry. THIRD GEXERATIOX. The eggs which have been deposited in the olive hatch in about ten days, and the larvae penetrate into the seed of the berry and con- sume first the skin about the kernel, and eventually the whole al- mond. (Fig. 5, e, d.) When they have attained their full develop- ment they issue from the fruit by boring a hole in the softer part of the seed near the stem, which being thus weakened causes the olive to fall from the tree. The larva w^eaves its cocoon at once, on either fruit, stem or leaves. In eight or ten days, that is, from. the last of September to the middle of October, the moth of this third generation will appear, from wdiich the generation of the following Februarv will have THE OLIVE 117 origin. The damage caused by the moth we have already stated. Those of the first generation injure only a portion of the leaves, those of the second consume the blossoms which would be trans- formed into fruit, those of the third take the fruit itself. The different methods that may be suggested to combat the moth may be reduced to these three: First — To cut away in February and March the branches which shelter the first generation. Their presence can be detected by the appearance of the leaves, which become transparent. Second — By gathering the olives of August and September as soon as they commence falling, the larvae at this time being inside the fruit, and the subsequent treatment, in the usual way of oil making, will accomplish its destruction. Third, The instincts of this insect, as well as others of its kin- dred, to hover about a flame, can also be utilized as a factor in its extermination. Fires can be built among the trees about sunset, or may be carried in suitable vessels from place to place. Mean- while the trees should be shaken to dislodge the insects and attract them to the light. This last operation must be performed either the last of April, from the middle to the end of June, or from the last of September to the middle of October, when the insect is in its last phase as a moth. DACUS OLE.E, OR OLIVE FLY. {See Plate XIV) This is perhaps the most injurious to the olive of all insects, on account of the facility with which it multiplies, and the damage it can cause in a brief period of time. We may also add that it is the most common, the -most numerous and the most invincible of all its enemies. The egg (Fig. 9) is ovoidal, elongated in form, and of a milky white color. Length about one-fortieth of an inch. The larva (Fig. 10, 10 a, 10 b,) is conical in form, elongated, and is composed 118 THE OLIVE of fourteen rings. The mouth is furnished Avith two sharp, scaly black hooks (Fig. 10 a,) and on either side the base of the second ring there is a calix-formed papilla, (Fig. 10 b,) the edges of which are scalloped. The twelfth ring is the broadest of all. The thir- teenth has small papillae on each side. The last ring is the smallest and from a back view shows the anus and two lower false feet. The tracheal canals run in a flexuous line to the thirteenth rino; where they connect, near the papillae, with a transversal canal. The gen- eral color of the body is a dirty white. The teguments are so trans- parent that the tracheal and alimentary canals can easily be ob- served. The papilla on the second and thirteenth rings are red- dish in color. Maximum length a trifle over a quarter of an inch. The pupa is an elongated ovoid in shape. The first and last rings are visible only from a ventral view. (Fig. 11, 11 a, 11 b.) The papillae of the second and thirteenth rings retain their primitive form. All the rings are fluted transversely. In the first period the pupa is of a dirty white tinge, but changes to a light yellow, the papillae remaining red as does the orifice of the anus. Its length is one-seventh of an inch. The head of the perfect fly (Fig. 12.), is a little broader than the anterior part of the thorax. The eves are larw and black, anten- nae three jointed. Its color is sometimes a light straw, and at oth- ers a deep yellow. Of the three joints (Fig." 12 r/.), the first is short, the second a lit- tle longer, the third twice as long as the second, and ending in a flexuous bristle, longer than itself Upper thorax gray, with three lengthwise black lines. Back of abdomen, specked with black, with a lengthwise band, and lower edges of the first two rings a deep yellow. Ventrical, a dirty dark yellow. Wings glossy, with blotches of brown in apex, sometimes another blotch on lower edge, at the extremity of the anal nerve. The roots of tlie wings are a pale yellow. Feet light, tarsi a lit- tle darker. The borer and ovisac (Fig. 12 /;.) is about the same THE OLIVE 119 length as the abdomen, and is a dark red. The point of the borer is black. The male differs from the female by the absence of the bor- er, and by having the posterior margin of the third abdominal ring frino;ed with black hair tnrned backwards. The bodv is one-sixth of an inch in length. The date of the most copious hatching of these insects is variable. When the ohve has reached its greatest development (about the end of July) the flies just transformed from the pupa appear. Copula- tion then takes j)lace, and the female, choosing the ripest fruit, de- posits her eggs there, usually one egg to each berry. (Fig. 1 a. c. b,b). In less than twenty four hours an amber spot will apj)ear on the sur- face of the olive wdiere the e^^ was dei30sited, which will turn darker after a little time. The spots can be seen only when the berry is green, as it grows ripe they are hardly discernible. Each female deposits about one hundred eggs. In ten or fifteen days these eggs hatch. The larva, with the hooks of borer, attacks the pulp of the fruit, and then makes its way into the seed, boring a winding tunnel. The pulp of the berry above the tunnel will become reddish wrinkled and transparent, thus showing the- presence of the enemy. The larva lives from tliirtv to fortv da vs. Some chano'c into the pupa form inside of the seed and also into flies, but the greatest number abandon the berry by making an aperture through the per- icarp and change into pupae either in the ground, or in the crevices on the trunk of the tree. The flies appear after thirty or forty days. The duration of the three j^eriods, that is the egg, larva and fly may vary as much as twenty days from the foregoing, as eggs deposited at one time may be hatching for twenty days consecutively, and eggs, larvae, pupae, and flies can be found at the same time. The pupae of the last generation do not change in the given time, that is in thirtv or fortv davs but remain in that state through the spring till the fruit has reached some size and the prosperity of their 120 THE OLIVE offspring is assured. Then the fly appears ; it usually lives from twenty to thirty days on the trees, passing from branch to branch and sucking the sap wherever found. It is rather torpid during the cool weather but very agile when it grows warm. The damage caused by this fly consists in the consumption of from one-third to one-half the pulp of the berry, thus diminishing the vield of oil and in leavins: inside the seed a mass of excrement, which deteriorates its quality. There are three expedients for combating the olive fly : First — To gather the fruit as soon as it