OLihl PR CORNELL UNIVERSITY L^IBRARY GIFT OF Coolidge Otis Chapman , PhD . Cornell, 1927 URIS . CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 3 1924 059 417 794 Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924059417794 'i s'l ■""''' 1 ''■"'' ];weiiye- »o hie peicfi cunuon i, \ lic^iwu r{u»« LIr p.St; ('^e- |.'^p„|t4ff5e- I -f .Vm^ .ci'J'^ F^l'^' Tele-iT ai hof, .a„ o^^ ?"'^ rr>-t4 Liy-^- yit^,,, ^^-^iiy^ ^-^4 MS. COTT. VlTELLIUS A. XV. Fol. i6o» (reduced). (11. 1352-77.) .„ •<3UJS","5 m^tclii xotipe^ luijuL o^nlire^ (j&in^ l>ui^ jjoti lit^ Wiima li|;i>L:. lii^iU^ •jliaJd cjim . o^tf l^wetiic imn wrfw ^oj* i3Ctt lijvt^oii ab%xie Ub^i^an 51.^1^^^ ;■ 1 .t~. l?r^i^ rti^g- EtstK aii^mlsait V'^^^ MS. COTT. VlTELLIUS A. XV. Fol. 184" (reduced). (11. 2428-50) BEOWULF AND THE FIGHT AT FINNSBURG EDITED, WITH INTRODUCTION, BIBLIOGRAPHY, NOTES, GLOSSARY, AND APPENDICES BY FR. KLAEBER D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO Copyright, 1922, BY D. C. HEATH & Co. PRINTED IN U.S.A. CONTENTS BEOWULF Introduction ......... ix 1 . Argument of the Poem ...... ix 2. The Fabulous or Supernatural Elements . . . . xii 3. The Historical Elements ...... xxix 4. The Christian Coloring ...... xlviii 5. Structure of the Poem ...... lii 6. Tone, Style, Meter ....... lix 7. Language. Manuscript ...... Ixxii 8. Genesis of the Poem ....... civ Bibliography ........ cxxiii Table of Abbreviations ....... clx Text of Beowulf ........ i Notes . . . . . . . . . .121 THE FIGHT AT FINNSBURG Introduction . . . . . . . .219 Bibliography ......... 227 Text . . . . . . . . , .231 Notes . . . . . . . . . -236 Appendices I. Parallels ........ 239 II. Antiquities . . . . . . . ■ ^S^ iv CONTENTS III. Textual Criticism (Grammatical and Metrical Notes) 258 IV. The Text of Waldere, Deor, and Select Passages of WiDSIB . ........ z66 Glossaries Glossary of Beowulf . . . . . . - 273 Proper Names ........ 403 Glossary of The Fight at Finnsburg . . „ . . 4.1 1 Fig. 1. — The Gokstad Boat {cir. goo a. d. ; reconstructed). Found in a grave mound near Gokstad, southern Norway, and preserved in Christiania. From 0. Montelius, Die KuUur Schwedens in vorchrisllicher Zeit. Berlin, G. Reimer. 2 ed., 1885, p. 174. Fig. 2. — Bronze Plate from Oland (Viking period). Preserved in the National Museum, Stockholm. From Montelius, p. isr. Fig. 3. — Iron Helmet with Bronze Plates. From Vendel, Uppland (dr. close of 7th century). From Studier tilliignade Oscar Montelius af Larjungar. Stockholm, P. A. Norstedt & Sonar, 1903, p. 104. Fig. 4. — Gold Collar from Oland (5th to 8th century). Preserved in the National Museum, Stockholm, From Montelius, p. 124. Fig. 5. — Entrance to a Stone Grave (y(B«Mtee), Zealand. From M. Hoernes, Die Vrgeschichte des Menschen. Wien, A. Hartleben, 1892, p. 302. The Geography of Beowdu. INTRODUCTION I. Argument of the Poem Part I. Beowulf the Young Hero (His exploits in Denmark) I. The Fight with Grendel Beo'iuulfe nvearS gUShreS gyfepe. (8i8f. ) I-188. Introductory, The building of Heorot by HroSgdr ; the ra'v- ages of Grendel. The poem opens with the story of Scyld, the mythi- cal founder of the Scylding dynasty, whose glorious reign and magnifi- cent sea-burial are vividly set forth. — (53-85.) His line of descendants is carried down to king HroiSgar, who builds the great hall Heorot for feasting and the dispensing of gifts. — (86-188.) Before long a fiend- ish monster, Grendel, angered by the daily sounds of rejoicing, comes to destroy the happiness of the Danes. One night he surprises them in their hall and kills thirty of the sleeping men. He repeats his murderous attack on the following night. For twelve years he continues his rav- ages. No one may with safety sleep in the hall. HrolSgar, the good king, is bowed down by grief, his councilors can devise no help, his warriors are unable to check the visits of the demon. 189-661. Beonxiulf's 'voyage, reception in Denmark, and entertain- ment in the royal hall. When Beowulf, the nephew of Hygelac, king of the Geats, hears of the doings of Grendel, he resolves to come to the assistance of Hro^gar. An eminently fit man he is for that enter- prise, since he has the strength of thirty men in his hand-grip. With fourteen chosen warriors he sails to the land of the Danes. On their arrival they are challenged by the coast-guard ; but when the leader makes known their peaceful purpose, they are readily shown the way to Heorot. Beowulf announces his name to the king's herald, Wulfgar, who in turn tells his lord. Hr6%ar bids that they be welcomed ; Wulf- gar bears the message. The Geats enter the royal hall. Beowulf greets Hro^gar and offers to cleanse Heorot. The king replies graciously and invites the Geats to the feast. — (499-661.) Incidents at the banquet. A dispute started by the Danish courtier, Unfer'S, gives Beowulf an opportunity to narrate the true story of his daring swimming adventure with Breca and to predict his victory in the coming contest. In response to the courteous greeting of queen Wealhbeow he avows his determin- ation to conquer or to die. X INTRODUCTION 662-709. The ivaUh for Grendel. At nightfall the Danes retire ; Beowulf with his men remains in charge of the hall. All the Geats fall asleep save Beowulf. He watches for the demon. — 710-836. The fight. Grendel sets out from the moor, approaches the hall, swings the door open, and quickly seizes and devours one of the Geafs, Hondscioh, but on seizing Beowulf finds himself in the power of the hero's mighty grip. Long and bitter is the wrestling between the two ; the hall rings with the sound of their fighting and seems on the point of tumbling down. Grendel gives forth a terrible howl of pain. Beowulf by sheer strength tears off Grendel' s arm. The demon escapes to his joyless abode, mortally wounded. 837-924. Rejoicing of the retainers. In the morning many of the warriors follow the tracks of Grendel and ride to see the blood-stained pool into which he had plunged. As they return, a court singer recites lays about Sigemund and Herernod. — 925-990. The king's blessing. HroSgar, who has proceeded to the hall, views the arm and claw of Grendel (hung up as a trophy) and utters a speech in praise of the hero's deed, to which Beowulf makes appropriate reply. — 991-1250. Royal entertainment. A feast is prepared in the hall. Rich presents are bestowed on Beowulf and his band ; the scop relates the Finnsburg tale ; Wealhbeow, taking part in the entertainment, presents Beowulf with costly gifts and bespeaks his kindness for her sons. After the banquet Hro'Sgar as well as the Geats leave the hall, which is once more placed in guard of the Danish warriors. 2. The Fight with GrendeVs Mother Ofsloh Sa at pa7-e lacce . . huses hyrdas. (1665 f . ) 1251-1320. Attack by GrendePs mother. That night Grendel's mother makes her way into the hall to avenge her son ; she carries off ^schere, a favorite thane of Hro^gar, and, taking Grendel' s arm with her, escapes to the fenland. In the morning Beowulf is sent for by the king. 1321-1398. Con'versation bet'ween HroSgar and Beonuulf. Hro^gar bewails the loss of .ffischere, describes graphically the weird haunt of the demons, and appeals to the Geat for help. Beowulf, like a true hero, is ready to meet the monster at once. 1399-1491. The expedition to GrendeVs mere. With a troop of Danes and Geats the king and the hero proceed to the lake. Beowulf arms himself and addresses a few parting words to Hro'Sgar. • — 1492- 1590. The fight. He plunges into the water, at length reaches the bot- tom, and is carried by the troll-wife into her cavern. There they have a desperate struggle. The creature has him all but in her power/when he finds a curious giant-sword, with which he puts her to death. With it he also cuts off the head of the dead Grendel. — 1591-1650. The sequel of the fight and the triumphal return to Heorot. In the meanwhile ARGUMENT OF THE POEM xi many of those on the shore having surmised Beowulf's death from the discoloring of the water, the Danes depart to their hall. Beowulf's faithful followers wait for him, until swimming upwards he comes to the surface, carrying with him Grendel's head and the golden hilt of the wondrous sword, whose blade has melted in the poisonous blood. They march with their trophies back to Heorot. 1651-1784. Speeches by Beoivulf and HroSgar. Beowulf recounts his thrilling experience and assures the king of the completeness of the delivery. Hro"Sgar replies by a lengthy moralizing discourse. — 1785- 1887. The parting. After the feast Beowulf enjoys a much needed rest. In the morning friendly farewell speeches are exchanged, where- upon the Geats start for the shore. J. Beowulf's Home-Coming and Report to Hygelac Hu lamp eo'w on lade, teofa Bhivulf . . . f (1987.) 1888-1962. Homenvard 'voyage. The fourteen warriors embark and in due time reach the land of the Geats. The mention of queen Hygd leads the poet to intersperse the legend of the haughty and cruel JryiS. 1963-2151. Beonjoulps narrative. Arrived at Hygelac's court, Beowulf relates his adventures and weaves in the account of events which are bound to happen in connection with the engagement of Freawaru to Ingeld. 2152-2199. Beoivulf and Hygeldc. The presents he has brought from Denmark he shares with Hygelac and Hygd and receives liberal gifts in return. He makes his home in Geatland, greatly honored and beloved by the king his uncle. Part II. Beowulf's Death (The Fight with the Dragon) Sceolde landaga apding argod ends gebidan, luorulde lifes, ond se ivyrm somod. (2341 ff. J 2200-2323 . The robbing of the hoard and the ra'vages of the dragon. After the death of Hygelac and of his son Heardred, Beowulf has ruled over the Geats for fifty years. Then it happens that the rich hoard (the early history of which is narrated in part) of a dragon is robbed by a fugitive slave, and the enraged monster in revenge lays waste the country by his fire. 2324-2537. Preparation for the fight. The veteran warrior-king, still young in spirit, resolves to meet the enemy single-handed. He has a strong iron shield made for this purpose and, accompanied by eleven men, sets out for the cave of the dragon. — (2417-1537.), Filled with forebodings of his end, he in a long speech reviews the days of xii INTRODUCTION his youth, especially the events at the Geat court and the feud with the Swedes, and bids farewell to his comrades. 2538-271 1, The fight. He calls the dragon out of the barrow and attacks him stoutly with his sword, but finds himself overwhelmed by deadly flames. His terrified companions flee to the wood, all save Wlg- laf, who, mindful of the obligations of loyalty and gratitude, hastens to the assistance of his kinsman. Together they contend against the dreadful foe. Wiglaf deals him a decisive blow in the lower parts, and Beowulf cuts him in two. But the king himself has received a fatal wound. — 371 r-2820. Beonxjulf's death. Wiglaf tends his dying lord, and at his bidding brings part of the precious hoard out of the cave. Beowulf gives thanks for having won the treasure for his people ; he orders that a mound be built for him on the headland, and, after bequeathing his battle-gear to his faithful kinsman, he passes away. 2821-3030. The spread of the tidings. Wiglaf, full of sorrow and anger, rebukes the cowardly companions and sends a messenger to an- nounce the king's death. The envoy foretells the disaster that will follow this catastrophe, recalling at length past wars with Franks and Swedes. — 3030-3136. Preliminaries of the closing scene. The Geat warriors repair to the scene of the fight — the ancient curse laid on the gold having been grievously fulfilled — and at Wiglaf s command carry out the remaining treasure, push the dragon into the sea, and bear the king's body to the headland. 3137-3182. The funeral of Beoivulf. A funeral pyre is built. The hero is placed upon it and given over to the flames amid the lamenta- tions of his people. Then they erect over the remains a royal mound in which they hide the dearly- bought dragon's hoard. Twelve noble warriors ride round the barrow, lamenting their lord and praising his deeds and kingly virtues. II. The Fabulous or Supematiu-al Elements ' Hafde pa gefalsod se pt ^er feorran com, itiotor ond siuySferkS seU Hrodgares. (825 f.) o3 done anne dxg, pi he nviS pam ivyrme getuegan sceo/de. (2399 f . ) The subject-matter of Beonvulf comprises in the first place, as the main plot, three fabulous exploits redolent of folk-tale fancy (the first two forming a closely connected series) ^ and secondly, a number of ^ Cf. L 4.41 ff. J in particular Panzer, Boer (L 4.58 & 140) j besides, Miil' lenhoff, Sarrazin St., Schiick L 4.39, Symons L 4.29, Brand), ChadwickH. A., Heusler L 4.37.2, Berendsohn L 4. 141. i. ^ Outside the main action also, various supernatural elements are found, such as Sigemund's dragon fight (see note on 875-900), Scyld's mysterious arrival (see note on 4-52), the notion of eotenas, entas, etc. (883, 2717, 2774, 112, etc., cf. .^ngl. xxxvi i69f.). Special mention should be made of the motive of THE FABULOUS ELEMENTS xiii apparently historical elements which are introduced as a setting to the former and by way of more or less irrelevant digressions. Beowulf's Fight with Grendel and his Mother ' Beowulf's wonderful adventures with the Grendel race have called to mind folk-tales in various languages.^ A systematic study of this aspect of the epic material has been undertaken by Panzer, who re- cognizes in the B^oiva//" story a version (raised to heroic proportions) of the time-honored, widespread ' Bear's Son Talp-l 3 The substance of this tale as extracted from over two hundred (European and other) vari- ants is as follows. (Introduction ; "t) A demon appears at night in a house which has been built by an aged king. The elder sons of the king are unable to cope with the intruder, but the youngest one successfully gets hold of him. The demon is wounded but manages to get away. A bloody trail shows the way to his abode. — (Central part :) The hero fights in a strange place, which in a great many instances is under the earth, against one or two demons (often a male and a female one). By this successful exploit he frees several maidens, who are then safely restored to the upper world. But he is himself betrayed by his faithless com- panions and must remain in the realm of monsters, until he finds means of escape. [The conclusion tells of the punishment of the traitors and the marriage of one of the maidens to her deliverer. ] Panzer thought he could show the ultimate derivation of numerous elements of the BeoivulfnaiTative from the introductory and central parts of the Bear's Son Tale.S Thus, the building of the gold-decked royal invulnerability (in encoantering ordinary weapons, 804 f. , 1 522 fF.). Neither myth- ology nor history is to be appealed to in the case of the Breca episode (see note on ' Additional special references: Gering L 4.48.1, Laistner L 4.50, Bugge 55 ff., 360 ff., Sarrazin L 4.32.4 & 5, Lawrence L 4.60, Lehmann L 4.57. ^ Cf. W.Grimm L 4.41, Mone L 4.23.281 fF., Simrock L 3.21. 177 ff., Laistner /.c. § 39. — Parallels from Irish legend were cited by Cook (L 4.55 :^ P. Kennedy, Legendary Fictions of the Irish Celts [London, 1891], pp. 200 fF. j cf. Panzer 386 ff.), Brooke L 4.6.1.84 f., Deutschbein L 4.36. A Japanese version was pointed out by Powell L 4.56. Kittredge (in addition to Celtic variants) re- ferred to a North American Indian tale (^Harvard Studies and Notes in Philology and Literature viii 222 ff.) (229 ; " the defence of a hall or a hut against the demon that haunts it is a simple theme, to which the theory of * independent ori- gins ' must apply if it ever applies to anything. ' ' ) ^ The name is derived from the hero who in some versions is the son of a bear. A more appropriate title would be * Dat Erdmanneken,' * the fairy of the mine ' (No. 91 of the Grimm collection of tales), denoting the strange demon whom the hero overcomes. ■* Of the Introductions to this tale which have been arranged by Panzer in three groups, the B-formula stands nearest to the Beotvulf ' See his detailed comparison, pp. 254 ff. It should not fail to be noted that the xiv INTRODUCTION hall, the nightly depredations of the giant demon; the watch against the monster; the character of the hero, who in his boyhood is looked down upon as sluggish and good for nothing, but gives an early proof of his extraordinary strength; the manner of the (first) fight, the enemy's loss of a limb, its exhibition and inspection; the mother of the monster, the fight in the cave under the water, the part played by the magic sword, the departure of the companions, ' etc. While these similarities are after all remote and generally vague, a genetic relation of some kind must clearly be admitted between the Beoivulf a.nd certain Scandinavian stories attached to Grettir and Ormr respectively. The G rrtfZJJgga ( dating from about 1300) is concerned with a his- torical personage, a headstrong, adventurous outlaw, who died in the year 103 1, but it includes obvious fabulous elements derived, accord- ing to Panzer, from folk-tales of the 'Bear's Son' and the 'Doughty Hans '- type. Chapters 64—66 ^ relate two successive exploits of the Ice- landic hero — 'the strongest man in the land of his age,' ch. 93 — which in several respects form the nearest parallel to the fight with Grendel and Grendel's mother. At Yule-tide, so the story runs, the young wife Steinvgr at Sandhills (at Sandhaugum, i BarSardal) had gone to worship at EyjardaUa and left her husband at home. In the night the men heard a huge crashing in the house; and in the morning it was found that the husband had dis- appeared, and no one knew what had become of him. The next year the same thing happened to a house-carle. Grettir the Strong heard the tale, and at Yule-eve he betook himself to the haunted place. He asked permission to stay there and called himself Gestr. The goodwife wished to go to church again, but thought it impossible to cross the river. It thawed fast abroad, and the river was in flood, and therein was the drift of ice great. But Grettir went with Steinvpr and her little daughter and carried them both with one arm through the raging river, while with the other he pushed back the ice-floe. "^ He then returned to Sandhills and lay down at night, but did not take off his clothes. parallels are gathered from widely scattered and varying versions (most of them modern), no single specimen or group answering precisely to the type represented by the Beoivulf. ^ That is, the Danes only, 1600 ff. They are supposed to represent the faith- less companions of the tale. ' Thus Grettir (and likewise Ormr) as a boy shows himself lazy and of a violent disposition and displays uncommon bodily strength. — It may be mentioned that Gret- tir gains fame by killing a mighty bear which no one else could overcome (ch. 21; also Biarco slays a big bear, Saxo ii 56, see Par. § 7). The bear's cave is described as being ' in a cliff by the sea where there was a cave under an overhanging rock, with a narrow path leading to the entrance.' (Might's transl.) ^ The version given here is in part a summary and in part follows the translation of Magnusson and Morris (L 10. 