is barely ripe, and crush it at once, thus destroying the larvae and pupae within and pre- venting further multiplication. The localities most afflicted by these pests are those where the harvesting of the olive is protracted through the winter and part of the spring, either from lack of suffi- cient help, or to make the white oil, as is done in Lucca and on the Riviera. These, in fact, are the regions devastated most frequently by this fly. Second. — To keep the trunk of the tree clean and to spray the trees after the harvest is over with something strong enough to kill the pupae, and taking care that not even one berry remains on the ground. Third. — To cultivate the o'round well about the tree, after first shaking it and thus to bury all olives containing eggs, larvae, or pupae. The fruit when "picked should not be kept in heaps, or the heat engendered w^ill cause the flies to hatch immediately. This closes the list of insects that are known to prey upon the olive. Some we already have wdth us, others a close degree of scrutiny may reveal, and still others let us hope w^e may ever be spared. PARASITIC PLANTS OR VEGETABLE ENEMIES. The olive tree is also subject to injury from the action of several parasitical plants of which the principal and best known are the following. THE PRAYS OLEELLUS OR OLIVE MOTH. PLATE XIII.— PRAYS OLEELLUS. THE OLIVE MOTH. Fig. 1. Branch attacked by the first generation of moths, [a, a,) eggs deposited on lower side of leaf, (7>) larva which feeds on the leaf, [c) a dult larva which does the same. Fio\ 2. Infested l)v the second <>:eneration on the blossoms when forminii;. Fio'. o. Infested bv the third 2:eneration at work on the fruit. Fig. 4. Young olive enlarged to show position of egg of this insect. Fig. 5. Full grown olive cut in two, inhabited by larva, {a) l)ulp, (b) nut, [c) seed, {cl) larva of the moth which has already consumed a part of the seed, {e) part of seed bored and full of ex- crement of the larva. Fig. 6. Full grown olive (enlarged)^ from which the larva luis departed to become a chrysalis, {a) pulp, (b) nut, {c) seed almost empty only the outer skin remaining, {d) excrement left by the larva, ic) exit of larva. Fio\ 7. E^-o; (enlarged. ) Fig. 8. 8, 8a, 8b", Larvae in three stages of development. Fig. 9. 9, 9a, 9b, Chrysalides corresponding to hirv^e 8, 8a, and 8b, (enlarged.) Fig. 10. 10, 10a, and 10b, Moths with stages of development, 10(1), the same with wings closed, 10(2) the same seen from the side. THE OLIVE 121 AGAEICUS MELLEUS. {Root rot.) This fungus has a flat, thin, scaly top with a fluted expanded margin and spongy stalk. On first appearing, it is whitish, but afterwards becomes mottled with red. Spore a floury w^hite. The hairs which are found on the head are black. It is found at the base of coniferous and fruit trees as well as the olive tree. Its vegetable system is wrapped about the subterranean part of the tree, and its presence can be recognized by an abundant dis- charge of resinous matter on the trunk and principal roots, especi- ally of coniferous trees, and by a white creeper which develops be- neath the bark of the roots and trunk, and by brown filaments re- sembling fibrous roots which spread out and run over the ground. The creepers which are first seen are produced from the germin- ation of the spore. Developing from this, the parasite shews itself on the roots, in the form of a filament or creeper, the outer covering being smooth and dark, while the pith or marrow is white. These creepers take root in the wood, penetrating the pith and spreading out until in the form of a membrane, they fix themselves in the re- generating zone. By some writers this root rot has been given the name of Rhizomorpha subcorticallus. In a fresh state it has an agreeable odor and seen at a distance in the dark it has a phosphor- escent appearance. The regenerating zone attacked by the Ehizomorpha ceases to be prolific as the formation of new wood has been interrupted. The cellular and fibrous elements invaded by these tendrils turn brown. After this plant has devastated the lower part of the trunk of the tree, it spreads upw^ard to the surface of the ground, showing itself in the autumn through crevices in the bark. The decay of the Mulberry, Chestnut, Fig, and sometimes citrus trees, it is be- lieved is principally due to this fungus. The tree withers gradually without apparent cause, the -climate and chemical or physicial con- 122 THE OLIVE ditions having no part in its decline. The propagation of tiiis dis- ease through the creeper, can be effected by the contact of heakhy with infected phmts. Infection through the spores commences in the trunk, and is transmissible by the wind. Where this malady is suspected, if it exists, an examination will show the funo'oid o'rowth of the A<>:aricus melleus. The onlv rad- ical treatment for this parasite is to uproot the infected trees at once, and burn at least the affected parts. The extirpation of the mushroom will prevent propagation by spores. Other trees should not be planted immediately in ground from which diseased ones have been removed. Fl MACtO OLE E, black SMUT OK RUST. (See Bate XV,) This is an ej^iphyte fungus which attacks the branches and foliage of the olive more especially on the under parts. (Fig. 1.) It consists of black sootv blotches wlucli form an incrustation more or le>s dense, which is smooth on the adhering; side and scalv on the outer side. The bhick ])0wdej, o-reatlv ma^'nified, is seen in (Fiu\ 2.) The trees attacked by this l)lack smut, languish as it impedes the exhalation of the leaves. It manifests itself mostly on plants thait have not sufficient liirlit. or which are situatcnl in soil that is ])oov, or low and humid. Sometimes it follows innuediatelv the invasion of the scale which have entee])lcd the branches or where the Honey dew prevails. These ai'c conditions favorable to this fungus. Some entomologists claim that the scale is the CcUise of this fundus This is a (piestion in olive cukure tluit has been widely discusseii and has occupied the attention of European exj^erts for the last hundred vears with tlie resuk that it mav now be stated ])Ositivelv that this fungus can be propagated without the aid of the s(*ale insect. The black scale and the 1)lack fungus are two separate and distinct r)ests to which tlie olive tree is subject and thomih tliev aiv (^ften seen toa'cther, have orioins entirelv distinct. TK^ OLIVE 123 The black fungus is due solely to local causes. There is either too much dampness or not enough light. The infected branches should be cut off and burned and the tree sprayed with kerosene as heretofore described. Xo olive tree on ground hio-h enoua'h for a sufficiency of air and ventihition was ever afflicted with this pest. The cultivation of the soil ])rovokes moisture and stimulates the vegetable gj'owth of the tree, so where the black fungus appears, cease this cultivation, do not stir up the soil, but on the contrarv check the excessive orowth and humiditv, bv allowino; the surfoce of the ground to harden. Prune the trees so that each may have a maximum of light and air. If the excess of moisture cannot be remedied by these means, the soil must be drained. VlSCr^I AL1U3I, MISTLETOE. The mistletoe is propagated from one