6). * It is exceedingly doubtful whether this feat — a preliminary demonstration of THE FABULOUS ELEMENTS xv Towards midnight Grettir heard great din without, and thereafter into the hall came a huge troll-wife, with a trough ' in one hand and a chopper wondrous great in the other; she peered about when she came in, and saw where ' Gestr ' lay, and ran at him ; but he sprang up to meet her, and they fell a-wrestling terribly, and struggled together for long in the hall. She was the stronger, but he gave back with craft, and all that was before them was broken, yea, the cross-paneling withal of the chamber. She dragged him out through the door and labored away with him down towards the river, and right down to the deep gulfs. All night they wrestled furiously; never, he deemed, had he fought with such a monster ; she held him to her so hard that he might turn his arms to no account save to keep fast hold on the middle of the witch. But now when they had come to the gulf of the river, he gives the hag a swing round, and therewith got his right hand free, and swiftly seized the short-sword [sax) that he was girt withal, and s mote the troll thfrnyitji on thf 'ib pulder, and struck off her arm ; and therewithal was he free, but she fell into the gulf and was carried down the 'force.' After Yule-tide Grettir went with the Eyjardaba priest (who- doubted his tale and would not believe that the two men who had van- ■ ished had gone into the gulf) to the scene of his victory. When they came to the force-side, they saw a cave up under the cliff ; a sheer rock that cliff was, so great that in no place might man come up thereby, and well-nigh fifty fathoms was it down to the water. Grettir bade the priest watch the upper end of a rope, which he let sink down into the water; then he leapt off the cliff into the gulf. He dived under the force, and hard work it was, because the whirlpool was strong, and he had to dive down to the bottom, before he might come up under the force. But thereby was a rock jutting out, and thereon he gat ; a great cave was under the force, and the river fell over it from the sheer rocks. He went up into the cave, and there was a great fire flaming from amidst brands; and there he saw a giant (^jqtunn) sitting, marvelously great and dread- ful to look on. But when Grettir came anigh, the giant leapt up and caught up a glaive and smote at the newcomer, for with that glaive might a man both cut and thrust ; a wooden shaft it had, andthat fashion of wea pon men called then, he ft-sax (hetti-sax) . Grettir hewed back against him with his siiorPsvrofcl (sax), and smote the shaft so that he struck it asunder ; then was the giant fain to stretch aback for a sword that hung up there in the cave ; but therewithal Grettir smote him afore into the breast, and smote off well-nigh all the breast bone and the belly, so that the bowels tumbled out of him and fell into the river, and were driven down along the stream ; and as the priest sat by the rope, he saw strength, cf. the Bear's Son parallels, Panzer 34 ff. — can be regarded as an an- alogue of the Breca adventure { Brandl 994). Grettir's superiority as an endurance swimmer is mentioned in ch. 58. ^ For holding her food — the human victim. Grendel brought a bag {g^of) for the same purpose with him (2085 ff.). xvi INTRODUCTION certain fibers all covered with blood swept down the swirls of the stream; then he grew unsteady in his place, and thought for sure that Grettir was dead, so he ran from the holding of the rope ■ (which had been fas- tened to a peg), and returned home. — In the meantime Grettir went up the cave ; he kindled a light and examined the place. The story does not tell how much he got therein, but men deem that it must have been something great. He also found the bones of the two men and put them in a bag. Then he made off from the cave and swam to the rope and shook it, and thought that the priest would be there yet ; but when, he knew that the priest had gone home, then must he draw himself up by strength of hand, and thus he came up out on to the cliff. Then he fared back to Eyjardaha, and brought into the church porch the bag with the bones, and therewith a rune-staff with verses cut on it. (The last verses: ' For from its mighty shaft of tree The heft-sax \hepti-sax\ smote I speedily ; And dulled the flashing war-flame [gunn-logi] fair In the black breast that met me there. ' ) (Chap. 67.) Grettir was thought to have done great deeds for the cleansing of the land {mikla landhreinsuri). Like Grettir, Ormr the Strong is known to have been a real person, but in the Orms pattr Storolfssonar ^ remarkable deeds of a fabulous char- acter are ascribed to him. Orm's sworn brother, AsbJ9rn, we are told, sails to the Norwegian island Sandey (Saudey), where a man-eating giant Briisi and his mother (in the shape of an enormous cat) dwell in a cave.^ (He is slain by Briisi after a severe struggle. '• Twenty of his men are torn to pieces and devoured by the terrible fire-breathing cat.) When Ormr at his home in Iceland gets news of his friend's death, he determines to avenge him and sails to Brusi's island. He enters the cave and fights first with the mother — the cat, who attacks him with her piercing claws. 5 He reels back, but when he calls on God and St. Peter for help,* he gets the better of the monster and breaks her back. Thereupon he struggles with Briisi and overcomes him by sheer strength of arm. After cutting with his sword (sax) the ' blood-eagle ' into the dead giant' s back, he leaves the cave with two chests of gold and silver. The same story has been traced in the modem versions of two Faroe and two Swedish ballads.' ^ This motive recurs in the story of Grettir's encounter with the ghost of Karr, which in the manner of the fighting resembles also the Glamr incident (see below, p. xvii) and the first part of the Sandhaugar episode. — It may be mentioned that a submarine contest in the porsteinssaga y"ikingssonar has been cited as a parallel to Beowulf's fight with Grendel's mother (C. N. Gould, MPk. vii 214). ^ See L 10. 7. Ormr and Grettir are mentioned together as two of the strongest men ever known in Iceland, GrettUsaga^ ch. 58. See note on I. 901. ' The cave is near the sea ; in the Faroe versions it is reached by means of a small boat. See Bugge 361 if. * Bugge thought this AsbJ9rn ultimately identical with J^schcr&^Beoiu. 1323 fF. ' Cp. Benin. 1 501 (F. ' Cp. Beow. 1553 ff. ^ An interesting detail of the Faroe ballads, viz. the exclamation in praise THE FABULOUS ELEMENTS xvu Of less significance, yet worthy of mention, as a parallel to the Gren- del fight, is the Glamr episode of the Grettissaga (chaps. 32—35), which tells of how Glamr, a shepherd, who (had been killed by an evil spirit and who afterwards) haunted and made uninhabitable the house and farm of }76rhallr, was slain by Grettir in a mighty contest. Grettir when told of the hauntings rode to the place {foorhallsstasir) and in the night awaited Glam r in the h all. When a third part of the night had passed, he Tieard a great noise without, then one went up upon the house, and afterwards came down and opened the door. Grettir lay quiet ; Glamr went up to him and tried to pull him out of the house. They struggled wondrously hard, and seats and_b£nc hes wer e brokeii_ before_^iem. Glamr wanted to get out. GTettir resisted witlfall his might and finally succeeded in making his fiendish opponent reel back and fall open-armed out of the house. By drawing his short-sword {sax) and cutting off Glam' s head he disposed of the hatefiil revenant. (But before he could do it, he beheld with terror in the moonlight Glam's horrible face and heard his dying curse, which was to be of disastrous consequences to him.) . The points of contact between the foregoing extracts and the Beoixiulf are unmistakable and need not be gone over in detail. The Sandhau- gar episode in particular gives a strikingly similar description • of the monster's cave under a waterfall, and moreover seems to show a verbal agreement in the use of (the nonce word) heptisax, recalling the (equally unique) haftmece, Beonju. 1457.^ The latter analogy, how- ever, is not complete and may be merely accidental, especially as the separate elements of both compounds are well known in their respective languages. In some points, it should be noted, this important and highly instructive version presents an obscuration of the original folk- tale elements ; ^ viz. in making not the male but the female monster (who, by the way, is not stated explicitly to be the giant's mother) provoke the first fight by attacking the house, the natural roles of the two demons being thus reversed ; in motivating the hero's visit to the cave by mere curiosity ; in omitting all mention of the wounded she- demon in the second adventure ; and in completely blurring the motive of the wonderful sword which is found hanging in the cave. Some noteworthy innovations in the Beoivulf account — apart from the general transformation incident to the epic setting and atmosphere — (blessing) of the hero's mother after the slaying of the giant, has been connected (by Bugge) with Beow. 942 ff., but the coincidence need not be considered of importance. ' It serves indeed to make clear the Beowulfian representation of the Grendel abode, see Lawrence L 4.62. Cf. also above, pp. xiv n. 2, xvi n. 3. ^ The former is used by the giant, the latter by Beowulf ; a seax is used also by Grendel's mother (1545), as a sax is several times by Grettir. The kenning gunn/ogi reminds us oi beadoleomay Beow. 1523. ^ Cf. Panzer 319. xviii INTRODUCTION are the following. The mother of the slain Grendel leaves her cave, appears in the hall, and avenges her son in heroic fashion, — an evident amplification (including a partial repetition) of the narrative. Again, Grendel, though (mortally wounded by Beowulf and) found dead in the cave, is as it were slain again (1576 ff.) and definitely disposed of by beheading. In the original form of the story, it appears, the male demon had been merely wounded ; when the hero had made his way to the dwelling place of the monsters, he put the wounded enemy to death (and afterwards killed the mother). A number of minor incongruities possibly arising from an imperfect remodeling of old folk-tale motives are pointed out in the Notes, see 11. 135, 703, 736 ff., 839 ft., cf. 1260. The theory that the Anglo-Saxon poet worked up different versions (relating to Grendel and to Grendel' s mother respectively) has been repeatedly proposed as a means of accounting for disparities of the narrative ; see especially Schneider (L 4. 1 3 5) and Berendsohn (L 4. 141. 1.14 ff.). Different and in a certain respect closer is the relation of Beoiuulf to the late Hrolfssa ga (see Par. § 9, L 10.8). It is true, Be'Svar's con- test with a pecuuar fanciful beast (chap. 23) has not nearly so much in common with the Grendel fight as Grettir's adventure in the cave has with Beowulf's second encounter. Yet only in the Hrolfssaga do we find a story at all comparable to the Grendel part placed in a historical setting comparable to that in the Anglo-Saxon epic and attributed to a person who is possibly after all identical with Beowulf himself. ' Mani- ^ Additional special references; ten Brink 185 fF,, Olrik i 134 If., Lawrence L 4.60, Olson L4.65. — The value of the /?ro//sj<2^i3 for purposes of comparison and the identity of BQiSvarr and Beowulf (insisted upon above all by Sarrazin) have been recognized by a number of scholars. It has been claimed that a comparison of Saxo (ii 56, Par. § 7 ; cf. above, p. xiv n. 2 : Gre-ttissaga, ch. 21), the Hrolfssaga, and the Bjarkar'imur (Par. § 9.1) with each other, and with the Beowulf helps to throw light on certain elements of confusion-in the Saga. The wings of the mon- ster are thus considered to be a modern embellishment of the story. Besides, the real and the sham fight might seem to have arisen from a series of two real encounters, in the second of which the ( previously wounded) troll was killed (in accordance with the supposedly older form of the Grendel part, see Panzer 371 f. ). Further- more, it has been supposed that in the original story the fighter's own sword actu- ally failed him (cp. Par. § 9 with Beotu. 1523 ff), but a wonderful, gold-hilted sword brought liim victory (cp. Par. § 9 with Beo'oj, 1557 ff). Sarrazin sug- gested that the two * war-friends ' i^Beoiv, 1810), the unsuccessful Hrunting ind the victorious Gyldenhilt {GullinkjaUi)^ were developed by a process of personifica- tion into the dual figure of Hqttr-Hjaki (coward-champion), cf. E St. xxxv 19 fT. However, the correspondence of the gylden hilt (1677) of the Beowulfian sword and the name Gullinhjalti has been shown to be merely accidental by Olson, who denies any connection between the slaying of the winged monster and the Grendel fight. In fact, Olson has presented strong arguments tending to prove that the Bjarkar'imur have no independent value in this connection, that the earliest type of Bjarki's fight is the one found in Saxo, and that the form of the monster over- come in the Hrolfssaga is derived from the Siward saga. THE FABULOUS ELEMENTS xix festly the relation of R9^varr t n Hrnlfr is not unlike th at of B eowulf to^HroSgat — - both deliver tlie king from the ravages of a terribl g monste ^ both are His honored champions and friends, BpSvarr the son-in-law, Beowulf the ' adopted son ' (946 ff., 1175 f.). Nor should the following pai-allels be denied consideration. Be^varr goes from Gautland, whose king is his brother, to the Danish court at HleiSra ; Beowulf goes from the land of the Geats, who are ruled by his uncle Hygelac, to the court of the Danish king at Heorot. Bp^varr makes his entrance at the court in a brusque, self-confident manner and at the feast quarrels with the king's men; Beowulf introduces himself with a great deal of self-reliance tempered, of course, by courtly deco- rum (4.07 ff.), and at the banquet has a dispute with an official of the king (4.99 ff.) ; also his scornful retort of 11. 590 ff. is matched by BgSvar's slighting remarks, 68.17 ff. (Par. § 9). In addition, certain features in the Norse tradition of Bp^varr have been instanced as confirming the original identity of the two heroes.' The bear nature of BgSvarr which must be sup])osed to be his own by inheritance ^ and which is implied by his strange behavior in the great Bjarkamdl battle (Saxo ii 59 ff., Hrolfssaga, chaps. 32 f.) has been compared to Beowulf's bearlike wrestling propensities, dwelt upon in his contest with Grendel and with the Frankish warrior Daeghrefn (2501 ff.). Also th e fact that Bp^varr J BJarki (with other champions of Hrolfr) aids AtSils in his war {Skaldskaparmal, Skjqldungasaga, Bjar- karimur, i'ar. §5 5, S.6, 9. i')is paralle led, in a measure, by Beowulf s ' befri ending' the Swedish prince Eadgils ^^^ga ff.1. The perplexing question of the precise relation between Beoiuu/f and the various (late) Scandinavian stories briefly considered here has given rise to manifold earnest and ingenious discussions, and conflicting con- clusions have been arrived at. On the whole, it seems s afest to attribute _ the undeniable p arallelisms t o th e^use of the same jar- ^imilar Scand i i. — . navian So ur ces b oth m the Old English and the Old Norse accounts. There existed, we may assume, on the one hand a tale — made over into a local legend * — of the freeing of the Danish court from a strange ' See Chadwick H. A. 120 f. ; Clarke L 4.76.49 ff. ' On the use of this bear motive (which is not unknown in folk-tales, cf. above, p. xiii n. 3) in the Gesta Herivardi, in Saxo (x 345), and in the story of Siward, see Lawrence, pp. 234 ff. ; Olrik i zi; ff.,lc yl/NF. xix I99ff. ; Deutsch- bein, Studien zur Sagetigeschichte Englands, pp. 249 ff. ; and especially Olson, who, with Olrik, traces Bp^var's bear-ancestry to the Siward saga. — Did Beowulf inherit his wrestling strength from his father (cp. handbona 460) ,'' Incidentally, it may be noted that he became the forerunner of wrestling heroes celebrated in Eng- lish literature (as in The Tate of Gamelyn^ Lorna Doone^ etc.). ^ The fame of Bjarki is attested also by the Series Runica and the Annalei Rfeises (Par. § 8.4 & 5). That he came to be known in North England, is shown by the occurrence of the name Boduivar Serki in the Liber Vitae Ecclesiae Dun- elmeiisis (in a 12th centurv entry) ; cf also A. Bugge, ZfdA. li 31;. ■* For such a legend (showing at least a slight similarity) attached to the bay of Roskilde see Sarrazin St. 10 ff. XX INTRODUCTION monster through the prowess of a mighty warrior, and another one — like the former going back to a primitive folk-tale — about a similar adventure expanded to a fight with two monsters ' and placed in pic- turesque Scandinavian surroundings. Bot h kinds of narr ative circulated orally in the No rth. In course of time they w ere attached lo various persons ( two of whom are unquestionably historical characters), B9^varr, Grettir, Ormr, Be owulf respectively. A comparatively early combma- tion of the two sets was perhaps effected in Scandinavia, though it is actually traceable in the Anglo-Saxon epic only. The artistic Beonvulf version represents the final result of this formative process. Attention, however, should be called also to the significant sugges- tion made from time to time, that the substance of the Grendel part goes back ultimately, if n ot directly, to Irish models. ^ Even a definite Irish analogue has been detected,' viz. Cuchulinn's adventures in the saga of T he Fea st of Bricriu, though the parallelism noted is cer- tainly not conspicuous. 4 Again, the motives and the general atmosphere of the second adventure have been alleged to point in the direction of Celtic sources. Indeed, the brilliant picture of the monsters' mysteri- ous haunt (1357 if.) might well remind us of Celtic fancy.' The no- tion of the female monster, — Grendel' s mother, foreshadowing 'the devil's dam,' has been cited in the same connection. * Other armlogies have been mentioned, such as the elegiac ton e of certain passages (2247—66, 2435—71),^ the mystic element ot the Scyld legend (see note on 4-52), the po sition of the c ourt pyle.^ Moreover, in the selection of the peculiar kind of plot (supernatural adventures) and even in the general style and manner of the narrative the influence of Celtic types has been supposed to be visible. 