ti'ee to another by its seed. It extends its green roots through the branches from which it draws its nourishment, greatly enfeebling the tree. The only method (^f destroying it is, to cut off the l)]'anches on which it has effected a lodgmeut, and burn them. LrCHEXS AXI) .AFOSSES. It is erroneously claimed by many writers that the mossv sub- stance which grows upon the trunk and l)ranches of the olive and other trees is a parasite. Instead it is composed of moss and lichens, the i)rincipal ones of which are Parnielia, Lccanara, Verrucaria, etc.. among the lichens, and Ilyt^sum, Leskea, ihwum and Orthotrichum anion o- the mosses. Tliese last are cormus fungi, and all are e])iphytes and live on the outside of the dead bark and exercise no parasitical influence. Thev shield the bark from the sun, ))ut the humiditv thev enoender is a frecpient cause of rot, and they also serve as nesting places for hurt- ful insects. For these reasons it is well to liberate the trees from them by scraping the infected parts, or s])raying with a solution of lime. 124 THE OLIVE HOXEY DEW. The Honey dew consists of a gummy sugary perspiration on the leaves, especially on the under side, on the flowers, and on the youno- branches. This substance sometimes forms itself into a varnish uni- form in its deposit, and at others into drops like dew. This disease attacks the Olive, Poplar, Linden, Orange, Walnut, Willow and Elm trees and also the grape vine. The real cause of it is un- known. Some writers think that the viscous matter is exuded from the cochineal insect which infests the plants, but others have observed that this disturbance exists both on trees in the open air, and on those enclosed in greenhouses where there were no insects. The popular idea is that the humor emitted by the morbid leaves is a production of the plant itself, caused by the unfavorable influence of a hot, dry soil. Admitting this to be the probable cause, the remedy would be copious fertilizing and to prune the tree so as to keep the top in proportion to the spread of the roots. SCAB. The scab manifests itself in wart-like excrescences as large as wal- nuts, often affectins: the vounsiest and most slender branches. Tiie plant impoverished by this pest takes on a languid appearance and sometimes dies. Ordinarily this evil is met with on soil that is low or too rich and not .sufficiently ventilated, or where trees are placed too near together, in trees excessively pruned, or in those maltreated in the o-atherins; of the fruit bv beating with poles. Some writers hold the opinion that the scab is caused by either a vegetable or animal parasite, but the most diligent microscopic ob- servations have never revealed the presence of an insect, either be- fore, after, or contemj^oraneonsly with, the ajDparition of the small protuberances. The cause therefore must arise from some disturb- ance of the functions provoked principally by contusions, either irom hail storms or by poles in beating down the fruit, by excessive prun- ing, or by absence of light and air. The contusions of the cortical THE OLIVE 125 tissues and of the regenerating zone has the same effect that the puncture of an insect would, and at times j^roduces the enlargement of the zone and sometimes the enlaro^ement of the herbaceous tis- sues. These enlargements in time extend to the wood under the bark and cause the bark to draw away thus affording a receptacle for different insects. This would however be an effect and not a cause of the evil. Some orchardists remove the protuberances by shaving them off with a sharp knife, but this does not restore the tree to health as this cutting does not remove the primary cause. The first method for its cure is to keep the trees wide apart, well lighted, to prune spar- ingly, and to abolish the barbarous usance of beating the trees when gathering the berries. Senor Tablada says he found an insect eight hundredths of an inch in length in the act of making these warts and cured the tree by cut- ting them off. .THE OLIVE ROT. {See Plate XVI.) The rot is the gangrene which appears on the trunk and larger branches of the olive tree. At times it is so extensive as to con- sume nearly all the cylindrical part of the wood leaving the larger branches hollow and rendering them an easy prey to the action of the winds. When a wound is made on the olive tree either bv the breakins: of a limb or by pruning, and is not at once shielded from contact with the air, a process of canker is initiated, provoked by the hu- midity found there, the action of insects and the spores of certain lichens or creepers. Trees improperly pruned are usually the ones attacked by the rot. To prevent it, an olive orchard should be placed on well drained soil and receive plenty of light. The trees should not be bruised and wdien a branch is cut off the wound should be immediately covered with grafting wax or a mixture of cow dung and clay. When the rot has taken hold the diseased part 126 THE OLIVE sliould be cut away till the sound wood is reached and this should be well spread with grafting wax. INSECTICIDES. If the orchard is sprayed once a year it will be sufficient, and the best time is in the winter sfter all danger from frost has passed. Wliah^ oil soai) is an excellent remedy but it has not the efficiQucv j[ f • ' of kerosene. It will kill the coccids but has no effect upon their eoHvs. Kerosene pure and sim])le would be a dangerous and entirely unnecessary remedy to use, but diluted ten times with water it bc- c()mes much less expensiye and by far the most efficacious. The United fStates Dejiartment of Agriculture has imblished the foUowino; reciiK^ to make thirty ii;allons of vs^ash. EMULSIOX. Kerosene, 2 gallons 67 per cent. Whale oil "soai^, h i^ound .,., ^ ^ V oo per cent. Water, 1 gallon j Boil the soap inthe water till entirely dissolyed then add it to the two gallons of kerosene, aiid churn the mixture thoroughly for five or ten minutes. The emulsion if perfect forms a cream which thickens on cooling, and should adhere without oiliness to the sur- face of ^^dass. Any dano:er in the use of kerosene lies in the faulty or half-made emulsion. The soap may be of insufficient strength through exposure or some similar cause, wdien an increase will ohYioQ the oil and water to emulsify, and will also make the enud- sion nearly permanent. The percentage of kerosene should not exceed eighty per cent., as the oil weighs six and a lial^* pounds to the gallon, while water weiodis eidit, and more cannot easily be held in suspension in water. On the other hand in the process of emulsification, kerosene loses a portion of its yalue as an insecticide, and emulsions containing less than thirty per cent, of oil, although they may not separate THE OLIVE 127 when diluted with water, are nevertheless too much weakened fur effective use a^'ainst scale insects. The reason that high fire test kerosene is recommended as an in- secticide is, that the lighter oils with which it is associated in a ci'ude state, have been eliminated by the refining process, these be- ing exceedinglv deadlv to vegetation, leaving the refined kerosene which shouhl always be used for this purpose. The heat of the sun increases to an injurious extent the action of kerosene, and stronger solutions than that above given if used at all, should be applied on cloudy days or in the evening. Experiments with different grades of refined oil, the Elaine amongst the number, show that they all emulsify equally well if the alkali contained in the soap is of sufficient strength. But the Elaine separates the soonest. The kerosene wash should be applied in a fine spray from the center of the trees, and iiot the least of its recommendations will be its very great economy. In addition to insect pests and vegetable parasites, the olive tree numbers among its enemies the blackbird, the robin, the starling, the jay, and the crow, as they are all eager devourers of its fruit, but it is aided and greativ assisted bv the nightingale, the titmouse or tomtit, and the wood])ecker, as they never touch the berries, and are insect eaters only, and should therefore be encouraged in the orchard. The predatory birds should be fired at in the air, so as not to wound the trees with the shot. The pugnacious English sparrow, by driving away all other birds, especially the little tomtit, is an enemy particularly to be marked for destruction. (WaY^en^f anil Qroi-ucf. CHAPTEE XI. " L'uliva quanto piu pende piu reiide."* THE FORMATIOIs^ OF THE OLIVE AND ITS FATTY SUBSTANCE. Dr. A. Fiuiaro, of Pisa, from some very interesting experiments conducted by him at tliat place in 1878, has been able to prove that the nut is the first part of the fruit to form. The olives ex- perimented upon were gathered from a farm near Pisa, at intervals from July 10th to February 25th, and carefully analyzed, with the object of studying the formation of the fatty material This fact had alreadv been stated bv Prof. A. Roussille. On the 25th of July "^ . nut itself was not perfectly formed, but on the 10th of Aug .^t it was quite perfect, though tender, and could not be detached from the fleshy part. On the 25th of September it had reached its full development. Then commenced the increase of size and weight of the pulp, and the rapid increase of the fatty matter, while the quantity of water diminished slowly, osciliating according to the atmospheric condi- tions of the days when the olives were gathered. These, after the 10th of August, increased gradually until the 10th of September. Between the 10th and 25th of September they almost doubled in weight. One hundred olives which on September 10th weighed 75.94 grams, on the 25th of that month weighed 144.22 grams. After this period the increase of weight was gradual, but only slight, up to the 25th of October; after that date a progressive and slow^ decrease set in. *The longer the olive hangs, the more it renders. THE DACUS LEA OR OLIVE FLY. PLATEXiy 7ig.!2 PLATE XIY.— DACUS OLE.E. THE OLIVE ELY. Fig. 1. Branch with fiy in act ofdepositing egg at [a), (bb) show- ing h>pots where eggs have been deposited, (c. cL) showing gallery cut by the larvie with pnr[)le lines. Fig. 2. Piece of pulp increased in size, a, a, wonnd made by l)or- ing, b, b, corresponding to cavity which contains the egg. Fio;. :>. Same with the skin raised to show the cavity containing^ the eo'g' at c. Fiii'. 4. Green olive showing larvae. Fig. 5. Mature olive with transparent lines showing gallery. Fig, 0. Same o]ien showing larva. Fig. 7. Same open showing chrysalis. Fig. 8. Same open showing hole of exit of larva. Fio'. [). Eo'g (enlarg'ed.) Fig. 10. Larva enlarged, 10 a, two first rings with claws, side view, (enlarged), 10b, Papilla at the l)ase of which opens the anter- ior extremity of tracheal canaL Fig. 11. Chrysalis (enlarged), 11a, the first ring still more en- larged, lib, (the last ring enlarged.) Fig. 12. Female insect, (enlarged) 12a, antenna side view, (en- laro:ed) 12b, l)orer, (enlaroed.) THE OLIVE 129 In fact the same one hundred olives GRAMS. On the tenth of October weighed 161.73 twenty fifth of October 163.93 tenth of November 117.53 twenty fifth of November 128.88 tenth of December 136.50 twenty fifth of December 1 36.40 tenth of January 163.85 twenty fifth of Januarv 109.85 tenth of Februarv 1 32.50 twentv fifth of Februarv 131.65 The variations are due to the quantity of water contained in the pulp according to the hygromic condition, the winds, the rain and the hoar frost which coincided with the o-atherins:. On the twenty fifth of November the olives were empurpled, and had a reddish pulp, on the tenth of December they had turned black and the pulp was still more highly colored, and on the tenth of February the pulp was entirely of a winey red. In one hundred parts of these olives the following proportion was found in weight of water, of dry material and of fatty material. 130 THE OLTVK ri -r -i- or :- -r X Ti -M -r .C_ w "-^ t-; 'T irt^ 'M* cc r-* o 1- c: X 'M — C: "M X -r "M -r i -^ X ^C iT ^1 C"- -^ ^ O ^ X 'M — C^l X c: X c X ri r j:r "M '' r- I- -M o '^'C — :^t - ^^ Tl C? T -C LT ^ "T' X X 3 c^ 3 ■^^ i:^ L^ "-^ Tl X rc X [ - M X X 'M CI .— ci i^ i-T r^ -* »o cc OC X :^ I;; -t' X ^1 o — ^ — +• -f X X .:n o :^. ^ >^ 0) I O O 3 CI r: Ci ■1 CI — I- ci Cl lC CI CI CI CI CI CI CI CI X ^ X X -- X CI ^ -J CI X o C^ CI CI CI I- r- ci ci c: CI r: X ci -f^ ct ct »c c: x" c 1 rt "t X -t- o C5 >c [- o X t^ '-c r ci ' - -r X - ci - l^ L- — I- -. t- ^ X r-' X ic X -r t — i ci "T r ci X 'C I X I- X CI r-. tH -f" --H re -f 1 - [ - ^ X cc C 1 X — C'^ CI !- _ 1 ^ t^' iC ■ ' * CI C4 CI "^ t^ — X ^ ( - CI X CI re r- -^ X ci •^ CI — X ci ~ I iC t Cl — Cl -Tf — X I - X X* Cl Cl X t^ — X Cl 1 ' L- •^ I^ -^ I- -— CJ r-^ Cl Cl ^ >^ Hi; - Cl r- 1 C^ ""^ -"^ o »c E3 Cl >, X :^i THE OLIVE 131 AVlience it is clear tliat :ii the l)er]"y tlie qaaiitity of water after tlie teiitli of Se])tei)il)ei' diiiiinislies oi-aduallv. From o9.7'> ])er cent, it falls 10 48.00 by the end of February thus losiiiii; about ID per cent, or one-fifth of its weia,"1{t. The percentag^e of oil, es])eeially of the pulj), in(*i'eas(\'^ notably from the (Mid of September to the cud of November, but after this time the increase is smalL The Italian country iolk luive a i)roverl) Avhich iiistlv savs: ''At Santa Reiia- i'ata (8 Oct.) every olive Ixm'I'v is oiled." From this tinu^ tlic ] ulp grows softer, and squeezed between llie thumb and iingiM', some lit- tle irlobules of oil can be s(hmi. Bv the investigations (^f Sioiior llarz, of Vienna, contirm^'d by th(]se of Roussille, it has been shown that the fatiu\^s of the olive is formed in little special cells of secretion precisely as the cliloro])hyl or i>:reeii colorino- matter is evolved and these are distributed thi'ouu'h tlie berrv side bv side. When the iruit is still vouni>' these cells contain a material which is not i'atty, nor is it starch, or any oi the hydrates of caibon similar to these substances but instead is charged v^dth nitrogen and contains a substance which in the process of ripe- ning;, takes on the charactei^ of a tou^h gum, wax, and fat. Finallv this com])oun(l material, cis maturity apj)roaches, licjuifies becomes oil ajid workino; from the insi(l(\ outwards, the meinbi'anes of the little cells themselves are gradually dissi^lved and the berry is idled with oil. Messrs. iioussille and Funaro have also discovcM'ed that while tlu^ fatty material of the pul[) is always on the increase up to maturity, that of the leaves on the other hand, is almost constant and always in such quantity