9 Also the possibility of Celtic elements in the language of Beoiuulf has been discussed. '° ^ The figures on a 6th century tablet found in Oland have been interpreted by Stjerna (31 f.) as representing a counterpart to Beowulf's contest with the 'she- wolf,' Grendel's mother. ^ Cf. e.g., Brooke L 4. 6.1.84 f., see above, p. xiii n. 2 ; v, Sydow, An-z. fdA. XXXV 129 f, (Parallel British versions: Freymond, " Artus' Kampf mit dem Katzenungetiim," Festgabe fur Grober (1899), pp. 311 fF.) ^ Deutschbein L 4. 36, cf. AnxfdA. xxxvi 224f. A direct influence of the Irish saga (which has not been claimed) would be entirely out of the question on chronological grounds. Zimmcr [ZfdA. xxxii 331 f.) had assumed, on the other hand, an (indirect) influence of the Beowulf legend on that of Cuchulinn. * See Olson L 4. 63. * The picturesque kennings for the sea have been instanced as suggesting the quality of Celtic imagination (Rankin, JEGPh. ix 75, 82). ^ Ker L 4. 120. I. 198 f. j Lehmann L 4. 57. 428 j von der Leyen L 4. 67. jj. 5. 122 ; V. Sydow, I.e. ^ Bugge 77 ff. (Some minor details are added.) But this is very questionable, see Sieper L 4. 126. 2. 58 f. * Deutschbein, I.e. ' Deutschbein, I.e. '° Sarrazin Kad. 69 S. (Thus Garmund 1962, in place of Warmund, is ex- THE FABULOUS ELEMENTS xxi While these observations and hypotheses are exceedingly interesting, it is only fair to say that so far no tangible proof has been produced- Beowulf's Fight with the Dragon ' Dragon fights are events of such ordinary occurrence in medieval literature that it may almost seem otiose to hunt for specific sources of the Beowulfian specimen. But mention has been very properly made of numerous modern parallels of folk legends ^ — the nearest of which is a Danish one, — and more especially of Frotho's dragon fight ^ in Saxo's History (ii 38 £, Par. § 7) as indicating a probable l^an ish ori- gin or the st ory. It is true, one of the most sagacious students ot Scair=~ dinavian legend 4 has pronounced the similarities between Saxo' s account and the Beoivulf version entirely irrelevant, imaginary, or commonplace, emphasizing at the same time the fact that the stories taken as a whole are of a totally different order, — Frotho , who wages the fight for the sake of the dragon's treasure and who by this victory first establishes his fame, representing the Sigur'Sr typ e,^ and, on the other hand, Beowulf^^ who undertakes the venture primarily to save his people and, aithough victorious, loses his life, exemplifying in the main the borrtype.* Yet it appears quite credible that some such lay as the one which Saxo delib- erately turned into Latin verse was known to the Anglo-Saxon poet and perhaps even suggested to him Beowulf's third great adventure. There is a notable agreement in a number of features which can hardly be accidental, — thus, in the d escription of the dragon (cp. Beoiv. 2561, 2569 if., 2827, 2582 f ; 2304, 2524, 2580) ; the report of a country- man (cp. 2214 ff., 2280 ff., 2324 ft'., 2404 ff.) ;" .tne use ot a speciaMy ffepafed shield (cp. 2337 ff., 2522 ff.) ; the hero's desire to engage in the contest wi thout help from other s (cp. 2345 ii., 2529 ii'.); theraan;:_ ne r of the fi ghTjtselt' (cp. e. g. . the details : 2699, 2705). It is also evident that far-reaching alterations would be deemed requisite by the poet who fitted this theme into the story of Beowulf's life. Nothing could be more natural than that the high-minded slayer of the Grendel plained as a Celticism, cf. also £5/. xlii 17.) The MS. spellings cames 107, camp 1261 were thought, without sufficient reason, to evidence a Celtic source of infor- mation. (Bugge 82 ; cf. Emerson, PuU. MLAss. xxi 925, 885 n. 3.) ' Additional special references : Sievers L 4. 33, Olrik i 305 ff., Sarrazin L 4. 32. I & 5, Bugge and Olrik L 4. 51, Bugge 45 ff., Berendsohn L 4. 141. i. i ff. ^ Panzer 294 ff. All of these parallels belong to the so-called JJorr type. Most of them are localized in Germany, a few in Denmark. 3 Sievers, I.e. (Cf Miillenhoff, ZfdA. vii 439; Miiller L 10. 4. ii. 74; Sarrazin St. 88.) A similar, briefer version is the dragon fight of Fridlevus, Saxo vi 1 80 f. " Olrik, I.e. ' See Reginsmal, Fafmsmal; Skaldskaparmal (Prose Edda), ch. (37i) 3^ i Yohungasaga, ch. (14,) 18. '^ See Vqluifi 55 (56) f. ; Gylfaginning (Prose Edda), ch. 50. xxii INTRODUCTION kin should appear again, above all else, in the role of a deliverer from distress, a benefactor of men. And when this great deed was added as the crowning event to the record of his long life, what better motiva- tion of his death could have presented itself? The introduction of an associate in the person of Wiglaf served to provide not only a welcome helper in the fatal struggle, but an eyewitness and assistant at tud king's pathetic death, besides an heir and executor who directs the im- pressive closing scene of the poem. Of course, if Sarrazin's thesis (see below, pp. xxiii, xliv) be adopted, Wiglaf (Viggo, Vgggr) must be considered one of the original figures of the Scandinavian legend." It has been conjectured ^ that certain instances of an irpper feci adapta- tion of the Da nish original can be detected in our text of the Beo^wutf, viz. the reference to the ealond 2334 (see note), answering to Saxo' s island, and the puzzling line (pone tse ar geheotd . . .) after haletSa hryre hnuate Scildingas 3005 (see note), which is supposed to show that the_diagoii_ fi ght was originally attributed t o the Danish _ king Beowulf (I) ^ of 11. 18 ff., 53 fF., the predecessor of Healfdene, just as it was attached (Saxo ii 3 8) to Haldanus' predecessor Frotho. The latter assumption has been endorsed by Berendsohn, who — improving upon the form- ula ' combination of the ]?6rr and the Fafnir (or Siguier) type ' (Panzer) — suggests that two versions have been fused in the epic (itself), the hero of the first being originally Beowulf 1 ^ Frotho, whilst the sec- ond was concerned with an aged king who fights a fiery dragon in order to save his people. It is one of a number of possibilities. In some respects the other dr agon fight told in the Beoiuulf, that of Sigemund (884 ff.), e xhibits a closer affinity to Saxo's Frnthn parallel. S^oth belong in th e ' Sigur^r ' class, being the adventurous exploits of conquering heroes. "Sigeinmid7~like Frotho, is really alone in the fight (888 f.). He loads a boat with the dragon's treasures, just as Frotho is bidden to do by his informant (Par. § 7). (The scene of Beowulf's fight is near the sea, but the boat is replaced by a wagon, 3134.*) Several minor parallels between Beowulf s and Sigemund' s dragon fight should not be overlooked. Cp. un der harne start s (. . . ana geneSde . . .) 887; 2553, 2744, 2213, 2540. — [draca'] morSre stvealt 892, 2782. — 'wyri)i~Mt_gemealt_%r-m-lg^^^^^t cousin) Hrolfr K raki in- troduceTthe situation celebrated in the famous BjarkamaU The per- son of Hresric is curiously hidden in a few scanty references to HroercKx (hn0ggvanbaugi) and in a cursory but instructive allusion to King Rolvo' s sla5ring of a Raricus {Bjariamdl, Saxo ii 62. 4 ff . : « [rex] qui natum Baki Raricum stravit avari, etc.').'* That H ealfdene CON. Halfdan(r), O.Dan. Haldan) figu red also in Norse arcounts ss the fathe r "*^ Hrn^ - gar (Hroarr) and Halga (Helgi), is abundantly proved, though his position became in time much confused. Even his designation as heah and gamol (57 f.) is duplicated in Scandinavian sources {Skaldskapar- mal, chap. 62 : Half dan gamli ; Hyndluljdp 14 : Halfdanr fyrri hkstr Skj(tldunga).S An explanation of his peculiar name may be found in the fact that, according to the later Skjqldungasaga (Par. § 8. 6 : chap. 9), his mother was the daughter of the Swedish king Jorundus. Icelandic sources have it that he lost his life through his brother (Fr6«i).6 Two sons of Halfdan(r), Hroarr .(Roe) and Helgi (Helgo), are regularly known in the North, besides in a few versions a daughter Signy who married a jarl n amed Ssevil,' — probably a mistake for Onela, the Swedish king. That her real name was Yrsa, has been ' Sanazin, E St. xiiii 229. ' The Don-Danish, i.e. English lineage of Hroar's wife in the HrSlfssaga (ch. 5, Par. § 9) and in Arngrim Jonsson's Skjoldungasaga (ch. 11, Par. § 8. 6) may or may not be connected with that fact; cf. Olson L 4, 65. 80, 97. — The name 6f Wealhpeow's family, Helmingasy possibly points to East Anglia (Binz 177 f. ; Sarrazin, Lc). The name Wealhpeow (whose second element need 'not be inter- preted literally) may have been constructed as a characterizing one like Angelpeow in the Mercian genealogy (Par. § 2). Cp. also Ecg-, Ongen-peoio. A note by Deutschbein : Anz.fdA. xxxvi 225. ^ Par. § 7 (ii 59 ft.), § 9 (chs. 32 ffi)j § 8.2, 5, 6 (ch. 12). Edition of the * Bjarkamal en fornu,' see L 10. i. 4. * As first seen by Grundtvig (Edition, p. 204). Cf. also Bugge, Seudien uber die Entitekung der nordiscken Goiter- und Htldensagen (1889), pp. 171 f. Sec Par. § 8. I. 5 See Par. §§ 4, 7 (ii 51), 8, 9. Cf. Angl. xjciic 378. — Kier (L4. 78. 104 ff.) would identify Healfdene with Alewih of Wids. 35 (see note on 1931—62). ^ According to Danish accounts Haldanus killed his brother (cf. Par. § 8. 3). ' SkjiUungaiaga, ch. 10 (Par. § 8. 6), Hrolfssaga, ch. i (Par. § 9). xxxiv INTRODUCTION argued by (Chadwick and) Clarke (L 4. 76).' In contrast with the Beo'wulf, Helgi left a much stronger impression in Scandinavian legend than the quiet, inactive Hroarr ; he even appears, under the guise of Helgi Hundingsbani, as the sole representative of the Skj9ldungar in the Eddie poems bearing his name.^ Still greater is the shifting in the relative importance of HroSgdr (Hroarr) and his nephew HroSulf (fivblii [Kraki], Rolvo). - 411, the glory of Hro^gar seems_t o be tran sf'■r'^'''^ *f Hr6Ifjj_jvh o became the most renowned an d popular of the ancient Dan jshjegendary kings, the most perfect of rulers, the center of a splendid coiirt rivalmgthat of the Gothic Theodoric and the Celtic Arthur. 3 This development was perhaps first suggested by the significant contrast between the old, peace-loving Hro^Sgarand his young, forceful, promising nephew; it was further aided by a change in the story of Helgi, who was made to survive his brother, whereby Hrolfr was dissociated from the traditions concerning his uncle.'* Another phase of Danish history is opened up in the allusions to the re- lation between the Scyldingas and the chiefs of the HeatSo-Bards (2024— 2069), which are all the more welcome as they, present one of the most truly typical motives of the old Germanic heroic life, viz. the sacred duty of revenge. To settle an old bloody feud HroiSgar gave his daughter Freawaru in marriage to Ingeld, the son of the Hea^o-Bard king Froda, who in years gone by had been slain by the victorious Danes. But an old, grim warrior {eatd ascwiga, 2042), chafing under the trying situ- ation, which to his sense of honor is utterly humiliating, spurs a young comrade on to a realization of his duty, until hostility actually breaJcs out again. The outcome of the new war between the two tribes is related in WidsiS, 45-49 : Hr6J>wulf ond Hro'Sgar heoldon lengest S sibbe astsomne suhtorfaedran, siji^an hy forwrScon Wicinga cynn ond Ingeldes ord forbigdan, forheowan set Heorote Hea'So-Beardna J>ryin. " On Yrsa's relations with Helgi, (Ali, and) ASils, see Clarke, pp. 64 fF., 82 fF. Chadwick and Clarke suggest that an (unknowingly) incestuous marriage between father and daughter (see Grottasqtigr 22, Par. § 5 ; ch. 40, Hrilfssaga, chs. 7,9) may have been substituted in Norse tradition for that between brother and sister. — In the Hrilfssaga and (probably) the late Skjqldungasaga Signy is the oldest of Halfdan's children, whereas in the Beowulf HediSieac' a daughter is ap- parently younger than her brothers. ^ Cf. Bugge L4.84. ^ See Par. § 5 : ch. 41, § 7 : ii 53, § 8. 6 : ch. 12, § 9 : ch. 16. * Heusler, ZfdA. xlviii 73 f. — That HrolSulf was remembered in England at a comparatively late date, we see from the reference in a late Brut version to the ' gesta rodulphi et hunlapi, Unwini et Widic, horsi et hengisti, Waltef et hame ' (Imelmann, D.Lit.z. xxx 999). * According to Deutschbcin's — somewhat doubtful — interpretation (L 4. 97. 296) : 'had kept peace for the longest time . . .,' i.e., soon after the defeat of the Vikings they became estranged. THE HISTORICAL ELEMENTS xxxv In other words, tVic Hp^i^n-^fjjH^ inTr^jrlc t \^e, lanH nf thp p anpg^ anH attack the royal stronghold, but are utterly defeated . On this occasion, as is to be inferred from 11. 82 fF., the famous hall Heorot was de- stroyed by fire. ' Curiotisly but not unnaturally (the memory of the once independent Bard tribe having been lost in later times), Scandinavian sources regard the feud as arising from the enmity between two brothers of the Scyld- ing family or — -as in the case of Saxo — represent the former Bards as Danes, whilst their enemies, the Swerting family, are made over into Saxons. 2 Otherwise, Saxo's account is substantially a faithful counter-, part of the ^i'OTua//' episode ; in particular the fine, taunting speech of the old warrior, which sums up the ethical significance of the tragic con- flict, is plainly echoed in the Latin verses — immoderately lengthened, diluted and in part vulgarized as they are — which are put in the mouth of the famous hero Starka'Sr ('the Old'), the representative of the old, simple, honorable warlike life and of stern, unbending Viking 3 virtue. A faint recollection of the Hea^o-Bard feud lingers in the tradition of Hothbrodus, king of Sweden (in Saxo and other Danish sources. Par. § 7 ; ii 52 f., § 8. 4 & 5) and of Hg^broddr, the enemy of Helgi in the Eddie lays mentioned above. The very name Hg'Sbroddr, as first pointed out by Sarrazin,* is the individualized form of the tribal name Hea'So-Beardan, though the phonetic agreement is not complete. ^ In accordance with the spirit of the Germanic heroic sag'a. the per- sonal_^imeht_is_stimigly_emghasized in viewing the events in the light of a fa mily feud of ch'pfs rii-pfiFiy~1riTigs. y et we have reason to believe that there existed a true historical background of considerable political significance. But who are the Hea'So-Bards ? Evidently, a seafaring people (IVi ds. 47 : nvtcinga cynn), who seem to have lived for some time on the southern coast of the Baltic (the home of the Hg^broddr of the Eddie Helgi lays). ' That the memory of this Ingeld (whom Miillenhoff [p. 22] thought identi- cal with Ingjaldr illra'Si, Ynglingasaga, chs. 34 (38) ff.) was kept alive in songs, appears from a passage in Alcuin's letter (a.d. 797 J to bishop Speratus of Lindis- farnc : ' Verba Dei legantur in sacerdotali coiivivio. Ibi decet lectorem audiri, non citharistam ; sermones patrum, non cafmina gentilium. Quid enim HInieldus cum Christo ? Angusta est domus ; utrosque tenere non poterit. ' (O. Janicke, ZfdA. XV 314 ; Haack L 4. 30. 49 f.) ^ See note on 2024-69. In the later Skjq/dungasaga, chs. 9, 10, this Swerting figures as a Swedish 'baron* (Par. § 8.6). 3 Cf. Wids. 47 : WTcinga cynn, ■• Sarr. St. 42. See also Biigge L 4. 84. 160 ; Sarrazin, E St. xxiii 233 ff. ; Boer, Beilr. xxii 377 f. In like manner, the name of Starka'Sr has been ex- plained (Bugge, I.e. 166 f.) from * Stark-hg^Sr, i.e., 'the strong Hea«o-Bard.' In the second He/gi lay he is called Hg-Sbrodd's brother, and a king. = Detter, who (like MuUenhoff) connected Ingeld (Ingellus) with Iiigjaldr ill- ra^i, attempted to establish a mythological basis (a Freyr myth) for this episode (Beitr. xviii 90 ff.). xxxvi INTRODUCTION They have begn-uisntified with (i) the Lan gobards (Lom bards'), whose name is reasonably to be equated with that of the Hea'So-Bards, and some divisions of whom may have been left behind on the Baltic shore when the main body of the tribe migrated south,' and with (2) the Erulians (Heruli), who, according to Jordanes,^ were driven from their dwellings (on the Danish islands, perhaps) by the powerful Danes and whose defeat has been supposed (by MuUenhoft) to have ushered in the consolidation of the Danish state. Besides, compromise theories have been proposed. Also the problematical Myrgingas ^ of IVidsis have been connected with the Bards."* An authoritative decision is hardly possible. Summing up, we may give the following brief, connected account of the outstanding events of Danish history as underlying the allusions of the poem, s Froda. king of the Bards , slays Healfdene^ (about a. p. 493) ; (Heorogar,) HroSgar, and Halga make a war of revenge,* Froda falls in battle (a.d. 494). After an interval of nearly twenty years, when Froda's son, Ingeld (born a.d. 493) has grown up, HroSgar, the renowned and venerable king, desirous of forestalling a fresh outbreak of the feud, rparrjps his Hr^jjg hter Freawaru to the youn g Hea'So-Bard kj ng (a.d. 513). Yet before long, the flame of revenge" is kindled again, the Bards invade__thfi_I2anislL_4oniinions and burn Heorot, but are com'pIeT ely~foute d, a.d. 515. The for- eign enemy having been overcome, new trouble awaits the Danes at home. Upon HrotSgar's death (a.d. 520), his nephew HrolSulf for- cibly sei zes the kin gship , pushing aside and sla ying his cousm Hretiric, the heir presumptive. [Of the -subsequent attack of Heoroweard, who had a still older claim to the throne, and the fall of HroSulf ( a. D. 540) no mention is made in the Beoivulf.'] Thus the two tragic motives of this epic tradition are the implacable enmity between two tribes, dominated by the idea of revenge which no human bonds of affection can restrain, and the struggle for the crown among members of a royal family [which is to lead to the extinction of the dynasty] . The existence of a royal line preceding the Scytdingas is to be in- ferred from the allusions to Heremod; see note on 901-15. * The inhabitants of the * Bardengau,' the district of the modern Luneburg (where the place-name Bardowieck persists) are called in a 1 2th century chronicle Bqrdi bel/irosissimi (= HealSo-Bards). ^ De Origine Actibusque Getarum^ cap. ill. ^ Cf. Chambers Wid. 159 ff. * Moller 26 flF.; Sarrazin, E St. xxiii 234 fF., Atigl. xix 388. [In a recent note, "Halfdan = Frode = Hadbardernes Konge, hvis Rige forenes med det danske,*' Nordiik Tidsskrift for Fi/o/ogi, 4. Series, vi ( 1917), 78-80, J. Neuhaus assigns the Hea'So-Bards to North Schleswig ] ^ Cf. Heusler, Z/dA. xlviii 72. On the meaning of the dates given, see above, p. XXX. * There is no mention of this in Beowulf. THE HISTORICAL ELEMENTS xxxvii The seat of t he Danish power, th e fair hall Heorot . corresponds to the ON. Hleit)r r (Hlei'Sargar'iS'rrLat. Lethra) of Scandinavian fame, which, although reduced to insignificance at an early date, and now a ti ny, wretched village, Lejre ( southwest of Roskilde on the island of Zealand), is habitj^ ly associated w ith t he renown of th eSkigldung kings .- It has been (doubtfully) regarded as the siteof an ancient sanctuary devoted, perhaps, to the cult of Nerthus (Tacitus, Germ., ch. 40, Par. § 10) and Ing (ON. Freyr, Yngvifreyr, Ingunafreyr).' Hleifir was destroyed, we may imagine, on the occasion of Hrolf's fall,* but in the memory of the people it lived on as the ideal center of the greatness of Denmark in the olden times. Sarrazin claimed that the scenery of the first part of the Beoivulf could be clearly recognized even in the present Lejre and its surround- ings, 5 while others (including the present editor) have failed to see more than a very general topographical resemblance. It should be noted that the name Ingivine tw ice applied to the Danes (104.4, 1 3 19) bears weighty testimo ny to the ancient worship of Ing. ^ The desigiaUons S'cede-land it), Sceden-ig 1686 (used of the Danish dominion in general) point to the fact that the o riginal home of the Danes_vra5— in__iSia2£_(i'ira«2«, the Rniithprnmnst_dist rict of the presen t kingdom of Sweden),' whence they migrated to the islands and later to Jutland." ' Note the regular alliteration in the names of the place and of the royal family (HrcSgar, etc.) ; also HreSel, etc. : Hriosnabeorh 2477 ; Ongenploiu etc. : Upf- lalir ; perhaps JViglaf : Wendel. 2 See Par. § 6 : chs. s, ^9 (33) i § 7 = " 5^, § 8. i, § 8. 3, § 8. 6 : ch. ., § 9 : chs. 16 ff. Only in late sources is Hro^gar (Roe), the builder of Heorot (HlellSr) in the Beoiuulf, credited with the founding of Roskilde; see Par. §8. 4- ' Cf. Sarrazin St. 5 f , Angl. xix 368 ff., E St. xlii i ff. ; Much, Beitr. xvii 196 ff.; Mogk, P. Grdr.'- iii 367. According to Sarrazin, the original meaning of HleiSr is * tent-like building,* 'temple,' and appears even in the OE. at htsrgtra- fum, Beoiv. 175. That human and animal sacrifices were offered to the gods at the capital, ' Lederun,' is related. by Thietmar of Merseburg (early in the nth century) ; cf. Grimm D. M. 39 (48). * It may be assumed that after its burning by the HealSo-Bards it had been rebuilt. ' See the detailed topographical descriptions, Sarr. St. 4 ff., Beitr. xi 167 ff. ' Cp. Runic Poem 67 ff. Ingivine has the appearance of being changed, by folk etymology, from (the equivalent of) * IngTiaeones (the worshipers of Ing), the name by which Tacitus designates the Germanic North Sea tribes (Par. § 10 ! ch. 2). From Jutland and Zealand the cuk of Ing spread to the other Danish islands, to Skane, and thence to Sweden. (Cf the name Tnglingar, below, p. xlii n. i, «"=•) . • ^ It was not united politically with Sweden until 1658. ^ In Wulfstan's account of his voyage (.Alfred's Oros. 19. 35 f.) the form Scon-eg is used : and on bacbord him ivas Langaland, and Laland^ and FalsUr, and Sconegi and pas land call hyra3 to Denemcarcan. Cf. Scanty Par. §1.3. xxxviu INTRODUCTION The Geats and Swedes ■ (See Glossary of Proper Names : Geatas, If'ederas, HreSlingas ; Snveon, Scylfingas.) The Geatish Rojal Line ^ Herebeald (465-497) Hre«el (a. D. 440—498) Hae^cyn (467-505) Hygelac, m. Hygd (sec- ond wife)3 (470-516) daughter (from ist raarriage),^ m. Eofor Heardred (from zd marriage) (506-528) daughter, m. Ecgjieow The Swedish Royal Line OngenJ>eow — (445-505) OhtherCt (473-527) Onela [m. Healfdene's daughter] (475-53°) Eanmund * (500-528) Eadgils (b. 505, becomes L king 530) Hre'Sel, like his contemporary Healfdene the Dane, had three sons and one daughter. The eldest so n Herebeald was accidentally killed by Hae^cyn, who when shooting an arrow, missed his aim and struck his brother instead (243 5 if.). 5 The grief caused by this tragic fate ate away the king's life. Upon his death and the succession of HasScyn, war ' LI. 1202-14, 2201-9, 2354-96, (2425-89 :) 2425-43, 2462-89, 2501-8, 261 1— 19, 2910—98 J also 1830 fF., 1923 ff., 2169 fF., 2190 fF. — For discussions, see especially L 4. 28 (Bugge) and L 4. 88—97, also references below, p. xlvi. ^ As to the definite chronological figures used, see above, p. xxx. ^ So we may assume in the interest of chronological harmony. * There is no positive proof that either Ohthere or Eanmund was the elder brother. ' At this point, chronology must not be insisted upon too rigidly. See note on 2432 fF. THE HISTORICAL ELEMENTS xxxix broke out between the Geats and Swedes (2472 fF., 2922 ff.). It is started by tlie^wedes^ who attar^t hpir snuthprn neipfhbor s-and after inflicting severe damage~reEurn fiome. An expedition of revenge into the land of the Swedes undertaken by .Hse^cyn and Hygelac, though at first successful (even Ongenbeow's queen is taken prisoner), seems destined to utter failure; the ' old, terrible ' king of the Swedes falls upon HastScyn's army, rescues the queen, kills the Geat king and forces his troops to seek refuge in the woods (Hrefnesholt 2935), threatening them all night long with death in the morning by the sword and the gallows. But at dawn the valorous Hygelac appears with his division and inspires such a terror that the Swedes flee to their fastness, pursued by the Geats. O ngenbeow in a brave fight against two brothers, Eofor and Wulf, loses his life. Hg gelac, now king of the Geats. after his home- coming richly repaid the brothers and gave his only daughter as wife to Eofor. This vic tory at th e Ravenswood (a. D. 505) insured the Geats peace with the Swedes, wno seem to have dreaded the power of the warlike Hygelac. [The Geat king's arm was strengthened by his loyal nephew, the mighty Beowulf, who, after his triumphant return from Denmark, where he had overcome the Grendel race (about a.d. 510), was the associate of Hygelac. ] Not content with his success in the North, Hygelac even undertook a rava ging expedition into the Prankish l ands (' Gallias,' Par. § 11) about A.D. 5 1 6. 1 He arrived with a fleet in the land of the (West) Frisians (west of the Zuider Zee) (sySSan Higeldc c-ivom f faran flotherge on Fresna land 2914 f., cp. 1206 f.), and sailed up the river Rhine as far as the district of the Prankish tribe Hsetware (^//oariz, better known as Chattuarii).'^ [Supplementing the narrative by means of Gregory's version and the Historia Franccrum (Par. § 11) :] Having loaded their ships with prisoners and rich booty (nvalreaf 1 205), the Geats return. The main force is sent out in advance, but the king with a smaller band remains on the shore (of either the Rhine or the North Sea). There (Freilondum on 2357) he is overtaken by a strong army under the com- mand of Theodeb ert, the son of the Pra nkish king Theoderic (the Merovingian 2 92i)T King Hygela c and his tollowers are siamTliis fleet is puSued and utterly routed, i tie poem repeatedly dwells' on the he- roic deeds of prowess done by Beowulf in the unequal encounter between ' That is to say, according to Gregory of Tours this event happened between A.D. 512 and 520. (Grion L3. 36 thought it should be placed as late as A,u. 527.) — The references in the poem occur in 11. 1202 fF., 2354 ff"., 2501 ff"., 2913 ff. (220 1 J. The identity of the Beoivulf z\\M5\on5 and the accounts of the Prankish histories was first recognized by Grundtvig (see his Transl. , p. Ixi). ^ Between the rivers Rhine and Meuse (Maas), on the border of the present Rhenish Prussia and the Netherlands, in the neighborhood of the cities of Kleve (Cleves) and Geldern. Cf. Chambers Wid. 201 f. ; Much, R.-L. i 371 f. The tribe is mentioned in Jfids 33 : Hun \weold'\ Hativerum. xl INTRODUCTION the allied forces {pfermxgen 2^17) o{ the continental tribes and Hy- gelac's guard : 2363 ft'., 2501 ft". The fi nal battl e is waged against the Franks (1210) or Hugas (2914, 2502), Hetware(2363, 2916), and (no doub tl_£ risians (2357, 2503). Of the four names mentioned, Hugas is only an epic appellation of the Franks ; • the Bet-ware seem to have belonged to the Frankish 'sphere of influence.' The two main tribes involved are thus the Franks and the Frisians (see 2912).^ At the same time the rising power of the Franks is reflected in the allusion to the threatening unfriendliness of the Merovingian dynasty (2921). It is possible, however, that the poet did not consistently differentiate between the three or four terms (see especially 2502 f ). His use of the name Dceghrefn, by the way, shows that he followed a genuine tradition (see note on 2501). The young He ai'dred nowsucceeded his fat herjlygelac. Beowulf [who by a marvelous swlmmmg i'eatTad escaped from the enemies] generously declined Hygd' s offer of the throne, but acted as Heardred's guardian during the prince's minority (2367 ff".). When the latter had come into his rights,^ another series of -warlike disputes with the Swedes arose (a.d. 527-530)^ After the fall of OngenJ>eow in the battle of Ravenswood his son Ohthere had become king,^ but upon Ohthere's death, Onela seized the throne, compelling his nephews Eanmund and Eadgils to flee the country. They find refuge at the court of Heardred. Soon after Onela enters Geatland with an army (a.d. 528), Heardred as well as Eanmund is slain, whereupon the Swedish king returns, allowing Beowulf to take over the government unmolested (2379 if., 2611 ff^., 2202 ff'.). A few years later Eadgils,'* aided by a Geatish force,5 re- opens^ the war (2391 ff'.), which results in his uncle Onela' s death and Eadgils' s accession to the throne (a.d. 530). However, trouble from their northern foes is likely to come upon the Geats again, in spite of their temporary alliance with a branch of the ' Cf. MuUenhoff', ZfdA. vi438 ; W. Grimm, L 4. (yy^'-^T. — AntiaUs S}utd- linhurgenses [clT. A.D. 1000): * Hugo Theodoricus ' [Wids. 24: peodrictveold Froti' cum, = the Hug-Dietrich of the MHG. epic Wolfdietrich [13th century] ) ' iste dicitur, id est Francus, quia olim omnes Franci Hugones vocabantur ' [with a spu- rious explanation added :] * a suo quodam duce Hugone.' (According to E. Schro- der (^ZfdA. xli 26), chat notice is derived from an OE. source, and the use of Hu- gas = Franks really confined to the OE. \_Beoivulf~\ . ) — Regarding the question of the possible relation between the names Hugas and Ckauci, see the convenient references in Chambers Wid. 68 n. 2 5 Much, R.—L. ii 82. ^ The prominence given to the Frisians and their seemingly unhistorical alliance with the Franks is attributed by Sarrazin ( Kad. 90 f. ) to the Frisian source of this *tory. ^ This is nowhere stated, but the interpretation given above seems not unnat- ural, _ * Had Eadgils made his escape (when Onela attacked the Geats) and afterwards returned to Geatland, planning revenge and rehabilitation ? ^ Probably Beowulf did not take part personally in this war ; cf. note on 2395. THE HISTORICAL ELEMENTS xli Scylfing dynasty ; indeed it seems as if the downfall of their kingdom is virtually foreshadowed in the messenger's speech announcing the death of Beowulf (2999 if., 3018 ff.). On the life of Beowulf the Geat, see below, p. xlv. Of the Geatish rtjyal line, with the possible exception of Hygelac,' the Northern tradition is silent. But early Frankish chronicles, as noted above, have preserved a most valuable record of Hygelac's daring ex- pedition against the Franks, thereby confirming completely the account of the Beonxjulf. ^ The only discrepancy discoverable, viz. the designa- tion of *Choril aicus as ' Danorum rex ' is naturally accounted for by the assumption that the powerful Danes were taken as the representa- tives of the Scandinavian tribes, just as the later Anglo-Saxon annalists included under the name of ' Danes ' the Vikings of Norway. More- over the Li ^er Monstrorum (P ar. § 11. i) remembers the mighty war- rior 3 as ' r ex Getarum ' (suggesting an actual ' Gautarum ' or ' Go- t(h)orum '). A faint reminiscence oijhigelac seems to crop out in Saxo's brief no- tice (iv I I 7) of the Damsh-kin g Hng letnSj^ ' who is said to have de- feated in a naval battle the Swedish chiefs Homothus and H0grimus,' the former one (ON. Eymogr') answering'' to the Swedish prince Eanmund, who falls in the land of the Geats (2612 ff.).5 No connec- tion can be detected between Beowulf's untie and the light-minded Hugleikr, king of Sweden (Saxo : Hugletus, king of Ireland), who is slain in an attack by the Danish king Haki {Ynglingasaga, chap. 22 (25) ; Saxo vi 185 f.). The accidental ^X^^a^_:^JImbealdhyHa3cyn\^ been repeatedly * ' Some of the other names also are found in Scandinavian sources, but in entirely different surroundings. Thus HriSel [*Hr6Sil) is = ON. *Hrollr, Lat. Rollerm ( ' Regneri pugilis filius ' ) , Saxo, Book v ; Heardre.d = O. West Norse HarSraSr ; S-wcrting is mentioned as a Saxon and as a Swede (see above, p. xxxv). Hereheald u traceable only as a common noun herhaldr, ' warrior. ' The peculiar, abstract jiame of Hygd is entirely unknown outside of Beoivalf. " The names given in theMSS. {Chlochilaichus, etc., see Par. § 11) do not dif- fer greatly from the true form which we should expect, viz. *Chogilakus. ' That the giant Hugebold in the MHG. Ecken Liet (83) is to be ultimately identified with him (see Much, Arch, cviii 403), is a pure guess. * Though we should expect Eymundr. = A. Olrik, Kilderne etc., L 4. 100. 2. 190 f. 6 Thus by Gisli Brynjulfsson, Antikv. Tidikrift (1852/54), p. 132 ; Grundt- vig (Ed,), pp. xliii, 175 ; Rydberg, Undersoknmgar i germamsk mythohgi (1886), i 665 (who moreover called attention to Saxo's account (iii 69 ff.) of Hotherus' skill in archery [which was, however, only one of his numerous accomplishments] ) ; Sarrazin St. 44 ; Bugge, Studien iiher die Entstehung der mrdhchen Gotter-und Hel- demagen, p. 262 ; Detter, Behr. xviii 82 ff., xix 495 ff. ; Much, Arch, cviii 41 3 f. See also Gering's note, L 3. 26==. 104. Detter finds a direct parallel to the Here- beald-Hx«cyn version in the story of Alrekr and Eirikr ( Ynglmgmaga, chap. 20 (23) ), who are succeeded on the Swedish throne — though not immediately — by Hugleikr. xlii INTRODUCTION compared_with the .unintentional slaying of Baldr by the blind HstSr, who is directed by Loki in shooting the mistletoe (Prose Edda, Gylfa- ginning, chap. 48). But it is jjifficult to believe th at the story told in Be o'wulf has any mythological basis. . It rather impresses us as a report of an ordinary incident that could easily happen in those Scandinavian communities and probably happened more than once. Maybe the mo- tive was associated at an early date with names suggesting a warlike occupation, like Heie-beald, HaS-cyn (^Baldr, HgSr). ' Turning to the Swedish atfairs, we _find the royal i'y^s^a/ 2 ^el]^ re- membered in the North — eow, is to be inferred from the testimony of Aii,^ mho in hlendingabok (ch. a.d. 1135), chap. 12 calls Ottar's father by the name of Egill Vendilkraka. The name Egill (in place of An- gant^r = Ongen)>eow) * is possibly, Bugge suggests, due to corruption, a pet form *Angila being changed to *AgilaR and Egill. ^ The scene of the battle is according to the Beoivulf in Ongenjjeow's own land, i.e. Sweden, but in the Tnglingatal (^Tnglingasaga) is shifted to Ven- del in Jutland. Now it has been properly pointed out (by Stjerna, 52 f.) that the striking surname ' Vendel Crow ' cannot be a late literary in- vention, but must have originated immediately after the battle. As the king fell in his own land, the Vendel in question cannot be the large Jutish district of that name, but must be the place called Vendel in Swedish Uppland. Vendel is at present an insignificant church-village, some twenty English miles north of Upsala, but being favorably located for commercial traffic, it enjoyed a considerable importance in the Mid- dle Ages. There are exceptionally numerous ancient cemeteries near Vendel, the princ'pal one of which was evidently the burial place of a great chieftain's family. It may safely be concluded (with Stjerna) that about the year 500 there existed a royal fortress at Vendel, and that a noble family resided there. On other possible recollections of this part of the Swedish-Geatish tradition, see note on 2922 ff. The s econd series o f encounters betw een the Geats and Swedes re- solves itself in Scandinavian_t i-adition mto a contest betwee n i^'ff f/t^ ^ a great saga hero — a nd .^/;, who, through confusion of the Swedish Uppland with 'uplands' in Norway, was made into a Norwegian king. The battle in which Ali fell took place on the ice of Lake Vaner. See Skaldskaparmal, chaps. 41, 55, Tnglingasaga, chap. 29 (33), Tnglin- gatal, Arngrim Jonsson's Skjoldungasaga, chap. 12 (Par. §§ 5, 6, 8. 6). A h int of AlSils's foreign (Geatish^ support (2391 ff.) is found in the statement that Hroltr Kraki sent his twelve champions (BgiSvar r Bjarki among them) t o assistj unu. Thus the Danes have stepped into th e place originally oc^ 5Bie^-fey-the-G€at&. The memory of Eadgils's brother, Eanmund, is all but lost. He may be recognized, however, in the Eymundr of Hyndluljop 15 (Par. § 4) with whom Halfdanr (the representative of the Danes) allies himself,* and in the above (p. xli) mentioned H0mothus of Saxo. ' Followed by the Hisloria Nor-vegiae (Bugge 15 n.). ^ The names Angantyr and Ottarr are coupled mHyndl. 9 (Par. § 4). Ongen- peow is remembered in H^idi. 31: Siveom \wlold'\ Ongendpeoiv, see Chambers's note. ' Belden, L 4. 96 (like Grundtvig, see Bugge 1 5 ) would equate Ongenpeow with Aun (or Ani), son of Jprundr and father of Egill ( Tnglingasaga, ch. 25 [29] ). '' Ali, mentioned by the side of Halfdanr (Hyndl. 14), was considered Ali inn frikni (i.e. the Bold), the Dane, but was probably at the outset no one but the Swedish Onela. See also Belden, L 4. 96. 152. xliv INTRODUCTION The dominating element in this second phase of the inter-tribal war, the dynastic strug gle with in the roval _Swedish l ine, is perhaps to be explained (with Belden') bylhe exiitence~of a f oreign or pro-Danis h party led by One la (the son-in-law of Healfdene (1. 62), who was of Dano-Swedish extraction), and a na tive party led by Eadgils and Ean- mund (who presumably followed their lather's policy).' In this con' nection it has been suggested by Belden that the ' Wendlas ' men tioned in 1. 348 (Wulfgar, Wendla lead) sided with the Danish faction. Accepting this yiew and assuming further (as was first conjectured by Stjerna^), that, like Wulfgar, the Wagmundingas, i.e. Weohstan and his son Wiglaf,^ belong to the Wendel family, i.e. a noble family of Vendel in Uppland, Sweden, we are able to understand not only that Wulfgar held an honored position at the Danish court, but also (what seems singular indeed) that Weohstan,'* the father of Beowulf's most loyal kinsman WIglaf, fought in the service of Onela, against the lat- ter' s nephews and the Geats who sheltered them. 5 After Eadgils had been established on the throne, Weohstan, who had slain Eanmund (2612 ff.), was compelled to leave the country and settled in the land of the Geats. That WIglaf * even in Beowulf's last battle is still called Hod Scylfinga (2603),^ is thus readily understood in the light of his father's antecedents. But what the relation is between the Geatish branch of the WSgmundingas (to which Beowulf and his father Ecg)jeow belong) and the Swedish branch (the only one which carries through the family alliteration), remains doubtful. -The rich home- stead of the Wsegmundingas (2607) must clearly be sought in the land of the Geats. 