as to overthrow the belief that tliere may l)e any connection whatever between them. The former nndoubtedlv is formed in the berry as Harz discovered by microsco])ical observa- tion. Funaro has further proved that the sugar of the leaves only appears when the oily substance is perfected, that is to say when the plant is near the term of its vegetative period and the fruit is well 132 THE OLIVE developed. In truth it is not found before November, the season when the oily material is formed in notable quantity, and on the other hand it is met with in December, January and even in Feb- ruary an epoch in which the vital functions are at the minimum of activity. The conclusion from this is, that the sugar existing in the leaves has no part in the formation of the fatty material, and it is not to be considered other than as a product of metamorphosis of other hydrates of carbon of secondary importance for oily plants. WHEX TO GATHER THE OLIVE. The time in which to harvest the olive varies according to clim- ate and the product desired. It may depend absolutely on climate, as the maturity of the olive is hastened and more oil is obtained where the temperature is high and vegetation has the advantage of a vivid light. So the olive matures earlier and carries more oil at the extreme south of its zone, but the oil is fatty, high-colored and only useful in manufactures or as an illuminant, being utterly useless for food. For the latter purpose it should carry little fat or color. Hence it follows that the northern part of the olive zone pro- duces the finest oils at full maturity, whilst towards the south to secure the same result it is necessary to anticipate and to harvest w^hile the berries are still yellowish or just turning purple. So in northern Italv and southern France a fine table oil is ob- tainecl from olives that are black and fully matured, and the famous white oil is made by allowing the berries to become over-ripe and deferring the harvest till March, April and even May. On the other hand, in southern Italy and Sicily a fine oil is ob- tained by early harvesting, mature berries giving an oil that is ex- ceedingly gross, dense, highly colored and of a disgusting taste. So when seeking to produce an oil for table use, the effect of the clim- .ate may be modified.to a certain degree. THE OLIVE 133 The so-called white oil is preferred simply because some markets demand it, but it is undesirable from every point of view. As it is made from over-ripe fruit it soon becomes rancid, and lacks the delicate flavor of oil made at just the proper time. But worse than all this it is made nt the expense of the tree, for it is evident that the sooner the tree can be relieved of the burden of its crop, the better it will recuperate for the following season. It is doubtful w^hether the olive produces more oil wdien picked barely ripe, or at full maturity, or when it commences to fall from the tree. The usual belief is in favor of a deferred harvest, and the country people express it in the couplet that heads this chapter. The longer the olive hangs The more it renders. This is an illusion. The longer the berries hang on the trees the greater is their exj)osure to a variety of perils; the birds devour many, more are beaten off by storms, and unless they are taken off the ground immediately, acquire an earthy flavor which renders them unfit for oil making. Another serious danger is that of being touched by frost which diminishes the yield of oil. But even sup- posing all olives to remain on the tree up to the point of full ma- turity, they are not making any more oil but are losing water. They become softer inasmuch as they lose in bulk, thus increasing the relative but not the actual quantity of oil. We may therefore draw the following conclusions ; First: That the greatest absolute quantity of oil is to be ob- tained when the olives are ripe. Second: That in a late harvest there is no gain in quantity but an actual loss in quality. Third: That in anticipating maturity in southern countries, it is possible to reduce the tendency to grossness, high color and bad taste and so produce a finer oil. HOW TO HARVEST THE OLIVE. From very ancient times the olive has been gathered by beating the trees with j^oles and so knocking the berries to the ground.. 134 THE OLIVE The temptation to do this is great. It is evident that it k the cheap- est way to get in the crop. Bnt it is penny wise and pound fooHsh, If the crop of that year was the only one to deal with, well and p'ood, there AYOuld he nothino; to say ao;ainst it, but the beating makes it impossible for the tree to bear the following year. Hence it is plain that instead of being the cheapest mode of deal- ing with a crop, it is the most expensive as it is one of the direct causes of the olive bearing; onlv everv other vear. Each leaf shelters a bud which in time wdll be a twio- or a blos- som, if the leaf is knocked off the bud is killed, for its life depends upon the preservation of the leaf, and these leaves are more plenti- ful on the fruit branches than any other part of the tree. Xo mat- ter how carefully the fruit be poled off, damage is sure to be done. Olives should be picked l)y hand from ladders. If the berries are to be immediately crushed they may be thrown upon a canvas cover placed about the tree to receive them ; Init if thev have to be carried anv distance or kept for anv length of time it will be best to handle them more carefully, as the bruises received on beino; thrown to the o'round cause an early decay of the berry to the 2:reat detriment of the oil. Different kin^ls of olives ripen at different periods and in order to make the best oil the berry should be gathered at the exact i)eiiod of its maturity and at no other. So a very large olive orchard should be made up of different varieties coming in at successive pe- riods, but a small one should consist of only one variety. Soil and locality also affect thenualitv of the oil. The same olive on different soils or on a hill and on a plain will give a very ditler- ent oil; and these should not be mixed, but made separately, or the quality of the whole may suffer. The olive takes on f )ur changes of color, although all the varie- ties do not strictly follow this rule: Green is followed by yellow, then a reddish i)urple which is succeeded by a wine red and lastly a black red or glossy bla^'k. If the berry is left upon the tree the THE OLIVE 135 skin finallv wrinkles and the color becomes a dull black. This is the state in which it is popularly supposed to give the most oil. which we have alreadv shown to be a fallacv but even ^rantin^ it to be true, the quality is inferior, the flavor gross and the oil soon be- comes rancid. An olive is fully ripe wdien on being squeezed be- tween the thumb and finger the soft pulp shows no wdiite, but for manv reasons, as we have seen, it mav be desirable to forestall this period. No time can be set when iui olive crop should be harvested. It mav varv bv weeks from one season to another, and it is iar bettei* on every account to antici])ate, than to defer the harvest. The ber- ries should be carefully gone over and ail leaves and dirt picked out; the former giving a bitter taste to the oil and the latter lessening the quantity as well as lowering