8 The (essentiallyhostile) relati ons between the Danes and Swedes " No explanation is found (in the available sources) of the surprising fact that Heardred and Beowulf side with the native and against the Danish faction. ^ Who called attention to the ^-alliteration. ^ Belden conjectures also Wulf Wonreding, who fights against Ongenpeow (2965 if.), to be of the Wendel family. * He is apparently the same as Vhteinn who is mentioned in conjunction with All riding to the battle (against AWls), Kalfsvisa (Par. § 5). ^ Another version has been proposed by Deutschbein (L 4. 97). Setting aside as entirely unhistorical the role assigned to Beowulf and regarding the WSgmundingas as the direct successors to the line of HrelSel on the Geatish throne, he believes that Onela after the fall of Heardred appointed Weohstan king of the Geats, whilst Ead- gils fled to the Danes and afterwards, gaining support from Hro'Sulf (as told by Snorri and Arngrim Jonsson), returned to Sweden and defeated Onela. ^ Wiglaf has been doubtfully identified with Saxo's Wiggo (ii 57, 67), the V'9ggr of the Hrolfssaga (chs. 28, 34; Arngrim Jonsson's Skjoldungasaga^ chs. la f., cp. ^kaldskaparmal y ch. 41), the devoted retainer of Hrolfr and the avenger of his death (Bugge 50 f. ; cf. Sarrazin, E St. xlii 28 ff. ; Berendsohn, L 4. 141. i. 8 f. ). ' Which does not necessarily mean that he is related to the royal line of On- genpeow. ° See on these questions, Scherer L 5. 5. 475 f., Miillenhoff, AmJdA. iii 177 f. THE HISTORICAL ELEMENTS xlv have been traced in detail by Clarke, L 4. 76. 82 fF., 156, and Bel- den, /. c. The Geats. the hereditary enemies of the Swedes , are naturally onJneadly_temis__w ith the Danes . It is true, we are toId^Tn rather vague language (1857 f.), that in former times strife existed between the peoples of the Geats and Danes. » But, at any rate, si nce Beowulf's deli verance of Heorot, peace and go od will were firmly estabhsheS (1829 ft., 1859 fF.).2 (FossibljTeven before that event, friendly gifts were exchanged [378 f.].) The excellent personal relations between Beowulf's family and Hro%ar date from the time when Ecgbeow, the hero's father, was befriended at the Danish court (459 ff.). They cul- minate in Beowulf's adoption (946 ff., 1175 f)- On the strange allu- sion of 1.3005, see note on that passage. Regarding Beowulf the hero himself, the son of Ecgteow ^ and grandson of Hre«el (373 ff.), — the facts ^ 4 iis life, if fitted into th e ch j^onological scheme here adopte d, would showThe following sequence. He was born about the year 490. At the age of seven he was brought to the court of his grandfather Hre^el and nurtured there with loving care (2428 fF.). [He was, however, considered slack and of little promise (2183 ff.).] [He distinguishes himself in fighting giants and sea-monsters, 41 8 ff. and in a swimming adventure with Breca, 506 ff.] He takes no part in the engagements with the Swedes which culminate in the battle at Ravenswood. [In a. D. 5 1 o he visits the Danes and de- livers HroSgar from the plague of Grendel and his dam.] As a loyal thane he accompanies his uncle Hygelac in his expedition against the Franks (a.d. 516), slays Daeghrefn (thus avenging Hygel ac's death , it seems), an d escapes home by swimmin g (23i;6 tt.. 2i;oi lt.)i Refus- ing Hygd's offer of tKe throne, he acts as Heardred's guardian during the latter's minority (2369 ff.). After Heardred's death in the fight with the Swedes (A.D. 528), he becomes king and soon supports Ead- gils in his war on Onela, A.D. 530 (2389 ff.). [After a long reign he falls in a combat with a fire dragon. The date of his death must be left indefinite. At any rate, Beowulf's fifty )rgarflH-Eign (2209) — which would leave him a nonagenarian at the time of the final battle — is meant only as a sort of poe tic formula.]* ' Can this be a reference to the period when the center of Danish power was still in Skane ? ^ Deutschbein, I.e. would interpret the allusions of 11. 1832 fF., 1855 ff. as evi^- dence of the fact that Heoroweard (Hjgrvar^r) made his attack on HrolSulf (Hrolfr) at Lejre with the assistance of the Geats, i.e., of Wiglaf. Further discussion by Be- rendsohn, I.e. 9 fF. ' The same name, i.e. Eggper, occurs fflusfa 41. * Cf. 11. 1769 fF., and above, p. xxxii. xlvi INTRODUCTION The Nationality of the Geats This has been the subject of a prolonged controversy, which has brought out manifold aspects of the question, linguistic, geographical, historical, and literary. Grundtvig assigned the Geats to the island of Gotland (or, for a second choice, to Bofnholm) ; Kernble to Angeln, Schleswig ; Haigh (as a matter of course) to North England. But the only peoples that have been actually admitted as rival claimants to the title are the Jutes in the northern part of the Jutish peninsula, and the ON. Gautar, O.Swed. GStar, i.e. the inhabitants of Vaster- and Os- tergotland, south of the great Swedish lakes.' Phonetically OE. Geatas ^ answers precisely to ON. Gautar._ The OE. name of the (West Germanic) Jutes is Angl. Bote, lote (lotan), LWS. Tte, rtan,3 as used in Ifids. 26 : Ytum,_ OE.BeUe 308.11 : Eota (Var. : Ytena) land, OE.Chron. a.d. 449 : lotum, lutna (Baeda: lutarum) cyn, and no significance can be ascribed to the forms Geata, Geatum found in one place only, Bede 52. 4, g.* The ON. form for 'Jutes,'5 Jotar (Jutar), appears in an imperfect transliteration (in King .i^lfred's narrative of Ohthere's second voyage, Oroj. 19.20, 28), as Gotland (more properly: Geotland). In linguistic respect, then, the identification of the Geatas cannot be doubtful, and very weighty arguments indeed would be required to overthrow this fundamental evidence in favor of the Ggtar. Testimony of a geographical and historical character has been brought forward to support th e Jutish cl ajgis, but it is somewhat im- paired by the fact that the early history of Jutland as well as of Got- land is enveloped in obscurity. It is clear from the poem that the Geats are a seafaring people.* Hy gelac's castle is situated near the Sga_(j-924, 1963 tf. ^, the dragon is p ushed over the .i£a:^clitt (3131 fF.), and on the ' whale's headland ' do tTie Geats erect the gr ave monu- ment of their beloved king (2802 if., 3136). The intercourse be- ' See Leo L 4. 24, Schaldemose L 2. 3, Fahlbeck L4. 71. i & 2, Bugge i ff., Gering L 3. 26. p. vii, Weyhe L 4. 94, Schiitte L 4. 71. 3, Kier L. 4. 78, [in favor of the Jutes] ; — [and for the opposite view, especially :] Ettmiiller Transl. , Sar- razin St. 23 ff., ten Brink ch. 12 ; Schiick, Bjorkman, Stjerna (L 4. 7^.) ; Uhlen- beck L4. 72. 187 ff. ; Chambers Wid. 207 ; also Moller, E St. xiii 313 n. ; Tup- per, MPh. ix 266. — More recently SdiUtte has declared the Geatas of £eo 3015 fF.), his thoughts would likewise turn to the continental enemies of Beowulf's people, who might be expected to seize the opportunity of seeking revenge. The death of the illustrious king, this is apparently the main idea he wishes to convey, will leave the country without pro- tection against any of its foes. It has been observed that in lat£r _literary sou rcest he tradition be- came confused, and the E l?ce of the Gfats was't aicen h yPanes and Jutes^Thus, Hugletus (like Gregory's Ch(l)ochilaicus) figures as a Danish king (see above, p. xli), the scene of the first great encounter be- tween Swedes and Geats is shifted (by an evident blunder) from Sweden to Jutland (Vendel),' and ASils gains support from Hrolfr Kraki instead of from the Geat king. Yet the interesting fact remains that Bg^varr Bjarki, Hrolf's famous warrior, who assists AtSils in his fight agamst All, h as come _ from Gautland t o the Danish court. On the whole, the Danification of the legends seems to b e naturally accounted for h y the very early abs orption of the Geats in to the Swedish sta te. The loss of their independent existence caused the deeds of the Geatish kings to be attributed to members of other, prominent Scandinavian divisions, the rese mblance of the nam es Gaa ter and 'jotar aiding in this process. ^ The probability Js_thus_certamTy ^n the side of the Q gtar^ and it re- quires no great stretch of the imagination to look uponthis contest be- tween the two Northern tribes as one of the most significant phases of early Scandinavian history.^ Of the territory occupied by the G0tar, Vastgrg otland is commonly believed to correspond to Hygela c's realm, and his royal town has been conjecturally located at Kungsb ack a or at_J Cungalf (south and north of Gbteborg respectively)?* IV. The Christian Colorings The presentation of the story-material in Beoivulf has been influ- enced, to a considerable extent, by ideas derived from Christianity. The p oem ab ounds, to be sure, in su pernatural elements of pre- Chri stian associaCij ms.^ Heathen practices are mentioned in several places, such as the vowing of sacrifices at idol fanes (175 ff.), the ob- serving of omens (204), the burning;_of_the_dead (3137 ff., 1107 if., ^ See also the note on 2922 ff. ' Cf. Stjerna, ch. 4. — The shifting in the traditions of the Hea^o-Bards (see above, pp. XXXV f.) furnishes a kind of parallel. ^ By archeological data Stjerna (I.e.) felt enabled to trace definitely the causes ana the results of this struggle. _ * Stjerna, for archeological and geographical reasons, preferred the island of bland. ^ See especially L 4. 147 ff. ' Cf. above, p. xii & notes. THE CHRISTIAN COLORING xlix 3124 ff)) which was frowned upon by the Church. The frequen t allu- sions t o the po wer of fate {l uyrd, cf. Angl. xxxvi 171 f.), the motive of blood reveiige(i384 t., cp. 1669 f., 1256, 1278, 154.6 f.), the praise of" worI3Iyglo ry (1387 fF., cp. 2804 ft'., 884 £, 954 f.) bear testimony to an ancient background of pagan conceptions and ideals. On the other hand, we hear nothing of angels, saints, relics, of Christii and the cross, of divine worship, church observances, or any particular ( dogmatic points. Still, the general irrjpression we obtain from the ' reading of the poem is certainly the opposite of pagan barbarism. We almost seem to move in normal Christian surroundings. God's gov- ernance of the world and gf every human being, the evil of sin, the doings of the devil, the last judgment, heaven and hell are ever and anon referred to as familiar topics. (See the detailed discussion, Angl. XXXV 113 ffl, 249 ff., 453 ft'.) Though mostly short, these allusions show by their remarkable frequency how thoroughly the whole life was felt to be dominated by Christian ideas. The au thor is clearly familiar with the tr adition al CViristiaTi tpr minology in question and evinces some knowledge ' of the Bible, liturgy, and ecclesiastical literature. Of spe- cific motives derived from the Old Testament (and occurring in Genesis A also) we n ote the story of Cain, the giants, and the deluge (107 ff., I261 ff., 1689 ff.1. and the S"T 15 r,f Cre-^Unr^ (r... H )~ Furthermore, the transformation of old heathen elements in accord- ance with Christian thought may be readily observed. The pagan and heroic cremation finds a counterpart in the peaceful burial of the dead, which the Church enforced (1007 f., 2457 f , cp. 445 f, 3107 ff.). The curse placed on the fateful treasure is clothed in aChristiaii_£br- mula (3071 It. ) and is declared to Tiie void betore the higher will of God (3054 ff.). By the si de of the heat hen fate is seen the almighty God. Gi6 a luyrd sivd hio seel, exclaims Beowulf in expectation of the Grendel fight, 455, but again, in the same speech, he avows : 8ir gelyfan sceal I Dryhtnes dome se le liine deaS nimeS 440. The functions of fate ^ and God seem quite parallel : ivyrd oft neres / unjUgne eorl . . . 572 ; Siva mag nnfage caSe gedlgan j ivean ond ivracsjg se Se IVal- dendes I hyldo gekealdep 2291 ; cp. 2574 and 979, 2526 and 2527(?); 572 f and 669 f. Yet God is said to control fate : nefne him nvttig God nuyrd forstode / ond tSas mannes mod 1056. ^ Moreover, the fun- damental contrast between the good God and the blind and hostile fate is shown by the fact th at God invariably grants victor y (even in the tragic dragon fight, 2874), whereas it is a mysterious, hidden spell that brings about Beowulf's death, 3067 ff. Predominantly Christian are the general tone of the poem and its ' Whether direct or secondary, cf. also Angl. xxxv 481 & n. I & 2. ^ Still, wyrd is not felt to be a personal being ; the term is often used in a colorless way, cp., e.g., 1205 (luyrd) with 452 {hild), 1 123 (gUS), 557 {heaporas), 441 [deaS). ' However, the caution suggested in the preceding footnote certainly applies here. INTRODUCTION ethical viewpoint. We are no longer in a genuine pagan atmosphere. The sentiment has been softened and purified. The virtues of modera- tion, unselfishness, consideration for others are practised and appre- ciated. The manifest readiness to express gratitude to God on all imaginable occasions (625!?., 1397 f., gzSf., lyySf., 1626 f., 1997 f., 2794 if., 227 f.), and the poet's sympathy with weak and unfor- tunate beings like Scyld the foundling (7, 46) and even Grendel (e.g. 105, 721,973, 975, 1351) and hismother (1546 f.), are typical of the new note. Partic ularly striking' is the moral refinement of the two pr in- cipal characters. Beowulf and Hro'Sg ar. Those readers who, impressed by Beowulf's martial appearance at the beginning of the action, expect to find an aggressive warrior hero of the Achilles or Sigfrit type, will be disposed at times to think him somewhat tame, sentimental, and fond of talking. Indeed, thp final PK fimntf ; nf the hern's character by his own faithful thanes lamenting his death is chiefly a praise of Beowulf's g-pnt lmnpTT inrl kinrfnPT- 1 cwUdon piei he ivare ixiyruLd- cyning [«] / manna mildust ond montSiuarust, / leodum liSost ond lofgeor- nost 3180. The C hristian elem ents are almost without exception so deeply in- grained in the very fabric of the poem that they ca nnot be explained a way as the work of a reviser or later interpolator.'. In addition, it I's instructive to note that whilst the epis odes are all but fr ee from those modern influences, ^ the main story has been t horoughly imb ued with th e spirit of Christianity . It is true, the action itself is not modified or visibly influenced by Christianization. ^ But the quality of the plot is changed. The author has fairly exalted the fights with fabled mon- sters into a conflict between the powers of good and of evil. The figure of G rendel, at any rate, while originally an ordinary Scandina- vian troll,'* and passing in the poem as a sort of man-monster,' is at the same time c onceived of as an impersonation of evil and darkness, even an incarnation of the Christi aB-deril'. Many of his appellations are unquestionable' epithets of Satan {e.g.,feond mancynnes. Codes andsaca, feond on helle, helle hxfta ; cf. Angl. xxxv 250 ff.), he belongs to the wicked progeny of Cain, the first murderer, his actions are represented in a manner suggesting the conduct of the evil one (c£ ib. 257), and he dwells with his demon mother ^ in a place which calls up visions ' See Angl. xxxvi 179 ff. ; CI. Hall, pp. xliv ff. ; for interesting arguments to the contrary, see Chadwick H. A. 47 ff. On possible interpolations, see below, Chapter viii : ' Genesis of the Poem.' ^ The Christian turn given the Heremod motive (901 ff., 1709 ff.) and some allusions in the Scyld prologue are the chief exceptions. (Cf. Anpl. xxxv 472 f.) ^ See note on 1555 f. ; Angl. xxxv 482, xxxvi 178. ^ In the poem called eoten^ 761, cp. 668 j pyrs^ 426. ^ See, e.g., 105, 1352, also 1379. ^ Some of her epithets at least are redolent of devil nature, viz. mdnscaSa lual- gafstwSfre, perhaps hrimivylf(}),grur,divyrgen (?), cp. {aefter) diofla (liryre) 1 680. i^Angl. xxxvi 188, cf. ib. xxxv 253, 256.) THE CHRISTIAN COLORING li of hell (see note on i357fF.). Even the antagonist of the third adven- ture, though less personally conceived than the Grendel pair, is not free from the suspicion of similar influences, especially as the dragon was in ecclesiastical tradition the recognized symbol of the archfiend. (Angl. xxxvi i88 f ) That the victorious champion, who overcomes this group of monsters, is a decidedly unusual figure of very uncertain historical associations, has been pointed out before. The poet has raised him to the rank of a singularly spotless hero, a 'defending, protecting, redeeming being'," a truly ideal character. In fact, we need not hesitate to recogniz e features of ^he Christian Savior in the destroy er of hellish fiends, the warrior ' brave and gentle, blameless in thought and deed, the kmg that dies for h is peopl e: i\or is the possibility ot discovering direct allusiuiib t u- the person of the Savior to be ignored. While there are not lacking certain hints of this kind in the first part of the poem (942 ff., 1707 ff.), it is especially in the last adventure that we are strongly tempted to look for a deeper, spiritual interpretation. The duality of the mo- tives which apparently prompt Beowulf to the dragon fight may not be as unnatural as it has sometimes been considered. ^ Still, it is some- what strange that the same gold which Beowulf rejoices in having ob- tained for his people before the hour of his death (p^s se ic moste minum leodum / ar smiyltdage snjjylc gestrynan 2797), is placed by his mourn- ing thanes into the burial mound ; they give it back to the earth — Jiler hit nu gen tifaS / eldum sivd unnyt, sivd hit 2eror njuas 3167.' Nay, Wiglaf, in the depth of his sorrow which makes him oblivious of all else, expresses the wish that Beowulf had left the dragon alone to hold his den until the end of the world (3079 ff.). The indubitably significant result of the adventure is the hero's death, and, in the struc- tural plan of the poem, the aim and object of the dragon fight is to lead up to this event, — a d eath, that is. which involves the destruction of the adYfiiaary, b ut is no Ipfls nntP"'"r»liy ;r^ t\^ft \\ pgrtalfp;; of the nature nf -a-ae lf-sacrifice : NH ic on maSma hard ?nine bebohte / frode feorhlege 2799. That also some incidents in the encounter with the dragon lend themselves to comparison with happenings in the garden of Geth- semane, is shown in the notes to 11. 2419 and 2596 fl^. Though delicately kept in the background, this Christian interpreta- tion of the main story on the part of the Anglo-Saxon author gives ' (See Kemble ii, p.x.) In his role as a deliverer from the ravages of monsters he might well be likened to ancient heroes like Hercules and Theseus. * See above, pp. xxi f. From the standpoint of the poem, the defense of the coun- try and the desire of revenge {^ivrace leornode 2336) is the primary motive. The winning of the hoard (2535 f., 2747 ff., 2794 ff. ), which is the sole object in the corresponding fight of Frotho, could be easily associated with it. (Cf. Angl. xxxvi 191 & n.2.) ^ In part this could be justified as a corollary of the subsidiary motive of the curse resting on the gold. m INTRODUCTION added strength and tone to the entire poem. It explains one of the great puzzles of our epic. It would indeed be hard to understand why the poet contented himself with a plot of mere fabulous adventures so much inferior to the splendid heroic setting, unless the narrative de- rived a superior dignity from suggesting the most exalted hero-life known to Christians. V. structure of the Poem ' Structural Plan ^ The poem of Beo'wulf consists of two distinct parts joined in a very loose manner and held together only by the person of the hero. The first of these does not in the least require or presuppose a continuation. 3 Nor is the second dependent for its interpretation on the events of the first plot, the two references to the ' Grendel part ' being quite cursory and irrelevant (2351 if., %$t.i). The first part, again, contains two well-developed main incidents (which are closely enough bound together to constitute technically one story), while its third division, ' Beowulf's Home-Coming,' only serves as a supplement to the preceding major plot. As may be seen from the Argument of the Poem (above, pp. ix ff. ), there is a decided stnictural parallelism in the unfolding of the three great adventures, the fights with the fabulous monsters, namely in set- ting forth the ' exciting cause,' the preliminaries of the main action, the fight itself, and the relaxation or pause following the climax.* At the same time we note a remarkable gradation in the three great crises of the poem. The fight against Grendel is rather monotonous and seems altogether too short and easy to give much opportunity for excitement — in spite of the horrors of the darkness in which the scene is enacted. The second contest is vastly more interesting by reason of its elaborate, romantic scenery, the variety and definiteness of incidents, the dramatic quality of the battle. The hero is fully armed, uses weap- ons in addition to his ' hand-grip,' and yet is so hard pressed that only a kind of miracle saves him. There is, moreover, an element of justice in representing the combat with Grendel' s. mother as more formidable ' See in general : L 4. I ff., L 4. 120 ff. ; L 7, passim. ^ Cf. especially K.er L 4. 120, Hart L 4. 125, Smithson L 4. 128, Heinzel L 7. 2. I & 2, Tolman L 7. 11, ten Brink L 7. 15, Haeuschkel L 7. 20, Ron- ning L 4. 15, Routh L 4. 138,. ^ Only a hint of Beowulf's future kingship is vouchsafed after the second victory, 1850 ff. j a fainter echo of this note is heard after the first triumph, 861. * As regards individual motives, the function of the speeches (e.g. those uttered before the battles) may be compared. Parallels in minor details between the first and the second incident could be mentioned; cp. 129 ff. , 473 ff. and 1321 ff. ; 452 f. and 1482 f ; 625 f. and 1397 f. ; 636 ff. and 1490 f. ; likewise between the first and the second main part, cp. 1769 and 2209 j 86 f. and 2302 f. ; 1994 ff. and 3079 ff., and see above, pp. xxii f.. STRUCTURE OF THE POEM liii and pregnant with danger. Grendel, who has ravaged the hall because of the innate wickedness of his heart, deserves to be overcome without difficulty. His mother, on the contrary, is actuated by the laudable desire for revenge (1256 ff., izyS, 1305 f , 1546 f., cf. Antiq. § 5) and, besides, is sought out in her own home 5 hence a certain amount of sympathy is manifestly due her. Finally, the dragon (who likewise has a kind of excuse for his depredations) is entirely too much for his assailant. We tremble for the venerable king. He takes a special meas- ure for protection (2337 ft. ),and is strengthened by the help of a youth- ful comrade, but the final victory is won only at the cost of the hero's own life. The account of this fight, which, like that against Grendel' s mother, falls into three clearly marked divisions, receives a new interest by the introduction of the companions, the glorification of one man's loyalty, and the added element of speech-making. The plot of each part is surprisingly simple. In the use of genuine heroic motives the main story of Beoivulf is indeed inferior to the Finns- burg legend. But the author has contrived to expand the narrative con- siderably in the leisurely epic fashion, which differentiates it completely from the type of the short lays. Subsidiary as well as important inci- dents are related in our epic. Extended speeches are freely introduced. There is not wanting picturesque description and elaborate setting. In the first part of the poem, the splendid life at the Danish court with its feastings and ceremonies is graphically portrayed in true epic style. The feelings of the persons are described, and general reflections on characters, events, and situations are thrown in. Last not least, matter more or less detached from the chief narrative is given a place in the poem by way of digressions and episodes. ■ Digressions and Episodes About 450 verses in the first part and almost 250 in the second part are concerned with episodic matter, as the following list will show. The origin of the Scylding line and Scyld's burial (1-52). The fate of Heorot (82'>-85). The song of Creation (9o'>-98). Cain's punishment, and his oftspring (loyli-ii+j I26il'_i266»). Youth- ful adventures of Beowulf (41 9-424=). Settling of Ecgbeow's feud (459- 472). The UnferfS intermezzo [Breca episode] (499-589). Stories of Sigemund and Heremod (87411-915). The Finnsburg Tale (1069- 1159^). Allusions to Eormenric and Hama (1197-1201). Thefallof Hygelac (1202-1214=). The destruction of the giganias (i689l>-i693). Heremod's tragedy (i709''-i722'>). Sermon against pride and ava- rice (i724t'-i757). Story of ]7ry«, the wife of Offa (i93i'i-i962). The feud between Danes and Hea'So-Bards (2032-2066). Beowulf's inglorious youth (2i83''-2i89). ' A rigid distinction between ' digressions ' and ' episodes ' as attempted by Smith- son (pp. 371, 379 fF. ), who considers the accounts of Sigemund-Heremod and the Finnsburg Tale the only episodes, need not be applied. liv INTRODUCTION Elegy of the lone survivor of a noble race (2247-2266). Geatish history : Hygelac's death in Friesland, Beowulf's return by swim- ming, and his guardianship of Heardred ; the second series of Swedish wars (z354.'>_2396). Geatish history : King Hre'Sel, the end of Here- beald [the Lament of the Father, 2444-24.62^"] , the earlier war with the Swedes, Beowulf's slaying of Dseghrefn in Friesland (2428-2508^1. Weohstan's slaying of Eanmund in the later Swedish-Geatish war (2611-2625^1). Geatish history : Hygelac's fall ; the battle at Ravens- wood in the earlier Swedish war (2910''— 2998). It will be seen that several of these digressions contain welcome in- formation about the hero's life; others tell of events relating to the Scylding dynasty and may be regarded as a legitimate sort of setting. The allusions to Cain and the giants are called forth by the references to Grendel' s pedigree. The story of Creation is a concrete illustration of the entertainments in Heorot. Earlier Danish history is represented by Heremod, and the relation between Danish and Frisian tribes is shown in the Finn story. Germanic are the legends of Sigemund and of Eormenric and Hama. To the old continental home of the Angles belongs the allusion to Offa and his queen. The digressions of the second part are devoted chiefly to Geatish history, the exceptions being the 'Elegy of the Last Survivor' and the 'Lament of the Father,' which (like the central portion of HrolSgar's harangue in the first part) are of a more general character. The frequent mention of Hygelac's Frankish raid is accounted for by the fact that it is closely bound up both with Geatish history in general and with Beowulf's life in particu- lar. Accordingly, sometimes the aggression and defeat of Hygelac are dwelt upon (1202 ff'., 2913 ff.), in other passages Beowulf's bravery is made the salient point of the allusion (2354 fF., 2501 if.). Most of the episodes are introduced in a skilful manner and are properly subordinated to the main narrative. For example, the Breca story comes in naturally in a dispute occurring at the evening's enter- tainment. ' The legends of Sigemund and of Finnsburg are recited by the scop. The glory of Scyld's life and departure forms a fitting prelude to the history of the Scyldings, who, next to the hero, claim our chief interest in the first part. In several instances the introduction is effected by means of comparison or contrast (in the form of a negative : 11 97, 1709, 1931, 2354, [2922], cp. 901). Occasionally the episodic char- acter is clearly pointed out : 2069 ic sceal fors sprecan / gen ymbe Grendel ; iyi2. Su pe lar be pon . . . , ic pis gid be pe / anvrac. The facts of Geatish history, it cannot be denied, are a little too much in evidence and retard the narrative of the second part rather seriously. Quite far-fetched may seem the digression on ]?ryS, which is brought ' In as much as the hero tells of his earlier life in the course of a festive enter- tainment, this episode may be compared to .(Eneas' narrative at Dido's court (^/Eneid, Books ii and iii ) and its prototype, Odysseus' recital of his adventures before Alkinoos {^Odyssey y Books ix-xii). STRUCTURE OF THE POEM Iv in very abruptly and which, like the Hcremod tale, shows the poet's disposition to point a moral. In extent the episodic topics range from cursory allusions of a few lines (Sz''-85, 1197-1201) to complete and complicated narratives (the adventure with Breca, the Finnsburg legend, the Hea'So-Bard feud, the battle at Ravenswood). A few passages, like the old spearman's speech (1047-56) and the recital of the Ravenswood battle (2924. ff.), give the impression of be- ing taken without much change (in substance) from older lays. The Elegy of the Last Survivor reminds us of similar elegiac passages in Old English poetry (see Wanderer, passim, and Ruin). The fine picture of Scyld's sea-burial, and the elaboration of detail in the Beowulf- Breca adventure seem to be very largely, if not exclusively, the poet's own work. Most of the episodes, however, are merely summaries of events told in general terras and are far removed both from, the style of independent lays (like the Finnsburg Fragment) and from the broad, expansive epic manner. The distinctly allusive character of a number of them shows that the poet assumed a familiarity with the full story on the part of his audience. On the whole, we have every reason to be thankful for these episodes, which not only add fulness and variety to the central plot, but disclose a wealth of authentic heroic song and legend, a magnificent historic background. Still we may well regret that those subjects of intensely absorbing interest play only a minor part in our epic, having to serve as a foil to a story which in itself is of decidedly inferior weight. Speeches ■ Upwards of 1300 lines are taken up with speeches.^ The major part of these contain digressions, episodes, descriptions, and reflections, and thus tend to delay the progress of the narrative. But even those which may be said to advance the action, are lacking in dramatic quality ; they are characterized by eloquence and ceremonial dignity. The shortest speech consists of four lines (the coast-guard's words of God- speed, 316-19), the longest extends to 160 lines (Beowulf's report to Hygelac, 2000— 21 51, 2155-62) ; almost as long is the messenger's discourse (128 11. ; 2900-3027) j next follow the Finn recital (90 11. : 1069-1159^), Hr6%ar's harangue (8 5 11.: 1700-17 84), Beowulf's rem- iniscences (84 11. : 2426-2509), his answer to Unfer'S's version of the Breca story (77 II. : 530-606).^ The formal character of the speeches is accentuated by the manner ' Cf. in particular : Heusler L 7. 18. ' The proportion of (direct) speech to narrative is in the Iliad 7339 -. 8635, in the Odissey 8240 : 3879, in the JEreid 4632^ : 5263^. ' There are in the Beowulf some 40 instances of direct discourse averaging in the neighborhood of 30 lines (i.e., if the Finnsburg episode is included). Ivi INTRODUCTION of their introduction. Most frequently the verb maSelode ' made a speech ' ■ is employed, either in set expressions occurring with the for- mula-like regularity well known from the Homeric epic, as Beoiuulf mapelode, beam Ecgpeotues Hrosgdr mapelode, helm Scyldinga Wlglaf matselode, Weohstanes sunu (see Glossary of Proper Names), or in combination with descriptive, characterizing, explanatory matter intruded between the announcement and the actual beginning of the speech, e.g. Beonvulf maSetode — on him hyrne scan, / searonet seiywed smipes orpancum i,o e, f. ^ Other terms of introduction like 7nepeliuordum frxgn 236, andsivarode . . . ivord- hord onleac 258 f,, lyt simgode . . . s^rgde ofer ealle 2897 if. (cp. 121 5) likewise indicate the formality of the occasions.' The prominent and rather independent position of the speeches is signalized by the fact that, in contrast with the usual practice of en- jambement, nearly all the speeches begin and end with the full line. (The only exceptions are 287'', 342'', 350'', z^iz^, 2518'', 3114''; 389>(?) (^iS9^)-) About one tenth of the lines devoted to speech is in the form of in- direct discourse, which is properly preferred for less important func- tions (in 'general narrative') and in the case of utterances by a col- lection of people (175, 202, 227, 857, 987, 1595, 1626, 3172, 3180). The use of {ge)c'waS as immediate verb of introduction, following a preparatory statement of a more general character, should be mentioned here. E. g. , s^wa begnornodon Geata leode / hlafardes {hry)re . . . , ciuidon pnet . . . 3180 (so 92, 181 o, 2158, 2939; 857, 874). Bv far the most felicitous use of the element of discourse is made in the first part, especially in the earlier division of it, from the opening of the action proper to the Grendel fight (189—709). The speeches occurring in it belong largely to the ' advancing ' type, consist mainly of dialogue (including two instances of the type ' question : reply : reply,' 237-300, 333-355 ''), and are an essential factor in creating the impression of true epic movement. As the poem continues, the speeches increase in length and deliberation. The natural form of dia- logue 5 is in the last part completely superseded by addresses without answer, some of them being virtually speeches in form only.* ^ * Imperfective verb' (never used with an object). See Glossary. ' Similarly 286 f., 348 ff., 499 ff., 925 fF., 1687 ff., 2510 f., 2631 f., 2724 ft'. Cp. Pf^ids. I ff., fFa!d. ii II ff., Gen. B 347 ff. ; Hel. 139 ff., 9i4f., 3137 ff., 3993 ff- ^ Of the simpler expressions, y^<2 worda cwceS (2246, 2662, cp. Hildebr. 9), ond pat tuord acivaS (654, cp. 2046) may be noted as formulas (^ZfdA. xlvi 267 ; Arch, cxxvi 357 n. 3). * Cp. 1318-1396 (indirect discourse ; reply: reply). ^ Cp. 1492: after p'^m luordum Weder- Geata leod / efste mid elne, ftaJas and- STvare / bidan luolde. ' The length of several of these is somewhat disguised by the fact that they are STRUCTURE OF THE POEM Ivii The • Grendel part ' also shows the greatest variety, as regards the occasions for speech-making and the number of speakers participating (Beowulf, the coast-guard, Wulfgar, HroiSgar, UnferiS, the scop, Wealhjjeow). In its continuation (i z) the use of discourse is practi- cally limited to an interchange of addresses between Beowulf and HroiSgar. In a class by itself stands the pathetic soliloquy, 2247 ff. In spite of a certain sameness of treatment the poet has managed to introduce a respectable degree of variation in adapting the speeches to their particidar occasion.;. Great indeed is the contrast between Beowulf's straightforward, determined vow of bravery (632-638) and Hro'Sgar's moralizing oration, which would do credit to any preacher (1700— 1784). Admirable illustrations of varying moods and kinds of utterance are Beowulf's salutation to Hro'Sgar (407—455) and his bril- liant reply to the envious trouble-maker Unfer'S (530-606). A master- piece is the queen's exhibition of diplomatic language by means of veiled allusion (1169 ff.). A finely appropriate emotional quality characterizes Beowulf's dying speeches (2729 if-, 2794 ff., 2813 ff.). That some of the speeches follow conventional lines of heroic tradi- tion need not be doubted. This applies to the type of the gylpcnvide before the combat (675 ff., 1392 ff., 2510 ff.), the 'comitatus' speech or exhortation of the retainers (2633 ff., cp. Bjarkamal [Par. § 7 ; Saxo ii 59 fF.], Maid. 212 ff., 246 if., Finnsb. 37 ff.), the inquiry after a stranger' s name and home (2 3 7 ff. ; cp. Finnib. 2 2 f. , HiUehr. 8 ff., also Hel. 554 ff.). The absence of battle challenge and defiance (see Finnsb. 24 ff.) is an obvious, inherent defect of our poem. Lack of Steady Advance The reader of the poem very soon perceives that the progress of the narrative is frequently impeded. Looseness is, in fact, one of its marked peculiarities. Digressions and episodes, general reflections in the form of speeches, an abundance of moralizing passages (see below, pp. Ixi f.) interrupt the story. The author does not hesitate to wander from the subject. When he is reminded of a feature in some way re- lated to the matter in hand, he thinks it perfectly proper to speak of it. Hence references to the past are intruded in unexpected places. The manner of Scyld's wonderful arrival as a child is brought out in- cidentally by way of comparison with the splendor of his obsequies (43 ff.). Beowulf's renown at the height of his career calls to mind the days of his youth when he was held in disrespect (2183 ff.).' No less broken up into two or three portions separated by a few lines of narrative or comment (2426-2537, 2633-2668, 2794-2816, 3077-3119 ; so in the preceding division: 2000—2162). ' Similarly : 14 ff., 107 ff., 716 {., 1579 ff., 2771 f., 2777 ff. (In numerous episodes, of course. ) Iviii INTRODUCTION fond is the poet of looking forward to something that will happen in the near or distant future. The mention of the harmony apparently- reigning at the court of HroSgar gives an opportunity to hint at sub- sequent treachery (1018 {., 1164 f., ii^o ff.). The building of the hall Heorot calls up the picture of its destruction by fire (82 if.).' It is not a little remarlcable that in the account of the three great fights of the hero, care has been taken to state the outcome of the struggle in advance (696 if., 706 {., 734. if., 805 ff. ; 1553 ff. ; 2341 ff-. ^42° ff , 2573 ff., 2586 ff , cp. 2310 f ). Evidently disregard of the ele- ment of suspense was not considered a defect in story telling. 