the quality. What wall an olive orchard produce ? As we have seen, it is cus- tomary in Spain in estimating the annual oil product of an orchard to calculate that everv *six, trees will oive four 2:allons of oil. This at first glance appears to be a very small yield, but it must be re- membered that it is an estimate applied to the whole face of the country, that olive trees are very numerous in Spain and many or- chards are very old and in a ])Oor state of cultivation. Also that it is a general annual estimate inde])endent of fluctuations from year to year. A careful observation of the olive districts in Italv bv Pj'ofessi r Caruso, extending over many years, shows that the greatest produc- tion is found in Sicily, but not the finest quality. The Sicilian product runs as high as ninety gallons of oil to the acre, falling to fifty in Liguria and the Xeapolitan States, which would give a mean of seventy 2:allons to the acre for the whole of Italv. Mr. Cooper makes the statement that on a piece of two acres ( f ground seven year old trees averaged one hundred and twenty-two pounds of olives per tree. On the Quito Farm, Mission olive trees which were 2;rown from 136 THE OLIVE cuttings put into the ground in the spring of 1883, and transplanted to position, have now, July, 1888, a fair showing of fruit, one-half the total number of trees carrying berries on them in varying quantities ; and those trees grown from cuttings put in at the same time, and which from their position it was unnecessary to trans- plant, have attained a much greater size, and carry a correspond- ingly increased crop. Hence we may conclude : First — That the olive in California will give a remunerative crop in seven years from cutting. Second — That we may reasonably expect to secure from seventy- five to one hundred gallons of oil per acre from our olive orchards. The newness of the soil, coupled with the youth and vigor of the trees, assure us that we make no mistake in such an estimate. H n DO > o CO CI H O XI d en H r' < PLATE XV.— THE BLACK SMUT OR RUST. Fij>;. 1. An olive twig attacked by the ru8t, drawn from life, (once enlarged.) Fig. 2, Section of an olive leaf attacked by the rust, showing the parasite, (enlarged four hundred times.) Fig. 3. The rust on the berry. Qxtractior^, ^^'^^^S^ and^ ©Parifiea- tio^ of tfte ©if. CHAPTER XII. " And wine that maketh glad the heart of man, and oil to make his face to shine." — Psalms 104 vs. 15. A short quotation from the distinguished Prof. Cupari, of the University of Pisa, will give a clear idea of what is somewhat inac- curately called oil making, and correct a common error in regard to the process. He says, in his lesson on agriculture, '' Olive oil is not like the juice of the grape, which requires a chemical process to transform the sugar it contains into alcohol, in order that it may become wine ; the oil is there, ready made unthin the fruit, and the utmost that can be done is to extract it, just as it is, bursting the cells within which it is enclosed, by crushing the olives and then pressing them." "Olive oil is found, not made." One may fail to extract it, one may injure it in the process, it may lose in quality or even become rancid by careless handling or storage, but the one and only object of the oil mill is to extract, clarify and store the oil, while experience and skill will undoubtedly add much to the result of a given olive harvest, the fact remains that the oil is made aiid in the berry, A mortar and pestle will crush olives and the oil and water can be strained out, through cloth or crash by hand. The difference is not of j^rocess but of quantity to be dealt with. This should be clearly understood in California, as this interest grows. It is not beyond credence that the happy possessor of a few producing olive trees would be willing to devote the time and labor necessary to extracting his own oil for household use, with the simplest of home machinery and especially when the physician tells him the value of olive oil as both medicine and food; 10 138 THE OLIVE and the gourmet of the many additions it may make to the home menu; while the analyst warns him of the detected adulterations not merely of so called imported oils, but of adulterations passed off on the community as "California olive oil."* The analysis of the berry shows the following result : OIL WASTE f Water 51.25 ;?"^P ^ Fibre 14.38 ^^•^"^ (Oil 9.39 ''Oil of stone Pit 24.98 100.00 Fiber of stone 20.00 Oil of seed 62 Fiber of seed 16 Loss 4.20 9.39 .62 14.38 20.00 .16 Total 100.00 10.00 34.54 The following is the chemical analysis of the olive: Potash 57.336 Soda. 5.170 Lime ; 5.115 Magnesia 0.130 Oxide of Iron 0.305 Chloride 0.111 Phosphoric acid 0.929 Sulphuric acid 0.533 Siliceous acid 0.356 Carbonic Jaeid 29.985 100.000 THE COMPOSITION OF OLIVE OIL. Stearine C.^' H."" 0.« Palmatin C' H.8« 0.« Oleine C.^' H.i" 0.« Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen 76, 6 12, 4 11, 75, 9 12, 2 11, 9 77, 4 11, 8 10, 8 100, 100, 100, *See the late statement by t&e Horticultural Society of the adulterations practiced in San Francisco. -Pacific Rural Fress, July 7th, 1888. -THE OLIVE 139 The oil of the pulp is rich and of a delicious flavor, that of the stone is dark and cloudy, that of the seed contains essential oil, while the skin in its little cells contains an essential and resinous oil in small quantities. These oils of stone, seed and skin, far from adding to the oil of the pulp, would be a serious injury if not in such small quantities. From this it is obvious that in cultivating olives for oil, the varieties with much pulp and proportionately small seeds, should be selected, as is always done in the true oil countries. The proportion of oil to berry as given by reliable authori- ties runs from ten to twenty per cent, in weight. The Messrs Rae of Leghorn, olive oil exporters, in their pamph- let on the olive, give fourteen to twenty per cent, and eighteen to twenty for the finest oil varieties. Mr Cooper's best result as given, was ten and twelve per cent. Mr Ludovico Gaddi, and the agri- cultural manager at Santa Clara College, as well, estimate that forty pounds of berries will produce one gallon of oil, which is about eighteen per cent.; but 'this of course refers to well dried berries. It should be "aid that California olive culture is so comparatively recent and limited, that reliable statistics can hardly be expected. But it may be safely asserted that certain exaggerated statements which have appeared in print, as to percentage of oil to berries, will not be verified even in this exceptional soil and climate. In view of the fact that the processes of the oil mill, are simply to '^extract" the oil, the clarifying, whether by simple deposit or by passing the oil through refining material, being but a part of the general work of separating the oil from the solid and watery parts of the berry, it is evident that unless some mechanical difiiculty renders delay necessary or convenient, the berries will yield a better oil if this be extracted immediately or very soon after their gather- ing. That this is true is now admitted by all writers of value, and by all manufacturers of the fine grades of oil. The belief that olives retained for long periods in the store house produce as good an oil, and much more than the freshly worked — a belief held by the rus- 140 "THE OLIVE tics in the times of Cato and Columella; and controverted by both these writers — still holds its own among the more ignorant peasants and notably in Spain, where olives are often stored for months and occasionally for a year. Again, the immediate extraction within twenty four hours as advised by Messrs Rae as the best usage of Tuscany, will not always be possible as such a complete system demands very abundant facili- ties of machinery and labor. No one who has engaged in oil extrac- tion will be inclined to deny that the process is, at least, somewhat more difficult with absolutely fresh olives. While the immediate expression of oil is undoubtedly the best system, and growing in favor and practice, it must be admitted that, in all probability the greater proportion of olive oil and even the higher grades of oil are made after the olives have been partially dried. The question is, how to avoid any danger to the olive, if drying is found necessary or convenient. The purpose of drying is to remove as nuich of the water of the olive as possible. Evidently any tendency to soften- ing will be simply the beginning of decay and will injure the quality of the oil, and any possibility of mould must be avoided. The Italian system is to spread the freshly picked olives on floors of porous brick, not more than five inches deep and allow^ free pas- sage of air above them, while two or three times a day, they are carefully and gently raked over. If drying is decided upon, or the olives must await manufacture, this is the simplest and safest way for a natural process. Mr EUwood Cooper of Santa Barbara has adopted a system of arti- ficial drying of his own invention, similar to fruit dryers, which he has described in his Avork on olive culture and which he finds satis- factory. Naturally this avoids certain difficulties in fresh pressing and certain dangers in natural drying. The first process of the oil mill is the crushing of the olives. The crushing machine generally used, consists of a circular tub or trough of stone or bricks covered w^itli cement, having a stone floor on THE OLIVE 141 which revolves a heavy stone wheel on an axle, one end of which is attached to and works on a pin or pivot set in the center of the trough. This mill wheel crushes and grinds as it rolls over the olives, which are constantly pushed by a scraper into its path. This may be worked by hand, by horses, or oxen, by steam or water power. The stone should be non porous lest it absorb oil which may become rancid. The size of the crusher will vary with the needs of a given mill. Presses are of various kinds. The Italians, Spaniards and French generally use a screw press (descending.) This may be worked by hand, by horse or ox power, by water or steam. In any case the pomace is put into sacks of jute called ^'bruscole," which are then piled up, eight, ten, or a dozen high, or into a steel cage with or without crash to contain it, and placed under the descending screw of the press. Mr. Cooper uses a beam press such as is used in cider making. The pomace is held in place by wooden crates and Russian crash. He suggests the oleomargarine press as probably the best for olive oil expression. In both Italy and Spain powerful hydraulic presses are used either with the jute sacks or the iron cage. They are sim- ilar to the hydraulic presses of the wineries, and in fact these lat- ter can be used for oil extraction. The objection to the hydraulic press is, that with it one runs the risk of suddenly applying too great pressure and what is needed in expressing olive oil is not sudden, but gentle and constantly increas- ing pressure. If the pomace of olives is suddenly subjected to extreme pressure, no oil at all will flow; for this reason hydraulic presses have been altogether abandoned in some parts of Spain, as in ignorant hands they did not give satisfactory results. The great advantage of the beam press is, that it is impossible to apply the pressure in any other way but by a steady and gentle increase, as more weight is placed on the end of the beam. But after all, in intelligent hands the hydraulic press is preferable, for if it is 142 THE OLIVE properly used, the amount of pressure required may be exactly graduated. In the first pressure, usage differs as to the employment of water. • It must be clearly understood, that the olive berry con- tains a large amount of water from which the oil separates itself when the mixed liquid is allowed to rest after the expression, and that the employment of water is not for an adulteration, or other improper purpose, but simply to free the oil and water in the berry and ease the process of pressing. Doubtless oil extracted w^ithout the use of water is appreciably finer to an expert ''olive oil taster," but it is doubtful if very much of such oil reaches the market. The usage of mills differs. The most extreme divisions of oils would be, that of the first crusliing and the first pressure ; that of the same pomace crushed a second time ; that of the same pomace treated with cold water ; that of the same pomace treated with hot water ; that of this pomace ground fine, placed in an agitator and heated with water, until the stones fall to the bottom and are caitied away, and tha water and lighter matter passed into settling tanks, where the oil is skimmed off, w^iile a little more is made by another pressure; this is called washed oil. This same pomace in- stead of being treated as above, may be treated by the bi-sulphate of carbon process at special factories, with a larger percentage of oil as a result. Finally a low grade of oil is skimmed from the w^ater used in collecting the oil, and which is carried out of the mill and de- posited in tanks called from the low quality of the oil, " the inferno." The term ''Virgin oil'' is used so variously, that it is difficult to define it with accuracy. It is used for the^r^^i^ run of oil w^hether made with or without water ; it is also sometimes used for early oil — the first of the season ; the most exact use seems to be the oil which flows either without any pressure by the weight of the pom- ace in the racks or the cages, or just as the pressure begins to tell. Watching the press one sees pure oil and water run out, and if this is taken from the receiver at once, the oil and water separate quick- ly, and the oil is exceedingly rich and fine. As the pressure goes THE OLIVE 143 on the liquid becomes tinged with purple from the coloring matter in the berrv. Admitting the definition as correct, we should have five possible qualities of palatable oil, and two, suitable only for manufacturing purposes. It is unnecessary to say that Virgin oil as defined above is not an article of trade. A little is probably made on large es- tates, for the proprietors, and for their friends consumption, nor is it necessary to say, that the four possible edible oils are reduced to two or three. If a run is made without water, the second run will probably be made with hot water, or two runs without water and then the hot water or with cold water at once, and then hot water. Cold water is not injurious, but oil gathered by the hot water process is not as fine, and does not