2 Sometimes the result of a certain action is stated first, and the action itself mentioned afterwards (or entirely passed over). E.g., pa mias frod cyning . . . on hreon mode, / sjgpan hi aldorpegn unlyfigendne . . . ivisse 1306 f.^ In this way a fine abruptness is attained -.bra ivide Sprang, I sypian he ttfter deaSe drepe pronuade 1588.* Thus it also nappens that a fact of first importance is strangely subordinated (as in I556).S There occur obvious gaps in the narrative. That Wealbjieow left the hall in the course of the first day' s festival, or that Beowulf brought the sword Hrunting back with him from the Grendel cave, is nowhere mentioned, but both facts are taken for granted at a later point of the story (664 f , 1807 ff.).6 Furthermore, different parts of a story are sometimes told in differ- ent places, or substantially the same incident is related several times from different points of view. A complete, connected account of the history of the dragon' s hoard is obtained only by a comparison of the passages, 3049 ff., 3069 ff., 2233 if. The brief notice of Grendel's first visit in Heorot (122 f.) is supplemented by a later allusion con- taining additional detail (i58off.).'' The repeated references to the vari- ous Swedish wars, the frequent allusions to Hygelac's Frankish foray, the two versions of the Heremod legend, the review of Beowulf's great fights by means of his report to Hygelac (and to Hro^gar) and through Wiglafs announcement to his companions (2874 ff. ; cp. also 29040'.) are well-known cases in point. Typical examples of the rambling, dilatory method — the forward, backward, and sideward movements — are afforded by the introduc- ' Similarly, e.g., 1202 ff., 1845 fF., 3021 ff. ; 2032 ff. (prediction of war with the HeaSo-Bards). ^ The author of ya^/rV/z uses the same method (11. 16, 19, 59 f., 63 ff., 72 f.). On predictions of a tragic issue in the Nibelungenlied, see Radke L 7. 37. 47 f. ^ Cf. notes on 208 ff., 2697 ff. * Other cases of abri^pt transition are enumerated by Schiicking, Sa, 139 ff. ^ Subordinate clauses introduced \i'j si'SSan or by o3 p^st (56, 100, 2210, 2280, 644) are used a number of times in place of a co-ordinate, independent statement. ^ Cp. the omission of Heorogar's reign (64, 465 ff. ). ' Cp. 83 ff. and 2029 ft'. We might compare the account of Satan's rebellion in the first and the fifth and sixth book^ of Paradise Lost. TONE, STYLE, METER lix tion of Grendel (see note on 86-114), ^Y the Grendel fight (see note on 710 fF.), Grendel's going to Heorot (702 ff.),' and the odd sequel of the fight with Grendel's mother (1570-90). The remarkable inser- tion of a long speech by Wiglaf, together with comment on his fam- ily, right at a critical moment of the dragon fight (2602-60), can hardly be called felicitous. But still more trying is the circuitous route by which the events leading up to that combat are brought before the reader (see note on 2200 ff. : Second Part). VI. Tone, Style, Meter' Although a poem of action, Beoivulf is more than a narrative of notable events. Not that the author is lacking in the art of telling a story effectively. But a mere objective narration is not his chief aim. The poet is not satisfied with reciting facts, heroic and stirring though they be. Nor does he trouble to describe in a clear, concrete manner the outward appearance of the persons, even of the principal hero, though he sets forth, with eloquence, the striking impression he make^ on others (247 ff., cp. 369 f.). But he takes the keenest interest in the inner significance of the happenings, the underlying motives, the mani- festation of character. He loses no opportunity of disclosing what is going on in the minds of his actors. He is ever ready to analyze the thoughts and feelings of Beowulf and HroSgar, the Danes and the Geats, Grendel and his kind, even down to the sea-monsters (549, 562, 143 1) and the birds of prey (3024 fi^.). Their intentions, resolu- tions, expectations, hopes, fears, longings, rejoicings, and mental suffer- ings engage his constant attention.^ In a moment of intensest action, such as the combat with Grendel, the state of mind of the characters is carefully taken note of (7 1 o ff. ) . An elaborate psychological analysis runs through the central part of HrqSgar's great moral discourse (1724 ff. ).'' Delicacy as well as strength of emotion are finely depicted (see 862 f., 1602 ff.,5 1853 ff., 1894, 1915 f., 2893 ff., 3031 f.), and " The repetition of com 702, 710, 720 may be compared with Dan. 149 f., 158. ^ Cf. L 7, L 8 ; also L 4, pasiim. ' See, e.g., 632 ff., 709, 75^, 1272, I44», 'SS^f-, i539> 15^5,^419, 2572; 136, 154 ff., 599 f., 712, 723, 730 f., 739, 753 ff., 762, 769, 821 ; 1129, I137 ff., I150; 1719. See also Glossary; myntan, ivenl^ari), pencan, gelyfan, murnan^ [ge^truivian^ gefea, gefeon^ pancianj gebelgan^ scamian^ sorhy geomor^fyr- *wyt[t)^ gemunan, sefa^ mod, ferh6. (Cf. Angl, xxxv 470.) * A curious result of this mental attitude is a certain indirectness of expression which in numerous passages takes precedence over the natural, straightforward man- ner of statement, see, e.g., 715, 764, 1309, 1936, 1969 j 814 f. ; 866; 532, 677, 793 f-, 1845 ; 1025 f., 2363, 2995. ^ GUtas setan / modes sioce ond on mere staredon — words as moving in their simple dignity as any lines from Wordsworth's Michael. Ix INTRODUCTION numerous little touches indicate an appreciation of kind-heartedness (e.g., 4.6, 203!', ^69^, 521% 1262b, 1275, I547S 2+34'', 3°93^)-_ With especial fondness does the author dwell on the feelings of grief and sadness. Hro'Sgar's sorrowforhisthanes (i29fF., 473 if., 1322 ff.), his wonderfully sentimental farewell to his young friend (1870 ft.), Beowulf's yielding to a morbid reverie when least expected (44.2 ft'., cp. 562 f), the gloomy forebodings of his men and their yearning love of home (691 ff.),' the ever recurring surgingsof care,^ the abundance of epithets denoting sadness of heart ^ give ample evidence of the per- vading influence of this characteristic trait. It almost seems as if the victories of the hero and the revelries in the hall produce only a tem- porary state of happiness, since ' ever the latter end of joy is woe ' (119, 128, 1007 f., 1078 ft'., 1774 f.). 4 Even Wiglaf's stern rebuke (grim andsivaru) of his cowardly comrades is tinged with melancholy reflections (2862 ft'.). Full of profound pathos are the elegies of the last survivor (2247 ft'.) and the lonely father (2444 ff'.). The regret for the passing of youth (2111 ft'.), the lament for the dead (1117 £, 1323 ff., 2446 £, 3152 ff'., 3171 ff".), the tragic conflict of duties (Hre&l, 2462 ff. ; Hengest, 1138 ff". ; Ingeid, 2063 ff'.),' the lingering fear of a catastrophe in the royal family of the Scyldings (cf. above, pp. xxxii, xxxvi), the anticipation of the downfall of the Geats' power (cf. above, p. xli) aptly typify the prevailing Teutonic mood of serious- ness, solemnity, and sadness. But nowhere appears the tragic pathos more subtly worked into the story than in Beowulf's own death. The venerable king succeeds in overcoming the deadly foe, but suffers death himself ; he wins the coveted hoard, but it is of no use to him or his folk i he enters upon the task with the purest intention, even searching his heart for sins he may have unwittingly committed (2329 ff. ), but he encounters a fatal curse of which he knew nothing (3067 f.). The scenery of the poem — sea and seashore, lake and fen-district, the royal hall and its surroundings, the Grendel and the dragon cave — is in the main sketched briefly, yet withal impressively. The large part which the sea played in the life of the Beowulfian peoples, finds ex- pression in an astonishing wealth of terms applied to it * and in numer- ous allusions to its dominating geographical importance.^ Clear visuali- zation and detailed description of scenery should not be expected, as a rule.** Elements of nature are introduced as a background for human ' Cf. Arch, cxxvi 343. ^ Cf. Arch, cxxvi 351. ' Cf. Beitr. XXX 392. "* Cf. MPh. iii 449, also Angl. xxxv 459 ff. ^ A truly Germanic motive, perhaps best known from the stories of Riiedeger, Kriemhilt, and Hildebrand. * See Schemann L 7. 5. 34 ff., 92 ff., Tolman L 7. 11, Merbach L 7. 27, Erlemann L 7. 29. 26 ff. ' Thus, he sSm tivionum 858, 1297, 1685, 1956 ; snua sidt stoS sS ieiiigeS I ivind^eard lueallas 1223 ; ofer hronrdde lo ; 1826, 1861, 2473. ^ On the somewhat vague use of color terms, see Mead L 7. 32. TONE, STYLE, METER Ixi action or as symbols of sentiment. Nightfall, dawn, the advent of spring ■ signalize new stages in the narrative. The storm on the wintry ocean accompanies the struggle of the courageous swimmers. ^ The swirl of the blood-stained lake tells of deadly conflict (847 (F., 1422, 1593 f.). The funeral ship is covered with ice (33), and frost-bound trees hangover the forbidding water (1363). The moors of the dreary desert, steep stone-banks, windy headlands, mist and darkness are fit surround- ings for the lonely, wretched stalkers of mystery. 'Joyless' (821) is their abode. Strikingly picturesque and emotional in quality is the one elaborate landscape picture representing the Grendellake (1357 if.), which conveys all the horror of the somber scenery and appeals force- fully to our imagination — a. justly celebrated masterpiece of English nature poetiy. In such a gloomy atmosphere there can be no room for levity, fun, or humor. Passages which to modern readers might seem to be humor- ous were certainly not so meant by the Anglo-Saxon author (e.g., 1 3 8 f. , 560 f., 793 f., 841 f). On the contrary, he is always in earnest, not- ably intense, and bent on moralizing. Acting in a way like a Greek chorus, the poet takes pleasure in adding his philosophic comment or conclusion, or, it may be, his slightly emotional expression of ap- proval or censure. Thus, individual occurrences are viewed as illustra- tions of a general rule, subject to the decrees of fate or of God.^ The course of the world, the inevitableness of death are set forth. "• The author bestows praise and blame upon persons and their actions, some- times in brief quasi-exclamatory clauses like ptei nuxs god cyning 11, 2390; ne bis sivylc e urges siS 2541 ; sivd hyt no sceoUe / (tren a-rgod) 2585 ;5 sometimes, however, by turning aside and pointing a moral, with manifest relish, for its own sake. Thus, courage, loyalty, liberality, wisdom are held up as qualities worthy of emulation. E.g., f^wd sceal {geong g) uma gode geivyrcean etc. 2 o if. ; sivd sceal mag don, I nealles innvitnet osrum bregdon etc. 2166 ff.* The punish- ment of hell is commented upon by way of warning and of contrast with the joys of heaven ; ijod bis pam se sceal . . . sdnule bescufan / in fyres fapm. ... 183 ff. As to form, the gnomic elements are clearly marked by the use of ^ See 649 ff., 1789 f. ; 1801 ff. ; 1136 f. ^ Thus, geofon ypum -zveoi, / ivintrys ipylm [ww] 51550/) pist unc fiod todraf, f luado ivealtende, ivedera cealdost, J nipende niht, ond norpannvind / heaSogrim ond- bivearf SUS- ^ E.g., op pat bine yldo henam j magenes •wynnum^ se pe oft manegum scod 1886 f .; op Sat oper com / gear in gear das, — swa nu gyl deS etc. 1 133 ff. ; cp. 1058, 2859 ; 2470, 2590 f. * E.g., Oft sceall eorl monig dnes ivillan / ivrac ddreogan, s'wd its geivorden is 3077 f. ; gaS d ivyrd s'zvd bio seel 455 ; no pat ySe byS / to befeonne etc. 1002 ff. ; 24 f. ; 572 f , 2291 ff. ; 2029 ff., 2764 ff., 3062 ff. ' Cp. 1250, 1812, 18S5 f., 1372, 1691 f., 1940 ff. (amplified). <• Similarly 1534 ff. ; 287 ff., 3174 ff. Ixii INTRODUCTION certain words or phrases, such as snua sceal (man don) (20);' sivylc sceolde [secg •wesan) (2708, 1328) ; setre bis' (13S4, 2890, 1838 f.); a, Ttfre (ne) (455, 930, 2600); oft (pftost) (572, 2029, 3077, 1663); ease mag (2291, 2764 ; cp. 1002)'; the sceal of necessity or certainty (24, 3077). The abstracting, generalizing tendency often takes the form of re- capitulating or explanatory remarks like huics le Irenpreat j Tvapnum ge-Tvurpad 330 f., jume on luiele crungon 11 13, int^s id fxst on pdm 137, sivylc luxs peanv hyra 178 ; 3 of illustrative comparisons, e.g. ne ixjon his drohtoS par, / s-iuytce he on ealderdagum ar gemette 756 f., ne gefrnegn ic freondlicor feonuer madmas . . gummanna fela . . . osrum gesellan 1017 IF. ; 4 or of reviews of present conditions and com- ments on the results achieved, e.g. hafde KyningivulJor / Grendle togeanes . . . selenveard aseted . . . 665ft'.; hafde pa geJSlsod . . . sele Hrosgdres . . . 825 ff.s The course of events is carefully analyzed, with cause and effect duly noted : pd ivas gesyne, pat se sis ne 3dh etc. 3058 ff. Although the moralizing turn and also some of the maxims may be regarded as a common Germanic inheritance,* the extent to which this feature as well as the fondness for introspection has been carried is distinctly Beowulfian and shows the didactic and emotional nature of the author himself. The characters of the poem are in keeping with the nobility of its spirit and the dignity of its manner. Superior to, and different from, all the others, strides the mighty figure of Beowulf through the epic. In his threefold role as adventurous man in arms (nvrecca), loyal thane of his overlord, and generous, well-beloved king he shows himself a perfect hero, without fear and without reproach, — the strongest of his generation, valorous, resolute, great-hearted and noble of soul, wise and steadfast, kind, courteous, and unselfish, a truly 'happy warrior.'' Next to him rank HroSgar, the grand aiid kindly ruler, full of years, wisdom, and eloquence, and the young Wiglaf, who typifies the faith- ful retainer, risking his life to save his dear master. In a second group ' The simpler form of this type (as in 1 172) is well known in the Heliatid and in Otfrid. ^ Naturally the forms of Uon are used, see Glossary. ^ Cp. 223 {., 359, 814 f., 1075, 1 1 24, 1150 f., 133 f., 191 f., 1246 ff. ■* Cp. 716 ff., 2014 ff., 1470 f. * Cp. J304 ff., 1620, 2823 ff. ^ E.g. , those expressing the power of fate or coupling fate and courage { cf. ^rck. cxv 179 & n.). — See on thd general subject of the moralizing element, the mono- graph by B. C. Williams, Gnomic Poetry in Anglo-Saxon (19 14), Part i (Intro- duction). ' Passages of direct characterization : 196 ff., 858 ff., 913 ff., 1705 ff. , 1844?., 2177 ff., (2736 ff. ), 3180 ff. The poet very skilfully prepares the reader for a true appreciation of Beowult 's greatness by dwelling on the impression which his ilrst ap- pearance makes on strangers, 247 ff. , 369 f. Cf. above, p. lix. — In a general way, Beowulf reminds us of Vergil's />(as .^nefls (cf Arch, cxxvi 339). TONE, STYLE, METER Ixiii belong those lesser figures like Wealh)>eow, the noble, gracious, far- sighted queen, Unfer*, that singular personality of the ' Thersites * order, Hygelac, the admirable, if somewhat indefinitely sketched mem- ber of Geat royalty, and his still more shadowy queen Hygd. Thirdly we find that company of mostly nameless followers of the chiefs, Scyld- ings and Geats, among whom the coast-guard and the herald Wulf- gar stand forth prominently. Finally the villains are represented by the three enemy monsters, partly humanized and one of them at least having a name of his own. Though the majority of the characters are still more or less types, they are, on the whole, clearly drawn and leave a distinct picture in our minds. Certainly the delineation of the chief actor surpasses by far anything we find in other Anglo-Saxon poems. Even some of the persons mentioned only episodically, like Ongenbeow, Hengest, and the old ' spear-warrior ' of the Hea^o-Bards, seem to assume a lifelike reality. Of special psychological interest are Unfer'5, Heremod, and JPry'S. Characterization by contrast ' is seen in the cases of JprytS-Hygd (1926 ff.) and Heremod-Beowulf (1709 ff., cp. 913 ff.). The Beowulfian society is noble, aristocratic,^ and, considering the age it represents, pre-eminently remarkable for its refinement and courtly demeanor. The old Germanic, military ideals' are still clearly recog-- nizable, notwithstanding the Christian retouching of the story — the prime requirement of valor, the striving for fame and the upholding of one's honor, "* a stem sense of duty,' the obligation of blood revenge,* and above all the cardinal virtue of loyalty which ennobles the ' com- itatus ' relation ^ and manifests itself in unflinching devotion and self- sacrifice on the part of the retainer and in kindness, generosity, and protection on the part of the king. To have preserved for us a faithful picture of many phases of the ancient Germanic life in its material as well as its moral aspect, is indeed one of the chief glories of Beotuulf, and one which, unlike its literary merit, has never been called in ques- tion. The poem is a veritable treasure-house of information on ' Ger- manic antiquities,' in which we seem at times to hear echoes of Taci- ^ The author also likes to contrast situations and events, see 128, 716 ff., 756 f., 1078 fF., 1774 f., 2594 f.j 183 ff. ; 8i8 S., 1470 ff. ^ Outside of court circles (including retainers and attendants) we find men- tion of a fugitive slave only, 2223 ff., 2280 ff., 2406 ff. ^ Cf. the Introd. to Finiisburg. An interesting instance of the Germaniza- tion of the main story is the device of representing Grendel's relation to the Danes (and to God) in the light of a regular feud, see 154 ff., 811 (978, 1001). * Cp. 2890 f. : Dea6 bit! sella / eorla geh'wylcum ponne edivltlif. See Granbech L 9. 24. i. 69 ff. ^ "A profound and serious conception of what makes man great, if not happy, of what his duty exacts, testifies to the devout spirit of English paganism." (ten Brink, L 4. 3. 3. 29.) For a classical illustration see 1384-89. ' LI. 1384 f. may be compared with Odyssey xxiv 432 ff. ^ See Antiq. § 2 j above, p. Ivii. Ixiv INTRODUCTION tus' famous Germania, whilst the authenticity of its descriptions has been in various ways confirmed by rich archeological finds especially in the Scandinavian countries. A detailed consideration of this subject is of supreme interest, but cannot be attempted in this place. Its study will be facilitated, however, by the ' Index of Antiquities,' Appendix II, in addition to the general Bibliography, L 9. In the matter of diction our poem is trcie to its elevated character and idealizing manner. The vocabulary of Beoivulf, like that of most Old English poems, is very far removed from the language of prose. A large proportion of its words is virtually limited to poetic diction,' many of them being no doubt archaisms, while the abundance of compounds used testifies to the creative possibilities of the alliterative style. A good many terms are nowhere recorded outside of Beonuulf, and not a few of these may be confidently set down as of the poet's own coinage. Indeed, by reason of its wealth, variety, and picturesque- ness of expression the language of the poem is of more than ordinary interest. A host of synonyms enliven the narrative, notably in the vocabulary pertaining to kings and retainers,^ war and weapons, ^ sea and seafaring. 