keep as well as that expressed without water or with the use of the cold. Extreme heat is dangerous to oil at all stages of ex- pression and storage; and for this reason Italians doubt the safety of artificial drying even where they consider drying necessary or advanta- geous. After the expression of the oil, it separates from the water and small particles of the berry which have passed the sacks or cage, and rises to the surface, when it is carefully skimmed off and placed in other vessels to settle; thence drawn oflF again from the surface, and clarified by being passed through a layer of filtering cotton, filtering paper, or even bone charcoal. It is then fit to place in the storage receptacle. During the process of crushing, pressing, depositing and clarifying, too extreme cold chills the oil and checks its flow and clarification, and in cold weather it is desirable to have moderate artificial heat in the mill. When clarified, the oil should be put in a cool place, and in cool receivers, of which tanks of tiles, brick lined with marble, or glass, and the Italian glazed terra-cotta lined tanks are the best. The Italians use wooden tanks lined with tin and also brick tanks lined with a fine cement. Wood is not desirable, the oil wdiich soaks into it is liable to turn rancid. Again wood alone, lacks the coolness required, at least in an Italian sum- 144 THE OLIVE mer. A sufficiency of pure water and extreme cleanliness, are essentials of oil production for table use. Not only must the water used on the pomace be pure, but all the different parts of the machinery must be kept clean by constant washing, and mere water is not sufficient. The best cleanins; method seems to be, washins; with hot water and soda (li ounces to a 2:allon of water) then, with fresh hot water remove the soda, and finally rinse out well with cold water. These w^ashings must be frequent and careful, of machinery crusher, press, sacks, cage and crash, receiving vessels, and every- thing with which the oil comes in contact. Smoke from fires must be prevented, and smoking must be forbidden in the mill, oil takes a taste very readily, and the mill should be at a distance from barn and stable. It is a common thing in old Italian mills to have the horse power in the mill. This is of course very undesirable. The alterations to which olive oil is subject are various, and although numerous cures have been suggested, no remedy has ever yet been successful When once the alteration has commenced Some- times the disagreeable taste can be so disguised that it is not per- ceptible to the consumer; but that is only a temporary expedient, and cannot be termed a remedy. The most dangerous as well as the most common of, the maladies to which olive oil is liable are: Natural Rancidity, — This can be imparted not only by the care- lessness of the maker, or by the uncleanliness of the utensils used in making, or storing the oil, but also through the nature of the soil in which the trees are growing. If the earth is very rich, and the growth of the trees is exceedingly rank or strong, this forced vegetation will produce fruit that will impart a peculiar taste to the oil, which will at once be detected by a delicate palate, and in a short time it will become so rancid that its market value will be greatly depreciated. Tade of the TF^rw.-^This is only observable when the fruit has been attacked by the Dacus ole?e. Sometimes the oil is so injured that it can only be used for industrial purposes. THE OLIVE ROT PLATE XVI.— THE ROT. Eig. 1. A section of an olive branch recently attacked by the rot (a) increase of cambinni, (enlarged nine times.) Eig. 2. Another similar sedion, showing herbaceous growth, (nine times enlarged.) Eio. o. Transverse section sliowinu* the tubercles of the rot have readied the heart of .the tiee. Eig. 4. A diseased brancli (natural size) showing at d how the bark splits from the w(jod, leaving it intact. ...THE OLIVE 145 Dry Taste, — When a very dry season occurs, with frequent and intensely hot winds, the growth is checked, the stem of the fruit is dried, and the berries get hard, dry, and shriveled. In this case the oil acquires a peculiar woody flavor, which, however, is not detected by all consumers. Acquired Odors, — The oil will most readily absorb any odor to which it may be exposed, and when this is derived from tobacco smoke, onions, manure, etc., it greatly deteriorates its value. A smoky chimney in the neighborhood of the room where the oil is being made, or any lack of cleanliness, will injure the oil greatly. Taste of the Cask, — This can be transmitted either by the vessels in which the oil is placed, if not made and kept scrupulously clean, or by contact with the tools and other appliances used in making it. Absolute Rancidity, — Man}^ things contribute to rancidity in olive oil, such as excessive heat, contact with the air, want of regu- lar racking^ contact with metals that can be dissolved by the natural acids of the oil, *and other causes too numerous, and not of sufficient importance to mention. It hardly seems possible to exaggerate the importance to the United States of olive culture as an added agricultural interest, pro- ductive of an article of such high value for medicinal use, and of such varied benefit as food, both in the every day dishes of a family table and the luxurious plats of the artistic chef. While California is the most favored of the United States for the culture of the olive, there is a large Territory besides capable of it, and, although the home demand will probably grow even more rapidly than the production, it seems safe to assert that pure olive oil can be produced in the United States with profit, at a price so reasonable as to put it on the list of our exports. Olive culture is still in its infancy, but it seems as if the time had fully arrived for its importance to be recognized by National and State Government, and indeed the Agricultural Department at Washington has com- menced its study. As a culture it is one of the most ancient, and 146 THE OLIVE the experience of the okl countries must be of great vahie in the development of an extensive olive interest here. What might not be the value to this State of the knowledge, skill, and experience of a trained expert on the culture of the olive and the processes of oil expressing, if the services of such a one could be secured for a suffi- ciently extended time to allow of a fair application of his knowledge to the new country, soil, climate and conditions ! Certainly such an experiment would be less costly in the end, and more satisfac- tory, than any attempt to send an American abroad to study the culture. It is more than probable than in many places the varia- tions of conditions of climate and soil may compel deviation from the standard methods of other oil countries as the interest develops, and still it is necessary to know their rules, the result of so many years experience. Considering the w^onderful adaptability of the American mind to the new, and its tendency to improve methods and processes where invention can suggest more convenient ways or labor-saving machinery, we need not fear to prophecy some great advance in olive culture and in oil producing processes as they become American interests. THE END.