3 Generously and withal judiciously the author employs those picturesque circumlocutory words and phrases known as 'ken- nings,' 4 which, emphasizing a certain quality of a person or thing, are used in place of the plain, abstract designation, e.g. helmberend, mjundenstefna, yslida, lyfifloga, haSstapa, hronrad ; beaga brytta, gold- 'wine gumena, homera laf, ySa geiveak, or such as involve metaphori- cal language, like rodores candel, heofenes gim, bdnhiis, beadoleoma. Applying the term to verbal expressions also, we may mention, e.g., the concrete periphrases for 'going' [hnxianon ferigeats ge fatte scyldas etc. 333 ff., or 2539 f., 2661 f, 2754 f., 2850 f), 'holding court' (hringas dalan 1970), 'conquering' (monegum magpum meodosetla ^ At the same time the appearance of certain prose words which are not met with in any other poem, like heorir)^ sadol^ iveb(b')^ yppe^ dryncfat, ivlnarn^ nbn^ un- dernmaty uppriht^ uti^an^iveard (see Glossary), betokens a comparatively wide range of interests. " See Antiq. §§ i, 2, 8. ^ See above, p. Ix. Some 30 terms are used for ' hall,' ' house ' (those confined to poetry being marked here withf) : has, am, reced],J!ct, heal{l), iield], usel^, sele{^), bold, hurh, geard, hof, •zoic, besides compounds ; some 20 for * man,' ' men' : motion), eorl, ceorl, zucr,guma\, rinc], beorn^, secg\, htele{p)\,firas\,niS(Sas^,ylde^-y landbuend, grundbuend^ , foldbiiend{e) j"; satu/berend^ ',ylda, niS&a, gumena bearn^ 1 7 for ' son ' : sunu, magaf, magof, byre, beam, eafora^, yrfeiveard ; 4 for ' heaven' : heofon, rodor, swegl], •wolcnu ; 3 for ' hand ' : hand, mund^-j) ,folm(j\) ; 4 for ' blood ' : blod, drlor], heolfor], s'wat{\) (cp. 1. 2692 f.) ; 3 for ' wound ' : ivund, ben{n) f, (syn-)dii/A{'l) ; 6 (9) for ' mind ' : mod, sefa, byge], myne^, ferh6-\, hreosthord\, (mod-sefa-\, -gehygd\, -geponc{^ )) ; 9 for 'time': lid, h-wil, fyrst, fac, prdg, sal, mal{\), stund, si3 ; 3 (6) for 'old' : eald,fr6d(^), gamol\ (bar, gamolfeax^, b/ondenfeax^) ; etc. * ON. kenning, ' mark of recognition,' ' descriptive name," ' poetical periphrasis.' TONE, STYLE, METER kv ofteah 5), 'dying' [ellor hiuearf ^^, cp. 264 f., 1550 f., 2254 ; ^awj- dream ofgeaf. Codes' leoht geceas 2469 ; etc.). It is no matter for surprise that the kennings very often take the form of compounds. Obviously, composition is one of the most strik- ing and inherently significant elements of the diction. Descriptive or intensive in character, . — at times, it is true, merely cumbersome and otiose, the nominal (i.e. substantive and adjective) compounds make their vpeight strongly felt in the rhetoric of the poem. On an average there occurs a compound in every other line, and a different compound in every third line. Fully one third of the entire vocabulary, or some 1070 words, are compounds, ■ so that in point of numbers, the Beomjalf stands practically in the front rank of Old English poems. In comparison with the paramount importance of compounds or kennings, the use of characterizing adjectives is a good deal less prom- inent, at any rate less striking. These denote mostly general or per- manent qualities and make a stronger appeal to sentiment and moral sense than to imagination. By means of the superlative ^ the rhetorical effect is occasionally heightened : hiisa selest 146, hragla selest 454, hsalsbeaga mist 1195, etc. Stereotyped ornamental epithets of the familiar Homeric variety like voKiinp-K 'OSuiro-eiJj, 'fKuVKunns 'A.9iivri, pius JEneas, i.e. those appearing inseparably attached to certain persons and objects, are sought in vain in the Beonxiulf.^ On the whole, we note a scarcity of conscious poetic metaphors,* by the side of the more numerous ones of faded and only dimly felt meta- phorical quality, and similes of the Homeric order are entirely lacking, only a few brief, formula-like comparisons being scattered through the first part of the poem.* ' iserfiscur^j ecgbana\^ gomen-wadu^, ham'weorSung\^ fdmigkeah^^ stdnjdb^j peodgeitreon\^ leodcyning^, ferbSgeniSla\, breostgehygd^^ bregordJ\ j a;Jengrom\^ btncs'wtgX may be cited as typical samples. One of the two elements may be more or less devoid of distinct meaning ; e.g., ende(sta/)(^), earfoS(prdg)^, or!eg{h'wll)X, gaigoS{feerA)f, hen(geat)\-, (jer63)frecX, (Jxalo^ciucalmX ; several first elements like sigt-,fria-,frio-, dryht-, ear/-, eald-, pryU-, may carry some general com- mendatory sense, 'noble,' 'splendid,' 'excellent.' Tautological compounds are not wanting; e.g., diaScwealm%, mcegenstrtngof, mirgencrxft\, gryrebroga\, modicfa^, wongstcde\,freadrlhtcn-\, dlaSfSgeX- There occur in Beowulf zi alliterating com- pounds (cf. L 8. 18) like brydhur, cwealmcumaX, goldgyfa], heardhicgende% and 2 (3) riming compounds : /oWAoWJ, ivordhord^ , (SrySiivyg\). The resources of compound formation are illustrated by the observation that gu6 is employed as the first element of (diflferent) compounds 30 times, locel 24, hiU{e) 25, beaSa 20, -wig 16, bere 14, beadu IZ, beoro 7, s^ 19, medo II, magen 9, hyge 8 times. ^ It is akin to an exaggeration like unnm eor/a 1238. ' The set expression m'^re peoden which occurs 1 5 times is applied to Hro^gar, Beowulf, Heremod, Onela, and unnamed lords. * Such as luordbord onleac 259, -winter ype beleac / isgebinde 1 132 f., m^l- ceare . . . seaS lii) {., 1992 f., -wordes ord / hrecsthord purbhrac 2791 f., imwit- net bregdon 2167, biorodryncum s-wealt 2358. 5 See zii: fugle gelicost, 727: Ugge geliant, 985: style gellcust, i6oi : pat iit Ixvi INTRODUCTION Highly characteristic and much fancied by the Beoivulf poet is the familiar trope of litotes, which generally assumes -the form of a nega- tive expression, as in ne me siuor fela / aSa on unriht 27 3 8 f., lib pat ySe hyS ('impossible') 1002; 793 f-> 84if. ,io7if. ,1076 f. ,1167 f, 1930; see also lyt, sum, dal, deag- (jyl-, guS-)'werig, forhealdan in the Glossary. The negation sometimes appears in conjunction with a comparative as in 38, 1027 ff., 1842 f, 2432 f., and even with two comparatives : loii f. As regards the handling of the sentence,, by far the most important rhetorical figure, in fact the very soul of the Old English poetical style, is of course the device of 'variation,' which may be studied to perfec- tion in the Beoivulf. The still more directly retarding element of parenthesis or parenthetic exclamation, though naturally far less essential and frequent, is likewise part and parcel of the stylistic apparatus. In contrast with variation, it is nearly always placed in (or begins with) the second half of the line.' It should not fail to be observed that there is an organic relation be- tween the rhetorical characteristics and certain narrower linguistic facts as well as the broader stylistic features and peculiarities of the narrative. Thus, tautological compounds like deaUcmiealm, redundant combina- tions like bega gehiviepres 1 043 ^ and those of the type nvudu ival- sceaftas,^ the ubiquitous element of variation, and the repetitions in the telling of the story are only different manifestations of the same general tendency. The freedom of word-order by which closely related words may become separated from each other (see e.g., if, 270 f., 450 f., 473 f , 1285 ff., 1488 ff., 2098 f, 2448 f., 2886 ff.), and especially the retardation by means of variations and parenthetical utterances, find their counterpart in the disconnectedness of narration as shown in di- gressions, episodes, and irregular, circuitous movements. The follow- ing up of a pronoun by a complementary descriptive phrase — in the manner of variation — , as in ^z . . . siuase gesipas 28 f, /lat. . • . Grendles dada 194 f. (cp. 1563, 1674 ff., 77 f., 350 ff.), is matched by the peculiar method of introducing the hero and his antagonist, who at their first mention are referred to as familiar persons and later on receive fuller attention by specifying name and family history. (See 86 ff. [note the definite article], 194 ff., also 331 ff. [Wulfgar], cp. 3 2 ff.) Again, the very restatement of an idea in a set of different words (variation^ may remind us of the noteworthy way of reporting a speech in studiously varied terms (361 ff.). The preponderance of the lal gemealt ise gelicost (amplified by a brief explanatory clause or two not unlike those used, e.g., in 1033 f., 1327, 2544, 3117 ff., 1648'). The pretty lines 1570 ff. : Lixte se Itoma . . . effie sivS of hefene hadre seined / redores candel can hardly be said to contain an imaginative comparison. * The only exceptions are 2778, 3056, 3 1 15. * Or uncer t-wega 2532, worn fela, see Glossary : 'worn, ^ See note on 398. TONE, STYLE, METER ixvii nominal over the verbal element,' one of the outstanding features of the ancient diction, runs parallel to the favorite practice of stating merely the result of an action and of dwelling on a state or situation when a straightforward account of action would seem to be called for. 2 The choice of emotional epithets and the insertion of exclamatory clauses are typical of the noble pathos which inspires the entire man- ner of presentation, whilst the semantic indefiniteness of many words and expressions ' recalls the lack of visualization, not to say of realism, in regard to persons and places. The indirectness of litotes is similar in kind to the author's veiled allusions to the conduct of Hro^'ulf and to the remarkable reserve practised in the Christian interpretation of the story. As a matter of course, the Beowulfian stylistic apparatus (taken in its widest sense) was to a great extent traditional, deeply rooted in time- honored Germanic, more particularly West Germanic, practice. Its conventional character can hardly be overestimated. Substantial evi- dence in detail is afforded by its large stock of formulas, set combina- tions of words, phrases of transition, and similar stereotyped elements.'' One may mention, e.g., the maselode-fomiulzs (see above, p. Ivi) j ex- pressions marking transition like naj Sa long to Son, / peet 2591, 2845 (83.?, 134, 739); copulative alliterative phrases like ord and ecg, -iio, C-|- A / A-j- C / A ; 2291-93% or in the caseoflonger ^ The influence of alliteration on the choice of synonyms may be illustrated by a comparison of 11. 431, 633, 662, its influence on the use of varying compounds by a comparison of 11. 383, 392, 463, 616, 783; 479, 707, 712, 766; 2144, 2148. (For its influence on word-order compare, e.g., 11. 499, 529 ; 253, 1904 ; 1663, 2745.) ^ _ . .. ' ^ According to Sievers's classification. (See Appendix iii.) ^ It is admirably adapted both to introducing a new element (see, e.g., looh, 32 lob, 2280b, 2399b) and to accentuating a conclusion, almost with the effect of a mark of exclamation (see, e.g., 52b, 114b, 455b). * It fittingly marks a close, as in 5b, 8b, 17b, j^b, nob, 193b. TONE, STYLE, METER Ixxi periods, C + A /D4+A/A/+C/A(/)+C/A^B: 1368-72, and with totally different effect, A3 + A / D4X+ A / A3 + A/C+A/A3 + A/A//+B/C + A: 1728-34. A nice gradation is attained by the sequence of types, ^g^-^o^ ; him nxixs geomor sefa, / murnende mod. Quite expressive appear the rhythmical variations of the elegy, 2247 ff. Again, the pleasing rhythm of the semi-lyrical passage, 92 ff. is in marked contrast with the vigor (aided by asyndeton and riming con- gruence) of 74il'-42 : slat urvwearnum, I hat banlocan, blod edrum dranc. Repetition (as in the last instance) and parallelism of rhythmi- cal forms are used to good purpose, e.g., in 2456-58"; i83t'_i87i 3181 f. ; 1393-94=1, cp. 1763 ff. Nor does it seem altogether fanci- ful to recognize symbolic values in the slow, mournful movement (in- cident to the use of the smallest possible number of syllables) of 1. 34 : aleddn pa leofne peoden compared with the brisk and withal steady progress of 11. 217 : genvdi pa ofernvagholm luinde gefysed and 234 : gcwat him pa to ivaroSe ivicge ridan. Of the minor or secondary devices of versification a moderate, dis- criminating use has been made. Groups of emphatic hypermetrical types are introduced three times, 1163-68, 1705-7, 2995-96.' End rime occurs in the first and second half of the line in 726, 734, 1014, 2258, 3172, in a i-line and the following a-line : 1404^-53, ijiS^-g^, 2389l'-903, in two successive a- or A-lines : 465= f., Ii32iif, 3070»f., 890!' f, iSSztjf.^ j^jo^f, 2737b f (2377b : 79a), — aside from the rather frequent suffix rimes, which strike us as acci- dental. The so-called enjambement of alliteration, ^ i.e. the carrying over of a non-alliterating stressed letter of a i-line as the alliterating let- ter to the following line, occurs some two hurjdred times (sometimes in groups, as in 168 f., 169 f. ; 178 f, 179 f. ; 287 f., 288 f. ; 3037 f., 3038 f. ; etc.).' Regarding the much discussed phenome- non of transverse alliteration, of which over a hundred instances can be traced (mostly of the order a b a b as in. Hiueet, ive Gar-Dena in geardagum i, 19, 32, 34, 39, 1131, etc., more rarely a b b a as in pat hit a mid gemete manna mnig 779, 1728, 2615, etc.), no con- sensus of opinion has been reached, but it seems not unlikely that within certain limits it was consciously employed as a special artistic form."* The stichic system of West Germanic verse, with its preference for ' Very doubtful is the hypermetrical character of the isolated fl-lines, 2173a' (cf. T. C. § 19), and 2367a (cf. T. C. § 24). ^ Kaluza 93. ^ The use of the same alliterating letter in two successive lines (e.g. 63 f. , 70 f. , III f., 2i6 f.)was generally avpided ; only 50 instances are found (counting all vo- calic alliterations as identical ones) ; the repetition runS' through three lines in 897-9, * Morgan (L 8. 23. 176) would recognize as many as 86 cases of intentional transverse alliteration. Ixxii INTRODUCTION the use of run-on lines and for the introduction of the new elements at the beginning of the A-line, appears in our poem in full bloom. At the same time, monotony is avoided by making the end of the sentence not infrequently coincide with the end of the line, especially in the case of major pauses, e.g. those marking the beginning and the end of a speech. In a large number of instances groups of 4 lines forming a syntactical unit could indeed be likened to stanzas.' But this does not imply that the normal stichic arrangement has replaced an older strophic form of the Beoivulf, though it is possible that the prevailing West Germanic order was preceded by a Germanic system of stanzaic grouping. ^ On certain metrical features bearing on textual criticism. Appendix III should be consulted. If a practical word of advice may be added for the benefit of the student, it is the obvious one, that in order to appreciate the poem fully, we must by all means read it aloud with due regard for scansion and expression. Nor should we be afraid of shouting at the proper time.^ VII. Language. Manuscript* LANGUAGE The transmitted text of Beoivulf^ shows on the whole West Saxon forms of language, the Late W»^st Saxon ones predominating, with an admixture of non-West Saxon, notably Anglian, elements.^ * To cite a few examples, 28-31, 43—46, 312-15, 316—19, 391-94, 395-98, 1035-38, 1039-42, 1046-49, II 10-13, H84-87, 1188-91, 1288-91, 1386- 89, 1836-39, 2107-10, 2HI-14, 2397-2400, 2809-12, 2813-16, 2817-20. It has been claimed (of. Kaluza L 8.9.3.18) that an effect of the old stanza di- vision into 5 -|- 3 half-lines (e.g. 2363-66) is traceable in the fevorite practice of placing a syntactical unit of l^ long lines at the end of a period, e.g. 24 f., 78 f., 162 f., 256 f., 384 f., 756 f., 1435 f., 1527 f., 1598 f., 1616 f., 2890 f., 3108 f., etc. — Less frequently 2 lines could be arranged as stanzas, e.g. 126 f., 258 f., 489 f., 710 f., 1011 f., I785f., 1975 f., 2860 f., 2989 f., 3077 f. Also stanzas of 3 lines (and of 5 lines) could be made out. ^ Cf. G. Neckel, Beitrage zur Eddafprschung (1908), pp. 1 ff., and paisim; but also Sieper, L 4. 126. 2. 40 if. — Moller's violent reconstruction of the origi- nal (L 2.ig), with its disregard of stylistic laws, proved a failure. ^ A notation of the ' speech melody ', of the first 52 lines has been attempted by Morgan (L 8. 23. loi). « See L 6; L I. ' The same is true of the majority of the OE. poems. Cf. Jane Weightman, The Language and Dialect of the later OE. Poetry^ University Press of Liverpool, 1907 [considers, besides others, the poems of the Vercelli and Exeter MSS.] ; also, e.g., A. Kamp, Die Sprache der filtengl. Genesis, Miinster Diss., 1913. ^ The following survey aims to bring out the characteristic features. A complete record of forms is contained in the Glossary. LANGUAGE. MANUSCRIPT Ixxiii Vowels of Accented Syllables ' § I. Distinctly Early West Saxon are a) ie in hiera 1164, (gryre)gieste 2560; siex-{bennum) 2904, this MS. spelling presupposing the form sex (=seax 1545, 2703, seu § 8. 3), which was mistaken for the numeral and altered to siex.^ b) ie in nlehstan 2511 ; i'ranidgripe 976 (MS. mid-). Late West Saxon Features % 2. y I. =EWS. /. Cf. Siev. § 22, Biilb. §§ 306 n. 2, 283, 454. scypon 1154 (< fix) ; snvymtnan 1624; dcixiyts zo^G {i 2041), -cwyde 1841, 1979, 2753 {i 3x) ; {fyr)'wyt 232; 'wylle, ivylt, ivyllaS yx (i ifix); (-)h--wylc 48X (e 148) ;3 S'wyLc(e) 37X (i 1152) ;3 siuynsode 611 ; H)iw«fJ 598, 1846 {i 8x) j sym{b)le 2450, 2497, 2880; /yyiJ etc.'* 5X (»' 13X) j .g-j/fix (in A s only, f 23X) ; fyren 15X (z 1932) jfyrst jx ; ^// 1687 (i 8x) i^/fa 2239 ; syn- 743, 817, 1135 (_sin- fix) j ^);k«^ '55' {' 3*) ; ^^(0 !'fi49 j hivyder 163 {h'wuAer 1331), ^^i'r 3X j jya^r 3044 (j 1360) ; /)iS3<3» 5 7x (z 1 7X ; originally /, cf. Biilb. § 336); gerysne 2fi53, andrysno ^T)6 ; hrysedon 226; Ajih^ 30X (24X in B^) {hine 44X, mostly in A) 5 hyre 7X (A(>f 8x, in A only); hjt 8x (in B only, hit 30X) j ^j 2093, 2910, 2999, 3084 {is 36X), synt 260, 342, 364, syndon 237, 257, 361, 393, 1230 {sint 388) ; byS 1002, 2277 (to22x).6 .?. =EWS. ie from ^ after palatal^, sc. Cf. Wright § 91, Biilb. §§ 151, 306 & n. 3. gyd{d) 7X (i 5X) ; gyfan etc. 1 3X {i 19X) ; ^yWa» 7X (no /) ; gylp^-) gx (i 4x in A); gystran 1334; scyld{-) 8x (j 3118), very often Scyldingas {Scyld ; cf. Scylfingas 3X) (scyldan ifi58). j>. =EWS. ie, 2-umlaut oi ea = Germanic a by breaking. See § 7 :